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I design was intended to look like it was built from spare parts . The back is less armored than the front , because Stark would use his resources for a forward attack . It also foreshadows the design of Stane 's armor . A single 90 @-@ pound ( 41 kg ) version was built , causing concern when a stuntman fell over inside it , though both the stuntman and the suit were unscathed . The armor was also designed to only have its top half worn at times . The Embassy created a digital version of the Mark I. Stan Winston Studios built a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , 800 @-@ pound ( 360 kg ) animatronic version of " Iron Monger " ( Obadiah Stane ) , a name which Obadiah Stane calls Tony Stark and himself earlier in the film as a reference , but is never actually used for the suit itself in the film . The animatronic required five operators for the arm , and was built on a gimbal to simulate walking . A scale model was used for the shots of it being built .
The Mark II resembles an airplane prototype , with visible flaps . Iron Man comic book artist Adi Granov designed the Mark III with illustrator Phil Saunders . Granov 's designs were the primary inspiration for the film 's , and he came on board the film after he recognized his work on Jon Favreau 's MySpace page . Saunders streamlined Granov 's concept art , making it stealthier and less cartoonish in its proportions . Sometimes , Downey would only wear the helmet , sleeves and chest of the costume over a motion capture suit . For shots of the Mark III flying , it was animated to look realistic by taking off slowly , and landing quickly . To generate shots of Iron Man and the F @-@ 22 Raptors battling , cameras were flown in the air to provide reference for physics , wind and frost on the lenses . For further study of the physics of flying , skydivers were filmed in a vertical wind tunnel . Phil Saunders created concept art for the War Machine armor and said that it was originally intended to be used in the film but was " cut from the script about halfway through pre @-@ production . " Saunders said that the War Machine armor " was going to be called the Mark IV armor and would have had weaponized swap @-@ out parts that would be worn over the original Mark III armor , " and that it " would have been worn by Tony Stark in the final battle sequence . "
= = Music = =
Composer Ramin Djawadi , an Iron Man fan who still has issues of the comic from the late 1970s , has also been into heavy metal music since the early 1990s . While he normally composes after watching an assembly cut , Djawadi began work after seeing the teaser trailer . Favreau clearly envisioned a focus on " heavy " guitar in the score , and Djawadi composed the music on that instrument before arranging it for orchestra . The composer said Downey 's performance inspired the several Iron Man themes ( for his different moods ) , as well as Stark 's playboy leitmotif . Djawadi 's favorite of the Iron Man themes is the " kickass " because of its " rhythmic pattern that is a hook on its own . Very much like a machine . " The other themes are " not so much character based but rather plot based that carry you through the movie " . Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave contributed additional guitar work to the film 's soundtrack .
= = Release = =
The premiere was held at the Greater Union theater at George Street , Sydney , on April 14 , 2008 . The film was released in the United States on May 2 , 2008 , while the international release was pushed up to April 30 , 2008 .
= = = Marketing = = =
Marvel and Paramount modeled their marketing campaign for Iron Man on that of Transformers . In May 2008 , Sega released an official tie @-@ in video game based on the film on multiple gaming platforms . Downey , Howard and Taub reprise their roles from the film . A 30 @-@ second spot for the film aired during a Super Bowl XLII break . 6 @,@ 400 7 @-@ Eleven stores in the United States helped promote the film , and LG Group also made a deal with Paramount . Hasbro created figures of armors from the film , as well as Titanium Man ( who appears in the video game ) and the armor from the World War Hulk comics . Worldwide , Burger King and Audi promoted the film . Jon Favreau was set to direct a commercial for the fast @-@ food chain , as Michael Bay did for Transformers . In the film , Tony Stark drives an Audi R8 , and also has an " American cheeseburger " from Burger King after his rescue from Afghanistan , as part of the studio 's product placement deal with the respective companies . Three other vehicles , the Audi S6 sedan , Audi S5 sports coupe and the Audi Q7 SUV , also appear in the film . Audi created a tie @-@ in website , as General Motors did for Transformers . Oracle Corporation also promoted the film on its site . Several tie @-@ in comics were released for the film .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on September 30 , 2008 , in North America , and October 27 , 2008 in Europe . DVD sales were very successful , selling over 4 million copies the first week and generating a gross of over US $ 93 million . There were a total of 9 million copies sold and an accumulated total sales of over $ 160 million ( not including Blu @-@ ray ) . For the home releases of the film , the image on the newspaper Stark reads before he announces he is Iron Man had to be altered because of amateur photographer Ronnie Adams filing a lawsuit against Paramount and Marvel for using his on @-@ location spy photo in the scene . A Wal @-@ Mart @-@ exclusive release included a preview of Iron Man : Armored Adventures .
The film was also collected in a 10 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase One – Avengers Assembled " which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on April 2 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Iron Man earned $ 318 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 266 @.@ 8 million in other territories , for a worldwide gross of $ 585 @.@ 1 million .
= = = = North America = = = =
In its opening weekend , Iron Man grossed $ 98 @,@ 618 @,@ 668 in 4 @,@ 105 theaters in the United States and Canada , ranking No. 1 at the box office , giving it the eleventh biggest @-@ opening weekend at the time , ninth @-@ widest release in terms of theaters , and the third highest @-@ grossing opening weekend of 2008 behind Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and The Dark Knight . It grossed $ 35 @.@ 2 million on its first day , giving it the thirteenth biggest @-@ opening day at the time . Iron Man had the second @-@ best premiere for a non @-@ sequel , behind Spider @-@ Man , and the fourth biggest @-@ opening for a superhero film . Iron Man was also the No. 1 film in the U.S. and Canada in its second weekend , grossing $ 51 @.@ 1 million , giving it the twelfth @-@ best second weekend and the fifth @-@ best for a non @-@ sequel . On June 18 , 2008 , Iron Man became that year 's first film to pass the $ 300 million mark for the domestic box office .
= = = Critical response = = =
In May 2008 , Iron Man was identified as the " best @-@ reviewed film of the year so far " by Jen Yamato of review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes , with the site reporting that at that time the film had received a rating of 95 % based on 107 reviews , a rating that held its place to January 2010 . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 94 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 266 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Director Jon Favreau and star Robert Downey make this smart , high impact superhero movie one that even non @-@ comics fans can enjoy . " On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 79 out of 100 , based on 38 critics , signifying " generally favorable reviews " .
Among the major trade journals , Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film an " expansively entertaining special effects extravaganza " with " fresh energy and stylistic polish " , while Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised the film , while nonetheless finding " disappointment [ in ] a climatic [ sic ] battle between different Iron Man prototypes [ ... ] how did Tony 's nemesis learn how to use the suit ? " In one of the first major @-@ daily newspaper reviews , Frank Lovece of Newsday lauded the film 's " emotional truth [ ... ] pitch @-@ perfect casting and plausibly rendered super @-@ science " that made it " faithful to the source material while updating it – and recognizing what 's made that material so enduring isn 't just the high @-@ tech cool of a man in a metal suit , but the human condition that got him there " . A. O. Scott of The New York Times called the film " an unusually good superhero picture . Or at least – since it certainly has its problems – a superhero movie that 's good in unusual ways . " Among the specialty press , Garth Franklin of Dark Horizons commended the " impressive sets and mechanics that combine smoothly with relatively seamless CG " , and said , " Robert Downey Jr . , along with director Jon Favreau [ ... ] help this rise above formula . The result is something that , whilst hardly original or groundbreaking , is nevertheless refreshing in its earnestness to avoid dark dramatic stylings in favor of an easy @-@ going , crowd @-@ pleasing action movie with a sprinkle of anti @-@ war and redemption themes " .
Among major metropolitan weeklies , David Edelstein of New York magazine called the film " a shapely piece of mythmaking [ ... ] Favreau doesn 't go in for stylized comic @-@ book frames , at least in the first half . He gets real with it – you 'd think you were watching a military thriller " , while conversely , David Denby of The New Yorker put forth a negative review , claiming " a slightly depressed , going @-@ through @-@ the @-@ motions feel to the entire show [ ... ] Gwyneth Paltrow , widening her eyes and palpitating , can 't do much with an antique role as Stark 's girl Friday , who loves him but can 't say so ; Terrence Howard , playing a military man who chases around after Stark , looks dispirited and taken for granted " . IGN 's Todd Gilchrist recognized Downey as " the best thing " in a film that " functions on autopilot , providing requisite story developments and character details to fill in this default ' origin story ' while the actors successfully breathe life into their otherwise conventional roles " . Noting the cultural elements of the film , Cristobal Giraldez Catalan of Bright Lights Film Journal wrote , " Iron Man is far more than playboy fantasy ; it is American foreign policy realized without context [ ... and ] with narrative and directorial precision , once again provides the high @-@ fidelity misogyny and anti @-@ Muslim rhetoric Hollywood is known for . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Roger Ebert and Richard Corliss named Iron Man as among their favorite films of 2008 . It was selected by the American Film Institute as one of the ten best films of the year , and by Empire magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . Tony Stark was also selected by Empire as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time , and on their list of the 100 Greatest Fictional Characters , Fandomania.com ranked him at number 37 .
= = Sequels = =
= = = Iron Man 2 = = =
The sequel , Iron Man 2 , was released in the United States on May 7 , 2010 with Jon Favreau and Robert Downey Jr. returning as director and lead , respectively , with a screenplay by Justin Theroux . Don Cheadle replaces Terrence Howard in the role of Colonel Rhodes , who is also seen as War Machine . Also starring is Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts ; Mickey Rourke as villain Ivan Vanko ; Sam Rockwell as Justin Hammer ; Scarlett Johansson as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Natasha Romanoff ; and Samuel L. Jackson as S.H.I.E.L.D. director Nick Fury .
= = = Iron Man 3 = = =
Disney , Marvel Studios , and Paramount Pictures announced a May 3 , 2013 release date for Iron Man 3 . Favreau said in December 2010 that he would not direct Iron Man 3 , opting to direct Magic Kingdom , but reprised his role as Happy Hogan . Shane Black directed Iron Man 3 , from a screenplay by Drew Pearce . Robert Downey Jr. returned as Tony Stark , as did Gwyneth Paltrow as Pepper Potts and Don Cheadle as Colonel Rhodes , who uses the moniker Iron Patriot . Guy Pearce starred as Aldrich Killian and Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery .
= Kepler @-@ 6b =
Kepler @-@ 6b is an extrasolar planet in the orbit of the unusually metal @-@ rich Kepler @-@ 6 , a star in the field of view of the NASA @-@ operated Kepler spacecraft , which searches for planets that cross directly in front of , or transit , their host stars . It was the third planet to be discovered by Kepler . Kepler @-@ 6 orbits its host star every three days from a distance of .046 AU . Its proximity to Kepler @-@ 6 inflated the planet , about two @-@ thirds the mass of Jupiter , to slightly larger than Jupiter 's size and greatly heated its atmosphere .
Follow @-@ up observations led to the planet 's confirmation , which was announced at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society on January 4 , 2010 along with four other Kepler @-@ discovered planets .
= = Discovery and naming = =
NASA 's Kepler satellite trails the Earth and continually observes a portion of the sky between the constellations Cygnus and Lyra . It is devised to search for and discover planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth by measuring small and generally periodic variations in a star 's brightness . Kepler recognized a potential transit event around a star that was designated KOI @-@ 017 , which was named Kepler @-@ 6 after the confirmation of Kepler @-@ 6b . The star was designated " 6 " because it was the sixth planet to be observed ( but the third planet to be discovered ) by the Kepler satellite .
After the initial detection of a transit signal by Kepler , follow @-@ up observations were taken to confirm the planetary nature of the candidate . Speckle imaging by the WIYN Telescope was used to determine the amount of light from nearby , background stars that was present . If not accounted for , this light would have made Kepler @-@ 6 appear brighter than it actually was . Consequently , the size of Kepler @-@ 6b would have been underestimated . Radial velocity data was taken by HIRES at the Keck I telescope in order to determine the mass of the planet . Independently , observations were made with the Spitzer Space Telescope at infrared wavelengths of 3 @.@ 6 and 4 @.@ 5 micrometres . Along with additional data taken by Kepler , these observations detected the occultation and phase curves of Kepler @-@ 6b behind its star .
The confirmation of Kepler @-@ 6b was announced at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society with the discoveries of planets Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 7b , and Kepler @-@ 8b on January 4 , 2010 .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 6 is a sunlike star in the Cygnus constellation . It is approximately 20 @.@ 9 % more massive than and 39 @.@ 1 % larger than the Sun . With an effective temperature of 5647 K , Kepler @-@ 6 is cooler than the Sun . It is predicted to be 3 @.@ 8 billion years old , compared to the Sun 's age of 4 @.@ 6 billion years . It is most notable for its unusually high metallicity for an exoplanet @-@ bearing star ; with an [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 34 , Kepler @-@ 6 has 2 @.@ 18 times more iron than the Sun does . Kepler @-@ 6b is the only planet that has been discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 6 .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 6b is a hot Jupiter , having a mass 0 @.@ 669 times that of Jupiter , but an average distance of only 0 @.@ 046 AU from its star and , thus , an orbital period of 3 @.@ 23 days . It is almost 10 times closer to its star than Mercury is from our Sun . As a result , Kepler @-@ 6b is strongly irradiated by its star , heating its atmosphere to a temperature of 1660 K and puffing it up to a size 1 @.@ 3 times that of Jupiter . It may also be the case that Kepler @-@ 6b has a thermal inversion of its atmosphere , where temperature increases with increasing distance from the center of the planet . However , additional observations are required to confirm or refute this possibility .
= Tennessee Walking Horse =
The Tennessee Walking Horse or Tennessee Walker is a breed of gaited horse known for its unique four @-@ beat running @-@ walk and flashy movement . It was originally developed in the southern United States for use on farms and plantations . It is a popular riding horse due to its calm disposition , smooth gaits and sure @-@ footedness . The Tennessee Walking Horse is often seen in the show ring , but is also popular as a pleasure and trail riding horse using both English and Western equipment . Tennessee Walkers are also seen in movies , television shows and other performances .
The breed first developed in the late 18th century when Narragansett Pacers and Canadian Pacers from the eastern United States crossed with gaited Spanish Mustangs from Texas . Other breeds were later added , and in 1886 a foal named Black Allan , now considered the foundation sire of the breed , was born . In 1935 the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' Association was formed , and the studbook closed in 1947 . In 1939 , the first Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration was held , an annual event that in recent years has attracted considerable attention and controversy .
The two basic categories of Tennessee Walking Horse show competition are called " flat @-@ shod " and " performance " , differentiated by desired leg action . Flat @-@ shod horses , wearing regular horseshoes , exhibit less exaggerated movement , while performance horses wear built @-@ up pads or " stacks " along with other weighted action devices , creating the so @-@ called " Big Lick " style . Stacks and action devices are prohibited at shows sanctioned by the United States Equestrian Federation and some breed organizations . The Tennessee Walking Horse is the breed most affected by the Horse Protection Act of 1970 , which prohibits the practice of soring , abusive practices used to enhance the Big Lick movement prized in the show ring , which still occur today despite the law . The controversy over continuing soring practices has led to a split within the breed community , criminal charges against a number of individuals , and the creation of several separate breed organizations .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The modern Tennessee Walking Horse is described as " refined and elegant , yet solidly built " . It is a tall horse with a long neck . The head is well @-@ defined , with small , well @-@ placed ears . The breed averages 14 @.@ 3 to 17 hands ( 59 to 68 inches , 150 to 173 cm ) high and 900 to 1 @,@ 200 pounds ( 410 to 540 kg ) . The shoulders and hip are long and sloping , with a short back and strong coupling . The hindquarters are of " moderate thickness and depth " , well @-@ muscled , and it is acceptable for the hind legs to be slightly over @-@ angulated , cow @-@ hocked or sickle @-@ hocked .
They are found in all solid colors , and several pinto patterns . Common colors such as bay , black and chestnut are found , as are colors caused by dilution genes such as the dun , champagne , cream and silver dapple genes . Pinto patterns include overo , sabino and tobiano . The Tennessee Walking Horse has a reputation for having a calm disposition and a naturally smooth riding gait . While the horses are famous for flashy movement , they are popular for trail and pleasure riding as well as show .
The Tennessee Walking Horse is best known for its running @-@ walk . This is a four @-@ beat gait with the same footfall pattern as a regular , or flat , walk , but significantly faster . While a horse performing a flat walk moves at 4 to 8 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 to 12 @.@ 9 kilometres per hour ) , the running walk allows the same horse to travel at 10 to 20 miles per hour ( 16 to 32 kilometres per hour ) . In the running walk , the horse 's rear feet overstep the prints of its front feet by 6 to 18 inches ( 15 to 46 centimetres ) , with a longer overstep being more prized in the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . While performing the running walk , the horse nods its head in rhythm with its gait . Besides the flat and running walks , the third main gait performed by Tennessee Walking Horses is the canter . Some members of the breed perform other variations of lateral ambling gaits , including the rack , stepping pace , fox trot and single @-@ foot , which are allowable for pleasure riding but penalized in the show ring . A few Tennessee Walking Horses can trot , and have a long , reaching stride .
= = History = =
The Tennessee Walker originated from Narragansett Pacer and Canadian Pacer horses brought to Kentucky starting in 1790 , crossed with gaited Spanish Mustangs imported from Texas . These horses were bred on the limestone pastures of central Tennessee , and originally known as " Tennessee Pacers " . Originally used as all @-@ purpose horses on farms and plantations , they were used for riding , pulling and racing . They were known for their smooth gaits and sure @-@ footedness on the rocky Tennessee terrain . Morgan , Standardbred , Thoroughbred and American Saddlebred blood was also added to the breed .
In 1886 , Black Allan ( later known as Allan F @-@ 1 ) was born . By the stallion Allendorf ( from the Hambletonian family of Standardbreds ) and out of a Morgan mare named Maggie Marshall , he became the foundation sire of the Tennessee Walking Horse breed . A failure as a trotting horse , due to his insistence on pacing , he was instead used for breeding . From his line , a foal named Roan Allen was born in 1904 . Able to perform several ambling gaits , Roan Allen became a successful show horse , and in turn sired several famous Tennessee Walking Horses .
The Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' Association was formed in 1935 , with the name changed to the current Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' and Exhibitors ' Association ( TWHBEA ) in 1974 . The stud book was closed in 1947 , meaning that since that date every Tennessee Walker must have both parents registered to be eligible for registration . In 1950 , the United States Department of Agriculture recognized the Tennessee Walking Horse as a distinct breed . In 2000 , the Tennessee Walking Horse was named the official state horse of the US state of Tennessee . It is the third most common breed in Kentucky , behind the Thoroughbred and the American Quarter Horse . As of 2005 , 450 @,@ 000 horses have been registered over the life of the TWHBEA , with annual registrations of 13 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 new foals . While the Tennessee Walking Horse is most common in the southern and southeastern US , it is found throughout the country .
= = Uses = =
The Tennessee Walker is noted for its appearance in horse show events , particularly performances in saddle seat @-@ style English riding equipment , but is also a very popular trail riding horse . Some are used for endurance riding , and to promote this use the TWHBEA maintains an awards program in conjunction with the American Endurance Ride Conference . The breed has also been seen in television , movies and other performing events . The Lone Ranger 's horse " Silver " was at times played by a Tennessee Walker , and " Trigger , Jr . " , the successor to the original " Trigger " made famous by Roy Rogers , was played by a Tennessee Walker named Allen 's Gold Zephyr . The position of mascot of the University of Southern California Trojans , Traveler , was held at various times by a purebred Tennessee Walking Horse , and by a Tennessee Walker / Arabian cross . In the 20th century , the Tennessee Walking Horse was crossed with Welsh ponies to create the American Walking Pony , a gaited pony breed .
= = Horse shows = =
The two basic categories of Tennessee Walking Horse show competition are called " flat @-@ shod " and " performance " . Flat @-@ shod horses compete in many different disciplines under both western and English tack . At shows where both divisions are offered , the flat @-@ shod " plantation pleasure " division is judged on brilliance and show presence of the horses while still being well mannered , balanced , and manageable . " Park pleasure " is the most animated of the flat @-@ shod divisions . Flat @-@ shod horses are shown in ordinary horseshoes , and are not allowed to use pads or action devices , though their hooves are sometimes trimmed to a slightly lower angle with more natural toe than seen on stock horse breeds . Performance horses , sometimes called " padded " or " built up " , exhibit a very flashy and animated gaits , lifting their forelegs high off the ground with each step . This exaggerated action is sometimes called the " Big Lick " . Horses and riders show in saddle seat attire and tack . Horses are shod in double and triple @-@ nailed pads , which are sometimes called " stacks " . This form of shoeing is prohibited at shows governed by the National Walking Horse Association ( NWHA ) , and the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) .
Horses in western classes wear equipment similar to that used by other breeds in western pleasure classes , and exhibitors may not mix English and Western @-@ style equipment . Riders must wear a hat or helmet in western classes . Tennessee Walkers are also shown in both pleasure and fine harness driving classes , with grooming similar to the saddle seat horses . Tennessee Walking Horses are typically shown with a long mane and tail . Artificially set tails are seen in " performance " classes , on full @-@ grown horses in halter classes , and in some harness classes , but generally are not allowed in pleasure or flat @-@ shod competition .
In classes where horses are turned out in saddle seat equipment , it is typical for the horse to be shown in a single curb bit with a bit shank under 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 24 cm ) , rather than the double bridle more common to other saddle seat breeds . Riders wear typical saddle seat attire . Hats are not always mandatory , but use of safety helmets is allowed and ranges from strongly encouraged to required in some pleasure division classes .
= = = Horse Protection Act = = =
The showing , exhibition and sale of Tennessee Walking Horses and some other horse breeds is governed by the Horse Protection Act of 1970 ( HPA ) due to concerns about the practice of soring , which developed during the 1950s and became widespread in the 1960s , resulting in a public outcry . Congress passed the Horse Protection Act in 1970 , declaring the practice " cruel and inhumane " . The Act prohibits anyone from entering a sored horse into a show , sale , auction or exhibition , and prohibits drivers from transporting sored horses to a sale or show . Congress delegated statutory responsibility for enforcement to the management of sales and horse shows , but placed administration of the act with the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . Violations of the HPA may result in criminal charges , fines and prison sentences . The USDA certifies certain Horse Industry Organizations ( HIOs ) to train and license Designated Qualified Persons ( DQPs ) to complete inspections . APHIS inspection teams , which include inspectors , investigators , and veterinary medical officers , also conduct unannounced inspections of some horse shows , and have the authority to revoke the license of a DQP who does not follow the standards of the Act .
Soring is defined by the HPA with four meanings : " ( 3 ) ( A ) an irritating or blistering agent has been applied , internally or externally , by a person to any limb of a horse , ( B ) any burn , cut , or laceration has been inflicted by a person on any limb of a horse , ( C ) any tack , nail , screw , or chemical agent has been injected by a person into or used by a person on any limb of a horse , or ( D ) any other substance or device has been used by a person on any limb of a horse or a person has engaged in a practice involving a horse , and , as a result of such application , infliction , injection , use , or practice , such horse suffers , or can reasonably be expected to suffer , physical pain or distress , inflammation , or lameness when walking , " Action devices , which remain legal but are often used in conjunction with illegal soring practices , are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations as " any boot , collar , chain , roller , or other device which encircles or is placed upon the lower extremity of the leg of a horse in such a manner that it can either rotate around the leg , or slide up and down the leg so as to cause friction , or which can strike the hoof , coronet band or fetlock joint " . Between 1978 and 1982 , research was undertaken by Auburn University as to the effect of applications of chemical and physical irritants to the legs of Tennessee Walking Horses . The study found that chains of any weight used in combination with chemical soring produced lesions and pain in horses . However , chains of 6 ounces or lighter , used on their own , produced no pain , tissue damage or thermographic changes .
Soring can be detected by observing the horse for lameness , assessing its stance and palpating the lower legs . Some trainers trick inspectors by training horses not to react to the pain that palpation may cause , often by severely punishing the horse for flinching when the sored area is touched . The practice is sometimes called " stewarding " , in reference to the horse show steward . Some trainers use topical anesthetics , which are timed to wear off before the horse goes into the show ring . Pressure shoeing is also used , eliminating use of chemicals altogether . Trainers who sore their horses have been observed leaving the show grounds when they find that the more stringent federal inspection teams are present . Although illegal under federal law for over 40 years , soring is still practiced and criminal charges have been filed against people who violate the Act . Enforcement of the HPA is difficult , due to limited inspection budgets and problems with lax enforcement by inspectors who are hired by the shows they were to police . As a result , while in 1999 there were eight certified HIOs , by 2010 , only three organizations remained certified as HIOs , all known to be actively working to end soring .
In 2013 , legislation to amend and strengthen the HPA was introduced in Congress . The President and executive committee of the TWHBEA voted to support this legislation , but the full board of directors chose not to . The bill , H.R. 1518 , was sponsored by Representative Ed Whitfield ( R @-@ KY ) , and Representative Steve Cohen ( D @-@ TN ) , with 216 co @-@ sponsors . On November 13 , 2013 a hearing was held . Supporters included the American Horse Council , the American Veterinary Medical Association , members of the TWHBEA , the International Walking Horse Association , and Friends of Sound Horses . Opponents included members of the Performance Horse Show Association , and the Tennessee Commissioner of Agriculture .
= = = Show rules and organizations = = =
Controversies over shoeing rules , concerns about soring and the breed industry 's compliance with the Horse Protection Act has resulted in the development of multiple governing organizations . The breed registry is kept by the TWHBEA which promotes all riding disciplines within the breed , but does not sanction horse shows . The USEF does not currently recognize or sanction any Tennessee Walking Horse shows . In 2013 it also banned the use of action devices and stacks at any time in any class .
Another organization , the Tennessee Walking Horse Heritage Society , is a group dedicated to the preservation of the original Tennessee Walker bloodlines , mainly for use as trail and pleasure horses , rather than for showing . Horses listed by the organization descend from the foundation bloodstock registered by the TWHBEA , and pedigrees may not include horses shown with stacks post @-@ 1976 .
Two organizations have formed to promote the exhibition of flat @-@ shod horses . The NWHA promotes only naturally @-@ gaited horses in its sanctioned horse shows , has its own rule book , and is the official USEF affiliate organization for the breed . The NWHA sanctions horse shows and licenses judges , and is an authorized HIO . The NWHA was in the process of building its own " tracking registry " to document both pedigree and performance achievements of horses recorded there . These included the Spotted Saddle Horse and Racking Horse breeds as well as the Tennessee Walker . However , the NWHA was sued by the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders & Exhibitors Association ( TWHBEA ) , which eventually won some concessions regarding the use of the TWHBEA ’ s copyrighted registry certificates by the NWHA . While the judgment did not prohibit the NWHA from continuing its registry service , it is no longer actively advertised on the NWHA website .
The other organization , Friends of Sound Horses ( FOSH ) , also promotes exhibition of flat @-@ shod and barefoot horses , licenses judges for both pleasure classes and gaited dressage , promotes use of gaited horses in distance riding and sport horse activities , and is an authorized HIO .
Two organizations promulgate rules for horse shows where action devices are allowed : the Walking Horse Owners Association ( WHOA ) and " S.H.O.W. " ( " Sound horses , Honest judging , Objective inspections , Winning fairly " ) which regulates the Tennessee Walking Horse National Celebration . The Celebration , in Shelbyville , Tennessee , has been held each August since 1939 , and is considered the showcase competition for the breed . However , in recent years the Celebration has attracted large amounts of attention and controversy due to the concerns about violations of the Horse Protection Act .
= Marvel Cinematic Universe =
The Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) is an American media franchise and shared fictional universe that is centered on a series of superhero films , independently produced by Marvel Studios and based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics . The franchise has expanded to include comic books , short films , and television series . The shared universe , much like the original Marvel Universe in comic books , was established by crossing over common plot elements , settings , cast , and characters . Clark Gregg has appeared the most in the franchise , portraying Phil Coulson , a character original to the MCU .
The first film released in the MCU was Iron Man ( 2008 ) , which began the first phase of films culminating in the crossover film Marvel 's The Avengers ( 2012 ) . Phase Two began with Iron Man 3 ( 2013 ) , and concluded with Ant @-@ Man ( 2015 ) . The films are currently in Phase Three , which began with the release of Captain America : Civil War ( 2016 ) . Marvel Television expanded the universe further , first to network television with Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on ABC in the 2013 – 14 television season , followed by online streaming with Marvel 's Daredevil on Netflix in 2015 , and then to cable television with Marvel 's Cloak and Dagger , which is scheduled to air in 2017 on Freeform . The MCU also includes tie @-@ in comics published by Marvel Comics , while Marvel Studios has also produced a series of direct @-@ to @-@ video short films and a viral marketing campaign for its films and the universe with the faux news program WHIH Newsfront .
The franchise has been seen as an impressive and groundbreaking success in terms of a multimedia shared universe , though critics have found that some of its films and television series have suffered in service of the wider universe . It has inspired other film and television studios with comic book character adaptation rights to attempt to create similar shared universes . The MCU has also been the focus of other media , outside of the shared universe , including attractions at Disneyland and Discovery Times Square , two television specials , guidebooks for each film , a Lego video game , and a commercial with Coca @-@ Cola .
= = Development = =
= = = Films = = =
By 2005 , Marvel Entertainment began planning to independently produce its own films and distribute them through Paramount Pictures . Previously , Marvel had co @-@ produced several superhero films with Sony Pictures Entertainment , New Line Cinema and others , including a seven @-@ year development deal with 20th Century Fox . Marvel made relatively little profit from its licensing deals with other studios and wanted to get more money out of its films while maintaining artistic control of the projects and distribution . Avi Arad , head of Marvel 's film division , was pleased with Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man films at Sony , but was less pleased about others . As a result , they decided to form Marvel Studios , Hollywood 's first major independent movie studio since DreamWorks .
Arad 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Kevin Feige , realized that unlike Spider @-@ Man and the X @-@ Men , whose film rights were licensed to Sony and Fox respectively , Marvel still owned the rights to the core members of The Avengers . Feige , a self @-@ professed fanboy , envisioned creating a shared universe just as creators Stan Lee and Jack Kirby had done with their comic books in the early 1960s . To raise capital , the studio secured funding from a seven @-@ year , $ 525 million revolving credit facility with Merrill Lynch . Marvel 's plan was to release individual films for their main characters and then merge them together in a crossover film . Arad , who doubted the strategy yet insisted that it was his reputation that helped secure the initial financing , resigned the following year .
In 2007 , at 33 years old , Feige was named studio chief . In order to preserve its artistic integrity , Marvel Studios formed a six @-@ person creative committee with people familiar with its comic book lore that included Feige , Marvel Studios co @-@ president Louis D 'Esposito , Marvel Comics ' president of publishing Dan Buckley , Marvel 's chief creative officer Joe Quesada , writer Brian Michael Bendis , and Marvel Entertainment president Alan Fine , who oversaw the committee . Feige initially referred to the shared narrative continuity of these films as the " Marvel Cinema Universe " , but later used the term " Marvel Cinematic Universe " . Marvel has designated the Marvel Cinematic Universe as Earth @-@ 199999 within the continuity of the company 's multiverse , a collection of fictional alternate universes .
In November 2013 , Feige said that " in an ideal world " releases each year would include one film based on an existing character and one featuring a new character , saying it 's " a nice rhythm " in that format . While not always the case , as evident by the 2013 releases of Iron Man 3 and Thor : The Dark World , he said it is " certainly something to aim for . " Feige expanded on this in July 2014 , saying , " I don 't know that we 'll keep to [ that model ] every year , " but we 're doing that in 2014 and 2015 , " so I think it would be fun to continue that sort of thing . " In February 2014 , Feige stated that Marvel Studios wants to mimic the " rhythm " that the comic books have developed , by having the characters appear in their own films , and then come together , much like " a big event or crossover series , " with Avengers films acting as " big , giant linchpins . " After the reveal of multiple release dates for films through 2019 in July 2014 , Feige stated , " I think if you look at some of those dates that we 've announced , we 're going to three in a few of those years . Again , not because there 's a number cruncher telling us to go to three , do more than two pictures a year , but because of the very reason just laid out : It is about managing [ existing ] franchises , film to film , and when we have a team ready to go , why tell them to go away for four years just because we don 't have a slot ? We 'd rather find a way to keep that going . " After the titles were revealed in October 2014 , Feige said , " the studio ’ s firing on all cylinders right now ... which made us comfortable for the first time ... to increase to three films a year [ in 2017 and 2018 ] instead of just two , without changing our methods . "
On expanding the characters in the universe and letting individual films breathe and work on their own , as opposed to having Avenger team @-@ ups outside of Avengers films , Feige stated , it ’ s about " teaching the general movie going audience about the notion of the characters existing separately , coming together for specific events and going away and existing separately in their own worlds again . Just like comic readers have been doing for decades and decades ... People sort of are accepting that there 's just a time when they should be together and there ’ s a time when they ’ re not . " In April 2014 , Feige revealed that Edgar Wright 's pitch for Ant @-@ Man in 2006 helped shape the early films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , saying , " We changed , frankly , some of the MCU to accommodate this version of Ant @-@ Man . Knowing what we wanted to do with Edgar and with Ant @-@ Man , going years and years back , helped to dictate what we did with the roster for Avengers the first time . It was a bit of both in terms of his idea for the Ant @-@ Man story influencing the birth of the MCU in the early films leading up to Avengers . "
In October 2014 , Marvel held a press event to announce the titles of their Phase Three films . The event , which drew comparisons to Apple 's Worldwide Developers Conference , was done because all the information was ready . As Feige explained , " We wanted to do this at [ San Diego ] Comic @-@ Con this year . Things were not set ... So the plan has been , since a few weeks before Comic @-@ Con when we realized we weren ’ t going to be able to do everything we wanted to do , is to decide ' let 's do either something we haven ’ t done in a long time , or something we 've never done . ' Which is a singular event , just to announce what we have when it 's ready . I thought that might be early August , or mid @-@ September , it ended up being [ at the end of October ] . "
In September 2015 , after Marvel Studios was integrated into The Walt Disney Studios with Feige reporting to Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn instead of Marvel Entertainment CEO Isaac Perlmutter , it was reported that the studios ' creative committee would have " nominal " input on the films moving forward , though would continue to consult on Marvel Television productions , which remained under Perlmutter 's control . All key film decisions going forward will be made by Feige , D 'Esposito and Victoria Alonso . At the end of the month , on how much story is developed for future films of the universe , Feige said there are " broad stroke " though sometime " super @-@ specific things . But for the most part , in broad strokes that are broad enough and loose enough that , if through the development of four of five movies before we get to the culmination ... we still have room to sway and to move and to go and to surprise ourselves in places that we end up . So that all the movies , hopefully when they 're finished , will feel like they 're all interconnected and meant to be and planned far ahead , but really can live and breathe enough as individual movies to be satisfying each and of themselves . " The studio also has various contingency plans for the direction of all of their films , in the event they are unable to secure a certain actor to reprise a role , or require the film rights to a character , such as was done in February 2015 with Spider @-@ Man .
In April 2016 , on moving the universe to Phase Four and reflecting on the first three , Feige said , " I think there will be a finality to moments of Phase Three , as well as new beginnings that will mark a different , a very different , a distinctively different chapter in what will someday be a complete first saga made up of three phases . " Joe Russo added , " You build things up and people enjoy the experiences you 've built up . But then you kind of reach an apex or you reach a climax , a moment where you go , ‘ This structure is really going to start to be repetitious if we do this again , so what do we do now ? ’ So now , you deconstruct it . We ’ re in the deconstruction phase with [ Captain America : ] Civil War and leading into [ Avengers : ] Infinity War , which are the culmination films . " On the potential for " superhero fatigue " , Feige stated , " This year , we ’ ve got Civil War and we ’ ve got Doctor Strange in November , two completely different movies . To me , and to all of Marvel Studios , that ’ s what keeps it going . As long as we ’ re surprising people , as long as we ’ re not falling into things becoming too similar ... next year , [ Guardians of the Galaxy Vol . 2 ] , [ Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming ] , Thor : Ragnarok . Those are three totally different movies ... as long as the only shared thing is they come from the same source material and they ’ ve got our Marvel logo in front of the movies . Other than that they can be very distinct . What other studios do , what other properties , nothing we can do about it . "
= = = = Distributors = = = =
Over time , the distribution rights to Marvel Studios ' films changed hands on multiple occasions . In November 2006 , Universal Pictures announced that it would distribute The Incredible Hulk , in an arrangement separate from Marvel 's 2005 deal with Paramount , which was distributing Marvel 's other films . In September 2008 , after the international success of Iron Man , Paramount signed a deal to have worldwide distribution rights for Iron Man 2 , Iron Man 3 , Thor , Captain America : The First Avenger , and The Avengers .
In late December 2009 , The Walt Disney Company purchased Marvel Entertainment for $ 4 billion . In October 2010 , Walt Disney Studios bought the distribution rights for Marvel 's The Avengers and Iron Man 3 from Paramount Pictures , with Paramount 's logo remaining on the films , as well as for promotional material and merchandise , although Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures is the only studio credited at the end of these films . Disney has distributed all subsequent Marvel Studios films . In July 2013 , Disney purchased the distribution rights to Iron Man , Iron Man 2 , Thor and Captain America : The First Avenger from Paramount . The Incredible Hulk was not part of the deal , due to an agreement between Marvel and Universal , where Marvel owns the film rights and Universal owns the distribution rights , for this film as well as the right of first refusal to distribute future Hulk films . According to The Hollywood Reporter , a potential reason why Marvel has not bought the film distribution rights to the Hulk as they did with Paramount for the Iron Man , Thor , and Captain America films is because Universal holds the theme park rights to several Marvel characters that Disney wants for its own theme parks .
In February 2015 , Sony Pictures Entertainment and Marvel Studios announced a licensing deal that would allow Spider @-@ Man to appear in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , with the character first appearing in Captain America : Civil War . Marvel Studios also explored opportunities to integrate other characters of the Marvel Cinematic Universe into future Spider @-@ Man films financed , distributed , and controlled by Sony Pictures , with Robert Downey , Jr. the first confirmed to reprise his role as Tony Stark / Iron Man in Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming . In June 2015 , Feige clarified that the initial Sony deal does not apply to the MCU television series , as it was " very specific ... with a certain amount of back and forth allowed . "
= = = Television = = =
In June 2010 , Marvel Television was launched with Jeph Loeb as head . By July 2012 , the division had entered into discussions with ABC to create a show set in the MCU , and in August , ABC ordered a pilot for a show called S.H.I.E.L.D. , with The Avengers writer / director Joss Whedon involved . Later renamed Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , the series was soon joined by several others at ABC .
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Jeffrey Bell stated at the show 's 2014 PaleyFest panel that the producers and the writers are able to read the screenplays for upcoming MCU films to know where the universe is heading , which allowed them to form a general plan for the show through the end of a third season . He noted that since the films have to be " big " and move " quickly through a lot of huge pieces " , it is beneficial for the films to have the television series fill in any " gaps " for them . His fellow executive producer Jed Whedon explained that each Marvel project is intended to standalone first before there is any interweaving , and noted that the series has to work with the film division and be aware of their plans so as not to interfere when introducing someone or something to the universe . Bell elaborated that this was preferable so that people who do not watch the films can still follow the series , and vice versa . Joss Whedon noted that this process " unfortunately just means the TV show gets , you know , leftovers . " He stated that , for example , the series ' creative team initially wanted to use Loki 's scepter from The Avengers but were unable due to Whedon 's plans for it in Avengers : Age of Ultron .
By October 2013 , Marvel was preparing four drama series and a miniseries , totaling 60 episodes , to present to video on demand services and cable providers , with Netflix , Amazon , and WGN America expressing interest . In November 2013 , it was announced that Disney would provide Netflix with live @-@ action series based on Daredevil , Jessica Jones , Iron Fist , and Luke Cage , leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders . Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Netflix was chosen to air the shows , " when Disney realized it could use the streaming service as a way to grow the popularity of the characters " . He added that , if the characters prove popular , they could become feature films . Quesada confirmed that the series are set within the MCU , and that , beyond connecting to themselves , would connect with the films and other television series .
In December 2014 , Loeb explained that " Within the Marvel universe there are thousands of heroes of all shapes and sizes , but the Avengers are here to save the universe and Daredevil is here to save the neighborhood ... It does take place in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It ’ s all connected . But that doesn 't necessarily mean that we would look up in the sky and see [ Iron Man ] . It ’ s just a different part of New York that we have not yet seen in the Marvel movies . " In April 2015 , Loeb explained that " In the world of Marvel Comics , Jessica Jones , and Matt Murdock , and Danny Rand , and Luke Cage all had a previous existing relationship and all grew up on the same kind of stoop in New York . So it lent itself to a world . Does that mean these shows are going to be the same ? No . They can 't be . The characters have different issues , different problems , different feelings about them . While I don 't think they 'll be as varied , the example that I continually give is that I cannot think of two films that are more different in tone than The Winter Soldier and Guardians of the Galaxy . And yet , if you watch them back to back , they feel very Marvel . They feel very much like , ' Oh , it is still the same universe that I 'm in . ' "
In October 2014 , Feige said the opportunity " certainly " exists for characters in the Netflix series to appear in Avengers : Infinity War . In March 2015 , Loeb spoke on the ability for the Netflix series to crossover with the films and the ABC series , saying , " As it is now , in the same way that our films started out as self @-@ contained and then by the time we got to The Avengers , it became more practical for Captain America to do a little crossover into Thor 2 and for Bruce Banner to appear at the end of Iron Man 3 . We have to earn that . The audience needs to understand who all of these characters are and what the world is before you then start co @-@ mingling " . In September 2015 , Feige elaborated on the films referencing the television series , saying " I think that 's inevitable at some point ... The schedules do not always quite match up to make that possible . It 's easier for [ the shows ] . They 're more nimble and faster and produce things quicker than we do , which is one of the main reasons you see the repercussions of Winter Soldier or [ Avengers : Age of Ultron ] in the show ... by the time we start doing a movie , they 'd be mid @-@ way through a season . By the time our movie comes out , they 'd be [ starting the next season ] . So finding the timing on that is not always easy .
While talking about Marvel potentially making comedy series , Loeb said in January 2016 that Marvel always feels humor should be a part of anything they produce , despite possibly fitting more within a darker genre , as Daredevil and Jessica Jones do , while also staying " grounded and real " . He added , " There are moments of levity that are in life that you need to bring to the table , or else it just becomes overwhelmingly oppressive ... If you 're going to [ explore comic book elements ] , it 's always a good idea to make sure that the audience is aware that , yeah , it 's funny [ too ] . " Also in January , Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos talked about the release schedule of the Marvel Netflix series , saying that they " are produced at the scale of a major film , so there are long production times and long post times . In some case , when we have character crossover , it makes it more difficult to manage production . It ’ s not the goal to put out more than one or two [ each ] year ... The complex one is really The Defenders . The Defenders ' production schedule will determine a lot of the season 2 and 3 output of those shows . " He also noted on potential spin @-@ offs that " all the characters in the universe could also spin out " into their own series at some point , with Netflix ordering Marvel 's The Punisher , a spin @-@ off from Daredevil , that April .
Also in April , the ABC @-@ owned cable network Freeform announced Marvel 's Cloak and Dagger , based on the characters of the same name , with a straight @-@ to @-@ series order for 2017 . The network confirmed that the series would be " its first venture into the Marvel Cinematic Universe " , and described the show as a " superhero love story " , a premise that Variety called " a seamless fit for Freeform " given the network 's target audience of " Becomers " ( the 14 @-@ 34 age demographic ) .
= = = Other media = = =
In 2008 , the first official tie @-@ in comic was released . Quesada outlined his plan to expand the MCU into comic books , saying , " The MCU [ comics ] are going to be stories set within movie continuity . [ They are ] not necessarily direct adaptations of the movies , but maybe something that happened off screen and was mentioned in the movie ... Kevin Feige is involved with these and in some cases maybe the writers of the movies would be involved [ as well . ] " Marvel Comics worked with Brad Winderbaum , Jeremy Latcham , and Will Corona Pilgrim at Marvel Studios to decide which concepts should be carried over from the Marvel Comics Universe to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , what to show in the tie @-@ in comics , and what to leave for the films . Marvel has clarified which of the tie @-@ in comics are considered official canonical MCU stories , with the rest merely inspired by the MCU , " where we get to show off all the characters from the film in costume and in comic form . "
In August 2011 , Marvel announced a series of direct @-@ to @-@ video short films called Marvel One @-@ Shots , the name derived from the label used by Marvel Comics for their one @-@ shot comics . Co @-@ producer Brad Winderbaum said " It 's a fun way to experiment with new characters and ideas , but more importantly it 's a way for us to expand the Marvel Cinematic Universe and tell stories that live outside the plot of our features . " Each short film is designed to be a self @-@ contained story that provides more backstory for characters or events introduced in the films . In July 2012 , D 'Esposito stated that Marvel was considering the idea of introducing established characters who may not yet be ready to carry their own feature films in future One @-@ Shots , stating , " There ’ s always a potential to introduce a character . We have 8 @,@ 000 of them , and they can ’ t all be at the same level . So maybe there are some that are not so popular , and we introduce them [ with a short ] – and they take off . I could see that happening . "
In March 2015 , Marvel 's Vice President of Animation Development and Production , Cort Lane , stated that animated tie @-@ ins to the MCU were " in the works " . That July , Marvel Studios partnered with Google to produce the faux news program WHIH News
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first , and a superhero show second . And for the first time , the MCU seems like it matters . Our culture needs stories like this . Here 's hoping Marvel keeps them coming . " For Paul Tassi and Erik Kain of Forbes , watching the series made them question the MCU , with Kain feeling that the " morally complex , violent , dark world of Jessica Jones has no place in the MCU ... right now , the MCU is holding back shows like Jessica Jones and Daredevil , while those shows are contributing absolutely nothing to the MCU . " Tassi went so far as to wonder what " the point of the Marvel Cinematic Universe " is , lamenting the lack of major crossovers in the franchise since the Winter Soldier reveal on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and saying that Jessica Jones is " so far removed from the world of The Avengers , it might as well not be in the same universe at all ... [ I ] really don 't understand the point of [ the MCU ] if they 're going to keep everything within it separated off in these little boxes " . Conversely , Eric Francisco of Inverse called Jessica Jones 's lack of overt connections to the MCU " the show 's chief advantage . Besides demonstrating how physically wide open the MCU 's scope really is , Jessica Jones also proves the MCU 's thematic durability . "
In April 2016 , Marvel Studios revealed that Alfre Woodard would appear in Captain America : Civil War , having already been cast as Mariah Dillard in Luke Cage the previous year . This " raised hopes that Marvel could be uniting its film and Netflix universes " , with " one of the first and strongest connections " between the two . However , Civil War writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely revealed that Woodard would instead be portraying Miriam Sharpe in the film , explaining that she had been cast on the suggestion of Robert Downey , Jr . , and they had not learnt of her casting in Luke Cage until afterwards . This was not the first instance of actors being cast in multiple roles in the MCU , but this casting was called more " significant " , and seen by many as a " disappointing " indication of " the growing divide " and " lack of more satisfying cooperation " between Marvel Studios and Marvel Television following the September 2015 corporate reshuffling of Marvel Entertainment .
= = Cultural impact = =
In September 2014 , the University of Baltimore announced a course beginning in the 2015 spring semester revolving around the Marvel Cinematic Universe , to be taught by Arnold T. Blumberg . " Media Genres : Media Marvels " examines " how Marvel 's series of interconnected films and television shows , plus related media and comic book sources and Joseph Campbell 's monomyth of the ' hero 's journey ' , offer important insights into modern culture " as well as Marvel 's efforts " to establish a viable universe of plotlines , characters , and backstories . "
= = = Other studios = = =
After the release of The Avengers in May 2012 , Tom Russo of Boston.com noted that aside from the occasional " novelty " such as Aliens vs. Predator ( 2004 ) , the idea of a shared universe was virtually unheard of in Hollywood . Since that time , the shared universe model created by Marvel Studios has begun to be replicated by other film studios that held rights to other comic book characters . In April 2014 , Tuna Amobi , a media analyst for Standard & Poor ’ s Equity Research Services , stated that in the previous three to five years , Hollywood studios began planning " megafranchises " for years to come , opposed to working one blockbuster at a time . Amobi added , " A lot of these superhero characters were just being left there to gather dust . Disney has proved that this [ approach and genre ] can be a gold mine . " However , with additional studios now " playing the megafranchise game " , Doug Creutz , media analyst for Cowen and Company , feels the allure will eventually die for audiences : " If Marvel 's going to make two or three films a year , and Warner Brothers is going to do at least a film every year , and Sony 's going to do a film every year , and Fox [ is ] going to do a film every year , can everyone do well in that scenario ? I 'm not sure they can . "
= = = = DC Entertainment and Warner Bros. = = = =
In October 2012 , following its legal victory over Joe Shuster 's estate for the rights to Superman , Warner Bros. announced that it planned to move ahead with its long @-@ awaited Justice League film , uniting such DC Comics superheroes as Batman , Superman , and Wonder Woman . The company was expected to take the opposite approach to Marvel , releasing individual films for the characters after they have appeared in a team @-@ up film . The release of Man of Steel in 2013 was intended to be the start of a new shared universe for DC , " laying the groundwork for the future slate of films based on DC Comics . " In 2014 , Warner Bros. announced that slate of films , similarly to Disney and Marvel claiming dates for films years in advance . That year , DC CCO Geoff Johns stated that the television series Arrow and The Flash were set in a separate universe from the new film one , later clarifying that " We look at it as the multiverse . We have our TV universe and our film universe , but they all co @-@ exist . For us , creatively , it 's about allowing everyone to make the best possible product , to tell the best story , to do the best world . Everyone has a vision and you really want to let the visions shine through ... It 's just a different approach [ to Marvel 's ] . "
Discussing the apparent failure of the cinematic universe 's first team @-@ up film , Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice , to establish a successful equivalent to the MCU , Todd VanDerWerff noted that where the MCU has a television @-@ like " showrunner " in Feige , " the visionary behind Marvel 's entire slate " , the DCEU has director Zack Snyder , whose DC films " seemingly start from the assumption that people have come not to see an individual story but a long series of teases for other ones . It 's like he knows what he needs to do but can 't focus on the task at hand . TV certainly isn 't immune to that problem , but shows that get caught up in high @-@ concept premises and big @-@ picture thinking before doing the necessary legwork to establish characters and their relationships tend to be canceled . " Subsequently , in May 2016 , Warner Bros. gave oversight of the DCEU to Johns and executive Jon Berg in an attempt to " unify the disparate elements of the DC movies " and emulate Marvel 's success . The two were made producers on the Justice League films , on top of Johns ' involvement in several " solo " films , such as the post @-@ production process of Suicide Squad or the writing process of a standalone Batman film .
= = = = 20th Century Fox = = = =
In November 2012 , 20th Century Fox announced plans to create their own shared universe , consisting of Marvel properties that it holds the rights to including the Fantastic Four and X @-@ Men , with the hiring of Mark Millar as supervising producer . Millar said , " Fox are thinking , ' We 're sitting on some really awesome things here . There is another side of the Marvel Universe . Let 's try and get some cohesiveness going . ' So they brought me in to oversee that really . To meet with the writers and directors to suggest new ways we could take this stuff and new properties that could spin out of it . " X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , released in 2014 , was Fox 's first step towards expanding their stable of Marvel properties and creating this universe , ahead of the release of a Fantastic Four reboot film the next year . However , in May 2014 , Days of Future Past and Fantastic Four screenwriter Simon Kinberg stated that the latter film would not take place in the same universe as the X @-@ Men films , explaining that " none of the X @-@ Men movies have acknowledged the notion of a sort of superhero team — the Fantastic Four . And the Fantastic Four acquire powers , so for them to live in a world where mutants are prevalent is kind of complicated , because you 're like , ' Oh , you 're just a mutant . ' Like , ' What 's so fantastic about you ? ' ... they live in discrete universes . " In July 2015 , X @-@ Men director Bryan Singer said that there was still potential for a crossover between the X @-@ Men and Fantastic Four franchises , if reaction to Fantastic Four and X @-@ Men : Apocalypse warranted it .
Feeling that Singer 's efforts in Apocalypse to establish a larger world , similar to the MCU , did not meet the standards established by Marvel , VanDerWerff noted that unlike Feige 's ability to serve as " pseudo @-@ showrunner " , Singer is instead " steeped in film and the way movie stories have always been told " , so " when it comes time to have Apocalypse dovetail with story threads from the earlier X @-@ Men : First Class ( which was directed by someone else entirely ) , both Singer 's direction and Simon Kinberg 's script rely on hackneyed devices and clumsy storytelling " , indicating a lack of " the kind of big @-@ picture thinking this sort of mega franchise requires " .
= = = = Sony Pictures = = = =
In November 2013 , Sony Pictures Entertainment Co @-@ Chairman Amy Pascal announced that the studio intended to expand their universe created within the Marc Webb Amazing Spider @-@ Man series , with spin @-@ off adventures for supporting characters , in an attempt to replicate Marvel and Disney 's model . The next month , Sony announced Venom and Sinister Six films , both set in the Amazing Spider @-@ Man universe . With this announcement , IGN stated that the spin @-@ offs are " the latest example of what we can refer to as " the Avengers effect " in Hollywood , as studios work to build interlocking movie universes . " Sony chose not to replicate the Marvel Studios model of introducing individual characters first before bringing them together in a team @-@ up film , instead making the Spider @-@ Man adversaries the stars of future films . However , in February 2015 , Sony Pictures and Marvel Studios announced that the Spider @-@ Man franchise would be retooled , with a new film co @-@ produced by Feige and Pascal being released in July 2017 , and the character being integrated into the MCU . Sony Pictures would continue to finance , distribute , own , and have final creative control of the Spider @-@ Man films . With this announcement , sequels to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 were canceled , and by November 2015 the Venom and Sinister Six films , as well as spin @-@ offs based on female characters in the Spider @-@ Man universe , were no longer moving forward . By March 2016 , the Venom film had itself been retooled , to start its own franchise unrelated to the MCU Spider @-@ Man .
After Sony canceled their shared universe plans and started sharing the Spider @-@ Man character with Marvel Studios , multiple critics discussed their failure at replicating the MCU . Scott Meslow of The Week noted the perceived flaws of the first Amazing Spider @-@ Man film , outside of its lead performances , and how the sequel " doubles down on all the missteps of the original while adding a few of its own . … We now have a textbook example of how not to reboot a superhero franchise , and if Sony and Marvel are wise , they 'll take virtually all those lessons to heart as they chart Spider @-@ Man 's next course . " Scott Mendelson noted that The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 " was sold as less a sequel to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man than a backdoor pilot for Spider @-@ Man vs. the Sinister Six . … Had Sony stuck with the original plan of a scaled @-@ down superhero franchise , one that really was rooted in romantic drama , they would have at least stuck out in a crowded field of superhero franchises . When every superhero film is now going bigger , Amazing Spider @-@ Man could have distinguished itself by going small and intimate . " This would have saved Sony " a boatload of money " , and potentially reversed the film 's relative financial failure .
= = Outside media = =
= = = Live attractions = = =
After the acquisition by Disney in 2009 , Marvel films began to be marketed at the Innoventions attraction in Tomorrowland at Disneyland . For Iron Man 3 , the exhibit , entitled Iron Man Tech Presented by Stark Industries , features the same armor display that was shown at the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , with the Marks I @-@ VII and the new Mark XLII . In addition , there is a simulator game , titled " Become Iron Man , " that uses Kinect @-@ like technology to allow the viewer to be encased in an animated Mark XLII armor and take part in a series of " tests , ” in which you fire repulsor rays and fly through Tony Stark 's workshop . The game is guided by J.A.R.V.I.S. , who is voiced again by Paul Bettany . The exhibit also has smaller displays that include helmets and chest pieces from the earlier films and the gauntlet and boot from an action sequence in Iron Man 3 . The exhibit for Thor : The Dark World is called Thor : Treasures of Asgard , and features displays of Asgardian relics and transports guests to Odin 's throne room , where they are greeted by Thor . Captain America : The Winter Soldier 's exhibit , Captain America : The Living Legend and Symbol of Courage , features a meet and greet experience . At San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2016 , it was revealed that the Tower of Terror at Disney California Adventure would be replaced by a new attraction , Guardians of the Galaxy - Mission : Breakout ! . Chris Pratt , Zoe Saldana , Dave Bautista and Benicio del Toro all filmed exclusive footage for the attraction , reprising their roles as Peter Quill / Star @-@ Lord , Gamora , Drax and Taneleer Tivan / The Collector , respectively .
= = = = Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. = = = =
In May 2014 , the Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. ( Scientific Training and Tactical Intelligence Operative Network ) exhibit opened at the Discovery Times Square center . The exhibit features replica set pieces , as well as actual props from the films , mixed with interactive technology and information , crafted through a partnership with NASA and other scientists . Titus Welliver also provides a " debrief " to visitors , reprising his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Felix Blake . Created by Victory Hill Exhibits , Avengers S.T.A.T.I.O.N. cost $ 7 @.@ 5 million to create , and ran through early September 2015 .
The exhibit also opened in Korea at the War Memorial of Korea in April 2015 , in Paris at Esplanade de La Défense a year later , and in Las Vegas at the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino in June 2016 . The Las Vegas version of the exhibit featured updated character details and corresponding science to incorporate the Marvel films that have released since the original exhibit in New York . Additionally , the Las Vegas version features Colbie Smulders reprising her role as Maria Hill to " debrief " visitors , replacing Welliver .
= = = Television specials = = =
= = = = Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe ( 2014 ) = = = =
On March 18 , 2014 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which documented the history of Marvel Studios and the development of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , and included exclusive interviews and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from all of the films , One @-@ Shots and Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and sneak peeks of Avengers : Age of Ultron , Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Guardians of the Galaxy , unaired episodes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , and Ant @-@ Man . Brian Lowry of Variety felt the special , " contains a pretty interesting business and creative story . While it might all make sense in hindsight , there was appreciable audacity in Marvel ’ s plan to release five loosely connected movies from the same hero @-@ filled world , beginning with the cinematically unproven Iron Man and culminating with superhero team The Avengers . As such , this fast @-@ moving hour qualifies as more than just a cut @-@ and @-@ paste job from electronic press kits , although there ’ s an element of that , certainly . " The special was released on September 9 , 2014 on the home media for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. season 1 .
= = = = Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! ( 2014 ) = = = =
In September 2014 , Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Jeffrey Bell stated that in order to meet production demands and avoid having to air repeat episodes , ABC would likely air a Marvel special in place of a regular installment at some point during the first ten episodes of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s second season . In October , the special was revealed to be Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , which was hosted by Emily VanCamp , who portrays Agent 13 in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and aired on November 4 , 2014 . The special features behind the scenes footage from Avengers : Age of Ultron and Ant @-@ Man , as well as footage from the Agent Carter television series previously screened at New York Comic @-@ Con. Brian Lowry of Variety felt an hour for the special did not " do the topic justice " adding , " For anyone who has seen more than one Marvel movie but would shrug perplexedly at the mention of Jack Kirby or Steve Ditko , Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp To Pop ! should probably be required viewing . Fun , fast @-@ paced and encompassing many of the company ’ s highlights along with a few lowlights , it ’ s a solid primer on Marvel ’ s history , while weaving in inevitable self @-@ promotion and synergistic plugs . " Eric Goldman of IGN also wished the special had been longer , adding , " Understandably , the more you already know about Marvel , the less you 'll be surprised by Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , but it 's important to remember who this special is really made for – a mainstream audience who have embraced the Marvel characters , via the hugely successful movies , in a way no one could have imagined . "
= = = Books = = =
In September 2015 , Marvel announced the Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , named as a nod to the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe . Each guidebook is compiled by Mike O 'Sullivan and the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe team , with cover art from Mike Del Mundo and Pascal Campion , and features facts about the MCU films , film @-@ to @-@ comic comparisons , and production stills . Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Iron Man , Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Incredible Hulk / Marvel 's Iron Man 2 , Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Thor , and Guidebook to the Marvel Cinematic Universe : Marvel 's Captain America : The First Avenger released each month from October 2015 to January 2016 , respectively .
= = = Lego Marvel 's Avengers = = =
The video game Lego Marvel 's Avengers is centered on events from The Avengers and Avengers : Age of Ultron , with the game 's developer , TT Games , reordering scenes from both films to make a cohesive story . The game also features content from Captain America : The First Avenger , Iron Man 3 , Thor : The Dark World and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , as well as additional references to other MCU properties , locations and characters . TT Games uses lines of dialogue directly from the films in the game ( thus having many actors reprise their roles ) , with Hayley Atwell , Clark Gregg , Colbie Smulders and Ashley Johnson recording new material specifically for the game as their characters Peggy Carter , Phil Coulson , Maria Hill and Beth , the waitress in The Avengers , respectively . Downloadable content ( DLC ) for the game , exclusive initially for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 , adds content and characters from Ant @-@ Man and Captain America : Civil War . Additional DLC features content for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. The Ant @-@ Man DLC features Michael Peña reprising his role as Luis , recording new dialogue that acts as a narration of the level , while Ming @-@ Na Wen reprised her role as Melinda May with new dialogue in the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. DLC . Lego Marvel 's Avengers released on a variety of video game platforms on January 26 , 2016 .
= = = A Mini Marvel = = =
In February 2016 , a commercial for Coca @-@ Cola mini cans aired during Super Bowl 50 . A Mini Marvel was created by Wieden + Kennedy for Coca @-@ Cola through a partnership with Marvel , and was directed by the Russo brothers . In the ad , Ant @-@ Man ( voiced by Paul Rudd , reprising his role ) and the Hulk first fight , and then bond , over a Coke mini can . Luma Pictures provided visual effects for the spot , having worked previously with the two characters in MCU films . For the Hulk , Luma redefined its previous muscular system and simulation process to create and render the character , while Ant @-@ Man received new motion capture . The Super Bowl campaign extended to " limited @-@ edition Coke mini cans [ six packs ] that are emblazoned with images of Marvel characters , including Hulk , Ant @-@ Man , Black Widow , [ Falcon , Iron Man ] and Captain America . " Consumers had the opportunity to purchase the cans by finding hidden clues in the commercial , though " if the program goes well , Coke will consider making the cans available in stores . " The ad had the third most social media activity of all the film @-@ related trailers that aired during the game .
= Italian War of 1542 – 46 =
The Italian War of 1542 – 46 was a conflict late in the Italian Wars , pitting Francis I of France and Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire against the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII of England . The course of the war saw extensive fighting in Italy , France , and the Low Countries , as well as attempted invasions of Spain and England . The conflict was inconclusive and ruinously expensive for the major participants .
The war arose from the failure of the Truce of Nice , which ended the Italian War of 1536 – 38 , to resolve the long @-@ standing conflict between Charles and Francis — particularly their conflicting claims to the Duchy of Milan . Having found a suitable pretext , Francis once again declared war against his perpetual enemy in 1542 . Fighting began at once throughout the Low Countries ; the following year saw the Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance 's attack on Nice , as well as a series of maneuvers in northern Italy which culminated in the bloody Battle of Ceresole . Charles and Henry then proceeded to invade France , but the long sieges of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and Saint @-@ Dizier prevented a decisive offensive against the French .
Charles came to terms with Francis by the Treaty of Crépy in late 1544 , but the death of Francis 's younger son , the Duke of Orléans — whose proposed marriage to a relative of the Emperor was the foundation of the treaty — made it moot less than a year afterwards . Henry , left alone but unwilling to return Boulogne to the French , continued to fight until 1546 , when the Treaty of Ardres finally restored peace between France and England . The deaths of Francis and Henry in early 1547 left the resolution of the Italian Wars to their successors .
= = Prelude = =
The Truce of Nice , which ended the Italian War of 1536 – 38 , provided little resolution to the long conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France ; although hostilities had ended , giving way to a cautious entente , neither monarch was satisfied with the war 's outcome . Francis continued to harbor a desire for the Duchy of Milan , to which he held a dynastic claim ; Charles , for his part , insisted that Francis comply at last with the terms of the Treaty of Madrid , which had been forced on the French king during his captivity in Spain after the Italian War of 1521 – 26 . Other conflicting claims to various territories — Charles 's to Burgundy and Francis 's to Naples and Flanders , among others — remained a matter of contention as well .
Negotiations between the two powers continued through 1538 and into 1539 . In 1539 , Francis invited Charles — who faced a rebellion in the Low Countries — to travel through France on his way north from Spain . Charles accepted , and was richly received ; but while he was willing to discuss religious matters with his host — the Protestant Reformation being underway — he delayed on the question of political differences , and nothing had been decided by the time he left French territory .
In March 1540 , Charles proposed to settle the matter by having Maria of Spain marry Francis 's younger son , the Duke of Orléans ; the two would then inherit the Netherlands , Burgundy , and Charolais after the Emperor 's death . Francis , meanwhile , was to renounce his claims to the duchies of Milan and Savoy , ratify the treaties of Madrid and Cambrai , and join an alliance with Charles . Francis , considering the loss of Milan too large a price to pay for future possession of the Netherlands and unwilling to ratify the treaties in any case , made his own offer ; on 24 April , he agreed to surrender the Milanese claim in exchange for immediate receipt of the Netherlands . The negotiations continued for weeks , but made no progress , and were abandoned in June 1540 .
Francis soon began gathering new allies to his cause . William , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg , who was engaged in the Guelderian Wars , a dispute with Charles over the succession in Guelders , sealed his alliance with Francis by marrying Francis 's niece , Jeanne d 'Albret . Francis sought an alliance with the Schmalkaldic League as well , but the League demurred ; by 1542 , the remaining potential French allies in northern Germany had reached their own understandings with the Emperor . French efforts farther east were more fruitful , leading to a renewed Franco @-@ Ottoman alliance ; Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire , seeking to distract Charles from Ottoman advances in Hungary , encouraged the Franco @-@ Imperial rift .
On 4 July 1541 , however , the French ambassador to the Ottoman court , Antoine de Rincon , was killed by Imperial troops as he was travelling near Pavia . In response to Francis 's protests , Charles denied all responsibility , promising to conduct an inquiry with the assistance of the Pope ; he had by now formed plans for a campaign in North Africa , and wished to avoid further entanglements in Europe .
By the end of September 1541 , Charles was in Majorca , preparing an attack on Algiers ; Francis , considering it impolitic to attack a fellow Christian who was fighting the Muslims , promised not to declare war for as long as the Emperor was campaigning . The Imperial expedition , however , was entirely unsuccessful ; storms scattered the invasion fleet soon after the initial landing , and Charles had returned to Spain with the remainder of his troops by November . On 8 March 1542 , the new French ambassador , Antoine Escalin des Eymars , returned from Constantinople with promises of Ottoman aid in a war against Charles . Francis declared war on 12 July , naming various injuries as the causes ; among them was Rincon 's murder , which he proclaimed " an injury so great , so detestable and so strange to those who bear the title and quality of prince that it cannot be in any way forgiven , suffered or endured " .
= = Initial moves and the Treaty of Venlo = =
The French immediately launched a two @-@ front offensive against Charles . In the north , the Duke of Orléans attacked Luxembourg , briefly capturing the city ; in the south , a larger army under Claude d 'Annebault and Francis 's eldest son , the Dauphin Henry , unsuccessfully besieged the city of Perpignan in northern Spain . Francis himself was meanwhile in La Rochelle , dealing with a revolt caused by popular discontent with a proposed reform of the gabelle tax .
By this point , relations between Francis and Henry VIII were collapsing . Henry — already angered by the French refusal to pay the various pensions , which were owed to him under the terms of past treaties — was now faced with the potential of French interference in Scotland , where he was entangled in the midst of an attempt to marry his son to Mary , Queen of Scots , that would develop into the open warfare of the " Rough Wooing " . He had intended to begin a war against Francis in the summer of 1543 , but negotiating a treaty to that effect with the Emperor proved difficult ; since Henry was , in Charles 's eyes , a schismatic , the Emperor could not promise to defend him against attack , nor sign any treaty which referred to him as the head of the Church — both points upon which Henry insisted . Negotiations continued for weeks ; finally , on 11 February 1543 , Henry and Charles signed a treaty of offensive alliance , pledging to invade France within two years . In May 1543 , Henry sent Francis an ultimatum threatening war within twenty days ; and , on 22 June , at last declared war .
Hostilities now flared up across northern France . On Henry 's orders , Sir John Wallop crossed the Channel to Calais with an army of 5 @,@ 000 men , to be used in the defense of the Low Countries . The French , under Antoine de Bourbon , Duke of Vendôme , had captured Lillers in April ; by June , d 'Annebault had taken Landrecies as well . Wilhelm of Cleves openly joined the war on Francis 's side , invading Brabant , and fighting began in Artois and Hainaut . Francis inexplicably halted with his army near Rheims ; in the meantime , Charles attacked Wilhelm of Cleves , invading the Duchy of Jülich and capturing Düren .
Concerned about the fate of his ally , Francis ordered the Duke of Orléans and d 'Annebault to attack Luxembourg , which they took on 10 September ; but it was too late for Wilhelm , as he had already surrendered on 7 September , signing the Treaty of Venlo with Charles . By the terms of this treaty , Wilhelm was to concede the overlordship of the Duchy of Guelders and County of Zutphen to Charles , and to assist him in suppressing the Reformation . Charles now advanced to besiege Landrecies , seeking battle with Francis ; the French defenders of the town , commanded by Martin du Bellay , repulsed the Imperial attack , but Francis withdrew to Saint @-@ Quentin on 4 November , leaving the Emperor free to march north and seize Cambrai .
= = Nice and Lombardy = =
On the Mediterranean , meanwhile , other engagements were underway . In April 1543 , the Sultan had placed Hayreddin Barbarossa 's fleet at the disposal of the French king . Barbarossa left the Dardanelles with more than a hundred galleys , raided his way up the Italian coast , and in July arrived in Marseilles , where he was welcomed by François de Bourbon , Count of Enghien , the commander of the French fleet . On 6 August , the joint Franco @-@ Ottoman fleet anchored off the Imperial city of Nice and landed troops at Villefranche ; a siege of the city followed . Nice fell on 22 August , although the citadel held out until the siege was lifted on 8 September .
Barbarossa was by this point becoming a liability ; on 6 September , he had threatened to depart if he were not given the means with which to resupply his fleet . In response , Francis ordered that the population of Toulon — except for " heads of households " — be expelled , and that the city then be given to Barbarossa , who used it as a base for his army of 30 @,@ 000 for the next eight months . Yet Francis , increasingly embarrassed by the Ottoman presence , was unwilling to help Barbarossa recapture Tunis ; so the Ottoman fleet — accompanied by five French galleys under Antoine Escalin des Aimars — sailed for Istanbul in May 1544 , pillaging the Neapolitan coast along the way .
In Piedmont , meanwhile , a stalemate had developed between the French , under the Sieur de Boutières , and the Imperial army , under Alfonso d 'Avalos ; d 'Avalos had captured the fortress of Carignano , and the French had besieged it , hoping to force the Imperial army into a decisive battle . During the winter of 1543 – 44 , Francis significantly reinforced his army , placing Enghien in command . D 'Avalos , also heavily reinforced , advanced to relieve Carignano ; and , on 11 April 1544 , Enghien and d 'Avalos fought one of the few pitched battles of the period at Ceresole . Although the French were victorious , the impending invasion of France itself by Charles and Henry forced Francis to recall much of his army from Piedmont , leaving Enghien without the troops he needed to take Milan . D 'Avalos 's victory over an Italian mercenary army in French service at the Battle of Serravalle in early June 1544 brought significant campaigning in Italy to an end .
= = France invaded = =
On 31 December 1543 , Henry and Charles had signed a treaty pledging to invade France in person by 20 June 1544 ; each was to provide an army of no less than 35 @,@ 000 infantry and 7 @,@ 000 cavalry for the venture . Against this Francis could muster about 70 @,@ 000 men in his various armies . The campaign could not begin , however , until Henry and Charles had resolved their personal conflicts with Scotland and the German princes , respectively . On 15 May , Henry was informed by Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford , that , after his raids , Scotland was no longer in a position to threaten him ; he then began to make preparations for a personal campaign in France — against the advice of his council and the Emperor , who believed that his presence would be a hindrance . Charles had meanwhile reached an understanding with the princes at the Diet of Speyer , and the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg had agreed to join his invasion of France .
By May 1544 , two Imperial armies were poised to invade France : one , under Ferrante Gonzaga , Viceroy of Sicily , north of Luxemburg ; the other , under Charles himself , in the Palatinate . Charles had gathered a combined force of more than 42 @,@ 000 for the invasion , and had arranged for another 4 @,@ 000 men to join the English army . On 25 May , Gonzaga captured Luxembourg and moved towards Commercy and Ligny , issuing a proclamation that the Emperor had come to overthrow " a tyrant allied to the Turks " . On 8 July , Gonzaga besieged Saint @-@ Dizier ; Charles and the second Imperial army soon joined him .
Henry , meanwhile , had sent an army of some 40 @,@ 000 men to Calais under the joint command of Thomas Howard , Duke of Norfolk , and Charles Brandon , Duke of Suffolk . While Henry continued to squabble with the Emperor over the goals of the campaign and his own presence in France , this massive army moved slowly and aimlessly into French territory . Finally , Henry decided that the army was to be split . Norfolk , ordered to besiege Ardres or Montreuil , advanced towards the latter ; but he proved unable to mount an effective siege , complaining of inadequate supplies and poor organization . Suffolk was ordered to attack Boulogne ; on 14 July , Henry crossed to Calais and moved to join him . A siege of Boulogne began on 19 July — despite the protests of the Emperor , who insisted that Henry should advance towards Paris .
Charles himself , on the other hand , was still delayed at Saint @-@ Dizier ; the city , fortified by Girolamo Marini and defended by Louis IV de Bueil , Count of Sancerre , continued to hold out against the massive Imperial army . On 24 July , Charles captured Vitry @-@ le @-@ François , from which French forces had harassed his supply lines ; finally , on 8 August , the defenders of Saint @-@ Dizier , running low on supplies , sought terms . On 17 August , the French capitulated , and were permitted by the Emperor to leave the city with banners flying ; their resistance for 41 days had broken the Imperial offensive . Some of Charles 's advisers suggested withdrawing , but he was unwilling to lose face and continued to move towards Châlons , although the Imperial army was prevented from advancing across the Marne by a French force waiting at Jâlons . The Imperial troops marched rapidly through Champagne , capturing Épernay , Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Marne , Château @-@ Thierry , and Soissons .
The French made no attempts to intercept Charles . Troops under Jacques de Montgomery , Sieur de Lorges , sacked Lagny @-@ sur @-@ Marne , whose citizens had allegedly rebelled ; but no attempt was made to engage the advancing Imperial army . Paris was gripped by panic , although Francis insisted that the population had nothing to fear . Charles finally halted his advance and turned back on 11 September . Henry , meanwhile , was personally directing the besiegers at Boulogne ; the town fell in early September , and a breach was made into the castle on 11 September . The defenders finally surrendered a few days later .
= = Treaty of Crépy = =
Charles , short on funds and needing to deal with increasing religious unrest in Germany , asked Henry to continue his invasion or to allow him to make a separate peace . By the time Henry had received the Emperor 's letter , however , Charles had already concluded a treaty with Francis — the Peace of Crépy — which was signed by representatives of the monarchs at Crépy in Picardy on 18 September 1544 . The treaty had been promoted at the French court by the Emperor 's sister , Queen Eleanor , and by Francis 's mistress , the Duchess of Étampes . By its terms , Francis and Charles would each abandon their various conflicting claims and restore the status quo of 1538 ; the Emperor would relinquish his claim to the Duchy of Burgundy and the King of France would do the same for the Kingdom of Naples , as well as renouncing his claims as suzerain of Flanders and Artois . The Duke of Orléans would marry either Charles 's daughter Mary or his niece Anna ; the choice was to be made by Charles . In the first case , the bride would receive the Netherlands and Franche @-@ Comté as a dowry ; in the second , Milan . Francis , meanwhile , was to grant the duchies of Bourbon , Châtellerault , and Angoulême to his son ; he would also abandon his claims to the territories of the Duchy of Savoy , including Piedmont and Savoy itself . Finally , Francis would assist Charles against the Ottomans — but not , officially , against the heretics in his own domains . A second , secret accord was also signed ; by its terms , Francis would assist Charles with reforming the church , with calling a General Council , and with suppressing Protestantism — by force if necessary .
The treaty was poorly received by the Dauphin , who felt that his brother was being favored over him , by Henry VIII , who believed that Charles had betrayed him , and also by the Sultan . Francis would fulfill some of the terms ; but the death of the Duke of Orléans in 1545 rendered the treaty moot .
= = Boulogne and England = =
The conflict between Francis and Henry continued . The Dauphin 's army advanced on Montreuil , forcing Norfolk to raise the siege ; Henry himself returned to England at the end of September 1544 , ordering Norfolk and Suffolk to defend Boulogne . The two dukes quickly disobeyed this order and withdrew the bulk of the English army to Calais , leaving some 4 @,@ 000 men to defend the captured city . The English army , outnumbered , was now trapped in Calais ; the Dauphin , left unopposed , concentrated his efforts on besieging Boulogne . On 9 October , a French assault nearly captured the city , but was beaten back when the troops prematurely turned to looting . Peace talks were attempted at Calais without result ; Henry refused to consider returning Boulogne , and insisted that Francis abandon his support of the Scots . Charles , who had been appointed as a mediator between Francis and Henry , was meanwhile drawn into his own disputes with the English king .
Francis now embarked on a more dramatic attempt to force Henry 's hand — an attack on England itself . For this venture , an army of more than 30 @,@ 000 men was assembled in Normandy , and a fleet of some 400 vessels prepared at Le Havre , all under the command of Claude d 'Annebault . On 31 May 1545 , a French expeditionary force landed in Scotland . In early July , the English under John Dudley , Viscount Lisle , mounted an attack on the French fleet , but had little success due to poor weather ; nevertheless , the French suffered from a string of accidents : d 'Annebault 's first flagship burned , and his second ran aground . Finally leaving Le Havre on 16 July , the massive French fleet entered the Solent on 19 July and briefly engaged the English fleet , to no apparent effect ; the major casualty of the skirmish , the Mary Rose , sank accidentally . The French landed on the Isle of Wight on 21 July , and again at Seaford on 25 July , but these operations were abortive , and the French fleet soon returned to blockading Boulogne . D 'Annebault made a final sortie near Beachy Head on 15 August , but retired to port after a brief skirmish .
= = Treaty of Ardres = =
By September 1545 , the war was a virtual stalemate ; both sides , running low on funds and troops , unsuccessfully sought help from the German Protestants . Henry , Francis , and Charles attempted extensive diplomatic maneuvering to break the deadlock ; but none of the three trusted the others , and this had little practical effect . In January 1546 , Henry sent the Earl of Hertford to Calais , apparently preparing for an offensive ; but one failed to materialize .
Francis could not afford to resume a large @-@ scale war , and Henry was concerned only for the disposition of Boulogne . Negotiations between the two resumed on 6 May . On 7 June 1546 , the Treaty of Ardres — also known as the Treaty of Camp — was signed by Claude d 'Annebault , Pierre Ramon , and Guillaume Bochetel on behalf of Francis , and Viscount Lisle , Baron Paget and Nicholas Wotton on behalf of Henry . By its terms , Henry would retain Boulogne until 1554 , then return it in exchange for two million écus ; in the meantime , neither side would construct fortifications in the region , and Francis would resume payment of Henry 's pensions . Upon hearing the price demanded for Boulogne , the Imperial ambassador told Henry that the city would remain in English hands permanently .
During the treaty negotiations , two Protestant mediators — Han Bruno of Metz and Johannes Sturm — were concerned that Henry 's war in Scotland was a stumbling block . The sixteenth article of the treaty made Scotland a party to the new peace , and Henry pledged not to attack the Scots again without cause . This gave Scotland a respite from the War of the Rough Wooing , but the fighting would recommence 18 months later .
= = Aftermath = =
Exorbitantly expensive , the war was the costliest conflict of both Francis 's and Henry 's reigns . In England , the need for funds led to what Elton terms " an unprecedented burden of taxation " , as well as the systematic debasement of coinage . Francis also imposed a series of new taxes and instituted several financial reforms . He was not , therefore , in a position to assist the German Protestants , who were now engaged in the Schmalkaldic War against the Emperor ; by the time any French aid was to be forthcoming , Charles had already won his victory at the Battle of Mühlberg . As for Suleiman , the conclusion of the Truce of Adrianople in 1547 brought his own struggle against the Habsburgs to a temporary halt .
Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547 ; on 31 March , Francis followed . Henry 's successors continued his entanglements in Scotland . When , in 1548 , friction with the Scots led to the resumption of hostilities around Boulogne , they decided to avoid a two @-@ front war by returning the city four years early , in 1550 . The causes of the war themselves — chiefly , the contested dynastic claims in Italy — remained unresolved until the Peace of Cateau @-@ Cambrésis ended the Italian War of 1551 – 59 and six decades of conflict .
= April 2014 lunar eclipse =
A total lunar eclipse took place on April 15 , 2014 . It was the first of two total lunar eclipses in 2014 , and the first in a tetrad ( four total lunar eclipses in a series ) . Subsequent eclipses in the tetrad are those of October 8 , 2014 , April 4 , 2015 , and September 28 , 2015 .
The eclipse was visible in the Americas and the Pacific Ocean region , including Australia and New Zealand . During the 5 hour , 44 minute @-@ long eclipse , the Moon passed south of the center of the Earth 's shadow . As a result , the northern part of the Moon was noticeably darker than the southern part . Totality lasted for 1 hour 18 minutes . The eclipse occurred during the ascending phase of the Moon 's orbit , part of lunar saros 122 . Mars was near opposition .
This is the 56th member of Lunar Saros 122 . The previous event was the April 1996 lunar eclipse . The next event will be April 2032 lunar eclipse .
= = Background = =
A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes within Earth 's umbra ( shadow ) . As the eclipse begins , the Earth 's shadow first darkens the Moon slightly . Then , the shadow begins to " cover " part of the Moon , turning it a dark red @-@ brown color ( typically - the color can vary based on atmospheric conditions ) . The Moon appears to be reddish because of Rayleigh scattering ( the same effect that causes sunsets to appear reddish ) and the refraction of that light by the Earth 's atmosphere into its umbra .
The following simulation shows the approximate appearance of the Moon passing through the Earth 's shadow . The Moon 's brightness is exaggerated within the umbral shadow . The northern portion of the Moon was closest to the center of the shadow , making it darkest , and most red in appearance .
= = Description = =
On April 15 , 2014 , the Moon passed through the southern part of the Earth 's umbral shadow . It was visible over most of the Western Hemisphere , including east Australia , New Zealand , the Pacific ocean , and the Americas . In the western Pacific , the first half of the eclipse occurred before moonrise . In Europe and Africa , the eclipse began just before moonset . Mars , which had just passed its opposition , appeared at magnitude -1.5 about 9 @.@ 5 ° northwest of the Moon . Spica was 2 ° to the west , while Arcturus was 32 ° north . Saturn was 26 ° east and Antares 44 ° southeast .
The Moon entered Earth 's penumbral shadow at 4 : 54 UTC and the umbral shadow at 5 : 58 . Totality lasted for 1 hour 18 minutes , from 7 : 07 to 8 : 25 . The moment of greatest eclipse occurred at 7 : 47 . At that point , the Moon 's zenith was approximately 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) southwest of the Galápagos Islands . The Moon left the umbra shadow at 9 : 33 and the penumbra shadow at 10 : 38 .
The peak umbral magnitude was 1 @.@ 2907 , at which moment the northern part of the moon was 1 @.@ 7 arc @-@ minutes south of the center of Earth 's shadow , while the southern part was 40 @.@ 0 arc @-@ minutes from center . The gamma of the eclipse was -0.3017 .
The eclipse was a member of Lunar Saros 122 . It was the 56th such eclipse .
= = Timing = =
* The penumbral phase of the eclipse changes the appearance of the Moon only slightly and is generally not noticeable .
† The Moon was not visible during this part of the eclipse in this time zone .
The timing of total lunar eclipses are determined by its contacts :
P1 ( First contact ) : Beginning of the penumbral eclipse . Earth 's penumbra touches the Moon 's outer limb .
U1 ( Second contact ) : Beginning of the partial eclipse . Earth 's umbra touches the Moon 's outer limb .
U2 ( Third contact ) : Beginning of the total eclipse . The Moon 's surface is entirely within Earth 's umbra .
Greatest eclipse : The peak stage of the total eclipse . The Moon is at its closest to the center of Earth 's umbra .
U3 ( Fourth contact ) : End of the total eclipse . The Moon 's outer limb exits Earth 's umbra .
U4 ( Fifth contact ) : End of the partial eclipse . Earth 's umbra leaves the Moon 's surface .
P4 ( Sixth contact ) : End of the penumbral eclipse . Earth 's penumbra no longer makes contact with the Moon .
= = Viewing events = =
Many museums and observatories planned special events for the eclipse . The United States National Park Service sponsored events at Great Basin National Park and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . The University of Hawaii 's Institute for Astronomy held events at two locations on the islands . The Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles , California streamed the eclipse live on the Internet .
NASA hosted two live question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions online . The first happened roughly 12 hours before the eclipse via Reddit 's Ask Me Anything . The second was a web chat hosted on NASA 's site just before the eclipse began . NASA also streamed the eclipse live on their website . NASA TV provided 3 hours of live coverage beginning at 2 a.m. EDT .
= = Gallery = =
= = Relation to prophecy = =
Starting in 2008 , Christian pastors John Hagee and Mark Biltz began teaching " blood moon prophecies " : Biltz said the Second Coming of Jesus would occur at the end of the tetrad that began with the April 2014 eclipse , while Hagee said only that the tetrad is a sign of something significant . The idea gained popular media attention in the United States , and prompted a response from the scientific radio show Earth & Sky . According to Christian Today , only a " small group of Christians " saw the eclipse as having religious significance , despite the attention .
= = = Related eclipses = = =
The April 15 eclipse was the first eclipse in a tetrad ; that is , four consecutive total eclipses with no partial eclipses in between . There will be another eclipse every six lunar cycles during the tetrad – on October 8 , 2014 , April 4 , 2015 , and September 28 , 2015 . The lunar year series repeats after 12 cycles , or 354 days , causing a date shift when compared to the solar calendar . This shift means the Earth 's shadow will move about 11 degrees west in each subsequent eclipse .
This tetrad started during the ascending node of the Moon 's orbit . It is the first tetrad since the 2003 – 04 series , which started in May . The next series will be from 2032 to 2033 , starting in April .
= = = Half @-@ Saros cycle = = =
A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5 @.@ 5 days ( a half saros ) . This lunar eclipse is related to two hybrid total / annualar solar eclipses of solar saros 129 .
= No. 4 Operational Training Unit RAAF =
No. 4 Operational Training Unit ( No. 4 OTU ) was an operational conversion unit of the Royal Australian Air Force during World War II . It was formed at Williamtown , New South Wales , in October 1942 to train pilots and wireless air gunners to operate Vultee Vengeance dive bombers . The school was equipped with Vengeances and CAC Wirraway aircraft . Accidents were common in operational conversion units , and No. 4 OTU suffered several fatal crashes during its existence . It was disbanded in April 1944 , handing Williamtown over to No. 5 Operational Training Unit .
= = History = =
During World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established eight operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated air crews from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting ability to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 4 Operational Training Unit was formed on 1 October 1942 at Williamtown , New South Wales , to convert crews to the Vultee Vengeance dive bomber , 400 of which had been ordered by the RAAF ( 344 were eventually delivered ) . No. 4 OTU 's inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander E.G. Fyfe . The first pilots and wireless air gunner trainees arrived from No. 12 Squadron on 28 October 1942 , and undertook a Vengeance conversion course that ran until 25 November . By the end of the month , No. 4 OTU 's strength stood at seven Vengeances . These were augmented in January 1943 by the unit 's first CAC Wirraway , which students flew before commencing their Vengeance conversion course .
OTUs , employing as they did warplanes that were more advanced and more powerful than trainers , and teaching combat techniques that often carried high risk , generally suffered higher accident rates than other flying training schools . On 3 March 1943 , a Wirraway of No. 4 OTU crashed near Williamtown , killing both crewmen . Two others died when their Vengeance crashed and burned near Goulburn during a cross @-@ country exercise on 4 August . On 16 August , a Vengeance flew into trees after apparently pulling out late from a dive , resulting in two fatalities . A Vengeance blew up in flight during dive @-@ bombing practice at Williamtown on 14 September , killing both crewmen . On 5 October , a Vengeance on a dive @-@ bombing exercise crashed into the sea near Newcastle ; both crewmen were reported as missing , believed killed . No. 4 OTU suffered two more fatalities when a Vengeance struck a hill near Braidwood during a cross @-@ country flight on 26 November 1943 . Another Vengeance hit the water and exploded in Nelson Bay on 7 April 1944 after failing to recover from a dive , killing the two @-@ man crew .
On 1 December
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wide structure spanned 255 m ( 837 ft ) between the Canadian and American sides , 58 m ( 190 ft ) above the Niagara River . Its narrow design proved to be a fatal flaw , and on January 27 , 1938 , under the weight of a massive ice jam in the river , the structure collapsed . A day later , both the owners of the previous bridge — the International Railway Company ( IRC ) — as well as the Minister of Highways Thomas Baker McQuesten announced intentions to construct a new span ; a long political battle ensued for several years over the merits of private or public ownership of border crossings . In the end , the Niagara Falls Bridge Commission ( NFBC ) paid the IRC $ 615 @,@ 000 to purchase the right @-@ of @-@ way of the old bridge as well as the rights to construct the new one . The future Rainbow Bridge was royally dedicated by King George VI and Queen Elizabeth on June 7 , 1939 , just hours after the couple dedicated the QEW .
On May 16 , 1940 , Samuel Johnson , the vice @-@ chair of the NFBC , and McQuesten , who in addition to his parliamentary role was chair of the commission , ceremonially turned the first sod for the new bridge using a two @-@ handled shovel . However , construction had begun two weeks earlier on May 4 . The new bridge was assembled over the following 18 months ; the design was prepared by New York engineering firm Waddell & Hardesty and supervised by the Edward Lupfer Corporation , the latter the designers of the Peace Bridge . The new structure was located 167 m ( 548 ft ) downstream from the Honeymoon Bridge , as the gorge is slightly wider at that point , resulting in a 288 m ( 945 ft ) span .
Meanwhile , McQuesten was overseeing the construction of the QEW between Toronto and Fort Erie . The new dual highway , inspired by German Autobahns , was the first of its kind in Canada . However , the start of World War II in September 1939 would temporarily halt his ambitions , as funding was quickly shifted to the war effort . As a result , construction on the new superhighway was put on hold south of Niagara Falls . McQuesten officially opened the QEW on August 23 , 1940 ; the pavement ended south of Lundy 's Lane . Despite the war , work began on a link between the highway and the Rainbow Bridge through the centre of Niagara Falls . This link would not be completed in time for the opening of the new bridge .
On November 1 , 1941 , the Rainbow Bridge was officially opened during a simple ceremony . The oldest living couple known to have wed in Niagara Falls , a pair from Pennsylvania , were the first to cross , followed by a newlywed couple from Georgia . This symbolically tied the history of the two bridges together , and was followed by McQuesten and Johnson walking towards the centre of the structure from the Canadian and American sides , respectively , and shaking hands at the centre . Several explosions followed and the bridge was opened to traffic .
Work continued on the four lane bridge approach throughout 1941 , and by the summer of 1942 it was possible to drive directly from the bridge onto the QEW . The new link featured a traffic circle at Dorchester Road as well as at the QEW . Four gravel lanes opened between Niagara Falls and Fort Erie during the summer of 1941 , becoming the main route of the QEW . As a result , what would become Highway 420 was referred to by several names , including the Queen Elizabeth Way Extension ( and known by locals for decades as the " Queen E Extension " ) and the Rainbow Bridge Approach .
= = = Upgrade to freeway = = =
During the mid @-@ 1960s , the DHO examined the possibility of extending the freeway portion of the route east towards the Rainbow Bridge . They began to purchase properties lining Roberts Street in 1966 . In 1971 , construction began on a three @-@ level stack interchange between the QEW and the Rainbow Bridge Approach . This removed the two traffic circles along the approach . The interchange between the QEW and Lundy 's Lane ( Highway 20 ) was also removed ; instead , the new stack interchange included access to Montrose Road . By April 1972 , the Rainbow Bridge Approach was designated as Highway 420 .
In 1998 , the Niagara Falls Transportation Study was released , recommending that Roberts Street be rebuilt as a gateway to the city as opposed to a freeway . Highway 420 east of Stanley Avenue was subsequently transferred to Niagara Region . While the section near the QEW junction has high @-@ mast lighting , like other provincial freeways , the rest of the route ( including Regional Road 420 ) had the " ER " lightposts to commemorate the route 's historical status as the original routing of the QEW .
On September 23 , 2010 , Highway 420 was designated as the Niagara Veterans Memorial Highway . On January 31 , 2012 , Niagara Regional Council approved the renaming of Roberts Street and Newman Hill as an extension of Falls Avenue , beginning March 1 . Prior to this , Falls Avenue curved into Newman Hill at the Rainbow Bridge .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 420 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara . All exits are unnumbered .
= Beck v. Eiland @-@ Hall =
Beck v. Eiland @-@ Hall is a case filed in 2009 before the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) , a United Nations agency . It was filed by political commentator Glenn Beck against Isaac Eiland @-@ Hall , concerning the website " GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com " . Eiland @-@ Hall created the site as a parody to express the view that Beck 's commentary style challenged his guests to prove a negative . The site 's name was based on a joke first used by comedian Gilbert Gottfried at the 2008 Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget , in which Gottfried jokingly implored listeners to disregard the ( non @-@ existent ) rumor that Saget had raped and murdered a girl in 1990 . Online posters began an Internet meme comparing Gottfried 's joke with Beck 's style of debate , by requesting Beck disprove he had committed the act in question . Eiland @-@ Hall launched his website on September 1 , 2009 .
Beck filed a complaint to the WIPO under the Uniform Domain Name Dispute Resolution Policy ( UDRP ) , arguing the domain name of the website was defamatory and asserted trademark infringement in its use of his name . Eiland @-@ Hall filed a response brief to WIPO which cited the U.S. Supreme Court case Hustler Magazine v. Falwell , asserting the website 's domain name was a form of free speech and satirical political humor .
Beck made a supplemental filing in the case arguing the domain name was misleading and might lead individuals to believe it contained factual information . Eiland @-@ Hall filed a surreply and stated Beck had depreciated the value of the First Amendment by attempting to evade its reach in a legal proceeding outside U.S. courts . On October 29 , 2009 , WIPO ruled against Beck , concluding that Eiland @-@ Hall was making a political statement through parody in a justified usage of the Glenn Beck mark .
Commentators noted Beck 's actions led to a Streisand effect ; his suit against the website drew increased attention to it . Representatives of Public Citizen , the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Citizen Media Law Project were all of the opinion that Beck 's trademark argument in his complaint against the website was ridiculous . The assistant director of the Citizen Media Law Project applauded WIPO 's decision , saying , " It 's good to see that this WIPO arbitrator had no interest in allowing Beck to circumvent the guarantees of the U.S. Constitution . " Beck 's representative declined comment to PC Magazine about the conclusion of the case . Lawyers for Beck did not respond to a request from National Public Radio for a comment about the WIPO ruling .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
= = = = Gilbert Gottfried joke = = = =
Gilbert Gottfried was a featured comedian at the Comedy Central Roast of Bob Saget which first aired on August 16 , 2008 . At Saget 's roast , Gottfried jokingly begged listeners to disregard the ( nonexistent ) rumor that his fellow comedian " raped and killed a girl in 1990 " . Gottfried repeatedly warned the audience at the roast not to spread the rumor , which did not exist before the comedian 's speech . The audience in attendance at the Comedy Central Roast were both shocked and amused by the preposterous nature of Gottfried 's joke which seemed more ludicrous each time he repeated it .
= = = = Internet meme = = = =
On August 31 , 2009 , a post on the Internet discussion community Fark applied Gottfried 's joke to Glenn Beck . Online posters compared the Internet meme to Beck 's style of arguing , requesting Beck disprove that he had committed the act in question . The meme spread to social @-@ media websites , including Encyclopedia Dramatica , Reddit , Yahoo ! , Answers.com , YouTube , Twitter and Digg.com. A variation of the Googlebomb technique was used , in which Google provided " Glenn Beck murder " as a search suggestion in a query for " Glenn Beck " .
Isaac Eiland @-@ Hall , a 34 @-@ year @-@ old computer science student in Panama City , Florida , saw the discussion on Fark using the Gottfried joke on Beck and created a website , GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com , intending it as a parody of Beck 's style of political commentary . He chose not to identify with the WHOIS service and decided to remain anonymous . Eiland @-@ Hall used the domain name registrar Namecheap for his site . It was launched on September 1 , 2009 , and received over 120 @,@ 000 page views during its first 24 hours . The website asserted that it did not believe the charges were true . Eiland @-@ Hall wrote on the site that those furthering the meme were asserting Beck used a similar strategy to promote his opinions and increase his viewership .
The webpage originally displayed a small text disclaimer at the bottom , stating that the site was satirical . Eiland @-@ Hall later placed two prominent disclaimers at the top of the page , which identified it as parody . The disclaimer at the top of the website 's main page stated its entire contents was parody , and included a link to a larger disclaimer at the bottom of the page . The site criticized Beck 's tactic of challenging those he opposes to prove a negative . Eiland @-@ Hall told Politics Daily that after reading the initial thread at Fark which started the meme , he came to the conclusion that for those involved online participation in its propagation was a form of catharsis . He explained in an interview with Ars Technica that it was a means of utilizing Beck 's strategies to criticize him and a way to focus exasperation around Beck 's style of commentary into action . Eiland @-@ Hall 's website inspired copycat parodies .
= = = Litigation = = =
= = = = Beck initiates legal action = = = =
By September 3 , 2009 , attorneys representing Mercury Radio Arts , Glenn Beck 's media company , had requested that the domain registrar of Eiland @-@ Hall 's website delete the site . Beck 's lawyers characterized the site 's location as libelous . They demanded that the domain registrar revoke the WhoisGuard privacy @-@ protection service for the website , and turn over contact information for the then @-@ anonymous Eiland @-@ Hall . The registrar , NameCheap , refused . On September 4 , 2009 , Beck 's lawyers sent another letter to the domain registrar , repeating their requests and noting that they had read the website 's contents and were therefore aware from statements posted to the site that its operator had been notified by the registrar .
Their second letter to NameCheap observed that the site was still operational on September 4 , 2009 , in spite of their prior requests on behalf of Beck . The domain registrar changed the name server of the website without telling Eiland @-@ Hall ; after contacting the registrar , he was permitted to return to his original name server . In an interview with Gawker on September 9 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall remarked that Beck 's attorneys contacted the registrar of the domain , his hosting provider , as well as the company which housed the servers for his website . He noted that the hosting provider informed him they would not cooperate with the requests from Beck 's lawyers unless they received a court order .
= = = = WIPO complaint = = = =
In September 2009 , lawyers for Beck and Mercury Radio Arts filed a complaint with the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) under the Uniform Domain @-@ Name Dispute @-@ Resolution Policy ( UDRP ) against the privacy service for Eiland @-@ Hall 's website . WIPO is a Switzerland @-@ based agency of the United Nations . The rules of WIPO 's Arbitration and Mediation Center were created by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ( ICANN ) . The privacy service for the website revealed the identity of the site 's owner in response to Beck 's complaint .
The complaint stated that Eiland @-@ Hall was trying to distort perceptions about the purpose and derivation of the site . Beck argued that the domain name of the website could be confused with his trademark , " Glenn Beck " . The complaint described the website 's domain name as libelous claiming that it encroached upon Beck 's legally registered claim of his name . Beck did not claim libel or defamation in the complaint , focusing on the legal issue of trademark . The complaint asserted that the website itself contained factually inaccurate information , was unauthorized and defamatory , and that it was highly probable it would create uncertainty among Beck 's potential customers .
Beck 's complaint asserted that the domain name of the website was an example of bad @-@ faith registration . It argued that Eiland @-@ Hall had no legitimate interest in , or right to , the website 's domain name . As of September 2009 Beck was in the process of trademarking the use of his name for " goods and services " , including the usage of " Glenn Beck " on merchandise .
= = = = Eiland @-@ Hall response = = = =
Eiland @-@ Hall retained First Amendment rights lawyer Marc Randazza to represent him . According to Randazza , Eiland @-@ Hall sought legal representation after he was contacted with legal requests from lawyers representing Beck . On September 28 , 2009 Randazza filed a 17 @-@ page response brief on behalf of his client , asserting that the website 's domain name was a form of protected political speech and satirical political humor . According to Randazza , the website was used for satirical purposes and its owner was not attempting to profit from it . Randazza wrote that an individual would have to be a pathetic idiot to come under the impression that his client 's website was directly affiliated with Beck , contending that the website 's domain name could not be confused with the " Glenn Beck " trademark except to " a moron in a hurry " .
Randazza asserted that Beck had insufficiently demonstrated trademark rights to his name , " Glenn Beck " , and claimed that Beck was actually trying to have the website taken down because he did not appreciate the criticism through satire which parodied Beck 's own techniques . He argued that Eiland @-@ Hall had legitimate rights to his website 's domain name because of its use to criticize Beck using political satire and as part of the Internet meme which had begun on the Fark website .
The brief gave a short history of Internet phenomena , including video parodies of the German film Downfall , memes based on the film 300 , " Hitler Hates Kanye West " , " All your base are belong to us " , " Mr. Spock Ate My Balls " , and the gerbil story involving Richard Gere .
Randazza traced the website 's origin , explaining the internet meme 's roots in Gilbert Gottfried 's joke . He then spelled out the root comedic intent of Eiland @-@ Hall 's website , in an explanation he termed the humor equation :
( Outrageous Accusation ) + ( Celebrity ) + ( Question Why the Celebrity Does Not Deny the Accusation ) = ( Confirmation of the Falsity of the Accusation + Laughter )
The Eiland @-@ Hall response brief cited a clip of Beck interviewing United States Congressman Keith Ellison , a Muslim from Minnesota . Beck had stated to U.S. Representative Ellison , " No offense and I know Muslims , I like Muslims , I 've been to mosques , I really don 't think Islam is a religion of evil . I think it 's being hijacked , quite frankly . With that being said , you are a Democrat . You are saying let 's cut and run . And I have to tell you , I have been nervous about this interview because what I feel like saying is , sir , prove to me that you are not working with our enemies . And I know you ’ re not . I ’ m not accusing you of being an enemy . But that ’ s the way I feel , and I think a lot of Americans will feel that way . " It was argued that this was an example of Beck 's interview style in which he challenged his guests to prove a negative . Randazza concluded Beck 's rhetorical style was similar to Gottfried 's , simply devoid of comedic intent .
Randazza 's argument compared the case to the Supreme Court of the United States case Hustler Magazine v. Falwell . Randazza wrote that Beck was attempting to evade the First Amendment to the United States Constitution by filing the legal process with an agency of the United Nations instead of in a U.S. court . In the legal brief , Randazza pointed out that Beck 's action of going to the WIPO in an attempt to get the website taken down was in contradiction to his prior statements saying he preferred United States law over international law .
On September 29 , 2009 , Randazza requested that Beck voluntarily ask that the First Amendment be applied to the arbitration case , despite its international setting . Randazza made this request because Beck 's political commentary favored the United States Constitution over international law . Randazza 's September 29 , 2009 letter to Beck 's attorneys cited statements by Beck in which he indicated he preferred United States law over international law . Beck had said , " Once we sign our rights over to international law , the Constitution is officially dead . " Randazza 's letter concluded : " I am certain that neither party wishes to see First Amendment rights subordinated to international trademark principles , thus unwittingly proving Mr. Beck 's point . Lest this case become an example of international law causing damage to the constitutional rights that both of our clients hold dear , I respectfully request that your client agree to stipulate to the application of American constitutional law to this case . "
On October 8 , 2009 , Randazza was interviewed about the case on the WPRR radio program , Declaring Independence . He explained why Beck did not file a libel lawsuit in the United States . He pointed out that because Beck was a public figure he had to prove a legal standard referred to as actual malice , and show that Eiland @-@ Hall knew his assertions were inaccurate . He explained that this did not apply to Eiland @-@ Hall 's website even if it was knowingly inaccurate , because the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Hustler Magazine v. Falwell that no proof is needed for an absurd statement made in the context of satire .
= = = = Supplemental filing and surreply = = = =
Beck submitted a supplemental filing in the case on October 13 , 2009 . In the supplemental filing , his attorneys argued that the joke of the Eiland @-@ Hall website was not obvious ; therefore , the website 's domain name was misleading . The filing asserted : " While there is absolutely nothing humorous or amusing about the statement made by Respondent in his domain name that ' Glenn Beck Raped and Murdered a Young Girl in 1990 , ' the average Internet user finding the domain name GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlin1990.com ( " Disputed Domain Name " ) in a search would have no reason not to believe that they will be directed to a website providing factual information ( as opposed to protected criticism or similar protected speech ) about Mr. Beck . "
On October 20 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall filed a surreply in response to Beck 's supplemental filing . Eiland @-@ Hall asserted in the surreply that Beck was the butt of a viral joke which was protected speech even if it was not perceived as comedic in nature by the subject . He stated Beck had depreciated the value of the First Amendment by attempting to evade its reach in a legal proceeding outside U.S. courts .
= = = = WIPO ruling = = = =
On October 29 , 2009 , the WIPO ruled against Glenn Beck in the case . For Beck to have prevailed in the case , the WIPO court would have had to have ruled in Beck 's favor on three issues : that the domain name could be mistaken for the mark " Glenn Beck " ; that Eiland @-@ Hall did not have a justifiable stake in the name , and that the domain name was " bad faith " . On the first point , WIPO arbitrator Frederick M. Abbott ruled that the domain name could be confused with the " Glenn Beck " mark . On the issue of profit from Beck 's mark WIPO ruled that there had not been substantial commercial activity to warrant this particular claim . Abbott was the sole arbitrator on the WIPO panel .
Abbott concluded that Eiland @-@ Hall had legitimate interests in the website 's name for purposes of political satire in the form of comedic parody . Abbott did not draw a conclusion on the third point , noting that it was unlikely that Beck would have prevailed on the " bad faith " issue . Abbott wrote that the determination of whether the website is defamatory would not be an issue for WIPO . Instead , the WIPO limited the case 's scope to a determination of whether the website registrant had engaged in " abusive domain name registration and use " .
= = = Eiland @-@ Hall gives domain to Beck = = =
On November 6 , 2009 , Eiland @-@ Hall wrote to Beck , giving him control of the domain free of charge , and providing Beck with its username and password . Eiland @-@ Hall wrote that he had made his point , and the act of filing the complaint exacerbated the situation for the complainant . Eiland @-@ Hall explained his rationale for giving away the domain name , citing his desire to protect the applicability of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution had been satisfied .
Techdirt reported on November 6 , 2009 , that GlennBeckRapedAndMurderedAYoungGirlIn1990.com was a dead site ; by November 10 the domain name was registered to Beck 's company , Mercury Radio Arts . In a notice posted to one of his other websites , Eiland @-@ Hall wished Beck ( then suffering from appendicitis ) well , and characterized the conclusion of the case as a success . In a post on his blog , Eiland @-@ Hall 's lawyer Marc Randazza described the case as a victory for freedom of speech .
Beck did not respond to Eiland @-@ Hall 's letter , and Beck 's representative declined comment to PC Magazine about the conclusion of the case . Lawyers for Beck did not respond to a request for comment about the WIPO ruling from National Public Radio .
= = Commentary = =
= = = Complaint and response = = =
Electronic Frontier Foundation attorney Corynne McSherry and Paul Levy of Public Citizen commented on the case to Ars Technica , calling Beck 's trademark claim before the WIPO ridiculous . The Citizen Media Law Project agreed with this assessment . Levy noted that domain names , in and of themselves , could be seen as defamatory ; however , the statement in the domain name would have to be deemed both false and malicious . Levy and McSherry thought that the filing may have been to ascertain Eiland @-@ Hall 's identity , which was anonymous prior to the complaint . McSherry couldn 't recall a prior case where an individual asserted a domain name was libelous . Jack Bremer of The First Post wrote that the attempt by Beck 's lawyers arguing the domain name of the website was itself defamatory had likely never occurred before in the field of information technology law .
Media commentators , including Paul Schmelzer of the Minnesota Independent , Andy Carvin of National Public Radio , and Andrew Allemann of Domain Name Wire , considered Randazza 's legal brief entertainingly written . Writing for Bostonist , Rick Sawyer called Randazza 's legal brief very funny and considered him among the uproariously amusing wordsmiths in North Shore , Massachusetts . Eriq Gardner of Adweek noted that the case had strategic import for the field of politics , referring to Beck 's style of commentary as exemplified in the interview with Congressman Keith Ellison . Chris Matyszczyk of CNET News commented on the legal issues of the case ; he asked whether it should hold to U.S. law as it involved two citizens , and additionally wondered if Beck was asserting trademark over his full name or his individual first and last names as well . Ed Brayton of ScienceBlogs called Randazza 's request that Beck stipulate to United States law intellectually creative . Daily Kos pointed out the inherent hypocrisy in Beck 's legal position of seeking redress in an international agency when compared to his prior statements criticizing foreign law in favor of U.S. law .
= = = Streisand effect = = =
Commentators analyzed Beck 's actions with respect to the " Streisand effect " . Jim Emerson of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented that the website 's disclaimer was not enough to dissuade attorneys representing Beck from attempting to have the site removed , which triggered the Streisand effect and backfired against their client . Jeffrey Weiss of Politics Daily wrote that by taking legal action , Beck achieved the one impact he did not desire , namely garnering more attention for Eiland @-@ Hall 's website . John Cook of Gawker noted Beck 's attempts to remove the site from the Internet helped assure it would become noteworthy because of his actions .
Mike Masnick wrote about the case on Techdirt , commenting on the effect of Beck 's actions on the meme 's spread . He observed in retrospect it would have been advantageous for Beck to have simply done nothing rather than encourage the meme as a byproduct of his attempts to remove it from the Internet . Masnick pointed out that Beck 's actions provided legitimacy to the meme 's noteworthiness . Steffen Schmidt wrote of Beck 's predicament in a Des Moines Register article : " Mr. Beck has quite a task ahead of him . Shutting down one web site is like trying to eradicate Pueraria lobata the dreaded Kudzu vine that is eating the South . " Citizen Media Law Project observed Beck had exacerbated the situation by intimating legal tactics against Eiland @-@ Hall , which served to increase the popularity of the meme and coverage of it among blogs .
= = Impact = =
At the conclusion of the WIPO case Glynnis MacNicol of Mediaite commented that those including Glenn Beck afforded freedom of speech guaranteed by the First Amendment must allow for an Internet environment with the same rights given to everyone . Brayton of ScienceBlogs pointed out that Beck and his lawyers never replied to Randazza 's request for all parties to stipulate to the U.S. Constitution and the First Amendment in the case . Brayton observed that this was irrelevant as Beck 's case was weak even when examined under the standards of the UN agency . Of Eiland @-@ Hall 's decision to turn the domain over to Beck after the conclusion of the case he commented that this was a wise strategic move . Monica Hesse of The Washington Post remarked upon the conclusion of the case that the division between what is considered libel and satire was murky , and asked whether this determination was more difficult to make on the Internet where speech can be amplified by others .
Wendy Davis of Online Media Daily commented on the potential impact of the case , and observed it was a victory for proponents of Internet rights . Davis pointed out a judgment for Beck would have enabled additional WIPO cases from individuals who were the focus of satire on the web , as a way for those people to avoid judgment in U.S. courts which adhere to First Amendment case law . John Cook of Gawker called Eiland @-@ Hall 's decision to turn the domain name over to Beck an optimal end to the affair which emphasized the ridiculousness of Beck 's actions . Citizen Media Law Project assistant director Sam Bayard applauded WIPO 's decision , noting , " It 's good to see that this WIPO arbitrator had no interest in allowing Beck to circumvent the guarantees of the U.S. Constitution . "
The Washington Post columnist Dana Milbank wrote in his 2010 book Tears of a Clown , that Beck had been baited by Eiland @-@ Hall to confirm the importance of the United Nations . Alexander Zaitchik came to a similar conclusion in his 2010 book Common Nonsense , and pointed out the discrepancy between Beck 's criticism of the United Nations as part of a New World Order with Beck 's subsequent reliance upon the WIPO where he chose to file the case . The case was cited by Jude A. Thomas in a 2011 article published in the John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law . In a discussion of the conflicts between freedom of speech and trademark , Thomas noted that panels of the UDRP have concluded website operators had fair use over domain names even in cases where the name in question was exactly the same as that trademarked by the individual filing the complaint to the WIPO .
= Jean Bellette =
Jean Bellette ( occasionally Jean Haefliger ; 25 March 1908 – 16 March 1991 ) was an Australian artist . Born in Tasmania , she was educated in Hobart and Julian Ashton 's art school in Sydney , where her teachers included Thea Proctor . In London she studied under painters Bernard Meninsky and Mark Gertler .
A modernist painter , Bellette was influential in mid @-@ twentieth century Sydney art circles . She frequently painted scenes influenced by the Greek tragedies of Euripedes , Sophocles and Homer . She twice won the Sulman Prize , in 1942 with For Whom the Bell Tolls , and 1944 with Iphigenia in Tauris . She helped found the Blake Prize for religious art , and was its inaugural judge . Bellette married artist and critic Paul Haefliger in 1935 . The couple moved to Majorca in 1957 ; although she visited and exhibited in Australia thereafter , she did not return to live , and became peripheral to the Australian art scene .
= = Early life and training = =
Bellette was born in Hobart on 25 March 1908 and grew up an only child in rural Tasmania with her artist mother and postmaster father . Initially a student at the local Anglican school in Deloraine , at the age of 13 she became a boarder at a Friends School back in Hobart , and then at Hobart 's technical college . She was subsequently a student at Julian Ashton 's art school in Sydney . Her teachers included Thea Proctor , while fellow students included artist John Passmore . Her drawings and watercolours displayed in the 1934 student art exhibition attracted favourable comment from The Sydney Morning Herald art critic . At Ashton 's art school , Bellette met fellow Australian artist Paul Haefliger and in 1935 , they married . The following year they travelled to Europe , and Bellette ( like Passmore ) studied at the Westminster School of Art , where she was taught by figurative painters Bernard Meninsky and Mark Gertler . In 1938 , Bellette and her husband studied life drawing at Académie de la Grande Chaumière in Paris .
= = Career = =
= = = Australia = = =
Bellette and Haefliger returned to Australia just before the outbreak of World War II . Shortly after her arrival , Bellette held an exhibition at Sydney 's Macquarie Galleries . The couple became influential members of the Sydney Art Group , a network of " fashionable " moderns whose membership included William Dobell and Russell Drysdale . Bellette painted and held regular shows – " a solo show every second year and a group show every year at the Macquarie Galleries " – while her husband served as art critic for The Sydney Morning Herald for a decade and a half .
In 1942 , Bellette 's won the Sir John Sulman Prize with For Whom the Bell Tolls . She won it again in 1944 , with her painting Iphigenia in Tauris . The composition is set in a dry , open landscape , with several riders on horses whose appearance suggests " the Australian present , rather than Greek antiquity " . The judge awarding the prize actually preferred another of her entries , Electra – but it failed to meet the size requirements . Both Iphigenia in Tauris and Electra were among the many works created by Bellette in the 1940s that were inspired by the tragedies of Euripedes , Sophocles and Homer . Her choice of subject matter and approach placed her at odds with mainstream modernism , while she seemed to shun explicit links between the classical and the Australian . Bellette reasoned that she preferred to choose her pallette and the spatial arrangements of her compositions to evoke a place 's atmosphere . Critics identified the influence of European modernists Aristide Maillol and Giorgio de Chirico , as well as Italian Quattrocento painters Masaccio and Piero della Francesca , some of whom Bellette wrote articles about in the journal Art in Australia .
The most distinctive feature of the artist 's work was this choice of classical subjects . In 1946 , Bellette 's works were hung in at least four separate exhibitions . Reviewers commented on her synthesis of " the impulsiveness of romanticism and the deliberateness of classicism " , and her " romantically classical " approach . Despite the generally positive views , there were some reservations , particularly that the artist might be at risk of settling upon , and then repeating , a formula in her work . Bellette 's treatment of classical subjects extended beyond conventional painting ; in 1947 she created a textile design , titled " myths and legends " , while in 1948 she created the sets for a production of Shakespeare 's Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Her " vigorous imaginativeness " was well reviewed , though the acting was not .
Though she did not again win the Sulman , she was successful in having works hung in that competition on many occasions , including the 1946 , 1947 , 1948 and 1950 shows . Bellette continued to paint classical scenes , and around 1950 produced the work Chorus without Iphigenia . Purchased by the National Gallery of Australia in 1976 , this oil painting shows five figures , " posed like statues in a tableau vivant , [ and who ] possess a kind of erotic energy " . Anne Gray , the National Gallery 's curator , interpreted the scene chosen by Bellette :
Although nothing is happening in this image , we associate the figures with tragedy , with death and mourning – with the classical reference in the painting 's title . Iphigenia , Agamemnon 's daughter , gave her life for her country when the goddess Artemis asked for it in exchange for favourable winds so that the Greek ships could sail to Troy . Bellette 's melancholic painting might be supposed to portray Iphigenia 's friends mourning her death .
In 1951 , Bellette came second in the Commonwealth Jubilee Art Competition , behind the young Jeffrey Smart . The following year , she won a competitive exhibition sponsored by Metro Goldwyn Mayer , with Girl With Still Life .
Although Haefliger never critiqued his wife 's exhibitions , others occasionally stepped in to provide reviews in the Herald . Describing her 1950 exhibition at the Macquarie Galleries , one critic considered it " one of the most stimulating and refreshing that has been seen here for a long time " and that " She paints with a strong , sombre palette and her forms are sculptured with great decision . She uses paint sensuously and passionately , as paint , not as so many contemporary Australians do , as mere colour " .
Two years later , the same reviewer , attending another of the artist 's solo Sydney shows , observed that Bellette :
is one of the few Australian artists here who combines a firm technique with a sensitive and rich emotion . In some of the lighter landscapes in this exhibition , Miss Bellette seems to have been trying to solve some of the particular difficulties of painting Australian landscapes . The clear , strong light tends to flatten the form and bleach the colour ; a problem that doesn 't lend itself to the dramatic tensions and dark moods that are characteristic of her work . It requires a colder and more dispassionate approach . But when she finds landscapes to her taste , such as the rugged hills and beetling clouds in No. 8 , the earth decaying with erosion in No. 19 , or the prickly desolation of " Rough Country " , No. 14 , she handles them with great skill and effectiveness . Her figure drawings are decisively drawn and firmly modelled . The girls have a pensive dignity as though they are pondering the burdens and joylessness of a future to be spent as caryatids . The still lives and the interior are admirable exercises in formal organisation , the colours being sombre yet rich .
Around this time , Bellette also held a show in Melbourne , which included some black @-@ and @-@ white landscape studies as well as some of her classical Greek subjects . Arnold Shore , art critic for The Argus , drew a contrast between the two groups of works . He thought that one of the landscapes " sets the heart singing with its lovely tone , pattern and sense of place " . Continuing , he noted that the landscapes and some other works " attain at their best a standard only vaguely suggested when the painter concerned herself too much with striving after a new treatment of ancient Grecian ideals . "
Paintings by Bellette were among those of twelve Australian artists included in the 1953 Arts Council of Great Britain exhibition in London , five regional British cities , and at the Venice Biennale . Bellette was one of only two women represented , the other being Constance Stokes . As with her Sulman prize @-@ winners , Bellette 's subjects were classically themed works : Electra ( 1944 ) and Oedipus ( 1945 ) . Arts Council chairman Kenneth Clark was disappointed with the response of British critics to the exhibition , and their focus on a theme of nationhood paid little regard to the works of Bellette and several others .
As well as spending time in Sydney 's art community , in 1954 Haefliger and Bellette purchased a cottage in Hill End , an old gold mining village in central New South Wales . They added a studio , and the site became both a weekender and a venue for social visits and artistic endeavours by colleagues from the Sydney circle , including Drysdale , Margaret Olley , John Olsen , David Edgar Strachan and Donald Friend . This gathering of artists , sometimes referred to as the Hill End Group , is known for its landscape art . Bellette , though sometimes a painter of landscapes , was known for her classical subjects and still lifes , which critics struggled to accommodate within their understanding of the Hill End Group . Nevertheless , several still lifes from this period are held in public collections , including Still Life with Fish ( 1954 ) , in the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery , and Still life with wooden bowl ( c . 1954 ) , in the Art Gallery of New South Wales . These images were often rendered with strong colour , which was also sometimes a feature of earlier works on which critics would remark .
Both Bellette and Haefliger had for many years been informal organisers of Sydney 's artistic community . In 1955 , Bellette played a more public role , when she helped found the Blake Prize for religious art , and was its inaugural judge .
= = = Majorca = = =
In 1957 , Haefliger 's extramarital affair , which had lasted for over a decade , came to an end . Bellette and Haefliger left Australia intending to divorce quietly , but were reconciled . After a year in Paris they settled in Majorca , living first in Deià , before buying a house in the hamlet of C 'an Baxu . Bellette painted landscapes and still lifes that reflected a Spanish influence , and showed periodically in Australia through the 1960s . However , the year she moved to Majorca turned out to be the last year in which she exhibited work outside Australia . The couple visited in 1970 and 1975 , and Bellette returned once more in 1983 . Bellette had , however , become an " onlooker " to the local art scene . This was in part because of a transition in Australian art that included the rise of abstract expressionism , the strong influence of a small number of gallery owners , and discrimination against women that reached " record levels " . Bellette was nevertheless able to secure some exhibitions , in Sydney and in Melbourne . These infrequent exhibitions were received very positively by critics . When her work was hung at the South Yarra Gallery in 1964 , noted art historian and critic Bernard Smith stated in his review for The Age that he " could not recall an exhibition in Melbourne of this quality since I began to write this column . " Reviewing her 1966 show in Sydney , the Herald critic considered it was her " ability to combine the calm beauty of form of her beloved classicism of content with a dark romantic spirit that has gained her such an honourable place in Australian painting ... the antiquity of nature and man 's constructions are explored with a subtle , powerful inquiry . " In 1971 , Melbourne critic Alan McCulloch considered her classical compositions to be her most successful . Drawing parallels between classical tragedy and contemporary global refugee crises , he noted " there is infinite tenderness in these paintings and infinite sadness . For although these rocky , shadowed landscapes are peopled with the ghosts and shades of an ancient civilisation , they are also curiously symbolic of present day tensions and tragedies . "
Bellette and Haefliger lived and worked for the rest of their lives in Majorca , with periodic trips to Italy . Friends such as artists Jeffrey Smart and John Olsen visited them regularly in Europe . An injury to her wrist meant that paintings prepared in 1976 for a solo exhibition were her last . Paul died in March 1982 ; Bellette survived breast cancer and a mastectomy in 1986 and died on 16 March 1991 .
= = Legacy = =
Prior to her death , Bellette bequeathed the Hill End cottage to the National Parks and Wildlife Service ( which manages the Hill End historic site ) , on condition that it be used as an artists ' retreat . It continues to operate for that purpose . As of 2014 , Bellette is the only woman to have won the Sulman Prize on more than one occasion . A large number of her works are held by the Art Gallery of New South Wales ; other galleries that hold examples include the Art Gallery of South Australia , Art Gallery of Western Australia , Bendigo Art Gallery , Geelong Art Gallery , the National Gallery of Australia , and the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery . In 2004 – 05 , a major retrospective exhibition was held at Bathurst Regional Art Gallery , the S. H. Ervin Gallery in Sydney , the University of Queensland Art Museum , Mornington Peninsula Regional Gallery and the Drill Hall Gallery in Canberra .
Described by Amanda Beresford as Australia 's " only true modern classicist " , Bellette is generally regarded as an influential figure in the modern art movement in Sydney in the mid @-@ twentieth century . Art historian Janine Burke described Bellette as " a leader of the post @-@ war art world " , while the University of Queensland Art Museum 's curator placed her as " a seminal figure in the visual arts from the 1930s until her death in Majorca in 1991 " . Of her paintings , opinions vary . Burke described her as " arguably the best painter " of the Sydney circle . Historian Geoffrey Dutton was unconvinced about her choice of subject but nevertheless praised Bellette 's " assured if muted " style , while simultaneously dismissing the lesser efforts of her husband . However , art historian and writer Sasha Grishin had a different view . Commenting on Bellette 's paintings of Greek mythological subjects created in the 1940s , he wrote , " they were neither very convincing as paintings , nor works that had a particular resonance in Sydney or Australian art at the time " . John Passmore and Bellette studied together both in Australia and England , travelled in Europe , and exhibited side by side in group shows . However , he was highly critical of Bellette 's work , while Yvonne Audette , who went to a few of the artist 's drawing classes , described her classical works as " dull poses , and very badly drawn , and even more badly painted , like clumsy colouring @-@ in " .
= Tender Mercies =
Tender Mercies is a 1983 American drama film directed by Bruce Beresford . The screenplay by Horton Foote focuses on Mac Sledge , a recovering alcoholic country music singer who seeks to turn his life around through his relationship with a young widow and her son in rural Texas . Robert Duvall plays the role of Mac ; the supporting cast includes Tess Harper , Betty Buckley , Wilford Brimley , Ellen Barkin and Allan Hubbard .
Financed by EMI Films , Tender Mercies was shot largely in Waxahachie , Texas . The script was rejected by several American directors before the Australian Beresford accepted it . Duvall , who sang his own songs in the film , drove more than 600 miles ( 966 km ) throughout the state , tape recording local accents and playing in country music bands to prepare for the role . He and Beresford repeatedly clashed during production , at one point prompting the director to walk off the set and reportedly consider quitting the film .
The film encompasses several different themes , including the importance of love and family , the possibility of spiritual resurrection amid death , and the concept of redemption through Mac Sledge 's conversion to Christianity . Following poor test screening results , distributor Universal Pictures made little effort to publicize Tender Mercies , which Duvall attributed to the studio 's lack of understanding of country music .
The film was released on March 4 , 1983 , in a limited number of theaters . Although unsuccessful at the box office , it was critically acclaimed and earned five Academy Award nominations , including one for Best Picture . Tender Mercies won Oscars for Best Original Screenplay for Foote and Best Actor for Duvall , his first and only win as of 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Mac Sledge ( Robert Duvall ) , a washed up , alcoholic country singer , awakens at a run @-@ down Texas roadside motel and gas station after a night of heavy drinking . He meets the owner , a young widow named Rosa Lee ( Tess Harper ) , and offers to work in exchange for a room . Rosa Lee , whose husband was killed in the Vietnam War , is raising her young son , Sonny ( Allan Hubbard ) , on her own . She agrees to let Mac stay under the condition that he does not drink while working . The two begin to develop feelings for one another , mostly during quiet evenings sitting alone and sharing bits of their life stories .
Mac resolves to give up alcohol and start his life anew . After some time passes , he and Rosa Lee wed . They start attending a Baptist church on a regular basis . One day , a newspaper reporter visits the motel and asks Mac whether he has stopped recording music and chosen an anonymous life . When Mac refuses to answer , the reporter explains he is writing a story about Mac and has interviewed his ex @-@ wife , Dixie Scott ( Betty Buckley ) , a country music star who is performing nearby .
After the story is printed , the neighborhood learns of Mac 's past , and members of a local country – western band visit him to show their respect . Although he greets them politely , Mac remains reluctant to open up about his past . Later , he secretly attends Dixie 's concert . She passionately sings several songs that Mac wrote years earlier , and he leaves in the middle of the performance . Backstage , he talks to Dixie 's manager , his old friend Harry ( Wilford Brimley ) . Mac gives him a copy of a new song he has written and asks him to show it to Dixie . Mac tries to talk to Dixie , but she becomes angry upon seeing him and warns him to stay away from their 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Sue Anne ( Ellen Barkin ) .
Upon his return home , Mac assures Rosa Lee he no longer has feelings for Dixie , whom he describes as " poison " to him . Later , Harry visits Mac to tell him , seemingly at Dixie 's urging , that the country music business has changed and his new song is no good . Hurt and angry , Mac drives away and nearly crashes the truck . He buys a bottle of whiskey but , upon returning home to a worried Rosa Lee and Sonny , he tells them he poured it out . He tells them he tried to leave Rosa Lee , but found he could not . Some time later , Mac and Sonny are baptized together in Rosa Lee 's church .
Eventually , Sue Anne visits Mac , their first encounter since she was a baby . Mac asks whether she got any of his letters , and she says her mother kept them from her . Sue Anne also reports that Dixie tried to keep her from visiting Mac and that she plans to elope with her boyfriend despite her mother 's objections . Mac admits he used to hit Dixie and that she divorced him after he tried to kill her in a drunken rage . Sue Anne asks whether Mac remembers a song about a dove he sang to her when she was a baby . He claims he does not , but after she leaves he sings to himself the hymn " On the Wings of a Dove , " which references a dove from the Lord saving Noah and descending at Jesus ' baptism .
Boys at school bully Sonny about his dead father , and he and Mac grow closer . The members of the local country band ask Mac permission to perform one of his songs , and he agrees . Mac begins performing with them and they make plans to record together . His newfound happiness is interrupted when Sue Anne dies in a car accident . Mac attends his daughter 's funeral at Dixie 's lavish home in Nashville and comforts her when she breaks down .
Back home , Mac keeps quiet about his emotional pain , although he wonders aloud to Rosa Lee why his once sorry existence has been given meaning and , on the other hand , his daughter died . Throughout his mourning , Mac continues his new life with Rosa Lee and Sonny . In the final scene , Sonny finds a football Mac has left him as a gift . Mac watches the hotel from a field across the road and sings " On the Wings of a Dove " to himself . Sonny thanks him for the football and the two play catch together in the field .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Playwright Horton Foote reportedly considered giving up on film writing , due to what he regarded as a poor adaption of his 1952 play The Chase into a 1966 film of the same name . Following what Foote saw as a far more successful adaption of his 1968 play Tomorrow in 1972 , his interest in filmmaking was rekindled , under the condition that he maintain some degree of control over the final product . Foote said of this stage in his career , " I learned that film really should be like theatre in the sense that in theatre , the writer is , of course , very dominant ... If we don 't like something , we can speak our minds . ... It is always a collaborative effort . ... But in Hollywood it wasn 't so . A writer there has in his contract that you are a writer for hire , which means that you write a script , then it belongs to them . " This renewed interest in cinema prompted Foote to write Tender Mercies , his first work written specifically for the screen . In the view of biographer George Terry Barr , the script reflected " Foote 's determination to battle a Hollywood system that generally refuses to make such personal films . "
The story was inspired partially by Foote 's nephew , who struggled to succeed in the country music business . Foote was initially interested in writing a film based on his nephew 's efforts to organize a band , which he saw as paralleling his own youthful attempts to find work as an actor . During his research , however , he met an experienced musician who had offered to help his nephew 's band , and Foote found himself growing more interested in a story about him , rather than the band itself . Foote said , " This older man had been through it all . As I thought about a storyline , I got very interested in that type of character . " The moment in the film where a woman asks , " Were you really Mac Sledge ? " and he responds , " Yes ma 'am , I guess I was , " was based on an exchange that Foote overheard between a washed @-@ up star and a fan . Foote said the entire film pivots on that statement , which he believed spoke volumes about Mac 's personality and former status .
Foote based Sledge 's victory over alcoholism on his observations of theater people struggling with the problem . He sought to avoid a melodramatic slant in telling that aspect of the story . Foote described his protagonist as " a very hurt , damaged man ... silence was his weapon " . He chose the title Tender Mercies , from the Book of Psalms , for its relation to the Rosa Lee character , who he said seeks only " certain moments of gentleness or respite , [ not ] grandness or largeness " . Foote sought to portray each character as realistic and flawed , but not unsympathetic . Although the script conveyed a strong spiritual message with religious undertones , Foote felt it was important to balance those religious elements with a focus on the practical challenges of everyday life .
Film historian Gary Edgerton said the Tender Mercies script " catapulted Horton Foote into the most active professional period in his life . " Film director and producer Alan J. Pakula credited the script with helping define the American independent film movement of the late 1980s by initiating a trend of personal filmmaking that often looks beyond Hollywood conventions .
= = = Development = = =
Duvall , who had appeared in To Kill a Mockingbird ( 1962 ) , which Foote adapted from the Harper Lee novel , was involved in Tender Mercies as an actor and co @-@ producer from its earliest stages . He said the script appealed to him because of the basic values it underlined and because the themes were universal even though the story was local . Duvall felt it portrayed people from the central region of the United States without parodying them , as he said many Hollywood films tend to do . Duvall 's early involvement led to rumors that he had requested Foote write the script for him , something that both men denied .
Foote took the script to Philip and Mary Ann Hobel , a married couple who ran Antron Media Production and had produced more than 200 documentaries between them . Foote felt their background in documentaries would lend Tender Mercies the authenticity he and Duvall were seeking . The Hobels agreed to produce it after reading and liking the script ; it would become their feature film debut as producers . The Hobels approached EMI Films , a British film and television production company , which agreed to provide financing for Tender Mercies as long as Duvall remained involved , and under the condition the Hobels find a good director . The script was rejected by many American directors , creating concerns for Foote and the producers that the film would never be made . Foote later said , " This film was turned down by every American director on the face of the globe " . The Hobels eventually mailed the script to Australian director Bruce Beresford because they were impressed by his 1980 film Breaker Morant . Philip Hobel said , " What we saw in Breaker Morant is what we like as filmmakers ourselves — an attention to the environment , a straightforward presentation ; it 's almost a documentary approach . "
Beresford was attracted to the idea of making a Hollywood film with a big budget and powerful distribution . Following his success with Breaker Morant , Beresford received about 150 Hollywood scripts as potential projects ; although he went weeks before reading many of them , Beresford read Tender Mercies right away . It immediately appealed to him , in part because it dealt with aspects of American rural life he had seldom encountered in film scripts . Several of those involved with Tender Mercies had reservations about an Australian directing a film about a country music star ; Beresford also found the decision strange , but kept his thoughts to himself because of his desire to direct the film . He contacted EMI Films and asked for one month to visit Texas and familiarize himself with the state before committing to direct , to which the company agreed . Beresford said of the trip , " I want to come over and see if this is all true , because if it 's not really a true picture of what it 's all like , it wouldn 't be right to make it . " During his visit to Texas , he saw parallels between the state and his homeland : the terrain reminded him of the Australian bush country , and the Texans he met in the isolated areas reminded him of residents of the Outback . He met Foote and discussed the script with him . The screenwriter , who gave Beresford tours of small Texas towns , felt the director 's Australian background made him sensitive to the story 's rural characters and would help him achieve the sought @-@ for authenticity . Beresford agreed to direct and was hired after receiving final approval from Duvall ( the actor had a clause in his contract allowing him such approval , the first time he had this power on a film ) .
The film was given a budget of $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( $ 11 @,@ 712 @,@ 848 in 2016 dollars ) , modest by Hollywood standards at the time . Philip Hobel said it took about a year to secure the financing from EMI Films , whose major 1981 release , Honky Tonk Freeway , had been a box office failure . For the primary location , Rosa Lee 's home and motel / gas station business , Beresford imposed one requirement : that no other buildings or large manmade structures be visible from it . The filmmakers eventually decided on a property that had been sitting abandoned by a Waxahachie highway . Mary Ann Hobel said the owner , when approached about its availability , immediately handed over the keys : " We said , ' Don 't you want a contract , something in writing ? ' And he said , ' We don 't do things that way here . ' "
Beresford , known for carefully planning every shot in his films , drew his own storyboards as well as detailed drawings of how he envisioned the sets . Jeannine Oppewall was hired as art director . Beresford praised her as " absolutely brilliant " , especially for her attention to very small details , " going from the curtains to the color of the quilts on the floors . " It was Oppewall who named the motel Mariposa , Spanish for " butterfly " , which symbolizes the spiritual resurrection Mac Sledge would experience there . Beresford chose the Australian Russell Boyd as cinematographer and the Irish William Anderson , who had worked on all of the director 's previous features , as editor . He selected Elizabeth McBride as costume designer . It was her first time in the position on a feature film , and she went on to build a reputation for costuming Texan and other Southern characters .
= = = Casting = = =
Duvall had always wanted to play a country singer , and Foote was rumored to have written the role of Mac Sledge specifically for him . Foote denied the claim , claiming he found it too constraining to write roles for specific actors , although he did hope Duvall would be cast in the part . Tender Mercies became a very important personal project for Duvall , who contributed a significant number of ideas for his character . In preparing for the role , he spent weeks roaming around Texas , speaking to strangers to find the right accent and mannerisms . He also joined a small country band and continued singing with them every free weekend while the film was being shot . In total , Duvall drove about 680 miles ( 1 @,@ 094 km ) to research the part , often asking people to speak into his tape recorder so he could practice their inflections and other vocal habits . Upon finding one man with the exact accent he wanted , Duvall had him recite the entire script into the recorder .
Tess Harper was performing on stage in Texas when she attended a casting call for a minor role in the film . Beresford was so impressed with her that he cast her in the lead . He later said that the actresses he had seen before her demonstrated a sophistication and worldliness inappropriate for the part , while she brought a kind of rural quality without coming across as simple or foolish . Beresford said of Harper , " She walked into the room and even before she spoke , I thought , ' That 's the girl to play the lead . ' " Harper said she knew she won the role when Beresford appeared on her doorstep with a bottle of champagne in each hand . Tender Mercies was Harper 's feature film debut , and she was so excited about the role she bit her script to make sure it was real . When filming ended , Duvall gave her a blue cowgirl shirt as a gift with a card that read , " You really were Rosa Lee " .
Beresford visited several schools and auditioned many children for the role of Sonny before he came across Allan Hubbard in Paris , Texas . Beresford said Hubbard , like Harper , was chosen based on a simple , rural quality he possessed . The boy was able to relate easily to the character because , like Sonny , his father died at an early age ; later , some media reports falsely claimed that his father was killed during the Vietnam War , just as Sonny 's was in the film 's backstory . None of the filmmakers knew Hubbard 's father had died until after filming began . Duvall developed a strong , trusting relationship with Hubbard , which Foote felt improved the duo 's on @-@ screen chemistry . Hubbard would often play guitar with Duvall during breaks from filming .
Betty Buckley attended a casting session in New York City and was chosen largely based on the quality of her singing voice ; Beresford said that few of the actresses who auditioned for the role were able to sing . Buckley was originally from Fort Worth , Texas , near the Grapevine Opry ; when her concert scenes were filmed there , her whole family participated as extras . Duvall said he thought Buckley perfectly conveyed the underlying frustration of a country singer and " brought a real zing to [ the ] part . " The actual location of the bar scenes were made in Seven Points Texas , in a club called the Cedar Creek Opry House . Seven Points is just east of Ellis county , across the Trinity river in western Henderson county Texas . The Opry House as it was known then , was a two story building that used to be a skating rink in its earlier life . The old rink was upstairs and became the dance floor of the Opry House , where the concert and bar scenes there were filmed . One scene of the movie shows the front of the building with its name visible
Ellen Barkin was cast after impressing Beresford during a New York audition . At the time , she had appeared only in television movies ; Diner , her feature film debut , was not yet in theaters . When filming on Diner wrapped , Barkin joked to her agent about future roles , " No more troubled teenagers , unless the movie is with Robert De Niro , Robert Duvall or Robert Redford . " Duvall said of Barkin , " She brings a real credibility for that part , plus she was young and attractive and had a certain sense of edge , a danger for her that was good for that part . " Some media outlets reported that Duvall and Barkin were involved romantically for a brief time during filming .
Wilford Brimley was cast at the urging of his good friend Duvall , who was not getting along well with Beresford and wanted " somebody down here that 's on my side , somebody that I can relate to " . Beresford felt Brimley was too old for the part , but eventually agreed to the casting .
= = = Filming = = =
Most of Tender Mercies was filmed in Waxahachie and Palmer , two towns in Ellis County in north central Texas . Beresford largely avoided the Victorian architecture and other picturesque elements of Waxahachie and instead focused on relatively barren locations more characteristic of West Texas . The town portrayed in the film is never identified by name . Foote said when he wrote the script he did not have the same isolated and lonely vision for the setting Beresford did , but he felt the atmosphere the director captured served the story well .
Principal photography took place between November 2 and December 23 , 1981 . The plants used in the gardening scenes were brought inside at night to keep them from freezing . Due to the tight schedule , the cast and crew worked seven days a week with very long hours each day . Although the Australian filmmakers and the crew , who were mostly from Dallas , got along very well both on and off the set , Beresford and Duvall were at odds during the production . Beresford , in his usual approach , meticulously planned each scene , and Duvall , who preferred a free @-@ form give @-@ and @-@ take on set , felt restricted by the director 's methods . Although Duvall regularly acknowledged his talent as a director , he said of Beresford , " He has this dictatorial way of doing things with me that just doesn 't cut it . Man , I have to have my freedom . " Although he had no problem with Duvall 's acting methodology , the actor 's temperament infuriated Beresford . While filming one scene with Harper and Barkin , he became so frustrated during a phone conversation with Duvall that he said , " Well if you want to direct the film , go right ahead , " and walked off the set . Beresford flew to New York and reportedly was ready to quit , until Duvall flew out to speak with him . After further arguments , the two made amends and returned to work on the film .
Beresford also clashed on set with Brimley . On the very first day of filming , he asked the actor to " pick up the pace " , prompting Brimley to reply , " Hey , I didn 't know anybody dropped it . " On another occasion , when Beresford tried to advise Brimley on how Harry would behave , Duvall recalled Brimley responding , " Now look , let me tell you something , I 'm Harry . Harry 's not over there , Harry 's not over here . Until you fire me or get another actor , I 'm Harry , and whatever I do is fine ' cause I 'm Harry . " Duvall said he believed the on @-@ set wrangling resulted in a combination of the director 's and actors ' visions and ultimately improved the picture . Likewise , Beresford said he did not feel the fights negatively affected the film because he and Duvall never disagreed on the interpretation of the Mac Sledge character .
Harper described the extent to which Duvall inhabited his character : " Someone once said to me , ' Well , how 's Robert Duvall ? ' and I said , ' I don 't know Robert Duvall . I know Mac Sledge very well . ' " Beresford , too , said the transformation was so believable that he could feel his skin crawling up the back of his neck the first day of filming . Duvall made an effort to help Harper , who was making her film debut . While preparing to shoot a scene in which Mac and Rosa Lee fight , he yelled at a make @-@ up artist in front of Harper to make her angry and fuel her performance ; he apologized to the make @-@ up artist after the scene was shot .
Cinematographer Russell Boyd largely utilized available light to give the movie a natural feel , which Beresford said was crucial to its sense of authenticity . Harper said Boyd was so quiet during filming that he mostly used just three words : " ' Yeah ' , ' right ' and ' sure ' " . Beresford , Foote and Duvall considered the climactic scene to be the one in which Mac , tending the family garden , discusses with Rosa Lee his pain over his daughter 's death . Beresford and Boyd filmed the scene in a long take and long shot so it could flow uninterrupted , with the lonely Texas landscape captured in the background . When studio executives received the footage , they contacted Beresford and requested close @-@ up shots be intercut , but he insisted on keeping the long take intact . Duvall said he felt the scene underscored Mac 's stoicism in the face of tragedy and loss .
= = = Music = = =
Tender Mercies includes no original film score , and the musical soundtrack is limited to the performances of country songs and the domestic guitar playing that occur as part of the story . A score was composed for the movie , but Beresford had it removed because he felt it was " too sweet " and sounded phony in the context of the film , although he acknowledged it as " very skillful " . Duvall sang his own songs , a right he insisted be part of his contract . He commented , " What 's the point if you 're not going to do your own [ singing ] ? They 're just going to dub somebody else ? I mean , there 's no point to that . " The film 's financial backers were initially concerned about whether he could sing well enough for the role . Those concerns were allayed after Duvall produced a tape of himself singing a cappella " On the Wings of a Dove " , a Bob Ferguson country song featured in the film . Duvall collaborated with Beresford in deciding on the unusual staging of the emotional scene in which Mac sings it after reflecting on the reunion with his daughter . The song is performed with Mac looking out a window with his back to the camera , his face unseen . Horton Foote thought the choice made the scene more moving and called it " an extraordinary moment " in the film . Duvall wrote two of Mac 's other songs , " Fool 's Waltz " and " I 've Decided to Leave Here Forever " . Several leading country singers , including Willie Nelson , George Jones and Merle Haggard , were believed to have inspired Mac and Duvall 's portrayal of him , but Duvall insisted the character was not based on anyone in particular . Another country star , Waylon Jennings , complimented his performance , saying he had " done the impossible . "
Betty Buckley also sang her own songs , one of which , " Over You " , written by Austin Roberts and Bobby Hart , was nominated for an Academy Award . Although Buckley performed it in the film , country singer Lane Brody was chosen to record it for radio release , and Mac Davis later sang it at the 1984 Academy Awards ceremony . Other songs in the film include " It Hurts to Face Reality " by Lefty Frizzell , " If You 'll Hold the Ladder ( I 'll Climb to the Top ) " by Buzz Rabin and Sara Busby , " The Best Bedroom in Town " and " Champagne Ladies & Barroom Babies " by Charlie Craig , " I 'm Drinkin ' Canada Dry " by Johnny Cymbal and Austin Roberts , and " You Are What Love Means To Me " by Craig Bickhardt .
= = Themes and interpretations = =
= = = Love and family = = =
Mac Sledge finds redemption largely through his relationship and eventual marriage with Rosa Lee . This is in keeping with the motif of fidelity common in the works of Foote , inspired , said the writer , by his marriage to Lillian Vallish Foote . He told The New York Times that she " kept me goin ' . She never lost faith , and that 's a rare thing . I don 't know now how we got through it , but we got through it . " The lyrics of " If You 'll Hold the Ladder " , which Mac performs with his new country band in the second half of the film , suggest what love has done for him . He sings of someone holding the ladder for him as he climbs to the top ; this is symbolic of Rosa 's love and guidance , which has allowed Sledge to improve himself and build a new life . The desultory romances that defined his past are represented by the more promiscuous lyrics of Dixie Scott 's songs , such as those of " The Best Bedroom in Town " : " The best part of all / the room at the end of the hall / That 's where you and me make everything alright ... We celebrate the happiness we 've found / Every night in the best bedroom in town " . His storming out of her concert symbolizes his rejection of that earlier life . In contrast , Rosa Lee sings the humble church hymn , " Jesus ,
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but Matthew had said , you know , there ’ s this other role , of the wife . " Jones signed a seven @-@ year contract with the show , although her character originally had two lines in " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes . " Weiner eventually edited the script to accommodate her desires . " It ’ s such a testament to his ability , " Jones stated . " He just took something out of thin air , which makes me think now that he had to have had an idea that the wife was going to be part of the show , because I kind of took the job with the promise that Betty would be a part of the show . When you sign a seven @-@ year contract , you want to make sure you ’ re in the show . " Christina Hendricks was brought in to play Joan Holloway , the office manager and head of Sterling Cooper 's secretarial pool . While Hendricks had previously made recurring appearances on ER before being on the show , her acting career had been largely inactive , and Hendricks ' agent urged her not to participate in the project . " They said to me , ' AMC [ ... ] doesn 't have any other big shows — why would you do this instead of taking something that 's a better bet ? ' I said , ' Look , I 've gone with the one that 's the better bet in the past — let 's go with the really good script this time . ' "
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " features guest appearances from several actors and actresses , including Rosemarie DeWitt ( as Midge ) and Maggie Siff ( as Rachel Menken ) . DeWitt was given a recurring role in the season as Don 's mistress , which lasted for six episodes . She initially felt out of place while playing out her character . DeWitt stated , " They were at the end of casting , and hadn 't found the right Midge yet . Originally they had a scene where she opens the door wearing a red kimono , and I remember thinking ' I 'm not that ' , so I wasn ’ t sure I was right for the part . Maybe the fact that I wasn 't this ' vamp ' is what made Matt Weiner give me a shot . " Prior to working on Mad Men , Siff mainly worked in theatre and performing arts .
= = = Filming = = =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was budgeted at US $ 3 million , slightly more than the US $ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 million budgeted in typical Mad Men episodes . The pilot episode was mostly shot at various locations in and around New York City including the Silvercup Studios , where principal photography lasted for two days . Most of the production crew were previously part of The Sopranos . After filming concluded in New York , production moved to the Los Angeles Center Studios . Abraham collaborated with an entirely different production crew from the one in New York . According to Abraham , Los Angeles contained a continuity that was related to the show . " Once we moved to L.A. , there was a continuity of style that came from Alan and me , and that was important to Matt [ Weiner ] . "
In creating a practical effect , a grid consisting of fluorescent lights was installed onto the set that housed Sterling Cooper 's main office . The show 's art department bought several 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 four @-@ tube fixtures , which was determined to be accurate relative to the time period . The shipments arrived on the first day of filming the pilot . However , examination by the set @-@ lighting crew revealed the lightbulbs used were internally modernized , having been designed to hold T @-@ 8 bulbs measuring two feet each . " Getting more than 800 2 @-@ foot color @-@ corrected T @-@ 8 tubes became a major issue , and none of the regular suppliers had enough in stock , " recalled Mike Ambrose , the gaffer for the production team in Los Angeles . " Movietone stopped production of whatever bulbs it was making , retooled the plant and started manufacturing the T @-@ 8s we needed . The last shipment arrived the morning of our first day of shooting . "
Abraham created a light @-@ control system in an attempt to keep the overhead from being unflattering . However , after unsuccessfully attempting to implement the necessary wiring to control each light , the production team established controlling rows of light . Pat O 'Mara , the key grip during production , installed several 2x1 and 2x2 blackout panels and frames that were retrofitted with small albeit strong magnets . During a scene when and actor or actresses stood under a fluorescent light , a panel or a frame was placed over the fixture , subsequently diffusing light onto their faces . " If somebody was walking through the office in a wide shot , I just turned the overhead lights on . But if Don was talking to someone at his desk and the office was the backdrop , I turned all the lights on and then selectively removed some ; then , I brought the key around with Kino Flo Image 80s through 4 @-@ by @-@ 8 frames of 250 or 216 , or sourced my key with a larger Fresnel through the window . "
The set containing Sterling Cooper 's corporate offices contained skypans fitted with 5K bulbs onto the centers , which measured 8 inches apart . Ambrose collaborated with the production team to institute twenty @-@ five inch trusses on chain motors and to devise dollys with Arri Alexa cameras that were eventually installed on aluminum I @-@ beams . Ambrose proclaimed that the flexibility of the trolleys and chain motors enabled production to move more efficiently in concentrating on the design of the window . He added : " We also had four 20Ks and a few more T @-@ 12s on stands that could be rolled around the office floor . For tungsten close @-@ ups , we often used Barger @-@ Baglite six- and three @-@ light units with Chimeras , soft cloth , diaper baffles and 60- and 90 @-@ degree honeycomb grids for control . " In comparison , Ambrose used traditional lighting when creating the housing for the character , as he favored the color spectrum of a household lightbulb . For example , Don 's home required four to five rooms to be lit simultaneously . " We used a lot of batten strips with 100 @-@ watt household bulbs , " noted Ambrose . " The bulbs are so close they 're almost touching , so they create a single source that doesn 't cast multiple shadows . Over time , we built housings for them with channels into which you can slide diffusion frames or egg crates . We call them ' Whiteys ' because the guy who knocked these shells out of tin back in New York was named Whitey ; I used them extensively on The Sopranos and felt they suited the homes in Mad Men as well . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Controversy = = =
In the days leading to the " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " premiere , the watchdog group Commercial Alert filed a complaint against producers to the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States . Commentators from the group criticized distillery brand Jack Daniel 's for its decision to sponsor Mad Men , citing that it violates industry codes that prohibit alcohol marketing , as well " depictions of irresponsible drinking , overt sexual activity or sexually lewd images " . Robert Weissman , the director for Commercial Alert , stated that based on AMC 's website , " it appears that the sponsorship arrangement will violate numerous provisions of the industry 's self @-@ regulatory marketing code . " He continued : " There is no reason why a company should be able to escape normal enforcement and implementation of the Code simply because it chooses to violate the code in such brazen manner that curing the violation would cause non @-@ trivial complications for a major television series . " In association with the complaint , Weissman urged in his letter that the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States become more proactive in regulating the distilleries ' initiatives in the entertainment industry . " Our complaint in this instance is not with the portrayal of heavy alcohol consumption , or even with the glorification of such heavy consumption ; it is specific to industry sponsorship of and entwinement with such portrayals . Quite different issues are raised where artists choose to depict such activities in the absence of industry sponsorship . "
= = = Ratings and critical response = = =
" Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was originally broadcast on July 19 , 2007 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode acquired a 1 @.@ 4 rating ( 1 @.@ 2 million households ) according to the Nielsen Media Research . Total viewership was 75 percent higher than all television programming airing on Thursdays on AMC .
Television commentators praised the pilot episode . Heather Havrilesky of Salon declared that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " raised expectations for future competition at the time , and added that it emulated some of the best episodes of The Sopranos . Chicago Tribune journalist Maureen Ryan said that it was an " intelligently made character drama " . In his four star review , Adam Buckman of New York Post described it as " stunning " and suggested that Mad Men " just happens to be the finest new TV series of the summer and possibly the entire year " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle and Variety 's Brian Lowry lauded the episode for its historical accuracy ; " Just because they 're on the cusp of a new decade does not mean they can see what viewers already know is around the corner , " stated Goodman . " That impending change gives an extra dimension of perspective to the series . " Lowry addressed that despite the subtle approach of Mad Men , it managed to provoke a profound meaning . " In that context , the show illustrates that period 's own form of excess without wagging fingers , while reminding us that before sex , drugs and rock ' n ' roll , there was sexual harassment , free @-@ flowing cocktails and bluesy ballads , invariably sung by white guys . " USA Today writer Robert Bianco echoed synonymous sentiment ; " Mad Men is a joy to watch — the clothes , the clocks , the furniture , it 's like a mid @-@ century night 's dream . But this is no mere period piece . It 's a smart , complex drama that attempts to get through the facades that have always hidden the truth . "
Troy Patterson of Slate drew comparisons to the HBO comedy @-@ drama Sex and the City , and affirmed that it introduced a lewd and cynical perspective of the so @-@ called " golden age " of advertisement . Nancy Franklin of The New Yorker concluded that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was " smart and tremendously attractive " , while Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer journalist Melanie McFarland felt that it was a rarity compared to other television installments . Writing for the Boston Globe , Matthew Gilbert remarked that the setting and design was immediately distinguishable . Gilbert wrote , " This is a gorgeously fashioned period piece , from its IBM typewriters and rotary phones to the constant fog of cigarette smoke hanging over every scene . The show has a subtle color palette , to match the ivory metal Venetian blinds at the Sterling Cooper ad agency offices , but it may sit in your memory as if it had been filmed in black and white . " Citing its authenticity as an episode highlight , Randy Cordova from the Arizona Republic noted that " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was well @-@ constructed .
Some critics were less enthusiastic than the general consensus . Although The New Republic 's Sacha Zimmerman stated that the episode 's aesthetic features were comparable to cinematic works , she affirmed that Mad Men lacked any substance , ultimately criticizing the cultural references and the character development presented in the episode . Mad Men seems to be attempting satire without a plan , " Zimmerman said . " The mood is serious , not campy , and there aren 't laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments , just a lot of groaners — at which point , the show simply becomes a reflection of its characters : depressing . It turns out that watching moody , cruel men and unsatisfied , put @-@ upon women for an hour just isn 't that much fun . " Similarly , Tim Shale of The Washington Post concluded that despite the evocative nature of the program , " Smokes Gets in Your Eyes " fell flat ; " The people in and around them spoil the show , gum up the works and shatter veracity . " To New York 's John Leonard , the installment felt like a " fifties leftover " .
Commentators praised the performances of several cast members , specifically Hamm 's portrayal of Don Draper . Goodman asserted that the acting from the cast members was one of the aspects that carried the show . Gilbert evaluated that Hamm played his character to " slick perfection " .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards , " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " won Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series ( Matthew Weiner ) . The episode also won Creative Arts Emmys for Art Direction for a Single @-@ Camera Series and Cinematography for a One Hour Series . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " also received a nomination for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series ( Alan Taylor ) as well as Outstanding Costumes for a Series ( John A. Dunn , costume designer and Lisa Padovani , assistant costume designer ) . The episode also won a Casting Society of America Artios Award for Outstanding Casting in a Television Pilot , Drama . Alan Taylor won a 2007 Directors Guild of America Award for Drama Series directing the episode . The episode also earned a Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Award nomination in Best Sound Editing - Dialogue and ADR for Short Form Television for Jason George ( supervising sound editor ) , Jed M. Dodge ( supervising dialogue editor ) , Julie Altus ( ADR editor ) , Dale Chaloukian ( dialogue editor ) , and Charlie Kolander ( dialogue editor ) .
= River Torrens =
The River Torrens / ˈtɒrənz / is the most significant river of the Adelaide Plains and was one of the reasons for the siting of the city of Adelaide , capital of South Australia . It flows 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) from its source in the Adelaide Hills near Mount Pleasant , across the Adelaide Plains , past the city centre and empties into Gulf St Vincent between Henley Beach South and West Beach . The upper stretches of the river and the reservoirs in its watershed supply a significant part of the city 's water supply . The river 's long linear parks and a constructed lake in the lower stretch are iconic of the city .
At its 1836 discovery an inland bend was chosen as the site of the Adelaide city centre and North Adelaide . The river is named after Colonel Robert Torrens , chairman of the colonial commissioners and a significant figure in the city 's founding . The river is also known by its native Kaurna name Karra wirra @-@ parri . The river and its tributaries are highly variable in flow , and together drain an area of 508 square kilometres ( 196 sq mi ) . They range from sometimes raging torrents , damaging bridges and flooding city areas , to trickles and completely dry in summer . Winter and spring flooding has prompted the construction of flood reduction works . A constructed sea outlet , landscaped linear parks and three holding reservoirs contain peak flow .
The river 's flora and fauna have been both deliberately and accidentally impacted since settlement . In the 19th century , native forests were cleared , gravel removed for construction and many foreign species introduced . With construction of the linear parks , many species native to the river have been replanted , and introduced species have been controlled as weeds . Since European settlement the river has been a frequently touted tourist attraction . During the early years of settlement , the river acted as both the city 's primary water source and main sewer , leading to outbreaks of typhus and cholera .
= = Physiography = =
The River Torrens runs largely westward from the Adelaide Hills , through the centre of Adelaide to the Gulf St Vincent . It originates close to the eastern fault scarp of the Mount Lofty Ranges , near Mount Pleasant , approximately 480 metres ( 1 @,@ 575 ft ) above sea level . It runs predominantly along faulted north @-@ south ground structures , which were formed over 250 million years ago during the Paleozoic era then further dislocated during the Cretaceous and earliest Tertiary . There is a 400 metre subsidence along the Para Fault which also affects the rivers flow . This subsidence was formed in the last two million years , after the Pliocene era .
From its origin to Birdwood the river follows rolling , relatively level country before entering a hilly section that continues to Gumeracha . The river then follows sedimentary rock strata before entering a gorge after Cudlee Creek . It flows through the gorge to Athelstone , passing over the Eden Fault Zone of the Adelaide Hills face and associated escarpment . After the scarp it flows over sedimentary rocks of varying resistance to erosion , which has led to interspersed narrows and broad basins . From the base of the Adelaide Hills to Adelaide 's central business district it runs in a shallow valley with a terraced floor , then down the slope of its own alluvial fan . The structure of this fan shows that the river formerly entered Gulf St Vincent via the Port River . Over time the Torrens deposited sediment , choking its own outflow ; becoming locked behind coastal sand dunes and forming the swampy areas of the Cowandilla Plains and the reedbeds .
= = = Tributaries = = =
The Torrens is fed by numerous seasonal creeks , which are dry for most of the year . There are five main creeks that join from the south side as it crosses the Adelaide Plains east of Adelaide , and at least five more in its path through the Adelaide Hills . The plains tributaries , known as First to Fifth Creeks , with First being the closest to Adelaide 's city @-@ centre and the rest numbered consecutively eastward , were originally named Greenhill , Hallett , Todd , Anstey and Ormsley rivulets respectively . They flow vigorously in winter and spring but are otherwise dry , except for small flows in limited areas upstream . " Moriatta " a Kaurna word meaning " ever flowing " is now the official name of Fourth Creek . This name has been adapted to Morialta which is now the name of an electoral district , school and the Morialta Conservation Park through which the creek flows .
First , Second and Third Creeks have been particularly heavily modified . Some sections have been converted to concrete channels ; others run through landscaped private gardens and some run in underground pipes . Much of the original vegetation has disappeared from the creeks , particularly those closest to the city . Introduced species including Olives , bamboo , boxthorn , watsonia and blackberries have displaced native flora .
The largest catchment of the Torrens is Sixth Creek in the Adelaide Hills , which joins the Torrens at Castambul on Gorge Road .
= = = Water flow = = =
At the time of European settlement the river was a summertime chain of waterholes bounded by large gum trees . Flowing through the area where the city of Adelaide is sited the river was sometimes invisible beneath its gravel stream bed . It frequently flooded in winter and did not reach the sea , instead ending at coastal dunes where its waters created a vast but shallow freshwater wetlands . These wetlands , known as The Reedbeds after the dominant vegetation , occupied a large area of the western Adelaide Plains and was also fed by other waterways . The river only flowed to the sea through the Port River , Barker Inlet , and Patawalonga River following heavy rain .
The river 's catchment area of approximately 500 km2 ( 193 sq mi ) is the largest of any waterway within the Adelaide region . The upper reaches are used to create a potable water supply for metropolitan Adelaide with the river supplying three of Adelaide 's eight reservoirs . The upper catchment has an average annual rainfall of between 575 millimetres ( 22 @.@ 6 in ) at its eastern end to 1 @,@ 025 millimetres ( 40 @.@ 4 in ) near Uraidla . The Torrens has a very variable flow leaving early settlers to use trial and error in determining bridge heights , with many bridges consequently being washed away . Due to the variability of Adelaide 's climate , flow rates can change from a trickle to flood conditions quickly . On 5 June 1889 , prior to major flooding , the flow rate before it entered the suburbs was 0 @.@ 7 m ³ / s ( cubic metres per second ) , rising to 129 @.@ 1 m ³ / s , 8 days later .
What the River Torrens may be capable of performing for a week or two of the rainy season beyond sweeping down to the swamp the summer filth of Adelaide we cannot guess ; but the Torrens at other times is not a river at all , but merely a chain of fresh water pools . At the present moment , its running water may be spanned with the hand and sounded with the forefinger
Since settlement it has repeatedly flooded , sometimes with disastrous consequences . Adelaide 's western suburbs were especially prone to flooding due to their location on the river 's alluvial fan . As development of Adelaide progressed the amount of rainfall required for flooding decreased and consequent damage increased . Increased stormwater runoff , modification of the river 's banks and other changes all served to exacerbate the problem . Work done by various groups to minimise flooding was often counter productive with the creation of levees , moving and widening channels and other works simply shifting the flooding elsewhere .
Two early floods were , 18 September 1841 which resulted in two people drowning while trying to cross the river at Klemzig , and 22 September 1844 , the largest recorded since settlement began , when " Shands ' Brewery " was washed away after the river undermined its foundations . The 1899 flood was particularly widespread with extensive flooding of both the river and its tributaries , after a year with 785 @.@ 6 millimetres of rain compared to the Adelaide average of 530 millimetres . The river flooded market gardens and farms throughout its hills course causing extensive damage . Norwood was inundated to The Parade , Adelaide to Pirie and Rundle Streets , and many areas west of the city were left in a shallow lake . The river ran 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) deep over the weir near Thorndon Park Reservoir , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) over the Torrens Lake Weir and 1 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) over the Morphett Street Bridge . The Underdale ( or Holbrooks ) Bridge was destroyed , the Torrens Lake weir 's bridge damaged , and the Felixstow Bridge over the Fourth Creek washed away .
= = " Discovery " and naming = =
The first European sighting of the river was in November 1836 by an exploration party comprising Lieutenant W.G. Field , John Morphett and George Strickland Kingston . The river was named " The Yatala " by the party but later renamed by Surveyor General Colonel William Light after Colonel Robert Torrens , chairman of the South Australian colonisation commissioners . On 29 December 1836 Light announced the location of the new city of Adelaide , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland on the river 's banks . The first Europeans to explore the Torrens Gorge to the headwaters and sources of the river were Dr George Imlay and John Hill in January 1838 .
In recent years the river has been dually known by the indigenous Kaurna people 's name of Karra wirra @-@ parri ( meaning river of the Red Gum forest ) , referring to the dense eucalyptus forest that lined its banks prior to clearing by early settlers . This name , alternatively Karra @-@ weera , only referred to the lake section of the river , between Adelaide and North Adelaide . It was known as Karrundo @-@ ingga at Hindmarsh , Witoingga near the reed beds , and Yertala everywhere when in flood . Yertala has been translated as " water running by the side of a river " and has survived as Yatala in the naming of various places in Adelaide .
= = Changes after 1836 = =
During early years of colonisation , the surrounding trees were cut down and the river 's gravel used in road making and construction of buildings . As the natural environment was removed , the banks were eroded and the riverbed gradually levelled as waterholes filled . By 1878 the river was noted to be a malodorous , black sewer rather than the sylvan stream of the 1830s .
... anything in the guise of a river more ugly than the Torrens would be impossible to either see or describe ...
Much of the river 's catchment area consists of cleared farmland with run @-@ off captured in private dams to sustain farming over Adelaide 's dry summer . Combined with the river 's use for potable water this has greatly reduced the overall flow especially in the lower river .
= = = Flood mitigation = = =
A flood mitigation bill was passed in 1917 to not only combat the damage caused by floods but also the public health risk due to the lack of mains sewerage in the western suburbs . Popular opinion favoured diverting the flood waters into their " natural " outlets of the Port and Patawalonga Rivers . The chief engineer of the department of works favoured a cutting through sand dunes near Henley Beach , allowing the river an outlet , mitigating floods and preventing silting of the Port River . He also advocated the construction of a reservoir where the Kangaroo Creek Reservoir is now , to both mitigate floods and provide summer irrigation water for market gardens . Unfortunately the bill lapsed with no action as the government and local councils were unwilling to fund the works . The Millbrook Reservoir opened in 1918 as a summer water source , and flood mitigator if required . A bill was passed in 1923 to enact the earlier plan of cutting through the dunes and adding an upstream regulating weir . Again the bill lapsed due to a lack of commitment from parties on payment .
A major flood in 1931 and another in 1933 led to the latest in a series of government enquiries . In 1934 the " Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works " recommended that an outlet for the river be created to accommodate flows of up to 370 m ³ / s ( cubic metres per second ) ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ) , covering a 1 in 60 year flood . The work was partly financed by a Commonwealth Government grant with the State Government arranging for the balance . The State Government , western and eastern local councils and the Municipal Tramways Trust shared interest costs . The scheme was enacted in 1935 and largely completed by 1939 with the creation of the " Breakout Creek " channel . The scheme involved diversion of the river at Lockleys ( near Adelaide Airport ) , with the original channel blocked and a new channel created to the sea . The reedbeds and swamps were subsequently drained and some of their area is now the site for the suburb of West Lakes .
Based on recommendations in a 1925 report on flood mitigation , work began in the 1960s on the building of the Kangaroo Creek Reservoir , opened in 1969 with a capacity of 24 @.@ 4 megalitres It remains the only reservoir damming the river rather than being fed from weirs . The " River Torrens Committee " was formed in 1964 to advise the minister of works on preserving and enhancing the river 's natural beauty , and developing it for recreational uses . The " River Torrens Acquisition Act 1970 @-@ 72 " was passed , authorising the purchase of land , in some cases 60 metres back from the top of the river 's banks .
By 1980 , further development along the riverbanks and removal of levées had reduced the outlet 's capacity to a 1 in 35 year flood . A study showed that a 1 in 200 year flood would inundate 13 @,@ 000 properties ; so the Kangaroo Creek dam 's level was raised , its spillway modified , the breakout creek channel capacity increased and some bridges reinforced . A development plan was approved in 1981 to purchase land along the length of the river , create a flood mitigating linear park and also to modify the Kangaroo Creek dam further . The sea outlet was enlarged to a capacity of 410 m ³ / s which now covered a 1 in 200 year flood . When the O @-@ Bahn Busway was opened , the bridges were designed to cope with this scale of flood , although the two bridges in St Peters would likely be awash .
= = = Torrens Lake = = =
The 470 megalitre Torrens Lake was created in 1881 with the construction of a weir , landscaping of Elder Park and modification of the river 's bank and surrounds into an English formal park . The lake forms a centrepiece of many Adelaide events and postcard scenes . Elder Park with its iron rotunda was opened on 28 November 1882 . The Rotunda is a largely Glasgow built 9 metre high iron bandstand which was funded by Sir Thomas Elder Smith , the park being named after him .
In 1867 , prison labour from Adelaide Gaol was used to build a wooden dam near the site of the current weir . The dam was poorly constructed and almost immediately the Torrens washed it away . Construction of a permanent concrete weir was begun in November 1880 and completed , at a cost of £ 7 @,@ 000 , in 1881 . The sluice gates were closed to begin filling the 12 @-@ hectare ( 30 @-@ acre ) Torrens Lake on 1 July 1881 . At the lake 's official opening on 21 July 1881 an estimated 40 @,@ 000 , almost the entire population of Adelaide , attended . During the 1889 flood , the weir was overwhelmed , its gates jammed , and in trying to free them the weir 's designer John Langdon was crippled . The weir was rebuilt from 1928 to 1929 with its footbridge relocated and the centre section replaced . The gates can now be fully raised and the river allowed to flow unimpeded .
The " Popeye " boats are privately owned recreational ferries that operate on the lake between Elder Park and the Adelaide Zoo . The first boat was launched on the Torrens Lake by Gordon Watts in 1935 . It was a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) boat , built on the banks of the Torrens to hold up to 20 passengers and named Popeye 1 . Watts purchased a former Glenelg cruise boat in 1948 and placed it in service as Popeye 2 . Over the next two years three new jarrah hulled boats were built at Port Adelaide ; carrying 40 passengers each they were numbered Popeye 3 through Popeye 5 . Trips on the Popeyes from Elder Park to the zoo became a treasured family outing and the boats hosted weddings and other events . In March 1962 Keith Altman , owner of riverside eatery " Jolley 's Boathouse " , took over the Popeyes and introduced recreational paddle boats to the river . The Popeyes had a brush with royalty in March 1977 with Popeye 5 ferrying Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip followed by a choir in Popeye 4 . Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser officially launched three new fibreglass models named Popeyes I , II and III in 1982 as the wooden boats ' replacements .
= = = Water use = = =
In the early days of Adelaide , the Torrens was used for bathing , stock watering , rubbish disposal , water supply and as a de facto sewer and drainage sump . This led to a range of health issues until finally , in 1839 , when a dysentery outbreak killed 5 children in one day , Governor Gawler forbid bathing , clothes washing and the disposal of animal carcases in the Torrens within 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of town . The quality of the river 's water was not helped by water supply methods . Carters used to drive water carts into the Torrens to refill . To prevent this the State Government built a facility with steam powered pumps and water storage in 1852 , from which the carters then filled .
The " Waterworks Act " of 1856 was passed to enable damming of the upstream Torrens for water supply purposes . The resulting " Water Commission " arranged the following year for foundations to be laid for a water supply weir 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Adelaide near Campbelltown . Unsuitable geology and shoddy work by contractors Frost & Watson led to it being washed away in July 1858 and the site abandoned . Engineer Hamilton was replaced by John England . Government then created a Waterworks Department , which started construction of a weir 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the city and reservoir at Thorndon Park in 1859 . The weir was completed on 4 June 1860 and the reservoir began supplying piped water in December . Engineer England was found by a Select Committee to have overpaid the contractors and forced to resign . The water was captured at the weir , piped for storage to the Thorndon Park Reservoir then to a water tower at Kent Town . Water from Kent Town storage was distributed via a manually controlled water system , unmetered for its first six years . Within six years 20 @,@ 000 citizens in Adelaide and Port Adelaide were connected to reticulated water from the Torrens . By 1872 , the 2840 megalitre Hope Valley Reservoir in the foothills of the Adelaide Hills was completed as a storage reservoir , supplied via an aqueduct and tunnel .
Public baths were built in 1861 just north of the current Parliament House . They were supplied with reticulated water from the Torrens and progressively upgraded with the last change a 1940 remodelling including an Olympic size swimming pool and diving tower . The baths were demolished in 1970 to make way for the Adelaide Festival Centre . The 16 @,@ 500 megalitre Millbrook Reservoir was constructed high in the Adelaide Hills from 1913 to 1918 submerging the town of Millbrook . An earth bank dam fed by mile long tunnel from a weir on the river at Gumeracha , its elevation allows gravity supply of water to Adelaide 's eastern suburbs .
= = = Bridges = = =
Due to the river 's path through the centre of Adelaide , transport necessitated the construction of many bridges . Prior to the bridges all crossings had been via fords which proved a dangerous practice in winter and spring . The first bridge was one of timber built in 1839 approximately 500 metres west of the current City bridge , but destroyed by floods in September 1844 . In 1849 £ 6000 was allocated to bridge the Torrens . Within four years three wooden bridges had been built and subsequently destroyed in floods . In June 1856 the English manufactured , iron City Bridge was opened , extending King William Street to North Adelaide . It was widened in 1877 then converted into a two @-@ lane bridge in 1884 . In 1929 a new wider , concrete bridge was proposed , to be the same width as King William Road and would relieve congestion , particularly on match days at the Adelaide Oval . The bridge was duly replaced in 1931 with the concrete arch structure proposed in 1929 . The distinctive lamp fittings and their pylons were designed by South Australian artist John C. Goodchild .
The Victoria Bridge extends from Morphett Street and crosses the rail lines from the Adelaide railway station and the river . The first bridge was opened on 21 June 1871 , and over time various bridges have been built on the same site . The current bridge , a prestressed concrete box girder bridge , was opened in March 1968 by then Premier of South Australia Don Dunstan , and Adelaide Lord Mayor Walter Lewis Bridgland . The bridge is constructed as two bridges joined to appear continuous . The first spans North Terrace and the rail lines , and the second the river . The bridge was designed without a central pillar in the river , allowing three lanes of rowers to compete without interference .
The Albert Bridge is adjacent to the Adelaide Zoo and carries Frome Road over the river . A timber bridge was constructed in 1859 , west of the current bridge , and named the Old Frome Bridge . The current bridge was named after Prince Albert , royal consort to Queen Victoria , on 7 May 1879 . The wrought iron structure is made from three parallel , scalloped girders that were manufactured in England . It is 120 feet ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) long with a cantilevered span of 60 feet ( 18 m ) . The bridge is 43 feet ( 13 m ) wide and originally had a timber deck , which was replaced with concrete in 1922 . The coats of arms on the inside of the bridge contains the city 's motto , Ut Prosint Omnibus Conjuncti which translates as " united for the common good . " The bridge is listed on the " City of Adelaide Heritage Register " , the " South Australian Heritage Register " and the " Register of the National Estate " . A complete restoration was finished in 1982 , with the bridge now appearing as it did at the 1879 opening .
Torrens River Park Pedestrian Bridge east of the zoo , was opened in late 2009 and is well patronised by cyclists .
The Hackney Bridge was first known as the " Second Company Bridge " as the South Australia Company built it . It was built so that wheat farmers from the northern side could access the South Australian Company 's flour mill which stood where the Hackney Hotel was later built . The current bridge is the third at the same site ; in 1845 " Prescott 's Crossing " was built as a timber beam bridge , 1860 saw it replaced with a four span , trussed timber bridge and 5 December 1885 with a 126 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) long , 34 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) wide truss arch bridge .
University Footbridge connects Victoria Drive , at the rear of University of Adelaide , with University Oval , War Memorial Drive . The bridge was conceived in 1928 by an engineering undergraduate at the university and funded with a £ 26 @,@ 000 grant from Adelaide City Council . It was designed by university staff under the supervision of Robert Chapman , chief engineer of the South Australian Railways . Construction was delayed until 1937 due to the economic effects of the Great Depression . The bridge has an arch spanning 152 ft ( 46 m ) , 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) over the river , and was the first welded bridge in South Australia . A murder that occurred in the vicinity of the bridge on 10 May 1972 resulted in calls to reform South Australia 's laws regarding homosexuality . University of Adelaide law lecturer Dr George Duncan was thrown into the river . A plaque on the bridge commemorates his death and the subsequent decriminalisation of homosexuality in South Australia .
Various other bridges have spanned the Torrens including :
Railway Bridge , Built in 1856 to carry the Port and Gawler Town railway lines . The bridge was constructed 1 @.@ 5 km from Adelaide railway station .
Felixstowe Bridge , built in 1873 on OG Road and reconstructed in 1892 , 1901 , 1924 and 1961 . The first bridge was narrow , and hay @-@ laden carts often damaged posts while brushing past them .
Tennyson Bridge , built 1877 on Stephen Terrace , St Peters , replacing a ford at the same site .
Ascot Bridge , built in 1970 to connect Ascot Avenue and Lower Portrush Road .
Dickson 's Crossing , built on Darley Road in 1977 to replace a ford .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The river was formerly a food source with yabbies , mussels and small fish , however the reduction in water quality , changing of the river 's habitat , and introduction of European fish species has led to a reduction in fauna quantity and diversity . Exotic pest species such as the European carp , redfin perch and trout have greatly reduced native fish populations like the big headed gudgeon ( Philypnodon grandiceps ) but native waterfowl are common along the river with Pacific black ducks , Australian wood ducks , black swans , ibis , egrets and herons amongst the more than 100 species seen . The number of exotic waterfowl species such as mallards has reduced in recent years . In places the steep banks of the river are an ideal habitat for long @-@ necked tortoises .
The river , and its tributaries , had a population of water rats ( Hydromys chrysogaster ) and Australian swamp rats ( Rattus lutreolus ) . Water rats remain in reduced numbers , but the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) and brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) have largely supplanted the natives . The house mouse ( Mus musculus ) is now the most common mammal of the Torrens environ .
Widely found native reeds , sedges and rushes along the upper river are bulrush , knobby club rush , spike rush , common reed , sea rush and pale rush . River red gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) and blue gum ( Eucalyptus leucoxylon ) trees are found along the riverbanks , although sparser than the forest that was seen by European discoverers . Still present are many of the original vegetation species like : Sheoak ( Casuarina stricta ) , native cherry ( Exocarpos cupressiformis ) , native pine ( Callitris preissii ) and Australia 's floral emblem the golden wattle ( Acacia pycnantha )
= = Today 's river = =
From its source the river flows westwards through Birdwood and Gumeracha . It then continues down through Torrens Gorge entering suburban Adelaide at Athelstone with some of its path paralleled by the O @-@ Bahn Busway . It passes between the city @-@ centre and North Adelaide , forming the Torrens Lake between the Adelaide Zoo and a weir opposite Adelaide Gaol . The river then continues the remaining eight kilometres to the sea at Henley Beach South , emptying into Gulf St Vincent via a constructed outlet .
Hope Valley , Millbrook and Kangaroo Creek Reservoirs , which provide water storage for Adelaide , capture the river 's flow . These reservoirs form part of the Adelaide Hills catchment , which supplies 60 % of Adelaide 's water needs in an average year . Adelaide City Council uses water from the lower river to irrigate the city 's surrounding parklands . Rubbish accumulation in the lower river is controlled with numerous collection racks , and sediments and other pollutants are filtered through constructed wetlands .
The earliest linear river park in Australia bounds the suburban end of the river . The park is 35 km long with numerous playgrounds walkways and bicycle tracks . On the south bank of the lake , adjacent to the Adelaide Festival Centre , Elder Park is used for the annual Tasting Australia festival , mass singing of christmas carols at the annual " Carols by Candlelight " , and other public events throughout the year . The Popeye tourist boats , small paddle boats and Black Swans of the lake are icons of the area and frequently featured in postcard photographs of the city . Due to now @-@ limited natural river flow and stormwater born organic material , the lower river , ( particularly the lake ) , is often polluted with algal blooms and significant levels of E. coli bacteria in spring and summer . Numerous taskforces have been formed to improve the river 's water quality , including one created in 2006 by the Minister for the Environment and Conservation .
The river is a used by many for recreation , with the footpaths on the riverbanks often filled with cyclists and joggers . Rowers use the lake for training all year round , and many clubs such as the Adelaide University Boat Club , the Adelaide Rowing Club , and the boat houses of the secondary schools which participate in the annual Head of the River are located upon its banks . Several rowing regattas are held on the Torrens Lake course in the summer months of each
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éret referred these fossils to the genus Megalosaurus , which at the time was a wastebasket taxon containing any number of unrelated large theropods , as the new species M. crenatissimus . This name is derived from the Latin word crenatus ( " notched " ) and the suffix -issimus ( " most " ) , in reference to the numerous serrations on both front and rear edges of the teeth . Depéret later reassigned the species to the North American genus Dryptosaurus , another poorly known taxon .
Numerous fragmentary remains from Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar were recovered by French collectors over the next 100 years , many of which were deposited in the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle in Paris . In 1955 , René Lavocat described a theropod dentary ( MNHN.MAJ 1 ) with teeth from the Maevarano Formation in the same region where the original material was found . The teeth matched those first described by Depéret , but the strongly curved jaw bone was very different from both Megalosaurus and Dryptosaurus . Based on this dentary , Lavocat created the new genus Majungasaurus , using an older spelling of Mahajanga as well as the Greek word σαυρος / sauros ( meaning " lizard " ) . Hans @-@ Dieter Sues and Philippe Taquet described a dome @-@ shaped skull fragment ( MNHN.MAJ 4 ) as a new genus of pachycephalosaur ( Majungatholus atopus ) in 1979 . This was the first report of a pachycephalosaur in the Southern Hemisphere .
In 1993 , scientists from the State University of New York at Stony Brook and the University of Antananarivo began the Mahajanga Basin Project , a series of expeditions to examine the fossils and geology of the Late Cretaceous sediments near the village of Berivotra , in Mahajanga Province . Among these scientists was paleontologist David W. Krause of Stony Brook . The first expedition turned up hundreds of theropod teeth identical to those of Majungasaurus , some of which were attached to an isolated premaxilla that was described in 1996 . The following seven expeditions would turn up tens of thousands of fossils , many of which belonged to species new to science . The Mahajanga Basin Project claims credit for quintupling the known diversity of fossil taxa in the region .
Fieldwork in 1996 turned up a spectacularly complete theropod skull preserved in exquisite detail ( FMNH PR 2100 ) . On top of this skull was a dome @-@ shaped swelling nearly identical to the one described by Sues and Taquet as Majungatholus atopus . Majungatholus was redescribed as an abelisaurid rather than a pachycephalosaur in 1998 . Although the name Majungasaurus crenatissimus was older than Majungatholus atopus , the authors judged the type dentary of Majungasaurus too fragmentary to confidently assign to the same species as the skull . Further fieldwork over the next decade turned up a series of less complete skulls , as well as dozens of partial skeletons of individuals ranging from juveniles to adults . Project members also collected hundreds of isolated bones and thousands of shed Majungasaurus teeth . Taken together , these remains represent nearly all the bones of the skeleton , although most of the forelimbs , most of the pelvis and the tip of the tail are still unknown . This fieldwork culminated in a 2007 monograph consisting of seven scientific papers on all aspects of the animal 's biology , published in the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoirs . The papers are in English , although each has an abstract written in Malagasy . In this volume , the dentary described by Lavocat was re @-@ evaluated and determined to be diagnostic for this species . Therefore , the name Majungatholus was replaced by the older name Majungasaurus . Although the monograph is comprehensive , the editors noted that it describes only material recovered from 1993 through 2001 . A significant quantity of specimens , some very complete , were excavated in 2003 and 2005 and await preparation and description in future publications . The dentary was made the neotype specimen after a 2009 petition to the ICZN .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Skull ornamentation = = =
Majungasaurus is perhaps most distinctive for its skull ornamentation , including the swollen and fused nasals and the frontal horn . Other ceratosaurs , including Carnotaurus , Rajasaurus , and Ceratosaurus itself bore crests on the head . These structures are likely to have played a role in intraspecific competition , although their exact function within that context is unknown . The hollow cavity inside the frontal horn of Majungasaurus would have weakened the structure and probably precluded its use in direct physical combat , although the horn may have served a display purpose . While there is variation in the ornamentation of Majungasaurus individuals , there is no evidence for sexual dimorphism .
= = = Feeding = = =
Scientists have suggested that the unique skull shape of Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids indicate different predatory habits than other theropods . Whereas most theropods were characterized by long , low skulls of narrow width , abelisaurid skulls were taller and wider , and often shorter in length as well . The narrow skulls of other theropods were well equipped to withstand the vertical stress of a powerful bite , but not as good at withstanding torsion ( twisting ) . In comparison to modern mammalian predators , most theropods may have used a strategy similar in some ways to that of long- and narrow @-@ snouted canids , with the delivery of many bites weakening the prey animal .
Abelisaurids , especially Majungasaurus , may instead have been adapted for a feeding strategy more similar to modern felids , with short and broad snouts , that bite once and hold on until the prey is subdued . Majungasaurus had an even broader snout than other abelisaurids , and other aspects of its anatomy may also support the bite @-@ and @-@ hold hypothesis . The neck was strengthened , with robust vertebrae , interlocking ribs and ossified tendons , as well as reinforced muscle attachment sites on the vertebrae and the back of the skull . These muscles would have been able to hold the head steady despite the struggles of its prey . Abelisaurid skulls were also strengthened in many areas by bone mineralized out of the skin , creating the characteristic rough texture of the bones . This is particularly true of Majungasaurus , where the nasal bones were fused and thickened for strength . On the other hand , the lower jaw of Majungasaurus sported a large fenestra ( opening ) on each side , as seen in other ceratosaurs , as well as synovial joints between certain bones that allowed a high degree of flexibility in the lower jaw , although not to the extent seen in snakes . This may have been an adaptation to prevent the fracture of the lower jaw when holding onto a struggling prey animal . The front teeth of the upper jaw were more robust than the rest , to provide an anchor point for the bite , while the low crown height of Majungasaurus teeth prevented them from breaking off during a struggle . Finally , unlike the teeth of Allosaurus and most other theropods , which were curved on both the front and back , abelisaurids like Majungasaurus had teeth curved on the front edge but straighter on the back ( cutting ) edge . This structure may have served to prevent slicing , and instead holding the teeth in place when biting .
Majungasaurus was the largest predator in its environment , while the only known large herbivores at the time were sauropods like Rapetosaurus . Scientists have suggested that Majungasaurus , and perhaps other abelisaurids , specialized on hunting sauropods . Adaptations to strengthen the head and neck for a bite @-@ and @-@ hold type of attack might have been very useful against sauropods , which would have been tremendously powerful animals . This hypothesis may also be supported by the hindlegs of Majungasaurus , which were short and stocky , as opposed to the longer and more slender legs of most other theropods . While Majungasaurus would not have moved as fast as other similar @-@ sized theropods , it would have had no trouble keeping up with slow @-@ moving sauropods . The robust hindlimb bones suggest very powerful legs , and their shorter length would have lowered the animal 's center of gravity . Thus Majungasaurus may have sacrificed speed for power . Majungasaurus tooth marks on Rapetosaurus bones confirm that it at least fed on these sauropods , whether or not it actually killed them .
= = = Cannibalism = = =
Although sauropods may have been the prey of choice for Majungasaurus , discoveries published in 2007 detail finds in Madagascar that indicate the presence of other Majungasaurus in their diet . Numerous bones of Majungasaurus have been discovered bearing tooth marks identical to those found on sauropod bones from the same localities . These marks have the same spacing as teeth in Majungasaurus jaws , are of the same size as Majungasaurus teeth , and contain smaller notches consistent with the serrations on those teeth . As Majungasaurus is the only large theropod known from the area , the simplest explanation is that it was feeding on other members of its own species . Suggestions that the Triassic Coelophysis was a cannibal have been recently disproven , leaving Majungasaurus as the only non @-@ avian theropod with confirmed cannibalistic tendencies , although there is some evidence that cannibalism may have occurred in other species as well .
It is unknown if Majungasaurus actively hunted their own kind or only scavenged their carcasses . However , some researchers have noted that modern Komodo monitors sometimes kill each other when competing for access to carcasses . The lizards will then proceed to cannibalize the remains of their rivals , which may suggest similar behavior in Majungasaurus and other theropods .
= = = Respiratory system = = =
Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae ( UA 8678 ) recovered from the Maevarano Formation . Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities ( pneumatic foramina ) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian @-@ style lungs and air sacs . In birds , the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac , the upper back vertebrae by the lung , and the lower back and sacral ( hip ) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac . Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs . These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian @-@ style ' flow @-@ through ventilation , ' where air flow through the lungs is one @-@ way , so that oxygen @-@ rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide . This method of respiration , while complicated , is highly efficient .
The recognition of pneumatic foramina in Majungasaurus , besides providing an understanding of its respiratory biology , also has larger @-@ scale implications for evolutionary biology . The split between the ceratosaur line , which led to Majungasaurus , and the tetanuran line , to which birds belong , occurred very early in the history of theropods . The avian respiratory system , present in both lines , must therefore have evolved before the split , and well before the evolution of birds themselves . This provides further evidence of the dinosaurian origin of birds .
= = = Brain and inner ear structure = = =
Computed tomography , also known as CT scanning , of a complete Majungasaurus skull ( FMNH PR 2100 ) allowed a rough reconstruction of its brain and inner ear structure . Overall , the brain was very small relative to body size , but otherwise similar to many other non @-@ coelurosaurian theropods , with a very conservative form closer to modern crocodilians than to birds . One difference between Majungasaurus and other theropods was its smaller flocculus , a region of the cerebellum that helps to coordinate movements of the eye with movements of the head . This suggests that Majungasaurus and other abelisaurids like Indosaurus , which also had a small flocculus , did not rely on quick head movements to sight and capture prey .
Inferences about behavior can also be drawn from examination of the inner ear . The semicircular canals within the inner ear aid in balance , and the lateral semicircular canal is usually parallel to the ground when the animal holds its head in an alert posture . When the skull of Majungasaurus is rotated so that its lateral canal is parallel to the ground , the entire skull is nearly horizontal . This contrasts with many other theropods , where the head was more strongly downturned when in the alert position . The lateral canal is also significantly longer in Majungasaurus than in its more basal relative Ceratosaurus , indicating a greater sensitivity to side @-@ to @-@ side motions of the head .
= = = Pathology = = =
A 2007 report described pathologies in the bones of Majungasaurus . Scientists examined the remains of at least 21 individuals and discovered four with noticeable pathologies . While pathology had been studied in large tetanuran theropods like allosaurids and tyrannosaurids , this was the first time an abelisauroid had been examined in this manner . No wounds were found on any skull elements , in contrast to tyrannosaurids where sometimes gruesome facial bites were common . One of the specimens was a phalanx ( toe bone ) of the foot , which had apparently been broken and subsequently healed .
Most of the pathologies occurred on the vertebrae . For example , a dorsal ( back ) vertebra from a juvenile animal showed an exostosis ( bony growth ) on its underside . The growth probably resulted from the conversion of cartilage or a ligament to bone during development , but the cause of the ossification was not determined . Hypervitaminosis A and bone spurs were ruled out , and an osteoma ( benign bone tumor ) was deemed unlikely . Another specimen , a small caudal ( tail ) vertebra , was also found to have an abnormal growth , this time on the top of its neural spine , which projects upwards from the vertebrae , allowing muscle attachment . Similar growths from the neural spine have been found in specimens of Allosaurus and Masiakasaurus , probably resulting from the ossification of a ligament running either between the neural spines ( interspinal ligament ) or along their tops ( supraspinal ligament ) .
The most serious pathology discovered was in a series of five large tail vertebrae . The first two vertebrae showed only minor abnormalities with the exception of a large groove that extended along the left side of both bones . However , the next three vertebrae were completely fused together at many different points , forming a solid bony mass . There is no sign of any other vertebrae after the fifth in the series , indicating that the tail ended there prematurely . From the size of the last vertebrae , scientists judged that about ten vertebrae were lost . One explanation for this pathology is severe physical trauma resulting in the loss of the tail tip , followed by osteomyelitis ( infection ) of the last remaining vertebrae . Alternatively , the infection may have come first and led to the end of the tail becoming necrotic and falling off . This is the first example of tail truncation known in a non @-@ avian theropod dinosaur .
= = Paleoecology = =
All specimens of Majungasaurus have been recovered from the Maevarano Formation in the Mahajanga Province in northwestern Madagascar . Most of these , including all of the most complete material , came from the Anembalemba Member , although Majungasaurus teeth have also been found in the underlying Masorobe Member and the overlying Miadana Member . While these sediments have not been dated radiometrically , evidence from biostratigraphy and paleomagnetism suggest that they were deposited during the Maastrichtian stage , which lasted from 70 to 66 Ma ( million years ago ) . Majungasaurus teeth are found up until the very end of the Maastrichtian , when all non @-@ avian dinosaurs became extinct .
Then as now , Madagascar was an island , having separated from the Indian subcontinent less than 20 million years earlier . It was drifting northwards but still 10 – 15 ° more southerly in latitude than it is today . The prevailing climate of the time was semi @-@ arid , with pronounced seasonality in temperature and rainfall . Majungasaurus inhabited a coastal flood plain cut by many sandy river channels . Strong geological evidence suggests the occurrence of periodic debris flows through these channels at the beginning of the wet season , burying the carcasses of organisms killed during the preceding dry season and providing for their exceptional preservation as fossils . Sea levels in the area were rising throughout the Maastrichtian , and would continue to do so into the Paleocene Epoch , so Majungasaurus may have roamed coastal environments like tidal flats as well . The neighboring Berivotra Formation represents the contemporaneous marine environment .
Besides Majungasaurus , fossil taxa recovered from the Maevarano include fish , frogs , lizards , snakes , seven distinct species of crocodylomorphs , five or six species of mammals , Vorona and several other birds , the possibly flighted dromaeosaurid Rahonavis , the noasaurid Masiakasaurus and two titanosaurian sauropods , including Rapetosaurus . Majungasaurus was by far the largest carnivore and probably the dominant predator on land , although large crocodylomorphs like Mahajangasuchus and Trematochampsa might have competed with it closer to water .
= = Documentaries = =
Majungasaurus was a main focus of the fifth episode of the mini @-@ series When Dinosaurs Ruled hosted by Jeff Goldblum . It also featured in the pilot episode of Jurassic Fight Club , in which its cannibalistic behavior was explored . In both series , the animal was referred to as Majungatholus . It was properly referred to as Majungasaurus in the third episode of BBC 's Planet Dinosaur , in which its killing technique as well as its cannibalistic nature were explored .
= Blame Game =
" Blame Game " is a song by American hip @-@ hop recording artist Kanye West from his fifth studio album , My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) . The song features recording artist John Legend and was produced by West , Justin Franks , and Mike Dean . The song features a hip hop skit provided by comedian Chris Rock . It contains a sample of " Avril 14th " , written by Richard D. James , known primarily by his pseudonym , Aphex Twin . Lyrically , the song contains West 's thoughts on past break @-@ ups and explores themes of unrequited love , heartbreak , and spousal abuse . Midway through the song , Rock delivers an extended monologue as the new boyfriend of West 's past lover .
Critics were generally complimentary and praised Legend 's vocal delivery . The appearance by Rock was widely noted as a surprising element of the song and received mixed criticism , though some critics described it as a highlight . It charted on the South Korean Gaon Chart at position 81 . West and Legend performed " Blame Game " together on Vevo Presents GOOD Music at SXSW . The song was featured in West 's 2010 short film Runaway . West planned to produce a music video for the song featuring Amber Rose but she declined the offer of appearing and West scrapped the video .
= = Background = =
" Blame Game " was recorded in Oahu , Hawaii , where most of the sessions for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy took place . West opted to work with more familiar songwriters to maintain artistic privacy and keep a low profile after several of his publicized controversies . West recorded the song with vocalist John Legend , a frequent collaborator of his since West 's 2004 debut album The College Dropout . During an appearance on Ustream , West announced that Legend was set to appear on a song from his currently upcoming album , titled " Blame Game " . During the announcement , West cited " Blame Game " as his favorite song from the album , which was at the time unfinished . The song developed from Legend and West 's brainstorming , which also led to several other tracks , including " All of the Lights " . Rapper Pusha T was erroneously reported to have provided backing vocals on the song .
West asked comedian Chris Rock to appear on the song . Rock , a fan of West 's , mused that he was more than happy to collaborate with West , and said , " you 'd be amazed at how many people want to work with you if you just ask , if you just make a call . " He had previously collaborated on other hip hop songs , such as with rappers Ludacris , Ol ' Dirty Bastard , and Ice Cube on the track " You Ain 't Gotta Lie ( Ta Kick It ) " . Rock described his collaboration with West as exciting in nature , commenting that he was always open to working on unusual ventures . In an interview with The New York Times , Rock went into detail about the composition of the song :
“ I did that quicker than I read scripts that they offer me money to do ... I thank [ Kanye ] so much it probably freaks him out . Especially at this late date , to get on something , the album of the moment , that stuff is priceless , you can ’ t put a price tag on that . I felt invigorated by it . I ’ ve still got my fastball . "
The song is partly inspired by West 's relationship with model Amber Rose . West originally met Rose in 2008 , and they subsequently developed a romantic relationship , before having a dramatic break @-@ up in 2010 ; Rose cited allegations of adultery . Rose also said that West had written the song about their relationship , commenting that West " talked reckless about me on his album " .
= = Composition = =
The track is built on a recreation of electronic musician Aphex Twin 's piano composition " Avril 14th " . The song begins with a minute long introduction sung by Legend . " Blame Game " has a lush , cello @-@ driven production with predominant piano . After Legend 's introduction , West raps his verses in a highly melodic manner , almost singing his lines . West 's forceful delivery expresses hurt and contempt . The song 's soulful sound juxtaposes West 's angry lyrics : " been a long time since I spoke to you in a bathroom , ripping you up , fuckin ' and chokin ' you " . He subsequently raps less antagonistically and repeatedly confesses " I can 't love you this much " .
West 's vocals are substantially manipulated throughout the song from " naturally clear @-@ sounding and ominously pitched @-@ down as it pans back and forth " , as they are slowed down , sped up , edited substantially , and altered in various ways , giving the song a brooding , ominous mood . Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal wrote that this effect " bottoms out with a verse in which Kanye 's voice is sped up , slowed down and stretched out ... The effect is almost psychotic , suggesting three or four inner monologues fighting over smashed emotions . " AbsolutePunk 's Drew Beringer commented that the vocal altercations gives the sense of the " multiple personalities and paranoia he tries to overcome . "
On " Blame Game " , West attempts to call his past lover , but he receives a call back instead and he hears a conversation between her and Chris Rock , who begins an extended monologue approximately five minutes into the song . Chris Rock performs a vulgar , profanity @-@ ridden sketch in which he compliments his lover 's dress sense and sexual technique , and asks her who taught her these skills . Each time he asks , the answer is the same : " Yeezy taught me . " . Andy Gill of The Independent commented that a similar " alliance of aristocratic piano and cello with less rarefied elements underpins ' Blame Game ' , a brutal rumination on West 's sexual appetite " .
= = Reception = =
" Blame Game " generally pleased contemporary critics . The Village Voice 's Sean Fennessey said that it is " not the flashiest or most forward @-@ thinking song on the album , but certainly the most earthbound . And therefore the most important . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Thomas Conner complimented Rock 's " hilarious , X @-@ rated spiel " and cited the song as the best example of West 's ability " to contrast the light and dark pieces against each other , the profane and the sacred " , writing that it utilizes " Legend 's soft , pretty voice to sing a smooth , troubling refrain . " Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield called it one of the funniest of West 's career , a " confessional " song where he " honestly struggles to figure out why he has to be such a douchebag . " Steve Jones of USA Today cited the song as the album 's pièce de résistance that " plays out with growing hostility over John Legend 's moody piano work . " Nitsuh Abebe of New York mused that the song successfully showcased a " gloomy and elegiac " presentation .
David Browne of Time called it " that rare , effortless fusion of penthouse @-@ boudoir R & B and hip hop grit " , but was ambivalent about its segue " into an interminable , decidedly unfunny skit in which a guy keeps asking a woman how she learned such mind @-@ boggling bedroom moves . " In contrast , Kitty Empire of The Guardian felt that " comedian Chris Rock is hilariously foul @-@ mouthed at the end of Blame Game . " Becky Bain of Idolator called the song epic , but felt that Rock 's appearance served as a detriment to the song , writing ; " we ’ d kill the last two minutes with Rock ’ s unfocused , not @-@ as @-@ funny @-@ as @-@ we @-@ think @-@ it ’ s @-@ supposed @-@ to @-@ be rambling , but otherwise , this is quite a beautiful track . " " Blame Game " charted on South Korean Gaon Chart at position 81 .
= = Marketing = =
The song was also featured in Runaway , a 35 @-@ minute music video directed by West set to music from My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy . After a traumatic dinner sequence , the song is played during a tense moment between West and the phoenix . At the Vevo Presents GOOD Music musical presentation , the song was performed by both West and Legend together . The two performed a few song together before Legend performed his own single " Ordinary People " separately .
A planned music video for the song was going to feature an appearance by Amber Rose , however she declined the offer . Rose commented that she passed on the video because she " just felt like Chris Rock 's part was disrespectful " , believing that the song painted her in a negative light . Another reason for her declining to appear in the video because of her then @-@ current relationship with rapper Wiz Khalifa , feeling that appearing in an ex @-@ boyfriend 's musical venture would be disrespectful to Khalifa . West told Rose that both " Blame Game " and the Runaway film were partially inspired by his relationship with her .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes for My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy ( 2010 ) .
Chris " Hitchcock " Chorney – cello
Andrew Dawson – engineer , mixing
Mike Dean – additional production , bass , composer , mixing , piano
DJ Frank E – composer , producer
Ryan Gilligan – engineer
Richard D. James – composer ( sample )
Phil Joy – engineer
John Legend – composer , featured artist
Salma Kenas – additional vocals
Anthony Kilhoffer – mixing
Chloe Mitchell – composer ( poem )
Chris Rock – additional vocals
Kanye West – composer , producer , primary artist
= = Charts = =
= Kosta Pećanac =
Konstantin " Kosta " Milovanović Pećanac ( Serbian Cyrillic : Коста Миловановић Пећанац ; 1879 – 1944 ) was a Serbian Chetnik commander ( vojvoda ) during the Balkan Wars , World War I and World War II . Pećanac fought on the Serbian side in both Balkan Wars and World War I , joining the forces of Kosta Vojinović during the Toplica uprising of 1917 . Between the wars he was an important leader of Chetnik veteran associations , and was known for his strong hostility to the Yugoslav Communist Party , which made him popular in conservative circles . As president of the Chetnik Association , he transformed the association during the 1930s into an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with over half a million members . During World War II , Pećanac collaborated with both the German military administration and their Serbian puppet government in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia .
Just before the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , the Yugoslav government provided Pećanac with funds and arms to raise guerrilla units in southern Serbia , Macedonia and Kosovo . He formed a detachment of about 300 men , mostly in the Toplica river valley in southern Serbia , which avoided destruction during the invasion . In the first three months after the surrender , Pećanac gathered more troops from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo . However , his Chetniks fought only Albanian groups in the region , and did not engage the Germans . Following the uprising in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia in early July 1941 , Pećanac quickly resolved to abandon resistance against the Axis , and by the end of August had concluded agreements with the German occupation forces and the puppet government of Milan Nedić to collaborate with them and fight the communist @-@ led Partisans . In July 1942 , rival Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor , and his continuing collaboration with the Germans ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
The Germans rapidly realised that Pećanac 's Chetniks , whose numbers had grown to 8 @,@ 000 , were inefficient and unreliable , and even the Nedić government had no confidence in them . They were completely disbanded by March 1943 . Pećanac himself was interned by the Nedić regime for some time , and was assassinated by agents of Mihailović in May or June 1944 .
= = Early life = =
Kosta Milovanović was born in a village near Dečani in 1879 , although some sources mistakenly identify the year as 1871 . His father Milovan was a guardian of the Visoki Dečani monastery . Pećanac 's father and his brother Milosav fought in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 . In 1883 , both of his parents were killed in an attack by Albanians on the monastery . After that point , Pećanac was looked after by his uncle in the village of Đurakovac near Peć for an unknown amount of time .
He arrived in Serbia in 1892 at the age of 14 and worked as a mercenary . When he was 21 , he was called up for army service and served in the engineer corps , becoming a reserve officer . He later worked with the border gendarmerie near Vranje as a corporal . Pećanac was discharged at some point for reasons unknown and later joined the Chetniks . While serving with them he was given the nickname " Pećanac " , derived from the name of the town in which he grew up .
= = Macedonia and the Balkan Wars = =
In 1895 , war broke out in Macedonia against the Ottoman Empire . Pećanac joined the Serbian Chetnik Organization in 1903 , and fought against the Ottoman army in several significant battles including that of Šuplja Stena ( near Pčinja ) and Čelopek ( near Staro Nagoričane ) . The deacon of the Vladika of Žiča and commander ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) Jovan Grković @-@ Gapon suggested awarding Pećanac the title of vojvoda ; at a Christmas @-@ day meeting in 1904 , Pećanac received the title at the age of 25 . In the period between 1905 and 1907 , he led several major battles against the Ottoman army in the Skopje region . In 1908 , Pećanac married Sofia Milosavljević from the town of Aleksinac . He went on to father four children with her . In 1910 , as the struggles in Macedonia intensified , he left his children and pregnant wife , and returned to the battlefield .
In the First Balkan War , fought from October 1912 to May 1913 , Pećanac was mobilised in the Serbian Third Army , holding the rank of sergeant in the Morava Division . He took part in the defeat of the Albanians in Merdare , the Battle of Kumanovo and the liberation of Metohija . During the Second Balkan War , fought from 29 June to 10 August 1913 , Pećanac is believed to have been stationed at the front at Kitka on Osogovo Mountain along the Zletovska and Bregalnica rivers . There , his division took part in the Battle of Bregalnica with the Bulgarians . After the Bulgarian attacks failed , they sent parliamentarians to seek a truce , but the Serbian side refused and the fighting continued . After his division had endured six days of heavy fighting , the Bulgarians were defeated at Grljani near Vinica .
= = World War I = =
Following the disastrous end to the Serbian campaign in late 1915 , Pećanac escaped to Corfu along with the retreating Serbian army and government , and ultimately joined the Salonika front . In 1915 , Pećanac had received various medals for his " merit in fighting " including three gold medals for bravery , one for military virtue , and the Order of the Star of Karađorđe ( 4th Class ) for his service in World War I and possibly also for his prior military accomplishments .
In September 1916 , the Serbian High Command sent then @-@ Lieutenant Pećanac by air to Mehane ( south @-@ west of Niš in the Toplica region ) to prepare a guerrilla uprising in support of a planned Allied offensive . There , Pećanac contacted several groups of guerrillas , known as comitadji . Pećanac joined forces with local leader Kosta Vojinović , and they both established headquarters on Mount Kopaonik . Rivalry quickly developed between the two leaders , mainly because Pećanac only had orders to prepare to support the planned Allied offensive , but Vojinović was conducting operations that might result in pre @-@ emptive action by the Bulgarian occupation forces . Matters came to a head in January – February 1917 when the Bulgarians began conscripting local Serbs for military service . At a meeting of guerrilla leaders to discuss whether they should commence a general uprising , Pećanac was outvoted . However , events had overtaken the leaders , and they were essentially joining a popular uprising that was already underway . After guerrillas under Pećanac 's command engaged the Bulgarians , he was hailed as a leader of the resistance , although he had serious reservations about the eventual outcome once the Bulgarians and Austro @-@ Hungarians committed large numbers of troops to subdue the uprising . The guerrillas were closing on Niš in early March when the occupying forces went on the offensive . Pećanac advised his fighters to hide out in the woods and mountains , while Vojinović ordered his to fight to the death . By 25 March , the uprising had been crushed . Pećanac 's participation in the rebellion came at a great personal cost ; three of his children died whilst in Bulgarian internment .
In April 1917 , Pećanac re @-@ emerged with his guerrillas , attacking a railway station , destroying a bridge and raiding a Bulgarian village on the border . Pećanac avoided a further offensive by the occupation forces in July by disappearing into the mountains once again . After emerging for a short time , in September – October 1917 Pećanac again dispersed his guerrillas and infiltrated the Austro @-@ Hungarian occupied zone , where he remained in hiding until mid @-@ 1918 . During his period in hiding , he met with the Kosovar Albanian leader Azem Galica to discuss joint actions against the occupation forces .
= = Interwar period = =
Pećanac was the most prominent figure in the Chetnik movement during the interwar period . During the 1920 Constitutional Assembly elections , Prime Minister Nikola Pašić sent Pećanac to the Sandžak with orders to intimidate the local Muslim population in the hope of keeping the turnout low . In the same year , attempts by the Yugoslav government to disarm and conscript Kosovo Albanians were met by revolts . Pećanac was sent to Kosovo to form detachments made up of local Serbs to fight the rebels . This resulted in rebel attacks on Serb villages .
Pećanac had a leading role in the Association against Bulgarian Bandits , an organisation that arbitrarily terrorised Bulgarians in the Štip region . He also served as a commander with the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists ( ORJUNA ) . Pećanac was present as a member of parliament at the assassination of Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) leader Stjepan Radić and HSS deputies Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček on 20 June 1928 . Prior to the shooting , he was accused by HSS deputy Ivan Pernar of being responsible for a massacre of 200 Muslims in 1921 .
Pećanac became the president of the Chetnik Association in 1932 . By opening membership of the Chetnik Association to new younger members that had not served in World War I , he grew the organisation during the 1930s from a nationalist veterans ' association focused on protecting veterans ' rights to an aggressively partisan Serb political organisation with 500 @,@ 000 members throughout the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . During this period , Pećanac formed close ties with the far @-@ right Yugoslav Radical Union government of Milan Stojadinović . Pećanac was known for his hostility to the Communist Party of Yugoslavia , which made him popular with conservatives , especially those in Stojadinović 's party .
= = World War II = =
Shortly before the Axis invasion of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Pećanac was requested by the Yugoslav Ministry of the Army and Navy to prepare for guerrilla operations and guard the southern area of Serbia , Macedonia , and Kosovo from pro @-@ Bulgarians and pro @-@ Albanians rebels . He was given money and weapons , and managed to arm several hundred men in the Toplica River valley in southern Serbia . Pećanac 's force remained intact after the German occupation of Serbia and supplemented its strength from Serb refugees fleeing Macedonia and Kosovo . Pećanac 's detachments fought against Albanian bands in the early summer of 1941 . At this time and for a considerable time after , only detachments under Pećanac were identified by the term " Chetnik " . With the rise of the communist Partisans , Pećanac gave up any interest in resistance and by late August reached agreements with both the Serbian puppet government and the German authorities to carry out attacks against the Partisans .
While he was concluding arrangements with the Germans , on 18 August 1941 Pećanac received a letter from Draža Mihailović requesting an agreement be reached where Pećanac would control the Chetniks south of the Western Morava River while Mihailović would control the Chetniks in all other areas . Pećanac declined his request and suggested that he might offer Mihailović the chief of staff position and recommended Mihailović 's detachments disband and join his detachments . In the meantime , Pećanac had arranged for the transfer of several thousand of his Chetniks to the Serbian Gendarmerie to act as German auxiliaries .
On 27 August , Pećanac issued an open " Proclamation to the Dear People " , in which he portrayed himself as a defender and protector of Serbs and called " on detachments that have been formed without his approval " to come together under his command . He demanded that individuals hiding in the forests immediately return to their homes and that acts of sabotage against the occupiers cease or the perpetrators would face death .
In September 1941 , some of Pećanac 's subordinates broke ranks to join with the Partisans in fighting the Germans and their Serbian auxiliaries . In the Kopaonik region , a previously loyal subordinate of Pećanac began attacking local gendarmerie stations and clashing with armed bands of Albanian Muslims . By the end of October , the Germans decided to stop arming the " unreliable " elements within Pećanac 's Chetniks , and attached the remainder to their other Serbian auxiliary forces .
On 7 October 1941 , Pećanac sent a request to Milan Nedić , the head of the Serbian puppet government , for stronger organisation , supplies , arms , salary funds , and more . Over time , his requests were fulfilled and a German liaison officer was appointed at Pećanac 's headquarters to help coordinate actions . According to German data , on 17 January 1942 72 Chetnik officers and 7 @,@ 963 men were being provided for by the Serbian Gendarmerie Command . This fell short of the maximum authorized size of 8 @,@ 745 men and included two or three thousand of Mihailović 's Chetniks who were legalized in November 1941 . In the same month , Pećanac sought permission from the Italians for his forces to move into eastern Montenegro , but was refused over Italian concerns that the Chetniks would move into the Sandžak .
In April 1942 , the German Commanding General in Serbia , General der Artillerie ( General ) Paul Bader , issued orders giving unit numbers C – 39 to C – 101 to the Pećanac Chetnik detachments , which were put under the command of the local German division or area command post . These orders also required the deployment of a German liaison officer with all detachments engaged in operations , and limited their movement outside their assigned area . Supply of arms and ammunition was also controlled . In July 1942 , Mihailović arranged for the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile to denounce Pećanac as a traitor . His continuing collaboration ruined what remained of the reputation he had developed in the Balkan Wars and World War I.
The Germans soon found that Pećanac 's units were inefficient , unreliable , and of little military use . Pećanac 's Chetniks regularly clashed and had rivalries with other German auxiliaries , such as the Serbian State Guard and Serbian Volunteer Command , as well as with Mihailović 's Chetniks . The Germans and the puppet government commenced disbanding them in September 1942 , and all but one were dissolved by the end of 1942 . The last detachment was dissolved in March 1943 . Pećanac 's followers were dispersed to other German auxiliary forces , German labour units , and prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . Many deserted to join Mihailović . Nothing is known of Pećanac 's activities in the months that followed except that he was interned for some time by the Serbian puppet government .
= = Death = =
Accounts of Pećanac 's capture and death vary . According to one account , Pećanac , four of his leaders and 40 of their followers were captured by forces loyal to Mihailović in February 1944 . All were killed within days except Pećanac , who remained in custody to write his war memoirs before being executed on 5 May 1944 . Another source states he was assassinated on 6 June 1944 by Chetniks loyal to Mihailović .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
= Trial of Lord George Gordon =
The Trial of Lord George Gordon for high treason occurred on 5 February 1781 before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench , as a result of Gordon 's role in the eponymously named riots . Gordon , President of the Protestant Association , had led a protest against the Papists Act 1778 , a Catholic relief bill . Intending only to hand in a petition to Parliament , Gordon riled the crowd by announcing the postponement of the petition , denouncing Members of Parliament and launching " anti @-@ Catholic harangues " . The crowd of protesters fragmented and began looting nearby buildings ; by the time the riots had finished a week later , 300 had died , and more property had been damaged than during the entire French Revolution . Gordon was almost immediately arrested , and indicted for levying war against the King .
Defended by Thomas Erskine and Lloyd Kenyon , Gordon was accidentally assisted by the Attorney General , James Wallace , who managed to " ridicule " some of his own evidence before Gordon was set back by Kenyon 's lacklustre and confusing speech . However , an impassioned speech by Erskine , which argued that Gordon 's actions were only crimes under the illegally extended law of constructive treason , led to the jury finding him not guilty . This result , which met with pleasure due to the popular disquiet with the idea of constructive treason , left juries unwilling to apply the extended law of constructive treason ; as a result , the government was forced to incorporate it into statute law . Erskine became renowned as an excellent , albeit unorthodox , advocate ; Gordon , on the other hand , was later excommunicated and imprisoned , dying in jail in 1793 . Kenyon was chosen to replace Wallace as Attorney General at the next change of ministry .
= = Background = =
Lord George Gordon , third and youngest son of the third duke of Gordon , and brother of the fourth duke , an " ignorant young nobleman , almost simple @-@ minded in his attitude to Catholics " , was the President of the Protestant Association . This body was dedicated to the repeal of the Papists Act 1778 , a Roman Catholic relief bill . Prior to the passage of the Act , Catholics were legally forbidden from voting , inheriting land , saying mass , serving in public office or academia , bearing arms or serving in the military , although these prohibitions were frequently overlooked , particularly those regarding military enlistment . The 1778 Act explicitly removed the bans on saying mass , land inheritance or academic standing , and involved several other implicit concessions , made to encourage Catholics to serve in the military . This was made necessary by the ongoing course of the American Revolution , which was going poorly for British forces – it was felt that Catholic relief would both directly strengthen the armed forces and prevent the repeat of revolution in Ireland , a mostly Catholic nation , which politicians thought a distinct possibility given their " trade grievances and troubled politics " .
On 2 June 1780 , approximately 60 @,@ 000 people gathered in St George 's Fields , London , to hear an address from Gordon . He and the mob were there to hand in a petition to Parliament ( of which he was a Member ) decrying the Papists Act . After marching to Parliament and reassembling , the mob became incensed by a declaration from Gordon that consideration of the petition was to be postponed , and fragmented . Gordon himself encouraged the crowd with " anti @-@ Catholic harangues " , denouncing approaching Members of Parliament , and groups began destroying and looting Catholic buildings or buildings owned by those they alleged to support Catholic relief . Several Members of Parliament were attacked , the house of Lord Chief Justice Lord Mansfield was destroyed , and several prisons were broken into . At least 300 died in the week it took the military to quash the riots ; Emma Mason writes that more property was damaged during this week than in the entire French Revolution . 450 were arrested , including Gordon himself , who was charged with high treason . His indictment stated that he " most wickedly , maliciously , and traitorously did ordain , prepare , and levy public war against our said lord , the King " .
= = Trial = =
Gordon retained two barristers for his defence , Thomas Erskine and Lloyd Kenyon , and was arraigned by the Attorney General before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench on 5 February 1781 , pleading not guilty . The Attorney General opened , managing to accidentally reduce the evidence of some of his own witnesses to ridicule ; this was offset by Kenyon 's confusing and poor speech in Gordon 's defence . Kenyon , an equity barrister with little experience of public speaking , was noted as " a curious choice for the defence " , and seeing the reaction of the jury to his speech , Erskine asked for leave to delay giving his speech , which was granted .
Following the testimony of 12 witnesses , who stated that Gordon was of excellent character and was loyal to both the king and the constitution , Erskine rose , and instead of arguing that Gordon had not been involved instead took the line that his crimes did not constitute treason . High treason was at the time still based on the Treason Act 1351 , which mandated that the definition of treason could not be extended by judges . Notwithstanding this , the judiciary had extended this to include constructive treason . Erskine was successful in showing that Gordon 's motives had only been to defend his nation , not to harm it , and that without the intention to commit treason , no treason could be committed . The original law required the act to be treasonous in nature , not in consequence , and Gordon 's crimes fell into the second category .
Erskine 's speech was replied to by the Solicitor General , James Mansfield , and the summing @-@ up by Lord Mansfield was not favorable to Gordon . However , Erskine 's reasoning carried the day with the jury , who found Lord George not guilty .
= = Aftermath = =
The verdict was received with pleasure by the majority of the populace , with the principle of constructive treason " widely regarded as highly threatening and injurious to public freedoms " ; as a result , juries became far less willing to convict people for constructive treason , and the government resorted to amending the Treason Act to incorporate the judicially invented concept of constructive treason into statute law . Erskine 's speech , more than anything else , is considered to be the source of this acquittal ; Lloyd Paul Stryker in his biography of Erskine notes that he " had held his jury spellbound @-@ not the jury only , but the whole courtroom also . His logic , his sincerity , and his fire had driven in his close @-@ knit arguments with hammer blows " . Erskine later became Lord Chancellor in the Ministry of All the Talents and was renowned as an excellent , albeit unorthodox , advocate . Kenyon , on the other hand , became Lord Chief Justice . Gordon , the defendant in the case , had a less successful subsequent career ; he was later excommunicated and sent to prison , where he died of typhoid in 1793 .
= Æthelbald of Mercia =
Æthelbald ( also spelled Ethelbald , or Aethelbald ) ( died 757 ) was the King of Mercia , in what is now the English Midlands from 716 until he was killed in 757 . Æthelbald was the son of Alweo and thus a grandson of Eowa , who was the brother of Penda . Æthelbald came to the throne after the death of his cousin , King Ceolred , who had driven him into exile . During his long reign , Mercia became the dominant kingdom of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , and recovered the position of pre @-@ eminence it had enjoyed during the seventh century under the strong Mercian kings Penda and Wulfhere .
When Æthelbald came to the throne , both Wessex and Kent were ruled by stronger kings , but within fifteen years the contemporary chronicler Bede describes Æthelbald as ruling all England south of the river Humber . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not list Æthelbald as a bretwalda
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, or " Ruler of Britain " , though this may be due to the West Saxon origin of the Chronicle .
St. Boniface wrote to Æthelbald in about 745 , reproving him for various dissolute and irreligious acts . The subsequent 747 council of Clovesho and a charter Æthelbald issued at Gumley in 749 — which freed the church from some of its obligations — may have been responses to Boniface 's letter . Æthelbald was killed in 757 by his bodyguards . He was succeeded briefly by Beornred , of whom little is known , but within a year , Offa , the grandson of Æthelbald 's cousin Eanwulf , had seized the throne , possibly after a brief civil war . Under Offa , Mercia entered its most prosperous and influential period .
= = Early life and accession = =
Æthelbald came of the Mercian royal line , although his father , Alweo , was never king . Alweo 's father was Eowa , who may have shared the throne for some time with his brother , Penda of Mercia . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle does not mention Eowa ; though it does date Penda 's reign as the thirty years from 626 to 656 , when Penda was killed at the battle of the Winwaed . However , two later sources name Eowa as king as well : the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae . The Annales Cambriae is the source for Eowa 's death in 644 at the battle of Maserfield , where Penda defeated Oswald of Northumbria . Details on Penda 's reign are scarce , and it is a matter for speculation whether Eowa was an underking , owing allegiance to Penda , or if instead Eowa and Penda had divided Mercia between them . If they did divide the kingdom , it is likely that Eowa ruled northern Mercia , as Penda 's son Peada was established later as the king of southern Mercia by the Northumbrian Oswiu , who defeated the Mercians and killed Penda in 656 . It is possible that Eowa fought against Penda at Maserfield .
During Æthelbald 's youth , Penda 's dynasty ruled Mercia ; Ceolred , a grandson of Penda and therefore a second cousin of Æthelbald , was king of Mercia from 709 to 716 . An early source , Felix 's Life of Saint Guthlac , reveals that it was Ceolred who drove Æthelbald into exile . Guthlac was a Mercian nobleman who abandoned a career of violence to become first a monk at Repton , and later a hermit living in a barrow at Crowland , in the East Anglian fens . During Æthelbald 's exile he and his men also took refuge in the Fens in the area , and visited Guthlac . Guthlac was sympathetic to Æthelbald 's cause , perhaps because of Ceolred 's oppression of the monasteries . Other visitors of Guthlac 's included Bishop Haedde of Lichfield , an influential Mercian , and it may be that Guthlac 's support was politically useful to Æthelbald in gaining the throne . After Guthlac 's death , Æthelbald had a dream in which Guthlac prophesied greatness for him , and Æthelbald later rewarded Guthlac with a shrine when he had become king .
When Ceolred died of a fit at a banquet , Æthelbald returned to Mercia and became ruler . It is possible that a king named Ceolwald , perhaps a brother of Ceolred , reigned for a short while between Ceolred and Æthelbald . Æthelbald 's accession ended Penda 's line of descent ; Æthelbald 's reign was followed , after a brief interval , by that of Offa , another descendant of Eowa .
Other than his father , Alweo , little of Æthelbald 's immediate family is known , although in the witness list of two charters a leading ealdorman named Heardberht is recorded as his brother .
= = Mercian dominance = =
Æthelbald 's reign marked a resurgence of Mercian power , which would last until the end of the eighth century . With the exception of the short reign of Beornrad , who succeeded Æthelbald for less than a year , Mercia was ruled for eighty years by two of the most powerful Anglo @-@ Saxon kings , Æthelbald and Offa . These long reigns were unusual at this early date ; during the same period eleven kings reigned in Northumbria , many of whom died violent deaths .
By 731 , Æthelbald had all the English south of the Humber under his overlordship . There is little direct evidence of the relationship between Æthelbald and the kings who were dependent on him . Generally , a king subject to an overlord such as Æthelbald would still be regarded as a king , but would have his independence curtailed in some respects . Charters are an important source of evidence for this relationship ; these were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen , and were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land . A charter granting land in the territory of one of the subject kings might record the names of the king as well as the overlord on the witness list appended to the grant ; such a witness list can be seen on the Ismere Diploma , for example . The titles given to the kings on these charters could also be revealing : a king might be described as a " subregulus " , or underking .
Enough information survives to suggest the progress of Æthelbald 's influence over two of the southern kingdoms , Wessex and Kent . At the start of Æthelbald 's reign , both Kent and Wessex were ruled by strong kings ; Wihtred and Ine , respectively . Wihtred of Kent died in 725 , and Ine of Wessex , one of the most formidable rulers of his day , abdicated in 726 to go on a pilgrimage to Rome . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Ine 's successor , Aethelheard , fought that year with an ealdorman named Oswald , whom the Chronicle provides with a genealogy showing descent from Ceawlin , an early king of Wessex . Aethelheard ultimately succeeded in this struggle for the throne , and there are subsequent indications that he ruled subject to Mercian authority . Hence it may be that Æthelbald helped establish both Aethelheard and his brother , Cuthred , who succeeded Aethelheard in 739 . There is also evidence of South Saxon territory breaking away from West Saxon dominance in the early 720s , and this may indicate Æthelbald 's increasing influence in the area , though it could have been Kentish , rather than Mercian , influence that was weakening West Saxon control .
As for Kent , there is evidence from Kentish charters that shows that Æthelbald was a patron of Kentish churches . There is , however , no charter evidence showing Æthelbald 's consent to Kentish land grants ; and charters of Aethelberht and Eadberht , both kings of Kent , survive in which they grant land without Æthelbald 's consent . It may be that charters showing Æthelbald 's overlordship simply do not survive , but the result is that there is no direct evidence of the extent of Æthelbald 's influence in Kent .
Less is known about events in Essex , but it was at about this time that London became attached to the kingdom of Mercia rather than that of Essex . Three of Æthelbald 's predecessors — Æthelred , Coenred , and Ceolred — had each confirmed an East Saxon charter granting Twickenham to Waldhere , the bishop of London . From Kentish charters it is known that Æthelbald was in control of London , and from Æthelbald 's time on , the transition to Mercian control appears to be complete ; an early charter of Offa 's , granting land near Harrow , does not even include the king of Essex on the witness list . For the South Saxons , there is very little charter evidence , but as with Kent , what there is does not show any requirement for Æthelbald 's consent to land grants . The lack of evidence should not obscure the fact that Bede , who was after all a contemporary chronicler , summarized the situation of England in 731 by listing the bishops in office in southern England , and adding that " all these provinces , together with the others south of the river Humber and their kings , are subject to Æthelbald , King of the Mercians . "
There is evidence that Æthelbald had to go to war to maintain his overlordship . In 733 Æthelbald undertook an expedition against Wessex and captured the royal manor of Somerton . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle also tells how when Cuthred succeeded Aethelheard to the throne of Wessex , in 740 , he " boldly made war against Aethelbald , king of Mercia " . Three years later , Cuthred and Æthelbald are described as fighting against the Welsh . This could have been an obligation placed on Cuthred by Mercia ; earlier kings had similarly assisted Penda and Wulfhere , two strong seventh @-@ century Mercian rulers . In 752 , Æthelbald and Cuthred are again on opposite sides of the conflict , and according to one version of the manuscript , Cuthred " put him [ Æthelbald ] to flight " at Burford . Æthelbald seems to have reasserted his authority over the West Saxons by the time of his death , since a later West Saxon king , Cynewulf , is recorded as witnessing a charter of Æthelbald at the very beginning of his reign , in 757 .
In 740 , a war between the Picts and the Northumbrians is reported . Æthelbald , who might have been allied with Óengus , the king of the Picts , took advantage of Eadberht 's absence from Northumbria to ravage his lands , and perhaps burn York .
= = Titles and Bretwaldaship = =
Earlier in Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People chronicle , he lists seven kings who governed the southern provinces of the English , with reigns dating from the late fifth to the late seventh century . Subsequently , the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle — another important source for the period — describes these seven as bretwaldas or brytenwaldas , a title translated as " Britain @-@ ruler " or " Wide @-@ ruler " . The Chronicle adds just one king to the list : Egbert of Wessex , who reigned in the ninth century . The resulting list of eight bretwaldas omits several strong Mercian kings . It is possible that the chronicler was merely adding Egbert 's name to Bede 's original list of seven , rather than claiming that no other kings achieved similar powers in England . The chronicler was almost certainly a West Saxon , and since neither Æthelbald nor Offa were kings of Wessex it is possible the chronicler does not mention them out of regional pride . The meaning of the term " bretwalda " , and the nature of the power that these eight kings wielded , has had much academic scrutiny . One suggested interpretation is that since Bede was writing during Æthelbald 's reign , the original seven he listed were essentially those kings who could be seen as prototypes of Æthelbald in their domination of England south of the Humber .
Further evidence of Æthelbald 's power , or at least his titles , is provided by an important charter of 736 , the Ismere Diploma , which survives in a contemporary ( and possibly original ) copy . It starts by describing Æthelbald as " king not only of the Mercians but also of all the provinces which are called by the general name South English " ; in the witness list he is further named " Rex Britanniae " , " King of Britain " . One historian described this title as " a phrase which can only be interpreted as a Latin rendering of the English title Bretwalda " ; but it may be that at that time these titles would not have been acknowledged much beyond Worcester , where this and other documents from the 730s that use similar titles were written .
= = Relations with the church = =
In 745 – 746 , the leading Anglo @-@ Saxon missionary in Germany , St Boniface , along with seven other bishops , sent Æthelbald a scorching letter reproaching him for many sins — stealing ecclesiastical revenue , violating church privileges , imposing forced labour on the clergy , and fornicating with nuns . The letter implored Æthelbald to take a wife and abandon the sin of lust :
We therefore , beloved son , beseech Your Grace by Christ the son of God and by His coming and by His kingdom , that if it is true that you are continuing in this vice you will amend your life by penitence , purify yourself , and bear in mind how vile a thing it is through lust to change the image of God created in you into the image and likeness of a vicious demon . Remember that you were made king and ruler over many not by your own merits but by the abounding grace of God , and now you are making yourself by your own lust the slave of an evil spirit .
Boniface first sent the letter to Ecgberht , the archbishop of York , asking him to correct any inaccuracies and reinforce whatever was right ; and he requested Herefrith , a priest whom Æthelbald had listened to in the past , to read and explain it to the king in person . Though Boniface 's letter praises Æthelbald 's faith and alms @-@ giving , its criticisms have strongly coloured subsequent opinion of Æthelbald . A claim made in a ninth @-@ century list of donations from the abbey of Gloucester that Æthelbald had " stabbed — or smitten " to death the kinsman of a Mercian abbess has also contributed negatively to his reputation .
Æthelbald may have influenced the appointment of successive archbishops of Canterbury in Tatwine , Nothelm , and Cuthbert , the latter probably the former bishop of Hereford ; and despite Boniface 's strong criticisms , there is evidence of Æthelbald 's positive interest in church affairs . A subsequent letter of Boniface 's to Cuthbert , Archbishop of Canterbury , provided a good deal of information about Frankish synods , especially one held in 747 , the decrees of which Boniface included in the letter . Boniface does not explicitly suggest to Cuthbert that he , too , should hold a synod , but it seems clear that this was Boniface 's intent . A council was , in fact , subsequently held at Clovesho ( the location of which is now lost ) ; Æthelbald attended and perhaps presided . The council was concerned with the relationship between the church and the secular world , and it condemned many excesses on the part of the clergy . The council limited relations between monks and laymen and ruled that secular activities were impermissible for monks : secular business and secular songs were both forbidden , especially " ludicrous songs " .
Two years after this , in 749 , at the synod of Gumley , Æthelbald issued a charter that freed ecclesiastical lands from all obligations except the requirement to build forts and bridges — obligations which lay upon everyone , as part of the trinoda necessitas . This charter was witnessed only by Mercian bishops , and it is possible it had no effect outside Mercia , but it is also possible that it was essentially part of a reform programme inspired by Boniface and instigated at Clovesho .
= = Death = =
In 757 , Æthelbald was killed at Seckington , Warwickshire , near the royal seat of Tamworth . According to a later continuation of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History , he was " treacherously murdered at night by his own bodyguards " , though the reason why is unrecorded . He was succeeded , briefly , by Beornrad . Æthelbald was buried at Repton , in a crypt which still can be seen ; a contemporary is reported to have seen a vision of him in hell , reinforcing the impression of a king not universally well @-@ regarded . The monastery church on the site at that time was probably constructed by Æthelbald to house the royal mausoleum ; other burials there include that of Wigstan .
A fragment of a cross shaft from Repton includes on one face a carved image of a mounted man which , it has been suggested , may be a memorial to Æthelbald . The figure is of a man wearing mail armour and brandishing a sword and shield , with a diadem bound around his head . If this is Æthelbald , it would make it the earliest large @-@ scale pictorial representation of an English monarch .
= = The Legend of Alfred III , King of Mercia = =
According to a story recorded by the 16th century antiquarian John Leland , and derived by him from a now lost book in the possession of the Earls of Rutland at Belvoir Castle , there was once a King Alfred III of Mercia , who reigned in the 730s . Though no Mercian king was ever named Alfred , let alone three , if this story has any historical basis ( which Leland himself rejected ) it must presumably relate to Æthelbald . The legend states that Alfred III had occasion to visit a certain William de Albanac , alleged ancestor of the Earls of Rutland , at his castle near Grantham , and took a fancy to Willam 's three comely daughters . It was the king 's intention to take one as his mistress , but William threatened to kill whichever he chose rather than have her dishonoured in this way , whereupon Alfred " answerid that he meant to take one of them to wife , and chose Etheldrede that had fat bottoks , and of her he had Alurede that wan first all the Saxons the monarchy of England . " A painting of this supposed incident was commissioned in 1778 by the then Duke of Rutland , but was destroyed in a fire in 1816 .
= 1971 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1971 Atlantic hurricane season was fairly active with several notable storms . Hurricane Edith , the strongest of the season , was a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , the highest category on the scale . It struck Nicaragua at peak intensity , killing dozens , and later hit southern Louisiana . Until 2003 , Hurricane Ginger held the record for the longest known duration of a North Atlantic tropical cyclone , lasting 27 @.@ 25 days from early September to early October ; it is currently the second longest @-@ lasting Atlantic hurricane . Ginger moved ashore in North Carolina , producing heavy rains and damaging winds . An unnamed storm in August attained hurricane status further north than any other Atlantic hurricane .
The season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 , 1971 ; these dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . With thirteen tropical storms , of which six became hurricanes , the season was active . Despite the activity , damage in the United States totaled about $ 235 million ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 37 billion 2016 USD ) , which National Hurricane Center forecaster Paul Hebert noted was " pretty small considering we had five storms in a row strike the U.S. " Most of the damage came from Tropical Storm Doria , which affected much of the East Coast of the United States . Hurricane Fern struck Texas after executing an unusual track , dropping heavy rainfall and producing flooding . The first storm , Arlene , developed on July 4 off the coast of North Carolina . Activity was steady through most of the season , and the last storm , Laura , dissipated on November 22 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Arlene = = =
The origins of Arlene were from a cold front that exited the East Coast of the United States on July 2 and stalled offshore . A frontal wave developed the next day , steadily developing due to thermal instability . On July 4 , the system organized into a tropical depression about 120 mi ( 195 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . While in its formative stages , it dropped rainfall along the coast of the Carolinas , peaking at 4 @.@ 11 in ( 104 mm ) in Pinopolis , South Carolina . The depression tracked northeastward due to a ridge over New England , and the cyclone passed just southeast of the Outer Banks . After a Hurricane Hunters plane observed gale force winds , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Arlene late on July 5 ; in the post @-@ season summary , meteorologist Neil Frank noted , " the surprising element in the development of Arlene was the rapidity of the transformation process . "
Upon being named , Arlene continued northeastward , possessing a circular mass of convection with spiral rainbands . Late on July 6 , the storm attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , based on a ship report . It weakened thereafter , and Arlene transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on July 7 just south of Newfoundland . The cyclone last observed early the following day . The storm capsized a boat in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland , and the crew of 12 was rescued .
= = = Unnamed Hurricane = = =
A hybrid @-@ type depression formed east of Bermuda on July 29 . It moved rapidly southwestward before turning to a northwest drift . On August 3 , it was classified as a tropical depression , and the next day the system passed near Bermuda . The depression accelerated to the northeast , strengthening into a tropical storm on August 5 . It intensified further due to baroclinity , or enhanced instability through different levels of the atmosphere caused by temperature and moisture gradients . On August 6 , a drilling rig about 230 mi ( 370 km ) southeast of Newfoundland recorded sustained winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) with gusts to 126 mph ( 204 km / h ) at an altitude of 325 ft ( 99 m ) ; this suggested the storm attained hurricane status at 46 ° North , which is the northernmost location for a tropical storm to intensify into a hurricane .
Despite the intensity , the cyclone was not purely tropical ; although the radius of maximum winds was only 35 mi ( 56 km ) , the thermal structure did not resemble a tropical cyclone , and there was no precipitation or convection near the center . It continued northeastward and dissipated on August 7 to the southwest of Greenland . It was not named operationally , but it was later added to the Atlantic hurricane database .
= = = Hurricane Beth = = =
On August 9 , an upper @-@ level low developed off the coast of Florida , and the next day spawned a tropical depression . The newly developed cyclone tracked slowly northeastward , eventually encountering conditions favorable for development . On August 14 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beth off the coast of North Carolina , and it quickly strengthened into a hurricane by August 15 . After reaching peak winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) off the coast of Cape Cod , Beth slightly weakened and later moved ashore near Copper Lake , Nova Scotia . Shortly thereafter , Beth was swept up by a nearby cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
The hurricane left extensive damage in its wake , especially to crops and infrastructure . Halifax International Airport reported 10 @.@ 49 in ( 266 mm ) of rainfall in a 30 ‑ hour span , which caused widespread flooding . Several bridges in the region were washed out , while railways were covered by water , forcing trains to suspend their operation . Overall monetary damage from Beth is estimated up to $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 29 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) . One person was indirectly killed by the hurricane in a traffic accident induced by heavy rainfall .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
On August 11 , Tropical Depression Eight developed southwest of Fort Myers , Florida . It quickly moved ashore , reaching Lake Okeechobee before looping to the northwest . While moving across the state , it dropped heavy rainfall of around 10 in ( 250 mm ) along the west coast . In Pinellas Park , the heavy rains led to flash flooding that forced 200 families from their house , including one that required evacuation from a helicopter . Damage in the region was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1971 USD , $ 1 @.@ 46 million 2016 USD ) .
The depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 15 near Tampa , and later turned to the northeast ahead of an upper @-@ level low . On August 16 , it intensified as it moved ashore near Cedar Key , where hurricane @-@ force wind gusts were briefly observed . The depression dissipated on August 17 over South Carolina , although in that state it produced its heaviest rainfall , totaling 14 @.@ 11 in ( 358 mm ) in Sullivan 's Island . In nearby Savannah , Georgia , the rainfall forced about 100 families from their houses in low @-@ lying areas . The remnants continued northeastward through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States and New England , crossing into Canada on August 20 .
= = = Tropical Storm Chloe = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 13 , moving westward for several days before organizing into a tropical depression on August 18 about 460 mi ( 740 km ) east of Barbados . It quickly moved through the Lesser Antilles , where it produced wind gusts up to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) . The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) on Barbados and Martinique . After entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chloe on August 20 . About 18 hours after attaining tropical storm status , Chloe quickly strengthened to peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) about 215 mi ( 345 km ) south of the Mona Passage , as reported by reconnaissance aircraft .
After reaching peak intensity , Chloe began weakening as it turned to the west @-@ southwest , and late on August 22 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression as a weakening ridge to its north cut off the low @-@ level inflow . For several days it continued generally westward , gradually losing organization . While passing south of Jamaica , the storm prompted the evacuation of the SS Hope , a hospital ship , at Kingston . On August 25 , Chloe moved ashore in Belize as a weak tropical depression , and dissipated shortly thereafter without ever having caused significant damage or deaths . The remnants of Chloe later spawned Hurricane Lily in the eastern Pacific Ocean .
= = = Tropical Storm Doria = = =
Tropical Storm Doria , the costliest storm of the season , developed from a tropical wave on August 20 to the east of the Lesser Antilles , and after five days without development attained tropical storm status to the east of Florida . Doria turned to the north , and reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) as it was making landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina . It turned to the northeast , and moved through the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England as a tropical storm before becoming an extratropical storm over Maine on August 29 .
In North Carolina , Doria produced moderate rainfall , resulting in localized flooding and damage . The storm spawned a tornado near Norfolk , Virginia , damaging twelve houses and downing hundreds of trees . Tropical Storm Doria dropped heavy precipitation in New Jersey , peaking at 10 @.@ 29 in ( 261 mm ) in Little Falls . The rainfall led to record @-@ breaking river levels and flooding in several houses , resulting in damage to dozens of houses across the state . Moderate damage and rainfall continued along its path into New England and southeastern Canada . In all , Tropical Storm Doria caused seven deaths and $ 147 @.@ 6 million ( 1971 US $ , $ 862 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Fern = = =
Hurricane Fern was the first of four tropical systems to develop in association with an extended surface trough across the Gulf of Mexico into the open Atlantic , along with Ginger , Heidi , and a strong tropical depression . Fern developed on September 3 in the central Gulf of Mexico . It moved over southern Louisiana the next day , but due to increased ridging to the north the depression moved southwestward back over water . On September 7 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fern ; it is rare for a tropical depression to move over land in the continental United States ( excluding Florida ) and later attain tropical storm status . Fern later turned to the northwest , intensifying into a hurricane on September 8 . It quickly reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , but later weakened as it curved to the southwest , moving ashore on September 10 between Freeport and Matagorda , Texas as a tropical storm . Fern dissipated on September 13 over northeastern Mexico .
The precursor of Fern dropped rainfall up to 5 in ( 130 mm ) of rainfall across South Florida , while totals of up to 10 in ( 250 mm ) were reported in southeastern Louisiana where it made its first landfall . As it struck Texas , Fern produced strong winds up to 86 mph ( 138 km / h ) , along with 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) storm tides and heavy rainfall ; the highest precipitation total was 26 @.@ 0 in ( 660 mm ) in Beeville . The heavy rainfall caused severe flash flooding that isolated numerous small towns in the southeastern portion of the state , damaging 7 @,@ 500 buildings . In all , Fern left two indirect deaths and moderate damage totaling $ 30 @.@ 2 million ( 1971 USD , $ 171 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Edith = = =
Hurricane Edith , the strongest storm of the season , developed from a tropical wave on September 5 to the east of the southern Lesser Antilles . It moved quickly across the southern Caribbean Sea , intensifying into a hurricane just off the north coast of South America . Edith rapidly intensified on September 9 and made landfall on Cape Gracias a Dios as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It quickly lost intensity over Central America and after briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . After moving across the Gulf of Mexico , a trough turned the storm to the northeast and Edith , after having restrengthened while accelerating towards the coast , made landfall on Louisiana with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) on September 16 . Edith steadily weakened over land and dissipated over Georgia on September 18 .
The hurricane killed two people when it passed near Aruba . Striking northeastern Central America as a Category 5 hurricane , Edith destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least 35 people . In Texas high tides caused coastal flooding but little damage . Edith caused moderate to heavy damage in portions of Louisiana due to flooding and a tornado outbreak from the storm . One tornado , rated F3 on the Fujita Scale , damaged several homes and injured multiple people in Baton Rouge . The tornado outbreak extended eastward into Florida . Damage in the United States totaled $ 25 million ( 1971 USD , $ 146 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Ginger = = =
Hurricane Ginger was the longest lasting Atlantic hurricane on record until 2003 , when the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane was retroactively found to have lasted longer . The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the season , Ginger spent 27 @.@ 25 days as a tropical cyclone , and lasted from September 6 to October 3 . The storm developed in a large region of convection across the Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic , and for the first nine days of its duration tracked generally east- or northeastward while gradually strengthening to peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . On September 14 Ginger slowed and turned to a general westward track , passing near Bermuda on September 23 ; there , the hurricane produced gusty winds and high waves , but no damage .
While over the western Atlantic Ocean , Ginger became the last target of Project Stormfury , which sought to weaken hurricanes by depositing silver iodide into tropical cyclone rainbands . The plane dropped silver iodide into the center of Ginger , although there was no effect due to Ginger 's large eye and diffuse nature ; Ginger was the last seeding done by the project . Ginger ultimately struck North Carolina on September 30 as a minimal hurricane , lashing the coastline with gusty winds that caused power outages across the region . Heavy rainfall flooded towns and left heavy crop damage , with 3 million bushels of corn and 1 million bushels of soybean lost . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 USD , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Further north , moderate rainfall and winds spread through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , although no significant damage was reported outside of North Carolina .
= = = Tropical Storm Heidi = = =
Tropical Storm Heidi was the last of the four tropical systems to develop from the extended surface trough of low pressure , forming on September 11 northeast of the Bahamas and intensifying into a tropical storm the next day . After initially moving to the northwest , Heidi curved northeastward and attained its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on September 14 off the coast of Virginia . The storm failed to become a well @-@ organized system , and it gradually weakened while accelerating north @-@ northeastward . On September 15 , shortly after Heidi moved ashore in Maine , it was absorbed by a broad extratropical cyclone over the northern Appalachians .
Heidi did not directly cause any fatalities or severe damage . However , the larger extratropical storm drew in moisture from Heidi , producing rainfall from North Carolina through northern New England , including a peak of 9 @.@ 38 in ( 238 mm ) in southeastern Pennsylvania . The heavy rains triggered extensive flooding that caused over a dozen fatalities and left thousands of residents homeless in Pennsylvania and New Jersey . In Chester , Pennsylvania a stone dam collapsed , forcing hundreds of families to evacuate and damaging homes , businesses , roads , and bridges . Governor Milton Shapp declared a state of emergency in several Pennsylvania counties following the floods .
= = = Hurricane Irene = = =
A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on September 11 about 800 mi ( 1300 km ) east of the Windward Islands . The cyclone tracked nearly due westward at a low latitude , passing through the southern Windward Islands and later over northern South America . In the southwest Caribbean Sea , it intensified to a tropical storm and later a hurricane . Irene made landfall on southeastern Nicaragua on September 19 , and maintained its circulation as it crossed the low @-@ lying terrain of the country . Restrengthening after reaching the Pacific , Irene was renamed Hurricane Olivia , which ultimately attained peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) before weakening and dissipating over northwestern Mexico .
In the Atlantic , Irene produced moderate rainfall and winds along its path , although impact was greatest in Nicaragua where it moved ashore as a hurricane . A total of 96 homes were destroyed , and 1 @,@ 200 people were left homeless . The rainfall resulted in widespread flooding , killing three people in Rivas . In neighboring Costa Rica , Hurricane Irene caused more than $ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 5 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) in damage to the banana crop . The hurricane was the first actively tracked tropical cyclone that moved into the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic ocean .
= = = Tropical Storm Janice = = =
The origins of Janice were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 . It developed into a tropical depression on September 21 about 1050 mi ( 1700 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde , which was the easternmost formation of the named storms this season . The next day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Janice , and quickly reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The storm never became well @-@ organized , with its peak winds located east of the broad center . Despite being in a climatologically favored region for further development , Janice weakened due to increased wind shear from Hurricane Ginger . The circulation became elongated and separated from the convection , and on September 24 the storm weakened to a tropical depression . Later that day Janice dissipated just northeast of the Lesser Antilles as it was absorbed by Ginger . Around that time , it produced rainfall in the northeastern Caribbean , reaching 4 in ( 100 mm ) on Saint Kitts ; no damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Kristy = = =
The interaction between a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level trough led to the development of a tropical depression on October 18 , about 685 mi ( 1100 km ) northeast of Puerto Rico . It moved quickly north @-@ northeastward , followed by a curve to the northeast . On October 20 , a ship reported winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , indicating the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Kristy . As it reached this strength , an approaching cold front produced cooler , drier air over the storm . Kristy intensified slightly further to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before becoming indistinguishable from the cold front . By October 21 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating near the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Laura = = =
The final storm of the season , Laura , formed on November 12 in the western Caribbean Sea , and reached winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) as it approached western Cuba . Across the island , the storm produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 32 @.@ 5 in ( 830 mm ) . The resulting flooding killed one person and caused crop damage , and also forced 26 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . Initially , Laura was forecast to move across the island and impact the southern United States , but it executed a small loop and turned to the southwest . The storm moved ashore on Belize , one of only four November storms to affect the country . Little impact occurred during Laura 's final landfall , and it dissipated on November 22 over central Guatemala . Laura had the second highest accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) of any Atlantic tropical cyclone that did not attain hurricane status behind a tropical storm in 1913 .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the named storms and otherwise notable cyclones , there were several weak depressions during the season . After a June devoid of activity , three tropical depressions developed within the first ten days of July . The first became Tropical Storm Arlene on July 4 , and the second formed off the coast of Louisiana on July 6 . Tropical Depression Two moved westward due to a ridge to its northeast , and it struck just west of the Texas / Louisiana border before dissipating on July 8 . Its precursor dropped 3 @.@ 90 in ( 99 mm ) near Carrabelle , Florida , but much less along its path . Just two days later , another tropical depression formed in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico , quickly moving ashore in southern Texas before dissipating on July 11 ; it dropped light rainfall along its path .
In August , there were two tropical depressions , in addition to the named storms and the notable Tropical Depression Eight . The first , Tropical Depression Five , developed in the central Gulf of Mexico on August 6 . It made landfall in Louisiana three days later , eventually dissipating over Mississippi . The other , designated Tropical Depression Eleven , formed over the Bahamas on August 28 . It moved westward , crossing Florida and the Gulf of Mexico before dissipating over southeastern Louisiana on September 1 . The depression dropped moderate rainfall along the Gulf Coast , peaking at 6 @.@ 82 in ( 173 mm ) at Gulf Shores , Alabama .
There were three non @-@ developing tropical depressions in September , the first of which just off the coast of Africa on September 3 . It moved west @-@ northwestward , passing near Cape Verde before dissipating on September 8 . The next , Tropical Depression Eighteen , originated on September 8 east of Florida from the same trough that also spawned Fern , Ginger , and Heidi . It initially moved northward before curving to the west , making landfall near the Georgia / South Carolina border on September 11 before dissipating the following day . The other , Tropical Depression Nineteen , developed off the coast of Africa on September 10 , moving westward before dissipating on September 14 .
The final non @-@ developing tropical depression of the season formed on October 6 in the western Caribbean Sea . It crossed the Yucatán Peninsula the next day , dropping heavy rainfall up to 9 @.@ 09 in ( 231 mm ) . The depression turned to the northeast due to an approaching upper @-@ level trough , and it transitioned into an frontal wave on October 10 . As the trough advanced ahead of the storm , a ridge built across the southeast United States , causing the cyclone to turn northward and parallel the west coast of Florida . It regained tropical characteristics before moving ashore near Apalachicola and dissipating on October 14 .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1971 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . Storms were named Beth , Kristy and Laura for the first time in 1971 . No names were retired after the 1971 season .
= Jesús Blancornelas =
J. Jesús Blancornelas ( November 14 , 1936 – November 23 , 2006 ) was a Mexican journalist who co @-@ founded the Tijuana @-@ based Zeta magazine , known for its reporting on corruption and drug trafficking . His work encompassed an extensive research on how the drug industry influences local leaders and the police in the Mexican state of Baja California – topics frequently avoided by the rest of the Mexican media .
As an author of six books , Blancornelas was regarded by the press as a leading expert on organized crime and drug trafficking during his time . He was also the first man to publish a photograph of Ramón Arellano Félix , the former drug lord of the Tijuana Cartel . In response to the photo publication , the cartel attempted to kill Blancornelas in 1997 , but he managed to survive the attack and continued to report on the workings of Mexico 's criminal underworld .
For more than two decades , Blancornelas received several international press awards for his defiance of Mexico 's old regime status quo , where bribe @-@ taking and censorship by the government were commonplace in Mexico 's media . After his death , the Los Angeles Times and the Committee to Protect Journalists described him as " the spiritual godfather of modern Mexican journalism . " Blancornelas is also regarded as a pioneer in the push for press freedom in Mexico .
= = Early career = =
A native of San Luis Potosí , Blancornelas began his career as a journalist for El Sol de San Luis in April 1955 , working as a sportswriter . In 1960 , he moved to Tijuana , Baja California , where he became active in reporting on corruption and the drug trade . He was promoted to news editor at the daily newspaper El Mexicano before moving to the daily La Voz de la Frontera , of which he became editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Unlike several other journalists during his time , Blancornelas was eager to write about drug trafficking and corruption , leading to his firing from three newspapers before deciding to create his own .
In 1977 , he founded a newspaper called ABC . The paper employed future Zeta co @-@ founder Héctor Félix Miranda , then a columnist who wrote under " Félix el Gato " ( " Felix the Cat " ) to criticize local politicians . These columns eventually angered Baja California 's state government and Mexico 's former President José López Portillo to the point that the government ordered Blancornelas to fire Miranda and banned its distribution . When Blancornelas refused , a SWAT team was sent to take over the paper 's offices on the pretext of settling a labor dispute . Blancornelas escaped to the United States , resettling in San Diego , California .
= = Zeta = =
In 1980 , Blancornelas re @-@ surfaced with a new weekly publication known as Zeta , which he co @-@ founded with Félix . The magazine printed copies in the United States and then smuggled them across the border into Mexico . After some years , they reestablished themselves in Tijuana . Through the magazine , the pair continued their investigation into organized crime and corruption . The magazine ran a cover story in 1985 about local police guarding a marijuana @-@ filled warehouse ; the story was the first to report on the future leaders of the Tijuana Cartel , the Arellano Félix brothers . After Blancornelas discovered that plainclothes police officers had bought all 20 @,@ 000 copies of the issue , Zeta republished the issue under the headline " Censored ! "
Félix was killed by multiple shotgun blasts in 1988 ; two guards from the Agua Caliente Racetrack were later convicted of the murder . For the next eighteen years , Blancornelas left Félix 's name on the Zeta masthead , marked with a black cross . He also published a full @-@ page ad in every issue under Félix 's " byline " , asking the employer of the men , Tijuana politician Jorge Hank Rhon , why Félix had been murdered .
In 1994 , Zeta published an investigation on the assassination of Luis Donaldo Colosio ; despite the conspiracy theories about the case , the magazine concluded that the shooting had been the work of a single troubled individual .
In the 2000s , Blancornelas wanted to remove bylines from Zeta 's most dangerous stories , but was persuaded not to by reporter Francisco Ortiz , who wished his to continue to run atop his stories on organized crime . In 2005 , Ortiz was shot to death in front of his children , and Blancornelas began his no @-@ byline policy . In the days after Ortiz 's death , he stated , " I feel remorse for having created Zeta . After losing three colleagues , I believe the price has been too high . I would have liked to retire a long time ago ... [ but ] I cannot allow drug traffickers to think that they were able to crush Zeta 's spirit , and our readers to believe that we are afraid . "
Blancornelas covered the rise of Mexico 's drug trafficking organizations for more than thirty years , but his best work in the field took place during the 1990s . During this period , Mexico experienced the rise of three powerful drug cartels : the Tijuana Cartel in the west ; the Juárez Cartel in Ciudad Juárez ; and the Gulf Cartel in the east . Blancornelas ' stories are considered so crucial that almost every written account of the Tijuana Cartel cites him .
= = Assassination attempt = =
In November 1996 , Blancornelas was planning to visit New York City to receive an international award for his work in covering the drug trade , political corruption , and the relationship between the drug lords and the police . A few days before he was about to fly , a policeman in Tijuana visited Blancornelas and warned him that he was risking his life if he decided to go . A year later , the warning proved to be true : in 1997 in Tijuana , Blancornelas was ambushed and wounded by gunmen of the Tijuana Cartel while heading to the airport for publishing a photo of the drug lord Ramón Arellano Félix . Blancornelas was nearly killed when the attackers opened fire on his car , wounding him in the abdomen and killing his driver and bodyguard , Luis Valero Elizalde , who died protecting him and managed to kill one of the shooters . Blancornelas suffered complications from the injury for the rest of his life . In the attack , Blancornelas ' car was hit more than 180 times , but only four bullets penetrated the journalist 's body . Elizalde , however , was hit 38 times . That same year , three other prominent journalists were killed in Mexico .
The nature of Blancornelas ' work forced him to live under a " self @-@ imposed home arrest , " only traveling to his workplace and home with multiple Special Forces bodyguards from the Mexican Army , who accompanied him everywhere . While previous attacks on journalists received little coverage , Blancornelas ' assassination attempt made it to the frontpage of most newspapers in Mexico , and was covered on the television and radio . The attempt also fueled internationally ; the New York Times , Los Angeles Times , San Diego Union Tribune , and the National Public Radio covered it extensively . Due to the public outcry , the Mexican authorities decided to report the attack to the Office of the General Prosecutor , which had greater resources than the state authorities .
After spending 20 days in the hospital , Blancornelas recovered from his wounds and returned to publishing for the Zeta magazine . He left the hospital with a walker and was escorted by municipal , judicial state , and federal policemen , along with soldiers of the Mexican Army , to his home in La Mesa delegation in Tijuana . As he got to his home , a crowd of reports awaited Blancornelas , who allowed them to take pictures of him but refused to answer any questions . " I 'll be back as soon as possible , " Blancornelas said to the reporters as he entered his home . He also thanked the media for covering his assassination attempt .
The Blancornelas family erected a huge brick wall in their one @-@ story house to increase their security measures ; outside the house , a squadron of military men guarded the family , while some others protected the Zeta offices . As of 1998 , the top editors of the newspaper , along with Blancornelas ' three sons , were under guard by the authorities at all times .
Marco Arturo Quiñones Sánchez , whom Mexican authorities alleged to be a hit man for the Tijuana Cartel , was later charged with being one of the gunmen in the attack on Blancornelas , but was found not guilty by a judge in 2013 .
= = Death = =
In the last years of his life , Blancornelas lived as a virtual prisoner , always accompanied by an escort of fifteen armed guards . He died in the border city of Tijuana , Baja California on November 23 , 2006 in Del Prado Hospital , from complications caused by stomach cancer , possibly caused by the embedded bullets he received when he was shot . Blancornelas was taken to the hospital on November 19 after his son confessed that his father had a lung defect that dated back to his youth . Prior to his death , Blancornelas stopped reporting directly for the Zeta magazine since February 2006 but still sent information to the magazine , particularly on issues covering drug trafficking . Beginning to doubt Zeta 's ability to foster change , Blancornelas considered closing the magazine with his death . Editor Adela Navarro Bello and his son César René Blanco Villalón persuaded him to let the magazine continue , however , and succeeded him as the magazine 's co @-@ publishers .
Just before his death , Blancornelas speculated that the Tijuana Cartel had placed a US $ 250 @,@ 000 bounty on his assassination , and publicly said that he wanted to interview Enedina Arellano Félix , a female drug lord of the cartel , to confirm the information .
He was survived by his wife , Genoveva Villalón de Blanco , and three sons : José Jesús , Ramón Tomás and César René .
While Blancornelas ' reporting helped bring some drug lords to justice , the Mexican drug trafficking organizations grew more powerful after his death . As he said in an interview shortly before dying :
= = Awards = =
In 1996 , he was one of four winners of the US @-@ based CPJ International Press Freedom Awards , which honor journalists who show courage in defending press freedom despite facing attacks , threats , or imprisonment . He also won the Maria Moors Cabot Prize of Columbia University and was honored as the International Editor of the Year by the World Press Review in 1998 . Blancornelas was also UNESCO / Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize in 1999 . In 2000 he was named one of the Austria @-@ based International Press Institute 's fifty World Press Freedom Heroes of the previous fifty years .
El Periodista ( " The Journalist " ) , a corrido ( ballad ) in memory of Blancornelas , was written by members of the band Los Tucanes de Tijuana .
Zeta and Blancornelas are profiled in the Bernardo Ruiz documentary Reportero .
= = Published works by Jesús Blancornelas = =
Biebrich , crónica de una infamia . México : Editores Asociados Mexicanos . 1979 . ISBN 9684090323 .
El tiempo pasa : de Lomas Taurinas a Los Pinos . México , D.F : Océano . 1997 . ISBN 9706511024 .
Pasaste a mi lado . Tijuana México , D.F : Centro Cultural Tijuana . 1997 . ISBN 9686412093 .
Una vez nada más . México , D.F : Océano . 1997 . ISBN 9706510443 .
Conversaciones Privadas . México : Ediciones B. México . 2001 . ISBN 9707100559 .
El cártel : Los Arellano Félix : la mafia más poderosa en la historia de América Latina . México , D.F : Random House / Debolsillo , 2008 . 2010 . ISBN 9707809620 . " The Cartel : The Arellano Félix : The Most Powerful Mafia in the History of Latin America . "
= Pennsylvania Route 106 =
Pennsylvania Route 106 ( PA 106 ) is a 20 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 33 @.@ 30 km ) state highway located in both Susquehanna and Lackawanna counties in Pennsylvania . Route 106 begins at a fork from U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the community of Kingsley . The route heads southeasterly for most of its length , interchanging with Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) in Lenox Township . PA 106 continues into the city of Carbondale , where the designation terminates at US 6 Business ( US 6 Bus . , North Main Street ) , the former alignment of US 6 through Carbondale .
PA 106 is one of five portions of the original U.S. Route 106 ( US 106 ) , a spur of US 6 through Pennsylvania . US 106 went from US 6 in Wyalusing to the New York state line in Damascus Township along current @-@ day PA 652 . The designation was eliminated in 1972 and replaced by PA 106 from Kingsley to Carbondale , PA 652 from Indian Orchard to Darbytown and PA 706 from Wyalusing to Nichols .
= = Route description = =
= = = Susquehanna County = = =
PA 106 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the community of Kingsley , Pennsylvania . The route heads to the southeast , paralleling US 11 through forestry until the intersection with Jeffers Road , where it turns away from US 11 and enters fields . The route makes several curves to the southeast and east , crossing through several large fields and industries . The route keeps turning to the southeast , re @-@ entering the deep woods and passing a large pond near West Lenox . In West Lenox , PA 106 passes through forestry and residences until leaving the community for more forestry . After paralleling Creek Road for a distance , PA 106 enters the small community of Lenox , where the highway intersects PA 92 near some industry . A short distance later , the highway interchanges with I @-@ 81 at Interchange 211 . After I @-@ 81 , PA 106 continues paralleling the interstate through forestry . The highway continues eastward , paralleling Stone Road into East Lenox , Pennsylvania .
After crossing from East Lenox , PA 106 continues southeastward through fields and soon into a region of residences . The southeastern stretch continues for several miles into the community of West Clifford . There , PA 106 passes some homes and intersects with PA 374 . The two designations become concurrent , paralleling the alignment of the Milford and Owego Turnpike Road through West Clifford . PA 106 and PA 374 head southward and soon turn southwestward through forestry , until clearing into the community of Royal . In the small community , PA 106 and PA 374 fork , with PA 374 heading southwestward to Glenwood and PA 106 heading southeastward through Royal . PA 106 continues further , entering deep woods once again after leaving Royal . At the intersection with Cemetery Road , the highway enters a large cemetery and into Clifford . There , the route crosses through a large residential and commercial community , intersecting with State Route 2008 ( SR 2008 ) . The route continues southeastward through the residential area before crossing the county line into Lackawanna County .
= = = Lackawanna County = = =
After crossing into Lackawanna County , PA 106 continues on a southeastern trend , crossing through homes before returning to the deep forestry in Greenfield Township . The route continues further , passing through a lumber yard , where it turns southward and further southeastward into the community of Finch Hill . In Finch Hill , PA 106 passes Our Mother of Sorrows Cemetery and intersects with PA 247 ( Lakeland Drive ) in the center of the town . After PA 247 , PA 106 passes through a small residential district before reaching the Homestead Golf Course . The route passes along the southern side of the golf course and turns eastward after passing to the north of Merli @-@ Sarnoski Park .
After leaving the golf course behind , PA 106 makes a gradual turn to the southeast at Crystal Lake Road . There , the highway becomes known as Fall Brook Road , and turns southward through forestry . At the intersection with 43rd Street , PA 106 enters the city of Carbondale . The route , known now as Fallbrook Street , continues on a southeastern trend , entering a large residential district north of the business district . At the intersection with Dundaff Street , it turns southward again , paralleling a nearby river . At the intersection with River Street , PA 106 turns eastward along Salem Avenue , crosses the river and intersects with US 6 Bus . ( North Main Street ) in Carbondale . At that intersection , the PA 106 designation terminates while Salem Avenue continues as SR 1019 through Carbondale .
= = History = =
PA 106 was originally an alignment of PA 47 designated in 1927 . This alignment stretched from US 11 in Kingsley to the intersection with US 6 in Carbondale . In the plan for the U.S. Highway System from November 11 , 1926 , the road between Wyalusing and Carbondale was to be a part of US 6 while US 106 was to run from US 6 in Wyalusing to the New York border at the Delaware River in Narrowsburg via Scranton . By 1928 , US 6 and US 106 switched alignments between Wyalusing and Carbondale . The piece of US 106 that is now PA 106 began in the community of Kingsley and went to the city of Carbondale . The route remained intact for almost 45 years . On December 3 , 1971 , the American Association of State Highway Officials approved the elimination of the US 106 designation . On March 14 , 1972 , US 106 was decommissioned and replaced with PA 706 between US 6 in Wyalusing and US 11 south of New Milford , PA 106 between US 11 in Kingsley and US 6 in Carbondale , and PA 652 between US 6 in Indian Orchard and the Delaware River . The remainder of the route was removed from concurrencies with US 11 between south of New Milford and Kingsley and US 6 between Carbondale and Indian Orchard . Signs were changed by April of that year .
= = Major intersections = =
= Day of Thirst =
The " Day of Thirst " ( Arabic : Yawm al- ' Atash ) is the name traditionally given in Arabic historiography to a battle fought in 724 between the Turkic Turgesh khaganate and the Umayyad Caliphate on the banks of the river Jaxartes , in Transoxiana ( in modern Tajikistan , Central Asia ) . The Umayyad army , under Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , was campaigning in the Ferghana Valley when it learned of the Turgesh advance . Immediately , the Arabs began a hasty retreat to the Jaxartes , pursued and harassed by the Turgesh cavalry . Finally , after 11 days , the Umayyad army reached the Jaxartes , where it was caught between the Turgesh and the forces of the native Transoxianian principalities . Nevertheless , the Arabs managed to break through and cross the river to Khujand . The Umayyad defeat led to the collapse of Muslim rule over much of the region , which until ca . 740 remained disputed territory , with both the Arabs and the Turgesh fighting for control over it .
= = Background = =
The region of Transoxiana ( Arabic : Ma wara ' al @-@ nahr ) had been conquered by the Umayyad leader Qutayba ibn Muslim in the reign of Al @-@ Walid I ( r . 705 – 715 ) , following the Muslim conquests of Persia and Khurasan in the mid @-@ 7th century . The loyalties of Transoxiana 's native Iranian and Turkic populations and those of autonomous local rulers remained questionable , however , as demonstrated in 719 , when the Transoxianian princes sent a petition to the Chinese and their Turgesh vassals for military aid against the Caliphate 's governors . The Turgesh responded by launching a series of attacks against the Muslims in Transoxiana , beginning in 720 . These incursions were coupled with uprisings against the Caliphate among the local Sogdians . The Umayyad governor of Khurasan , Sa 'id ibn Amr al @-@ Harashi , harshly suppressed the unrest and restored the Muslim position almost to what it had been during the time of Qutayba , except for the Ferghana Valley , control over which was lost .
= = Expedition against Ferghana and the " Day of Thirst " = =
In 723 , al @-@ Harashi was replaced as governor by Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , who resolved late the next year to launch an expedition with the goal of seizing Ferghana . The campaign faced difficulties already in its early stages , when the news arrived of the accession of a new Caliph , Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik , and the appointment of a new governor of Iraq , Khalid al @-@ Qasri . Expecting Muslim 's imminent recall by the new regime , the Yemeni troops in Balkh initially refused to join the campaign , but were forced to join the army when a force composed of Mudaris ( northern Arabs ) under Nasr ibn Sayyar marched against them and defeated them at Baruqan . The campaign eventually went ahead as
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in one group , while LW1 , LW3 and LW5 were grouped for men 's medal events in para @-@ Alpine . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , LW3 , LW5 / 7 and LW9 were grouped for the men 's downhill , Super @-@ G , Slalom and Giant Slalom events , while women 's LW3 , LW4 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 were grouped for the Super @-@ G event and the women 's LW3 , LW4 , and LW9 classes were grouped for the slalom and giant slalom events . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were two men and two women from this class the standing downhill event .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this class include Australian Marty Mayberry , and Canadian LW3.1 skier Lauren Woolstencroft .
= Zero ( Mega Man ) =
Zero ( ゼロ ) is a video game character present throughout Capcom 's Mega Man franchise . First appearing in the 1993 game Mega Man X for the Super NES , Zero is a Maverick Hunter , a mechanical soldier in charge of defeating Mavericks , robots who turned against humanity . He continues his job as the main character of the Mega Man Zero series . Zero has also played a supporting role in other game series such as the Mega Man ZX series and appeared in crossover video games as a guest character .
First developed by Keiji Inafune when he was attempting to create a new design for Mega Man for the X series , Zero was instead used as a secondary character . In the Zero series , which was developed by Inti Creates , Zero is the protagonist and had a change in his design , which was meant to create a more " human feel " to him . Zero has since played a minor role in the ZX series as Model Z. His inclusion in the Mega Man X series has generally received positive critical response from video games reviewers .
= = Conception and creation = =
Zero was created by designer Keiji Inafune when he was told to recreate Mega Man for a new series on the Super NES , Mega Man X. He wanted to design a Mega Man different from the original one . However , Inafune realized afterwards that the character he created was too different from Mega Man 's old appearance to be viewed positively by fans . Deciding to let another designer work on the character that eventually became Mega Man X while he developed Zero , Inafune created the character intending him to be " the ' other main character ' that would " steal all the good scenes " . He further described Zero as representing the idea that " nothing is absolute " , and circumstances can change anything . When asked if Zero had killed the cast of the original Mega Man titles , suspected due to their absence in the X series , he replied no , adding that given how he had designed the character , " Zero is not such a person--it is not in his profile . "
The concept of Zero starring in his own series was proposed by Inafune . Inafune proposed that Zero star in his own series , and planned to go forward with the idea at the end of Mega Man X5 . However , he was unable to after Capcom announced another Mega Man title without his involvement . Designed by Toru Nakayama of Inti Creates , Zero was meant to have a more " human feel " rather than the complete " mechanical feel " of the X series . Nakayama wanted the public to recognize that this series was different from the X series . Since Capcom wanted Zero 's general structure to be the same , Inti @-@ Creates concentrated on how different they could make him , rather than how similar . Zero 's depiction in the series was intended to be morally ambiguous and depend on the perspective , appearing as a hero from one point of view and a terrorist from another .
= = = Design = = =
Designed to be " harder and wilder " than the original Mega Man , Zero 's design ultimately resembled Mega Man X in several ways due to his initial character concept , Inafune 's insistence on drawing the character , and input from other project artists . In the X series , Zero has red and white armor with twin " horns " on his helmet . Zero also has his signature long blonde hair . His main weapon is the Z @-@ saber , an energy @-@ based sword that introduced melee combat to the Mega Man games . His secondary weapon is the Z @-@ buster , a cannon mounted at the end of his right arm , similar to Mega Man X 's primary weapon . A tertiary weapon that would orbit around Zero was also considered , but left uncompleted . Unlike the original Mega Man , who had a full head of hair under his helmet , Zero has a smooth secondary helmet , intended to imply the characters were older . In Mega Man X4 , Zero was going to receive his own enhanced armor in the same way X does , but the development team decided not to finish it .
In the Zero series , Zero still possesses his blonde hair and general structure , though it has much less of a " cartoon " feel and more of a " realistic " feel . Instead of having red and white armor , Zero has black upper arms and wears a red vest , armparts , and boots . His helmet has horns , though they are more smoothly designed . The Z @-@ saber was also redesigned in Zero 3 , and has a more triangular shape compared to the original Z @-@ saber , which is similar to a katana and the Z @-@ buster was replaced with a handgun . Early concept art featured Zero with solid @-@ black , pupil @-@ less eyes , though this changed to a normal set of eyes as development progressed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Mega Man video game series = = =
Zero made his debut appearance in Mega Man X in 1993 , and a cameo appearance in Mega Man 2 : The Power Fighters . Zero was revealed to have been originally created by Dr. Wily sometime during the Mega Man series . Zero works as a Maverick Hunter , a soldier in charge of defeating Mavericks , robots who turned against humanity . He plays the role as X 's comrade and best friend in the X series . The two , later accompanied by Axl , fight Sigma , Vile , and other enemies throughout the series . While in the first two titles he only assists X during gameplay , he becomes an optional character in X3 . In Mega Man X4 , Zero is one of two playable characters , along with X. In his scenario , Zero is haunted by nightmares of a shadowy figure ( implied to be Wily ) awakening him and giving him orders to destroy an unknown individual , and visions of ensuing carnage . Additionally , during his scenario , Sigma reminds him of the time that he led the Maverick Hunters , and the encounter between the two that led to a vicious battle that led to Sigma punching out the crystal on Zero 's helmet , leading to Sigma later becoming infected with the Maverick Virus . Depending on the story development , Zero can be fought as a boss character in Mega Man X5 . In Mega Man X6 , Zero is not initially present in the game since he went missing in the end of Mega Man X5 during a fight against Sigma , and he becomes an optional character depending on how the story develops throughout the game . In the spin @-@ off title Mega Man Xtreme , he is an assistant character but becomes playable in the sequel , Mega Man Xtreme 2 . He is also playable during the prologue and the last chapters from the role @-@ playing video game Mega Man X : Command Mission .
The Mega Man Zero series features Zero as the title character and protagonist . Set around 100 years after the X series , Zero helps a scientist named Ciel fight the human city of Neo Arcadia , during which he destroys Omega - his original body , Dr. Weil , and Copy X , leader of Neo Arcadia , twice . Zero makes an appearance in the ZX series as Model Z , who plays a minor supporting role in the plot in the first ZX game . In ZX Advent , Zero plays an even smaller role , only having a few lines throughout the game . Zero 's Mega Man Battle Network counterpart , Zero.EXE makes an appearance in Mega Man Network Transmission as the antagonist of the first half of the game . He later aids Mega Man against the true villain , The " Professor " .
= = = Other appearances = = =
The Mega Man Zero version of Zero 's character appears as a sub @-@ boss in Playmore 's crossover fighting game SNK vs. Capcom : SVC Chaos and as a hidden character in Onimusha Blade Warriors . The Mega Man X version of Zero appears as a hidden character in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars and as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . In the latter titles , Zero was chosen to represent the " Mega Man " franchise over Mega Man himself , as director Ryota Niitsuma thought he had more variation in his moves . Zero also appears in Project X Zone and its sequel Project X Zone 2 as a playable character paired with X and as a collectable trophy and costume for the Mii Fighters in Super Smash Bros. for Wii U.
Zero 's appearances in the two manga series based on the Mega Man X series resemble his video games one . However , in the Mega Man Zero manga , Zero is depicted as a Reploid having two personalities depending on his usage of a helmet : without his helmet he is portrayed as cowardly whereas the other one resembles his video games counterpart .
= = Reception = =
Zero 's character was met with positive critical response by publications for video games . Game Revolution called him " mysterious , androgynous " and compared him to Proto Man " with a ponytail " . Jeese Scheeden from IGN named him one of his ten favorite sword @-@ wielding characters in the video games , describing him as an answer to the question of how Mega Man would fight if armed with a sword , and noted his fighting style as popular with gamers . GameZone writer Michael Knutson praised the inclusion of Zero in the Mega Man X series , citing his playability as popular amongst series fan as it expanded the gameplay . Jeremy Parish from 1UP.com stated that his appearance as a playable character with his own story in Mega Man X4 by itself made it the best game in the X series . GameSpot noted the contrast in his gameplay to that of Mega Man X in Mega Man X4 increased the difficulty of using him in the title . Additionally , Brett Elston from GamesRadar credited Zero as one of the reasons the X series became so popular and that his own popularity within gamers earned him his own video game series .
IGN repeated their positive sentiments about Zero in their list of characters they wished to see appear in a future Marvel vs. Capcom title , describing him as " arguably cooler than Mega Man " , regardless of version in comparison . PSM praised the character as well , stating " [ he ] might wear some funky shoes , but that doesn 't stop him from kicking some robot butt " . While reviewing Mega Man X : Command Mission , 1UP.com criticized that his English voice acting makes him " sound like a surfer " .
= The Boat Race 1875 =
The 32nd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on the 20 March 1875 . The Cambridge crew contained four Blues to Oxford 's two , the latter went into the race without a win since the 1869 race . In a race umpired by Joseph William Chitty , Oxford won by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 17 – 15 in their favour . One of the Cambridge crew broke his slide during the race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race , while Oxford led overall with sixteen wins to Cambridge 's fifteen .
Cambridge were coached by John Goldie , the Cambridge boat club president and rower for the 1869 , 1870 and 1871 races , and Charles Stokes Read who had rowed for Cambridge in the previous three races . Oxford 's coaches were S. D. Darbishire who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races , F. H. Hall who had coxed for three races between 1870 and 1872 , Robert Wells Risley who had rowed four times between the 1857 and 1860 races , Edmund Warre ( represented Oxford in 1857 and 1858 ) , Frank Willan ( four @-@ time winning rower between 1866 and 1869 ) and Walter Bradford Woodgate who had rowed in the 1862 and 1863 races . Joseph William Chitty was the umpire for the race . He had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in March and December ) and the 1852 race . The starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 12 @.@ 375 lb ( 75 @.@ 3 kg ) , 1 @.@ 625 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew contained four former Blues , including Herbert Edward Rhodes who was making his third appearance in the race . Oxford saw two rowers return from the 1874 race , in H. J. Stayner and J. P. Way . According to Drinkwater , the Oxford University Boat Club towards the end of 1874 produced a " fine crew " , and of particular note was the inclusion of the former Eton Captain of the Boats Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss . In contrast , Cambridge 's crew , with just two returning from the previous year 's race , was completed with " material ... not of a very high order " .
= = Race = =
Oxford were considered clear pre @-@ race favourites to win their first Boat Race in five years ; conditions were inclement with a " nasty north @-@ west wind " but a " fair tide " . They lost the toss and Cambridge elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing Oxford the Surrey side of the river . The race commenced at 1 : 13 p.m. , and Cambridge made the better start , taking the lead from the outset with a higher stroke rate . Half a length ahead after a minute , the Light Blues nearly had a clear water advantage but tired in the strong headwind , and started to be caught by Craven Steps , around 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) along the course . About a mile into the race , one of the Cambridge crew broke a slide .
The crews were level at the Crab Tree pub and by Hammersmith Bridge , and with the advantage of the bend in the river , Oxford were clear and went on to win by ten lengths in a time of 22 minutes 2 seconds . It was their first victory since 1869 and took the overall record in the event to 17 – 15 in their favour .
= Rachel Carson =
Rachel Louise Carson ( May 27 , 1907 – April 14 , 1964 ) was an American marine biologist and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement .
Carson began her career as an aquatic biologist in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , and became a full @-@ time nature writer in the 1950s . Her widely praised 1951 bestseller The Sea Around Us won her a U.S. National Book Award , recognition as a gifted writer , and financial security . Her next book , The Edge of the Sea , and the reissued version of her first book , Under the Sea Wind , were also bestsellers . This sea trilogy explores the whole of ocean life from the shores to the depths .
Late in the 1950s , Carson turned her attention to conservation , especially some environmental problems that she believed were caused by synthetic pesticides . The result was the book Silent Spring ( 1962 ) , which brought environmental concerns to an unprecedented share of the American people . Although Silent Spring was met with fierce opposition by chemical companies , it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy , which led to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides , and it inspired a grassroots environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter .
= = Life and work = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Carson was born on May 27 , 1907 , on a small family farm near Springdale , Pennsylvania , just up the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh . She was the daughter of Maria Frazier ( McLean ) and Robert Warden Carson , an insurance salesman . An avid reader , she also spent a lot of time exploring around her family 's 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) farm . She began writing stories ( often involving animals ) at age eight , and had her first story published at age ten . She especially enjoyed the St. Nicholas Magazine ( which carried her first published stories ) , the works of Beatrix Potter , and the novels of Gene Stratton Porter , and in her teen years , Herman Melville , Joseph Conrad and Robert Louis Stevenson . The natural world , particularly the ocean , was the common thread of her favorite literature . Carson attended Springdale 's small school through tenth grade , then completed high school in nearby Parnassus , Pennsylvania , graduating in 1925 at the top of her class of forty @-@ five students .
At the Pennsylvania College for Women ( today known as Chatham University ) , as in high school , Carson was somewhat of a loner . She originally studied English , but switched her major to biology in January 1928 , though she continued contributing to the school 's student newspaper and literary supplement . Though admitted to graduate standing at Johns Hopkins University in 1928 , she was forced to remain at the Pennsylvania College for Women for her senior year due to financial difficulties ; she graduated magna cum laude in 1929 . After a summer course at the Marine Biological Laboratory , she continued her studies in zoology and genetics at Johns Hopkins in the fall of 1929 .
After her first year of graduate school , Carson became a part @-@ time student , taking an assistantship in Raymond Pearl 's laboratory , where she worked with rats and Drosophila , to earn money for tuition . After false starts with pit vipers and squirrels , she completed a dissertation project on the embryonic development of the pronephros in fish . She earned a master 's degree in zoology in June 1932 . She had intended to continue for a doctorate , but in 1934 Carson was forced to leave Johns Hopkins to search for a full @-@ time teaching position to help support her family . In 1935 , her father died suddenly , leaving Carson to care for her aging mother and making the financial situation even more critical . At the urging of her undergraduate biology mentor Mary Scott Skinker , she settled for a temporary position with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , writing radio copy for a series of weekly educational broadcasts entitled Romance Under the Waters . The series of fifty @-@ two seven @-@ minute programs focused on aquatic life and was intended to generate public interest in fish biology and in the work of the bureau — a task the several writers before Carson had not managed . Carson also began submitting articles on marine life in the Chesapeake Bay , based on her research for the series , to local newspapers and magazines .
Carson 's supervisor , pleased with the success of the radio series , asked her to write the introduction to a public brochure about the fisheries bureau ; he also worked to secure her the first full @-@ time position that became available . Sitting for the civil service exam , she outscored all other applicants and , in 1936 , became only the second woman the Bureau of Fisheries hired for a full @-@ time professional position , as a junior aquatic biologist .
= = = Early career and publications = = =
At the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries , Carson 's main responsibilities were to analyze and report field data on fish populations , and to write brochures and other literature for the public . Using her research and consultations with marine biologists as starting points , she also wrote a steady stream of articles for The Baltimore Sun and other newspapers . However , her family responsibilities further increased in January 1937 when her older sister died , leaving Carson as the sole breadwinner for her mother and two nieces .
In July 1937 , the Atlantic Monthly accepted a revised version of an essay , The World of Waters , that she originally wrote for her first fisheries bureau brochure . Her supervisor had deemed it too good for that purpose . The essay , published as Undersea , was a vivid narrative of a journey along the ocean floor . It marked a major turning point in Carson 's writing career . Publishing house Simon & Schuster , impressed by Undersea , contacted Carson and suggested that she expand it into a book . Several years of writing resulted in Under the Sea Wind ( 1941 ) , which received excellent reviews but sold poorly . In the meantime , Carson 's article @-@ writing success continued — her features appeared in Sun Magazine , Nature , and Collier 's .
Carson attempted to leave the Bureau ( by then transformed into the Fish and Wildlife Service ) in 1945 , but few jobs for naturalists were available as most money for science was focused on technical fields in the wake of the Manhattan Project . In mid @-@ 1945 , Carson first encountered the subject of DDT , a revolutionary new pesticide ( lauded as the " insect bomb " after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) that was only beginning to undergo tests for safety and ecological effects . DDT was but one of Carson 's many writing interests at the time , and editors found the subject unappealing ; she published nothing on DDT until 1962 .
Carson rose within the Fish and Wildlife Service , supervising a small writing staff by 1945 and becoming chief editor of publications in 1949 . Though her position provided increasing opportunities for fieldwork and freedom in choosing her writing projects , it also entailed increasingly tedious administrative responsibilities . By 1948 , Carson was working on material for a second book , and had made the conscious decision to begin a transition to writing full @-@ time . That year , she took on a literary agent , Marie Rodell ; they formed a close professional relationship that would last the rest of Carson 's career .
Oxford University Press expressed interest in Carson 's book proposal for a life history of the ocean , spurring her to complete the manuscript of what would become The Sea Around Us by early 1950 . Chapters appeared in Science Digest and the Yale Review — the latter chapter , The Birth of an Island , winning the American Association for the Advancement of Science 's George Westinghouse Science Writing Prize . Nine chapters were serialized in The New Yorker beginning June 1951 and the book was published July 2 , 1951 , by Oxford University Press . The Sea Around Us remained on the New York Times Best Seller List for 86 weeks , was abridged by Reader 's Digest , won the 1952 National Book Award for Nonfiction and the Burroughs Medal , and resulted in Carson 's being awarded two honorary doctorates . She also licensed a documentary film based on it . The Sea 's success led to the republication of Under the Sea Wind , which became a bestseller itself . With success came financial security , and Carson was able to give up her job in 1952 to concentrate on writing full @-@ time .
Carson was inundated with speaking engagements , fan mail and other correspondence regarding The Sea Around Us , along with work on the documentary script that she had secured the right to review . She was very unhappy with the final version of the script by writer , director and producer Irwin Allen ; she found it untrue to the atmosphere of the book and scientifically embarrassing , describing it as " a cross between a believe @-@ it @-@ or @-@ not and a breezy travelogue . " She discovered , however , that her right to review the script did not extend to any control over its content . Allen proceeded in spite of Carson 's objections to produce a very successful documentary . It won the 1953 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature , but Carson was so embittered by the experience that she never again sold film rights to her work .
= = = Relationship with Dorothy Freeman = = =
Carson moved with her mother to Southport Island , Maine , in 1953 , and in July of that year met Dorothy Freeman ( 1898 – 1978 ) — the beginning of an extremely close relationship that would last the rest of Carson 's life . A summer resident of the island along with her husband , Freeman had written to Carson to welcome her . Freeman had read The Sea Around Us , a gift from her son , and was excited to have the prominent author as a neighbor . Carson 's biographer , Linda Lear , writes that " Carson sorely needed a devoted friend and kindred spirit who would listen to her without advising and accept her wholly , the writer as well as the woman . " She found this in Freeman . The two women had a number of common interests , nature chief among them , and began exchanging letters regularly while apart . They would share summers for the remainder of Carson 's life , and meet whenever else their schedules permitted .
In regards to the extent of their relationship , commentators have said that : " the expression of their love was limited almost wholly to letters and very occasional farewell kisses or holding of hands " . Freeman shared parts of Carson 's letters with her husband to help him understand the relationship , but much of their correspondence was carefully guarded .
Shortly before Carson 's death , she and Freeman destroyed hundreds of letters . The surviving correspondence was published in 1995 as Always , Rachel : The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman , 1952 – 1964 : An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship , edited by Freeman 's granddaughter . According to one reviewer , the pair " fit Carolyn Heilbrun 's characterization of a strong female friendship , where what matters is ' not whether friends are homosexual or heterosexual , lovers or not , but whether they share the wonderful energy of work in the public sphere ' . "
= = = The Edge of the Sea and transition to conservation work = = =
Early in 1953 , Carson began library and field research on the ecology and organisms of the Atlantic shore . In 1955 , she completed the third volume of her sea trilogy , The Edge of the Sea , which focuses on life in coastal ecosystems ( particularly along the Eastern Seaboard ) . It appeared in The New Yorker in two condensed installments shortly before its October 26 book release by Houghton Mifflin ( again a new publisher ) . By this time , Carson 's reputation for clear and poetical prose was well established ; The Edge of the Sea received highly favorable reviews , if not quite as enthusiastic as for The Sea Around Us .
Through 1955 and 1956 , Carson worked on a number of projects — including the script for an Omnibus episode , " Something About the Sky " — and wrote articles for popular magazines . Her plan for the next book was to address evolution , but the publication of Julian Huxley 's Evolution in Action — and her own difficulty in finding a clear and compelling approach to the topic — led her to abandon the project . Instead , her interests were turning to conservation . She considered an environment @-@ themed book project tentatively entitled Remembrance of the Earth and became involved with The Nature Conservancy and other conservation groups . She also made plans to buy and preserve from development an area in Maine she and Freeman called the " Lost Woods . "
Early in 1957 , family tragedy struck a third time when one of the nieces she had cared for in the 1940s died at the age of 31 , leaving a five @-@ year @-@ old orphan son , Roger Christie . Carson took on that responsibility , adopting the boy , alongside continuing to care for her aging mother ; this took a considerable toll on Carson . She moved to Silver Spring , Maryland , to care for Roger , and much of 1957 was spent putting their new living situation in order and focusing on specific environmental threats .
By late 1957 , Carson was closely following federal proposals for widespread pesticide spraying ; the USDA planned to eradicate fire ants , and other spraying programs involving chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates were on the rise . For the rest of her life , Carson 's main professional focus would be the dangers of pesticide overuse .
= = = Silent Spring = = =
Silent Spring , Carson 's most well @-@ known book , was published by Houghton Mifflin on 27 September 1962 . The book described the harmful effects of pesticides on the environment , and is widely credited with helping launch the environmental movement . In 1994 , an edition of Silent Spring was published with an introduction written by Vice President Al Gore . In 2012 Silent Spring was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society for its role in the development of the modern environmental movement .
= = = = Research and writing = = = =
Starting in the mid @-@ 1940s , Carson had become concerned about the use of synthetic pesticides , many of which had been developed through the military funding of science since World War II . It was the US federal government 's 1957 gypsy moth eradication program , however , that prompted Carson to devote her research , and her next book , to pesticides and environmental poisons . The gypsy moth program involved aerial spraying of DDT and other pesticides ( mixed with fuel oil ) , including the spraying of private land . Landowners on Long Island filed a suit to have the spraying stopped , and many in affected regions followed the case closely . Though the suit was lost , the Supreme Court granted petitioners the right to gain injunctions against potential environmental damage in the future ; this laid the basis for later successful environmental actions .
The Washington , D.C. chapter of the Audubon Society also actively opposed such spraying programs , and recruited Carson to help make public the government 's exact spraying practices and the related research . Carson began the four @-@ year project of what would become Silent Spring by gathering examples of environmental damage attributed to DDT . She also attempted to enlist others to join the cause : essayist E. B. White , and a number of journalists and scientists . By 1958 , Carson had arranged a book deal , with plans to co @-@ write with Newsweek science journalist Edwin Diamond . However , when The New Yorker commissioned a long and well @-@ paid article on the topic from Carson , she began considering writing more than simply the introduction and conclusion as planned ; soon it was a solo project . ( Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of Silent Spring ) .
As her research progressed , Carson found a sizable community of scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental effects of pesticides . She also took advantage of her personal connections with many government scientists , who supplied her with confidential information . From reading the scientific literature and interviewing scientists , Carson found two scientific camps when it came to pesticides : those who dismissed the possible danger of pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof , and those who were open to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative methods such as biological pest control .
By 1959 , the USDA 's Agricultural Research Service responded to the criticism by Carson and others with a public service film , Fire Ants on Trial ; Carson characterized it as " flagrant propaganda " that ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides ( especially dieldrin and heptachlor ) posed to humans and wildlife . That spring , Carson wrote a letter , published in The Washington Post , that attributed the recent decline in bird populations — in her words , the " silencing of birds " — to pesticide overuse . That was also the year of the " Great Cranberry Scandal " : the 1957 , 1958 , and 1959 crops of U.S. cranberries were found to contain high levels of the herbicide aminotriazole ( which caused cancer in laboratory rats ) and the sale of all cranberry products was halted . Carson attended the ensuing FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations ; she came away discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry representatives , which included expert testimony that was firmly contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been studying . She also wondered about the possible " financial inducements behind certain pesticide programs . "
Research at the Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health brought Carson into contact with medical researchers investigating the gamut of cancer @-@ causing chemicals . Of particular significance was the work of National Cancer Institute researcher and environmental cancer section founding director Wilhelm Hueper , who classified many pesticides as carcinogens . Carson and her research assistant Jeanne Davis , with the help of NIH librarian Dorothy Algire , found evidence to support the pesticide @-@ cancer connection ; to Carson the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array of synthetic pesticides was clear @-@ cut , though such conclusions were very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying pesticide carcinogenesis .
By 1960 , Carson had more than enough research material , and the writing was progressing rapidly . In addition to the thorough literature search , she had investigated hundreds of individual incidents of pesticide exposure and the human sickness and ecological damage that resulted . However , in January , a duodenal ulcer followed by several infections kept her bedridden for weeks , greatly delaying the completion of Silent Spring . As she was nearing full recovery in March ( just as she was completing drafts of the two cancer chapters of her book ) , she discovered cysts in her left breast , one of which necessitated a mastectomy . Though her doctor described the procedure as precautionary and recommended no further treatment , by December Carson discovered that the tumor was in fact malignant and the cancer had metastasized . Her research was also delayed by revision work for a new edition of The Sea Around Us , and by a collaborative photo essay with Erich Hartmann . Most of the research and writing was done by the fall of 1960 , except for the discussion of recent research on biological controls and investigations of a handful of new pesticides . However , further health troubles slowed the final revisions in 1961 and early 1962 .
It was difficult finding a title for the book ; " Silent Spring " was initially suggested as a title for the chapter on birds . By August 1961 , Carson finally agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent Marie Rodell : Silent Spring would be a metaphorical title for the entire book — suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural world — rather than a literal chapter title about the absence of birdsong . With Carson 's approval , editor Paul Brooks at Houghton Mifflin arranged for illustrations by Louis and Lois Darling , who also designed the cover . The final writing was the first chapter , A Fable for Tomorrow , which Carson intended as a gentle introduction to what might otherwise be a forbiddingly serious topic . By mid @-@ 1962 , Brooks and Carson had largely finished the editing , and were laying the groundwork for promoting the book by sending the manuscript out to select individuals for final suggestions .
= = = = Content = = = =
As biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle writes , Carson " quite self @-@ consciously decided to write a book calling into question the paradigm of scientific progress that defined postwar American culture . " The overriding theme of Silent Spring is the powerful — and often negative — effect humans have on the natural world .
Carson 's main argument is that pesticides have detrimental effects on the environment ; they are more properly termed biocides , she argues , because their effects are rarely limited to the target pests . DDT is a prime example , but other synthetic pesticides come under scrutiny as well — many of which are subject to bioaccumulation . Carson also accuses the chemical industry of intentionally spreading disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically . Most of the book is devoted to pesticides ' effects on natural ecosystems , but four chapters also detail cases of human pesticide poisoning , cancer , and other illnesses attributed to pesticides . About DDT and cancer , the subject of so much subsequent debate , Carson says only a little :
In laboratory tests on animal subjects , DDT has produced suspicious liver tumors . Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to classify them , but felt there was some " justification for considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas . " Dr. Hueper [ author of Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases ] now gives DDT the definite rating of a " chemical carcinogen . "
Carson predicted increased consequences in the future , especially as targeted pests develop resistance to pesticides , while weakened ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated invasive species . The book closes with a call for a biotic approach to pest control as an alternative to chemical pesticides .
In regards to the pesticide DDT , Carson never actually called for an outright ban . Part of the argument she made in Silent Spring was that even if DDT and other insecticides had no environmental side effects , their indiscriminate overuse was counter @-@ productive because it would create insect resistance to the pesticide ( s ) , making the pesticides useless in eliminating the target insect populations :
No responsible person contends that insect @-@ borne disease should be ignored . The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is either wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse . The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease through the control of insect vectors of infection , but it has heard little of the other side of the story — the defeats , the short @-@ lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts . Even worse , we may have destroyed our very means of fighting .
Carson further noted that " Malaria programmes are threatened by resistance among mosquitoes " and emphasized the advice given by the director of Holland 's Plant Protection Service : " Practical advice should be ' Spray as little as you possibly can ' rather than ' Spray to the limit of your capacity ' ... Pressure on the pest population should always be as slight as possible . "
= = = = Promotion and reception = = = =
Carson and the others involved with publication of Silent Spring expected fierce criticism . They were particularly concerned about the possibility of being sued for libel . Carson was also undergoing radiation therapy to combat her spreading cancer , and expected to have little energy to devote to defending her work and responding to critics . In preparation for the anticipated attacks , Carson and her agent attempted to amass as many prominent supporters as possible before the book 's release .
Most of the book 's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists with relevant expertise , among whom Carson found strong support . Carson attended the White House Conference on Conservation in May 1962 ; Houghton Mifflin distributed proof copies of Silent Spring to many of the delegates , and promoted the upcoming New Yorker serialization . Among many others , Carson also sent a proof copy to Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas , a long @-@ time environmental advocate who had argued against the court 's rejection of the Long Island pesticide spraying case ( and who had provided Carson with some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides ) .
Though Silent Spring had generated a fairly high level of interest based on pre @-@ publication promotion , this became much more intense with the serialization in The New Yorker , which began in the June 16 , 1962 , issue . This brought the book to the attention of the chemical industry and its lobbyists , as well as a wide swath of the American populace . Around that time Carson also learned that Silent Spring had been selected as the Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month for October ; as she put it , this would " carry it to farms and hamlets all over that country that don 't know what a bookstore looks like — much less The New Yorker . " Other publicity included a positive editorial in The New York Times and excerpts of the serialized version in Audubon magazine , with another round of publicity in July and August as chemical companies responded . The story of the birth defect @-@ causing drug thalidomide broke just before the book 's publication as well , inviting comparisons between Carson and Frances Oldham Kelsey , the Food and Drug Administration reviewer who had blocked the drug 's sale in the United States .
In the weeks leading up to the September 27 , 1962 , publication , there was strong opposition to Silent Spring from the chemical industry . DuPont ( a main manufacturer of DDT and 2 @,@ 4 @-@ D ) and Velsicol Chemical Company ( exclusive manufacturer of chlordane and heptachlor ) were among the first to respond . DuPont compiled an extensive report on the book 's press coverage and estimated impact on public opinion . Velsicol threatened legal action against Houghton Mifflin as well as The New Yorker and Audubon unless the planned Silent Spring features were canceled . Chemical industry representatives and lobbyists also lodged a range of non @-@ specific complaints , some anonymously . Chemical companies and associated organizations produced a number of their own brochures and articles promoting and defending pesticide use . However , Carson 's and the publishers ' lawyers were confident in the vetting process Silent Spring had undergone . The magazine and book publications proceeded as planned , as did the large Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month printing ( which included a pamphlet endorsing the book by William O. Douglas ) .
American Cyanamid biochemist Robert White @-@ Stevens and former Cyanamid chemist Thomas Jukes were among the most aggressive critics , especially of Carson 's analysis of DDT . According to White @-@ Stevens , " If man were to follow the teachings of Miss Carson , we would return to the Dark Ages , and the insects and diseases and vermin would once again inherit the earth . " Others went further , attacking Carson 's scientific credentials ( because her training was in marine biology rather than biochemistry ) and her personal character . White @-@ Stevens labeled her " ... a fanatic defender of the cult of the balance of nature , " while former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson — in a letter to former President Dwight D. Eisenhower — reportedly concluded that because she was unmarried despite being physically attractive , she was " probably a Communist . "
Many critics repeatedly asserted that she was calling for the elimination of all pesticides . Yet Carson had made it clear she was not advocating the banning or complete withdrawal of helpful pesticides , but was instead encouraging responsible and carefully managed use with an awareness of the chemicals ' impact on the entire ecosystem . In fact , she concludes her section on DDT in Silent Spring not by urging a total ban , but with advice for spraying as little as possible to limit the development of resistance .
The academic community — including prominent defenders such as H. J. Muller , Loren Eisley , Clarence Cottam , and Frank Egler — by and large backed the book 's scientific claims ; public opinion soon turned Carson 's way as well . The chemical industry campaign backfired , as the controversy greatly increased public awareness of potential pesticide dangers , as well as Silent Spring book sales . Pesticide use became a major public issue , especially after the CBS Reports TV special " The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson " that aired April 3 , 1963 . The program included segments of Carson reading from Silent Spring and interviews with a number of other experts , mostly critics ( including White @-@ Stevens ) ; according to biographer Linda Lear , " in juxtaposition to the wild @-@ eyed , loud @-@ voiced Dr. Robert White @-@ Stevens in white lab coat , Carson appeared anything but the hysterical alarmist that her critics contended . " Reactions from the estimated audience of ten to fifteen million were overwhelmingly positive , and the program spurred a congressional review of pesticide dangers and the public release of a pesticide report by the President 's Science Advisory Committee . Within a year or so of publication , the attacks on the book and on Carson had largely lost momentum .
In one of her last public appearances , Carson testified before President John F. Kennedy 's Science Advisory Committee . The committee issued its report on May 15 , 1963 , largely backing Carson 's scientific claims . Following the report 's release , she also testified before a U.S. Senate subcommittee to make policy recommendations . Though Carson received hundreds of other speaking invitations , she was unable to accept the great majority of them . Her health was steadily declining as her cancer outpaced the radiation therapy , with only brief periods of remission . She spoke as much as she was physically able , however , including a notable appearance on The Today Show and speeches at several dinners held in her honor . In late 1963 , she received a flurry of awards and honors : the Audubon Medal ( from the National Audubon Society ) , the Cullum Geographical Medal ( from the American Geographical Society ) , and induction into the American Academy of Arts and Letters .
= = = Death = = =
Weakened from breast cancer and her treatment regimen , Carson became ill with a respiratory virus in January 1964 . Her condition worsened , and in February , doctors found that she had severe anemia from her radiation treatments and in March they discovered that the cancer had reached her liver . She died of a heart attack on April 14 , 1964 , in her home in Silver Spring , Maryland .
Her body was cremated . Half of the ashes were buried in her mother 's grave at Parklawn Memorial Cemetery in Rockville , Maryland .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Collected papers and posthumous publications = = =
Carson bequeathed her manuscripts and papers to Yale University , to take advantage of the new state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art preservations facilities of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library . Her longtime agent and literary executor Marie Rodell spent nearly two years organizing and cataloging Carson 's papers and correspondence , distributing all the letters to their senders so that only what each correspondent approved of would be submitted to the archive .
In 1965 , Rodell arranged for the publication of an essay Carson had intended to expand into a book : A Sense of Wonder . The essay , which was combined with photographs by Charles Pratt and others , exhorts parents to help their children experience the " ... lasting pleasures of contact with the natural world [ ... ] available to anyone who will place himself under the influence of earth , sea and sky and their amazing life . "
In addition to the letters in Always Rachel , in 1998 a volume of Carson 's previously unpublished work was published as Lost Woods : The Discovered Writing of Rachel Carson , edited by Linda Lear . All of Carson 's books remain in print .
= = = Grassroots environmentalism and the EPA = = =
Carson 's work had a powerful impact on the environmental movement . Silent Spring , in particular , was a rallying point for the fledgling social movement in the 1960s . According to environmental engineer and Carson scholar H. Patricia Hynes , " Silent Spring altered the balance of power in the world . No one since would be able to sell pollution as the necessary underside of progress so easily or uncritically . " Carson 's work , and the activism it inspired , are at least partly responsible for the deep ecology movement , and the overall strength of the grassroots environmental movement since the 1960s . It was also influential on the rise of ecofeminism and on many feminist scientists .
Carson 's most direct legacy in the environmental movement was the campaign to ban the use of DDT in the United States ( and related efforts to ban or limit its use throughout the world ) . Though environmental concerns about DDT had been considered by government agencies as early as Carson 's testimony before the President 's Science Advisory Committee , the 1967 formation of the Environmental Defense Fund was the first major milestone in the campaign against DDT . The organization brought lawsuits against the government to " establish a citizen 's right to a clean environment , " and the arguments employed against DDT largely mirrored Carson 's . By 1972 , the Environmental Defense Fund and other activist groups had succeeded in securing a phase @-@ out of DDT use in the United States ( except in emergency cases ) .
The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency by the Nixon Administration in 1970 addressed another concern that Carson had brought to light . Until then , the same agency ( the USDA ) was responsible both for regulating pesticides and promoting the concerns of the agriculture industry ; Carson saw this as a conflict of interest , since the agency was not responsible for effects on wildlife or other environmental concerns beyond farm policy . Fifteen years after its creation , one journalist described the EPA as " the extended shadow of Silent Spring . " Much of the agency 's early work , such as enforcing the 1972 Federal Insecticide , Fungicide , and Rodenticide Act , was directly related to Carson 's work .
In the 1980s , the policies of the Reagan Administration emphasized economic growth , rolling back many of the environmental policies adopted in response to Carson and her work .
= = = Criticisms of environmentalism and DDT restrictions = = =
Carson and the environmental movement were , and continue to be , criticized by some who argue that restrictions placed on pesticides , specifically DDT , have caused tens of millions of needless deaths and hampered agriculture ( and , implicitly , that Carson bears responsibility for inciting such restrictions ) . These arguments have been dismissed as " outrageous " by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios . May Berenbaum , University of Illinois entomologist , says , " to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible . " Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize this notion as a " myth " promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro @-@ DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria ( AFM ) .
In the 2000s , however , criticism of the real and alleged ban ( s ) of DDT her work prompted became much more intense . In 2009 , the libertarian think tank Competitive Enterprise Institute set up a website asserting " Millions of people around the world suffer the painful and often deadly effects of malaria because one person sounded a false alarm . That person is Rachel Carson . " A 2012 review article in Nature by Rob Dunn commemorating the 50th anniversary of Silent Spring prompted a response in a letter written by Anthony Trewavas and co @-@ signed by 10 others , including Christopher Leaver , Bruce Ames , Richard Tren and Peter Lachmann , who quote estimates of 60 to 80 million deaths " as a result of misguided fears based on poorly understood evidence . "
Biographer Hamilton Lytle believes these estimates unrealistic , even assuming that Carson can be " blamed " for worldwide DDT policies . John Quiggin and Tim Lambert have written that " the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted . " DDT was never banned for anti @-@ malarial use , ( its ban for agricultural use in the United States in 1972 did not apply outside the US or to anti @-@ malaria spraying ; the international treaty that banned most uses of DDT and other organochlorine pesticides — the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants — included an exemption for DDT for the use of malaria control until affordable substitutes could be found . ) Mass outdoor spraying of DDT was abandoned in poor countries subject to malaria , such as Sri Lanka , in the 1970s and 1980s , not because of government prohibitions , but because the DDT had lost its ability to kill the mosquitoes ( because of insects ' very short breeding cycle and large number of offspring , the most resistant insects that survive and pass on their genetic traits to their offspring replace the pesticide @-@ slain insects relatively rapidly . Agricultural spraying of pesticides produces resistance to the pesticide in seven to ten years ) .
Consequently , some experts have argued that restrictions placed on the agricultural use of DDT have increased its effectiveness as a tool for battling malaria . According to pro @-@ DDT advocate Amir Attaran the result of the 2004 Stockholm Convention banning DDT 's use in agriculture " is arguably better than the status quo ... For the first time , there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only , meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before . "
= = = Posthumous honors = = =
A variety of groups ranging from government institutions to environmental and conservation organizations to scholarly societies have celebrated Carson 's life and work since her death . Perhaps most significantly , on June 9 , 1980 , Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom , the highest civilian honor in the United States A 17 ¢ Great Americans series postage stamp was issued in her honor the following year ; several other countries have since issued Carson postage as well .
Carson 's birthplace and childhood home in Springdale , Pennsylvania — now known as the Rachel Carson Homestead — became a National Register of Historic Places site , and the nonprofit Rachel Carson Homestead Association was created in 1975 to manage it . Her home in Colesville , Maryland where she wrote Silent Spring was named a National Historic Landmark in 1991 . Near Pittsburgh , a 35 @.@ 7 miles ( 57 km ) hiking trail , called the Rachel Carson Trail and maintained by the Rachel Carson Trails Conservancy , was dedicated to Carson in 1975 . A Pittsburgh bridge was also renamed in Carson 's honor as the Rachel Carson Bridge . The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection State Office Building in Harrisburg is named in her honor . Elementary schools in Gaithersburg , Montgomery County , Maryland , Sammamish , Washington and San Jose , California were named in her honor , as were middle schools in Beaverton , Oregon and Herndon , Virginia ( Rachel Carson Middle School ) , and a high school in Brooklyn , New York .
Two research vessels currently sail in the US bearing the name R / V Rachel Carson . One is on the west coast , owned by MBARI , and the other is on the east coast , operated by the University of Maryland . Another vessel of the name , now scrapped , was a former naval vessel obtained and converted by the US EPA. it operated on the Great Lakes .
In Woods Hole , Massachusetts , near the US Fisheries building and adjacent to the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , the Marine Biological Laboratory has erected a life @-@ sized bronze statue of Rachel , sitting on a bench , with a book .
The ceremonial auditorium on the third floor of U.S. EPA 's main headquarters , the Ariel Rios Building , is named after Rachel Carson . The Rachel Carson room is just a few feet away from the EPA administrator 's office and has been the site of numerous important announcements , including the Clean Air Interstate Rule , since the Agency moved to Ariel Rios in 2001 .
A number of conservation areas have been named for Carson as well . Between 1964 and 1990 , 650 acres ( 3 km2 ) near Brookeville in Montgomery County , Maryland were acquired and set aside as the Rachel Carson Conservation Park , administered by the Maryland @-@ National Capital Park and Planning Commission . In 1969 , the Coastal Maine National Wildlife Refuge became the Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge ; expansions will bring the size of the refuge to about 9 @,@ 125 acres ( 37 km2 ) . In 1985 , North Carolina renamed one of its estuarine reserves in honor of Carson , in Beaufort .
Carson is also a frequent namesake for prizes awarded by philanthropic , educational and scholarly institutions . The Rachel Carson Prize , founded in Stavanger , Norway in 1991 , is awarded to women who have made a contribution in the field of environmental protection . The American Society for Environmental History has awarded the Rachel Carson Prize for Best Dissertation since 1993 . Since 1998 , the Society for Social Studies of Science has awarded an annual Rachel Carson Book Prize for " a book length work of social or political relevance in the area of science and technology studies . "
Google created a Google Doodle for Carson 's 107th birthday on May 27 , 2014 . OnlineCollege.org named Carson as the sixth best science writer of all time , under the category of Zoology and Naturalism .
= = = = Centennial events = = = =
2007 was the centennial of Carson 's birth . On Earth Day ( April 22 , 2007 ) , Courage for the Earth : Writers , Scientists , and Activists Celebrate the Life and Writing of Rachel Carson was released as " a centennial appreciation of Rachel Carson 's brave life and transformative writing . " It contained thirteen essays by environmental writers and scientists . Democratic Senator Benjamin L. Cardin of Maryland had intended to submit a resolution celebrating Carson for her " legacy of scientific rigor coupled with poetic sensibility " on the 100th anniversary of her birth . The resolution was blocked by Republican Senator Tom Coburn of Oklahoma , who said that " The junk science and stigma surrounding DDT — the cheapest and
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0 @.@ 1 M ☉ . The bulk of the mass loss occurs in a wind with a terminal velocity of about 420 km / s , but some material is seen at higher velocities , up to 3 @,@ 200 km / s , possibly material blown from the accretion disk by the secondary star .
Eta Carinae B is presumably also losing mass via a thin fast stellar wind , but this cannot be detected directly . Models of the radiation observed from interactions between the winds of the two stars show a mass loss rate of the order of 10 − 5 M ☉ / year at speeds of 3 @,@ 000 km / s , typical of a hot O class star . For a portion of the highly eccentric orbit , it actually gains material from the primary via an accretion disk . During the Great Eruption of the primary , the secondary accreted several M ☉ , producing strong jets which formed the bipolar shape of the Homunculus Nebula .
= = = Luminosity = = =
The stars of the Eta Carinae system are completely obscured by dust and opaque stellar winds , with much of the ultraviolet and visual radiation shifted to infrared . The total electromagnetic radiation across all wavelengths for both stars combined is several million solar luminosities ( L ☉ ) . The best estimate for the luminosity of the primary is 5 million L ☉ . The luminosity of Eta Carinae B is particularly uncertain , probably several hundred thousand L ☉ and almost certainly no more than 1 million L ☉ .
The most notable feature of Eta Carinae is its giant eruption or supernova impostor event , which originated in the primary star and was observed around 1843 . In a few years , it produced almost as much visible light as a faint supernova explosion , but the star survived . It is estimated that at peak brightness the luminosity was as high as 50 million L ☉ . Other supernova impostors have been seen in other galaxies , for example the possible false supernova SN 1961v in NGC 1058 and SN 2006jc in UGC 4904 .
Following the Great Eruption , Eta Carinae became self @-@ obscured by the ejected material , resulting in dramatic reddening . This has been estimated at four magnitudes at visual wavelengths , meaning the post @-@ eruption luminosity was comparable to the luminosity when first identified . Eta Carinae is still much brighter at infrared wavelengths , despite the presumed hot stars behind the nebulosity . The recent visual brightening is considered to be largely caused by a decrease in the extinction , due to thinning dust or a reduction in mass loss , rather than an underlying change in the luminosity .
= = = Temperature = = =
Until late in the 20th century , the temperature of Eta Carinae was assumed to be over 30 @,@ 000 K because of the presence of high temperature spectral lines , but other aspects of the spectrum suggested much lower temperatures and complex models were created to account for this . It is now known that the Eta Carinae system consists of at least two stars , both with strong stellar winds and a shocked colliding wind ( WWC or wind @-@ wind collision ) zone , embedded within a dusty nebula that reprocesses 90 % of the electromagnetic radiation into the mid and far infrared . All of these features have different temperatures .
The powerful stellar winds from the two stars collide in a roughly conical wind @-@ wind collision zone and produce temperatures as high as 100 MK at the apex between the two stars . This zone is the source of the hard x @-@ rays and gamma @-@ rays close to the stars . Near periastron , as the secondary ploughs through ever denser regions of the primary wind , the colliding wind zone becomes distorted into a spiral trailing behind Eta Carinae B.
The wind @-@ wind collision cone separates the winds of the two stars . For 55 – 75 ° behind the secondary , there is a thin hot wind typical of O or Wolf – Rayet stars . This allows some radiation from Eta Carinae B to be detected and its temperature can be estimated with some accuracy due to spectral lines that are unlikely to be produced by any other source . Although the secondary star has never been directly observed , there is widespread agreement on models where it has a temperature between 37 @,@ 000 K and 41 @,@ 000 K.
In all other directions on the other side of the wind @-@ wind collision zone , there is the wind from Eta Carinae A , cooler and around 100 times denser than Eta Carinae B 's wind . It is also optically dense , completely obscuring anything resembling a true photosphere and rendering any definition of its temperature moot . The observable radiation originates from a pseudo @-@ photosphere where the optical density of the wind drops to near zero , typically measured at a particular Rossland opacity value such as 2 ⁄ 3 . This pseudo @-@ photosphere is observed to be elongated and hotter along the presumed axis of rotation .
Eta Carinae A is likely to have appeared as an early B hypergiant with a temperature of between 20 @,@ 000 K and 25 @,@ 000 K at the time of its discovery by Halley . An effective temperature determined for the surface of a spherical optically thick wind at several hundred R ☉ would be 9 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 000 K , while the temperature of a theoretical 60 R ☉ hydrostatic " core " at optical depth 150 would be 35 @,@ 200 K. The effective temperature of the visible outer edge of the opaque primary wind is generally treated as being 15 @,@ 000 K – 25 @,@ 000 K on the basis of visual and ultraviolet spectral features assumed to be directly from the wind or reflected via the Weigelt Blobs .
The Homunculus contains dust at temperatures varying from 150 K to 400 K. This is the source of almost all the infrared radiation that makes Eta Carinae such a bright object at those wavelengths .
Further out , expanding gases from the Great Eruption collide with interstellar material and are heated to around 5 MK , producing less energetic X @-@ rays seen in a horseshoe or ring shape .
= = = Size = = =
The size of the two main stars in the Eta Carinae system is difficult to determine precisely because neither star can be seen directly . Eta Carinae B is likely to have a well @-@ defined photosphere and its radius can be estimated from the assumed type of star . An O supergiant of 933 @,@ 000 L ☉ with a temperature of 37 @,@ 200 K has an effective radius of 23 @.@ 6 R ☉ .
The size of Eta Carinae A is not even well defined . It has an optically dense stellar wind so the typical definition of a star 's surface being approximately where it becomes opaque gives a very different result to where a more traditional definition of a surface might be . One study calculated a radius of 60 R ☉ for a hot " core " of 35 @,@ 000 K at optical depth 150 , near the sonic point or very approximately what might be called a physical surface . At optical depth 0 @.@ 67 the radius would be over 800 R ☉ , indicating an extended optically thick stellar wind . At the peak of the Great Eruption the radius , so far as such a thing is meaningful during such a violent expulsion of material , would have been around 1 @,@ 400 R ☉ , comparable to the largest known stars .
The stellar sizes should be compared with their orbital separation , which is only around 250 R ☉ at periastron . The accretion radius of the secondary is around 60 R ☉ , suggesting strong accretion near periastron leading to a collapse of the secondary wind . It has been proposed that the initial brightening from 4th magnitude to 1st at relatively constant bolometric luminosity was a normal LBV outburst , albeit from an extreme example of the class . Then the companion star passing through the expanded photosphere of the primary at periastron triggered the further brightening , increase in luminosity , and extreme mass loss of the Great Eruption .
= = = Rotation = = =
Rotation rates of massive stars have a critical influence on their evolution and eventual death . The rotation rate of the Eta Carinae stars cannot be measured directly because their surfaces cannot be seen . Single massive stars spin down quickly due to braking from their strong winds , but there are hints that both Eta Carinae A and B are fast rotators , up to 90 % of critical velocity . One or both could have been spun up by binary interaction , for example accretion onto the secondary , and orbital dragging on the primary .
= = Evolution = =
Eta Carinae is a unique object , with no very close analogues currently known in any galaxy . Therefore , its future evolution is highly uncertain , but almost certainly involves further mass loss and an eventual supernova .
Eta Carinae A would have begun life as an extremely hot star on the main sequence , already a highly luminous object over a million L ☉ . The exact properties would depend on the initial mass , which is expected to have been at least 150 M ☉ and possibly much higher . A typical spectrum when first formed would be O2If and the star would be mostly or fully convective due to CNO cycle fusion at the very high core temperatures . Sufficiently massive or differentially rotating stars undergo such strong mixing that they remain chemically homogeneous during core hydrogen burning .
As core hydrogen burning progresses , a very massive star would slowly expand and become more luminous , becoming a blue hypergiant and eventually an LBV while still fusing hydrogen in the core . When hydrogen at the core is depleted after 2 – 2 @.@ 5 million years , hydrogen shell burning continues with further increases in size and luminosity , although hydrogen shell burning in chemically homogeneous stars may be very brief or absent since the entire star would become depleted of hydrogen . In the late stages of hydrogen burning , mass loss is extremely high due to the high luminosity and enhanced surface abundances of helium and nitrogen . As hydrogen burning ends and core helium burning begins , massive stars transition very rapidly to the Wolf – Rayet stage with little or no hydrogen , increased temperatures , and decreased luminosity . They are likely to have lost over half their initial mass at this point .
It is unclear whether triple alpha helium fusion has started at the core of Eta Carinae A. The elemental abundances at the surface cannot be accurately measured , but ejecta within the Homunculus are around 60 % hydrogen and 40 % helium , with nitrogen enhanced to ten times solar levels . This is indicative of ongoing CNO cycle hydrogen fusion .
Models of the evolution and death of single very massive stars predict an increase in temperature during helium core burning , with the outer layers of the star being lost . It becomes a Wolf – Rayet star on the nitrogen sequence , moving from WNL to WNE as more of the outer layers are lost , possibly reaching the WC or WO spectral class as carbon and oxygen from the triple alpha process reach the surface . This process would continue with heavier elements being fused until an iron core develops , at which point the core collapses and the star is destroyed . Subtle differences in initial conditions , in the models themselves , and most especially in the rates of mass loss , produce different predictions for the final state of the most massive stars . They may survive to become a helium @-@ stripped star or they may collapse at an earlier stage while they retain more of their outer layers . The lack of sufficiently luminous WN stars and the discovery of apparent LBV supernova progenitors has also prompted the suggestion that certain types of LBVs explode as a supernova without evolving further .
Eta Carinae is a close binary and this complicates the evolution of both stars . Compact massive companions can strip mass from larger primary stars much more quickly than would occur in a single star , so the properties at core collapse can be very different . In some scenarios , the secondary can accrue significant mass , accelerating its evolution , and in turn be stripped by the now compact Wolf – Rayet primary . In the case of Eta Carinae , the secondary is clearly causing additional instability in the primary , making it difficult to predict future developments .
= = = Potential supernova = = =
The overwhelming probability is that the next supernova observed in the Milky Way will originate from an unknown white dwarf or anonymous red supergiant , very likely not even visible to the naked eye . Nevertheless , the prospect of a supernova originating from an object as extreme , nearby , and well @-@ studied as Eta Carinae arouses great interest .
As a single star , a star around 150 times as massive as the Sun originally would typically reach core collapse as a Wolf – Rayet star within 3 million years . At low metallicity , many massive stars will collapse directly to a black hole with no visible explosion or a sub @-@ luminous supernova , and a small fraction will produce a pair instability supernova , but at solar metallicity and above there is expected to be sufficient mass loss before collapse to allow a visible supernova of type Ib or Ic . If there is still a large amount of expelled material close to the star , the shock formed by the supernova explosion impacting the circumstellar material can efficiently convert kinetic energy to radiation , resulting in a superluminous supernova ( commonly called a hypernova ) , several times more luminous than a typical core collapse supernova and much longer @-@ lasting . Highly massive progenitors may also eject sufficient nickel to cause a hypernova simply from the radioactive decay . The resulting remnant would be a black hole since it is highly unlikely such a massive star could ever lose sufficient mass for the core not to exceed the limit for a neutron star . Certain supernovae may also produce gamma @-@ ray bursts , but this is not expected from a single star in the mass range of Eta Carinae .
The existence of a massive companion brings many other possibilities . If Eta Carinae A was rapidly stripped of its outer layers , it might be a less massive WC- or WO @-@ type star when core collapse was reached . This would result in a type Ib or type Ic supernova due to the lack of hydrogen and possibly helium . This supernova type is thought to be the originator of certain classes of gamma ray bursts , but models predict they occur only in less massive stars .
Several unusual supernovae and impostors have been compared to Eta Carinae as examples of its possible fate . One of the most compelling is SN 2009ip , a blue supergiant which underwent a supernova impostor event in 2009 with similarities to Eta Carinae 's Great Eruption , then an even brighter outburst in 2012 which is likely to have been a true supernova . SN 2006jc , some 77 million light years away in UGC 4904 , in the constellation Lynx , also underwent a supernova impostor brightening in 2004 , followed by a magnitude 13 @.@ 8 type Ib supernova , first seen on 9 October 2006 . Eta Carinae has also been compared to other possible supernova impostors such as SN 1961V , and to superluminous supernovae such as SN 2006gy .
= = = Possible effects on Earth = = =
A typical core collapse supernova at the distance of Eta Carinae would peak at an apparent magnitude around − 4 , similar to Venus . A hypernova could be five magnitudes brighter , potentially the brightest supernova in recorded history ( currently SN 1006 ) . At 7 @,@ 500 light years from the star it is unlikely to directly affect terrestrial lifeforms , as they will be protected from gamma rays by the atmosphere and from some other cosmic rays by the magnetosphere . The main damage would be restricted to the upper atmosphere , the ozone layer , spacecraft , including satellites , and any astronauts in space . At least one paper has projected that complete loss of the Earth 's ozone layer is a plausible consequence of a supernova , which would result in a significant increase in surface UV radiation reaching Earth 's surface from our own Sun . However this would require a typical supernova to be closer than 50 light @-@ years from Earth , and even a potential hypernova would need to be closer than Eta Carinae . Another analyses the impacts and also discusses more subtle effects from the unusual illumination , such as possible melatonin suppression with resulting insomnia and increased risk of cancer and depression . It concludes that a supernova of this magnitude would have to be much closer than Eta Carinae to have any type of major impact on Earth .
Eta Carinae is not expected to produce a gamma @-@ ray burst and its axis is not currently aimed near Earth , but a direct hit from a gamma @-@ ray burst could cause catastrophic damage and a major extinction event . Calculations show that the deposited energy of such a gamma @-@ ray burst striking the Earth 's atmosphere would be equivalent to one kiloton of TNT per square kilometer over the entire hemisphere facing the star , with ionizing radiation depositing ten times the lethal whole body dose to the surface .
= The Naked Now =
" The Naked Now " is the third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , originally aired on October 5 , 1987 in broadcast syndication in the United States . Directed by Paul Lynch , the episode had been written by D.C. Fontana , under the pseudonym of " J. Michael Bingham , " with John D.F. Black also credited for his role in devising the plot 's origins .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of a Starfleet starship , the USS Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the Enterprise encounters a research ship where all personnel are found dead . The Enterprise crew quickly become infected with the same affliction , one that is similar to that suffered by the crew of James T. Kirk 's USS Enterprise decades before .
Based on an unfinished teleplay by Gene Roddenberry , the episode deliberately followed up on the events of Star Trek : The Original Series first season episode " The Naked Time " ( 1966 ) . Fans initially criticised the origins of the episode , and later reviews were also largely negative .
= = Plot = =
The crew of the Enterprise responds to messages received from the SS Tsiolkovsky , a science vessel monitoring the collapse of a supergiant star . The messages suggest that the crew has been exposed to a sudden hull breach amid their rounds of laughter . After the Enterprise secures the Tsiolkovsky via tractor beam , an away team beams over and finds the crew frozen to death in various stages of undress--including one who was taking a shower fully clothed . A woman 's body , frozen , falls into Lt. La Forge 's ( LeVar Burton ) hands . Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) orders full medical examinations of the away team on their return , and finds La Forge sweating profusely and complaining about the temperature . She orders him to stay in sickbay but he manages to escape , making his way to the quarters of Crusher 's son , Wesley ( Wil Wheaton ) . Unaware of La Forge 's condition , Wesley shows him a portable tractor beam device and La Forge places an encouraging hand on his shoulder . Meanwhile , acting on a hunch by Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , who had read a book on past starships named " Enterprise " and found a previous mention of someone taking a shower fully clothed in its pages , Lt. Cdr . Data ( Brent Spiner ) locates a historical record identifying the ailment as similar to one encountered by Captain Kirk 's USS Enterprise . La Forge returns to sickbay , where Dr. Crusher quickly becomes concerned when she realizes that the infection is spread by physical contact . Much of the ship 's crew comes under the influence of the ailment , including Data , who engages in a sexual encounter with Security Chief Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) . Dr. Crusher , struggling against the effects of the ailment , finds the original antidote documented by Kirk 's Enterprise to be ineffective , and begins devising a new version of it .
Now infected , Wesley uses a digital sample of Captain Picard 's voice to lure key engineering crew @-@ members away from the engineering deck . He erects a force field around the area with his tractor beam device and assumes control of the ship . He allows one of the engineers , Mr. Shimoda ( Benjamin W.S. Lum ) , who is acting in a childlike manner , into the force field . Mr. Shimoda manages to remove all of the isolinear chips from the engine control station and plays with them like toys . As the supergiant star collapses , a fragment is blown into a direct impact course with the two Federation ships , and without the chips in place , they cannot move out of its way . Chief Engineer Sarah MacDougal ( Brooke Bundy ) manages to disable Wesley 's force field , and Data is sent to replace the chips . He reports that he will not have enough time . Wesley reverses the ship 's tractor beam , repelling the Enterprise off the Tsiolkovsky , giving themselves the necessary additional seconds for Data to replace the chips enabling the ship to move out of the way . The crew is cured of the ailment , and Picard partially credits Wesley for helping to prevent a disaster .
= = Production = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation 's creator , Gene Roddenberry , wanted to include an episode revealing the characters ' motivations to the audience early on in the series . As a basis , he turned to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Naked Time . " Executive producer Rick Berman described " The Naked Now " as " a [ n ] homage , not a copy " of " The Naked Time , " while director Paul Lynch described it as " slightly more adult and a lot more comic than the original " .
" The Naked Now " is based on an incomplete teleplay by Roddenberry for The Next Generation , titled " Revelations . " The first few scenes remained largely similar , but in " Revelations " La Forge infected Yar while making unsuccessful sexual advances toward her . Original Series writer D.C. Fontana wrote a new draft of the teleplay with several further changes that failed to make it into the final installment . These included Data turning down Yar 's sexual advances , Troi 's lack of privacy due to empathic abilities , Picard 's concern for the families on the ship , and Riker 's fear of becoming a lonely starship captain .
Brooke Bundy made her only appearance as the first Chief Engineer of the Enterprise , Sarah MacDougal , in this episode . The post of Chief Engineer changed hands numerous times through the rest of season one before Geordi La Forge was finally assigned the post on a permanent basis in season two . Michael Rider made his first appearance as an unnamed transporter chief , and would go on to appear in the same role twice more before appearing a final time as a security guard .
The SS Tsiolkovsky model was a re @-@ dress of the USS Grissom from Star Trek III : The Search for Spock ( 1984 ) . Michael Okuda created a ship 's dedication plaque for the Tsiolkovsky which stated that it had been created in the Soviet Union . A copy was subsequently sent for display at the Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga , Soviet Russia .
= = Reception = =
" The Naked Now " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 3 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 11 @.@ 5 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was lower than the pilot , but higher than the following episodes until " Lonely Among Us " in October 1987 .
The initial reaction of some fans was dismay , as there were concerns that The Next Generation would continue to lift stories from The Original Series . Staff writer Maurice Hurley said of " The Naked Now , " " I didn 't like that show at all . It just wasn 't very good . What it did show , though , was that the new ensemble could interact , and that there were relationships between them that worked . But doing it was terrible . It was a warmed over premise . Why do it ? " The liaison between Data and Yar stood out as being controversial , with Data referring to himself as being " fully functional " in a sexual sense .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed it on behalf of Tor.com , comparing it to " The Naked Time " and stating that " there 's nothing in this episode as entertaining as Sulu bare @-@ chested with an epee , and Wesley being nerdy in the engine room is nowhere near as much fun as Riley singing . " He gave the episode a score of two out of ten , remarking that " it 's rarely a good idea to do an episode where everyone acts out of character as only the second one out of the gate , since we don 't know enough about these people for their acting strange to be meaningful . " Cast member Wil Wheaton re @-@ watched the episode for AOL TV , and summed it up saying " whether it was the worst episode ever or not probably rested upon the viewer 's expectations . Trekkies who were looking for reasons to hate The Next Generation found plenty " while " viewers who were willing to watch it with an open mind saw flashes of things they came to love watching , " and gave it a score of D + .
James Hunt wrote about " The Naked Now " for the website " Den of Geek , " stating that he couldn 't understand why someone would want to show the characters acting out of character in only the second episode ( not counting the pilot ) of the series , before the viewers had a baseline from which to understand why the characters ' behaviour was abnormal . He praised the idea of connecting The Next Generation to The Original Series early in the series , but also remarked that " however you slice it up , this episode is pretty awful . " Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " remarked that " there 's a certain memorable quality to this episode , despite its campy , overplayed comedy " but that " ultimately , the show is too goofy for its own good , but it 's at least not boring , " awarding it a score of two and a half out of four .
Writing for TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green thought that the episode would have been improved if it had come a few seasons later , by which time the characters were better known to the audience . She also argued that the plot 's synopsis would have worked better had it been used for an episode in Star Trek : Voyager . She thought that the episode was " boring , because we already know how it 's going to end , and it 's trivial , because already we can see how easily this crew can be diverted from duty . " Zack Handlen reviewed " The Naked Now " for The A.V. Club . He gave the episode a grade of D- , and his criticism of the episode included describing the scene with Yar and Data as " colossally misjudged " as well as attacking Wesley Crusher 's " twerpitude . "
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " The Naked Now " was on VHS cassette , appearing on September 5 , 1991 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine =
Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine is a stealth action video game released in 2013 for Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows , Mac OS X and Linux . The PC versions of Monaco were developed and published by Pocketwatch Games while the Xbox Live Arcade version was published by Majesco Entertainment .
The gameplay in Monaco consists of up to four players who all control different characters while they partake in heists and robberies in many different locations . Each player can control one of eight eight characters , all of whom have their own advantages , such as the Hacker who can put viruses onto the security systems , and the Cleaner who can put guards to sleep . The main difference between single @-@ player and multiplayer is that in multiplayer , when a player dies they must be revived before the level can be completed .
Development of Monaco began while Andy Schatz was working for TKO Software , before he founded his own independent company Pocketwatch Games . The game first started as nothing more than a Pac @-@ Man clone that he referred to as " The Sims meets Diablo meets Hitman " . After being turned down by Microsoft Game Studios twice , Monaco was released onto Xbox 360 by Majesco Entertainment . The soundtrack was composed by American composer Austin Wintory , who had worked on the soundtracks for games like Flow and Journey , after discussing the topic with Schatz . Andy Nguyen , whom Andy Schatz met while he was looking for playtesters , quit his job at Citibank so he could spend more time helping with the development of Monaco as a level designer and producer , as well as working in booths .
The game was positively received by reviewers and won two awards at the 2010 GDC Independent Games Festival . The reviewers highly praised the cooperative gameplay but said the single @-@ player was less fun due to there being less things to do . Many comparisons were made between Monaco and other media ; the most common being the 1960 heist film Oceans 11 . Reviewers liked the art style and said that the gameplay suited the minimalisic design .
= = Gameplay = =
Monaco is a single @-@ player or multiplayer stealth action game played in a top @-@ down perspective . Up to four players can control one of eight characters , all of which have different traits and advantages , while they partake in heists and robberies in places like nightclubs , mansions and yachts . Levels can be completed it many different ways based on what characters the player or players choose . When playing in single @-@ player , once a character is unlocked they can be used on any level , although any level can be completed as any character . In multiplayer , players work together to complete the levels . If one of the players die , another must revive them before finishing the level .
The eight characters consist of the Locksmith , the Cleaner , the Lookout , the Pickpocket , the Mole , the Gentleman , the Redhead and the Hacker . The Locksmith can open doors twice as fast as the other characters ; the Cleaner can put guards to sleep ; the Lookout is able to see enemies that aren 't in the player 's direct line of sight ; the Pickpocket owns a monkey which runs around collecting coins ; the Mole can dig holes through walls and takes less time to open vents ; the Gentleman has the ability to temporarily change appearance , making the player less detectable to enemies ; the Redhead can charm enemies into not attacking them and make characters follow them ; and the Hacker has the ability to upload computer viruses to the security systems , resulting in them shutting off temporarily . The first four of the eight characters are available immediately .
There are many items that can be picked up , which include smoke bombs and C4 explosives , along with many different types of guns including a shotgun and a machine gun . The gun 's ammo is limited and is replenished by collecting ten coins which are scattered around the map . In multiplayer , the player who collects the coin 's is the only person who 's gun receives more ammo .
= = Development = =
The idea for Monaco was first prototyped during the time when Andy Schatz was working for TKO Software , which was a video game development company based in Santa Cruz , California . The game first started as a Pac @-@ Man clone and was described by Schatz to have looked similar to Jason Rohrer 's 2014 video game The Castle Doctrine during its early stages of development . His original plans were to release Monaco as an Xbox Live Indie Games title , made within six weeks . He said that when he was talking to people about it during this stage , he would describe it as " The Sims meets Diablo meets Hitman " . The development at TKO was done for around 3 weeks whilst the company searched for paying work . Before TKO shut down in 2005 , Schatz left and founded his own independent company , Pocketwatch Games . After Pocketwatch Games experimented with simulation games , such as 2006 Independent Games Festival finalist Wildlife Tycoon : Venture Africa and Wildlife Tycoon : Venture Dinosauria , Schatz prototyped an early version of Monaco using Microsoft XNA as to see if it worked on Xbox 360 .
When Andy Schatz pitched the game to Microsoft Game Studios , they turned it down . Schatz responded by saying " they were crazy " and asked if he could repitch the game , to which they accepted . Schatz continued to work on Monaco for around a year in order " to make it something really marketable " . When he pitched it to Microsoft Game Studios for the second time , it was turned down . After these events , Schatz got the impression that the game was not going to be released on Xbox 360 . " That really bummed me out " , Schatz said in an interview with Mike Rose from Gamasutra , " because I felt like the Xbox was the ideal platform for this particular game , because of the prevalence of headsets , the marketplace being strong , and the Xbox being the easiest console to work with . And of course the game was written in XNA , so it was a no @-@ brainer " . Schatz tried but ultimately failed to port the game to the PlayStation 3 . In order to publish the game on Xbox Live , Schatz partnered with video game publishing company Majesco . Due to this , game had to be ported from Empty Clip to the RapidFire engine . Valve Corporation approached Schatz and offered to get the game on the Steam store .
Schatz met Andy Nguyen while looking for playtesters in 2011 . Schatz described Nguyen as a man Schatz " clicked with " and made an energizing work environment and due to this , Nguyen was hired to work in festival booths and sell the company 's merchandise at events . Nguyen did not know how to program , but he eventually became a level designer and producer for Monaco . During the development of Monaco , Nguyen quit his job at Citibank to devote more time to the game and Pocketwatch Games .
The soundtrack for Monaco was composed by Grammy @-@ nominated Austin Wintory , who had previously worked as the composer for games such as flOw and Journey . The original soundtrack and a remixed album called " Gentleman 's Private Collection " were released on April 24 , 2013 . The soundtrack incorporates pianos and drums into what Christian Donlan ( Eurogamer ) thought to be one of Wintory 's best works yet . The Gentleman 's Private Collection contains remixes of the original soundtrack by other notable composers , including Peter Hollens , Tina Guo who played the violin in the Journey soundtrack , and Chipzel who composed the soundtrack for Super Hexagon . When Wintory was approached by Schatz , he was excited due to the request involving humerous " old @-@ timey piano " , stating " when else am I ever going to be asked to write anything remotely like this ? " Schatz originally wanted to use licensed music due to him thinking the project was too going to be too small to warrant its own soundtrack , but Wintory persuaded Schatz after discussing the topic with him . The full soundtrack and Gentleman 's Private Collection were released onto Wintory 's Bandcamp .
Monaco was released onto Microsoft Windows on April 24 , 2013 . The Xbox 360 version was delayed and ended up being released on May 10 . On July 3 , 2013 the Mac version was released and on October 21 , 2013 , the Linux version was released . Since the official release , Pocketwatch Games have updated the game to include more levels and minigames , including a new campaign mode called " Monaco Origins " , which contains backstories for all the characters .
= = Reception = =
Monaco : What 's Yours Is Mine received positive reception from critics , garnering " generally favorable reviews " for both the PC and Xbox 360 release . The Xbox 360 release sold poorly . Andy Schatz believed this was due to the weak demo , the delayed release and the bugs that were related to the multiplayer mode .
Reviewers highly praised the co @-@ op mode but many disliked the single @-@ player modes . Danielle Riendeau ( Polygon ) liked the gameplay of Monaco , stating it was very fun with other people , but it seemed like single @-@ player needed work . James Murff ( GameFront ) said the co @-@ op was ridiculously fun and has good replayability . Marty Sliva ( IGN ) said Monaco provided one of the best co @-@ op experiences he 'd had in a while . He stated that due to the gameplay and mechanics , it was one of the most unique and addictive games that were released in 2013 . Scott Nichols ( Digital Spy ) said that the game contains lots to discover , but is best done cooperatively . Jeff Grubb ( VentureBeat ) praised the fact that the game works as both an arcade and a strategic game but said to skip it if you weren 't planning on playing it cooperatively . Roger Hargreaves ( Metro ) liked the multiplayer mode more , but still praised the single @-@ player mode and called it surprisingly compelling .
Reviewers made comparisons between Monaco and other games and films . The most common one being the comparison of the 1960 heist film Oceans 11 . Scott Nichols compared it to Oceans 11 due to the similarities and said " with its ensemble cast , daring break @-@ ins and carefully laid plans , it has all the makings of an interactive heist flick " . Anton Bjurvald ( Eurogamer ) also compared the game to Oceans 11 . Roger Hargreaves said the game was like " Ocean ’ s Eleven meets Pac @-@ Man and Metal Gear Solid " . He compared it to Pac @-@ Man due to the maze @-@ like levels .
Many reviewers criticised the game 's repetition of levels . Francesco Serino ( Eurogamer ) criticised the variation between levels and said it wasn 't too long before he was seeing similar levels due to the game 's simplicity . He said the levels are usually well made but is too often made for certain characters , which adds more gameplay due to the time it takes finding the best strategies to complete a level . Alex Navarro ( Giant Bomb ) liked the overall gameplay of Monaco but disliked some of the later levels as they turned into " tedious exercises in trial @-@ and @-@ error " . Ben Allan ( Gameplanet ) said the single @-@ player was less fun due to there being less variations and less chaos . Anton Bjurvald said he fell in love with the simplicity of the graphics and liked the majority of the gameplay but said that it seemed like the game 's artificial intelligence was made too easy to be fooled .
= = = Awards = = =
15 weeks into development of Monaco , in early 2010 , the game won the 2010 GDC Independent Games Festival Seumas McNally Grand Prize award , as well as the Excellence in Design award . Monaco won Destructoid 's " best of 2013 co @-@ op multiplayer " and beat titles like Diablo III , Guacamelee ! and Payday 2 . Monaco was also a finalist in the 2010 Indie Game Challenge under the " Professional " category .
= Alprazolam =
Alprazolam , available under the trade name Xanax among others , is a short @-@ acting anxiolytic of the benzodiazepine class . It is commonly used for the treatment of panic disorder , and anxiety disorders , such as generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) or social anxiety disorder ( SAD ) . It was the 12th most prescribed medicine in the USA in 2010 . Alprazolam , like other benzodiazepines , binds to specific sites on the GABAA receptor . It possesses anxiolytic , sedative , hypnotic , skeletal muscle relaxant , anticonvulsant , and amnestic properties . Alprazolam is available for oral administration in compressed tablet ( CT ) and extended @-@ release capsule ( XR ) formulations .
Peak benefits achieved for generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) may take up to a week . Tolerance to the anxiolytic / antipanic effects is controversial with some authoritative sources reporting the development of tolerance , and others reporting no development of tolerance ; tolerance will , however , develop to the sedative @-@ hypnotic effects within a couple of days . Withdrawal symptoms or rebound symptoms may occur after ceasing treatment abruptly following a few weeks or longer of steady dosing , and may necessitate a gradual dose reduction .
Alprazolam was first released by Upjohn ( now a part of Pfizer ) in 1981 . The first approved use was panic disorder and within two years of its original marketing Xanax became a blockbuster drug in the US . Presently , alprazolam is the most prescribed and the most misused benzodiazepine in the US . The potential for misuse among those taking it for medical reasons is controversial with some expert reviews stating that the risk is low and similar to that of other benzodiazepine drugs and others stating that there is a substantial risk of misuse and dependence in both patients and non @-@ medical users of alprazolam and that the pharmacological properties of alprazolam , high affinity binding , high potency , having a short elimination half @-@ life as well as a rapid onset of action may increase the misuse potential of alprazolam . Compared to the large number of prescriptions , relatively few individuals increase their dose on their own initiative or engage in drug @-@ seeking behavior . Alprazolam is classified as a schedule IV controlled substance by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA ) .
= = Medical uses = =
Alprazolam is mostly used to treat anxiety disorders , panic disorders , and nausea due to chemotherapy . The FDA label advises that the physician should periodically reassess the usefulness of the drug . Alprazolam may also be indicated for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder , as well as for the treatment of anxiety conditions with co @-@ morbid depression . Alprazolam is also often prescribed with instances of hypersomnia and co @-@ morbid sleep deficits .
= = = Panic disorder = = =
Alprazolam is effective in the relief of moderate to severe anxiety and panic attacks . However , it is not a first line treatment since the development of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , and alprazolam is no longer recommended in Australia for the treatment of panic disorder due to concerns regarding tolerance , dependence and abuse . Evidence supporting the effectiveness of alprazolam in treating panic disorder has been limited to 4 to 10 weeks . However , people with panic disorder have been treated on an open basis for up to 8 months without apparent loss of benefit .
In the United States , alprazolam is FDA @-@ approved for the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia . Alprazolam is recommended by the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry ( WFSBP ) for treatment @-@ resistant cases of panic disorder where there is no history of tolerance or dependence .
= = = Anxiety disorders = = =
Anxiety associated with depression is responsive to alprazolam . Demonstrations of the effectiveness by systematic clinical study are limited to 4 months duration for anxiety disorder . However , the research into antidepressant properties of alprazolam is of poor quality and only assessed the short @-@ term effects of alprazolam against depression . In one study , some long term , high @-@ dosage users of alprazolam developed reversible depression . In the US , alprazolam is FDA @-@ approved for the management of anxiety disorders ( a condition corresponding most closely to the APA Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder ) or the short @-@ term relief of symptoms of anxiety . In the UK , alprazolam is recommended for the short @-@ term treatment ( 2 – 4 weeks ) of severe acute anxiety .
= = = Nausea due to chemotherapy = = =
Alprazolam may be used in combination with other medications for chemotherapy @-@ induced nausea and vomiting .
= = Pregnancy and lactation = =
Benzodiazepines cross the placenta , enter the fetus and are also excreted with breast milk . The use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy or lactation has potential risks . The use of alprazolam in pregnancy is believed to be associated with congenital abnormalities .
Women who are pregnant or are planning on becoming pregnant should avoid starting alprazolam . Use in the last trimester may cause fetal drug dependence and withdrawal symptoms in the post @-@ natal period as well as neonatal flaccidity and respiratory problems . However , in long @-@ term users of benzodiazepines abrupt discontinuation due to concerns of teratogenesis has a high risk of causing extreme withdrawal symptoms and a severe rebound effect of the underlying mental health disorder . Spontaneous abortions may also result from abrupt withdrawal of psychotropic medications including benzodiazepines .
Benzodiazepines , including alprazolam , are known to be excreted in human milk . Chronic administration of diazepam , another benzodiazepine , to nursing mothers has been reported to cause their infants to become lethargic and to lose weight .
= = Contraindications = =
Benzodiazepines require special precaution if used in children and in alcohol- or drug @-@ dependent individuals . Particular care should be taken in pregnant or elderly patients , patients with substance abuse history , particularly alcohol dependence and patients with comorbid psychiatric disorders . Use of alprazolam should be avoided or carefully monitored by medical professionals in individuals with the following conditions : myasthenia gravis , acute narrow @-@ angle glaucoma , severe liver deficiencies ( e.g. , cirrhosis ) , severe sleep apnea , pre @-@ existing respiratory depression , marked neuromuscular respiratory weakness including unstable myasthenia gravis , acute pulmonary insufficiency , chronic psychosis , hypersensitivity or allergy to alprazolam or other drugs in the benzodiazepine class , borderline personality disorder ( may induce suicidality and dyscontrol ) .
Like all central nervous system depressants , including alcohol , alprazolam in larger @-@ than @-@ normal doses can cause significant deterioration in alertness , combined with increased feelings of drowsiness , especially in those unaccustomed to the drug 's effects . People driving or conducting activities that require vigilance should exercise caution in using alprazolam or any other depressant until they know how it affects them .
Elderly individuals should be cautious in the use of alprazolam due to the possibility of increased susceptibility to side @-@ effects , especially loss of coordination and drowsiness .
= = Adverse effects = =
Allergic reactions are unlikely to occur . The only common side effect is sleepiness when treatment is initiated .
Possible side effects include :
Disinhibition
Jaundice ( very rare )
Hallucinations ( rare )
Dry mouth ( infrequent )
Ataxia , slurred speech
Suicidal ideation ( rare )
Urinary retention ( infrequent )
Skin rash , respiratory depression , constipation
Anterograde amnesia and concentration problems
Drowsiness , dizziness , lightheadedness , fatigue , unsteadiness and impaired coordination , vertigo
= = = Paradoxical reactions = = =
Although unusual , the following paradoxical reactions have been shown to occur :
Aggression
Rage , hostility
Twitches and tremor
Mania , agitation , hyperactivity and restlessness
= = = Food and drug interactions = = =
Alprazolam is primarily metabolised via CYP3A4 . Combining CYP3A4 inhibitors such as cimetidine , erythromycin , norfluoxetine , fluvoxamine , itraconazole , ketoconazole , nefazodone , propoxyphene , and ritonavir delay the hepatic clearance of alprazolam , which may result in excessive accumulation of alprazolam . This may result in exacerbation of its adverse effect profile .
Imipramine and desipramine have been reported to be increased an average of 31 % and 20 % , respectively , by the concomitant administration of alprazolam tablets in doses up to 4 mg / day . Combined oral contraceptive pills reduce the clearance of alprazolam , which may lead to increased plasma levels of alprazolam and accumulation .
Alcohol is one of the most important and common interactions . Alcohol and benzodiazepines such as alprazolam taken in combination have a synergistic effect on one another , which can cause severe sedation , behavioral changes , and intoxication . The more alcohol and alprazolam taken the worse the interaction . Combination of alprazolam with the herb kava can result in the development of a semi @-@ comatose state . Hypericum conversely can lower the plasma levels of alprazolam and reduce its therapeutic effect .
= = = Overdose = = =
Overdoses of alprazolam can be mild to severe depending on how much of the drug is taken and any other drugs that have been taken .
Alprazolam overdoses cause excess central nervous system ( CNS ) depression and may include one or more of the following symptoms :
Somnolence ( drowsiness )
Hypotension ( low blood pressure )
Orthostatic hypotension ( fainting while standing up too quickly )
Hypoventilation ( shallow breathing )
Impaired motor functions
Dizziness
Impaired balance
Muscle weakness
Impaired or absent reflexes
Fainting
Coma and death are possible if alprazolam is combined with other substances .
= = = Dependence and withdrawal = = =
Alprazolam , like other benzodiazepines , binds to specific sites on the GABAA gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid receptor . When bound to these sites , which are referred to as benzodiazepine receptors , it modulates the effect of GABA A receptors and , thus , GABAergic neurons . Long @-@ term use causes adaptive changes in the benzodiazepine receptors , making them less sensitive to stimulation and less powerful in their effects .
Withdrawal and rebound symptoms commonly occur and necessitate a gradual reduction in dosage to minimize withdrawal effects when discontinuing .
Not all withdrawal effects are evidence of true dependence or withdrawal . Recurrence of symptoms such as anxiety may simply indicate that the drug was having its expected anti @-@ anxiety effect and that , in the absence of the drug , the symptom has returned to pretreatment levels . If the symptoms are more severe or frequent , the patient may be experiencing a rebound effect due to the removal of the drug . Either of these can occur without the patient 's actually being drug @-@ dependent .
Alprazolam and other benzodiazepines may also cause the development of physical dependence , tolerance , and benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms during rapid dose reduction or cessation of therapy after long @-@ term treatment . There is a higher chance of withdrawal reactions if the drug is administered in a higher dosage than recommended , or if a patient stops taking the medication altogether without slowly allowing the body to adjust to a lower @-@ dosage regimen .
In 1992 , Romach and colleagues reported that dose escalation is not a characteristic of long @-@ term alprazolam users , and that the majority of long @-@ term alprazolam users change their initial pattern of regular use to one of symptom control only when required .
Some common symptoms of alprazolam discontinuation include malaise , weakness , insomnia , tachycardia , lightheadedness , and dizziness .
Patients taking a dosing regimen larger than 4 mg per day have an increased potential for dependence . This medication may cause withdrawal symptoms upon abrupt withdrawal or rapid tapering , which in some cases have been known to cause seizures . The discontinuation of this medication may also cause a reaction called rebound anxiety .
Delirium similar to that produced by the tropane alkaloids ( gaba antagonists ) of Datura ( scolopamine and atropine ) and seizures have been reported in the medical literature from abrupt alprazolam discontinuation .
In a 1983 study of patients who had taken long @-@ acting benzodiazepines , e.g. , clorazepate , for extended periods , the medications were stopped abruptly . Only 5 % of patients who had been taking the drug for less than 8 months demonstrated withdrawal symptoms , but 43 % of those who had been taking them for more than 8 months did . With alprazolam – a short @-@ acting benzodiazepine – taken for 8 weeks , 65 % of patients experienced significant rebound anxiety . To some degree , these older benzodiazepines are self @-@ tapering .
The benzodiazepines diazepam ( Valium ) and oxazepam ( Serepax ) have been found to produce fewer withdrawal reactions than alprazolam ( Xanax ) , temazepam ( Restoril / Normison ) , or lorazepam ( Temesta / Ativan ) . Factors that determine the risk of psychological dependence or physical dependence and the severity of the benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms experienced during dose reduction of alprazolam include : dosage used , length of use , frequency of dosing , personality characteristics of the individual , previous use of cross @-@ dependent / cross @-@ tolerant drugs ( alcohol or other sedative @-@ hypnotic drugs ) , current use of cross @-@ dependent / -tolerant drugs , use of other short @-@ acting , high @-@ potency benzodiazepines , and method of discontinuation .
= = Detection in body fluids = =
Alprazolam may be quantitated in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients , provide evidence in an impaired driving arrest or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation . Blood or plasma alprazolam concentrations are usually in a range of 10 – 100 μg / L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically , 100 – 300 μg / L in those arrested for impaired driving and 300 – 2000 μg / L in victims of acute overdosage . Most commercial immunoassays for the benzodiazepine class of drugs will cross @-@ react with alprazolam , but confirmation and quantitation is usually performed using chromatographic techniques .
= = Pharmacology = =
Alprazolam is classed as a high @-@ potency benzodiazepine and is a triazolobenzodiazepine , namely a benzodiazepine with a triazole ring attached to its structure . Benzodiazepines produce a variety of therapeutic and adverse effects by binding to the benzodiazepine receptor site on the GABAA receptor and modulating the function of the GABA receptor , the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain . The GABA chemical and receptor system mediates inhibitory or calming effects of alprazolam on the nervous system . The GABAA receptor is made up of 5 subunits out of a possible 19 , and GABAA receptors made up of different combinations of subunits , have different properties , different locations within the brain , and , importantly , different activities with regard to benzodiazepines . Benzodiazepines and in particular alprazolam causes a marked suppression of the hypothalamicpituitary @-@ adrenal axis . The therapeutic properties of alprazolam are similar to other benzodiazepines and include anxiolytic , anticonvulsant , muscle relaxant , hypnotic and amnesic .
Administration of alprazolam , but not lorazepam , has been demonstrated to elicit a statistically significant increase in extracellular dopamine D1 and D2 concentrations in the striatum .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Absorption
Following oral administration , alprazolam is readily absorbed . Peak concentrations in the plasma occur in one to two hours following administration . Plasma levels are proportionate to the dose given ; over the dose range of 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 0 mg , peak levels of 8 @.@ 0 to 37 ng / mL were observed . Using a specific assay methodology , the mean plasma elimination half @-@ life of alprazolam has been found to be about 11 @.@ 2 hours ( range : 6 @.@ 3 to 26 @.@ 9 hours ) in healthy adults .
Distribution
In vitro , alprazolam is bound ( 80 percent ) to human serum protein . Serum albumin accounts for the majority of the binding .
Metabolism / Elimination
Alprazolam is extensively metabolized in humans , primarily by cytochrome P450 3A4 ( Cyp3A4 ) , to two major metabolites in plasma : 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α- hydroxyalprazolam . A benzophenone derived from alprazolam is also found in humans . Half @-@ lives are similar to that of alprazolam . The plasma concentrations of 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam relative to unchanged alprazolam concentration were always less than 4 % . The reported relative potencies in benzodiazepines receptor binding experiments and in animals models of induced seizure inhibition are 0 @.@ 2 and 0 @.@ 66 , respectively , for 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam . Such low concentrations and lesser potencies of 4 @-@ hydroxyalprazolam and α @-@ hydroxyalprazolam suggest that they are unlikely to contribute much to the pharmacological effects of alprazolam . The benzophenone metabolite is essentially inactive .
Alprazolam and its metabolites are excreted primarily in the urine .
= = Forms of alprazolam = =
Alprazolam regular release and orally disintegrating tablets are available as 0 @.@ 25 mg , 0 @.@ 5 mg , 1 mg , 2 mg strength tablets .
Alprazolam extended release tablets are available as 0 @.@ 5 mg , 1 mg , 2 mg , and 3 mg strength tablets .
Alprazolam oral solutions are available as 0 @.@ 5 mg / 5 mL and as 1 mg / 1 mL oral solutions .
Active ingredient : alpr
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3 : 26 am to say he had just received a frantic call from his father . To create a delay before the bodies were discovered , he had not called 999 , had driven slowly to the farmhouse , and had told police that his sister was familiar with guns , so that they would be reluctant to enter .
The prosecution argued that Bamber had not received a call from his father , that Nevill was too badly injured after the first shots to have spoken to anyone , that there was no blood on the kitchen phone that had been left dangling , and that Nevill would have called the police before calling Bamber . The prosecution position was that , if the call to Bamber really had been the last thing the father had done before shots were fired , and if he thereafter dropped the receiver , the line to Bamber 's home would have remained open for one to two minutes , and Bamber would not have been able to telephone the police immediately to let them know about his father 's call , as he said he had . That the line would not have cleared in time for him to call the police is one of several disputed points .
The silencer played a central role . It was deemed to have been on the rifle when it was fired , because of the blood found inside it . The prosecution said the blood had come from Sheila 's head , when the silencer was pointed at her . Expert evidence was submitted that , given her injuries after the first shot , Sheila could not have shot herself , placed the silencer in the downstairs cupboard , then run back upstairs to where her body was found . There was also expert testimony that there were no traces of gun oil on her nightdress , despite 25 shots having been fired and the gun having been reloaded at least twice .
Prosecutors argued that , had Sheila killed her family then discovered she could not commit suicide with the silencer fitted , it would have been found next to her ; there was no reason for her to have returned it to the gun cupboard . That she had carried out the killings was further discounted because , it was argued , she was mentally well at the time , had no interest in or knowledge of guns , lacked the strength to overcome her father , and there was no evidence on her clothes or body that she had moved around the crime scene or been involved in a struggle .
= = = Defence case = = =
The defence maintained that the witnesses who said Bamber disliked his family were lying or had misinterpreted his words . Mugford had further lied about Bamber 's confession , they said , because he had betrayed her , and she wanted to stop him from being with anyone else . No one had seen him cycle to and from the farm . There were no marks on him on the night that suggested he had been in a fight , and no blood @-@ stained clothing of his was recovered . The reason he had not gone to the farm as quickly as he should have when his father telephoned was that he was afraid .
They argued that Sheila was the killer , and that she did know how to handle guns , because she had been raised on a farm and had attended shoots when she was younger . She had a very serious mental illness , had said she felt she was capable of killing her children , and the loaded rifle had been left on the kitchen table by Bamber . There had been a recent family argument about placing the children in foster care .
The defence also argued that people who have carried out so @-@ called " altruistic " killings have been known to engage in ritualistic behaviour before killing themselves , and that Sheila might have placed the silencer in the cupboard , changed her clothes and washed herself , which would explain why there was little lead on her hands , or sugar from the floor on her feet . There was also a possibility that the blood in the silencer was not hers , the defence said , but was a mixture of Nevill 's and June 's .
= = = Summing up , verdict = = =
The judge said there were three crucial points , in no particular order . Did the jury believe Julie Mugford or Jeremy Bamber ? Were they sure that Sheila was not the killer who then committed suicide ? He said this question involved another : was the second , fatal , shot fired at Sheila with the silencer on ? If yes , she could not have fired it . Finally , did Nevill call Bamber in the middle of the night ? If there was no such call , it undermined the entirety of Bamber 's story , and the only reason he would have had to invent the phone call was that he was responsible for the murders . The jury found Bamber guilty on 28 October 1986 by a majority of ten to two ; had one more juror supported him , he would not have been convicted . The judge told him he was " evil , almost beyond belief " and sentenced him to five life terms , with a recommendation that he serve at least 25 years .
= = Appeals = =
= = = Leave to appeal refused , 1989 , 1994 = = =
Bamber first sought leave to appeal in November 1986 , arguing that the judge had misdirected the jury . The application was heard and refused by a single judge in April 1988 . Bamber 's lawyer requested a full hearing before three judges , arguing that the trial judge 's summing up had been biased against Bamber , that his language had been too forceful , and that he had undermined the defence by advancing his own theory . The lawyer also argued that the defence had not pressed Julie Mugford about her dealings with the media , but should have , because as soon as the trial was over her story began to appear in newspapers . The judges rejected the application in March 1989 .
Because the trial judge had criticized the police investigation , Essex Police held an internal inquiry , conducted by Detective Chief Superintendent Dickinson . Bamber alleged this report confirmed that evidence had been withheld by the police , so he made a formal complaint , which was investigated in 1991 by the City of London Police . This process uncovered more documentation , which Bamber used to petition the Home Secretary in September 1993 for a referral back to the Court of Appeal , refused in July 1994 .
During this process , the Home Office declined to give Bamber the expert evidence it had obtained , so Bamber applied for judicial review of that decision in November 1994 ; this resulted in the Home Office handing over its expert evidence . In February 1996 the Essex police destroyed many of the original trial exhibits without informing Bamber or his lawyers . The officer responsible said he had not been aware that the case was on @-@ going .
= = = Court of Appeal , 2002 = = =
The Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) was established in April 1997 to review allegations of miscarriage of justice , and Bamber 's case was passed to them at that time . The CCRC referred the case to the Court of Appeal in March 2001 on the grounds that new DNA testing on the silencer constituted fresh evidence .
The appeal was heard by Lord Justice Kay , Mr Justice Wright , and Mr Justice Henriques from 17 October to 1 November 2002 , and the decision published on 12 December . The prosecution was represented by Victor Temple QC , and Bamber by Michael Turner QC . Bamber brought 16 issues to the attention of the court , 14 about failure to disclose evidence or the fabrication of evidence , and two ( points 14 and 15 ) related to the silencer and DNA testing . Point 11 was withdrawn by the defence .
Although most of the issues were reviewed by the court , the reason for the referral was point 15 , the discovery of DNA on the silencer , the result of a test not available in 1986 . The silencer evidence during the original trial came from a Mr. Hayward of the Forensic Science Laboratory . He had found human blood inside the silencer , and had stated that its blood group was consistent with it having come from Sheila . He said there was a remote possibility that it was a mixture of blood from Nevill and June .
Mark Webster , an expert instructed by Bamber 's defence team , argued that Hayward 's tests had been inadequate , and that there was a real possibility , not a remote one , that the blood had come from Nevill and June . This was a critical point , because the prosecution case rested on the silencer having been on the gun when Sheila was shot , something she could not have done herself because of the length of her arms . If she was shot with the silencer on the gun , it meant that someone else had shot her . If her blood was inside the silencer it supported the prosecution 's position , but if the blood belonged to someone else , that part of the prosecution case collapsed .
The defence argued that new tests comparing DNA in the silencer to a sample from Sheila 's biological mother suggested that the " major component " of the DNA in the silencer had not come from Sheila . A DNA sample from June 's sister suggested that the major component had come from June , they argued .
The court concluded that June 's DNA was in the silencer , that Sheila 's DNA may have been in the silencer , and that there was evidence of DNA from at least one male . The judges ' conclusion was that the results were complex , incomplete , and also meaningless because they did not establish how June 's DNA came to be in the silencer years after the trial , did not establish that Sheila 's was not in it , and did not lead to a conclusion that Bamber 's conviction was unsafe . In a 522 @-@ point judgment dismissing the appeal , the judges said that there was no conduct on the part of the police or prosecution that would have adversely affected the jury 's verdict , and that the more they examined the details of the case , the more they thought the jury had been right .
= = = Against whole @-@ life tariff = = =
The trial judge recommended a minimum term of 25 years , but in December 1994 Home Secretary Michael Howard ruled that Bamber should remain in prison for the rest of his life . In May 2008 Bamber lost a High Court appeal against the whole @-@ life tariff before Mr. Justice Tugendhat . This was upheld by the Appeal Court in May 2009 .
Bamber and three other British whole @-@ life prisoners appealed to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg , France , but the appeal was rejected in January 2012 . Bamber and two prisoners , Douglas Vinter and Peter Moore , appealed that decision too , and in July 2013 the European Court 's Grand Chamber ruled that keeping the prisoners in jail with no prospect of release or review may not be compatible with Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights , which prohibits inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment .
= = Criminal Cases Review Commission = =
= = = Campaign = = =
A campaign gathered pace over the years to secure Bamber 's release , and from March 2001 several websites were set up to discuss the evidence . Bamber used one of the websites in 2002 to offer a £ 1m reward for evidence that would overturn his conviction .
His case was taken up by MPs George Galloway and Andrew Hunter , and journalist Bob Woffinden . Woffinden argued between 2007 and 2011 that Sheila had shot her family , then watched as police gathered outside the house before shooting herself . He changed his mind in May 2011 , arguing that evidence in the house had convinced him that Bamber was guilty .
In 2004 Bamber launched a fresh attempt to obtain another appeal , with a new defence team that included Giovanni di Stefano . ( In March 2013 di Stefano was sentenced in the UK to 14 years in prison for having fraudulently presented himself as a lawyer to several clients between 2001 and 2011 . ) Di Stefano applied unsuccessfully in March 2004 to have the Criminal Cases Review Commission ( CCRC ) refer the case back to the Court of Appeal . The defence team made a fresh submission in January 2009 .
= = = Defence arguments = = =
= = = = Crime scene = = = =
The defence argues that the first officers to enter the farmhouse inadvertently disturbed the crime scene , then reconstructed it . Crime @-@ scene photographs not made available to the original defence show Sheila 's right arm and hand in slightly different positions in relation to the gun , which is lying across her body . The gun itself also appears to have moved .
Former Lancashire Detective Chief Superintendent Mick Gradwell , shown the photographs by the Guardian and Observer , said in January 2011 : " The evidence shows , or portrays , Essex police having damaged the scene , and then having staged it again to make it look like it was originally . And if that has happened , and that hasn 't been disclosed , that is really , really serious . "
= = = = Sheila 's body , time of death = = = =
The defence disputes the location of Sheila 's body . The police said they had found her upstairs with her mother , but PC Collins reported seeing through a window what he thought was the body of a woman just inside the kitchen door . Later police reports said that only Nevill had been found in the kitchen . A retired police officer who worked on the case said in 2011 that the first police logs were simply mistaken in reporting that a woman 's body had been found downstairs .
Bamber 's lawyers argue that images of Sheila taken by a police photographer at around 9 am on 7 August 1985 show her blood was still wet , and that , had she been killed before 3 : 30 am as the prosecution said , it would have congealed by 9 am .
= = = = Scratch marks on mantelpiece = = = =
The defence commissioned a report from Peter Sutherst , a British forensic photographic expert , who was asked in 2008 to examine negatives of the kitchen taken on the day of the murders and later . In his report , dated 17 January 2010 , Sutherst argued that scratch marks in paintwork on the kitchen mantelpiece had been created after the crime @-@ scene photographs had been taken . The prosecution alleged that the marks had been made during the struggle in the kitchen between Bamber and his father , as the silencer , attached to the rifle , had scratched against the mantelpiece . The prosecution said that paint chips identical to the paint on the mantelpiece were found on or inside the silencer .
Sutherst said the scratch marks appeared in photographs taken on 10 September 1985 , 34 days after the murders , but were not visible in the original crime @-@ scene photographs . He also said he had failed to find in the photographs any chipped paint on the carpet below the mantelpiece , where it might have been expected to fall had the mantelpiece been scratched during a struggle . He was asked by the CCRC to examine a red spot on the carpet visible in photographs underneath the scratches on the mantelpiece . He said the red spot matched a piece of nail varnish missing from one of Sheila 's toes . He concluded that the scratch marks on the mantel had been created after the day of the murders .
= = = = Police telephone , radio logs = = = =
Police telephone logs had been entered as evidence during the trial , but had not been noticed by Bamber 's lawyers . Bamber 's new defence team said the logs showed that someone calling himself Mr. Bamber had telephoned police on the night of the attack to say his daughter had " gone berserk " with one of his guns . Stan Jones , a former detective sergeant who worked on the case , told the Essex Chronicle in 2010 : " The only person who telephoned the police was Jeremy Bamber . There is no way his father phoned . To suggest it is farcical . "
A separate log of a police radio message shows there was an attempt to speak to someone inside the farmhouse that night , as police waited outside to enter , but there was no response . Police say the officers had simply made a mistake .
= = = = Silencer = = = =
Gun experts commissioned by the defence argued that the injuries were consistent with the silencer not having been used , and that its absence would explain burn marks on Nevill 's body . That the gun had a silencer on it during the murders was central to the prosecution 's case . The experts involved in compiling the report were David Fowler , chief medical examiner for the state of Maryland in the United States ; Ljubisa Dragovic , chief medical examiner of Oakland county in Michigan ; Marcella Fierro , former chief medical examiner for the state of Virginia ; Daniel Caruso , chief of burn services at the Arizona Burn Center ; and Dr. John Manlove , a British forensic scientist .
= = = = Letter regarding Mugford = = = =
Bamber 's lawyers told the press in March 2012 that they had found a letter , dated 26 September 1985 , from John Walker , assistant director of public prosecutions , to the Chief Constable of Essex Police , discussing the prosecution of Bamber . Walker had written that he was suggesting , " with considerable hestitation , " that Mugford be told she would not be prosecuted for drugs offences , burglary and cheque fraud , offences she had confessed to during her police interviews regarding Bamber . Bamber 's lawyers said this raised the possibility that she had been persuaded to testify in the hope that charges would not be pursued . According to the Guardian , the trial judge told the jury that they could convict Bamber based on Mugford 's testimony alone .
= = = CCRC response , 2012 = = =
The CCRC provisionally rejected Bamber 's 2009 submission in February 2011 in an 89 @-@ page document . It invited his lawyers to respond within three months , extended the deadline to allow them to study all 406 crime @-@ scene photographs , then in September 2011 granted them an indefinite period in which to pursue an additional line of inquiry . The CCRC finally rejected the application in April 2012 in a 109 @-@ page report , which said the submission had not identified any new evidence or legal argument that would raise the real possibility of the Court of Appeal overturning the conviction . As of May 2013 , according to his website , Bamber 's defence team was preparing a fresh submission .
= Sephiroth ( Final Fantasy ) =
Sephiroth ( Japanese : セフィロス , Hepburn : Sefirosu ) is a fictional character in the role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII developed by Square ( now Square Enix ) , where he is the main villain . Character designer Tetsuya Nomura conceived and designed Sephiroth as an antagonist to and direct physical opposite of the game 's main character , Cloud Strife . The character was portrayed in Japanese by voice actor Toshiyuki Morikawa and in English by both Lance Bass in Kingdom Hearts and George Newbern in all his subsequent appearances .
Sephiroth is revealed in Final Fantasy VII to be the result of an experiment by the megacorporation Shinra , in which they injected him with cells from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova when he was still a fetus . Upon discovering this , Sephiroth decides to follow what he believes to be his destiny and take control of the Planet , whilst Cloud and the game 's other protagonists attempt to stop him . Sephiroth 's role in the story , as well as his background , are expanded in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Additionally , he appears as a boss character in the Kingdom Hearts series , and other video games developed by Square . Sephiroth has been well @-@ received within the video game community , and is highly ranked on many lists of the best video game villains and Final Fantasy characters .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Final Fantasy VII = = =
Sephiroth is the main villain in Final Fantasy VII , who first appears after assassinating President Shinra . As revealed over the course of the game , Sephiroth was once the most powerful member of SOLDIER , Shinra 's elite military division , who was celebrated as a heroic veteran of the Shinra @-@ Wutai war . After the war , however , Sephiroth was sent on a mission to the village of Nibelheim , where he discovered that he was the product of a biological experiment that combined a human fetus with tissue from the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova . Learning that Jenova , who he comes to consider his " mother , " attempted to take control of the Planet 2000 years previously , Sephiroth decides to follow in her footsteps and become a god who would rule over the Planet . He burns down the entire village and kills many , but is assumed dead after a confrontation with Cloud inside a nearby Mako reactor . However , a few years later , Sephiroth appears once again , determined to continue with his mission .
His plan to become a god is based upon his belief that he can merge with the Planet 's Lifestream , taking control of it , and thus the Planet itself . In order to do so , he must summon Meteor , a destructive meteorite entity from outer space that can catastrophically damage the Planet . At this point , the Lifestream will flow to attempt to heal the injury , thus allowing Sephiroth to merge with the exposed Lifestream . Despite appearing multiple times throughout the game , it is revealed that Sephiroth 's physical body is actually sealed in the Northern Crater , and that the manifestations seen by Cloud and his allies were people imbued with Jenova cells taking his form , controlled by the wounded Sephiroth in the Planet core . In the game 's last battle , Sephiroth takes two forms ; Bizarro Sephiroth ( リバース ・ セフィロス , Rebirth Sephiroth ) and Safer Sephiroth ( セーファ ・ セフィロス , Sepher Sephiroth ) . After his defeat , Sephiroth reappears in Cloud 's mind , but is once again defeated .
= = = In Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
He makes several cameo appearances in the Final Fantasy VII prequel , Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , in which he supports Shinra in their battle against the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . The incident at Nibelheim is also featured in the game . The OVA Last Order : Final Fantasy VII also depicts the Nibelheim incident . Sephiroth also appears in Advent Children , a CGI film set two years after Final Fantasy VII . In the film , Kadaj , Loz , and Yazoo , the " Remnants " of Sephiroth , try to reincarnate him . Although Kadaj eventually succeeds , Cloud once again defeats Sephiroth , whose body changes back to Kadaj 's upon his defeat . Sephiroth is also the focus of the On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of the Lifestream — Black and White " . Set after the end of Final Fantasy VII but prior to the events of Advent Children , the story deals with Aerith and Sephiroth 's journeys through the Lifestream , and Sephiroth 's creation of Geostigma , a disease that infects anyone who came into contact with the tainted Lifestream . He makes a very brief appearance in Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , a game set one year after Advent Children , in which his biological mother , Lucrecia Crescent discusses the experiments which gave birth to him .
He is one of the main characters in the Final Fantasy VII prequel game Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , in which he and the protagonist Zack Fair go in the search of two missing SOLDIERs , Genesis Rhapsodos and Angeal Hewley , This game also depicts the Nibelheim incident , where Sephiroth appears as a boss . Executive producer Yoshinori Kitase was pleased with Sephiroth 's role in Crisis Core , feeling that he was given a " much more human side . "
= = = Other appearances = = =
His first appearance outside Final Fantasy VII was as a selectable character in the fighting game Ehrgeiz . A redesigned Sephiroth also appears in the North American and European versions of Kingdom Hearts as an optional boss character in Olympus Coliseum . Lance Bass voiced Sephiroth in this game , while in subsequent titles he was replaced by George Newbern . In the Japanese re @-@ release of the game , Final Mix , an additional scene was added in which Sephiroth fights Cloud , although the result of the fight is not revealed . Sephiroth was not included in the sequel Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories , as director Tetsuya Nomura could not give him a storyline related to Cloud , and he feared negative fan response if Sephiroth did not have a notable role in the story . His third appearance outside Final Fantasy VII is as another optional boss in Kingdom Hearts II , where he is first encountered by the series ' protagonist , Sora , and then Cloud , who is pursuing him . When Sephiroth battles Cloud , both of them disappear , with Sora believing that they went somewhere else to continue their fight . Nomura said that in this game , Sephiroth represents Cloud 's dark side , in contrast to Tifa Lockhart , who represents his light side . Although Sephiroth does not appear in the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , he is mentioned as a hero that Zack Fair aspires to be . The staff , however , did not know if they would portray him as a being of darkness as shown in other titles . Sephiroth 's fourth outside appearance is in the Itadaki Street games Special and Portable , where he appears as an unlockable playable character .
Sephiroth was also the representative villain of Final Fantasy VII in Dissidia Final Fantasy . He is featured in his Final Fantasy VII guise , while an alternative outfit features the " Safer Sephiroth " form . His fight against Cloud in the game was based on their fights from Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children . Along with the rest of the Final Fantasy VII figures in Dissidia , Sephiroth appears in the sequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy . This game also includes a sightly altered Final Fantasy VII form for Sephiroth , as well as his Kingdom Hearts form . He is featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as an unlockable character , representing Final Fantasy VII . He also appears in the puzzle platformer video game LittleBigPlanet , and its sequel LittleBigPlanet 2 as a character model ; Media Molecule 's Alex Evans felt " honored " that Sephiroth was allowed to appear in the games .
= = Concept and creation = =
Sephiroth was designed by Final Fantasy VII 's character designer Tetsuya Nomura . His name came from the Kabbalah , in which the ten sephirot on the Tree of life represent the ten attributes through which God reveal himself . His character existed from the earliest stages of development , as originally , Nomura thought that the game 's plot would deal exclusively with Cloud Strife pursuing Sephiroth , who was always the game 's main antagonist . Nomura wanted Sephiroth to appear early in the game , and then have the plot dealing with the protagonists following him , so that gamers would not meet the final boss until extremely late in the game . Sephiroth was initially going to be Aeris Gainsborough 's sibling , as indicated by their similar hairstyles . Later , however , he was changed to Aeris 's past love , whom she would remember upon meeting Cloud . This character was then changed to Zack Fair , however , and Sephiroth ’ s prior relationship with Aeris was dropped . In early drafts of the game , Sephiroth 's personality was already brutal and cruel , with a strong willed and calm ego . He was to suffer from Mako addiction , resulting in a semi @-@ conscious state as a result of high level exposure to Mako energy . Sephiroth was also intended to manipulate Cloud into believing that he was a creation of Sephiroth 's will , but this aspect of the story was later abandoned . In another excised scene , when Sephiroth 's physical body is first seen in the Northern Crater , it was to be female .
Sephiroth has long platinum hair and bright cyan eyes with cat @-@ like pupils , and is depicted in a black coat decorated with metallic pauldrons . Since appearing as Safer Sephiroth in the final battle of the game , Sephiroth has had a single black wing on his back , referencing his theme music " One Winged Angel " . When Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII was released , the staff stated that the reason the wing was black was to suggest evil . Nomura has stated that Sephiroth was made to be a complete contrast to the game 's main protagonist , Cloud , who was originally designed to have slicked @-@ back , black hair with no spikes . His weapon , the " Masamune " , which has been featured in numerous Final Fantasy titles , is an elongated nodachi that he learned to use during his days in SOLDIER . The Masamune is named after the famous Japanese swordsmith Goro Nyudo Masamune , whose blades are considered national treasures in Japan today .
Director Yoshinori Kitase believes Sephiroth 's role in Final Fantasy VII to be one of the main reasons why the game became so popular . Nomura has called Sephiroth " the ultimate antagonist in the Final Fantasy VII saga . There can 't be anyone else , " and regards him as an enemy from a previous generation , in contrast to his " Remnants " who appear in Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children .
For Advent Children , the film sequel to Final Fantasy VII , script writer Kazushige Nojima thought that the film 's plot would be less entertaining without Sephiroth . His revival in the film was introduced in the early stages of development , but the official decision as to how to bring him back was not reached until later . Nomura originally planned to have him appear from the start , but as it took the staff two years to develop his design , the idea of his presence throughout the film was scrapped , and it was decided instead to have him only appear on screen for a short time . Sephiroth was designed for the film in such a way so as to emphasize his other @-@ worldliness , such as the fact that he never blinks or is seen breathing , and his voice remains always monotone and calm . In the film , the staff stated that his strength had considerably increased , to the point that he had " ascended to a new level of existence . " Despite initially encountering problems as to who would voice him , Nomura said that once Toshiyuki Morikawa auditioned for the role , they knew they had their actor . Morikawa was instructed by the staff to speak all of Sephiroth 's dialogue as if he felt superior to every other character in the film . The voice director and Morikawa agreed to make Sephiroth 's voice sound calm to the point that he believes he cannot lose to Cloud , suggesting to Morikawa that he may reappear at some point in the future .
= = Musical themes = =
In Final Fantasy VII , Sephiroth is the focus of three pieces of music written by series composer Nobuo Uematsu . His primary theme is " Those Chosen by the Planet " ( 星に選ばれし者 , Hoshi ni Erabareshi Mono ) , a piece utilizing bells , low drums , and a deep chorus , which accompanies Sephiroth 's appearances throughout the game . In the final battle , " Birth of a God " ( 神の誕生 , Kami no Tanjō ) plays while the player combats Sephiroth 's first form , " Bizarro Sephiroth " ( also known as " Reverse Sephiroth " ) . The most well @-@ known piece is " One @-@ Winged Angel " ( 片翼の天使 , Katayoku no Tenshi , lit . " An Angel With a Wing on One Side " ) which is played during the final confrontation with Sephiroth . It contains Latin lyrics taken from sections of the Carmina Burana . In an interview featured on G4 's Game Makers ( formerly Icons ) , Uematsu revealed that this piece was designed to be a fusion of the musical styles of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and rock musician Jimi Hendrix . The song revolves around his character , as this was what Uematsu was thinking about when writing it . Two official covers have been done of this song . The first is a different orchestration found in Kingdom Hearts , the second is found in Advent Children , which plays throughout the battle between Cloud and Sephiroth , and features the progressive metal stylings of Nobuo Uematsu 's former band The Black Mages , as well as orchestral elements and new lyrics . There is also a fourth version titled " Vengeance on the World " that plays in Crisis Core .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
Sephiroth has served as basis for several types of merchandise . These include the " Extra Knights " action figures first published by Bandai in Japan in 1997 . A different model was released as part of the Play Arts collection , following the release of Advent Children . At the 2008 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Kanji Tashiro , Square Enix 's manager of merchandise , said that this figure was one of their best @-@ selling items . With the release of the movie Sephiroth was also included in a series of promotional material , primarily consisting of posters . Kotobukiya has included the character in numerous merchandise , including a series of cold casts based on his appearance in both the original game and the film sequel . As a result of promotional campaigns organized in Japan by Square Enix and Coca @-@ Cola , a version of Sephiroth drawn in a super deformed style was featured in the first two volumes of a promotional collection .
Products not connected to the release of the games or film have also been produced . These include a figuren as part of the Final Fantasy Trading Arts Vol . 1 series , a set as part of the Square Minimum Collection alongside Cloud , and a rare figure of " Safer Sephiroth " as part of the Final Fantasy Creatures series ( Chromium ) . " Reverse Sephiroth " was also released as a normal figure in volume 2 . A figure based on his appearances in the Kingdom Hearts games was released in the second series of the Play Arts Kingdom Hearts sub @-@ line . Some replica weapon companies have produced replicas of Sephiroth 's sword , the Masamune , as a 6 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) katana with a stainless steel unsharpened blade . Other types of merchandise includes collectible cards , keychains , lighters , phonecards and plush toys .
= = = Reception = = =
On multiple occasions , numerous gaming magazines have chosen Sephiroth as one of the best villains from both the Final Fantasy series in specific and in all of video games in general . GameSpy placed him eighth in their 2014 list of top villains in games , commenting on how difficult it is to defeat him in Final Fantasy VII . In 2005 , Sephiroth was the winner in a GameFAQs character battle involving only villains . IGN listed him at number two in its 2006 list of most memorable villains , as well as the fourth top video game villain . He has been named the number one villain in an episode of G4 's Filter . PC World placed him second in their 2008 list of most diabolical video game villains of all time . That same year , Sephiroth was listed at the top of IGN 's list of Final Fantasy VII top characters , with Dave Smith calling him the " heavyweight champion of Final Fantasy villains , " and praising his appearance and backstory . He would take the same spot in the list of top 25 Final Fantasy characters by the same site . In IGN 's Final Fantasy reader 's choice , also written by Smith , Sephiroth was placed fourth , with commentary focusing on his activities in the game 's plot . In a retrospective on Final Fantasy antagonists , GamesRadar listed Sephiroth as their top pick , citing his developed motives and acts of evil . GamesRadar also put Sephiroth in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at number six .
In 2007 , Sephiroth was named the 14th best character of all time in Dengeki PlayStation 's retrospective awards feature about the original PlayStation . UGO.com placed Sephiroth 25th on their 2009 list of top Japanese RPG characters , calling him " one of the most visually striking villains of all time " while praising how different he is from previous Final Fantasy villains . In 2010 , Famitsu readers voted Sephiroth as the 21st most popular video game character . Sephiroth was also featured alongside Cloud in ScrewAttack 's list of top " coolest " characters , although they preferred Cloud . In the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition from 2011 , he was voted as the 32nd best video game character of all time . In 2011 , Empire ranked him as the 13th greatest video game character , calling him " just insanely cool " and adding " Cloud may be the hero but the real star of FFVII was undoubtedly its dashing villain , Sephiroth " . Complex had him ranked as the 35th " coolest " video game villain ever in 2012 , as well as the seventh " most badass " video game character and the third greatest Final Fantasy character of all time in 2013 .
A reader 's choice poll organized by GameSpot placed Sephiroth as the best boss of all time , as he received five times more votes than Bowser , who finished in second place ; most of the comments noted the difficulty of the final fight against Sephiroth , as well as its distinctive elements when compared to other games . In 2005 , Electronic Gaming Monthly listed him as number one in their list of top video game bosses . Game Informer ranked the " top @-@ notch " fight against Sephiroth in Final Fantasy VII at third place on their 2008 list of top boss battles . PlayStation Official Magazine included him on their 2012 list of ten best boss fights ever , commenting that " after potentially 100 hours of chasing the murdering swine , you finally catch up with Cloud ’ s nemesis Sephiroth , and it ’ s one of the most epic battles in PlayStation history . "
The scene in which Sephiroth kills Aerith during Final Fantasy VII has also prompted much commentary . For example , when comparing him with Cloud , ScrewAttack noted that with this scene , Sephiroth was established as " the biggest bastard . " GamesRadar simply called him " the biggest cock blocker in the gaming world , " as writer Shane Patterson found Aerith 's character to be appealing , and due to the fact Sephiroth killed her , players were unable to use her anymore . Also referring to the scene as a shocking moment , GameSpot suggested that the FMV sequence of Sephiroth appearing in front of the Nibelheim fire " might be one of the most recognizable cutscenes ever to grace video games . " GamesRadar 's article " Non @-@ playable characters we wish were playable " featured Sephiroth as a character that they wished would have been playable in Final Fantasy VII so they " could relive skewering Aerith like an annoyingly dainty , needlessly chaste salmon over and over . " IGN put Sephiroth in the 2009 articles " Big Boss of the Day " and " Baddie Brawl " , with the latter comparing him with Liquid Snake from Metal Gear Solid . Lisa Foiles of The Escapist included Sephiroth on her 2014 list of top five katana wielders .
However , some game editors have criticized Sephiroth 's character . For example , IGN 's Smith has stated that " Sephiroth was certainly a good @-@ looking fellow , but his motivations were about as clear as mud . " When comparing Sephiroth with the Final Fantasy VI villain , Kefka Palazzo , GamesRadar commented that he " seems as interesting as a dead accountant painted brown . " 1UP.com took a humorous approach to Sephiroth 's several appearances after apparent deaths and in other games , ranking him third in their " They Is Risen " feature , which covered the ten most notorious video game resurrections . The publication noted that if the character continued to be used , Square Enix would eventually " run out of ways to remix One @-@ Winged Angel . " GameSpy editor Ryan Scott called Sephiroth the " King of Overrated Characters " during GameSpy 's villain feature for Dissidia Final Fantasy , arguing that gamers were impressed by him only because of his design and by how he killed Aerith during Final Fantasy VII . On the other hand , AnimeFringe called him " the most notorious villain in the entire Final Fantasy series " and " quintessential bishōnen in the eyes of many fans -- male and female , " comparing him with Kefka and praising his complexity .
Critics have also commented on Sephiroth 's role in other games . In relation to Crisis Core , IGN AU stated that " even Sephiroth gets his moments in the sun , " praising the depth in his backstory , which would later make his boss battle more entertaining . IGN UK agreed , stating that his character was granted " a more human dimension " and enjoying some of the events from before his transformation into a villain . His boss battle was also shown in 1UP.com 's " 25 More of the Most Badass Boss Fights Ever " in which the staff praised how the original battle from Final Fantasy VII was expanded in the title . A feature published by GamerHelp included Sephiroth 's Kingdom Hearts 's fight in a feature titled " The Hardest Bosses of All Time " , noting that regardless of the player 's skill " walking away from this match unscathed " is not possible , to the point of saying that the fight was more difficult than the entirety of Final Fantasy VII . AnimeFringe stated that only advanced gamers would be able to defeat Kingdom Hearts 's Sephiroth because the player has no backup and that his " devastating attacks can kill in seconds . " In 2013 , Complex ranked Sephiroth in Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II as respectively the seventh and fifth hardest boss fights in video games ; in addition , Safer Sephiroth from Final Fantasy VII placed 12th .
= Restless ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
" Restless " is the 22nd episode and season finale of season four of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 – 2003 ) , and the 78th episode of the series overall . The episode was written and directed by the show 's creator Joss Whedon and originally aired on The WB in the United States on May 23 , 2000 .
The premise of Buffy the Vampire Slayer is that an adolescent girl , Buffy Summers , is chosen by mystical forces and given superhuman powers to kill vampires , demons , and other evil creatures in the fictional town of Sunnydale . She is supported by a close circle of family and friends , nicknamed the Scooby Gang . " Restless " centers on the dreams of the four main characters after enduring an exhausting fight in the previous episode . The dreams are used to comment on the characters — their fears , their past and their possible future . Consistent with each dream is the presence of the First Slayer who hunts and kills them one by one until , in the final sequence , she is confronted and disempowered by Buffy .
The episode serves as a coda to the fourth season instead of a climax , as Whedon wanted to achieve something different for a season finale . Whedon experimented with several filming techniques to make the episode as dreamlike as possible . The episode also foreshadows upcoming events , most notably the first appearance of Buffy 's sister Dawn . Buffy scholar Nikki Stafford calls the surrealistic episode " unprecedented in television " , saying it is " so jam @-@ packed with information that we 'll probably be seeing allusions to it for the rest of the series " , and referring to it as a " mysterious lead @-@ in to the emotionally turbulent season five " . " Restless " received high praise from critics upon airing , particularly for its character development , visual direction , and wit . It is frequently noted as one of the best episodes of the series .
= = Background = =
In the series , Buffy Summers is a teenager who , at the age of fifteen , was chosen by mystical forces to be the latest Slayer , a girl endowed with superhuman powers to fight and defeat vampires , demons , and other evil forces . After moving with her mother , Joyce ( Kristine Sutherland ) , to the fictional town of Sunnydale , she befriends Willow Rosenberg ( Alyson Hannigan ) and Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) , who join her in the struggle against evil . They are guided by Buffy 's " Watcher " , Rupert Giles ( Anthony Stewart Head ) , who is well @-@ versed in demonology and is responsible for Buffy 's training as a Slayer . The group collectively refer to themselves as the Scooby Gang . During season two , Willow begins to experiment with magic , eventually becoming a formidable witch .
Each season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( often simplified as Buffy ) presents an overall story arc which episodes tie into , as well as a specific manifestation of evil known as the Big Bad . As noted by Buffy scholar Roz Kaveney , episodes in the fourth season address authority , order , and the estrangement from the self and others as Buffy and her friends take on new roles after high school . An ongoing theme in the series is Buffy 's complex relationship to her destiny as the current Slayer and how she uniquely expresses this role , and this plot element is further explored in season four in general , and in the episode " Restless " in particular .
Season four begins with Buffy and Willow starting college , attending U.C. Sunnydale , while Xander works at a series of odd jobs and begins dating Anya Jenkins ( Emma Caulfield ) , who lived for 1 @,@ 100 years as a vengeance demon before losing her powers and getting stuck in the body of a teenager . In the fourth season , Willow becomes romantically involved with fellow @-@ student Tara Maclay ( Amber Benson ) , an experienced witch . The Big Bad in season four is the result of the work of a covert military force called " The Initiative " who are capturing and performing experiments on vampires and demons in Sunnydale . Buffy and her friends discover that chief amongst these experiments is the creation of a human @-@ cyber @-@ demonoid hybrid known as Adam ( George Hertzberg ) , whose programming has gone terribly wrong , leading him to wreak havoc on the town . Buffy 's challenge is to find a way to disempower him , something she and the Scoobies achieve in the penultimate episode of season four , " Primeval " . In order to do this , the four magically join their essences together to create a single " super Slayer " ; while the others perform a ritual , Buffy confronts and defeats Adam while mystically empowered with Giles ' mind , Xander 's heart , and Willow 's spirit aiding her . The ritual employs four tarot @-@ like cards : Manus ( meaning hands or strength ) represents Buffy , Sophus ( meaning teacher or wise ) represents Giles , Animus ( meaning courage , or heart ) represents Xander , and Spiritus ( meaning spirit and magical power ) represents Willow . These symbols will become relevant to the central motif in each of the episode 's four dream sequences .
= = Plot = =
Following their victory over Adam , Buffy , Xander , Willow , and Giles meet at Buffy 's to relax with movies , including Apocalypse Now . They quickly fall asleep and are each confronted by the First Slayer in their dreams .
Willow 's dream opens with Willow painting Sappho 's love poem , Hymn to Aphrodite , in Greek onto Tara 's back . She then finds herself on the Sunnydale High school stage , about to perform in a radically changed Death of a Salesman , with Riley playing a cowboy , Buffy as a flapper and Harmony goofily trying to bite Giles ' neck . Willow realizes with increasing uneasiness that she knows neither her lines nor her role . Buffy then takes Willow to stand in front of a classroom in the same nerdy clothes she wore in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " and " The Harvest " at the beginning of the series . Xander mocks her as she nervously begins to read her book report . Oz and Tara — Willow 's ex @-@ boyfriend and current girlfriend — flirt with each other while watching Willow recite . Suddenly , Willow is attacked and has the life sucked out of her by the First Slayer .
Xander 's dream begins when he wakes on Buffy 's couch . After excusing himself to use the restroom , he finds himself the object of an attempted seduction by Joyce . In the restroom , he starts to unzip , then realizes that the bathroom is attached to a large white room with many men in white coats ready to observe and take notes on his performance . He then meets Buffy , Giles , and Spike in a playground ; Spike – unaffected by daylight – tells him that Giles is going to teach him to be a Watcher , as Buffy plays in a sandbox . Xander then finds himself in an ice cream truck with Anya ; Willow and Tara ( wearing skimpy clothing and garish make @-@ up ) are in the back , and invite him to join them . He goes back , only to end up in his basement . He goes to the university and comes across Giles , who starts revealing the reason for the dream , but suddenly switches to speaking in French . Xander next finds himself in a reenactment of the Apocalypse Now scene between a captive Captain Benjamin Willard and Colonel Walter Kurtz , with Principal Snyder as Kurtz . Throughout the sequence Xander finds himself in his basement again and again , chased by an unseen pursuer , who is revealed as the First Slayer when she tears his heart out .
Giles ' dream begins with Giles swinging a watch in front of Buffy . They are in Giles ' apartment , which has been stripped of furniture but for a chair and a bed . She laughs , and Giles ' dream cuts to a family scene with Buffy and his girlfriend Olivia at a fairground . Quicker than the others to understand that something is wrong , he confronts Spike , who is posing for a photo @-@ shoot in his crypt . In The Bronze , he meets Anya failing as a stand @-@ up comic , and Willow and Xander ( with a bloody chest wound ) , who warn him of their attacker . He breaks into song , giving suggestions on how to deal with what hunts them , but when the sound system breaks down , he crawls backstage to trace a wiring fault . He begins to realize his pursuer is the First Slayer , just as she scalps him .
In the final dream sequence , Buffy is woken by Anya in her dorm room . She then finds herself in her room at home , where Tara speaks cryptically about the future . At the university , Buffy talks to her mother , who lives in the walls , then meets Riley at the Initiative . He has been promoted to Surgeon General and is drawing up plans with Adam ( now in ordinary human form ) for world domination . The three of them are interrupted by a demon attack , and Riley and Adam start to make a pillow fort . When Buffy finds her weapons bag , the only thing in it is mud , which she smears on her face . She is then transported to the desert and finally confronts the pre @-@ verbal First Slayer ; Tara is present to speak for her . Through Tara the First Slayer tells Buffy that she cannot have friends and must work alone , which Buffy rejects . The Slayers fight in the desert and then in Buffy 's living room next to her dying friends until Buffy realizes that she can stop the fight mentally by simply ignoring the First Slayer . She refuses to fight and walks away from the First Slayer ; the First Slayer vanishes , and everybody wakes up .
After they wake up , the four of them then discuss the significance of having tapped into the power of the First Slayer , and Buffy privately recalls Tara 's words from her dream as she looks into her bedroom .
= = Production and writing = =
Previous seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer had ended with an action episode which tied up all the threads of the season 's main plot line , but series creator Joss Whedon wanted to end season four differently . The penultimate episode , " Primeval " , had concluded the Initiative storyline , but Whedon felt the season 's overall story arc had not been as cohesive as it could have been , and therefore chose to create an episode to act as a " grace note " to the season , an episode which would comment on each of the four main characters and what they had just been through . While talking about the writing of the episode , Whedon said it had been like writing poetry , a process he found " liberating and strange " . Like the earlier " Hush " — an episode with almost no dialogue — he viewed the episode as an exercise in form and writing , and what it means to write . The episode has no real structure , which was a departure for Whedon , as everything he had written before was constructed before even starting the script . Yet despite its fragmented style , the episode unfolds coherently in four discrete acts , each act comprising one character 's dream .
= = = Filming techniques = = =
Whedon used a variety of cinematographic techniques to achieve the dreamlike quality of " Restless " . He used tracking shots with a Steadicam to follow the characters from place to place , creating a flow in the way of real dreams , where there are no logical connections between places and things . In Giles ' dream , he walks from a carnival grounds into Spike 's crypt , then through a corridor and straight into The Bronze , three locations not related to one another . Whedon was able to do this by simply having actor Anthony Stewart Head walk through the sets as they were built ; this effortlessly created a sense of dreamlike dislocation . Another example of this occurs when , in Xander 's dream , he walks from the front of the moving ice cream van towards the back , crawls up and over some boxes , through a window , and drops into his basement . In the theater scene during Willow 's dream , a Frazier lens was used to provide a large depth of field , allowing both the foreground and background to be in focus at the same time , while in Xander 's dream , as he moves from room to room in Buffy 's house to the university dorm rooms , Whedon used a 17 mm lens to give a sense of motion as the camera passes by walls . Whedon also used unusual framing for shots , often leaving much of the frame empty , with a character being placed near the bottom or off to the side . The scenes in Spike 's crypt , part of Giles ' dream , were shot in black @-@ and @-@ white to emphasize that Spike is seen as " an old 30s movie villain " .
The outdoor scene in which Xander sees Buffy in the sandbox was intentionally overexposed , intensifying the foreground and blowing out the background , making the sky look white ; flash frames were also used in the shot of Buffy in the desert . Whedon allowed some shots to last far longer than is common in a television episode ; this cinematic technique allowed the images to take on meaning . Highly stylized lighting is used throughout Xander 's dream . In the university hallway the scene is lit with green and orange gels , while the almost shot @-@ for @-@ shot re @-@ creation of the Apocalypse Now section is lit with carefully controlled spotlights which allow the background to fall out to black . Whedon cites The Limey as an inspiration for the unnaturally colored university sequence , and had the scene from Apocalypse Now playing on tape during filming to ensure as close a match as possible for that sequence . When Xander is driving the ice cream truck with Anya , the backgrounds outside the car intentionally look fake , to give a sense of stillness where there should be motion . Whedon originally wanted to use rear @-@ screen projection for the driving scene , but had to utilize greenscreen instead , as rear @-@ screen projection would be difficult to set up on their stages . Some special effects shots came about by accident ; in his commentary Whedon explains that when Buffy smeared the mud all over her face , it looked as though she was giving herself a facial . He therefore dissolved the shot into a negative image , creating intense colors that made the shot more interesting .
Dynamic editing contributed to the surrealistic nature of the episode . Abrupt cuts from close @-@ up to extreme wide angles and sudden shifts from normal speed to super slow @-@ motion are used in Buffy 's dream : several sequences become slow @-@ motion partway through them , then revert to normal speed as they continue . Xander 's dream features mismatches between sound and image : characters are sometimes shown not speaking even as their voices are heard . Additionally , silence is used frequently , to both reflect the characters ' disorientation and to unsettle the audience . Whedon cited films by Steven Soderbergh as his main inspirations for the odd editing , especially The Limey and The Underneath . He also listed Orson Welles ' version of The Trial and Stanley Kubrick 's Eyes Wide Shut as inspirations for many of his shooting and editing decisions .
= = = Cast = = =
Besides the main cast , the episode features several appearances by returning and currently recurring characters , mostly within the dream sequences .
Seth Green , who left the series earlier in the season , makes a brief appearance as Oz in Willow 's dream .
Armin Shimerman , whose character Principal Snyder was killed off in the season three finale , appears as Kurtz in the Apocalypse Now scene .
Amber Benson appears as Tara in the dream sequences , as both Willow 's girlfriend and a spirit guide to Buffy . Whedon commented on her appearances in Buffy 's dream : " The idea that Tara would be her spirit guide made sense because she didn 't have that particular relationship with Tara , and Tara has a kind of good Wiccan mystical energy . "
George Hertzberg appears as Adam , although in human form rather than in the demon / cyborg makeup he had appeared in throughout the season .
Mercedes McNab appears as Harmony Kendall is present during Willow 's dream as both an ordinary classmate and an inept vampire .
Phina Oruche appears as Olivia in Giles 's dream heavily pregnant and pushing a baby stroller .
Kristine Sutherland appears as Joyce Summers , Buffy 's mother . Whedon enjoyed that she got " to play just completely sexy [ in Xander 's dream ] , because when you play the mom on a show you 're sort of relegated to momhood , so it was nice to see that side of her . "
It was during the filming of this episode that Michelle Trachtenberg , who would go on to play Buffy 's sister Dawn in season five , first visited the set . Sarah Michelle Gellar had worked with her previously and suggested to Joss Whedon that she read for the part of Dawn .
= = = Music = = =
In Giles ' dream , actor Anthony Stewart Head sings " The Exposition Song " ; this was the third time he sang during the season . The song was written by Joss Whedon , arranged by composer Christophe Beck , and performed by Four Star Mary . Beck appears in the scene playing the piano , while members of Four Star Mary play the other instruments . From seasons two to four of the series , Four Star Mary were the real band behind character Oz 's fictional band , Dingoes Ate My Baby .
= = Analysis = =
Each dream acts as a character study , exploring the fears and future of the dreamer . Willow , Xander , and Giles are stalked by a shadowy figure , then killed within their dreams . The way in which each is killed is directly related to the role they had assumed when melding with Buffy in the previous episode — that role is indicated by the Tarot @-@ like card used to symbolize the character 's essence . Willow 's card had been Spiritus , representing her magical powers ; she is killed by having her spirit sucked out of her . Xander 's card had been Animus , representing his heart ; he is killed by having his heart ripped out . Giles had been represented by the card Sophus , a symbol of his intellect and role as teacher ; he is killed by being scalped . Buffy 's card , Manus , was representative of her physical strength . In her dream the stalker is revealed as the primitive , first slayer , who confronts her aggressively . The two fight , but the First Slayer is defeated when Buffy realizes a key difference between them : the First Slayer was alone and isolated , while Buffy is unique among Slayers in that she has friends and a life beyond slaying , factors which make her the greatest Slayer ever .
In Willow 's dream she struggles to find her place in the school theater production of Death of a Salesman , while her friends and classmates are apparently fully costumed , prepared , and ready to go on stage . Her confusion represents her lack of self @-@ confidence ,
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In the Bibliotheca the descendants of Inachus followed Deucalion 's , and the Catalogue appears to have followed the same order , likely introducing the Inachids via the Ehoie of Niobe , the river god 's granddaughter . To Zeus she bore Argus , the eponym of Argos , who in turn sired Peiren , the father of Io . Zeus 's affair with Io had a place in the Catalogue , for ancient authors cite the poem 's version of this myth when quoting an aition for the fact that " all 's far in love ... " , at least :
Zeus and Io 's " clandestine deeds " produced a son , Epaphus , who was the father of Libya . The families of her two sons Agenor and Belus were covered in depth : the former 's line in book 3 , the latter 's following his birth . Belus had a daughter , Thronia , who bore Arabus ( the eponym of Arabia ) to Hermes ; Belus ' sons were Aegyptus and Danaus .
The myth of the mass @-@ wedding of Aegyptus ' fifty sons and Danaus ' fifty daughters came at this point , but little survives of the narrative in the Catalogue . Danaus and his daughters fled to Argos and introduced the practice of digging wells , " making waterless Argos well @-@ watered Argos " ( Ἄργος ἄνυδρον ἐὸν Δανααὶ θέσαν Ἄργος ἔνυδρον ) . Aegyptus ' sons followed the Danaids to Greece in order to compel them to marry , and , as in the predominant version of the myth , Hypermestra alone consummated her union with Lynceus and bore Abas , whose sons were Acrisius and Proetus . The daughters of Proetus offended Hera or Dionysus or both in some way , and were cursed with leprosy or madness which could only be cured by Melampous , a service which Abas rewarded by granting the seer and his brother Bias shares of Argos to rule . Acrisius ' daughter was Danaë . Her golden liaison with Zeus , the birth of Perseus , and mother and son 's involuntary exile in the larnax are quickly recounted , and Perseus ' siring of Alcaeus , Sthenelus and Electryon by Andromeda also comes in quick succession .
= = = Book 3 = = =
The division between books 2 and 3 presents a special problem for the reconstruction of the Catalogue . A scholion to Theocritus , Idyll 3 @.@ 40 appears to attribute the story of Atalanta to " Hesiod in book 3 " , a method of citation that almost certainly refers to the present poem . One papyrus concludes with what appears to be the beginning of the first line of Atalanta 's Ehoie followed by a forked paragraphos and blank space , suggesting that it is a reclamans ; another papyrus ( pictured ) clearly transmits the ends of the first few lines of her section preceded by blank space , giving the possibility that it was the beginning of a book . These two fragments would combine to give :
The account that follows is one of the most extensive and exciting episodes of the Catalogue to survive from antiquity . Atalanta wished to avoid marriage , but a throng of suitors gathered because of her beauty . Her father Schoeneus promised her hand to the one who could beat his swift daughter in a footrace , with one further condition : any who accepted the challenge and lost would be put to death . Aphrodite had given one of the contestants , Hippomenes , three golden apples with which to temp the girl off course ; these he threw as he ran and begged Atalanta to have pity upon him . The toss of the third apple finally accomplished its aim , but the couple did not live happily after : through the will of Zeus Atalanta was transformed into lion because she had seen " what it is not lawful to see , " which presumably means that she had unlawfully entered a holy precinct . This is where the evidence for Atalanta leaves off , and it remains unknown just where and how the passage fit in the Catalogue . It is possible that the attribution to book three was simply incorrect , and Atalante 's Ehoie came within the family of Athamas in books one or two . Another possibility is that she was introduced in the context of her mother 's family . Her identity in the Catalogue is unknown , but this hypothesis could allow for Atalanta to appear within the Inachid stemma , following the Danae @-@ Ehoie within the extended family of Belus .
= = = = Agenorids = = = =
In the Catalogue and later mythographic tradition , the family of Belus ' brother Agenor was something " like a repository for aliens and displaced persons . " His son Phoenix was the eponym of Phoenicia , and if Cepheus and Cadmus were also his sons , the Agenorids would have been present in Aethiopia and Thebes as well . By one Alphesiboea Phoenix sired Adonis . Cassiepeia bore to him Phineus ; she was perhaps also the mother of Phoenix 's daughter Europa , but the girl 's mother might have been Telephaassa , as in Moschus ' Europa .
Europa 's tale , well known in later classical literature and beyond , appears in a largely familiar form in the Catalogue . She caught Zeus 's eye while she and some friends were gathering flowers in a meadow . The god transformed into a bull with breath smelling of saffron , in the guise of which he abducted Europa , carrying her upon his back to Crete . There she bore Minos , Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon to Zeus , and he gave her a necklace made by Hephaestus that would figure in Theban saga as the Necklace of Harmonia . Sarpedon ruled Lycia , and was apparently granted a lifespan equal to three generations of men by Zeus . His death at Troy and the rain of blood it inspired Zeus to send is briefly described . Minos ruled Crete , succeeding his stepfather Asterion . Poseidon sent up from the sea a bull which had sex with Minos ' wife Pasiphae , siring the Minotaur . To Minos she also bore Deucalion , Catreus , Androgeos and Eurygyes , though it is equally possible that these last two names referred to a single son . At least one daughter , Ariadne , was surely present , for the myth of Androgeos – Eurygyes ' death in Athens and the subsequent sacrifice of Athenian youths to the Minotaur will presuppose Theseus ' expedition to Crete and Ariadne 's complicity in slaying the beast .
Phineus was even better @-@ traveled than his sister Europa , and his biography in the Catalogue was apparently a " pièce de résistance " meant to conclude the geographically diverse Inachid stemma with an appropriate flourish . He ruled in Thrace , but was kidnapped by the Harpies . Zetes and Calais , the Boreads , pursued the tormentors and tormented to the ends of the earth . The poet catalogued many far @-@ flung and remarkable races encountered during the chase , including : the Katoudaioi ( " Subterranean Men " ) , Pygmies , Melanes ( " Black Men " ) , Aethiopians , Libyans , " horse @-@ milking " Scythians , Hemikynes ( " Half @-@ Dogs " ) and the Makrokephaloi , as well as griffins . Ephorus called the episode the Gês Períodos ( Γῆς Περίοδος , " Journey Around the World " ) , and it was once thought that this title referred to an independent work , one erroneously attributed to Hesiod . This view was disproved conclusively in 1911 with the publication of an extensive papyrus fragment ( pictured ) of the episode which derived from the same bookroll that contained the myth of Europa described above .
= = = = Arcadia = = = =
It is likely that the section describing the Arcadian descendants of Pelasgus and Arcas followed that of the Inachids . Pelasgus was autochthonous ; he sired Lycaon either by the Oceanid Meliboea or by Cyllene , the oread of an Arcadian mountain which still bears her name . Lycaon 's fifty impius sons drew the ire of Zeus and were all destroyed , save Nyctimus . The majority of the subsequently covered Arcadian figures descend from Arcas , who was the son of Zeus and Callisto , a local nymph . A familiar version of her catasterism is attributed to " Hesiod " by Pseudo @-@ Eratosthenes , but the Hesiodic work intended in this citation might have been the Astronomia . Arcas had at least two sons : Elatus and Apheidas . Elatus sired Aepytus , the father of Tlesenor and Peirithous ; Apheidas was the father of Stheneboea , the wife of Proetus , and Aleus . Aleus ' daughter Auge was for some reason entrusted to the care of Teuthras in Mysia , where she lay with Heracles and bore Telephus . Telephus was on the Mysian throne when the Greek expedition to Troy accidentally landed there and found themselves fighting fellow " Achaeans . "
= = = = Atlantids = = = =
In the Bibliotheca , the Arcadian genealogies are immediately followed by the Atlantids , and this progression is known to mirror the structure of the Catalogue because other fragments of the papyrus roll that transmits the Telephus myth cover families of Atlas ' daughters : Taygete , Electra , Alcyone , Sterope , Celaeno , Maia and Merope . Maia bore Hermes to Zeus on Mount Cyllene . Taygete also slept with Zeus , becoming the mother of Lacedaemon , through whom much of the Spartan line was traced , including Tyndareos , the father of Helen , and Penelope , the wife of Odysseus . To Zeus yet again Electra bore Dardanus , the progenitor of the Trojan line , and Eetion , who was killed for sleeping with Demeter . Dardanus ' sons were Erichthonius and Ilus . Hyrieus and Hyperes were Poseidon 's children by Alcyone . Her section included the Ehoie of Hyrieus ' daughter Antiope , who bore Amphion and Zethus to Zeus . Hyperes ' daughter Arethusa slept with Poseidon and was changed to a spring in Euboea , but not before bearing Abas , the eponym of the Abantes . His line is traced down to Elephenor , leader of the Abantes in the Trojan War . Sterope lay with Ares and bore Oenomaus , but it is possible that this union was delayed to book four as part of the section treating the family of Pelops and Oenomaus ' daughter Hippodameia .
= = = Book 4 = = =
Before the papyri began to accrue , the longest extant passage of the Catalogue was known from the Shield of Heracles , the first 56 lines of which were borrowed from book 4 according to an ancient hypothesis to the Shield . This passage , the Ehoie of Alcmene , recounts how she went to Thebes with her husband Amphitryon , who could not consummate the marriage until he had avenged the deaths of her brothers at the hands of the Taphians and Teleboans . As Amphitryon returned having accomplished this feat , Zeus lay with Alcmene ; upon his return that very night , so too did Amphitryon . To the god Alcmene bore Heracles and to the hero she bore Iphicles .
Alcmene belongs to the Pelopid line — her mother Lysidice was a daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia — , and the passages preceding her Ehoie also concern Pelopids . Three of Pelops ' daughters married sons of Perseus : Lysidice married Electryon , Nicippe wed Sthenelus , and Astydameia wed Alcaeus . Nicippe and Sthenelus ' daughter Astymedusa married Oedipus , and at the funeral games in his honor his son Polynices caught the eye of his future wife Argeia , the daughter of Adrastus . Pelops ' son Atreus was the father of Pleisthenes who , contrary to the better known genealogy , was the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus . Their mother was Aerope , the daughter of Catreus , and their births were reported in the verses directly preceding the Ehoie of Alcmene .
Besides the Pelopid line , and whatever remained of the Atlantid stemmata among which it ultimately belongs , little is known for certain about the further content of book 4 . It is possible that an Athenian section including the various autochthonous kings of Athens and the daughters of Cecrops was found here . A family springing from the river Asopus has also been proposed for this region based on the presence of " several persons or families that other sources represent as descended from daughters of Asopos . " The most notable family that would belong to this section is that of Asopus ' daughter Aegina , the nymph of the island that bears her name who slept with Zeus and bore Aeacus . Fearing that Aeacus would be lonely on his island , Zeus changed all of Aegina 's ants into men , spawning the tribe of Myrmidons , a play upon their name and the Greek word for " ant " , μύρμηξ , mýrmēx . This is the family to which Achilles belongs , the most notable hero in the Trojan saga , as well as his father Peleus and uncles Telamon and Menoetius .
= = = Book 5 = = =
The final book was different in that it apparently left behind the genealogical structure of the first four books . Book five opened with a nearly 200 @-@ line catalogue of the suitors of Helen , similar in style to the Catalogue of Ships in Iliad book 2 . Although it is likely that the entire catalogue included twenty @-@ five to thirty suitors , only twelve are attested by name . From Argos Amphilochus and Alcmaeon , the sons of Amphiaraus , attempted to win Helen , but were perhaps never able to join in the contest because of their punishment for the matricide of Eriphyle . Ever shrewd , Odysseus did not give gifts but simply sent envoys to Castor and Polydeuces , because he knew that Menelaus would ultimately prevail . Thoas was not so wise and gave many sheep and cows in the hope of winning Helen . From Phylace , many gifts were given by Podarces and Protesilaus , who were cousins in the Catalogue , not brothers as in the Catalogue of Ships . Athenian Menestheus gave many gold cauldrons and tripods , confident that he was the wealthiest of all the heroes . Ajax wooed Helen from Salamis , promising to pillage the surrounding lands and give their possession as part of his gift . Idomeneus made the long journey from Crete himself , aware of Helen 's beauty only from secondhand accounts .
Before giving his decision , Tyndareus bound all the suitors to his fateful oath : should anyone ever take his daughter by force , all those who had wooed her must exact vengeance upon her abductor . To this all the suitors readily agreed , each believing that he would be given Helen 's hand . At this point the Catalogue of Suitors has come to a close , but even as Menelaus ' success is reported , the poet introduces Achilles because of his status as the greatest hero of the Trojan saga and his central role in Zeus 's plan to bring the Heroic Age to a close . With the aid of Agamemnon , Menelaus had given the most bride prices , but were Achilles already of age , he would surely have won Helen 's hand , " for neither warlike Menelaus nor any other human on earth would have defeated him " . But Achilles was not present , and Menelaus won Helen , who bore Hermione to him .
= = = = The end of the Heroic Age = = = =
The marriage of Helen and Menelaus precipitates the Trojan War , the event that ultimately brings the heroic age to an end , but the circumstances surrounding this transition in the Catalogue are unclear . Directly following the birth of Hermione strife arises among the gods , and Zeus hatches a plan to stir up trouble among mankind . The exact meaning of this plan is obscure because of deficiencies in the text , and several interpretations have been proposed , the most commonly accepted being that Zeus plans to destroy a great number of men by causing the war , ultimately removing the heroes to a life lived in conditions resembling the Golden Age . Another possibility is that Zeus intends to destroy the race of heroes and return the world to its former order , when gods slept with each other , not mortals . In any event , a great change is coming , and as the final placed fragment of the Catalogue breaks off , several enigmatic scenes are sketched . A great storm arises which dwindles the strength of mankind :
These lines , described by West as " the finest passage of poetry yet known from the Catalogue " , might parallel Calchas ' prophecy in Iliad 2 , which presages the first nine fruitless years of the Trojan War via the image of a snake devouring nine sparrows . Here the " hairless one , " a kenning for a snake , gives birth to what appears to be the first of three sets of triplets , and as the remains of the papyrus become more meager , the snake sloughs its skin , representing the regeneration that will come once the heroic age comes to an end and the world is given over to mortals .
= = = Notable unplaced and disputed fragments = = =
Many fragments that are securely attributed to the Catalogue , some of which are relatively substantial , cannot be placed within the poem because their content is either too obscure or could be assigned to different individuals or genealogies which are themselves difficult to locate within the five books .
= = = = Cyrene = = = =
The place of Cyrene within the poem has implications beyond the level of content , for if her narrative is to be connected to the city of Cyrene in Libya , the terminus post quem for the composition of the Catalogue would be 631 BC , the approximate year of that city 's foundation . Pindar , Pythian 9 tells how Apollo saw Cyrene hunting in her native Thessaly and was immediately enamoured of the tomboy . The god goes to the cave of the wise centaur Chiron and asks who she is and whether it would be wise to consort with her . Chiron then prophesies that it is fated for Cyrene and Apollo to mate , and that he will bring her across the sea to Libya , where she will be queen of a portion of the land and bear to him a son , Aristaeus . A scholium on the ode states that " Pindar took the story from an Ehoie of Hesiod 's " ( ἀπὸ δὲ Ἠοίας Ἡσιόδου τὴν ἱστορίαν ἔλαβεν ὁ Πίνδαρος ) and relates the opening lines of the section ( Cat. fr . 215 ) :
Richard Janko , who believes that the Catalogue was composed c . 690 , argues that the extent to which Pindar relied upon the Hesiodic text is unknown and that , even if Apollo did carry Cyrene to Libya , this does not presuppose an aetiology of the city . Others have argued that the citation is also vague regarding just which Hesiodic poem included the Cyrene @-@ Ehoie , the Catalogue or the Megalai Ehoiai : the latter might have included a narrative similar to Pindar 's , with the former presenting a different version of the myth , if indeed the Catalogue treated Cyrene at all . The complete removal of Cyrene would not , however , be easily accommodated by related evidence — it would presumably also involve transferring two fragments concerning Aristaeus which have traditionally been attributed to the Catalogue , and his son Actaeon certainly appeared in the poem .
= = = = Actaeon = = = =
The myth of Actaeon is known to have been narrated in the Catalogue by virtue of a paraphrase found in a fragmentary dictionary of metamorphoses . According to the dictionary , the Catalogue included a variant of the myth in which Actaeon was changed into a stag by Artemis and then killed by his own hounds because he attempted to take Semele as his wife , thus angering Zeus , who had designs upon the woman . Before this testimonium appeared , another papyrus containing 21 hexameters related to the Actaeon myth was published by Edgar Lobel , who tentatively attributed the text to the Catalogue . As the fragment opens , Actaeon has already been torn apart by his dogs , and a goddess — Athena or , less likely , Artemis — arrives at Chiron 's cave . She prophesies to the centaur that Dionysus will be born to Semele and that Actaeon 's dogs will roam the hills with him until his apotheosis , after which they will return to stay with Chiron . At this point the papyrus is damaged , but it is clear that the dogs are delivered from a " madness " ( λύσσα , lussa , line 15 ) and begin to mourn their master as the goddess returns to Olympus . Merkelbach and West did not include this papyrus in their edition of the fragment , the latter calling it an " incoherent epic pastiche " which would cause the author of the Catalogue to " turn in his grave if he knew that it had been attributed to him . " According to Glenn Most , some scholars believe that the text is Hellenistic , but it is demonstrably archaic , and at least a few classicists today consider it to be part of the Catalogue .
= = Date , composition and authorship = =
During antiquity the Catalogue was almost universally considered the work of Hesiod . Pausanias reports , however , that the Boeotians living around Mount Helicon during his day believed that the only genuine Hesiodic poem was the Works and Days and that even the first 10 lines of that poem ( the so @-@ called " hymn to Zeus " ) were spurious . The only other surviving expression of doubt is found in Aelian , who cites " Hesiod " for the number of Niobe 's children , but qualifies his citation with " unless these verses are not by Hesiod , but have been passed off falsely as his , like many other passages . " But Aelian 's skepticism could have stemmed from the belief , still common today , that Hesiodic poetry was especially susceptible to interpolation , and it is impossible to tell whether he regarded the entire Catalogue as spurious or not . These two passages are , in any event , isolated , and more discerning critics like Apollonius of Rhodes , Aristophanes of Byzantium and Crates of Mallus apparently found no reason to doubt the attribution to Hesiod , going so far as to cite the Catalogue in arguments concerning the content and authenticity of other Hesiodic poems .
Modern scholars have not shared the confidence of their Hellenistic counterparts , and today the Catalogue is generally considered to be a post @-@ Hesiodic composition . Since Hesiod is supposed to have lived around the turn of the seventh century , the Cyrene @-@ Ehoie alone could guarantee that the poem was not his . Richard Janko 's survey of epic language , on the other hand , suggests that the Catalogue is very early , nearly contemporary with Hesiod 's Theogony , and Janko sees no reason why the Catalogue " should not be by the same poet as the Theogony , " who " calls himself Hesiod . " But a different critical strain , one which views the transmitted Homeric and Hesiodic poems as ultimate products of rhapsodic recomposition within an oral tradition , would hold that from an initial Hesiodic nucleus the Catalogue arrived at its final form well after period to which Hesiod has been assigned . Such a scenario could account for perceived anachronisms in the mythological content and in the linguistic character of the poem , but would sidestep the issue of the relation between the Catalogue as it has been transmitted and the broader corpus of early Greek epic .
Martin West argues on poetic , linguistic , cultural and political grounds that an Athenian poet " compiled the Catalogue of Women and attached it to Hesiod 's Theogony , as if it were all Hesiodic , " sometime between 580 and 520 , and thinks it possible that this range might be narrowed to the period following 540 . He sees , for example , the marriage of Xuthus to a daughter of Erechtheus as a means of subordinating all of Ionia to Athens , since their union produced the eponym Ion . Similarly , Sicyon is made a son of Erechtheus ( fr . 224 ) , which West takes as a reflection of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon 's attempts to promote Ionian – Athenian interests in the polis , which had traditionally been more closely connected to Dorian Argos . These and other considerations would , in West 's view , establish a terminus post quem of c . 575 , but he prefers a later dating on the assumption that Theogony 965 – 1020 , which he assigns to the latter portion of the sixth century , was contemporaneous with the composition of the Catalogue .
West 's arguments have been highly influential , but other scholars have arrived at different conclusions using the same evidence . Fowler thinks that the Sicyon genealogy would more likely reflect a composition before Cleisthenes ' death ( c . 575 ) and dates the poem to the period closely following the First Sacred War , connecting its content to the growing influence of the Amphictyonic League and placing its author in Aeolian Thessaly because of the Aeolid family @-@ trees centered around that region which dominate the earlier portions of the poem . Hirschberger , on the other hand , takes this focus upon the Aeolids and the Catalogue poet 's perceived interest in eastern peoples to be indicative of a poet from Aeolis in Asia Minor ; she proposes that the Catalogue was composed there between 630 and 590 , viewing the composition of the Shield of Heracles and an apparent allusion to the poem by Stesichorus ( died c . 555 ) as providing the ultimate terminus ante quem .
= = Reception = =
The Catalogue 's greatest influence was felt during the Hellenistic period , when the poem was used as an extra @-@ Homeric touchstone for the poets of the era who favored recondite and antiquarian references over direct engagement with the more prominent members of the canon . The most famous Hellenistic allusion to the Catalogue is found in Hermesianax 's Leontion , which included a catalogue of great literary figures and their loves , beginning with Orpheus and Agriope ( more commonly known as Eurydice ) and proceeding down to the poet 's contemporaries , including his teacher Philitas of Cos . Many of the entries engage playfully with their subjects ' work : Homer , for example , is portrayed as pining for Penelope . Directly preceding that lovestruck bard comes Hesiod 's blurb :
Here the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula is styled as the name of a woman , cleverly rendered " Anne Other " by Helen Asquith , and the grumpy Hesiod who reviled his home in Ascra at Works and Days 639 – 40 becomes a discomfited lover @-@ boy in the village . Phanocles , a near contemporary of Hermesianax , composed an elegiac catalogue of mythological pederastic relationships entitled the Loves or Beautiful Boys in which each story was introduced by the formula ē ' hōs ( ἠ ' ὡς ) , " or like " . Nicaenetus of Samos , a later Hellenistic poet , wrote his own Catalogue of Women and the otherwise unknown Sosicrates ( or Sostratus ) of Phanagoria was said to have written an Ehoioi ( Ἠοῖοι ) , the masculine equivalent of " Ehoiai " . While allusions to the ehoie @-@ formula and catalogue structure of the poem are most easily recognized , interaction with the Catalogue in Hellenistic poetry was not limited to plays upon these aspects : direct engagement with the myths found in the Catalogue were a popular way for the Alexandrians to show their Hesiodic affiliations .
At Rome the poets of the Late Republic and Augustan age continued the Hellenistic period 's allusive engagement with the Catalogue . Catullus , a poet who made plain his Callimachean affiliations , is the earliest Roman author who can be seen to engage with the Catalogue . In his epyllion on the wedding of Peleus and Thetis , Catullus alludes to the theoxeny that the proem to the Catalogue presented as a defining characteristic of the heroic age and to the epithalamium of the couple that was sung in a later book . In the Aeneid Vergil closes his catalogue of combatants with the swift female warrior Camilla , alluding to the Hesiodic account of Iphiclus ' speed in " a remarkably subtle nod to tradition in the best Alexandrian style . " Ovid picked up on Vergil 's allusion in the Metamorphoses with his treatment of Atalanta , which recast 's his Roman forbearer 's allusion to Iphiclus in such a way that it highlights the Hesiodic character of his own poem in contrast with the Homeric character of the Aeneid .
= = Transmission and reconstruction = =
It is impossible to tell exactly when the last complete copy of the Catalogue was lost . Fragments of over fifty ancient copies have been found , dating from the Hellenistic period through early Byzantine times . A book label from the century or so after the latest Catalogue papyrus lists the contents of a fifth- or sixth @-@ century Hesiodic codex as " Hesiod 's Theogony , Works and Days and Shield " , and it appears that by this time the Byzantine triad of Hesiod 's works had become the notional corpus , to the detriment of the other poems which had traveled under the poet 's name . Knowledge of the Catalogue did not cease altogether with the loss of the final complete copy , however , and well into medieval times authors such as Eustathius and Tzetzes could cite the poem via fragments contained in other ancient authors . Other vestiges of the poem 's influence are less clear : the Pseudo @-@ Apollodoran Bibliotheca , an early Roman @-@ era handbook of Greek mythology , for example , is widely believed to have taken the Catalogue as its primary structural model , although this is not stated explicitly within that text .
The collection and interpretation of the Hesiodic fragments in the modern era began during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , primarily with the editions of Heinsius ( 1603 ) and Graevius ( 1667 ) . The earliest collections simply presented ancient quotations organized by the quoting author , and it was not until the work of Lehmann ( 1828 ) , Goettling ( 1831 ) and Marckscheffel ( 1840 ) that attempts at a proper reconstruction began . Marckscheffel was the first to recognize that the early portions of the poem treated the descendants of Deucalion in a systematic fashion , but he regarded what were called the " Catalogue of Women " and " Ehoiai " as two initially separate works that had been joined : the former was genealogically structured , while the latter , in Marckscheffel 's view , simply recounted myths involving notable Thessalian and Boeotian heroines , with each introduced by the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula . Since the Ehoie of Alcmene was attested for book 4 , Marckscheffel proposed that books 1 – 3 were the " Catalogue " , and books 4 and 5 were the " Ehoiai " .
As the nineteenth century progressed , there were several other important observations about the genealogical structure of the Catalogue . In 1860 Adolf Kirchhoff noted the mass of information connected to the family of Io , a stemma which could be assigned to the third book because of an ancient citation placing Phineus , one of her descendents , there . The picture of the Catalogue that was emerging began to resemble the Bibliotheca in structure , but Theodor Bergk was the first to suggest explicitly ( though in passing ) that the poem might be reconstructed with the help of the mythographic work . Bergk and his contemporaries still largely followed Marckscheffel 's conclusion that the Catalogue and Ehoiai were semi @-@ distinct texts , and it was not until 1894 that Friedrich Leo finally demonstrated that these were in fact alternate titles for a single poem .
A few years before Leo 's paper , the first small papyrus fragment was found , and the first half of the twentieth century would see the publication of several other pieces which added significantly to the modern text of the Catalogue . Among these finds were important passages , the Catalogue of Suitors and Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis for example , but few advanced the modern understanding of the work 's overall structure . The appearance of the proem in 1956 actually led to a major misapprehension , for the list of gods found therein , beginning with Zeus and proceeding through the divine Heracles , led some to believe that the Catalogue was not organized in a strictly genealogical manner , but presented the unions of gods and heroines organized to some extent by amorous deity . Six years later , with the publication of the 28th part of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri , the corpus of papyrus witnesses to the fragmentary Hesiodic poems was nearly doubled , with the lion 's share of these new texts belonging to the Catalogue . The new papyri proved once and for all that the poem was organized by genealogies of the great families in a way similar to the Bibliotheca , and that the poet 's use of the ē ' hoiē @-@ formula was not a random method of introduction but an organizing tool within an overall structure .
= = Editions and translations = =
= = = Critical editions = = =
Heinsius , D. ( 1603 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae extant , Leiden .
Graevius , J.G. ( 1667 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae extant , Amsterdam .
Robinson , T. ( 1737 ) , Hesiodi Ascraei quae supersunt cum notis variorum , Oxford .
Gaisford , T. ( 1823 ) , Poetae Minores Graeci , vol . 1 , Leipzig .
Dindorf , L.A. ( 1825 ) , Hesiodus , Leipzig .
Lehmann , C. ( 1828 ) , De Hesiodi carminibus perditis scriptio philologica , Berlin .
Goettling , C.W. ( 1831 ) , Hesiodi carmina , Gotha .
Marckscheffel , G. ( 1840 ) , Hesiodi , Eumeli , Cinaethonis , Asii et Carminis Naupactii fragmenta , Leipzig .
Goettling , C.W. ( 1843 ) , Hesiodi carmina ( 2nd rev. ed . ) , Gotha .
Lehrs , F.S. ( 1840 ) , Hesiodi carmina , Paris .
Kinkel , G. ( 1877 ) , Epicorum Graecorum fragmenta , vol . 1 , Leipzig .
Sittl , K. ( 1889 ) , Ἡσιόδου τὰ ἅπαντα , Athens .
Rzach , A. ( 1902 ) , Hesiodi Carmina , Leipzig .
Rzach , A. ( 1908 ) , Hesiodi Carmina ( 2nd rev. ed . ) , Leipzig .
Rzach , A. ( 1913 ) , Hesiodi Carmina ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Leipzig , ISBN 3 @-@ 598 @-@ 71418 @-@ 1 .
Traversa , A. ( 1951 ) , Catalogi sive Eoaearum fragmenta , Naples .
Merkelbach , R. ( 1957 ) , Die Hesiodfragmente auf Papyrus , Leipzig .
Merkelbach , R. ; West , M.L. ( 1967 ) , Fragmenta Hesiodea , Oxford , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814171 @-@ 8 .
Merkelbach , R. ; West , M.L. ( 1990 ) , " Fragmenta selecta " , in F. Solmsen , Hesiodi Theogonia , Opera et Dies , Scutum ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Oxford , ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 814071 @-@ 1 .
Hirschberger , M. ( 2004 ) , Gynaikōn Katalogos und Megalai Ēhoiai : Ein Kommentar zu den Fragmenten zweier hesiodeischer Epen , Munich & Leipzig , ISBN 3 @-@ 598 @-@ 77810 @-@ 4 .
= = = Translations = = =
Mair , A.W. ( 1908 ) , Hesiod : the Poems and Fragments , Done into English Prose , Oxford . ( To be consulted with caution : out of date even for 1908 . )
Evelyn @-@ White , H.G. ( 1936 ) , Hesiod , the Homeric Hymns , and Homerica , Loeb Classical Library , no . 57 ( 3rd rev. ed . ) , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99063 @-@ 0 . ( The link is to the 1st edition of 1914 . ) English translation with facing Greek text ; now obsolete except for its translations of the ancient quotations .
Marg , W. ( 1970 ) , Hesiod : Sämtliche Gedichte , Stuttgart . German translation .
Arrighetti , G. ( 1998 ) , Esiodo . Opere , Torino , ISBN 978 @-@ 88 @-@ 446 @-@ 0053 @-@ 2 . Italian translation with facing Greek text ; faithfully based upon the editions of Merkelbach and West .
Most , G.W. ( 2006 ) , Hesiod : Theogony , Works and Days , Testimonia , Loeb Classical Library , no . 57 , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99622 @-@ 9 . Includes ancient assessments of the Catalogue .
Most , G.W. ( 2007 ) , Hesiod : The Shield , Catalogue , Other Fragments , Loeb Classical Library , no . 503 , Cambridge , MA , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 99623 @-@ 6 . English translation with facing Greek text ; takes much recent scholarship into consideration .
= HMS Hunter ( H35 ) =
HMS Hunter was a H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed on both sides by Britain and France , until she struck a mine in May 1937 . She was under repair for the next year and a half , after which she rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of World War II , Hunter searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean until she was transferred back to Britain in February 1940 . Returning to action in the Norwegian Campaign , she was sunk by German destroyers during the First Battle of Narvik in April 1940 .
= = Description = =
Hunter displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hunter carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this was increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hunter had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Ordered on 13 December 1934 , Hunter was laid down by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson at Wallsend @-@ on @-@ Tyne , England , on 27 March 1935 . She was launched on 25 February 1936 and completed on 30 September . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment such as armament , the ship cost £ 253 @,@ 167 . Hunter was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
The destroyer patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War , enforcing the edicts of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Hunter struck a mine south of Almeria , Spain on the afternoon of 13 May 1937 . She suffered severe damage , with a heavy list , her radio wrecked and the bow flooded . Eight of her complement were killed and 24 wounded . The ship was towed clear of the minefield by the Spanish Republican destroyer Lazaga . The mine had been laid several weeks earlier by two ex @-@ German Spanish Nationalist E @-@ boats , the Falange and the Requeté . Hunter was towed to Almeria by Hyperion , where she arrived in the early hours of 14 May . The light cruiser Arethusa towed her to Gibraltar , where she was temporarily repaired from 15 May to 18 August . Hunter was towed to Malta for permanent repairs in August 1937 , but they were not completed until 10 November 1938 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla once her repairs were finished and she was given a brief overhaul in Malta between 24 June and 4 July 1939 . Hunter was sent to Plymouth for a more thorough refit in mid @-@ August 1939 that lasted through 27 August .
= = = World War II = = =
When World War II began on 3 September , Hunter was en route to Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders , before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in late October . Hunter remained on that station until she was transferred to the British Isles in February 1940 and began a refit at Falmouth that lasted until 9 March . The ship rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow on 17 March . On 6 April Hunter and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser Renown and her escorts .
During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April 1940 , Hunter and four other H @-@ class ships of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German destroyers that had transported German troops to occupy Narvik in northern Norway the previous day . The flotilla leader Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . Hotspur and Hostile were initially left at the entrance , but Hunter followed Hardy into the harbour and fired all eight of her torpedoes into the mass of shipping . One torpedo hit the German destroyer Z22 Anton Schmitt in the forward engine room , followed by one of Hunter 's 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells . As the British ships were withdrawing , they encountered five German destroyers at close range . Two of the German ships crossed the T of the British ships and quickly set Hardy on fire and forced her to run aground . Hunter eventually took the lead , but was severely damaged by the Germans , probably including one torpedo hit , and her speed dropped rapidly . Hotspur , immediately behind her , was temporarily out of control due to two hits , and rammed her from behind . When the ships managed to disengage , Hunter capsized . 107 men of the crew were killed and another five died of their wounds . The German destroyers rescued 46 men , who were released into Sweden on 13 April .
= = Rediscovery = =
The wreck was discovered on 5 March 2008 by the Royal Norwegian Navy mine control vessel HNoMS Tyr , after being unknown for nearly 70 years , and will be marked as a war grave to commemorate the lost members of her crew . A series of coordinated memorial ceremonies were held on board British and Norwegian warships on Saturday 8 March 2008 , honouring all those who died during the battles of Narvik . Over a thousand NATO personnel took part , including British and Norwegian sailors , Royal Marines and soldiers . Led by HMS Albion , the UK 's Fleet Amphibious Flagship , five warships steamed in line past the spot where the ship lies , marked for the occasion by Tyr . Hunter 's final resting place was marked with wreaths cast into the sea .
= SECR N class =
The SECR N class was a type of 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 ( " mogul " ) steam locomotive designed in 1914 by Richard Maunsell for mixed @-@ traffic duties on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . Built between 1917 and 1934 , it was the first non @-@ Great Western Railway ( GWR ) type to use and improve upon the basic design principles established by GWR Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward . The N class was based on the GWR 4300 Class design , improved with Midland Railway concepts .
The N class was mechanically similar to the SECR K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 passenger tank engine , also by Maunsell . It influenced future 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 development in Britain and provided the basis for the 3 @-@ cylinder N1 class of 1922 . Production was delayed by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , and the first N class rolled out of Ashford Works in 1917 , three years after design work was completed . The class replaced obsolete 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s as part of the SECR 's fleet standardisation , as they used parts interchangeable with those of other classes .
Eighty N class locomotives were built in three batches between the First and Second World Wars . Fifty were assembled from kits of parts made at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , giving rise to the nickname of " Woolworths " . They worked over most of the Southern Railway ( SR ) network , and were used by the Southern Region of British Railways ( BR ) until the last was withdrawn in 1966 . One N class locomotive is preserved on the Swanage Railway in Dorset , undergoing overhaul .
= = Background = =
Three factors dictated the type of locomotive that could run on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) : increased freight and passenger train loadings , poor track quality , and weak , lightly built bridges . An increasing number of passengers used the SECR to reach the cross @-@ Channel ferries at Dover and Folkestone between 1910 and 1913 , and heavy goods trains between Tonbridge and Hither Green marshalling yard stretched the capabilities of existing locomotives and infrastructure . On the lines of the former London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) , flint beach pebbles on a bed of ash had been used for ballast . Conventional track ballast has irregular shapes that " lock " together to keep the track in place , whereas the smooth pebbles used by the LCDR failed to prevent track movement under strain . The economies in construction meant that only locomotives with low axle loadings could run safely on the track . These restrictions meant that the SECR was unable to follow a coherent locomotive strategy that reduced costs and increased serviceability . The railway 's Operating Department had to use mismatched classes of underpowered and obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives because they could run within the restrictions imposed by the infrastructure . This meant frequent double @-@ heading that increased operational costs .
Richard Maunsell was appointed CME of the SECR in 1913 , following the retirement of Harry Wainwright due to ill health . Wainwright left a legacy of competent but unspectacular locomotives that struggled to cope with the increased train lengths and loadings . Maunsell took control of the short @-@ term situation by improving existing designs , and he introduced new engines to progressively replace obsolete classes . New designs could also cut costs on the SECR , as one capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotive could undertake the work of two separate passenger or freight types . The first new design was to become Maunsell 's N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 .
= = Design and construction = =
For detailed information on numbering variations , see : Livery and numbering
The N class was designed by Maunsell in 1914 to provide a sturdy mixed @-@ traffic locomotive with high route availability . Intended to replace several obsolete 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 types , the N class was the first step in the SECR 's fleet standardisation programme , which also included the K class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T passenger tank locomotive . Maunsell enlisted the help of former GWR engineer Harold Holcroft , who suggested that a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement would allow the class to run on the poor @-@ quality track in north Kent
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to the ring and covered the already downed Kane , scoring a pinfall and becoming interim champion . The time limit expired soon after , and Jericho won the World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
On the September 8 episode of Raw , it was announced that CM Punk would challenge Chris Jericho in an attempt to win back the World Heavyweight Championship , with the two fighting in a steel cage match the following week . On the following week 's Raw , Chris Jericho escaped the cage before Punk , and thus retained his championship . Later that night , General Manager Mike Adamle announced that Batista would face JBL in a number one contender 's match at No Mercy . Following this announcement , Shawn Michaels announced that he would be facing Chris Jericho in a ladder match at No Mercy . Two weeks later on the September 29 episode of Raw , Chris Jericho and Lance Cade faced a reunited D @-@ Generation X ( Shawn Michaels and Triple H ) in a tag team match , which D @-@ Generation X won via disqualification . At No Mercy , Batista defeated JBL to become number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship , and Chris Jericho defeated Shawn Michaels to retain the World Heavyweight Championship .
On the September 12 episode of SmackDown , a standard wrestling match involving four wrestlers was held between Jeff Hardy , The Brian Kendrick , Shelton Benjamin , and MVP , with the stipulation that the winner would go on to face Triple H at No Mercy for the WWE Championship . Jeff Hardy won the match and earned a title match at No Mercy . At No Mercy , Triple H defeated Hardy to retain his championship .
On the September 16 episode of ECW , it was announced that Matt Hardy would defend the ECW Championship against Mark Henry at No Mercy . At No Mercy , Hardy defeated Henry to retain his championship .
Almost two and a half years later at Royal Rumble 2011 CM Punk prevented Randy Orton from winning the WWE Championship from The Miz . Eventually Punk revealed that he did this to get revenge on Orton for costing him the championship at Unforgiven in 2008 .
= = = Reception = = =
Despite the event 's promotional build @-@ up , only a reported 6 @,@ 000 tickets were initially sold for an arena that holds 20 @,@ 000 people . To fill the arena , local radio stations gave away tickets to the show . The event had a final attendance of 8 @,@ 707 . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 stars . The rating was higher than the Unforgiven event in 2007 , which was rated a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars . The Championship Scramble main event match from the Raw brand was rated a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 stars , while the SmackDown brand 's main event , a Championship Scramble for the WWE Championship , was rated an 8 out of 10 stars . The Sun gave a positive review of the event , praising the Jericho / HBK Match and Jericho 's World Championship victory . Furthermore , the continuation of the Hardy / Triple H feud was similarly praised . The event was released on DVD on October 7 , 2008 by Sony Music Entertainment . The DVD reached second on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of November 1 , 2008 , although it fell off the chart thereafter .
= = Results = =
ECW Championship Scramble Interim Champions
WWE Championship Scramble Interim Champions
World Heavyweight Championship Scramble Interim Champions
= Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music is a studio album by American recording artist Ray Charles , released in April 1962 on ABC @-@ Paramount Records . Recording sessions for the album took place in early to mid @-@ February 1962 at Capitol Studios in New York City and at United Recording Studios in Hollywood . Production was handled entirely by Charles and conductor Sid Feller . A departure from Charles 's previous work , the album features country , folk , and Western music standards covered and redone by Charles in popular song forms of the time , including rhythm and blues , pop , and jazz .
As his fifth LP release for ABC @-@ Paramount , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music became a rapid critical and commercial success as it brought Ray Charles further mainstream notice , following his tenure for Atlantic Records . With the help of the album 's four charting singles , Charles earned recognition in the pop market , as well as airplay on both R & B and country radio stations . Modern Sounds and its lead single , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , were both certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1962 , as each record had shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Regarded by many critics as Charles 's best studio album , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music has been considered by several music writers to be a landmark album in American music . The album 's integration of soul and country music bent racial barriers in popular music , amid the height of the African @-@ American civil rights struggle . In the process of recording the album , Charles became one of the first African @-@ American musicians to exercise complete artistic control over his own recording career . The album has been called one of the greatest albums of all time by publications such as Rolling Stone and Time .
= = Background = =
After his Atlantic Records contract ended , Ray Charles signed with ABC @-@ Paramount Records in November 1959 , obtaining a much more generous contract than other artists had at the time . Following his commercial and pop crossover breakthrough with the hit single " What 'd I Say " earlier that year , ABC offered Charles a $ 50 @,@ 000 annual advance , higher royalties than previously offered and eventual ownership of his masters — a very valuable and lucrative deal at the time . Composed by Charles himself , the single furthered Charles 's mainstream appeal , while becoming a Top 10 pop hit and selling a million copies in the United States , despite the ban placed on the record by some radio stations , in response to the song 's sexually @-@ suggestive lyrics . However , by the time of the release of the instrumental jazz LP Genius + Soul = Jazz ( 1960 ) for ABC 's subsidiary label Impulse ! , Charles had virtually given up on writing original material and had begun to follow his eclectic impulses as an interpreter .
Charles ' first hit single for ABC @-@ Paramount was " Georgia on My Mind " . Originally written by Stuart Gorrell and Hoagy Carmichael , Charles ' version was produced by Sid Feller and released in 1960 , earning Charles national acclaim and a Grammy Award . The song was Charles 's first collaboration with Feller , who also arranged and conducted the recording . Charles earned another Grammy for the follow @-@ up " Hit the Road Jack " , written by R & B singer Percy Mayfield . By late 1961 , Charles had expanded his small road ensemble to a full @-@ scale big band , partly as a response to increasing royalties and touring fees , becoming one of the few black artists to crossover into mainstream pop with such a level of creative control . This success , however , came to a momentary halt in November 1961 , as a police search of Charles 's hotel room in Indianapolis , Indiana , during a concert tour led to the discovery of heroin in his medicine cabinet . The case was eventually dropped , as the search had been undertaken without a proper warrant , and Charles soon returned his focus on music and recording .
= = Conception = =
Following his blues fusion with gospel and jazz influences on his earlier Atlantic material , which had brought him much fame and controversy , Charles sought to experiment with country music . As noted by himself in the liner notes for What 'd I Say ( 1959 ) , Charles was influenced by the genre in his youth , stating that he " used to play piano in a hillbilly band " and that he believed that he " could do a good job with the right hillbilly song today . " At Atlantic , he attempted to incorporate this style and influence with his cover of country singer Hank Snow 's " I 'm Movin ' On " . Charles later said about the song , " When I heard Hank Snow sing ' Moving On ' , I loved it . And the lyrics . Keep in mind , I ’ m a singer , so I like lyrics . Those lyrics are great , so that ’ s what made me want to do it . " The " I 'm Movin ' On " sessions were his last for Atlantic .
Charles 's recording of his acclaimed studio effort The Genius of Ray Charles ( 1959 ) brought him closer to expressing his jazz and pop crossover ambitions . Described by one music critic as " the most important of his albums for Atlantic " , the record was the first to introduce Charles 's musical approach of blending his brassy R & B sound with the more middle of the road , pop @-@ oriented style , while performing in the presence of a big band ensemble . Recording of the album , as well his ABC @-@ Paramount debut , The Genius Hits the Road ( 1960 ) , a collection of place @-@ name songs devoted to parts of the United States , expanded on Charles 's thematic and conceptually @-@ organized approach to albums rather than commercially successful singles production . Inspired by this approach and his recording of " I 'm Movin ' On " , Charles originally made plans for a single @-@ less concept album .
When Charles had announced that he wanted to work on an album of country music in 1961 , during a period of racial segregation and tension in the United States , he received generally negative commentary and feedback from his peers , including fellow R & B musicians and ABC @-@ Paramount executives . The country album concept , however , meant more to Charles as a test of his record label 's faith in him and respect for his artistic freedom than as a test of social tolerance among listeners amid racial distinctions of country and R & B. Fueled by his esteem for creative control , Charles pitched the idea of a country album to ABC representatives . Following the successful lobby of the concept and a contract renewal in early 1962 , which was linked to the launching of his own Tangerine label , Charles prepared his band for the recording sessions that produced Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music .
= = Recording = =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music was the 18th overall LP Charles had recorded . According to him , the title of the album was conceived by producer Sid Feller and ABC @-@ Paramount 's executives and management people . The recording sessions for the album took place at three sessions in mid @-@ February 1962 . The first two sessions were set on February 5 and 7 at Capitol Studios in New York , New York , at which one half of the album was recorded and produced . The other half was recorded on February 15 of that same year at United Recording Studios in Hollywood , California . Instead of drawing what he should record from memory and his knowledge of country music , Charles asked Feller , his newly appointed A & R ( Artists and Repertoire ) man , to research top country standards through major country music publishers .
By canvassing premier country publishing companies , such as Acuff @-@ Rose Publishing ( which featured the Hank Williams catalog ) and Hill & Range Songs ( most of which were located in Nashville , Tennessee ) , Feller amassed around 250 songs on tape for Charles to consider recording for Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . From New York City , Feller sent the recordings to Charles , who was living in California at the time , for him to choose . According to music essayist Daniel Cooper :
While his selections provided the album 's country and western foundation , the musical arrangements represented its contemporary influence . Eager to display his big band ensemble in studio , Charles enlisted premier jazz arrangers Gerald Wilson and Gil Fuller , while Marty Paich , who was active in the West Coast jazz scene , was hired to arrange the lush strings and chorus numbers . Despite enlisting a roster of professional arrangers and musicians , Charles intended to control the artistic direction of the recordings . To indicate specific licks he wanted emphasized for certain songs , Charles would put together voice @-@ and @-@ piano demos and pass them along to the arrangers , informing them of what he wanted to do with specific sounds . According to Feller , at one point during recording , Charles rewrote an entire botched arrangement and dictated the parts to each of the 18 backing musicians .
= = Composition = =
The album 's themes are about heartbreak and love , while most of the material chosen by Charles were ballads as well . The concept which had originally attracted the interest of Charles to this style of music was the strength he admired in writing such a ballad 's somber or melancholy lyrics and then performing the ballad beautifully and with emotional stability ; an element he had found to be common in even the most diverse musical genres . Writer Daniel Cooper said of Charles 's adaptation of country elements , " His country forays play like a series of intricate variations or like one long meditation on the expansive qualities of music commonly described as the white man 's blues . " Allmusic 's Stephen Cook writes that " Charles intones the sleepy @-@ blue nuances of country crooners while still giving the songs a needed kick with his gospel outbursts . "
Despite the racial and social implications of R & B and country at the time , Charles did not agree with contemporary views of race records and other genres , including pop and country , as essentially different . In an interview with Ben Fong @-@ Torres of Rolling Stone , Charles said of the similarities between the blues and country music , " [ T ] he words to country songs are very earthy like the blues , see , very down . They 're not as dressed up , and the people are very honest and say , ' Look , I miss you , darlin ' , so I went out and I got drunk in this bar . ' That 's the way you say it . Where in Tin Pan Alley will say , ' Oh , I missed you darling , so I went to this restaurant and I sat down and I had dinner for one . ' That 's cleaned up now , you see ? But country songs and the blues is like it is . "
In an interview with music historian Peter Guralnick , Charles further elaborated on his understanding , stating " You take country music , you take black music , you got the same goddamn thing exactly . " While Modern Sounds features mostly covers of country and western music standards , its sound and musical style are marked by the heavy rhythm and blues influence of Charles 's playing . A considerable amount of the material 's melancholy lyrics and words are backed by piano and orchestral arrangements that are rooted in jazz , as well as West Coast and Charles 's style of piano blues . Charles has said that the country album was " completely different from rhythm and blues " .
= = Songs = =
" You Don 't Know Me " has a string and vocal ensemble production and themes of desirous unrequited love . The song 's narrator longs for a woman that views him as " just a friend / That 's all I 've ever been / For you don 't know me . " Allmusic editor Bill Janovitz writes of the song 's affecting narrative , stating " The genius , the pathos , and the soul that is Charles oozes into this recording [ ... ] No matter how many times one hears the song , it still induces chills down the spine after the narrator blows any chance he might have had and is left alone at the end . "
Both composed by Hank Williams , " You Win Again " and " Hey , Good Lookin ' " are derived from Williams 's different emotional perspectives . The difference is further accentuated by Charles 's interpretations of the songs . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , a countrypolitan ballad with lush , cushioned arrangements , was placed at the 11th spot in the track listing , assumed by Sid Feller to be the album 's weakest song , after which becoming the album 's top @-@ selling single . Charles was disappointed with him , as Feller was in charge of sequencing for the album .
A component of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music is Charles 's creative reliance on honky tonk musician Floyd Tillman 's songwriting , covering the heartbreak ballads " It Makes No Difference Now " and " I Love You So Much It Hurts " . The Ted Daffan @-@ penned " Worried Mind " and " Born to Lose " expand his take on country balladry and feature a blend of piano blues with string arrangements .
= = Commercial performance = =
Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music became one of the best @-@ selling albums recorded by a black musician of the time , as well as one of the best @-@ selling country albums , shipping at least 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first three months of release . This achievement was due in part to the mainstream promotional efforts Modern Sounds had received from ABC prior to and following release . The album proved to be a crossover hit as well , as distributors claimed the record had been selling in pop , R & B and country music markets ; at the time , often referred to as white and black markets during the period .
Upon the album 's release in early April 1962 in both mono and stereo format , a reviewer for Billboard magazine claimed that " In addition to being powerful dealer material , this package will fracture knowledgeable jockeys who will find in it a wealth of material to talk about as well as play . " By mid @-@ April , reports of the album 's sales and radio airplay had started coming in from cities such as Dallas and Philadelphia . On June 23 , 1962 , the mono issue of Modern Sounds replaced the West Side Story soundtrack album as the number one album in the United States , knocking it off the top of the Billboard Pop Albums chart . The album spawned four charting singles , " Born to Lose " , " Careless Love " , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " and " You Don 't Know Me " , the latter two of which went number one on the Adult Contemporary chart . The hit singles quickly gained a significant amount of radio airplay on both country and R & B stations . By mid @-@ May , the album 's lead single , " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , had sold 700 @,@ 000 copies within its first four weeks of release . Record dealers began describing the album as " equal in sales action to some of the early Presley disks " and , after moving 400 @,@ 000 copies of the single , influential Atlanta record distributor Gwen Kestler told Billboard magazine that " the record is so hot in her district that people who don 't even own record players are buying it . " " I Can 't Stop Loving You " hit number one on the Billboard Pop Singles chart on June 2 , spending five consecutive weeks at the top of the chart . By the time it fell off the top , the single was reported to have reached nearly a million and a half in sales , moving over 100 @,@ 000 copies per week . In July the record spent two weeks at number one in Great Britain .
As Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music and its singles were performing well in the United States , Charles toured Europe with his big band and the Raelettes . He performed both his signature R & B and jazz material at such venues as Paris Olympia and the Hot Club de France , where he was hailed as " a true jazz artist in the tradition of Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington . " Upon his return to the United States at the end of the summer , ABC @-@ Paramount had officially recognized his achievements , presenting Charles with two gold records — one for " I Can 't Stop Loving You " , the other for his Modern Sounds album — during a live concert performance at the Convention Hall in Asbury Park , New Jersey . Through his ventures into country music and the European jazz scene , Charles 's white audience grew significantly at concerts . The album was quickly followed by another recording of country , western and pop standards covered by Charles , and recorded in September 1962 . Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music , Vol . 2 was released six months after the first volume and proved to be equally successful , while also earning a gold certification by the following year . Following his tenure with ABC @-@ Paramount , Charles later went on to achieve more commercial success recording country music under Warner Bros. Records throughout most of the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music received positive reviews from music critics of both rhythm and blues and country music . Billboard called it " one of the most intriguing albums in a long time " and found its concept " wonderful " . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " subsequently earned Charles a Grammy Award for Best Rhythm & Blues Recording at the 1963 Grammy Awards , while the album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year .
Since its initial reception , the album has been praised by critics for Charles 's style and manner of interpreting country music into his R & B musical language . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the " masterful interpretation of several country standards ... opened a lot of pop ears to country music and showed Nashville much about the proper use of orchestration . " Allmusic editor Stephen Cook called the album a " fine store of inimitable interpretations " , and stated , " Less modern for its country @-@ R & B blend and lushly produced C & W tone than for its place as a high @-@ profile crossover hit , Modern Sounds in Country and Western fit right in with Ray Charles 's expansive musical ways while on the Atlantic label in the ' 50s " . Chris Neal of Country Weekly commented that Charles " recast 12 country favorites in big @-@ band and orchestrated settings with a visionary ’ s easy grace " , adding that he " gets to the heart of each [ song ] in a way that remains thoroughly modern . " John Morthland of the Oxford American called it a " landmark LP of transcendent vocals set against kitschy orchestrations that ( along with early rock ' n ' roll ) illuminated black @-@ white roots connections for a popular audience . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1999 , the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , as was " I Can 't Stop Loving You " in 2001 . Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music was cited by The Recording Academy as a recording of " historical significance " . " I Can 't Stop Loving You " was ranked number 49 on Country Music Television 's list of the 100 Greatest Songs of Country Music . In November 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 104 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , one of Charles 's two entries and his highest ranking on the list ; it is accompanied only by his The Genius of Ray Charles at number 263 .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = Country music = = =
In the wake of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music and its success , country music experienced an immediate increase in popularity . According to music writer Daniel Cooper , " the album raised the genre 's profile " , specifically Nashville sound , which Charles had covered . Benefiting from this were songwriters , music publishers , and country singers who covered the subgenre 's material . As noted by Cooper , by the end of 1962 , Nashville country publishers were being held as " the hottest source of music material in the record business these days . " Charles 's success with the stylistic fusion of country and soul on Modern Sounds led to similar efforts from artists such as Candi Staton and Solomon Burke , who were greatly influenced by the album . Many country music artists such as Willie Nelson and Buck Owens have cited Charles 's take on the genre with the album as a major influence . In an interview for Country Music Television , Nelson said that the album " did more for country music than any one artist has ever done . " Doug Freeman of the Austin Chronicle wrote of Charles 's influence through the album , stating :
Summing up on the impact Modern Sounds had on country music and listeners , writer Daniel Cooper states , " There is no telling how many people , who perhaps never paid much attention to country music or even had professed to dislike it , listened anew based on the impact of having heard what Ray Charles was capable of doing with that music . " Charles eventually earned a country music repertoire and reputation following the success of the Modern Sounds records , later country hit singles for Warner Bros. Records , and various appearances at country music events , including The Johnny Cash Show in 1970 and the Grand Ole Opry 's 58th anniversary in 1983 , the program to which he listened to as a youth .
= = = Social impact = = =
Following the album 's release , Charles quickly earned an influx of white listeners and audiences at concert venues , without experiencing any fall @-@ out from his predominantly black audience . Writer Daniel Cooper later said of the album 's effect , " It 's an idea as corny as any country song you can think of , and one that Charles knew to be true ; music unites people . It just really does . " Throughout the years following its initial reception , Modern Sounds gained further acknowledgment of its impact on the music industry and society . Through conceiving and recording the album , Charles became one of the first African @-@ American musicians to receive and practice artistic control bestowed upon by a mainstream record company . In a 1998 interview , country musician Raul Malo acknowledged the album 's influence , calling it " one of the most important records of our time , not only because of its content , but also due to its social and political ramifications . " In a July 8 , 2004 article for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist Robert Christgau praised the impact and influence that the Modern Sounds recordings had on music , stating " In the world it created , not only could a black person sing the American songbook Ella Fitzgerald owned by then , but a country black person could take it over . Soon Charles 's down @-@ home diction , cotton @-@ field grit , corn @-@ pone humor and overstated shows of emotion were standard operating procedure in American music , black and white . "
In addition to its social implications , the musical integration of soul and country into popular format by Charles changed and revolutionized racial boundaries and restraints in music , and contributed to the historical Civil Rights Movement . Robert Fontenot of About.com was one of several writers to praise the album 's musical and social implications , stating " Arguably one of the most brilliant interpretive albums ever released , it did more to integrate modern American music than almost any other LP in history . " In paying tribute to the magazine 's selection of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time , which had selected Charles at # 2 , singer @-@ songwriter Billy Joel noted the album 's racial and social impact in an article for Rolling Stone , stating " here is a black man giving you the whitest possible music in the blackest possible way , while all hell is breaking loose with the civil rights movement . " Another article for Rolling Stone , written in honor of Charles and his achievements , later stated that through his Modern Sounds recordings , Ray Charles " made it acceptable for black people to sing country & western music , in the process doing almost as much to break down racial barriers as did the civil @-@ rights movement . "
= = = Subsequent work by Charles = = =
In addition to the album 's legacy as one of the most influential recordings of all time , Modern Sounds also had an effect on Charles 's later work . According to writer Nate Guidry , the recording marked the zenith of Charles 's popularity and success . By the mid @-@ 1960s and continuing into the 1970s and 1980s , the majority of his musical output was focused onto more middle of the road and pop releases , featuring less of his recognizable , trademark soul and R & B , and more of the crossover and fusion tendencies of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music . On the album 's influence , columnist Spencer Leigh of The Independent stated that " Numerous artists followed Charles 's lead , but it must be said that Charles himself repeated the trick much too often . " The period of releases following Modern Sounds , which includes the musician 's later recording years as well , has been recognized by music writers and critics as a " critical slide " and the weakest in his recording career . Several of the LP albums from this period have yet to be reissued and have remained rare among record collectors , if not out of print . Charles 's final studio album Genius Loves Company ( 2004 ) would later be released shortly after his death , and proved to be a comeback success , in terms of sales and critical response , as it quickly became Charles 's first top @-@ 10 album in forty years and the best @-@ selling record of his career .
On October 27 , 1998 , Rhino Entertainment issued a four @-@ disc box set entitled The Complete Country & Western Recordings : 1959 – 1986 , which chronicles Charles 's country and western recordings . The collection features the two volumes of Modern Sounds , as well as his later country singles for Warner Bros. Included in the set is a hardcover booklet of essays by producer Sid Feller , writer Daniel Cooper , and Ray Charles , along with liner photography by Howard Morehead and Les Leverett . On June 2 , 2009 , both volumes of Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music were reissued as a single package by Concord Music . The reissue was also included as a download in the iTunes Store .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks were produced by Ray Charles and Sid Feller .
Reissue bonus tracks
The album was later reissued on compact disc by the specialty record label Rhino Entertainment in October 1988 with three bonus tracks .
= = Personnel = =
Ray Charles – piano , vocals , producer
Additional musicians
Hank Crawford – alto saxophone
Gil Fuller , Gerald Wilson – arrangements ( big band )
Marty Paich – arrangements ( strings )
Technical personnel
Frank Abbey – engineering ( tracks 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 10 , 12 )
Joe Adams – production ( track 14 )
Bob Arnold – engineering ( track 15 )
Hugh Bell – photography
Johnny Cue – engineering ( track 13 )
Todd Everett – liner notes
Sid Feller – production
Bill Inglot – remastering
Michael Ochs Archives – photography
Ken Perry – remastering
Bill Putnam – engineering ( tracks 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 11 , 15 )
Gene Thompson – engineering ( tracks 1 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 10 , 12 )
= = Charts = =
Albums
Singles
= Temperatures Rising =
Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46 @-@ episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line @-@ ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as the no @-@ nonsense chief @-@ of @-@ staff who is forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern played by Cleavon Little , and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) .
For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson in the second season . The series was re @-@ titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast consisting of : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny @-@ pinching chief @-@ of @-@ staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital .
The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format — albeit with Paul Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast and a new line @-@ up of supporting players consisting of Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes after which it was cancelled permanently .
= = First season = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Temperatures Rising was one of two sitcoms that the ABC network premiered in its 1972 – 73 prime time schedule , the other being The Paul Lynde Show . Both series were produced and developed by William Asher and his partner Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems , which had scored a major success for the network with Bewitched , a fantasy sitcom that first aired in 1964 starring Asher 's wife , Elizabeth Montgomery . Asher and Screen Gems made a deal with ABC to cancel Bewitched a year earlier than contracts stipulated , thereby allowing them the opportunity to develop the two new sitcoms . Ackerman served as executive producer and Asher as producer .
Asher and Ackerman derived the format of the series from an unsold pilot they had produced for ABC in 1965 . Entitled This is a Hospital ? , and written by Sheldon Keller , it starred comedian Shecky Greene as a mischievous intern who Asher referred to as " Sgt. Bilko in a hospital " . Asher also drew on the British Carry On franchise as his inspiration for Temperatures Rising .
= = = Original cast = = =
Set in Capitol General , a fictional Washington , D.C. , hospital , the series centered on five characters . Cleavon Little starred as Dr. Jerry Noland , a ghetto @-@ raised intern who works on the side as the hospital bookie and finds humor in anything from an operation to a con job . Joan Van Ark played Annie Carlisle , the hospital 's beautiful , young , sexy , head nurse , who is " always covering up for the inept crew " . Reva Rose played Nurse Mildred " Millie " MacInerny , who offers satirical comments on the shenanigans going on in the hospital . Nancy Fox was cast as Ellen Turner , a shy student nurse who becomes Noland 's most faithful follower . James Whitmore starred as Dr. Vincent Campanelli , the hospital 's chief of surgery . Campanelli is presented as an Italian @-@ American , former combat surgeon , who looks upon Noland with both pride and shock , and refers to the young intern and nurses Carlisle , MacInerny , and Turner as the " Four Horsemen of Aggravation " .
Cleavon Little 's guest appearance on All in the Family led to his casting in Temperatures Rising , which in turn led to the leading role in the Mel Brooks comedy film Blazing Saddles ( 1974 ) . Little 's casting reflected " pressure from the government and Negro organizations and concerned whites who believe that black representation on television was long overdue " . William Asher later stated that Temperatures Rising gave him a chance to work with a black actor . Nancy Fox was cast in Temperatures Rising after Elizabeth Montgomery spotted her in a commercial for Close @-@ Up toothpaste . Asher had considered her for a part in The Paul Lynde Show . During the time that Temperatures Rising was in production Fox declined an offer to leave the series and star in another , Needles and Pins .
= = = Overview = = =
In a 2000 interview , William Asher described Temperatures Rising as being about : " a young black surgeon who was always into mischief and things , but he was a very competent surgeon . James Whitmore was the head surgeon and he used to drive Whitmore crazy " . The pilot episode of Temperatures Rising was written by Sheldon Keller , who turned to his This is a Hospital ? script for inspiration . It features Noland broadcasting a bingo game in code over the hospital 's public @-@ address system . Jack Albertson guest starred as a United States Senator . Subsequent episodes feature Noland performing a secret operation on a young baseball player while Campanelli deals with a hospital inspector ( Ed Platt ) and John Astin as a gangster wanting Noland to be his personal physician . In another episode , Noland hypnotizes a patient ( Alice Ghostley ) and , accidentally , Nurse Turner as well . This nearly costs the hospital a large donation from a potential benefactor ( Charles Lane ) . In later episodes , Campanelli is seen having a brief romance with Nurse Turner 's aunt ( Beverly Garland ) , Noland helping out a new intern ( Bernie Kopell ) who has a reputation for being a jinx , and performing a witchcraft ritual on a patient ( Alan Oppenheimer ) who thinks he has been cursed .
Jack Albertson returned in a later episode that features Dr. Campanelli participating in a documentary film about hospital surgery . Unfortunately , Campanelli develops stage fright during filming . Noland then takes over the operation and receives all the acclaim . Bernie Kopell returned to his role as a hospital orderly in two episodes , one in which he causes a furor with a hospital scandal sheet , the other when Noland has to save him from being fleeced by a patient who is also a card sharp .
There was some racially tinged comic bantering in the series , such as scenes with Noland giving cotton to a nurse and stating , " Honey , picking cotton is part of my heritage , " or observing some adhesive strips labeled " flesh colored " and remarking , " Maybe this is your idea of flesh colored , but it wouldn 't make it in my neighborhood . " Aside from these , racial issues were avoided , as Asher and Ackerman felt that ABC was not interested in having them mixed into the comedy .
In discussing the series William Asher noted :
We too often forget the humanity of doctors and nurses . They become godlike to most of us and yet it is their humanity that makes them so interesting and enjoyable . We are not doing a drama and have no intention of doing anything like dealing with life and death issues . We want to make people laugh so we de @-@ emphasize the more serious elements of hospital life . It isn 't that he [ Noland ] just sees things differently , he also deals with them differently . That is why Noland will dream up a baby derby , a gambling night at the hospital , a variety show at Christmas and off @-@ truck betting when patients get bored with the hospital routine .
Production of Temperatures Rising was underway by August 1972 with filming done at the Burbank Studios in Burbank , California .
= = = Original reviews = = =
In his review of the premiere episode of Temperatures Rising for the Los Angeles Times , critic Don Page felt that James Whitmore was " totally wasted in this silly exercise " and that " guest Jack Albertson almost saves it with his portrayal of an annoyed senator . Otherwise , the diagnosis is terminal comedy " . Likewise , Cecil Smith , another writer for the Times , claimed it was the " worst show of the season . Avoid it like the plague " .
Other reviews were more favorable . Columnist Joan Crosby noted that " This is the kind of show you don 't think you 'll laugh at , but you do , mostly because the cast is so good . " She noted that Cleavon Little , Joan Van Ark , and Reva Rose were , respectively , " marvelous " , " pretty " , and " funny " , and that Nancy Fox " wins this year 's cute @-@ as @-@ a @-@ kitten award " . Barbara Holsopple , TV and radio editor for the Pittsburgh Press , noted that " ABC did a gutsy turnabout in taking the heavy drama out of a hospital and replacing it with comedy . The venture worked well , thanks to excellent performances from the Temperatures Rising cast " . She praised Jack Albertson , noted that Whitmore " was little seen " , and that the series : " is the kind of tidy little show that brings chuckles " . Win Fanning , a syndicated columnist , stated that : " the comedy writing and performances by a beautifully integrated cast give Temperatures a bright , light quality so seldom achieved in a situation comedy " , and that it was : " loaded with one @-@ liners and sight gags , which , if kept on the level of the opener , promise many hours of hilarity " . Fanning praised Cleavon Little as " one of the comedy finds of any TV season " , and Nancy Fox as " a fresh new face and talent giving promise of a long , successful career ahead " . More praise for the series came after the broadcast of its fourth episode . An unidentified reviewer , writing for the Armored Sentinel ( of Temple , Texas ) , stated " If you 're suffering from the case of the ' downs , ' this series is a sure pick up ! " The reviewer went on to note that " the brightest spot of the series is wacky Nancy Fox . Her role applies the wackiness of Goldie Hawn , but in situation comedy form . I 'd watch the show just for her ! The whole series is wacky and funny ; it 's downright good . I highly recommend it . "
= = = First season ratings = = =
ABC placed Temperatures Rising in its 8 : 00 PM Tuesday night time @-@ slot , where it debuted on September 12 , 1972 . Because one of the stars was black , some of ABC 's affiliated stations in the southern and mid @-@ western parts of the United States refused to air the series or broadcast it in a different time slot . Airing opposite it were Bonanza on NBC , and the new sitcom Maude on CBS . Bonanza was entering its fourteenth year and offered up an ambitious two @-@ hour season premiere dealing with the marriage of Little Joe Cartwright ( Michael Landon ) . Maude , starring Beatrice Arthur in the title role , was a spin @-@ off of All in the Family . Both shows presented Temperatures Rising with stiff opposition in the " ratings game " . This turned out to be partly true , as the two @-@ hour season premiere of Bonanza performed exceptionally well in the ratings . Maude did much better than Temperatures Rising in the New York City area , while Temperatures Rising fared better than Maude in the Los Angeles area . In subsequent weeks , Bonanza 's ratings dropped sharply and NBC cancelled the series in November 1972 . According to Asher : " Temperatures Rising put Bonanza out of business and was beating Maude in the Los Angeles area until mid @-@ season , when NBC switched to some heavy movies which hurt us " . Despite this the series finished its first year with a consistent 29 share of the ratings at a time when a 30 share was enough to assure renewal for another season . ABC , however , wanted to improve the ratings and decided to make significant changes to Temperatures Rising for its second season .
= = Second season = =
= = = New premise and producers = = =
As early as November 1972 , James Whitmore expressed a desire to leave Temperatures Rising , claiming that " the show [ was ] basically a broad farce and I didn 't feel it was right for me " . Screen Gems head John Mitchell , and ABC chief programmer Barry Diller , decided to replace Whitmore with comedian Paul Lynde , whose sitcom , The Paul Lynde Show , was airing on Wednesday nights . At the time , Lynde was scoring second only to Peter Falk in TV popularity polls even though his sitcom , which aired opposite The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour on CBS , was floundering in the ratings . Asher was against making this change but was overruled as his contractual commitments to ABC had been used up .
Of the change Asher stated :
The network – ugh – they 're so stupid sometimes . The shows ( Temperatures Rising and The Paul Lynde Show ) were doing good , they weren 't big hits , but they were doing good . They felt that if they could put Paul [ Lynde ] and Cleavon Little together that they would have a big hit . I didn 't want to do that . I said I won 't do it , not at the sacrifice of the show . It 's wrong . I don 't think it 's a good idea . But they wanted to bring in somebody else as the head of the hospital . They wanted his [ Lynde 's ] mother to be head of the hospital and his conflicts would be with her and I just didn 't think it was right . I didn 't want to write it . I just didn 't want to do it [ and ] I didn 't . Someone else came in . It was a big thing with the network . They cancelled The Paul Lynde Show and put Paul in Temperatures Rising . "
Asher was replaced as producer by Bruce Johnson and Duke Vincent , whose previous credits included : Gomer Pyle – USMC , The Jim Nabors Hour , Arnie , and The Little People . They changed the title of the series to The New Temperatures Rising Show , and the tone went from lighthearted wackiness to a form of black comedy similar to The Hospital , a 1971 film written by Paddy Chayefsky , starring George C. Scott . The sitcom became : " a savage satire of the medical profession " with $ 185 @-@ a @-@ day hospital rooms , incompetent , fee @-@ splitting doctors , operations on the wrong patients , misread X @-@ rays , and rampant malpractice . Commenting on the series Vincent noted :
We 're not doing stories about a fouled @-@ up hospital . These things really happen . Every story we 've told is true . They 're the results of untrained people , inadequate staff , horrendous costs , worn @-@ out equipment , the demands of doctors . The doctors , not the patients , are the customers ; they 're the ones the hospitals have to please ...
= = = Revised cast = = =
For this new season , Johnson and Vincent dropped Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox from the series , leaving Cleavon Little as the only returning cast member . His character , Dr. Jerry Noland , was now being presented as the hospital 's only sane figure . Paul Lynde played Dr. Paul Mercy , the sneering , unscrupulous , hospital administrator while Sudie Bond was cast as Martha Mercy , his obnoxious , overbearing mother and the owner , and permanent resident , of the hospital . She constantly calls him with her pager to complain about everything . Also in the new cast were Barbara Cason as Miss Tillis , the head of administrative and accounting : " ... who would let you bleed to death filling out forms " , Jennifer Darling as the romantically inclined nurse " Windy " Winchester , Jeff Morrow as Dr. Lloyd Axton , a fraudulent surgeon who has published two books , Profit in Healing and Malpractice and Its Defense , and John Dehner as " society " Dr. Charles Claver .
= = = Revised concept = = =
For the 1973 – 74 television season ABC continued to air the revamped Temperatures Rising on Tuesday nights at 8 : 00 PM . CBS continued to air Maude , and NBC introduced Chase , an hour @-@ long crime drama starring Mitchell Ryan , in the same time slot . Although the season premiere of Maude and Chase ' s debut aired on September 11 , 1973 , ABC delayed the premiere of The New Temperatures Rising Show until September 25 .
The episodes produced by Johnson and Vincent included Dr. Mercy exploiting a 125 @-@ year @-@ old American Civil War veteran and dealing with a strike by the doctors and nurses . Another episode saw Noland create a mythical patient and then claim that the patient died , the cause of death being the result of a lack of cardiac crash carts on each floor of the hospital . Johnson and Vincent 's favorite episode was one where the X @-@ rays of a professional footballer are misread , resulting in him being placed by mistake in " Crutchfield 's Traction " , in which holes are drilled in his head and tongs inserted in them .
= = = Second season reviews = = =
In reviewing The New Temperatures Rising Show , Associated Press television writer Jay Sharbutt noted :
First the hopeful note : There are faint signs the tinkering with Temperatures format could make the series funny later on , but only if the writing improves . The show now leaves most of the mugging to Lynde and no longer insists that each regular is wacky . It 's all feeble stuff but the cast is vastly improved and the new approach portends to better things ahead .
Likewise , Los Angeles Times critic Cecil Smith , who considered the original format " maybe the three worse shows on television rolled into one " now remarked : " Paul Lynde for the first time that I can recall has a part worthy of his mettle . The people surrounding him are first rate . "
= = = Sinking ratings = = =
Despite some heavy promotion the black comedy approach was not what audiences wanted to see , especially with Paul Lynde . As a result , the ratings for the series fell well below the levels of the previous season . The last of The New Temperatures Rising Show 's thirteen episodes aired on January 8 , 1974 . The following Tuesday , January 15 , ABC premiered Happy Days in its place . According to co @-@ producer Mitchell , " ... the audience didn 't buy that at all . They just didn 't get it . It was funny if you like black comedy , but if you don 't it would disturb you . So the show failed miserably and we lost the job and the show . "
= = Summer replacement = =
= = = Third concept = = =
When John Mitchell and Barry Diller noticed that The New Temperatures Rising Show was failing they contacted William Asher and asked him to salvage the series . According to Asher :
They asked if I 'd go back to the old Temperatures , only this time with Paul [ Lynde ] . At this point we were still hoping to make it for the midseason . After a couple of weeks we agreed that the show should go off the air in January , but continue production so that we would have 11 shows ready for airing any time they wanted them . Some of the nonsense and hijinks of the first season are gone and we have managed to keep a touch of reality of the second version .
As to why the series was not cancelled , Asher remarked , " I can answer that in two words : Paul Lynde . "
= = = Final cast = = =
For the third format , the show reverted to its original title Temperatures Rising and the proposed number of episodes was reduced from eleven to seven . The series ' production resumed on November 17 , 1973 , after a three week shutdown . Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner were dropped from the cast and a new line @-@ up was assembled . Paul Lynde continued as Dr. Paul Mercy while Alice Ghostley played Edwina Moffitt , the admissions nurse and Dr. Mercy 's sister . She had appeared as a guest star in an episode in the first season of Temperatures Rising . Nancy Fox returned as student nurse Ellen Turner , and Barbara Rucker was introduced as Nurse Amanda Kelly . Cleavon Little returned for a third time as Dr. Jerry Nolan , whose character was now being presented as somewhere between the jive @-@ talking surgeon of the first season and the serious one of the second .
= = = Last format and cancellation = = =
Temperatures Rising returned to the ABC network on July 18 , 1974 after a six @-@ month hiatus . Its new time slot , Thursday nights at 8 : 00 PM , had previously been occupied by Chopper One , an adventure series . The situations presented this time around included Dr. Mercy saving the life of a popular country music singer ( Dick Gautier ) , and setting up a surveillance system so that staff would be kept on their toes .
The final episode of Temperatures Rising aired on August 29 , 1974 . The attempt to resurrect the series was unsuccessful and ABC finally cancelled it permanently . Andy Siegel , a comedy development executive for ABC at the time , felt the series failed because audiences did not want to watch a show displaying inadequate medical care , even though it was done in a humorous fashion . In reminiscing about the series he stated : " When people see doctors on television they really want to feel that they 're in good hands . That no matter what happens it is a reassuring experience . " William Asher , in a 2000 interview , summed up the demise of the series by saying : " It didn 't get on . It 's too late . You can 't do that to an audience . They won 't accept it . "
= = Episodes = =
= Irenaean theodicy =
The Irenaean theodicy is a Christian theodicy designed to respond to the problem of evil . As such , it defends the probability of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent ( all @-@ powerful and perfectly loving ) God in the face of evidence of evil in the world . Numerous variations of theodicy have been proposed which all maintain that , while evil exists , God is either not responsible for creating evil , or he is not guilty for creating evil . Typically , the Irenaean theodicy asserts that the world is the best of all possible worlds because it allows humans to fully develop . Most versions of the Irenaean theodicy propose that creation is incomplete , as humans are not yet fully developed , and experiencing evil and suffering is necessary for such development .
Second @-@ century philosopher and theologian Irenaeus , after whom the theodicy is named , proposed a two @-@ stage creation process in which humans require free will and the experience of evil to develop . Another early Christian theologian , Origen , presented a response to the problem of evil which cast the world as a schoolroom or hospital for the soul ; theologian Mark Scott has argued that Origen , rather than Irenaeus , ought to be considered the father of this kind of theodicy . Friedrich Schleiermacher argued in the nineteenth century that God must necessarily create flawlessly , so this world must be the best possible world because it allows God 's purposes to be naturally fulfilled . In 1966 , philosopher John Hick discussed the similarities of the preceding theodicies , calling them all " Irenaean " . He supported the view that creation is incomplete and argued that the world is best placed for the full moral development of humans , as it presents genuine moral choices . British philosopher Richard Swinburne proposed that , to make a free moral choice , humans must have experience of the consequences of their own actions and that natural evil must exist to provide such choices .
The development of process theology has challenged the Irenaean tradition by teaching that God 's power is limited and that he cannot be responsible for evil . Twentieth century philosopher Alvin Plantinga supported the idea that this world is the best possible world , arguing that the good in the world ( including God 's infinite goodness ) outweighs the evil and proposing that the ultimate good of God 's sacrifice when Jesus was crucified necessitated the existence of evil . His free will defence was not a theodicy because he was trying to show the logical compatibility of evil and the existence of God , rather than the probability of God . D. Z. Phillips and Fyodor Dostoyevsky challenged the instrumental use of suffering , suggesting that love cannot be expressed through suffering . However , Dostoyevsky also states that the beauty of love is evident , in that love can continue to grow , withstand and overcome even the most evil acts . Michael Tooley argued that the magnitude of suffering is excessive and that , in some cases , cannot lead to moral development . French theologian Henri Blocher criticised Hick 's universalism , arguing that such a view negates free will , which was similarly important to the theodicy .
= = Outline = =
The Irenaean theodicy was first identified as a form of theodicy by John Hick in Evil and the God of Love , written in 1966 . Hick distinguished between the Augustinian theodicy , which is based on free will , and the Irenaean theodicy , which casts God as responsible for evil but justified in it . The Irenaean theodicy is distinguished by its acceptance that God is responsible for evil , but that he is not at fault .
= = = Evidential problem of evil = = =
The Irenaean theodicy is a response to the evidential problem of evil which raises the problem that , if an omnipotent and omnibenevolent ( all @-@ powerful and perfectly loving ) God exists , there should be no evil in the world . Evidence of evil in the world would make the existence of God improbable . The theodicy attempts to demonstrate that the existence of God remains probable , despite the occurrence of evil .
= = = Creation and development of humans = = =
According to the Irenaean tradition , humans are not created perfectly , but in a state of imperfection . The theodicy teaches that creation has two stages : humans were first created in the image of God , and will then be created in the likeness of God . Humans are imperfect because the second stage is incomplete , entailing the potential , not yet actualised , for humans to reach perfection . To achieve this likeness of God , humans must be refined and developed . The theodicy proposes that evil and suffering exists in the world because this is the best way for humans to develop . As such , the Irenaean theodicy is sometimes referred to as the " soul @-@ making theodicy " , a phrase taken from the poet John Keats .
= = = Greatest possible world = = =
Typical to variations of the Irenaean theodicy is the notion that the present world is the greatest possible world , or the best of all possible worlds . This is based on the Irenaean idea of human development , suggesting that the best possible world would be best suited to human development : a world containing evil and suffering would allow development better than one which does not , so the world is considered the best possible world .
= = Development = =
= = = Irenaeus = = =
Second @-@ century philosopher Irenaeus developed a theodicy based on the idea that the creation of humans is still in progress . He proposed that creation consists of two distinct parts : first in the image of God , then in the likeness of God . Irenaeus believed the first stage is complete , but the second stage requires humans to develop and grow into the likeness of God , a stage which Irenaeus believed is still in progress . He believed that , in order to achieve moral perfection , humans must be given free choice , with the actual possibility of choosing to do evil . Irenaeus argued that for humans to have free will , God must be at an epistemic distance ( or intellectual distance ) from humans , far enough that belief in God remains a free choice .
Because Irenaeus saw the purpose of the world to be the development of the moral character of humans , he believed that a good world would be best suited to that purpose . Irenaeaus believed that this world would include some suffering and evil to help people draw closer to God . He perceived God 's declaration in the book of Genesis that his creation was good to mean that the world is fit for purpose , rather than being free from suffering . To illustrate the benefits of suffering , Irenaeus cited the Biblical example of Jonah , from the book of Jonah . His suffering , being swallowed by a whale , both enabled God 's plan to be fulfilled and also brought Jonah closer to God : Jonah ended up repenting for his sin and the people of Nineveh turn to God .
Irenaeus ' eschatology was based on a literal interpretation of the Bible , especially the book of Revelation . He believed that there would be 6000 years of suffering before the world ends in a fiery purge . This fire would purify believers ahead of a new human community existing in the New Jerusalem . The afterlife , Irenaeus proposed , focuses more on time than space ; he looked forward to a time in which humans are fully developed and live the life of God .
= = = Origen = = =
Early Christian theologian Origen also presented suffering as necessary for the development of human beings . Theologian Mark Scott has argued that John Hick 's theodicy is more closely aligned with Origen 's beliefs than Irenaeus ' and ought to be called an " Origenian theodicy " . Origen used two metaphors for the world : it is a school and a hospital for souls , with God as Teacher and Physician , in which suffering plays both an educative and healing role . Through an allegorical reading of Exodus and the books of Solomon , Origen casts human development as a progression though a series of stages which take place in this life and after death . Origen believed that all humans will eventually reach heaven as the logical conclusion of God being ' all in all ' . Hell is a metaphor for the purification of our souls : our sinful nature goes to ' Hell ' and our original nature , created by God , goes to heaven . Scott argues that significant aspects of Origen 's theology mean that there is a stronger continuation between it and Hick 's theodicy . These aspects are Origen 's allegorical treatment of Adam and Eve , the presentation of the world as a hospital or schoolroom , the progression he advocates of the human soul , and his universalism .
= = = Friedrich Schleiermacher = = =
In the early 19th century , Friedrich Schleiermacher wrote Speeches and The Christian Faith , proposing a theodicy which John Hick later identified as Irenaean in nature . Schleiermacher began his theodicy by asserting that God is omnipotent and benevolent and concluded that , because of this , " God would create flawlessly " . He proposed that it would be illogical for a perfect creation to go wrong ( as Augustine had suggested ) and that evil must have been created by God for a good reason . Schleiermacher conceived a perfect world to be one in which God 's purposes can naturally be achieved , and will ultimately lead to dependence on God . He conceived sin as being an obstruction to humanity 's dependence on God , arguing that it is almost inevitable , but citing Jesus as an example of a sinless man , whose consciousness of God was unobstructed . This theology led Schleiermacher to universalism , arguing that it is God 's will for everyone to be saved and that no person could alter this .
If we proceed on this definite assumption that all belonging to the human race are eventually taken up into loving fellowship with Christ , there is nothing for it but this single divine fore @-@ ordination .
= = = John Hick = = =
John Hick published Evil and the God of Love in 1966 , in which he developed a theodicy based on the work of Irenaeus . Hick distinguished between the Augustinian theodicy , based on free will , and the Irenaean theodicy , based on human development . Hick framed his theodicy as an attempt to respond to the problem of evil in light of scientific development , such as Darwin 's theory of evolution , and as an alternative to the traditionally accepted Augustinian theodicy . Rejecting the idea that humans were created perfectly and then fell away from perfection , Hick instead argued that humans are still in the process of creation . He interpreted the fall of man , described in the book of Genesis , as a mythological description of the current state of humans .
Hick used Irenaeus ' notion of two @-@ stage creation and supported the belief that the second stage , being created into the likeness of God , is still in progress . He argued that to be created in the image of God means to have the potential for knowledge of and a relationship with God ; this is fulfilled when creation in the likeness of God is complete . Humanity currently exists in the image of God and is being developed into spiritual maturity . Hick proposed that human morality is developed through the experience of evil and argued that it is possible for humans to know God , but only if they choose to out of their own free will . Hick acknowledges that some suffering seems to serve no constructive purpose and instead just damages the individual . Hick justifies this by appealing to the concept of mystery . He argues that , if suffering was always beneficial to humans , it would be impossible for humans to develop compassion or sympathy because we would know that someone who is suffering will certainly benefit from it . However , if there is an element of mystery to suffering , to the effect that some people suffer without benefit , it allows feelings of compassion and sympathy to emerge .
The value Hick placed on free will was the result of his belief that it is necessary for genuine love : he believed that love which is not freely chosen is valueless . A genuinely loving God , he argued , would have created humans with free will . Hick held that it would be possible for God to create beings that would always freely choose to do good , but argued that a genuine relationship requires the possibility of rejection . Irenaeus ' notion of humans existing at an " epistemic distance " from God also influenced Hick , as it would ensure a free choice in belief in God . Hick argued that a world without pain or suffering would prevent moral development ; such a world would have no fixed structure , or have a structure subject to divine intervention , preventing humans from coming to any harm . Hick argued that this would leave humans unable to help or harm one another , allowing them no moral choices and so preventing moral development .
The nature of his theodicy required Hick to propose an eschatology in which humans are fully morally developed . He proposed a universalist theory , arguing that all humans would eventually reach heaven . Hick believed that there would be no benefit or purpose to an eternal Hell , as it would render any moral development inconsequential . The eternal suffering of Hell could not be explained in terms of human development , so Hick rejected it . Despite this , he did not reject the existence of Hell outright , as to do so could make living morally in this life irrelevant . Rather , he argued that Hell exists as a mythological concept and as a warning of the importance of this life .
= = = Richard Swinburne = = =
British philosopher Richard Swinburne proposed a version of the Irenaean theodicy based on his libertarian view of free will , a view that one 's free actions are not caused by any outside agent . He argued that , in order for people to make free moral decisions , they must be aware of the consequences of such decisions . Knowledge of these consequences must be based on experience — Swinburne rejected the idea that God could implant such knowledge , arguing that humans would question its reliability . Swinburne argued that humans must have first hand experience of natural evil in order to understand the consequences of moral evil and that for God to give humans moral free will , he must allow human suffering . Swinburne conceived Hell as being a separation from God , rejecting the notion of eternal physical punishment , and argued that people who had chosen to reject God throughout their lives would continue to do so after death .
= = Reception = =
= = = Process theology = = =
The development of process theology has presented a challenge to the Irenaean theodicy . The doctrine proposes that God is benevolent but suggests that his power is restricted to persuasion , rather than coercion and so is unable to prevent certain evil events from occurring . Process theology accepts God 's indirect responsibility for evil , but maintains that he is blameless , and does everything in his power to bring about good . In his introduction to process theology , C. Robert Melse argued that , although suffering does sometimes bring about good , not all suffering is valuable and that most does more harm than good . Process theologian David Griffin contested " the utility of soul making " . He argued that the Irenaean theodicy supposes that God inflicts pain for his own ends , which Griffin regarded as immoral .
= = = D. Z. Phillips = = =
Philosopher Dewi Zephaniah Phillips published The Problem of Evil and the Problem of God in 2004 , presenting a challenge to the Irenaean theodicy . Phillips maintained throughout his work that humans are incapable of fully understanding God , and presented an understanding of the moral diversity of human existence . With reference to the suffering of the Holocaust , he rejected any theodicy which presents suffering as instrumental , arguing that such suffering cannot be justified , regardless of any good that comes of it .
= = = Fyodor Dostoyevsky = = =
Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky presented a similar argument in his novel , The Brothers Karamazov . This is however not a final argument , given the nature of Dostoyevsky 's work as polyphonic . In the novel , the character Ivan Karamazov presents an account of incredible cruelty to innocent people and children to his theist brother , Alyosha . Following this , Ivan asks his brother if he would , hypothetically , choose to be the architect of the eternal happiness of mankind , which would come into existence , if , and only if he would torture an innocent child , a necessary evil , after which this eternal happiness would come into existence .
" Would you consent to be the architect under those conditions ? Tell me honestly ! "
" No , I wouldn 't agree , " said Alyosha quietly .
But Dostoyevsky 's work , polyphonic in nature , also states that the love Christ showed to all people and for all people , which is Alyosha 's final stance in the novel , is the only good , and in the face of evil , the beauty that will save the world .
= = = Michael Tooley = = =
Writing in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Michael Tooley rejected the Irenaean theodicy as unsatisfactory . He argued that the magnitude of suffering experienced by some people is excessive , supporting Eleanor Stump 's view that the suffering endured by those with terminal illnesses cannot be for moral development , and that such illnesses do not fall more often upon those seemingly immoral or in need of development . He also challenged the suffering both of animals and of young children . Neither of these instances of suffering serve any useful purpose , as they cannot lead to moral development . Finally , he questioned whether the current universe is the best possible world for the moral development of humans . Citing the examples of those who die young and those who experience too great a pain to learn from it , as well as people who suffer too little to learn anything , he suggested that this world is not ideally suited to human development .
= = = Henri Blocher = = =
French theologian Henri Blocher criticised the universalism of John Hick 's theory . Blocher argued that universalism contradicts free will , which is vital to the Irenaean theodicy , because , if everyone will receive salvation , humans cannot choose to reject God . Hick did attempt to address this issue : he argued that a free action is one which reflects that character of a person , and that humans were created with a " Godward bias " , so would choose salvation . Blocher proposed that Hick must then accept a level of determinism , though not going all the way .
= Imogen Holst =
Imogen Clare Holst CBE ( 12 April 1907 – 9 March 1984 ) was an English composer , arranger , conductor , teacher and festival administrator . The only child of the composer Gustav Holst , she is particularly known for her educational work at Dartington Hall in the 1940s , and for her 20 years as joint artistic director of the Aldeburgh Festival . In addition to composing music , she wrote composer biographies , much educational material , and several books on the life and works of her father .
From a young age , Imogen Holst showed precocious talent in composing and performance . After attending Eothen School and St Paul 's Girls ' School , she entered the Royal College of Music , where she developed her skills as a conductor and won several prizes for composing . Unable for health reasons to follow her initial ambitions to be a pianist or a dancer , Imogen spent most of the 1930s teaching , and as a full @-@ time organiser for the English Folk Dance and Song Society . These duties reduced her compositional activities , although she made many arrangements of folksongs . After serving as an organiser for the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts at the start of the Second World War , in 1942 she began working at Dartington . In
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her nine years there she established Dartington as a major centre of music education and activity .
In the early 1950s Imogen became Benjamin Britten 's musical assistant , moved to Aldeburgh , and began helping with the organisation of the annual Aldeburgh Festival . In 1956 she became joint artistic director of the festival , and during the following 20 years helped it to a position of pre @-@ eminence in British musical life . In 1964 she gave up her work as Britten 's assistant , to resume her own compositional career and to concentrate on the preservation of her father 's musical legacy . Imogen 's own music is not widely known and has received little critical attention ; much of it is unpublished and unperformed . The first recordings dedicated to her works , issued in 2009 and 2012 , were warmly received by critics . She was appointed CBE in 1975 and received numerous academic honours . She died at Aldeburgh and is buried in the churchyard there .
= = Background = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Imogen Holst was born on 12 April 1907 at 31 Grena Road , Richmond , a riverside town to the west of London . Her parents were Gustav Theodore Holst , an aspiring composer then working as a music teacher , and Isobel , née Harrison . The Holst family , of mixed Swedish , German and Latvian ancestry , had been in England since 1802 and had been musicians for several generations . Gustav followed this family tradition ; while studying at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) , he met Isobel Harrison , who sang in one of the amateur choirs that he conducted . He was immediately attracted to her , and they were married on 22 July 1901 .
While attempting to establish himself as a composer , Gustav Holst worked first as an orchestral trombonist , and later as a teacher . In 1907 he held teaching posts at James Allen 's Girls ' School in Dulwich , and St Paul 's Girls ' School ( SPGS ) in Hammersmith , where he was director of music . He also taught evening classes at Morley College , an adult education centre in the Waterloo district of London . Shortly after Imogen 's birth the family moved from Richmond to a small house by the river in nearby Barnes , which they rented from a relative . Imogen 's main memories of this house were of her father working in his composing room on the top floor , which she was forbidden to visit , and of his efforts to teach her folk @-@ songs .
= = = Schooling = = =
Descriptions of Imogen as a small child indicate that she had blue eyes , fair hair , an oval face reminiscent of her father 's , and a rather prominent nose inherited from her mother . In 1912 , at the age of five , she joined the kindergarten class at the Froebel Institute , and remained at the school for five years . Holidays were often spent at the Holsts ' rented country cottage at Thaxted in Essex , where Gustav Holst began an annual Whitsun Festival in 1916 .
In 1917 Imogen began boarding at Eothen , a small , private school for girls in Caterham , where Jane Joseph , Holst 's star pupil from SPGS , taught music . A letter home , dated 17 July 1917 , tells of " compertishions [ sic ] , and ripping prizes , and strawberries and cream for tea " . At the school , Imogen studied piano with Eleanor Shuttleworth , violin with André Mangeot ( described as " topping " ) and theory with Jane Joseph ( " ripping " ) . Under Joseph 's tuition Imogen produced her first compositions — three instrumental pieces and some Christmas carol tunes — which she numbered as Ops . 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 . In the summer term of 1920 , she composed and choreographed a " Dance of the Nymphs and Shepherds " , which was performed at the school under her direction on 9 July .
Imogen left Eothen in December 1920 hoping to study under Ruby Ginner at the Ginner @-@ Mawer School of Dance and Drama , but was rejected as probably lacking the stamina for a dancing career . While studying at home under a governess for six months , at Whitsun 1921 she took part as a dancer in a production of Purcell 's semi @-@ opera from 1690 , Dioclesian , a version largely devised by Joseph .
In September 1921 Imogen became a boarder at St Paul 's Girls School . In July 1922 she performed a Bach Prelude and Fugue on the piano , for which Joseph praised her warmly , writing : " I think everyone enjoyed the Bach from beginning to end , they all made nice contented noises at the end of it " . Imogen 's SPGS years were generally happy and successful . In July 1923 she won the junior Alice Lupton piano prize , but her chances of distinction as a pianist were marred when she began to develop phlebitis in her left arm . Among other activities she became interested in folk music and dance , and in 1923 became a member of the English Folk Dance Society ( EFDS ) . In 1924 – 25 , her final year at SPGS , Imogen founded a folk dance society in the school . At an end @-@ of @-@ term school concert late in July 1925 , she played Chopin 's étude in E major and gave the first performance of Gustav Holst 's Toccata .
= = = = Royal College of Music = = = =
Although destined like her father for the RCM , Imogen first spent a year studying composition with Herbert Howells and piano with Adine O 'Neill , while otherwise occupying herself with EFDS activities . She began at the RCM in September 1926 , studying piano with Kathleen Long , composition with George Dyson , and conducting under W. H. Reed . Her aptitude as a conductor was evident in December 1926 , when she led the college 's Third Orchestra in the opening movement of Mozart 's " Prague " Symphony . This and other performances on the podium led The Daily Telegraph to speculate that Imogen might eventually become the first woman to " establish a secure tenure of the conductor 's platform " .
In her second RCM year Imogen concentrated on composition , producing several chamber works including a violin sonata , an oboe quintet , and a suite for woodwind . She took her first steps towards personal independence when she moved from the family home to a bedsit near Kensington Gardens . In 1928 she went to Belgium with the EFDS , took an Italian holiday , and made an extended trip to Germany with a group known as " The Travelling Morrice " which promoted international understanding through music and dance . In October 1928 she won the RCM 's Cobbett prize for an original chamber composition , her Phantasy String Quartet , and shortly afterwards was awarded the Morley Scholarship for the " best all @-@ round student " . The quartet was broadcast by the BBC on 20 March 1929 , but for her , the achievement was overshadowed by the news that month of the premature death of her early mentor Jane Joseph .
In the winter of 1929 Imogen made her first visit to Canada and the United States , as part of an EFDS party . Back home , she worked on her RCM finals composition , a suite for brass band entitled The Unfortunate Traveller . Despite some apprehension on her part , the piece passed the examiners ' scrutiny and was played at the college 's end @-@ of @-@ year concert in July . Imogen gained her ARCM diploma , and learned also that she had been awarded an Octavia Travelling Scholarship which would enable her to study composition abroad .
= = Career = =
= = = European travels , 1930 – 31 = = =
Imogen spent much of period between September 1930 and May 1931 travelling . A brief visit to Liège in September was followed immediately by a three @-@ month round trip , to Scandinavia , Germany , Austria and Hungary , returning to England via Prague , Dresden , Leipzig , Berlin and Amsterdam . Her " orgy of musical experiences " included a Mozart pilgrimage in Salzburg , performances of Der Rosenkavalier and Die Entführung aus dem Serail at the Vienna State Opera , Bach in Berlin and Mahler 's Seventh Symphony in Amsterdam . On 1 February 1932 she departed again , this time for Italy . After a two @-@ month tour Imogen came home with mixed views on Italian music @-@ making . She concluded that " the Italians are a nation of singers ... But music is a different language in that part of the world " . Back in London , she decided that despite her experiences , " if it is music one is wanting , there is no place like London . "
= = = Mainly teaching , 1931 – 38 = = =
With her scholarship funds exhausted , Imogen needed a job , and in June 1931 took charge of music at the Citizen House arts and education centre in Bath . She disliked the disciplines imposed by an unsympathetic and unyielding superior , and she stayed only a few months . She then worked as a freelance conductor and accompanist before joining the staff of the EFDS early in 1932 . The organisation had by now expanded to become the " English Folk Dance and Song Society " ( EFDSS ) and was based in new headquarters at Cecil Sharp House . The duties , mainly teaching , were not full @-@ time , and she was able to take up part @-@ time teaching posts at her old school , Eothen , and at Roedean School . Although she composed little original music during these years , she made many instrumental and vocal arrangements of traditional folk melodies .
Gustav Holst 's health had been poor for years ; in the winter of 1933 – 34 it deteriorated , and he died on 25 May 1934 . Imogen privately determined that she would protect her father 's musical legacy , and began working on his biography . Meanwhile her own music began to attract attention . Her carol arrangement " Nowell and Nowell " was performed in a 1934 Christmas concert in Chichester Cathedral , and the following year saw the premiere of her Concerto for Violin and Strings , with Elsie Avril as the soloist and Imogen conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra . In 1936 she paid a visit to Hollywood , where she stayed with her uncle ( Gustav 's brother ) , the actor Ernest Cossart . A highlight of this visit was a Wagner concert at the Hollywood Bowl , conducted by Otto Klemperer . Back in England , Imogen worked on recorder arrangements of music by the neglected 16th @-@ century composer Pelham Humphrey . These were published in 1936 to an enthusiastic critical reception . Her biography of her father was published in 1938 ; among several tributes , the composer Edmund Rubbra praised her for producing a book that was not " clouded by sentiment ... her biography is at once intimate and objective " .
= = = War : travelling for CEMA = = =
In 1938 Imogen decided to abandon amateur music @-@ making and teaching to concentrate on her own professional development . She resigned her EFDSS post while continuing to honour existing commitments to the organisation . She had given up her work at Roedean in 1936 ; at Easter 1939 she resigned from Eothen . In June 1939 she began a tour of Switzerland which included the Lucerne Festival . Towards the end of August , as war became increasingly likely , she broke off the trip and returned home .
After the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 , Imogen worked for the Bloomsbury House Refugee Committee , which supported German and Austrian refugee musicians interned under emergency regulations . In January 1940 she accepted a position under a scheme organised by the Pilgrim Trust , to act as one of six " music travellers " , whose brief was to boost morale by encouraging musical activities in rural communities . Imogen was assigned to cover the west of England , a huge area stretching from Oxfordshire to Cornwall . When the government set up the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ( CEMA ) , responsibility for the music travellers passed to that body .
With little practical support from CEMA , Imogen 's organisational talents , according to her friend Ursula Vaughan Williams , " developed brilliantly " . According to Imogen 's account , her duties included conducting local brass bands , leading hymn @-@ singing practice ( " fourteen very old women in hats sitting round the edge of a dark , empty hideous tin hut " ) , and organising sing @-@ songs for evacuee children . She arranged performances by professional groups , and what she termed " drop @-@ in @-@ and @-@ sing " festivals in which anyone could join . Imogen also writes of " idyllic days " spent over cups of tea , discussing the hopes and dreams of would @-@ be music makers . Her compositional activity in these years was limited by time and pressures of work , but she produced two recorder trios — the Offley and Deddington suites — and made numerous arrangements for female voices of carols and traditional songs . By the summer of 1942 the workload and concomitant bureaucracy was such that she was exhausted , and in need of a lengthy rest .
= = = Dartington = = =
In 1938 , Imogen had visited Dartington Hall , a progressive school and crafts community near Totnes in Devon , which had been founded in 1925 by Leonard and Dorothy Elmhirst . In 1941 – 42 , while travelling for CEMA in Devon and Cornwall , she was invited by the Elmhirsts to make her base at Dartington . In the summer of 1942 , while recuperating there , she was persuaded by Christopher Martin , the centre 's administrator , to resign her CEMA role and work at Dartington . He had in mind a music course , " the sort of thing that your father did in the old days at Morley College " . Beginning in 1943 , Imogen established a one @-@ year course , initially designed to train young women to organise amateur orchestras and musical events in rural communities . Gradually it developed into a more general musical education for a broader student intake . Under Imogen 's leadership the course quickly became the hub of a range of musical activities , including the foundation of an amateur orchestra : " Hardly any of us could play ... However bad we were , we went on " . Imogen 's teaching methods , heavily based on " learning by doing " and without formal examinations , at first disconcerted her students and puzzled the school inspectors , but eventually gained acceptance and respect . Rosamond Strode , a pupil at Dartington who later worked with Imogen at Aldeburgh , said of her approach : " She knew exactly how , and when , to push her victims in at the deep end , and she knew , also , that although they would flounder and splash about at first , it wouldn 't be long before ... they would be swimming easily while she beamed approval from the bank " .
In the conducive atmosphere of Dartington Imogen resumed serious composition , largely abandoned during the hectic CEMA years . In 1943 she completed a Serenade for flute , viola and bassoon , a Suite for String Orchestra , and a choral work , Three Psalms . All these works were performed at a Wigmore Hall concert on 14 June 1943 devoted to her music . Other compositions from the Dartington years included Theme and Variations for solo violin , String Trio No. 1 ( premiered by the Dartington Hall String Trio at the National Gallery on 17 July 1944 ) , songs from the 16th @-@ century anthology Tottel 's Miscellany , an oboe concerto , and a string quartet . In October 1943 the composer Benjamin Britten and the tenor Peter Pears gave the first of several recitals at Dartington . A mutual respect and friendship developed between Britten and Imogen , strengthened by their shared love of neglected music from the Renaissance and Baroque eras .
From 1945 , while maintaining her commitment to Dartington , Imogen began to widen her musical activities . As well as editing and preparing scores for Britten , she promoted Dartington as the base for Britten 's new English Opera Group , although eventually Glyndebourne was preferred . In 1947 she encouraged the refugee violinist Norbert Brainin to form his own string quartet , and arranged its debut at Dartington , as the " Brainin Quartet " , on 13 July 1947 . Six months later , renamed the Amadeus Quartet , the group appeared at the Wigmore Hall , and went on to worldwide recognition . In 1948 she began work on a critical study of her father 's music , a companion volume to her 1938 Holst biography . When this was published in 1951 , most critics praised its objectivity , one critic venturing that she had been " unnecessarily harsh " in her judgements .
Rising standards of achievement at Dartington enabled Imogen to organise performances of more demanding works , such as Bach 's Mass in B minor in July 1950 to honour the 200th anniversary of Bach 's death . Three years in preparation , this endeavour brought a tribute from one of the audience : " I don 't know , and can 't imagine what the music of heaven is like . But when we all get there , please God , if any conducting is still necessary I hope your services will be required and that I will be in the chorus " . By the middle of 1950 Imogen 's professional focus was changing . She had attended the first two Aldeburgh Festivals in 1948 and 1949 , and in 1950 accepted a commission to provide a choral work for performance at the 1951 festival . Sensing that it was time to leave Dartington , she gave a year 's notice , part of which was spent on sabbatical , studying Indian music at Rabindranath Tagore 's university in West Bengal . A fruit of this visit was her Ten Indian Folk Tunes for recorder . On 21 July 1951 her one @-@ act opera , Benedick and Beatrice , was performed at Dartington , to mark her departure .
= = = Aldeburgh = = =
Without definite plans for her future after Dartington , Imogen toured Europe , collecting music that she would later edit for performance , including madrigals by Carlo Gesualdo which she found " very exciting " . At home , although not formally employed by Britten , she worked with him on several projects , including a new performing version of Purcell 's Dido and Aeneas and the preparation of the vocal and full scores for Britten 's opera Billy Budd . Pears , who had observed Imogen 's overall contributions to musical life at Dartington , believed she could help Britten and the Aldeburgh Festival on a more formal basis , and shortly after the 1952 festival Britten invited her to come and work with him . She agreed , and in September 1952 moved to lodgings in Aldeburgh .
= = = = Assistant to Britten = = = =
When Imogen joined Britten , the financial arrangement was vague ; Britten paid her on a piecemeal basis rather than a regular salary , unaware that she had made over her rights to her father 's estate to her mother and had little money of her own . As a result , she lived very frugally in Aldeburgh , but her commitment to Britten overrode her own physical comfort . For the next dozen years her life was organised around the joint objectives of assisting Britten and developing the Aldeburgh Festival . Although she temporarily put her own compositional ambitions aside , she did not abandon all other activities . She made many choral and vocal arrangements , promoted her father 's music , and wrote books , articles and programme notes .
For the first 18 months of her association with Britten , Imogen kept a diary which , Grogan says , forms a record of her " unconditional belief in Britten 's achievement and status , and her absolute devotion to his work " . The first of Britten 's works to which she made a significant contribution was the opera Gloriana , scheduled to form part of the 1953 Coronation celebrations . The short timescale for the writing of the opera placed considerable pressure on the composer and his new assistant , strains that were dramatised 60 years later in a radio play , Imo and Ben . Imogen 's main task with Gloriana was to copy Britten 's pencil sketches and prepare the vocal and piano scores which the singers needed for rehearsals by February 1953 . Later she assisted him with the writing of the full orchestral score , and performed similar services with his next opera , The Turn of the Screw ( 1954 ) . When Britten was under pressure during the composition of his ballet The Prince of the Pagodas ( 1956 ) , Imogen accompanied him to Switzerland , to remain by his side as he completed the work . Imogen took great pleasure in her association with Britten 's opera for children , Noye 's Fludde ( 1957 ) , for which she showed Britten how to achieve a unique raindrop effect by hitting a row of china mugs with a wooden spoon . She and Britten combined to collect and publish music for the recorder , in a series published by Boosey and Hawkes ( 1954 – 59 ) , and jointly wrote a popular introductory book , The Story of Music ( 1958 ) .
Imogen assisted Britten with all his major compositions until 1964 . At that point , conscious of time passing , she determined to give priority to the final securing of her father 's musical legacy , and to re @-@ establish her credentials as a composer . She relinquished her post as Britten 's assistant to Rosamund Strode , although she did not leave Aldeburgh or break with Britten , continuing her work with the Aldeburgh Festival for a further 13 years .
= = = = Artistic director = = = =
From the time of her arrival in Aldeburgh Imogen gave considerable support and assistance to the Aldeburgh Festival , as a conductor and , from 1953 , increasingly as a planner and organiser . In 1956 her position was formalised , and she joined Britten and Pears as one of the festival 's artistic directors , taking responsibility for programmes and performers . At the 1956 festival she fulfilled a long @-@ held ambition by arranging a performance of Gustav Holst 's opera Savitri , the first of several Holst works that she introduced to the festival . Savitri was offered as part of a double bill that included Imogen 's arrangement of John Blow 's 17th century opera Venus and Adonis . In 1957 she instituted late @-@ night concerts devoted to early music , and in 1962 she organised a series of evening concerts of Flemish music , in which she had more recently become interested . She also devised frequent programmes devoted to church music , for performance at Aldeburgh parish church . Since moving to Aldeburgh in 1952 , Imogen had lived in a series of lodgings and rented flats . In 1962 she moved to a small contemporary bungalow built for her in Church Walk , where she lived for the rest of her life .
In 1964 , after giving up her role as Britten 's assistant , Imogen began composing again , and in 1965 accepted commissions for two large @-@ scale works : The Sun 's Journey , a cantata for female voices , and the Trianon Suite , composed for the Trianon Youth Orchestra of Ipswich . In 1965 and 1966 she published two books , studies of Bach and Britten . The latter work caused ill feelings among several key figures in Britten 's earlier career with whom he had subsequently fallen out , such as his former librettists Eric Crozier and Ronald Duncan , whose contributions to Britten 's success were ignored in the book . Between 1966 and 1970 Imogen recorded a number of her father 's works with the Purcell Singers and the English Chamber Orchestra , under the Argo and Lyrita labels . Among these recordings was the Double Violin Concerto for which , forty years earlier , she had acted as the rehearsal pianist before the first performance .
Imogen had formed the Purcell Singers , a small semi @-@ professional choir , in October 1952 , largely at the instigation of Pears . From 1954 the choir became regular performers at the Aldeburgh Festival , with programmes ranging from rarely heard medieval music to 20th @-@ century works . Among choir members who later achieved individual distinction were the bass @-@ baritone John Shirley @-@ Quirk , the tenors Robert Tear and Philip Langridge , and the founder and conductor of the Heinrich Schütz Choir , Roger Norrington . Langridge remembered with particular pleasure a performance in Orford church of Thomas Tallis 's forty @-@ part motet Spem in alium , on 2 July 1963 . When she gave up the conductorship of the choir in 1967 , much of its musical mission , in particular its commitment to early music , was assumed by other groups , such as Norrington 's Schütz Choir and the Purcell Consort formed by the ex @-@ Purcell Singers chorister Grayston Burgess .
On 2 June 1967 Imogen shared the podium with Britten in the concert inaugurating the Aldeburgh Festival 's new home at the Snape Maltings . From 1972 Imogen was involved with the development of educational classes at the Maltings , which began with weekend singing classes and developed into the Britten @-@ Pears School for Advanced Musical Studies , with its own training orchestra . By this time Imogen 's performances at the festival had become increasingly rare , but in 1975 she conducted a concert of Gustav Holst 's brass band music , held outdoors at Framlingham Castle . A report of the event described an evening of " persistent drizzle ... until a diminutive figure in a special scarlet dress took the conductor 's baton . The band was transformed , and played Holst 's Suite as it has never been played before " .
Britten had been in poor health since undergoing heart surgery in 1973 , and on 4 December 1976 he died . Imogen was unsure that she could maintain a working relationship with Pears alone , and on reaching the age of 70 decided she would retire as artistic director after the 1977 festival . That year she made her final festival appearance as a performer when she stood in for the indisposed conductor André Previn at the Snape Maltings Training Orchestra 's inaugural festival concert . On retirement , she accepted the honorary title of Artistic Director Emeritus .
= = Later career = =
Gustav Holst 's centenary was celebrated in 1974 , when Imogen published a revised biography in Faber 's " Great Composers " series and a Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst 's Music . The centenary was the occasion for the publication of the first volume of a facsimile edition of her father 's manuscripts , on which Imogen worked with the help of the composer Colin Matthews . Three more facsimile volumes followed in the years up to 1983 , at which point Imogen 's own failing health led to the abandonment of the project . As part of the 1974 centenary , Imogen negotiated performances of Savitri and The Wandering Scholar at Aldeburgh and Sadler 's Wells , and helped to arrange exhibitions of Holst 's life and works at Aldeburgh and the Royal Festival Hall .
Apart from her books concerned with her father 's life and works , Imogen continued to write on other aspects of music . In addition to numerous articles she published a short study of the Renaissance composer William Byrd ( 1972 ) and a handbook for conductors of amateur choirs ( 1973 ) . She continued to compose , usually short pieces but with occasional larger @-@ scale orchestral works such as the Woodbridge Suite ( 1970 ) and the Deben Calendar ( 1977 ) , the latter a series of twelve sketches depicting the River Deben in Suffolk at different phases of the year . Her last major composition was a String Quintet , written in 1982 and performed in October of that year by the Endellion Quartet , augmented by the cellist Steven Isserlis .
In April 1979 Imogen was present when the Queen Mother opened the new Britten – Pears School building in Snape . The building included a new library — the Gustav Holst Library — to which Imogen had donated a large amount of material , including books which her father had used in his own teaching career . She had intended that , after 1977 , her retirement from the Aldeburgh Festival would be total , but she made an exception in 1980 when she organised a 70th birthday celebration concert for Pears .
= = Death = =
Shortly after the 1977 Aldeburgh Festival , Imogen became seriously ill with what she described as " a coronary angina " . Thereafter , angina was a recurrent problem , although she continued to work and fulfil engagements . By early 1984 the deterioration in her health was noticeable to her friends . She died at home of heart failure on 9 March 1984 and was buried in Aldeburgh churchyard five days later in a plot next to Britten 's . An obituary tribute in the magazine Early Music emphasised her long association with music in the Aldeburgh church , where she " [ brought ] iridescently to life facets of that tradition to which her own life had been dedicated and which she presented as a continuing source of strength and wonder " . Ursula Vaughan Williams wrote : " Imogen had something of the medieval scholar about her ... content with few creature comforts if there was enough music , enough work , enough books to fill her days . Indeed , she always filled her days , making twenty @-@ four hours contain what most of us need twice that time to do " .
In 2007 , Imogen 's centenary was recognised at Aldeburgh by several special events , including a recital in the parish church by the Navarra Quartet in which works by Purcell and Schubert were mixed with Imogen 's own The Fall of the Leaf for solo cello , and the String Quintet . The latter work was described by Andrew Clements in The Guardian as " genuinely memorable ... The set of variations with which the quintet ends dissolves into a series of bare solo lines , linking Holst 's music to her father 's " .
Imogen never married , though she enjoyed a number of romantic friendships , notably with the future poet Miles Tomalin , whom she met when she was a pupil at St Pauls . The two were close until 1929 , and exchanged poetry ; Tomalin married in 1931 . Many years after the relationship ended , Imogen admitted to Britten that she would have married Tomalin .
= = = Honours = = =
Imogen was made a Fellow of the Royal College of Music in 1966 . She was awarded honorary doctorates from the universities of Essex ( 1968 ) , Exeter ( 1969 ) , and Leeds ( 1983 ) . She was given honorary membership of the Royal Academy of Music in 1970 . In 1975 she was appointed a Companion of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) .
= = Music = =
Imogen Holst was a part @-@ time composer , intermittently productive within her extensive portfolio of musical activities . In her earlier years she was among a group of young British women composers — Elizabeth Maconchy and Elisabeth Lutyens were others — whose music was regularly performed and broadcast . According to a later critic , her Mass in A of 1927 showed " confident and imaginative layering of voices , building to a satisfying Agnus Dei " . However , for long periods in her subsequent career Imogen barely composed at all . After the RCM , her most active years as a composer were at Dartington in the 1940s and the " post @-@ Britten " period after 1964 . Her output of compositions , arrangements and edited music is extensive but has received only limited critical attention . Much of it is unpublished and has usually been neglected after its initial performance .
The oeuvre comprises instrumental , vocal , orchestral and choral music . Early in her compositional career Imogen was primarily influenced , as Gustav Holst 's daughter , by what the analyst Christopher Tinker terms " her natural and inescapable relationship with the English musical establishment " , and by her close personal relationship with her father . Some of her first compositions reflect the pastoralism of Ralph Vaughan Williams , who taught her at the RCM . In her teaching and EFDSS years during the 1930s she became known for her folksong arrangements but composed little music herself . The personal style that emerged in the 1940s incorporated her affinity with folksong and dance , her intense interest in English music of the 16th and 17th centuries , and her taste for innovation . In her 1930 suite for solo viola , she had begun experimenting with scale patterns ; by the 1940s she was incorporating her own six- and eight @-@ note scales into her chamber music and occasionally into choral works such as the Five Songs ( 1944 ) . This experimentation reappears in later works ; in Hallo My Fancy ( 1972 ) a new scale is introduced for each verse , while the choir provides free harmonisation to a solo voice . In Homage to William Morris ( 1984 ) , among her final works , Tinker notes her use of dissonance " to add strength to the musical articulation of the text " . By contrast , the String Quintet of 1982 , the work which Imogen herself thought made her " a real composer " , is characterised by the warmth of its harmonies .
Much of Imogen 's choral music was written for amateur performance . Critics have observed a clear distinction in quality between these pieces and the choral works written for professional choirs , particularly those for women 's voices . These latter pieces , says Tinker , incorporate her best work as an original composer . Record companies were slow in recognising Imogen 's commercial potential , and not until 2009 was a CD issued devoted entirely to her music — a selection of her works for strings . The Guardian 's reviewer welcomed the recording : " [ T ] here is a great deal of English music of far less worth that is frequently praised to the skies " . In 2012 a selection of her choral music , sung by the Clare College Choir , was recorded by Harmonia Mundi . One review of this recording picks out Welcome Joy and Welcome Sorrow , written for female voices with harp accompaniment , as " [ giving ] an insight into her own , softly nuanced , pioneering voice " . Another mentions the " Three Psalms " setting , where " inner rhythms are underscored by the subtle string ostinatos pulsing beneath " .
= = Published texts = =
Publication details refer to the book 's first UK publication .
Gustav Holst : A biography . London : Oxford University Press . 1938 . OCLC 852118145 . ( revised edition 1969 )
The Music of Gustav Holst . London : Oxford University Press . 1951 . OCLC 881989 . ( revised editions 1968 and 1985 , the latter with Holst 's Music Reconsidered added )
The Book of the Dolmetsch Descant Recorder . London : Boosey & Hawkes . 1957 . OCLC 221221906 .
The Story of Music ( " The Wonderful World " series ) . London : Rathbone . OCLC 2182017 . ( co @-@ author with Benjamin Britten )
Heirs and Rebels : Letters Written to Each Other , and Occasional Writings on Music , by Ralph Vaughan Williams and Gustav Holst . London : Oxford University Press . 1959 . OCLC 337514 . ( co @-@ editor with Ursula Vaughan Williams ) :
Henry Purcell , 1659 – 1695 : Essays on his Music . London : Oxford University Press . 1959 . OCLC 602569 . ( editor )
Henry Purcell : the Story of his Life and Work . London : Boosey & Hawkes . 1961 . OCLC 1200203 .
Tune . London : Faber & Faber . 1962 . OCLC 843455729 .
An ABC of Music : a Short Practical Guide to the Basic Essentials of Rudiments , Harmony , and Form . Oxford : Oxford University Press . 1963 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 317103 @-@ 1 .
Your Book of Music . London : Faber & Faber . 1964 . OCLC 170598 .
Bach ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1965 . OCLC 748710834 .
Britten ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1966 . OCLC 243904447 .
Byrd ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 09813 @-@ 4 .
Conducting a Choir : a Guide for Amateurs . London : Oxford University Press . 1973 . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 313407 @-@ 1 .
Holst ( " Great Composers " series ) . London : Faber & Faber . 1974 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 09967 @-@ X. ( second edition 1981 )
A Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst 's Music . London : Faber Music , in conjunction with G & I Holst Ltd . 1974 . ISBN 0 @-@ 571 @-@ 10004 @-@ X.
Imogen Holst also wrote numerous articles , pamphlets , essays , introductions and programme notes during the period 1935 – 1984 .
= Tellurium =
Tellurium is a chemical element with symbol Te and atomic number 52 . It is a brittle , mildly toxic , rare , silver @-@ white metalloid . Tellurium is chemically related to selenium and sulfur . It is occasionally found in native form , as elemental crystals . Tellurium is far more common in the universe as a whole than it is on Earth . Its extreme rarity in the Earth 's crust , comparable to that of platinum , is partly due to its high atomic number , but also due to its formation of a volatile hydride which caused the element to be lost to space as a gas during the hot nebular formation of the planet .
Tellurium was discovered in the Habsburg Empire , in 1782 by Franz @-@ Joseph Müller von Reichenstein in a mineral containing tellurium and gold . Martin Heinrich Klaproth named the new element in 1798 after the Latin word for " earth " , tellus . Gold telluride minerals are the most notable natural gold compounds . However , they are not a commercially significant source of tellurium itself , which is normally extracted as a by @-@ product of copper and lead production .
Commercially , the primary use of tellurium is in alloys , foremost in steel and copper to improve machinability . Applications in CdTe solar panels and as a semiconductor material also consume a considerable fraction of tellurium production .
Tellurium has no biological function , although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as tellurocysteine and telluromethionine . In humans , tellurium is partly metabolized into dimethyl telluride , ( CH3 ) 2Te , a gas with a garlic @-@ like odor which is exhaled in the breath of victims of tellurium toxicity or exposure .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Tellurium has two allotropes , crystalline and amorphous . When crystalline , tellurium is silvery @-@ white and when it is in pure state it has a metallic luster . It is a brittle and easily pulverized metalloid . Amorphous tellurium is a black @-@ brown powder prepared by precipitating it from a solution of tellurous acid or telluric acid ( Te ( OH ) 6 ) . Tellurium is a semiconductor that shows a greater electrical conductivity in certain directions which depends on atomic alignment ; the conductivity increases slightly when exposed to light ( photoconductivity ) . When in its molten state , tellurium is corrosive to copper , iron and stainless steel . Of the chalcogens , tellurium has the highest melting and boiling points , at 722 @.@ 66 K ( 841 @.@ 12 ° F ) and 1 @,@ 261 K ( 1 @,@ 810 ° F ) , respectively .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Tellurium adopts a polymeric structure , consisting of zig @-@ zag chains of Te atoms . This gray material resists oxidation by air and is nonvolatile .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring tellurium has eight isotopes . Five of those isotopes , 122Te , 123Te , 124Te , 125Te and 126Te , are stable . The other three , 120Te , 128Te and 130Te , have been observed to be radioactive . The stable isotopes make up only 33 @.@ 2 % of the naturally occurring tellurium ; this is possibly due to the long half @-@ lives of the unstable isotopes . They are in the range from 1013 to 2 @.@ 2 × 1024 years ( for 128Te ) . This makes 128Te the isotope with the longest half life among all radionuclides , which is approximately 160 trillion ( 1012 ) times the age of the known universe .
There are 38 known nuclear isomers of tellurium with atomic masses that range from 105 to 142 . Tellurium is among the lightest elements known to undergo alpha decay , with isotopes 106Te to 110Te being able to undergo this mode of decay . The atomic mass of tellurium ( 127 @.@ 60 g · mol − 1 ) exceeds that of the following element iodine ( 126 @.@ 90 g · mol − 1 ) .
= = = Occurrence = = =
With an abundance in the Earth 's crust comparable to that of platinum , tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements in the Earth 's crust . Its abundance is about 1 µg / kg . In comparison , even the rarest of the lanthanides have crustal abundances of 500 µg / kg ( see Abundance of the chemical elements ) .
The extreme rarity of tellurium in the Earth 's crust is not a reflection of its cosmic abundance , which is in fact greater than that of rubidium , even though rubidium is ten thousand times more abundant in the Earth 's crust . The extraordinarily low abundance of tellurium on Earth is rather thought to be due to conditions in the Earth 's formation , when the stable form of certain elements , in the absence of oxygen and water , was controlled by the reductive power of free hydrogen . Under this scenario , certain elements such as tellurium which form volatile hydrides were severely depleted during the formation of the Earth 's crust , through evaporation of these hydrides . Tellurium and selenium are the heavy elements most depleted in the Earth 's crust by this process .
Tellurium is sometimes found in its native ( i.e. , elemental ) form , but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such as calaverite and krennerite ( two different polymorphs of AuTe2 ) , petzite , Ag3AuTe2 , and sylvanite , AgAuTe4 . The city of Telluride , Colorado was named in hope of a strike of gold telluride ( which never materialized , though gold metal ore was found ) . Gold itself is usually found uncombined , but when found naturally as a chemical compound , it is most often combined with tellurium .
Although tellurium is found with gold more often than in uncombined form , it is found even more often combined with elements other than gold , as tellurides of more common metals ( e.g. melonite , NiTe2 ) . Natural tellurite and tellurate minerals also occur , formed by oxidation of tellurides near the Earth 's surface . In contrast to selenium , tellurium is not in general able to replace sulfur in its minerals , due to the large difference in ion radius of sulfur and tellurium . In consequence , many common sulfide minerals contain considerable amounts of selenium , but only traces of tellurium .
In the gold rush of 1893 , diggers in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material which got in their way as they searched for pure gold . The Kalgoorlie waste was thus used to fill in potholes or as part of sidewalks . Three years passed before it was realized that this waste was calaverite , a telluride of gold that had not been recognized . This led to a second gold rush in 1896 which included mining the streets .
= = History = =
Tellurium ( Latin tellus meaning " earth " ) was discovered in the 18th century in a gold ore from the mines in Zlatna , near today 's city of Alba Iulia , Romania . This ore was known as " Faczebajer weißes blättriges Golderz " ( white leafy gold ore from Faczebaja , German name of Facebánya , now Fața Băii in Alba County ) or antimonalischer Goldkies ( antimonic gold pyrite ) , and , according to Anton von Rupprecht , was Spießglaskönig ( argent molybdique ) , containing native antimony . In 1782 Franz @-@ Joseph Müller von Reichenstein , who was then serving as the Austrian chief inspector of mines in Transylvania , concluded that the ore did not contain antimony , but that it was bismuth sulfide . The following year , he reported that this was erroneous and that the ore contained mostly gold and an unknown metal very similar to antimony . After a thorough investigation which lasted for three years and consisted of more than fifty tests , Müller determined the specific gravity of the mineral and noted the radish @-@ like odor of the white smoke which passed off when the new metal was heated , the red color which the metal imparts to sulfuric acid , and the black precipitate which this solution gives when diluted with water . Nevertheless , he was not able to identify this metal and gave it the names aurum paradoxium and metallum problematicum , as it did not show the properties predicted for the expected antimony .
In 1789 , a Hungarian scientist , Pál Kitaibel , also discovered the element independently in an ore from Deutsch @-@ Pilsen which had been regarded as argentiferous molybdenite , but later he gave the credit to Müller . In 1798 , it was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth who had earlier isolated it from the mineral calaverite .
The 1960s brought growth in thermoelectric applications for tellurium ( as bismuth telluride ) , as well as its use in free @-@ machining steel , which became the dominant use .
= = Production = =
The principal source of tellurium is from anode sludges produced during the electrolytic refining of blister copper . It is a component of dusts from blast furnace refining of lead . Treatment of 1000 tons of copper ore typically yields one kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 pounds ) of tellurium . Tellurium is produced mainly in the United States , Peru , Japan and Canada . For the year 2009 the British Geological Survey gives the following numbers : United States 50 t , Peru 7 t , Japan 40 t and Canada 16 t .
The anode sludges contain the selenides and tellurides of the noble metals in compounds with the formula M2Se or M2Te ( M = Cu , Ag , Au ) . At temperatures of 500 ° C the anode sludges are roasted with sodium carbonate under air . The metal ions are reduced to the metals , while the telluride is converted to sodium tellurite .
M2Te + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2TeO3 + 2 M + CO2
Tellurites can be leached from the mixture with water and are normally present as hydrotellurites HTeO3 − in solution . Selenites are also formed during this process , but they can be separated by adding sulfuric acid . The hydrotellurites are converted into the insoluble tellurium dioxide while the selenites stay in solution .
HTeO −
3 + OH − + H2SO4 → TeO2 + SO2 −
4 + 2 H2O
The reduction to the metal is done either by electrolysis or by reacting the tellurium dioxide with sulfur dioxide in sulfuric acid .
TeO2 + 2 SO2 + 2H2O → Te + 2 SO2 −
4 + 4 H +
Commercial @-@ grade tellurium is usually marketed as 200 @-@ mesh powder but is also available as slabs , ingots , sticks , or lumps . The year @-@ end price for tellurium in 2000 was US $ 14 per pound . In recent years , the tellurium price was driven up by increased demand and limited supply , reaching as high as US $ 100 per pound in 2006 . Despite an expected doubling in production due to improved extraction methods , the United States Department of Energy ( DoE ) anticipates a supply shortfall of tellurium by 2025 .
= = Compounds = =
Tellurium belongs to the same chemical family as oxygen , sulfur , selenium and polonium : the chalcogen family . Tellurium and selenium compounds are similar . It exhibits the oxidation states − 2 , + 2 , + 4 and + 6 , with the + 4 state being most common .
Tellurides
Reduction of Te metal produces the tellurides and polytellurides , Ten2 − . The − 2 oxidation state is exhibited in binary compounds with many metals , such as zinc telluride , ZnTe , formed by heating tellurium with zinc . Decomposition of ZnTe with hydrochloric acid yields hydrogen telluride ( H
2Te ) , a highly unstable analogue of the other chalcogen hydrides , H
2O , H
2S and H
2Se :
ZnTe + 2 HCl → ZnCl
2 + H
2Te
H
2Te is unstable , whereas salts of its conjugate base [ TeH ] − are stable .
Halides
The + 2 oxidation state is exhibited by the dihalides , TeCl
2 , TeBr
2 and TeI
2 . The dihalides have not been obtained in pure form , although they are known decomposition products of the tetrahalides in organic solvents , and their derived tetrahalotellurates are well @-@ characterized :
Te + X
2 + 2 X − → TeX2 −
4
where X is Cl , Br , or I. These anions are square planar in geometry . Polynuclear anionic species also exist , such as the dark brown Te
2I2 −
6 , and the black Te
4I2 −
14 .
Fluorine forms two halides with tellurium : the mixed @-@ valence Te
2F
4 and TeF
6 . In the + 6 oxidation state , the – OTeF
5 structural group occurs in a number of compounds such as HOTeF
5 , B ( OTeF
5 )
3 , Xe ( OTeF
5 )
2 , Te ( OTeF
5 )
4 and Te ( OTeF
5 )
6 . The square antiprismatic anion TeF2 −
8 is also attested . The other halogens do not form halides with tellurium in the + 6 oxidation state , but only tetrahalides ( TeCl
4 , TeBr
4 and TeI
4 ) in the + 4 state , and other lower halides ( Te
3Cl
2 , Te
2Cl
2 , Te
2Br
2 , Te
2I and two forms of TeI ) . In the + 4 oxidation state , halotellurate anions are known , such as TeCl2 −
6 and Te
2Cl2 −
10 . Halotellurium cations are also attested , including TeI +
3 , found in TeI
3AsF
6 .
Oxocompounds
Tellurium monoxide was first reported in 1883 as a black amorphous solid formed by the heat decomposition of TeSO
3 in vacuum , disproportionating into tellurium dioxide , TeO
2 and elemental tellurium upon heating . Since then , however , some doubt has been cast on its existence in the solid phase , although it is known as a vapor phase fragment ; the black solid may be merely an equimolar mixture of elemental tellurium and tellurium dioxide .
Tellurium dioxide is formed by heating tellurium in air , causing it to burn with a blue flame . Tellurium trioxide , β @-@ TeO
3 , is obtained by thermal decomposition of Te ( OH )
6 . The other two forms of trioxide reported in the literature , the α- and γ- forms , were found not to be true oxides of tellurium in the + 6 oxidation state , but a mixture of Te4 + , OH − and O −
2 . Tellurium also exhibits mixed @-@ valence oxides , Te
2O
5 and Te
4O
9 .
The tellurium oxides and hydrated oxides form a series of acids , including tellurous acid ( H
2TeO
3 ) , orthotelluric acid ( Te ( OH )
6 ) and metatelluric acid ( ( H
2TeO
4 ) n ) . The two forms of telluric acid form tellurate salts containing the TeO2 –
4 and TeO6 −
6 anions , respectively . Tellurous acid forms tellurite salts containing the anion TeO2 −
3 . Other tellurium cations include TeF2 +
8 , which consists of two fused tellurium rings and the polymeric TeF2 +
7 .
Zintl cations
When tellurium is treated with concentrated sulfuric acid , it forms red solutions containing the Zintl ion , Te2 +
4 . The oxidation of tellurium by AsF
5 in liquid SO
2 also produces this square planar cation , as well as with the trigonal prismatic , yellow @-@ orange Te4 +
6 :
4 Te + 3 AsF
5 → Te2 +
4 ( AsF −
6 )
2 + AsF
3
6 Te + 6 AsF
5 → Te4 +
6 ( AsF −
6 )
4 + 2 AsF
3
Other tellurium Zintl cations include the polymeric Te2 +
7 and the blue @-@ black Te2 +
8 , which consists of two fused 5 @-@ membered tellurium rings . The latter cation is formed by the reaction of tellurium with tungsten hexachloride :
8 Te + 2 WCl
6 → Te2 +
8 ( WCl −
6 )
2
Interchalcogen cations also exist , such as Te
2Se2 +
6 ( distorted cubic geometry ) and Te
2Se2 +
8 . These are formed by oxidizing mixtures of tellurium and selenium with AsF
5 or SbF
5 .
Organotellurium compounds
Tellurium does not readily form analogues of alcohols and thiols , with the functional group – TeH and are called tellurols . The – TeH functional group is also attributed to using the prefix tellanyl- . Like H2Te , these species are unstable with respect to loss of hydrogen . Telluraethers ( R @-@ Te @-@ R ) are more stable as are telluroxides .
= = Applications = =
= = = Metallurgy = = =
The largest consumer of tellurium is metallurgy , where it is used in iron , copper and lead alloys . When added to stainless steel and copper it makes these metals more machinable . It is alloyed into cast iron for promoting chill for spectroscopic purposes , as the presence of electrically conductive free graphite tends to deleteriously affect spark emission testing results . In lead it improves strength and durability and decreases the corrosive action of sulfuric acid .
= = = Semiconductor and electronic industry uses = = =
Tellurium is used in cadmium telluride ( CdTe ) solar panels . National Renewable Energy Laboratory lab tests using this material achieved some of the highest efficiencies for solar cell electric power generation . Massive commercial production of CdTe solar panels by First Solar in recent years has significantly increased tellurium demand . If some of the cadmium in CdTe is replaced by zinc then ( Cd , Zn ) Te is formed which is used in solid @-@ state X @-@ ray detectors .
Alloyed with both cadmium and mercury , to form mercury cadmium telluride , an infrared sensitive semiconductor material is formed . Organotellurium compounds such as dimethyl telluride , diethyl telluride , diisopropyl telluride , diallyl telluride and methyl allyl telluride are used as precursors for metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy growth of II @-@ VI compound semiconductors . Diisopropyl telluride ( DIPTe ) is employed as the preferred precursor for achieving the low @-@ temperature growth of CdHgTe by MOVPE . For these processes highest purity metalorganics of both selenium and tellurium are used . The compounds for semiconductor industry and are prepared by adduct purification .
Tellurium as a tellurium suboxide is used in the media layer of several types of rewritable optical discs , including ReWritable Compact Discs ( CD @-@ RW ) , ReWritable Digital Video Discs ( DVD @-@ RW ) and ReWritable Blu @-@ ray Discs .
Tellurium dioxide is used to create acousto @-@ optic modulators ( AOTFs and AOBSs ) for confocal microscropy .
Tellurium is used in the new phase change memory chips developed by Intel . Bismuth telluride ( Bi2Te3 ) and lead telluride are working elements of thermoelectric devices . Lead telluride is used in far @-@ infrared detectors .
= = = Other uses = = =
Used to color ceramics .
The strong increase in optical refraction upon the addition of selenides and tellurides into glass is used in the production of glass fibers for telecommunications . These chalcogenide glasses are widely used .
Mixtures of selenium and tellurium are used with barium peroxide as oxidizer in the delay powder of electric blasting caps .
Organic tellurides have been employed as initiators for living radical polymerization and electron @-@ rich mono- and di @-@ tellurides possess antioxidant activity .
Rubber can be vulcanized with tellurium instead of sulfur or selenium . The rubber produced in this way shows improved heat resistance .
Tellurite agar is used to identify members of the corynebacterium genus , most typically Corynebacterium diphtheriae , the pathogen responsible for diphtheria .
The tellurium is a key constituent of high performing mixed oxide catalysts for the heterogeneous catalytic selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid . The surface elemental composition changes dynamically and reversibly with the reaction conditions . In the presence of steam the surface of the catalyst is enriched in tellurium and vanadium which translates into the enhancement of the acrylic acid production .
= = Biological role = =
Tellurium has no known biological function , although fungi can incorporate it in place of sulfur and selenium into amino acids such as telluro @-@ cysteine and telluro @-@ methionine . Organisms have shown a highly variable tolerance to tellurium compounds . Many cells , such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa take up tellurite and reduce it to elemental tellurium , which accumulates and causes a characteristic and often dramatic darkening of cells . In yeast , this reduction is mediated by the sulfate assimilation pathway . Tellurium accumulation seems to account for a major part of the toxicity effects . Many organisms also metabolize tellurium partly to form dimethyl telluride , although dimethyl ditelluride is also formed by some species . Dimethyl telluride has been observed in hot springs at very low concentrations .
= = Precautions = =
Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic and need to be handled with care , although acute poisoning is rare . Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation agents used in the treatment of metal toxicities will increase the toxicity of tellurium . Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic .
Humans exposed to as little as 0 @.@ 01 mg / m3 or less in air exude a foul garlic @-@ like odor known as " tellurium breath . " This is caused from the tellurium being metabolized by the body , converting it from any oxidation state to dimethyl telluride , ( CH3 ) 2Te . This is a volatile compound with a highly pungent garlic @-@ like smell . Even though the metabolic pathways of tellurium are not known , it is generally assumed that they resemble those of the more extensively studied selenium , because the final methylated metabolic products of the two elements are similar .
People can be exposed to tellurium in the workplace by breathing it in , swallowing it , skin contact , and eye contact . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( Permissible exposure limit ) for tellurium exposure in the workplace as 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) has set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 1 mg / m3 over an 8 @-@ hour workday . At levels of 25 mg / m3 , tellurium is immediately dangerous to life and health .
= Nenjil Or Aalayam =
Nenjil Or Aalayam ( English : A Temple in the Heart ) is a 1962 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic @-@ drama film , written and directed by C. V. Sridhar , who produced it under the banner of Chitralaya Pictures . The film features Kalyan Kumar , Devika and R. Muthuraman in the lead roles . Nagesh , Manorama and Kutty Padmini also play supporting roles . The original soundtrack album and background score were composed by Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy , while the lyrics for the songs were written by Kannadasan .
The film revolves around a young woman named Seetha , her husband Venu and Dr. Murali , who was Seetha 's lover . Due to his tenure overseas , Seetha 's parents force her to marry another person . A few years later , Venu contracts cancer and Seetha brings him to Chennai to meet a cancer specialist who , to her dismay , is revealed to be Murali . Realising that something is worrying Seetha , Venu gives her the freedom to marry Murali after his death . The remainder of the film shows how Murali sacrifices his love for the sake of the couple 's happiness and cures Venu .
Nenjil Or Aalayam was released on 26 January 1962 , coinciding with Republic Day in India . The film received positive critical feedback and went on to become a commercial success . The songs " Sonnathu Neethaana " and " Engirundhaalum Vaazhga " remain popular today among the Tamil diaspora . The film won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil and the President 's Award for Sridhar at the 10th National Film Awards . It also won the Cinema Express Award for Best Film .
The film became a trendsetter for both fast @-@ paced filmmaking and triangular love stories with sacrifice as the theme . Sridhar remade the film in Hindi as Dil Ek Mandir ( 1963 ) and in Telugu as Manase Mandiram ( 1966 ) . It was also remade in Malayalam as Hridayam Oru Kshethram ( 1976 ) , and in Kannada as Kumkuma Rakshe ( 1977 ) . The former was directed by P. Subramaniam while the latter was by S. K. A. Chari .
= = Plot = =
Murali ( Kalyan Kumar ) goes abroad to pursue higher studies in medicine . During his tenure overseas , his girlfriend Seetha ( Devika ) is forced by her parents to marry another person . Devastated upon hearing the news , Murali swears a vow of lifelong celibacy and devotes himself to saving people suffering from cancer . A few years later , Venu ( R. Muthuraman ) happens to be critically ill with cancer and has to be operated upon . The treatment for Venu progresses well until Murali meets Venu 's wife , who is revealed to be Seetha . When Seetha learns that the doctor treating Venu is Murali , whom she had left , she becomes upset .
Though Murali does his best to cure Venu , Seetha is worried that Murali might take revenge on her by not providing proper treatment to Venu , who in the meantime , learms of Murali and Seetha 's love . Venu requests Murali to marry Seetha in case the operation is unsuccessful as he does not wish for his wife to become a widow . Seetha becomes infuriated when she discovers Venu 's request and tells Murali that if Venu dies , she would die as well . Murali promises Seetha that he will save Venu even if he has to risk his own life on the line .
Murali works hard to save Venu so as not to create a misconception that he killed Venu to be with Seetha . With great difficulty , Murali manages to successfully cure Venu 's cancer . However , when Murali reads the results of the operation , he becomes so overjoyed at its success that he unexpectedly dies of high blood pressure due to his over @-@ excitement . Venu and Seetha realise that Murali had sacrificed his life for their happiness and remains in their hearts .
Woven into the story is a sub @-@ plot following a girl ( Kutty Padmini ) , who is in the same hospital Murali works in , and undergoes treatment for the same disease that Venu contracted . However , her fate is contrary .
= = Cast = =
Lead actors
Kalyan Kumar as Dr. Murali
Devika as Seetha
R. Muthuraman as Venu
Male supporting actors
Nagesh as Peter
V. S. Raghavan as Seetha 's father
Female supporting actors
Manorama as Navaneedham
Kutty Padmini as the dying child
Santha Kumari ( guest appearance )
= = Production = =
Nenjil Or Aalayam was the third film to be directed by C. V. Sridhar after Kalyana Parisu ( 1958 ) and Then Nilavu ( 1961 ) . Sridhar , who produced the film under the banner of Chitralaya Pictures in addition to writing the screenplay and dialogues , had originally planned to cast Gemini Ganesan and Savitri in the lead roles ; due to their unavailability , he instead cast R. Muthuraman and Devika . Sridhar was impressed with Muthuraman 's performance in the stage play Vadivel Vathiyar in which he played an antagonistic role , and subsequently selected him for the role of Venu . Nenjil Or Aalayam was Muthuraman 's first film as a lead actor as he had performed mainly supporting roles prior to Nenjil Or Aalayam . The film marked the debut of Kannada actor Kalyan Kumar and Kutty Padmini , who played the roles of Murali and the dying child respectively . Manorama , V. S. Raghavan , and Santha Kumari were cast in supporting roles .
Nagesh stayed with actor K. Balaji during his early days as an upcoming comedian for three years . Balaji introduced Nagesh to Sridhar , who offered him a role on Balaji 's recommendation . In a 2006 interview , Nagesh revealed that he was initially to play the role of a country bumpkin , but was chosen by Sridhar to play Peter , the hospital attendant . He was paid an advance of ₹ 501 ( equivalent to ₹ 30 @,@ 000 or US $ 440 in 2016 ) . S. Rama Rao was originally supposed to play that role . The screenplay and dialogues for Nagesh 's portions were written by Chitralaya Gopu .
Principal photography was conducted on the ninth floor of Chennai 's Vijaya Vauhini Studios , where the hospital set was erected by the film 's art director , Ganga . For the song " Sonnathu Neethaana " , the shot where the camera pans beneath Muthuraman 's bed and rising out was captured using a camera dolly . The song was filmed with 60 different angles being used by the film 's cinematographer A. Vincent . Nenjil Or Aalayam was the first Tamil film to be shot entirely on a single set . Filming was completed in less than 30 days . The final length of the film 's prints were 14 @,@ 810 metres ( 48 @,@ 590 ft ) long .
= = Music = =
The original soundtrack album and background score for Nenjil Or Aalayam were composed by Viswanathan – Ramamoorthy ( a duo consisting of M. S. Viswanathan and T. K. Ramamoorthy ) , while the lyrics were written by Kannadasan . The soundtrack album was released under the label of Saregama . Initially Sridhar decided not to have any songs in the film but later changed his decision .
The inspiration for the opening line of the song " Engirundhalum Vaazhga " came to Kannadasan when he happened to hear the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , C. N. Annadurai 's speech on actor Sivaji Ganesan at a film function . When Annadurai heard of Ganesan joining the Indian National Congress , he wished the latter success by saying , " Sivaji ... nee engirundhalum vaazhga ... " The idea for the tune of the song " Muthana Muthallavo " came to Viswanathan during a car journey with Kannadasan , who wrote the lyrics for the song within three minutes . " Muthana Muthallavo " was recorded in 20 minutes . The lyrics for the song " Sonnathu Neethaana " , which is based on the Jaunpuri raga , was coined by Kannadasan when he came to know that Viswanathan commented negatively on his drinking habit . Portions of the song " Ninaipadhellam " are based on the Keeravani raga .
The album received positive reviews from critics and contributed to the film 's success . Film producer and writer G. Dhananjayan mentions
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20 meters ( 66 ft ) . These fish school near the surface at night but swim closer to the sea floor during the day , particularly among beds of seagrasses . Genetic analysis of the different sub @-@ populations of the eastern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir in South Australian coastal waters reveals that there is a small but consistent migration of individuals among theme , sufficient to keep them genetically homogeneous .
Some marine halfbeaks , including Euleptorhamphus velox and Euleptorhamphus viridis , are known for their ability to jump out of the water and glide over the surface for considerable distances , and have consequently sometimes been called flying halfbeaks .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Hemiramphidae species are all external fertilizers . They are usually egg @-@ layers and often produce relatively small numbers of fairly large eggs for fish of their size , typically in shallow coastal waters , such as the seagrass meadows of Florida Bay . The eggs of Hemiramphus brasiliensis and H. balao are typically 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 059 – 0 @.@ 098 in ) in diameter and have attaching filaments . They hatch when they grow to about 4 @.@ 8 – 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 19 – 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter . Hyporhamphus melanochir eggs are slightly larger , around 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) in diameter , and are unusually large when they hatch , being up to 8 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 33 in ) in size .
Relatively little is known about the ecology of juvenile marine halfbeaks , though estuarine habitats seem to be favored by at least some species . The southern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir grows rapidly at first , attaining a length of up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) in the first three years , after which point growth slows . This species lives for a maximum age of about 9 years , at which point the fish reach up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) and weigh about 0 @.@ 35 kg ( 0 @.@ 77 lb ) .
= = Relationship to humans = =
= = = Halfbeak fisheries = = =
Halfbeaks are not a major target for commercial fisheries , though small fisheries for them exist in some places , for example in South Australia where fisheries target the southern sea garfish ( Hyporhamphus melanochir ) . and the eastern sea garfish ( Hyporhamphus australis ) . Halfbeaks are caught by a variety of methods including seines and pelagic trawls , dip @-@ netting under lights at night , and with haul nets . They are utilized fresh , dried , smoked , or salted , and they are considered good eating . However , even where halfbeaks are targeted by fisheries , they tend to be of secondary importance compared with other edible fish species .
In some localities significant bait fisheries exist to supply sport fishermen . One study of a bait fishery in Florida that targets Hemiramphus brasiliensis and Hemiramphus balao suggests that despite increases in the size of the fishery the population is stable and the annual catch is valued at around $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= A Rugrats Chanukah =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " , titled onscreen as " Chanukah " and sometimes called the " Rugrats Chanukah Special " , is a special episode of Nickelodeon 's animated television series Rugrats . The first episode of the show 's fourth season and the sixty @-@ sixth overall , it tells the story of the Jewish holiday Chanukah through the eyes of the Rugrats , who imagine themselves as the main characters . Meanwhile , Grandpa Boris and his long @-@ time rival , Shlomo , feud over who will play the lead in the local synagogue 's Chanukah play .
Raymie Muzquiz directed " A Rugrats Chanukah " from a script by J. David Stem and David N. Weiss . In 1992 , Nickelodeon executives had pitched the idea of a Chanukah special to the production team , but the concept was revised and became the 1995 special , " A Rugrats Passover " . After production of the Passover episode wrapped , the crew returned to the Chanukah idea . Nickelodeon broadcast " A Rugrats Chanukah " on December 4 , 1996 ; the episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 and positive reviews from television critics . Along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and his wife , the special attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League compared the character designs to anti @-@ Semitic drawings from a 1930s Nazi newspaper .
= = Plot = =
On Chanukah , Grandma Minka reads a book about the meaning of the holiday to the babies Tommy , Chuckie , Phil , and Lil . The babies imagine that they are the story 's characters ; Judah ( Tommy ) is outraged by King " Antonica " , who has taken over the Jewish kingdom and forced Greek culture on its inhabitants . Judah leads an army of Jewish Maccabees to war against Antonica 's Seleucid Empire , emerging victorious . The story is left unfinished as Minka stops to help make latkes in the kitchen with her daughter Didi .
Meanwhile , Grandpa Boris is furious that Shlomo , a rival from his youth in Russia , is pictured in the local newspaper for playing the Greek king in the local synagogue 's Hanukah play , where Boris is portraying Judah . The babies find out about Shlomo and form the impression that he truly is the Greek king , whom they dub the " Meanie of Chanukah " . At the play that night , they attempt to storm on stage to defeat the " Meanie of Chanukah " , but are stopped and taken into the synagogue 's nursery . Angelica is in the nursery already and , vehement in her desire to watch a Christmas special that is airing that night , convinces the babies to help her break out and steal a television set from the custodian 's office .
Boris and Shlomo begin fighting on stage during the play , interrupting the production and inciting an intermission . Backstage , Shlomo and Boris argue once more , with Boris mentioning Shlomo 's dedication to his business pursuits over familial values . Shlomo informs Boris that he had a wife who died before bearing him children , making Boris feel sympathy for his rival . Angelica sprints backstage , bumping into Shlomo and inadvertently destroying the television set . Shlomo unsuccessfully tries to console her , but eventually lets Boris take over . Tommy hands Shlomo the Chanukah story book Minka read to the babies earlier ; Boris convinces Shlomo to read it to the children . In the conclusion of the story , the Maccabees rededicate the Holy Temple , and discover that there is only enough oil to light the Temple 's eternal flame for one day ; miraculously , it remains lit for eight . Shlomo 's reciting dissolves both the babies ' assertion of him as the " Meanie of Chanukah " and his and Boris ' rivalry .
= = Production = =
Nickelodeon executives pitched the idea of making a Chanukah special to the Rugrats production team in 1992 . Paul Germain , the show 's co @-@ creator , responded with a Passover special instead , as he considered it to be a " funny idea " and of " historical interest " . " A Rugrats Passover " was completed in 1995 ; the show was one of the first animated television series to produce a special for a Jewish holiday . After production wrapped on " A Rugrats Passover " , the crew considered creating the Chanukah special that Nickelodeon had originally pitched . The episode was written by David Stem and David Weiss , and directed by Raymie Muzquiz . By the time Weiss came to write the teleplay , he had abandoned Christianity and converted to Judaism .
Paramount Home Video finished production of the home media version in July 1997 ; originally scheduling a release date of October that year , Paramount instead pushed the VHS release into 1998 . In time for Christmas 1997 , Paramount released the video Nickelodeon Holiday , which featured " A Rugrats Chanukah " and other holiday specials , such as " Hey Arnold 's Christmas " for US $ 12 @.@ 95 ( equivalent to $ 19 @.@ 09 in 2015 ) . On August 31 , 2004 , Paramount also released a DVD compilation titled Rugrats Holiday Celebration , which featured several holiday @-@ themed episodes , including " A Rugrats Chanukah " . Sarah Willson adapted the episode into the book , The Rugrats ' Book of Chanukah , illustrated by Barry Goldberg and published by Simon & Schuster in 1997 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " was originally broadcast on December 4 , 1996 on Nickelodeon . Repeated twice that night , the episode received a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 in the show 's target demographic of children aged 2 – 11 . On December 1 , 2001 , CBS broadcast the episode for the first time on its network , at 8 : 30 p.m. Eastern Time . Carrying a TV @-@ Y parental rating , it followed the Rugrats Christmas special , " The Santa Experience " . Nickelodeon has aired the episode throughout subsequent holiday seasons .
" A Rugrats Chanukah " received positive reviews from television critics , and is one of the most popular episodes of Rugrats . Delia O 'Hera of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it a " multigenerational tale " . Judith Pearl , in her book The Chosen Image : Television 's Portrayal of Jewish Themes and Characters , described the episode as a " fun [ treatment ] of Chanukah " . Chuck Barney of Knight Ridder and the Tribune News Service considered the episode a " hilariously imaginative take on the Chanukah legend " .
In a 1999 issue of TV Guide , " A Rugrats Chanukah " was listed at number 5 in their " 10 Best Classic Family Holiday Specials " . TV Guide later wrote that " Nickelodeon 's Rugrats secured its place in television history " with the episode , opining that it could " entertain a child of any religious denomination " . Ted Cox of the Daily Herald said that although the episode was not as good as the show 's Passover special — which he considered " among the best holiday TV specials ever produced " — it was " still noteworthy " . DVD Talk reviewer Francis Rizzo III wrote that the special " has a great historical opening " . In Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim , Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin said that the special was " ... a richer meal , even , for parents than for tykes " .
= = = Anti @-@ Defamation League controversy = = =
" A Rugrats Chanukah " , along with other Rugrats episodes featuring Boris and his wife , Minka , attracted controversy when the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) charged that the two characters resembled anti @-@ Semitic drawings that were featured in a 1930s Nazi newspaper . Nickelodeon 's then @-@ president , Albie Hecht ( himself Jewish ) , professed bewilderment and called the accusation absurd . The controversy resurfaced in 1998 after the ADL made the same claims about Boris ' appearance in a Rugrats comic strip that ran in newspapers during the Jewish New Year . The organization was also offended by the character 's recitation of the Mourner 's Kaddish in the strip . Nickelodeon 's new president , Herb Scannell , agreed with the criticism and promised never to run the character or the strip again .
= = = Video = = =
Rugrats : " Rugrats Chanukah " Episode , Nick.com
Rugrats Chanukah Clip , Nick.com
= Battle of Ettlingen =
The Battle of Ettlingen or Battle of Malsch ( 9 July 1796 ) was fought during the French Revolutionary Wars between the armies of the First French Republic and Habsburg Austria near the town of Malsch , 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) southwest of Ettlingen . The Austrians under Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen tried to halt the northward advance of Jean Victor Marie Moreau 's French Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle along the east bank of the Rhine River . After a tough fight , the Austrian commander found that his left flank was turned . He conceded victory to the French and retreated east toward Stuttgart . Ettlingen is located 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) south of Karlsruhe .
The Rhine Campaign of 1796 saw Moreau 's army facing the Austrian Army of the Upper Rhine under Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour in the south . Meanwhile , Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's French Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse opposed the Army of the Lower Rhine under Archduke Charles in the north . Jourdan drubbed Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg at Altenkirchen on 4 June , compelling Archduke Charles to rush to the rescue with reinforcements . Charles defeated Jourdan at Wetzlar on the 15th , forcing him to pull back to the west bank of the Rhine . At this time there was a shake up in the high command and the archduke was put in control of both Austrian armies . In Charles ' absence , Moreau successfully crossed the Rhine at Kehl on the night of 23 – 24 June and beat Latour at Rastatt on 5 July . Leaving Wilhelm von Wartensleben in charge in the north , Charles rushed south to confront Moreau along the Alb River near Ettlingen . After an all @-@ day combat , the Austrians held the advantage on their right wing near Malsch , but the French had defeated their left wing in the Black Forest .
= = Background = =
= = = Plans = = =
At the beginning of the Rhine Campaign of 1796 , Austria had two armies in Germany , the Army of the Upper Rhine under Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser and the Army of the Lower Rhine under Archduke Charles , Duke of Teschen . The left wing of the 80 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Upper Rhine guarded the Rhine River from Mannheim to Switzerland under Anton Sztáray , Michael von Fröhlich and Louis Joseph , Prince of Condé while its right wing was on the west bank around Kaiserslautern . The Army of the Lower Rhine had a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong right wing under Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg on the east bank observing the French bridgehead at Düsseldorf . The archduke 's remaining 70 @,@ 000 troops lay on the west bank along the Nahe River with powerful garrisons in Mainz and Ehrenbreitstein Fortress .
The Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle led by Jean Victor Marie Moreau was deployed with its right flank at Huningue , its center on the Queich River and its left flank at Saarbrücken . The Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan was responsible for a line running north from Sankt Wendel to Cologne , while the 22 @,@ 000 men of its left wing under Jean @-@ Baptiste Kléber held Düsseldorf . The French grand strategy designed by Minister of War Lazare Carnot was for each of their two armies to turn the Austrian flanks . The strategic plan called for Jourdan to start by advancing by his left wing and was designed to accomplish two goals . First , it was hoped that this would cause the Austrians to abandon the west bank of the Rhine . Second , the move would draw Austrian strength north and allow Moreau 's army a better chance to cross the Rhine in the south .
Until this time , the Army of Rhine @-@ et @-@ Moselle consisted of independent divisions . When Moreau assumed command he reorganized the army into three corps or wings plus a small reserve . Over the objections of all three men , he named Louis Desaix , Laurent Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr and Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino wing commanders . The system soon proved its worth . Moreau 's other innovation was to group many of the heavy cavalry regiments in the army reserve . The Chasseurs à Cheval , Dragoon and Hussar regiments remained attached to the infantry divisions . On 8 June , Ferino 's Right Wing had three divisions led by François Antoine Louis Bourcier ( 9 @,@ 281 infantry , 690 cavalry ) , Henri François Delaborde ( 8 @,@ 300 infantry , 174 cavalry ) and Augustin Tuncq ( 7 @,@ 437 infantry , 432 cavalry ) . Desaix 's Center had three divisions commanded by Michel de Beaupuy ( 14 @,@ 565 infantry , 1 @,@ 266 cavalry ) , Antoine Guillaume Delmas ( 7 @,@ 898 infantry , 865 cavalry ) and Charles Antoine Xaintrailles ( 4 @,@ 828 infantry , 962 cavalry ) . Saint @-@ Cyr 's Left Wing had two divisions under Guillaume Philibert Duhesme ( 7 @,@ 438 infantry , 895 cavalry ) and Alexandre Camille Taponier ( 11 @,@ 823 infantry , 1 @,@ 231 cavalry ) . Altogether , Moreau 's Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle numbered 71 @,@ 581 foot soldiers and 6 @,@ 515 cavalry , plus gunners and sappers . Counting artillery and other elements , Moreau 's total was 79 @,@ 592 soldiers while Jourdan commanded 77 @,@ 792 men .
= = = Operations = = =
The Rhine Campaign of 1795 had concluded with an armistice . On 20 May 1796 , the Austrians notified the French that the truce would end on 1 June . The minute it expired , Kléber led two divisions across the armistice line heading south toward Charles ' right wing . The French beat the Duke of Württemberg in the Battle of Altenkirchen on 4 June , capturing 3 @,@ 000 Austrians , four colors and 12 guns . By 6 June Kléber 's wing was on the Lahn River and Archduke Charles began evacuating the west bank of the Rhine in order to concentrate against the French incursion . Kléber was joined within a few days by Jourdan and most of the Army of the Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . At about this time , the Austrian high command began transferring Wurmser and 25 @,@ 000 Austrians to Italy due to the successes of Napoleon Bonaparte . On 15 June , the archduke defeated the French in the Battle of Wetzlar . Subsequently , Jourdan recrossed to the west bank of the Rhine while Kléber retreated north toward Düsseldorf .
With Wurmser leaving the theater , Archduke Charles was given command over both Austrian armies . Wilhelm von Wartensleben took command of the Army of the Lower Rhine while Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour assumed leadership of the Army of the Upper Rhine . Jourdan and Kléber 's advance had caused their opponents to abandon the west bank of the Rhine and had drawn Charles north , as planned . Meanwhile , Moreau mounted operations against the Austrian fortifications opposite Mannheim in order to lead his enemies into thinking that it was the main attack . But on 24 June 1796 , Moreau launched a successful river crossing in the Battle of Kehl . The 7 @,@ 000 defending troops of the Swabian Regional Contingent put up a stout fight but were defeated with the loss of 700 soldiers , 14 guns and 22 munition wagons . The French reported losses of 150 . Subsequently , Sztáray took command of the Swabians who were reinforced up to a strength of 9 @,@ 000 by some Austrians . On the 28th Sztáray was beaten by Desaix at Renchen . The French sustained 200 casualties while allied losses amounted to 550 killed and wounded plus 850 men , seven guns and two munition wagons captured .
Having blocked Jourdan , Archduke Charles began moving troops south to oppose the Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle as early as 21 June . He received the news that Moreau was across the Rhine on the 26th . Leaving 25 @,@ 351 foot and 10 @,@ 933 horse under Wartensleben and 27 @,@ 000 more around Mainz , the archduke raced south . The last units of the Moreau 's army made it across the Rhine on 29 June , though Delaborde remained guarding the west bank of the Rhine for a time . For a few days the French enjoyed a numerical superiority of 30 @,@ 000 to 18 @,@ 000 over their opponents . Moreau then made the remarkable decision to switch the positions of two of his wings ; Desaix now led the Left Wing while Saint @-@ Cyr commanded the Center . He also reorganized his army , reassigning some regiments that got lost in the confusion of the river crossing . Army of Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle expanded its bridgehead in a semicircle . Desaix moved downstream ( north ) , Ferino moved upstream ( south ) and Saint @-@ Cyr operated in the hills , ready to support either wing . The French irruption caused Fröhlich and Condé to retreat up the Rhine and Kinzig Rivers while Sztáray and the Swabians fell back to Freudenstadt .
Moreau had an opportunity to smash one of the enemy forces , but he moved slowly . Saint @-@ Cyr started from Oberkirch on 2 July . The next day his wing moved in an easterly direction , seizing enemy positions at Oppenau , on the Kniebis Mountain and at Freudenstadt . This deep thrust completely separated Fröhlich from the rest of the Army of the Upper Rhine . Latour and Sztáray tried to hold a position behind the Murg River but Desaix attacked them in the Battle of Rastatt on 5 July . To assist in this operation , Moreau directed Saint @-@ Cyr to move down the Murg valley . On the same day as Rastatt , Taponier 's division captured Gernsbach . At Rastatt , the French employed 19 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 500 cavalry to spar with 6 @,@ 000 Austrians led by Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg and Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló . The French turned both Austrian flanks , forcing their enemies to pull back east toward Ettlingen . Casualties on both sides were light . The Austrians lost 200 men and three guns captured . At Ettlingen Latour found the archduke 's leading elements , with the main body still a few days distant . The Austrians were in a vulnerable situation but Moreau delayed for three days at Rastatt , allowing Charles to bring up 25 battalions and 39 squadrons .
= = Battle = =
= = = French army = = =
On 1 July 1796 , Ferino 's Right Wing was organized into one division under Delaborde and four brigades led by Nicolas Louis Jordy , Nicolas Augustin Paillard , Jean Victor Tharreau and Jean @-@ Baptiste Tholmé . Jordy led the 3rd and 38th Line Infantry Demi Brigades . Tharreau directed the 3rd Light and the 56th , 74th , 79th and 89th Line Infantry Demi Brigades . Paillard commanded the 12th and 21st ( heavy ) Cavalry Regiments while Tholmé commanded the 18th Cavalry , 4th Dragoon and 8th Hussar Regiments . Tuncq was not listed as leading a division . Ferino 's wing counted 18 @,@ 622 foot soldiers and 1 @,@ 039 horsemen .
At the same date , Desaix 's Left Wing was made up of the divisions of Beaupuy and Delmas . In Beaupuy 's division , Dominique Joba led the 10th , 62nd and 103rd Line and the 10th Light Demi Brigades while Gilles Joseph Martin Brunteau Saint @-@ Suzanne commanded the 4th and 8th Chasseurs à Cheval and the 6th Dragoons . In Delmas ' division Jean Marie Rodolph Eickemeyer directed the 50th and 97th Line and 16th Light Infantry Demi Brigades while Maurice Frimont led the 7th Hussar and 10th and 17th Dragoon Regiments . Xaintrailles was not named as a division commander . Desaix 's command comprised 17 @,@ 126 bayonets and 2 @,@ 058 sabers .
A report from 9 July 1796 showed that Saint @-@ Cyr 's Center had two divisions under Duhesme and Taponier . In Duhesme 's division , Dominique Vandamme 's brigade included the 17th Line ( 2 @,@ 793 ) and 100th Line ( 2 @,@ 479 ) , 20th Chasseurs à Cheval ( 254 ) and 11th Hussars ( 38 ) . Duhesme 's division counted 5 @,@ 272 infantry and 292 cavalry . Taponier 's division consisted of the brigades of Henri François Lambert , Antoine Laroche Dubouscat and Claude Lecourbe . Lambert led the 93rd Line ( 3 @,@ 119 ) and 109th Line ( 2 @,@ 769 ) . Laroche directed the 21st Light ( 2 @,@ 284 ) and 31st Line ( 2 @,@ 840 ) . Lecourbe commanded the 84th Line ( 2 @,@ 692 ) , 106th Line ( 3 @,@ 186 ) and 2nd Chasseurs à Cheval ( 240 ) . There were a total of 22 @,@ 162 foot soldiers , 532 horsemen and 433 gunners in Saint @-@ Cyr 's wing . However , a 14 June report showed 919 troopers present in Saint @-@ Cyr 's command , including the 9th Hussars .
On 1 July , Bourcier 's Reserve division comprised one brigade under Jean Marie Forest with the 93rd and 109th Line ( detached to Saint @-@ Cyr by 9 July ) , the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers and the 3rd , 9th , 14th and 15th Cavalry Regiments . The cavalry counted 1 @,@ 577 sabers . In Moreau 's army , all infantry demi brigades had three battalions , all Cavalry regiments had three squadrons , while Carabinier , Chasseur , Dragoon and Hussar Regiments had four squadrons . There were 8 @,@ 201 infantry and 238 cavalry in garrison at Bitche , Kehl , Landau and Strasbourg . Marc Amand Élisée Scherb with 2 @,@ 812 foot and 239 horse watched the Austrian @-@ held Philippsburg fortress . Moreau 's chief of staff was Jean Reynier and his chief of artillery was Jean Baptiste Eblé . Moreau had 36 @,@ 000 men available in 45 battalions and 55 squadrons .
= = = Austrian army = = =
On 3 July , the Army of the Upper Rhine was organized into divisions under Fröhlich , Fürstenberg , Sztáray and Johann Sigismund Riesch . In addition , Archduke Charles personally commanded divisions under Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze and von Lindt . Fröhlich had three brigades led by Condé , Johann Jacob von Klingling and Simon von Wolf . Fürstenberg led seven brigades under Zaiger , Milius , Joseph Heinrich von Staader , Ignaz Gyulai , Johann Baptist von Leloup , Franz Walter Anton von Canisius and Paul Devay . The last two brigades were detached to Latour 's direct command along with the divisions Sztáray and Riesch . Sztáray 's division included five brigades under Ludwig Wilhelm Anton Baillet de Latour @-@ Merlemont , Konrad Valentin von Kaim , Prince Joseph de Lorraine @-@ Vaudemont , Duke Alexander of Württemberg and Johann I Joseph , Prince of Liechtenstein . Riesch 's division had three brigades under Count Palatine , Adam Boros de Rákos and an unknown officer . In the archduke 's corps , Hotze commanded three Austrian brigades under Wilhelm Lothar Maria von Kerpen , Franz Seraph of Orsini @-@ Rosenberg and Joseph von Schellenberg . Lindt led five Electoral Saxon brigades .
The Austrian order of battle for 9 July showed the army organized into four columns . The 1st Column under Kaim included two brigades under Schellenberg and Christoph von Lattermann . Schellenberg had two battalions each from Grand Duke of Tuscany Nr. 23 and Olivier Wallis Nr. 29 Infantry Regiments , six companies from the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Slavonian Infantry Regiment and one squadron of the Archduke Ferdinand Hussar Regiment Nr. 32 . Lattermann led three battalions of the Archduke Charles Nr. 3 Infantry Regiment , the Abfaltern and Retz Grenadier Battalions and two squadrons each of the Szekler Hussar Regiment and Waldeck Dragoon Regiment Nr. 39 .
Sztáray commanded the 2nd Column which consisted of an Advanced Guard under Devay , two brigades led by Latour @-@ Merlemont and the Prince of Lorraine and two unbrigaded mounted units , four squadrons each of the Archduke John Dragoons Nr. 26 and Waldeck Dragoons . Devay led two battalions of the Pellegrini Nr. 49 Infantry Regiment , one battalion each of the Splenyi Nr. 51 and Serbian Infantry Regiments , seven squadrons of the Archduke Ferdinand Hussars and six squadrons of the Kinsky Chevau @-@ légers Nr. 7 . Latour @-@ Merlemont commanded three battalions of the Manfredini Nr. 12 Infantry Regiment and the Candiani , Dietrich , Reisingen and Warren Grenadier Battalions . Lorraine directed four squadrons each of the Kavanaugh Nr. 12 and Archduke Franz Nr. 29 Cuirassiers .
Latour led the 3rd Column which was organized into an Advanced Guard under Canisius and three brigades directed by Kerpen , Liechtenstein and Württemberg . Canisius commanded three battalions of the Franz Kinsky Nr. 47 Infantry Regiment , four companies from the Serbian and three companies of the Slavonian Infantry Regiments , six squadrons of the Lobkowitz Chevau @-@ légers Nr. 28 , four squadrons of the Szekler Hussars and two squadrons of the Coburg Dragoons Nr. 37 . Kerpen led three battalions of the Alton Nr. 15 Infantry Regiment and the Bideskuty , Szenassy and Benjowski Grenadier Battalions . Liechtenstein controlled three squadrons of the Kaiser Dragoons Nr. 1 . Württemberg directed six squadrons of the Mack Nr. 20 and four squadrons of the Ansbach Nr. 33 Cuirassiers .
The small 4th Column was commanded by Johann Nepomuk von Mosel and consisted of two battalions of the Schröder Nr. 7 Infantry Regiment , one battalion of the Leloup Jägers and two squadrons each of the Albert Nr. 5 and Kaiser Nr. 15 Carabiniers . Lindt 's Saxon infantry was made up of the Brandenstein and Glaffay Grenadier Battalions , one battalion of Weimar Jägers , and one battalion each of the Kürfurst , Prinz Anton , Prinz Clemens , Prince Gotha and Van der Hayde Infantry Regiments . The Saxon mounted troops included four squadrons each of the Carabinier , Hussar and Prinz Albert and Courland Chevau @-@ léger Regiments plus two squadrons of the Saxe @-@ Gotha Cavalry Regiment . Altogether , Charles had about 32 @,@ 000 troops available .
= = = Combat = = =
After conferring with Desaix and Saint @-@ Cyr at Renchen , Moreau mounted his assault on 9 July 1796 . This decision preempted Archduke Charles , who had planned to attack the French on the 10th . The French commander planned to pin the Austrians in the Rhine plain while turning their left flank among the mountains of the Black Forest . For his part , Charles hoped to outflank the French left near the river and recapture Gernsbach . Latour held the Austrian right near the Rhine , Sztáray was posted in the center near Malsch , Kaim defended the left @-@ center in the hills along the Alb River and Lindt 's Saxons held the far left near Neuenbürg .
Moreau accompanied Desaix 's Left Wing with the divisions of Delmas and Sainte @-@ Suzanne ( vice Beaupuy ) , Bourcier 's Reserve and Saint @-@ Cyr 's cavalry and horse artillery which were ineffective in the mountains . Malsch was captured twice by the French and recaptured each time by the Austrians . Latour tried to force his way around the French left with cavalry but was checked by the mounted troops of the Reserve . Finding his horsemen outnumbered near Ötigheim , Latour used his artillery to keep the French cavalry at bay . In the Rhine plain the combat raged until 10 PM . In the evening the Austrians were pushing Desaix back when bad news from the left flank caused Charles to call a halt .
Kaim had six battalions of infantry , four squadrons of cavalry and plenty of artillery deployed at Rothenzholl . He posted three more battalions at Frauenalb to the north and an advance guard in Loffenau . Saint @-@ Cyr left Duhesme 's division behind to guard Freudenstadt and the Kneibis Mountain . He started from Gernsbach with 12 battalions plus six more borrowed from the Reserve . Finding that the Saxons were marching south along the Enz River to turn his right flank , he sent Taponier with six battalions and 150 hussars east to Wildbad . Taponier surprised the Saxons and sent them scurrying back north . With Lambert and Lecourbe 's brigades , Saint @-@ Cyr advanced through Loffenau to Rothenzholl northwest of Dobel where he confronted Kaim . Finding the Austrians in powerful defenses , Saint @-@ Cyr tried to draw Kaim 's troops out of position .
Employing elements of the 84th and 106th Line , the French wing commander ordered the troops not to press home their assault , but to retreat every time they came against strong resistance . Each attack was pushed farther up the ridge before receding into the valley . When the fifth assault in regimental strength gave way , the defenders finally reacted , sweeping down the slope to cut off the French . Saint @-@ Cyr now sprung his trap . Lecourbe led the massed grenadier companies to attack one Austrian flank , other reserves bored in on the other flank and the center counterattacked . The French troops that struck the Austrian right were hidden in the nearby town of Herrenalb . As the Austrians gave way , the French followed them up the ridge right into their positions . Nevertheless , Kaim 's men laid down such a heavy fire that Lecourbe 's grenadiers were thrown into disorder and their leader nearly captured . At length , Saint @-@ Cyr 's troops emerged triumphant , inflicting 1 @,@ 000 casualties on their opponents and capturing two cannons . Kaim was compelled to withdraw east across the hills to Neuenbürg . From there , Kaim and Lindt 's soldiers fell back toward Pforzheim .
= = Results = =
French losses numbered 2 @,@ 000 killed and wounded plus 400 captured . The Austrians suffered 1 @,@ 300 killed and wounded with 1 @,@ 300 captured . On 10 July , Charles evacuated Malsch and ordered a forced march east to Pforzheim via Karlsruhe . Also on the 10th , the French occupied Ettlingen and Neuenbürg . Anxious to protect his magazines at Heilbronn , Charles halted at Pforzheim for a few days . For his part , Moreau would not believe that Charles had given up , so he waited around Ettlingen for several days . Meanwhile , the Austrians packed their supplies into wagons and headed east on 14 July . The next day , Moreau moved on Pforzheim but found the archduke gone .
When Archduke Charles withdrew from the Rhine valley , he left about 30 @,@ 000 troops in garrisons along the river . There were 15 @,@ 000 foot and 1 @,@ 200 horse in Mainz , 3 @,@ 000 infantry in Ehrenbreitstein , 8 @,@ 800 infantry and 300 cavalry in Mannheim and 2 @,@ 500 foot soldiers in Philippsburg . To contain the first two , Jourdan left 28 @,@ 545 troops under François Séverin Marceau @-@ Desgraviers while Moreau only detailed 2 @,@ 800 infantry and 240 cavalry to watch the last two places . For the most part , the Austrian garrisons remained quiescent . But the Austrians in Mannheim caused mischief by attacking Kehl on 18 September . More might have been accomplished in that assault , but the Austrian soldiers paused to pillage the French camp and were driven off by their enemies . Even so , Charles not only lost the services of the 30 @,@ 000 men in the fortresses but also of the Swabians , Saxons and other German allies when he retreated from the Rhine . These auxiliary forces began to negotiate with the French when their territories were occupied .
Historian Ramsay Weston Phipps believed that Charles might have remained along the Rhine and defeated the French armies one after the other . Unlike the divided command of the French , the Austrians enjoyed unity of command . After Ettlingen , Phipps thought that the correct French strategy was for the two French armies to join . However , this was not part of Carnot 's plan , which was for each army to operate against the Austrian flanks . Carnot 's strategy had succeeded in 1794 during the Flanders Campaign and he expected that it would win again . However , in 1794 the Coalition was made up of several countries with different vulnerabilities , while in 1796 Charles could issue a command and expect it to be obeyed . The next clash would be the Battle of Neresheim on 11 August .
= = External sources = =
These sources identify the Austrian regiment numbers .
Pivka , Otto von ( 1979 ) . Armies of the Napoleonic Era . New York , N.Y. : Taplinger Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 8008 @-@ 5471 @-@ 3 .
German Wikipedia List of Austrian Cavalry Regiments
These sources provide the full names and other identifying information of French and Austrian generals from the Napoleonic period .
Broughton , Tony ( 2006 ) . " Generals Who Served in the French Army during the Period 1789 – 1815 " . The Napoleon Series . Retrieved 19 October 2012 .
Smith , Digby ; Kudrna , Leopold . " Biographical Dictionary of all Austrian Generals during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , 1792 – 1815 " . napoleon @-@ series.org. Retrieved 19 October 2014 .
= Coconut crab =
The coconut crab , Birgus latro , is a species of terrestrial hermit crab , also known as the robber crab or palm thief . It is the largest land @-@ living arthropod in the world , and is probably at the upper size limit for terrestrial animals with exoskeletons in recent times , with a weight of up to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) . It can grow to up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) in length from leg to leg . It is found on islands across the Indian Ocean and parts of the Pacific Ocean as far east as the Gambier Islands mirroring the distribution of the coconut palm ; it has been extirpated from most areas with a significant human population , including mainland Australia and Madagascar .
The coconut crab is the only species of the genus Birgus , and is related to the terrestrial hermit crabs of the genus Coenobita . It shows a number of adaptations to life on land . Like hermit crabs , juvenile coconut crabs use empty gastropod shells for protection , but the adults develop a tough exoskeleton on their abdomen and stop carrying a shell . Coconut crabs have organs known as " branchiostegal lungs " , which are used instead of the vestigial gills for breathing . They cannot swim , and will drown if immersed in water for long . They have developed an acute sense of smell , which has developed convergently with that of insects , and which they use to find potential food sources . Mating occurs on dry land , but the females migrate to the sea to release their fertilised eggs as they hatch . The larvae are planktonic for 3 – 4 weeks , before settling to the sea floor and entering a gastropod shell . Sexual maturity is reached after about 5 years , and the total lifespan may be over 60 years .
Adult coconut crabs feed on fruits , nuts , seeds , and the pith of fallen trees , but will eat carrion and other organic matter opportunistically . The species is popularly associated with the coconut , and has been widely reported to climb trees to pick coconuts , which it then opens to eat the insides . While coconut crabs can climb trees , and can eventually open a coconut collectively , coconuts are not a significant part of their diet . Coconut crabs are hunted wherever they come into contact with people and are subject to legal protection in some areas . In the absence of precise information the IUCN lists the species as " data deficient " .
= = Description = =
Birgus latro is the largest terrestrial arthropod , and indeed terrestrial invertebrate , in the world ; reports about the size of Birgus latro vary , but most sources give a body length of up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) , a weight of up to 4 @.@ 1 kg ( 9 @.@ 0 lb ) , and a leg span of more than 0 @.@ 91 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) , with males generally being larger than females . The carapace may reach a length of 78 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , and a width of up to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) .
The body of the coconut crab is , like that of all decapods , divided into a front section ( cephalothorax ) , which has 10 legs , and an abdomen . The front @-@ most pair of legs has large chelae ( claws ) , with the left being larger than the right . The next two pairs , as with other hermit crabs , are large , powerful walking legs with pointed tips , which allow coconut crabs to climb vertical or overhanging surfaces . The fourth pair of legs is smaller with tweezer @-@ like chelae at the end , allowing young coconut crabs to grip the inside of a shell or coconut husk to carry for protection ; adults use this pair for walking and climbing . The last pair of legs is very small and is used by females to tend their eggs , and by the males in mating . This last pair of legs is usually held inside the carapace , in the cavity containing the breathing organs . There is some difference in colour between the animals found on different islands , ranging from orange @-@ red to purplish blue ; in most regions , blue is the predominant colour , but in some places , including the Seychelles , most individuals are red .
Although Birgus latro is a derived type of hermit crab , only the juveniles use salvaged snail shells to protect their soft abdomens , and adolescents sometimes use broken coconut shells to protect their abdomens . Unlike other hermit crabs , the adult coconut crabs do not carry shells but instead harden their abdominal terga by depositing chitin and chalk . Not being constrained by the physical confines of living in a shell allows this species to grow much larger than other hermit crabs in the family Coenobitidae . Like most true crabs , B. latro bends its tail underneath its body for protection . The hardened abdomen protects the coconut crab and reduces water loss on land , but has to be moulted periodically . Adults moult annually , and dig a burrow up to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) long in which to hide while vulnerable . It remains in the burrow for 3 to 16 weeks , depending on the size of the animal . After moulting , it takes 1 to 3 weeks for the exoskeleton to harden , depending on the animal 's size , during which time the animal 's body is soft and vulnerable , and it stays hidden for protection .
= = = Respiration = = =
Except as larvae , coconut crabs cannot swim , and they will drown if left in water for more than an hour . They use a special organ called a branchiostegal lung to breathe . This organ can be interpreted as a developmental stage between gills and lungs , and is one of the most significant adaptations of the coconut crab to its habitat . The branchiostegal lung contains a tissue similar to that found in gills , but suited to the absorption of oxygen from air , rather than water . This organ is expanded laterally and is evaginated to increase the surface area ; located in the cephalothorax , it is optimally placed to reduce both the blood / gas diffusion distance and the return distance of oxygenated blood to the pericardium . Coconut crabs use their hindmost , smallest pair of legs to clean these breathing organs and to moisten them with water . The organs require water to properly function , and the coconut crab provides this by stroking its wet legs over the spongy tissues nearby . Coconut crabs may drink water from small puddles by transferring it from their chelipeds to their maxillipeds .
In addition to the branchiostegal lung , the coconut crab has an additional rudimentary set of gills . Although these gills are comparable in number to aquatic species from the families Paguridae and the Diogenidae , they are reduced in size and have comparatively less surface area .
= = = Sense of smell = = =
The coconut crab has a well @-@ developed sense of smell , which it uses to locate its food . The process of smelling works very differently depending on whether the smelled molecules are hydrophilic molecules in water or hydrophobic molecules in air . As most crabs live in the water , they have specialised organs called aesthetascs on their antennae to determine both the concentration and the direction of a smell . However , as coconut crabs live on the land , the aesthetascs on their antennae are shorter and blunter than those of other crabs and look more like those of insects . While insects and the coconut crab originate from different paths , the same need to detect smells in the air led to the development of remarkably similar organs . Coconut crabs flick their antennae as insects do to enhance their reception . They have an excellent sense of smell and can detect interesting odours over large distances . The smells of rotting meat , bananas , and coconuts , all potential food sources , catch their attention especially . Research has shown that the olfactory system in the coconut crab 's brain is well @-@ developed compared to other areas of the brain .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Coconut crabs mate frequently and quickly on dry land in the period from May to September , especially between early June and late August . Male coconut crabs have spermatophores and deposit a mass of spermatophores on the abdomen of the female ; the abdomen opens at the base of the third pereiopods , and fertilisation is thought to occur on the external surface of the abdomen as the eggs pass through the spermatophore mass . The extrusion of eggs occurs on land in crevices or burrows near the shore . Shortly thereafter , the female lays her eggs and glues them to the underside of her abdomen , carrying the fertilised eggs underneath her body for a few months . At the time of hatching , the female coconut crab releases the eggs into the ocean . This usually takes place on rocky shores at dusk , especially when this coincides with high tide . The empty egg cases remain on the female 's body after the larvae have been released , and the female eats the egg cases within a few days . The larvae float in the pelagic zone of the ocean with other plankton for three to four weeks , during which a large number of them are eaten by predators . The larvae pass through three to five zoea stages before moulting into the post @-@ larval glaucothoe stage ; this process takes from 25 to 33 days . Upon reaching the glaucothoe stage of development , they settle to the bottom , find and wear a suitably sized gastropod shell , and migrate to the shoreline with other terrestrial hermit crabs . At that time , they sometimes visit dry land . Afterwards , they leave the ocean permanently and lose the ability to breathe in water . As with all hermit crabs , they change their shells as they grow . Young coconut crabs that cannot find a seashell of the right size often use broken coconut pieces . When they outgrow their shells , they develop a hardened abdomen . The coconut crab reaches sexual maturity around five years after hatching . They reach their maximum size only after 40 to 60 years .
= = Distribution = =
Coconut crabs live in the Indian Ocean and the central Pacific Ocean , with a distribution that closely matches that of the coconut palm . The western limit of the range of B. latro is Zanzibar , off the coast of Tanzania , while the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn mark the northern and southern limits , respectively , with very few population in the subtropics , such as the Ryukyu Islands . There is evidence that the coconut crab once lived on the mainlands of Australia and Madagascar and on the island of Mauritius , but it no longer occurs in any of these places . As they cannot swim as adults , coconut crabs must have colonised the islands as planktonic larvae .
Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean has the largest and densest population of coconut crabs in the world , although it is outnumbered there by more than 50 times by the Christmas Island red crab , Gecarcoidea natalis . Other Indian Ocean populations exist on the Seychelles , including Aldabra and Cosmoledo , but the coconut crab is extinct on the central islands . Coconut crabs occur on several of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal . They occur on most of the islands , and the northern atolls , of the Chagos Archipelago .
In the Pacific , the coconut crab 's range became known gradually . Charles Darwin believed it was only found on " a single coral island north of the Society group " . The coconut crab is far more widespread , though it is not abundant on every Pacific island it inhabits . Large populations exist on the Cook Islands , especially Pukapuka , Suwarrow , Mangaia , Takutea , Mauke , Atiu , and Palmerston Island . These are close to the eastern limit of its range , as are the Line Islands of Kiribati , where the coconut crab is especially frequent on Teraina ( Washington Island ) , with its abundant coconut palm forest . The Gambier Islands marks the species ' eastern limit .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The diet of coconut crabs consists primarily of fleshy fruits ( particularly Ochrosia ackeringae , Arenga listeri , Pandanus elatus , P. christmatensis ) , nuts ( coconuts Cocos nucifera , Aleurites moluccanus ) and seeds ( Annona reticulata ) , and the pith of fallen trees . However , as they are omnivores , they will consume other organic materials such as tortoise hatchlings and dead animals . They have been observed to prey upon crabs like Gecarcoidea natalis and Discoplax hirtipes , as well as scavenge on the carcasses of other coconut crabs . During a tagging experiment , one coconut crab was observed killing and eating a Polynesian Rat ( Rattus exulans ) . Coconut crabs may be responsible for the disappearance of Amelia Earhart 's remains , consuming them after her death and hoarding her skeletal remnants in their burrows .
The coconut crab can take a coconut from the ground and cut it to a husk nut , take it with its claw , climb up a tree 10 m ( 33 ft ) high and drop the husk nut , to access the coconut meat inside . They often descend from the trees by falling , and can survive a fall of at least 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) unhurt . Coconut crabs cut holes into coconuts with their strong claws and eat the contents , although it can take several days before the coconut is opened .
Thomas Hale Streets discussed the behaviour in 1877 , doubting that the animal would climb trees to get at the nuts . In the 1980s , Holger Rumpff was able to confirm Streets 's report , observing and studying how they open coconuts in the wild . The animal has developed a special technique to do so : if the coconut is still covered with husk , it will use its claws to rip off strips , always starting from the side with the three germination pores , the group of three small circles found on the outside of the coconut . Once the pores are visible , the coconut crab will bang its pincers on one of them until they break . Afterwards , it will turn around and use the smaller pincers on its other legs to pull out the white flesh of the coconut . Using their strong claws , larger individuals can even break the hard coconut into smaller pieces for easier consumption .
= = = Habitat
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Stone awarded the album three out of five stars and highlighted " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " as the album 's best song , writing , " ' Weird Al ' is funniest when he 's singing about food . "
Al Shipley of Stylus gave the album a " B – " and felt that , while " White & Nerdy " was a solid parody , the other spoofs on the album were not quite up to par . He praised " Pancreas " and " Virus Alert " as the album 's best style parodies , comparing the latter to the 1985 single " Dare to Be Stupid " , while criticizing " I 'll Sue Ya " , " Close but No Cigar " , and " Don 't Download This Song " . Shipley concluded that the most hilarious moment on the album was Yankovic singing the lyrics to " Candy Shop " by 50 Cent over a polka beat in " Polkarama ! " Scott Shetler of Slant Magazine awarded the album three stars out of five . He felt that in the 2000s , Yankovic 's work had gradually declined in quality , but that Straight Outta Lynwood displayed " occasional flashes of genius " , such as " White & Nerdy " , which he praised for Yankovic 's rapping ability . Shetler also felt that " Trapped in the Drive @-@ Thru " , was impressive , although he noted it was not as spectacular as it could have been . Once again , " Confessions , Pt . III " and " Do I Creep You Out " were described as " throwaways " . However , Shetler wrote that " for once , Yankovic 's originals are better than his parodies " , highlighting " Pancreas " , " I 'll Sue Ya " , and " Don 't Download This Song " as the best songs on the album .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Straight Outta Lynwood was released on September 26 , 2006 . On April 4 , 2007 , the album was certified gold for shipments exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's lead @-@ off single , " White & Nerdy " was a hit on the Billboard Hot 100 , charting at number 9 . This made it his highest @-@ charting single , surpassing " Eat It " , which had peaked at number 12 in 1984 . It also marked the first time that Yankovic had ever cracked the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 . " Canadian Idiot " also charted on the Hot 100 , peaking at number 82 . On June 15 , 2007 , " White & Nerdy " was certified gold — his first gold single since " Eat It " in 1984 — and on January 31 , 2008 , the single was certified platinum for selling over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies , making this the first time that Yankovic had ever achieved this level of certification . In addition , the ringtone for " White & Nerdy " was certified gold .
Internationally , the album charted at number 27 on the Australian Albums Chart . " White & Nerdy " also peaked at number 14 on the Swedish singles chart , and number 80 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = = Awards , nominations and accolades = = =
Straight Outta Lynwood was nominated for two Grammy Awards in the categories for " Best Comedy Album " and " Best Surround Sound Album " . Rolling Stone later named " Trapped in the Drive Thru " as one of the 100 Greatest Songs of 2006 , ranking it at 77th , while Blender ranked " White & Nerdy " at number 76 on their Top 100 Songs of 2006 .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Mac Scelling =
Mac Scelling ( fl . 1154 – 1173 / 1174 ) , also known as Mac Scilling , was a prominent twelfth @-@ century military commander engaged in conflicts throughout Ireland . He is first recorded in 1154 commanding the maritime forces of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain in a bloody encounter against Toirrdelbach Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht . Muirchertach 's naval forces were drawn from the western peripheries of Scotland and the Isles . He next appears on record in 1173 / 1174 , supporting the cause of Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht against the English colonisation of Mide . An early modern Scottish source claims that a man of the same name was a bastard son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , King of the Isles . If Mac Scelling was indeed related to Somairle , this relationship could cast light on the latter 's conflict with Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles , a man who appears to have opposed Muirchertach at some point in his career . Although not termed so in contemporary sources , Mac Scelling may be regarded as an early archetype of later gallowglasses , heavily @-@ armed Scottish mercenaries recruited by Irish rulers in centuries that followed .
= = In the service of the Meic Lochlainn = =
Midway through the twelfth @-@ century , Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn , King of Cenél nEógain ( died 1166 ) pressed forth to claim to the high @-@ kingship of Ireland , an office then held by elderly Toirrdelbach Ua Conchobair , King of Connacht ( died 1156 ) . In 1150 , Muirchertach invaded Connacht , and succeeded in gaining hostages from the kingdom . Although Muirchertach and Toirrdelbach made peace the following year , their forces clashed the year after that , with Muirchertach 's defeat of Toirrdelbach 's son , Ruaidrí ( died 1198 ) . In 1154 , the forces of Toirrdelbach and Muirchertach again met in a major conflict fought off the Inishowen coast , in what was perhaps one of the greatest naval battles of the twelfth century . The engagement is briefly recorded by the Annals of Tigernach , and expanded upon by the Annals of the Four Masters . According to the latter source , Muirchertach 's maritime forces were mercenaries drawn from Galloway , Arran , Kintyre , Mann , and " the territories of Scotland " . The annal @-@ entry further reveals that Mac Scelling himself commanded Muirchertach 's forces , and that his teeth were knocked out in the affair . Although Toirrdelbach 's forces obtained a narrow victory , his northern maritime power seems to have been virtually nullified by the severity of the contest , and Muirchertach soon after marched on Connacht , Bréifne , and Dublin . As a result of the Dubliners ' resulting submission , Muirchertach effectively secured himself the high @-@ kingship . There is reason to suspect that Muirchertach 's use of foreign warriors — including Mac Scelling himself — strongly influenced the composition of Cath Ruis na Ríg for Bóinn , a contemporary Gaelic text that forms a sequel to the epic Táin Bó Cúailgne .
= = An apparent Meic Somairle namesake = =
Mac Scelling 's identity and origins are unknown . His name is similar to that of " Gall mac Sgillin " , a supposed bastard son of Somairle mac Gilla Brigte , Lord of Argyll ( died 1164 ) , noted by the early modern Book of Clanranald . Somairle was a brother @-@ in @-@ law of Guðrøðr Óláfsson , King of the Isles ( died 1187 ) , a man who succeeded to the kingship of the Isles after the death of his father in 1153 . Within a few years , Somairle and Guðrøðr fought for control of the Kingdom of the Isles . Although Somairle succeeded in ousting Guðrøðr , he himself was dead within a decade , and Guðrøðr regained the throne . If Mac Scelling was indeed a member of the Meic Somairle — the descendants of Somairle — this relationship may cast light upon Somairle 's struggles in the Isles . For instance , Mac Scelling 's cooperation with Muirchertach could be evidence that Guðrøðr faced united opposition from Somairle and Muirchertach . In fact , there is evidence indicating that Guðrøðr and Muirchertach were indeed at odds at some point in the 1150s or 1160s , as the former appears to have briefly gained the kingship of Dublin at the expense of Muirchertach 's authority as overlord . Nevertheless , it is also possible that the battle took place before Somairle and Guðrøðr struggled for the kingship . Guðrøðr is otherwise known to have married a granddaughter of Muirchertach , and seems to have had an earlier marriage to another member of the Uí Néill . These matrimonial unions could be evidence of an alliance between Guðrøðr and Muirchertach in the 1150s . Mac Scelling 's participation in Muirchertach 's service , therefore , could have been undertaken during a period of cooperation between the Isles and the Uí Néill .
= = In the service of the Uí Conchobair = =
In the last third of the twelfth century , Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster ( died 1171 ) was deposed and driven from Ireland by his rivals . He subsequently enlisted the aid of English mercenaries and launched an invasion of Ireland . In 1170 , the combined forces of Diarmait and Richard fitz Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Pembroke ( died 1176 ) conquered Dublin . The following year , the aforesaid Ruaidrí , who was then the reigning High King of Ireland and King of Connacht , along with Lorcán Ua Tuathail , Archbishop of Dublin ( died 1180 ) , appealed to Guðrøðr for military assistance from the Isles . Although Ruaidrí besieged the town by land , whilst Guðrøðr blockaded it by sea , Dublin remained firmly in English hands . Within the year , Henry II , King of England ( died 1189 ) arrived in Ireland and consolidated English control . One of the few provincial kings who refused to submit to Henry was Ruaidrí himself ; and in 1173 or 1174 , he assembled a massive host from northern Ireland in campaign to bring a halt to the English colonisation of Mide . According to the Song of Dermot and the Earl , one of the numerous rulers who rallied to Ruaidrí 's cause was Mac Scelling himself . This source further states that Ruaidrí enlisted support not only support from Leath Cuinn — a reference to northern Ireland — but also from " les Norreys " and " les Norreis " — two terms that may refer to Norsemen . The Song of Dermot and the Earl , therefore , appears to indicate that Ruaidrí indeed received support from the Hebrides .
= = Archetypical gallowglass = =
The little that is known of Mac Scelling suggests that he was an early archetype of what latter became known as gallowglasses , heavily @-@ armed mercenaries , recruited from the West Highlands and Islands of Scotland by Irish rulers in later centuries . Although first specifically recorded in the last decade of the thirteenth century , gallowglasses were almost certainly utilised at least a generation before . The aforesaid apparent reference to Mac Scelling by the Song of Dermot and the Earl could be evidence that he had taken up residence in Ireland like later gallowglasses .
= 1943 Mazatlán hurricane =
The 1943 Mazatlán hurricane was a powerful tropical cyclone ( at least Category 4 ) that lashed the southern coast of Sinaloa on the morning of 9 October 1943 . The hurricane went essentially undetected before it made landfall just south of Mazatlán on 9 October with a pressure below 958 @.@ 6 millibars ( 28 @.@ 31 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of at least 136 miles per hour ( 219 km / h ) . The hurricane destroyed two small towns and half of Mazatlán , killing at least 106 persons , injuring 102 , and leaving over 1 @,@ 000 homeless . Total damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( 1943 USD , $ 56 million 2008 USD ) . The hurricane was the strongest on record to strike Mazatlán .
= = Meteorological history = =
Sources do not reveal the exact origin of this tropical cyclone . On 8 October , a developing tropical cyclone passed between the Revillagigedo Islands and Islas Marías . It moved rapidly northeastward and arrived on the coast of Sinaloa as an intense hurricane .
Mazatlán Observatory reported that the atmospheric pressure began dropping at 1 : 30 am on 9 October and fell 0 @.@ 827 inches of mercury ( 28 @.@ 0 hPa ) in 8 hours , and reached a minimum of 958 @.@ 6 millibars ( 28 @.@ 31 inHg ) . At 1530 UTC 9 October , the hurricane made landfall just south of Mazatlán . At 9 : 30 am , the observatory reported winds of 134 miles per hour ( 216 km / h ) for a period of 15 minutes , which period ended when the wind blew the anemometer loose . The hurricane ranks as the strongest on record to strike the city .
The storm dropped little precipitation as it passed Mazatlán , but 2 inches ( 51 mm ) fell on the afternoon of 9 October .
As the storm continued inland , it rapidly weakened and apparently dissipated over the Sierra Madre Occidental . The storm apparently passed into Chihuahua and was predicted to continue into the southern United States , though the remainder of its path is unknown .
The cyclone was dissipated over the state of Durango within a day after landfall . Heavy rain developed across parts of Texas on 12 / 13 October 1943 .
= = Effects and aftermath = =
Moving ashore as a powerful hurricane , the storm destroyed the small towns of El Roble , now in Mazatlán Municipality , and Palmillas . The storm partially destroyed Villa Unión ( a town now in Mazatlán Municipality ) and severely damaged the port at Mazatlán . In these towns , approximately 100 persons lost their lives . Though the storm was reported to have struck " without warning " , most residents in the destroyed cities ably reached safety in higher ground . The hurricane destroyed about half of the buildings in Mazatlán , and near the ocean , the combination of strong waves , high winds , and rainfall heavily damaged many hotels and houses . The storm damaged water systems , leaving people without potable water or sewage systems . In a 50 miles ( 80 km ) portion of the coastline , the storm severely impacted the communication and transportation infrastructure . The airport at Mazatlán sustained damage to its radio tower , and for at least 18 hours , the only communication between the city and the rest of Mexico was through the radio of a plane in the airport . Total damage was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 5 million ( 1943 USD , $ 56 million 2008 USD ) .
Of several fishing boats and a small Mexican Navy vessel caught in the storm , no trace reportedly was found ; all persons aboard these vessels apparently died . A small coastal boat arrived in the port of Mazatlán after the storm and reported six crew members missing .
Within two days after the storm , the death toll rose to 18 ; the next day , the Associated Press reported 52 deaths and 102 injuries . Ten days after the storm , military officials reported the death toll rose to 57 , and the number of people left homeless by the storm reached over 1 @,@ 000 .
By 24 hours after the storm , President Manuel Ávila Camacho ordered nurses and doctors on standby , and for military workers in the area to prepare to assist in the aftermath . By five days after the storm , officials had restored power and communications in the area . Around the same time , the president issued an appeal for public donations for storm victims . Within a week , citizens sent large quantities of food , clothing , and medicine to the worst affected areas . The President of Mexico personally visited Mazatlán with other officials , bringing aid in the form of medicine and clothing .
= = Famous people who witnessed it = =
Walt Disney
= = Comparison = =
Only two other intense hurricanes struck Mazatlan during the period of record : Hurricane Olivia ( 1975 ) , which hit the city with winds of 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) , and a storm in 1957 . However , Hurricane Tico ( 1983 ) moved ashore very near the city as a major hurricane .
= British rhythm and blues =
British rhythm and blues ( or R & B ) was a musical movement that developed in the United Kingdom between the late 1950s and the early 1960s , and reached a peak in the mid @-@ 1960s . It overlapped with , but was distinct from , the broader British beat and more purist British blues scenes , attempting to emulate the music of African American blues and rock and roll pioneers , such as Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf , Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley . It often placed greater emphasis on guitars and was often played with greater energy .
The origins of the movement were in the British jazz , skiffle and folk movements of the 1950s . The 1958 visit of Muddy Waters influenced key figures Cyril Davies and Alexis Korner to turn to electric blues and form the band Blues Incorporated , which became something of a clearing house for British rhythm and blues musicians . A flourishing scene of clubs and groups emerged in the later 1950s and 1960s and bands began to break through into mainstream success . Major acts included the Rolling Stones , Manfred Mann , The Animals , The Yardbirds , Them , and the Spencer Davis Group , who dominated the UK and US charts from 1964 , in the wake of the Merseybeat craze , becoming central to the mod subculture in the UK and a second wave of British Invasion acts in the US .
Several of the bands and their members went on to become leading rock music performers of the late 1960s and early 1970s , helping to create psychedelic , progressive and hard rock and making rhythm and blues a key component of that music . In the mid to late @-@ 1970s , British R & B enjoyed a revival through the British soul and disco scenes , the pub rock circuit , new wave music and the mod revival , and has enjoyed a resurgence of interest since the late 1980s . In the 2000s , a British version of contemporary R & B began gaining popularity , and since the late 2000s the success of British female singers influenced by soul and R & B led to talk of another " R & B British invasion " .
= = Characteristics = =
Commentators often distinguish British rhythm and blues bands from beat bands ( who were influenced by rock and roll and rockabilly ) on the one hand , and , from " purist " British blues ( which particularly emulated Chicago electric blues artists ) , on the other , although there was considerable crossover between the three sets of musicians . Merseybeat bands like the Beatles , or from the parallel beat scene in Manchester , were influenced by American forms of music that included rockabilly , girl groups and the early Motown sound , helping them to produce commercial orientated form of music that began to dominate the British charts from 1963 . However , bands from the developing London club scene were mainly concerned to emulate black rhythm and blues performers , including the work of Chess Records ' blues artists like Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf , but also wider rhythm and blues singer and rock and roll pioneers like Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley resulting in a " rawer " or " grittier " sound .
British rhythm and blues differed in tone from that of African American artists , often with more emphasis on guitars and sometimes with greater energy . British rhythm and blues singers were criticised for their emulation of rhythm and blues vocal styles , with shouts , glottal stops , moans and cries . However , vocalists such as Van Morrison , Mick Jagger , Eric Burdon and Steve Winwood did not attempt to emulate a particular singer and were seen by critics as able to sing the blues convincingly and with some power . In cover versions of R & B songs , riffs were often simplified or used less frequently . The object of the music was usually to whip up energy , rather than to produce musical finesse . Many groups were based around guitars ( rhythm , lead and bass ) and drums and as a result arrangements tended to be guitar @-@ oriented and at higher tempos than the originals . Amplification of guitars to the highest levels of underpowered amplifiers created the over @-@ driven guitar sound that would become characteristic of rock music .
Nick Logan and Bob Woffinden noted that after the split of Blues Incorporated at the end of 1962 , four main strands could be discerned in British Rhythm and Blues . Cyril Davies left to attempt to recreate the Chicago electric blues of Muddy Waters . The style would be the major influence on the later emergence of the blues boom , particularly through the work of John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers . Alexis Korner continued with Blues Incorporated , bringing in jazz saxophonist Graham Bond and developing a more jazz orientated sound . This strand would be taken up by acts including the Graham Bond Organisation , Manfred Mann and Zoot Money . A unique form was pursued by Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames , who as the resident band at the Flamingo club on Wardour Street , unusual in having a predominantly black audience of American GIs and locals , also utilised jazz , but mixed R & B with elements of Caribbean music , including Ska and bluebeat . The Rolling Stones and others focused on rocking guitar music based on the work of Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley and would be followed by many small guitar and drum based groups , many of which would rapidly move into rock music .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the early 1950s blues music was largely known in Britain through blues @-@ influenced boogie @-@ woogie , and the jump blues of Fats Waller and Louis Jordan . Imported recordings of American artists were brought over by African American servicemen stationed in Britain during and after World War II , merchant seamen visiting the ports of London , Liverpool , Newcastle on Tyne and Belfast , and in a trickle of ( illegal ) imports . From 1955 major British record labels HMV and EMI ( the latter , particularly through their subsidiary Decca Records ) , began to distribute American jazz and increasingly blues records to the emerging market .
Outside of recordings , occasional radio broadcasts were one of the few ways that British people could become familiar with the blues . A one @-@ off broadcast by Josh White while he was visiting Britain in 1951 was so popular that he was asked to perform for a series of programmes for the BBC , eventually titled The Glory Road and broadcast in 1952 . Later that year , folk song collector Alan Lomax , then resident in London , produced a series of three programmes under the title The Art of the Negro , of last of which , " Blues in the Mississippi Night " featured folk blues recordings by artists including Muddy Waters , Robert Johnson and John Lee Hooker and was the first introduction of many later followers of the blues to the music and hardships of life for African Americans in the Southern US . The next year the Jazz Club programme , hosted by Max Jones , included a recital of " Town and Country Blues " , which played music by a wide range of blues artists .
= = = Jazz = = =
The British rhythm and blues scene developed in London out of the related jazz , skiffle and folk club scenes of the 1950s . The first of these scenes , that of jazz , had developed during the Second World War as a reaction to swing , consciously re @-@ introducing older elements of American jazz , particularly that of New Orleans to produce trad jazz . This music incorporated elements of the blues and occasional blues @-@ influenced singles reached the British Charts , including Humphrey Lyttelton 's self @-@ penned " Bad Penny Blues " ( 1956 ) , the first jazz record to reach the British top 20 .
British trad jazz band @-@ leader Chris Barber was one of the major figures in the development and popularisation of rhythm and blues in Britain the 1950s . His interest in the blues would help foster both the skiffle craze and the development of electric rhythm and blues , as members of his dance band would be fundamental to both movements . He founded the National Jazz League partly as a means of popularising the blues , served as co @-@ director of the National Jazz Federation and helped establish the Marquee Club , which would become one of the major venues for British R & B bands . He also brought over American folk and blues performers who found they were much better known and paid in Europe than America , a series of tours that began with Josh White and Big Bill Broonzy in 1951 , and would include Brownie McGhee , Sonny Terry , Memphis Slim , Muddy Waters and Lonnie Johnson .
= = = Skiffle = = =
Lonnie Johnson played at the Royal Festival Hall in 1952 on a bill opened by a group led by the young Tony Donegan , who later took Johnson 's forename as his own . Donegan became the key figure in the development of the British skiffle " craze " , beginning in Ken Colyer 's Jazzmen by playing American folk and blues songs , particularly those derived from the recordings of Huddie Leadbetter , during intervals to the accompaniment of guitar , washboard and tea @-@ chest bass in a lively style that emulated American jug bands . After Colyer left in 1954 to form a new outfit , the band became Chris Barber 's Jazz Band , and members of the band played " race blues " songs in concert intervals and recorded as The Lonnie Donegan Skiffle Group . They released their high @-@ tempo version of Leadbelly 's " Rock Island Line " in 1956 and it became a major hit , spending eight months in the Top 20 , peaking at number six ( and number eight in the U.S. ) . It was the first début record to go gold in Britain , selling over a million copies worldwide . This stimulated the explosion of the British " skiffle craze " and it has been estimated that in the late 1950s there were 30 – 50 @,@ 000 skiffle groups in Britain . Sales of guitars grew rapidly and groups performed on banjos , improvised bass and percussion in church halls , cafes and the flourishing coffee bars of Soho , London . In addition to members of the Beatles , a large number of British rhythm and blues musicians began their careers playing skiffle , including Van Morrison , Ronnie Wood , Mick Jagger and Roger Daltrey . The fashion created a demand for opportunities to play versions of American folk , blues and jazz music that would contribute to the growth of a club scene .
= = = Folk = = =
Until the mid @-@ 1950s in Britain the blues was seen as a form of folk music . When Broonzy toured England he played a folk blues set to fit British expectations of American blues , rather than his current electric Chicago blues . Skiffle clubs included the ‘ Ballad and Blues ’ club in a pub in Soho , co @-@ founded by Ewan MacColl . In its early stages these clubs saw the playing of British and American folk music that included folk blues . As the skiffle craze subsided from the mid @-@ 1950s many of these clubs , following the lead of MacColl , began to shift towards the performance of English traditional folk material , partly as a reaction to the growth of American dominated pop and rock n ’ roll music , often banning American music from performances and became more exclusively English folk clubs .
The more traditional American folk blues continued to provide 1960s British groups with material , particularly after the emergence of Bob Dylan , who also popularised folk blues songs . In 1964 , for example , the song @-@ catalogue of Huddie Ledbetter ( " Leadbelly " ) provided The Animals with " The House of the Rising Sun " , Manfred Mann with " John Hardy " and The Four Pennies with " Black Girl " . British acoustic blues continued to develop as part of the folk scene . In the early 1960s , folk guitar pioneers Bert Jansch , John Renbourn and particularly Davy Graham , played blues , folk and jazz , developing a distinctive guitar style known as folk baroque . It continued with figures like Ian A. Anderson and his Country Blues Band , and Al Jones . Most British acoustic blues players could achieve little commercial success and found it difficult to gain recognition for their " imitations " of the blues in the US , being overshadowed by the rhythm and blues and electric blues that had emerged in the later 1950s .
= = = Development = = =
= = = = Blues Incorporated = = = =
Blues harpist Cyril Davies ran the London Skiffle Club at the Roundhouse public house in London ’ s Soho , which served as a focal point for British skiffle acts . Like guitarist Alexis Korner , he had worked for Chris Barber , playing in the R & B segment Barber introduced to his show and as part of the supporting band for visiting US artists . They began to play together as a duo and in 1957 , deciding their central interest was blues , they closed the skiffle club and reopened a month later as The London Blues and Barrelhouse Club . It acted as a venue for visiting artists and their own performances . The visit of Muddy Waters in 1958 had a major impact on the duo and on the nature of British R & B in general . Initially British audiences were shocked by Waters 's amplified electric blues , but he was soon playing to ecstatic crowds and receiving rave reviews . Where British blues had often emulated Delta blues and country blues in the emerging British folk revival , Davies and Korner , who had supported Waters on tour , now began to play high @-@ powered electric blues , forming the band Blues Incorporated .
Blues Incorporated had a fluid line up and became a clearing house for British rhythm and blues musicians in the later 1950s and early 1960s . These included future members of the Rolling Stones , The Yardbirds , Manfred Mann and The Kinks ; beside Graham Bond and Long John Baldry . As well as acting as a mentor to these figures and others , including John Mayall and Jimmy Page , Korner was also a historian , writer and record collector pivotal in the growth of the movement , and often referred to as " the father of British blues " . Blues Incorporated established a regular " Rhythm and Blues Night " at the Ealing Jazz Club and were given a residency at the Marquee Club , from which in 1962 they took the name of the first British blues album , R & B from the Marquee ( Decca ) , but Korner and Davies had split over the issue of including horn sections in the Blues Incorporated sound before its release . Korner continued with various line @-@ ups for Blues Incorporated , while Davies went on to form his R & B All Stars .
= = = = Expansion of the scene = = = =
Early British rhythm and blues bands like Blues Incorporated found that folk clubs would not accept amplified blues performances . However , many London trad jazz clubs moved over to the style . In addition to the Roundhouse and the Marquee in central London , these included The Flamingo , the Crawdaddy Club , Richmond , where the Rolling Stones first began to gain attention , Klooks Kleek , The Ealing Club and the Eel Pie Island Hotel . Blues clubs were appearing in the capital at such a rate that in 1963 Melody Maker declared London " The New Chicago ! " . The scene soon began to spread out beyond London , particularly into East Anglia and the Midlands , with clubs in Norwich and Birmingham adopting the genre . Jazz bands also followed suit , with the Mike Cotton Jazz Band becoming the Mike Cotton Sound , Warwick 's Tony and the Talons becoming the Original Roadrunners and Burton on Trent 's Atlantix becoming Rhythm and Blues Incorporated .
From 1962 demand for blues recordings in Britain and Europe led to new outlets for American recordings , Chicago recordings that were now available included Vee Jay Records through EMI 's Stateside label and Chess Records through Pye International 's R & B series . These records were enthusiastically sought and collected by a new generation of enthusiasts . The increasing appetite for rhythm and blues was reflected in the growing numbers of Afro @-@ American artists visiting the country . From 1962 the American Folk Blues Festival , organised by German promoters Horst Lippmann and Fritz Rau , brought American blues stars including Waters , Wolf , Sonny Boy Williamson , and John Lee Hooker to the country . In 1964 the American Folk Blues and Gospel Caravan arrived in the UK for an 11 @-@ date tour , including in its line @-@ up Sister Rosetta Tharpe , Blind Gary Davis , Sonny Terry , Muddy Waters and Otis Spann . The original dates sold out rapidly and six more had to be added . Later that year , the first of what was to become the annual National Jazz and Blues Festival was held at Reading in Berkshire .
= = = = Peak = = = =
1964 was the year of most rapid expansion and the peak of the British R & B boom . It has been estimated that there were 300 rhythm and blues bands in England at the beginning of the year and over 2 @,@ 000 by the end . In June 1964 John Lee Hooker 's 1956 " Dimples " reached number 23 on the UK charts during a stay of 10 weeks . The song was chosen by The Spencer Davis Group as their May 1964 debut single and The Animals covered it on their first album . Howling Wolf 's " Smokestack Lightning " , released in the UK by Pye International Records that year , peaked at number 42 in the singles chart and was covered by The Yardbirds , Manfred Mann , The Animals and The Who . On 5 December 1964 the Rolling Stones version of Willie Dixon 's " Little Red Rooster " , based on Howlin ' Wolf 's 1961 version and recorded at Chess Records in Chicago , topped the UK chart for one week . Willie Dixon @-@ penned songs would continue to be covered by British artists .
= = = Major acts = = =
= = = = The Rolling Stones = = = =
The most commercially successful act in the genre , were the Rolling Stones . Keith Richards and Mick Jagger , who had renewed their childhood association after discovering a shared interest in R & B records , were introduced to guitarist Brian Jones through Alexis Korner , after a Blues Incorporated gig at the Ealing Jazz Club . Blues Incorporated contained two other future members of the Rolling Stones : Ian Stewart and Charlie Watts . Formed in London in 1962 , Jones took their name from a track on the cover of a Muddy Waters album and they abandoned blues purism before their line @-@ up solidified to focus on a wide range of rhythm and blues artists . They debuted at The Marquee and soon gained a residency at the Crawdaddy Club , building up a reputation as a live act . They signed a recording contract with Decca and their first single was a cover of Chuck Berry 's " Come On " released in June 1963 . Despite its being virtually unpromoted by the band or the record company , their reputation among R & B fans helped it reached number 21 on the UK singles chart .
They produced their first eponymously titled album in 1964 , which largely consisted of rhythm and blues standards . Following in the wake of the Beatles ' national and then international success , the Rolling Stones soon established themselves as the second most popular UK band and joined the British Invasion of the American record charts as leaders of a second wave of R & B oriented bands . In addition to Chicago blues numbers , the Rolling Stones also covered songs by Chuck Berry and Bobby and Shirley Womack , the latter 's , " It 's All Over Now " , giving them their first UK number one in 1964 . After the success of their cover of " Little Red Rooster " in 1964 , the song @-@ writing partnership between Jagger and Richards gradually began to dominate the band 's output , giving them their breakthrough international hit " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction ( 1965 ) , a song which borrowed phrases and rhythms from R & B standards , and would be covered by both Otis Redding and Aretha Franklin . The importance of the writing partnership contributed to the marginalisation of Jones and marked a shift away from R & B material . They would investigate a series of new musical styles in their long career , but blues songs and influences continued to surface in the Rolling Stones ' music .
= = = = Other London bands = = = =
Other London @-@ based bands that pursued a similar course to the Rolling Stones included the Yardbirds , the Kinks , the Downliners Sect , the Pretty Things and Pink Floyd .
The Yardbirds began as the Metropolis Blues Quartet . By 1963 they had acquired Eric Clapton as a lead guitarist and were acting as the backing band for Sonny Boy Williamson on his British tour . They earned a formidable reputation as a live act , developing frantic improvised guitar – harmonica " rave @-@ ups " , but they enjoyed only modest success with singles based on R & B covers . In 1965 they cut the more pop @-@ oriented single " For Your Love " , which made the top 10 in the UK and US , but the move away from the blues prompted Clapton to quit the band for a stint with John Mayall 's Bluesbreakers and then to form Cream . His replacement Jeff Beck ( and eventually his replacement Jimmy Page ) , saw the band enjoy a series of transatlantic hits and to go on to become pioneers of psychedelic rock .
After an early lack of success with R & B standards , the Kinks enjoyed their breakthrough with the single " You Really Got Me " ( 1964 ) . It was written by Ray Davies , provided a model for later riff @-@ based hard rock , and reached number one in the UK and the top 10 in the US . The follow @-@ up " All Day and All of the Night " ( 1964 ) reached number two in the US , while the band also released two full @-@ length albums and several EPs in this period .
The Downliners Sect formed in 1963 , and developed a strong reputation in London clubs , but had less commercial success than many of their contemporaries .
The Pretty Things had UK hits with " Don 't Bring Me Down " ( 1964 ) and the self penned " Honey I Need " ( 1965 ) , which both reached the top twenty , but they failed to break into the American market and would be chiefly remembered for their later psychedelic work .
The Pink Floyd began as rhythm and blues outfit the Tea Set , adopting a new name based on those of blues musicians Floyd Council and Pink Anderson and playing the London blues clubs from 1966 . By the time they began to record they had already moved on to psychedelic compositions and jams that would make them a central feature of the emerging London Underground scene .
= = = = Provincial groups = = = =
Bands to emerge from other major British cities included The Animals from Newcastle , Them from Belfast and the Spencer Davis Group and The Moody Blues from Birmingham . None of these bands played exclusively rhythm and blues , often relying on sources that included Brill Building and girl group songs for their hit singles , but it remained at the core of their early albums .
The Animals ' sound was characterised by the keyboards of Alan Price and the powerful vocals of Eric Burdon . They moved to London in 1964 and released a series of successful singles , beginning with transatlantic hit " House of the Rising Sun " , mixing more commercial folk and soul , while their albums were dominated by blues standards .
Them , with their vocalist and multi @-@ instrumentalist Van Morrison , had a series of hits with " Baby , Please Don 't Go " ( 1964 ) , which reached the top 10 in the UK , and " Here Comes the Night " ( 1965 ) , which made the top 40 in the U.S. , but perhaps their most enduring legacy was the B @-@ side " Gloria " , which became a garage rock standard .
The Spencer Davis Group had their first UK number one with the Jackie Edwards penned " Keep on Running " ( 1965 ) , but became largely a vehicle for the young keyboard player and vocalist Steve Winwood , who at only 18 co @-@ wrote " Gimme Some Lovin ' " ( 1967 ) and " I 'm a Man " ( 1967 ) , both of which reached the Billboard 100 top 10 and became R & B standards .
The Moody Blues had only one major R & B hit with a cover of " Go Now " ( 1964 ) , which reached number one in the UK and number ten in the US . Subsequent singles failed to penetrate the top 20 and hardly broke the top 100 in the US , marking a steep decline in the band 's fortunes . However , they would return after line @-@ up changes to be one of the most important psychedelic rock bands and a major influence on progressive rock .
= = = = Mod groups = = = =
The British Mod subculture , which was at its height in 1965 and 1966 , was musically centred on rhythm and blues and later soul music , but the artists that performed the original music were not available in small London clubs around which the scene was based . British R & B bands like the Stones , Yardbirds and Kinks had a following among mods but a large number of specifically mod bands also emerged to fill this gap . These included The Small Faces , The Creation , The Action , The Smoke , John 's Children and most successfully The Who . The Who 's early promotional material tagged them as producing " maximum rhythm and blues " , but by about 1966 they moved from attempting to emulate American R & B to producing songs that reflected the Mod lifestyle . Many of these bands were able to enjoy cult and then national success in the UK , but found it difficult to break into the American market . Only the Who managed , after some difficulty , to produce a significant US following , particularly after their appearances at the Monterey Pop Festival ( 1967 ) and Woodstock ( 1969 ) .
= = = = Jazz @-@ influenced acts = = = =
Among more jazz @-@ influenced acts the Organisation were led by Graham Bond 's organ and saxophone playing and gruff vocals . Their rhythm section of Jack Bruce and Ginger Baker would go on to form Cream with Eric Clapton in 1967 . Manfred Mann had a much smoother sound and one of the most highly rated vocalists in the scene in Paul Jones . They enjoyed their first success with covers of girl group songs " Do Wah Diddy Diddy " ( 1964 ) and " Sha La La " ( 1964 ) , the first of which reached number one in both the UK and the US , but largely stuck to rhythm and blues standards on their albums . Zoot Money , whose Big Roll Band mixed R & B , soul , rock and roll and jazz , and was one of the most popular live acts of the era , made little impact in terms of record sales , but is noted for the later successes of its members , including guitarist Andy Summers , pianist Dave Greenslade , drummer Jon Hiseman , bassist Tony Reeves and saxophonist Clive Burrows . Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames mixed jazz , ska and bluebeat into his music and had three number one singles in the UK , beginning with " Yeh Yeh " ( 1965 ) .
= = = = African @-@ Caribbean and Afro @-@ American artists = = = =
A number of visiting black stars became part of the British R & B scene . These included Geno Washington , an American singer stationed in England with the Air Force . He was invited to join what became Geno Washington & The Ram Jam Band by guitarist Pete Gage in 1965 and enjoyed top 40 hit singles and two top 10 albums before the band split up in 1969 . Another American GI , Herbie Goins , sang with Blues Incorporated before leading his own band , the Nightimers . Jimmy James , born in Jamaica , moved to London after two local number one hits with The Vagabonds in 1960 and built a strong reputation as a live act , releasing a live album and their debut The New Religion in 1966 and achieving moderate success with singles before the original Vagabonds broke up in 1970 . Champion Jack Dupree was a New Orleans blues and boogie woogie pianist , who toured Europe and settled there from 1960 , living in Switzerland and Denmark , then in Halifax , England in the 1970s and 1980s , before finally settling in Germany .
The most significant and successful visiting artist was Jimi Hendrix who in early 1966 , after years on the chitlin circuit as sideman for major R & B acts as well as playing in bands in New York , was invited to England to record as a solo artist by former Animals bassist Chas Chandler . With Mitch Mitchell on drums and Noel Redding on bass , the band formed around him as The Jimi Hendrix Experience became major stars in the UK , with three top ten hits in early 1967 @.@ it was followed later that year by the psychedelic album Are You Experienced ? , which became a major hit in the US after Hendrix 's triumphant return at the Monterey Pop Festival and made him one of the major figures of late 60s rock .
= = = = Solo artists = = = =
A number of solo artists who emerged from the British R & B scene would go on to highly successful careers in the later 1960s and 1970s . These included Long John Baldry , Rod Stewart and Elton John . After the dissolution of Blues Incorporated in 1962 Long John Baldry joined the Cyril Davies R & B All Stars , and after Davies ' death in early 1964 took over leadership of the group , renaming it Long John Baldry and His Hoochie Coochie Men . The band featured Rod Stewart as a second vocalist , with whom Baldry formed short lived proto @-@ supergroup Steampacket in 1965 . Baldry moved on to front Bluesology , which had originally been formed as an R & B band in 1962 by teenage keyboardist Reggie Dwight , later better known as Elton John . Baldry enjoyed his greatest success with pop ballads , beginning with " Let the Heartaches Begin " ( 1967 ) , which reached number one in Britain , but , despite supporting the Beatles and the Rolling Stones , he remained virtually unknown outside of the UK . After Steampacket dissolved in 1966 , Rod Stewart joined blues @-@ rock combo Shotgun Express and then The Jeff Beck Group , and when that broke up in 1969 he moved on to The Small Faces , which became The Faces , and also began to pursue his solo career , mixing R & B with rock and folk , to become one of the most successful British solo artists of the 1970s . Elton John , taking his first name from Bluesology saxophonist Elton Dean and his last from John Baldry , formed a partnership with lyricist Bernie Taupin in 1968 and after writing hits for major pop artists embarked on a solo career that would be the most commercially successful of the early 1970s and one of the most sustained in pop music .
= = = = British blues boom = = = =
The wider rhythm and blues boom overlapped , both chronologically and in terms of personnel , with the later and more narrowly focused British blues boom . The blues boom began to come to prominence in the mid @-@ 1960s as the rhythm and blues movement began to peter out leaving a nucleus of instrumentalists with a wide knowledge of blues forms and techniques . Central to the blues boom were John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , who began to gain national and international attention after the release of Blues Breakers with Eric Clapton ( Beano ) album ( 1966 ) , considered one of the seminal British blues recordings . Peter Green started a " second great epoch of British blues " , as he replaced Clapton in the Bluesbreakers after Clapton 's departure to form Cream .
In 1967 , after one record with the Bluesbreakers , Green , with the Bluesbreakers ' rhythm section Mick Fleetwood and John McVie , formed Peter Green 's Fleetwood Mac . Mike Vernon , who had produced the " Beano " album set up the Blue Horizon record label and signed Fleetwood Mac and other emerging blues acts . Other major acts included Free , Ten Years After , and Duster Bennett . Fleetwood Mac 's eponymous début album reached the UK top 5 in early 1968 and as the instrumental " Albatross " reached number one in the single charts in early 1969 . Chicken Shack , formed at the peak of the boom in 1965 by Stan Webb , were unusual in having a female vocalist and keyboard player in Christine Perfect . They had a British hit with Etta James ' R & B classic " I 'd Rather Go Blind " in 1969 , before Perfect left to join her husband John McVie in Fleetwood Mac , but remained largely focused on blues standards . The band then suffered a series of line @-@ up changes and , although managing a comeback on the club circuit , they never achieved another mainstream breakthrough and split up in 1973 . The last years of the 1960s were , as Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz put it , " the commercial apex of the British blues boom " .
= = = Decline = = =
By 1967 most of the surviving major British R & B acts had moved away from covers and R & B @-@ inspired music to psychedelic rock , and from there they would shift into new subgenres . Some , like Jethro Tull followed bands like the Moody Blues away from 12 @-@ bar structures and harmonicas into complex , classical @-@ influenced progressive rock . Members of the next generation of blues @-@ based bands , including Led Zeppelin , Deep Purple and Black Sabbath , played a loud form of blues @-@ influenced rock , would lead to the development of hard rock and ultimately heavy metal . Some , like Mayall , continued to play a " pure " form of the blues , but largely outside of mainstream notice . The structure of clubs , venues and festivals that had grown up in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Britain virtually disappeared in the 1970s . By 1970 British rhythm and blues had virtually ceased to exist as an active genre . Rhythm and blues bands began to find it very difficult to achieve serious album sales , even in the UK . Vinegar Joe , formed in 1971 around the vocals of Elkie Brooks and Robert Palmer and the instrumental talents of Pete Gage and Steve York , despite popular stage performances , broke up after only three albums with disappointing sales two years later .
= = = Revivals = = =
British R & B continued to be played in the Northern Soul club scene , where early soul records , particularly those of Motown , were highly prized . There were also bands on the London pub rock circuit . Occasional R & B @-@ based pub rock acts like Dr Feelgood managed to build a following through tireless touring . They topped the British charts with live album Stupidity ( 1976 ) , but failed to make a significant impact in the US . With the rise of disco music , British soul music became popular in the mid @-@ late 1970s .
A handful of pub rock acts managed to achieve mainstream success after the advent of punk rock , often being re @-@ categorised as new wave music , including Graham Parker and the Rumour , Nick Lowe , Squeeze and Elvis Costello . London @-@ based R & B pub rock bands received a major boost when The Jam kicked off the mod revival in 1977 with their debut album In the City , which mixed R & B standards with originals modelled on The Who 's early singles . They confirmed their status as the leading mod revival band with their third album All Mod Cons ( 1978 ) , on which Paul Weller 's song @-@ writing drew heavily on the British @-@ focused narratives of the Kinks . Pub rock bands like Red Beans and Rice , The Little Roosters , The Inmates , Nine Below Zero and Eddie and the Hot Rods , became major acts in the growing mod revival scene in London . Other bands grew up to feed the desire for mod music , often combining the music of 60s mod groups with elements of punk music , including The Lambrettas , The Merton Parkas , Squire , and Purple Hearts . These acts managed to develop cult followings and some had pop hits , before the revival petered out in the early 80s . Weller broke up The Jam in 1982 and formed The Style Council , who abandoned most of the elements of punk to adopt music much more based in R & B and early soul . Some major figures of the movement , including Robert Palmer and Steve Winwood , re @-@ emerged as solo artists in the early 1980s , being as defined as blue @-@ eyed soul singers .
In 1979 , Dave Kelly , who had been a member of the John Dummer Blues Band formed The Blues Band with ex @-@ Manfred Mann vocalist Paul Jones and Gary Fletcher , who continued to tour and record rhythm and blues into the new millennium . Roots music , including rhythm and blues , began to enjoy another resurgence of interest towards the end of the 1980s and in the 1990s . Annual blues festivals were established , including The Great British Rhythm and Blues Festival , held at Colne in Lancashire from 1989 , which hosts both US and British R & B acts . In 1994 Jools Holland , former keyboard player with Squeeze and presenter of the highly influential TV show Later ... , reshaped his backing band as Jools Holland 's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra and , as well as supporting him on the show , they embarked on a series of tours . After leaving the Rolling Stones in 1997 Bill Wyman formed the Rhythm Kings , which featured guitarists Peter Frampton and Albert Lee as well former Procol Harum keyboardist Gary Brooker , touring and producing a series of R & B based albums . By 2000 the fanzine Blues Matters ! had managed to become a regular glossy magazine .
During the 1980s and 1990s musicians , particularly African Americans , mixed pop with disco like beats and high tech electronic production to produce the new genre of contemporary R & B , adding elements of other genres , including funk , hip hop , and soul music . In the 2000s , British artists began to enjoy success with the genre , including Craig David and Estelle . Much of the music produced by modern British R & B artists tend to incorporate electropop sounds , as exemplified by artists such as Jay Sean and Taio Cruz . In the 2000s ( decade ) there was success in the US for British female artists who mixed soul music with elements of rhythm and blues , including Amy Winehouse , Duffy , Leona Lewis and Adele , leading to talk of another " R & B British invasion " .
= = Significance = =
Because of the very different circumstances from which they came , and in which they played , the rhythm and blues produced by British artists was very different in tone from that created by African Americans , often with more emphasis on guitars and sometimes with greater energy . They have been criticised for exploiting the massive catalogue of African American music , but it has also been noted that they both popularised that music , bringing it to British , world and in some cases American audiences , and helping to build the reputation of existing and past rhythm and blues artists . In order to sustain their careers most British R & B artists soon moved on from recording and performing American standards to writing and recording their own music . Many from the 60s helped pioneer psychedelic , and eventually progressive , hard rock and heavy metal , mixing in elements of world , folk and classical music . Others from the 1970s and 1980s , helped shape new wave and post @-@ punk music and had a major impact on later genres , including Britpop . As a result , British rhythm and blues has been a major component of the sound of rock music .
= = UK chart hits = =
This table lists recordings that made the UK Singles Chart in the early 1960s , by British groups , of material previously recorded by American rhythm and blues musicians :
= Oryzomys nelsoni =
Oryzomys nelsoni is an extinct rodent of María Madre Island , Nayarit , Mexico . Within the genus Oryzomys of the family Cricetidae , it may have been most closely related to the mainland species O. albiventer . Since its first description in 1898 , most authors have regarded it as a distinct species , but it has also been classified
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as the outcome of each plate appearance and the circumstances of any baserunner 's advance around the bases , the official scorer is also charged with making judgment calls that do not affect the progress or outcome of the game . Judgment calls are primarily made about errors , unearned runs , fielder 's choice , the value of hits in certain situations , and wild pitches , all of which are included in the record compiled . This record is used to compile statistics for each player and team . A box score is a summary of the official scorer 's game record .
Newspaper writers initially performed this function in the early days of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . As the importance of baseball player statistics increased , teams began to pressure writer @-@ scorers for favorable scoring decisions for their players in games played at home stadiums , and a home team scoring bias was perceived by many coaches , players , and writers . Controversies related to perceived bias or errors in scoring have led to questions about important baseball records , including several no @-@ hitters and Joe DiMaggio 's 56 @-@ game hitting streak of 1941 . By 1979 , many major newspapers decided to ban their writers from scoring baseball games due to conflict @-@ of @-@ interest concerns , and in 1980 MLB began to hire independent official scorers .
Since 1980 , some reforms have been suggested to improve the performance of official scorers . In 2001 , MLB formed a scoring committee to review their performance , and by 2008 the committee was given the authority to overturn scoring decisions . This authority was used by the scoring committee three times during the 2009 season . In 2006 , an academic study seemed to confirm the historical existence of a home @-@ team bias in scoring decisions , but this measurable bias decreased after 1979 .
= = History = =
Henry Chadwick is generally credited with the invention of scorekeeping in baseball . Chadwick was also the inventor of the modern box score and the writer of the first rule book for the game of baseball . Since baseball statistics were initially a subject of interest to sportswriters , the role of the official scorer in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) in the early days of the sport was performed by newspaper writers . A judgment call that is required by the official scorer does not alter the outcome of a game , but these judgments impact the statistical records of the game . As the subjective scoring decisions which are used to calculate baseball statistics began to be used to determine the relative value of baseball players , MLB began to require approval from the league before a writer @-@ scorer could be assigned to produce the scoring report for a game . By the 1970s , writers who were willing to score games for MLB were required to have attended 100 or more games per year in the prior three years and to be chosen by the local chapter chairman of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Qualified candidates for scoring were submitted to the leagues for approval .
= = = Early controversies = = =
Baseball writer @-@ scorers usually worked at the games played at the home stadium of the team which they covered for their newspaper . The writer @-@ scorers were tasked with making objective decisions that could impact the statistics of the team they were writing about . Because of this affiliation , the official scorer was often presumed by the baseball players and managers to favor the home team when making the required judgment calls during the course of a game .
Criticism of scoring decisions date to the earliest days of the game . Some historians claim that Joe DiMaggio 's record 56 @-@ game hitting streak in 1941 was made possible by several generous rulings at Yankee Stadium . In 1953 , Al Rosen narrowly missed being recognized for achieving a rare " triple crown " in hitting after a questioned error caused him to finish the season one hit short of winning the American League batting title .
Although scoring decisions were widely believed to favor the hitter over the defense , many players believed this bias shifts in favor of the pitcher when he carries a no @-@ hitter ( where a pitcher throws a complete game without giving up a hit ) into the late innings . Infielder Dave Johnson said , " I 've been involved in five or six no @-@ hit games , and all of them were suspected of being helped by hometown scoring . " One of the last controversies of the writer @-@ scorer era was seen in a 1978 game at St. Louis . In that game , St. Louis pitcher Bob Forsch was pitching a no @-@ hitter in the 8th inning against Philadelphia when a hard ground ball hit into the hole between shortstop and third was narrowly missed by third baseman Ken Reitz . The official scorer ( who was a writer for the local newspaper ) judged the play to be an error rather than a hit , and Forsch went on to pitch the first no @-@ hitter of the 1978 season .
= = = Newspaper reaction = = =
A player 's baseball statistics can increase or reduce the leverage which he may have in future contract negotiations . Many players also have monetary incentives written in their contracts which are based on statistical measurements , and official scorers have the option to reverse a scoring decision within 24 hours of the conclusion of a game . Because of this , baseball writer @-@ scorers were often subject to pressure from the players they were covering in their newspaper . After a game in 1962 , infielder Jerry Adair asked for a meeting with local writer Neal Eskridge after learning that he was the scorer for the game . Angry about an error he had received in the game , Jerry " cursed [ Neal ] thoroughly and imaginatively , and told him , ' Never talk to me again . ' " They reportedly did not speak to each other for almost four years . In the early days of baseball , a disagreement over a scoring decision occasionally led to physical altercations between the player and the writer . Confrontational incidents decreased after 1974 following a warning from MLB .
The pressure and the perceived conflict of interest faced by the baseball writers who scored games for MLB eventually led many major newspapers to end the practice for their employees . In 1958 , The Washington Post prohibited their writers from scoring baseball games . Over the next two decades other major newspapers joined in the writer @-@ scorer ban , including The New York Times , the Los Angeles Times , The Boston Globe , and the major daily newspapers published in Atlanta , Detroit , Milwaukee , Minneapolis , and Philadelphia . In 1980 , MLB resolved the conflict by directly hiring official scorers for each stadium .
= = = After 1980 = = =
Today , the MLB commissioner 's office directly employs the official scorers who are responsible for producing score reports , but most scorers are hired on the recommendation of the public relations directors of baseball teams . Official scorers are typically retired writers , coaches , and umpires . Unlike umpiring teams , MLB official scorers do not typically travel between stadiums . Each official scorer is assigned to a stadium for the season , with each stadium having one or more scorers . Scorers now have access to replay video from different angles which they can review before making a decision . As of 2012 , MLB official scorers earned $ 150 per game . Official scorers are not required to meet the old BBWAA requirements , and are also no longer required to pass a written test , which was once administered by the National League before it was phased out in the mid @-@ 1990s . Potential scorers are generally required to briefly apprentice under an existing scorer before they are allowed to work alone .
Official scorers are only occasionally terminated , but there have been cases when a scorer was replaced after making decisions which displeased the home team . In 1992 the Seattle Mariner players signed a petition to have their official scorer replaced , and in 2001 the management of the Boston Red Sox ordered that a rookie scorer not be allowed to score another game after pitcher Hideo Nomo lost a no @-@ hitter on a close play in right field that was ruled a hit rather than an error .
In 2001 , MLB formed a scoring committee to evaluate the performance of official scorers . In 2008 , the scoring committee was given the authority to enforce the portion of rule 10 @.@ 01 ( a ) which allows the league to change a scoring decision that is " clearly erroneous " . The committee has used this authority on only a few occasions , having overturned three scoring decisions in the 2009 season . The scoring committee came under some scrutiny after a game on August 31 , 2008 . Milwaukee pitcher C.C. Sabathia threw a disputed 7 – 0 one @-@ hit shutout at Pittsburgh . Milwaukee manager Ned Yost argued that the hit recorded by Pittsburgh should have been recorded as an error by the pitcher , but Pittsburgh official scorer Bob Webb disagreed . Yost commented , " That 's a joke . That wasn 't even close . Whoever the scorekeeper was absolutely denied major league baseball a nice no @-@ hitter right there . " The official scorer had argued that the batter was too close to first base to be put out by a clean play . Milwaukee appealed the ruling to the scoring committee , but on September 3 the committee reviewed the footage and supported the ruling by Webb , saying the ruling was not " clearly erroneous " as required by rule 10 @.@ 01 ( a ) .
= = = Outside MLB = = =
Official scorers in the minor leagues are generally hired by the teams to score games at their stadium . Some minor league scorers have a history or connection with the team , including former players , former coaches , and local writers . Official scorers for international baseball competitions are generally selected by the organizer of the competition .
= = Analysis and proposed changes = =
Baseball players , managers , and writers have speculated about bias by the official scorer for decades , but this subject has been objectively studied only recently . In 2006 , the rate at which errors have been recorded in MLB by the official scorer was investigated under many situations . The rate at which errors are called " is higher when the quality of fielding is suspect " and is " lower when playing conditions are better " , but these factors " do not fully explain variations in error rate " . After other known factors are accounted for , evidence was found that official scorers are biased toward the home team , but that this bias was reduced after the end of the writer @-@ scorer era in 1979 . Further , errors are significantly more likely to be called in the National League than in the American League .
Changes have been proposed over the years to reduce possible inconsistencies between scorers and possible mistakes made by the official scorer , especially as the end of the writer @-@ scorer era began to seem likely in the late 1970s . The BBWAA and professional baseball umpires have suggested the creation of a " fifth umpire " . Four @-@ man umpire crews rotate officiating responsibilities after each game , and travel to several stadiums per year . This new fifth umpire would travel with the umpiring crew to score games and take his turn on the bases , but MLB has been reluctant to incur the increased cost . More recently , there have been suggestions to move the official scorer out of the press box and closer to the field behind the plate to get the best view of the game . MLB has conceded that this could be a good idea , but it is not currently feasible because of the design of most stadiums in the league .
= = Responsibilities = =
The rules which govern the official scorer are spelled out in Rule 10 of the official rules of baseball . The fundamental responsibilities of the official scorer are explained in rule 10 @.@ 01 .
= = = Rule 10 @.@ 01 = = =
The rules of baseball require that the official scorer view the game only from the press box , for two basic reasons . First , this ensures that every scorer has nearly the same perspective of the game . One of the intentions of this rule is to improve consistency in scorekeeping decisions between different official scorers working on different games at the same stadium , and between scorers in different stadiums . Second , the press box is the most neutral position within the stadium . Seated in the press box , the official scorer is surrounded by writers and broadcasters who are ostensibly neutral , and the scorer is less likely to be unduly influenced by the players , the coaches , and the crowd .
Rule 10 @.@ 01 states that the scorer is never allowed to make scorekeeping decisions that conflict with the official rules governing scorekeeping . The official scorer is permitted to view available replays and to solicit the opinions of others , but the official scorer is given the sole authority to make the judgment calls that are required in the score report . When a judgment call is made , the official scorer is obligated to immediately communicate that decision to the media in the press box and to the broadcasters , usually through a microphone . The official scorer has up to 24 hours to reconsider or reverse a judgment call that was made during the game . In rare circumstances , MLB 's scoring committee may reverse a scoring decision that is " clearly erroneous " .
Finally , within 36 hours of a game 's conclusion ( including the conclusion of a suspended game ) , the official scorer is required to create a summary of the game using a form established by the league . This task is performed for each game that is scored , including called games which must be completely replayed at a later date , and games that end in forfeit . The information in the score report includes the date , location of the game , the names of the teams , the names of the umpires who officiated the game , the final score , and the data that is required in rule 10 @.@ 02 .
= = = Judgment calls = = =
Most plays in the game are resolved in such a way that the scorer is not given more than one choice when recording the outcome of the play , but several types of plays are open to the interpretation of the official scorer . In any difficult judgment call where the official scorer is required to decide whether to credit a hit to the batter , the scorer is guided by rule 10 @.@ 05 . This rule directs the official scorer to give the benefit of the doubt to the hitter when the scorer believes that the decision to credit the batter with a hit is equally valid to an alternative scoring decision . In a similarly difficult judgment call where the official scorer believes that an earned run or an unearned run are equally valid scoring decisions , rule 10 @.@ 16 directs the official scorer to give the benefit of the doubt to the pitcher .
= = = = Errors = = = =
The decision to charge an error to the defense is the most well @-@ known responsibility of the official scorer . Some situations automatically call for an error to be charged to the defense by rule , but most charged errors are the result of a play that requires a judgment call . Broadly speaking , an error is charged to the defense when an " ordinary effort " by the defense would have either recorded an out or prevented a runner from advancing , but the defense fails to do so . When an error is charged , the official scorer must charge the error to one of the fielders who were involved in the play . Errors are primarily discussed in rule 10 @.@ 12 .
One exception in this rule occurs when the defense makes at least one out and attempts to complete a double play or triple play . An error is not charged in that situation if a wild throw allows the runner to reach safely . If a wild throw allows the runner to advance an additional base , an error may then be charged for the additional advance . However , if an accurate throw is made in time to complete a double play or triple play , but the fielder on the base fails to make the catch , an error may be charged .
Rule 10 @.@ 12 also states that an error should not be charged for a " mental mistake " by the defense . Rather , errors are charged when the defense attempts to make a logical play against the offense , but fails to record an out or prevent an advance due to a mechanical misplay . There is one rare exception to this rule against charging an error for a " mental mistake " . If a fielder fails to tag the runner , batter , or a base in a force situation in time to record an out when he could have done so , that fielder is charged with an error .
The most common judgment call involving an error occurs when the defense fails to put out a batter @-@ runner who puts the ball in play . If the out is not recorded and the official scorer believes that an " ordinary effort " by the defense would have resulted in an out , the defense is charged with an error , and the batter is not credited with a hit . Other common situations requiring a judgment call include unintentionally dropped foul balls that allow the batter to continue his at @-@ bat , and poor throws to the next base when a runner attempts to advance .
One of the most controversial and poorly understood situations related to the charging of an error occurs when an outfielder misjudges the flight of a ball and allows the ball to drop out of his reach . This is usually considered to be a " mental mistake " by the outfielder , so the batter is usually credited with a hit . On that topic Bill Shannon , who was an official scorer for the New York Yankees , said " That 's a base hit whether we like it or not . As a practical matter , we don 't charge errors on those plays . No one says that baseball is entirely fair . " Outfielders are generally charged with an error on a fly ball when they arrive at the ball 's destination with sufficient time to make a catch with an ordinary effort , but simply miss the catch or drop the ball .
= = = = Unearned runs = = = =
Earned runs are runs that are directly attributable to a pitcher 's efforts without a lapse by the defense . An unearned run does not adversely impact a pitcher 's earned run average ( ERA ) , and is only possible when an error ( including catcher 's interference ) or a passed ball occurs earlier in the inning . Unearned runs are primarily discussed in rule 10 @.@ 16 and often require a judgment call by the official scorer .
At the conclusion of an inning during which runs are scored after an error or passed ball , the official scorer attempts to recreate the events of the inning without the errors or passed balls . If in the official scorer 's opinion a run would not have scored without the defensive lapses , then the run is unearned . If the scorer believes that a run would have scored anyway , the run is earned and charged to the pitcher . In one basic example , if the first batter reaches by an error , the second batter hits a home run , and the next three batters strike out , then one of the two runs which were scored are unearned . There are rules and restrictions which govern this general guideline .
When reconstructing an inning without errors or passed balls :
Potential outs that were not recorded because of an error are presumed to be an out when the inning is reconstructed by the official scorer .
Intentional walks which were issued are still presumed to be walks .
Runs that are scored after what should have been the third out are automatically considered to be unearned .
When the batter is given first base because of interference , the official scorer must presume that an out would have been recorded on that batter .
When a runner is given a base because of obstruction , the official scorer does not presume that an out would have been recorded on that runner , but if that runner later scores the run is unearned .
A run scored by a runner who advances due to an error or passed ball is unearned , unless it would not have made a difference in the reconstruction of the inning .
Most of the above rules are straightforward , but some judgment is required by the official scorer when a baserunner advances due to a defensive lapse and later scores . In this situation , the official scorer must decide what would have happened if the runner had not advanced . This is often an easy decision , but it can occasionally be difficult . In one difficult example with a runner on first and two outs , the batter hits a single but a defensive error allows an advance by the lead runner from second to third , and a soft run @-@ scoring single is hit followed by an out . In that situation , the offense " should " have had runners on first and second with 2 outs when the run @-@ scoring single was hit . Since the next batter was put out , the official scorer must decide based on the hit , the speed of the baserunner , and the positioning of the defense whether the runner would have been able to score from second in the reconstruction of the inning without the error .
= = = = Fielder 's choice = = = =
In the rules of baseball , aside from the rare case of interference or obstruction , a batter who puts a ball into play and safely reaches first base is ruled to have reached in one of three possible ways : a hit , an error , or by fielder 's choice . Fielder 's choice is primarily discussed in rules 10 @.@ 05 and 10 @.@ 06 , and it generally occurs when it is judged that a batter @-@ runner would have been put out had the defense chosen to do so .
Most judgment calls made by the official scorer under this rule occur in three situations : when an infielder , pitcher , or catcher attempts to put out an unforced preceding runner who is attempting to advance one base , when any fielder attempts and fails to put out a forced preceding runner , and when any fielder attempts and fails to put out an unforced preceding runner who returns to their original base . In these situations , the official scorer is required to determine whether the batter @-@ runner would have safely reached first base if the defense made an ordinary effort to put him out . If the defense could not be reasonably expected to make the play , the batter is credited with a hit , otherwise he is ruled to have reached by fielder 's choice . If an error is made on the attempt to put out a preceding runner , that has no impact on this decision . It is instead noted to have occurred in addition to the hit or fielder 's choice .
In some cases the official scorer is not given the discretion to decide between awarding a hit to the batter or ruling that he safely reached first base by fielder 's choice . If a preceding runner is forced out or if an unforced preceding runner is put out while attempting to return to their original base , a hit is automatically not credited and the batter by rule is judged to have reached by a fielder 's choice . In some situations this rule may appear unfair to the batter . For example , if the batter is a fast runner , the ball is slowly hit to the third baseman , and an unforced runner from second realizes ( too late ) that he can not safely advance , the batter @-@ runner will lose the potential hit on a fielder 's choice by the third baseman . This occurs regardless of whether the batter @-@ runner would have reached first base with an ordinary effort to put him out .
= = = = Value of hits = = = =
In cases where a batter indisputably gets a hit and is able to safely advance past first base on the play , the value of that hit may be adjusted by the official scorer because of an error or a fielder 's choice .
If the defense attempts to put out a preceding runner during the play , the official scorer must determine whether the batter would have reached second or third base safely had the defense attempted to limit the batter 's advance . For example , if a runner on second attempts to score after a soft hit to center field and the center fielder chooses to throw to home while the batter advances to second , the official scorer must decide the value of the hit . In this situation , the scorer may either choose to credit the batter with a double , or the scorer may rule that the batter hit a single with an advance to second by fielder 's choice . This is often referred to as " an advance on the throw " .
If an error occurs during the play when a batter records a hit , the official scorer must determine whether the batter would have advanced as far as he did had the error not occurred . For example , if a batter hits a ball into an outfield gap , the ball is badly misplayed by an outfielder attempting to retrieve and throw the ball back into the infield , and the batter is able to reach all four bases to score , then the official scorer must decide whether an error should be charged to the outfielder . If no error is charged , then the batter would be credited with an " inside the park " home run . If an error is charged to the outfielder , then the batter would likely be credited with either a double or triple .
= = = = Wild pitch = = = =
When a baserunner is able to advance after a pitch is not caught or controlled by the catcher , the official scorer must determine whether the advance was due to a wild pitch or a passed ball . The pitch is never considered to be an error . If a pitch is thrown so high , wide , or low in relation to the strike zone that a catcher is not able to catch or control the ball with ordinary effort before a runner can advance , the advance is ruled to have occurred by a wild pitch . Any such pitch which strikes the ground before it reaches home plate is automatically considered to be a wild pitch . However , a pitch is not a wild pitch merely because it is off @-@ target . If the official scorer determines that the catcher should have been able to control the pitch and prevent an advance with ordinary effort , then the catcher is charged with a passed ball on the advance .
One exception to this rule occurs when a baserunner attempts to steal a base . If the runner " starts for the next base " before the pitcher delivers the pitch , the runner is credited with a stolen base and a wild pitch or passed ball is not charged . If a wild pitch or passed ball allows a runner to advance beyond the base that is stolen , the scorer may rule that the further advance occurred by a wild pitch or passed ball .
= = = = Other judgment calls = = = =
Some relatively uncommon situations may also require a judgment call by the official scorer .
When a defensive player has the ball and can end the play by preventing further advance , but fails to do so because of a mental mistake ( not an error ) and a runner subsequently scores , the official scorer must decide whether to credit the batter with a run batted in ( RBI ) . If the runner recognized the mistake after slowing or pausing his advance , an RBI is not credited . If the runner was oblivious to the mistake or runs home without slowing , the batter is credited with an RBI .
If a runner advances because the defense does nothing to try to stop the advance , the scorer may rule that the advance was due to defensive indifference and no stolen base is credited . However , a throw is not required for a stolen base . If a fielder begins to visibly make an attempt to prevent an advance but then elects not to throw , the advance is not due to defensive indifference .
When a batter attempts a sacrifice bunt and the resulting bunt is so well @-@ placed that he safely reaches first base , the official scorer may elect to credit the batter with a hit instead of a sacrifice if there is no error on the play and an ordinary effort by the defense would not have recorded an out .
Finally , when the starting pitcher of the winning team does not qualify for the win under rule 10 @.@ 17 , and the relief pitcher who would otherwise qualify for the win pitches " ineffectively " in a " brief appearance " , the official scorer may choose to credit a " succeeding relief pitcher " with the win .
= 2009 World Series =
The 2009 World Series was the 105th edition of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) championship series . The best @-@ of @-@ seven playoff was contested between the Philadelphia Phillies , champions of the National League ( NL ) and defending World Series champions , and the New York Yankees , champions of the American League ( AL ) . The Yankees defeated the Phillies with a score of 4 games to 2 , to win their 27th World Series championship . The series was played between October 28 and November 4 , broadcast on Fox , and watched by an average of roughly 19 million viewers . Due to the start of the season being pushed back by the 2009 World Baseball Classic in March , this was the first World Series regularly scheduled to be played into the month of November .
Home field advantage for the Series went to the AL for the eighth straight year as a result of its 4 – 3 win in the All @-@ Star Game . The Phillies earned their berth into the playoffs by winning the National League East . The Yankees won the American League East to earn their berth , posting the best record in the Major Leagues . The Phillies reached the World Series by defeating the Colorado Rockies in the best @-@ of @-@ five National League Division Series , and the Los Angeles Dodgers in the best @-@ of @-@ seven NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) . The Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in the American League Division Series and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) to advance to their first World Series since 2003 . As a result of their loss , the Phillies became the first team since the 2001 Yankees to lose the World Series after winning it the previous year .
Cliff Lee pitched a complete game in the Phillies ' Game 1 victory , allowing only one unearned run , while Chase Utley hit two home runs . In Game 2 , solo home runs by Mark Teixeira and Hideki Matsui helped the Yankees win by a score of 3 – 1 . After a rain delayed start , Game 3 featured more offense , with a combined six home runs and thirteen total runs en route to a Yankee victory . The Yankees won Game 4 by scoring the decisive three runs in the ninth inning after an alert base running play by Johnny Damon . The Phillies avoided elimination with a win in Game 5 , aided by Utley 's second two – home run game of the series . The Yankees secured their World Series championship with a Game 6 victory in which Matsui hit his third home run of the series . He was named Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the series , making him the first Japanese @-@ born player and the first full @-@ time designated hitter to win the award ; Matsui was the series ' MVP despite starting only the three games that were played at Yankee Stadium , since the designated hitter position is not used in NL ballparks .
Several records were tied , extended , or broken during this World Series , including team championships ( Yankees with 27 ) , career postseason wins ( Andy Pettitte with 18 ) , career World Series saves ( Mariano Rivera with 11 ) , career World Series home runs ( Chase Utley with seven ) , home runs in a postseason series ( Chase Utley with five ) , strikeouts by a hitter in a World Series ( Ryan Howard with 13 ) , and runs batted in in a single World Series game ( Hideki Matsui with six ) .
= = Route to the series = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
The off @-@ season the Phillies named Rubén Amaro , Jr. general manager , replacing Pat Gillick who retired at the end of a three @-@ year contract . Their most notable offseason player change was in left field , as Pat Burrell departed due to free agency and was replaced by free agent Raúl Ibañez . Another notable acquisition was free agent pitcher Chan Ho Park . Park was originally signed as a backup option for the bullpen , as reliever J. C. Romero was assigned a 50 @-@ game suspension after violating the Major League Baseball drug policy , but Park won the fifth starter 's job in Spring Training .
In July 2009 , Phillies scouts evaluated pitcher Pedro Martínez in two simulated games against the Phillies DSL team , leading to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @-@ million contract . Replacing Jamie Moyer as a starter in the Phillies rotation on August 12 , 2009 , Philadelphia won each of Martínez 's first seven starts , the first time in franchise history that this had occurred with any debuting Phillies pitcher . The Phillies made one large acquisition at the trade deadline , trading four minor league players to the Cleveland Indians for pitcher Cliff Lee and outfielder Ben Francisco . Lee won seven of his twelve regular season starts for Philadelphia in 2009 .
During the regular season , the Phillies led the National League East for most of the year , taking first place for good on May 30 . Ibáñez had started the year strongly , batting well over .300 with 17 home runs and 46 runs batted in ( RBI ) in the first two months of the season , which led the New York Post to call him an " early MVP candidate " . He was placed on the disabled list in mid @-@ June for a groin injury , however , and though he returned he did not bat above .260 for any other month that season . Although Ibáñez did not receive MVP votes his teammates Ryan Howard and Chase Utley had successful years , finishing 3rd and 8th in the balloting respectively . The Phillies finished the season with a record of 93 – 69 ( .574 ) , six games above the second @-@ place Florida Marlins in their division .
The Phillies defeated the wild card @-@ winning Colorado Rockies in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , three games to one , advancing to the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) . Facing the Los Angeles Dodgers , the Phillies won the NLCS , four games to one , becoming the first team to repeat as National League champions since the 1995 – 96 Atlanta Braves . Ryan Howard won the NLCS MVP for his strong offensive performance during the series . Howard tied Lou Gehrig 's postseason record by having at least one RBI in eight straight games across the NLDS and NLCS . They became the first World Series champion to return to the World Series the following year since the 2000 – 01 New York Yankees .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Yankees ' offseason began in November 2008 with control over their organization shifting from long @-@ time owner George Steinbrenner to his son Hal Steinbrenner . Notable player departures included Mike Mussina — who announced his retirement on November 20 , 2008 — as well as Bobby Abreu , Jason Giambi , and Carl Pavano , who all left as free agents . Notable free agent acquisitions included starting pitchers CC Sabathia and A. J. Burnett , and first baseman Mark Teixeira . Another major addition was outfielder Nick Swisher , acquired in a trade with the Chicago White Sox .
The Yankees played the 2009 season in Yankee Stadium , their first year in that park after playing for 84 years in " Old " Yankee Stadium . They won the American League East with an eight @-@ game lead over their rivals , the Boston Red Sox , compiling a record of 103 – 59 . Sabathia won 19 games and position players Alex Rodriguez and Teixeira both had strong seasons offensively , Rodriguez with 30 home runs and 100 RBI and Teixeira with 39 and 122 respectively . Closing pitcher Mariano Rivera earned his 500th save against the Yankees ' cross @-@ town rival New York Mets , becoming the second pitcher in history to do so . On September 11 , 2009 , shortstop Derek Jeter recorded his 2,722nd career hit , passing Lou Gehrig to become the all @-@ time leader in career hits recorded as a Yankee .
The Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in three games in the American League Division Series and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in six games in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) to win their first American League pennant since 2003 . Sabathia was named MVP of the ALCS with two wins in the series . The Yankees ' victory in the ALCS earned them their 40th World Series appearance in franchise history , and their first since losing to the Florida Marlins in 2003 .
= = = Series preview = = =
The two teams played a three @-@ game interleague series at Yankee Stadium in May 2009 , with the Phillies winning two of the three games . The series included two blown saves by Phillies ' closer Brad Lidge in games 2 and 3 , although the Phillies came back to win the final game in extra innings .
The Yankees had home field advantage for the Series as the American League had won that year 's All @-@ Star Game . The team match @-@ up was heavily discussed and analyzed in the media prior to the beginning of the series . Both teams ' offensive lineups were heavily touted , with the Yankees and Phillies leading their respective leagues in runs scored per game . Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez drew particular focus in the media for his success in earlier rounds of the 2009 playoffs in contrast to past postseason performances . The two lineups featured twenty former All @-@ Stars and three former MVP award winners . Only one regular starter between both teams , Phillies catcher Carlos Ruiz , did not have at least ten home runs during the 2009 regular season . The two teams combined for 468 home runs during the season , more than any pair of opponents in World Series history .
The pitching staffs were also the subject of significant discussion prior to the series . The starting pitchers for Game 1 , CC Sabathia and Cliff Lee , were regarded as " aces " who " dominated " the 2009 postseason with a 0 @.@ 96 earned run average ( ERA ) between them . This matchup was of particular note , as Sabathia and Lee were former teammates from the Cleveland Indians and each had won a Cy Young Award with that franchise . Yankees manager Joe Girardi had been using a three @-@ man starting rotation during the playoffs , in contrast to the four @-@ pitcher rotation used by the Phillies . This difference led USA Today to give the Phillies ' starting rotation the " edge " in the series , as the World Series had one fewer day off than previous rounds of the playoffs , making the series less conducive to using a three @-@ man rotation . Gene Wojciechowski of ESPN criticized Girardi 's strategy , arguing that Chad Gaudin should have pitched in Game 5 or 6 , instead of A. J. Burnett or Andy Pettitte on reduced , three days rest . Wojciechowski argued that while Sabathia had proven his ability to pitch on shorter rest , Burnett and Pettitte should have been given their regular time between starts . Burnett had drawn some criticism , as he performed poorly in his last appearance before the World Series , a start in Game 5 of the ALCS in which he allowed six runs over six innings . However , Burnett had previously been successful on short rest , going 4 @-@ 0 with a 2 @.@ 33 ERA in four career starts on short rest before this game . Some believed Girardi settled on a three @-@ man rotation because he had limited options for a fourth starting pitcher , either Gaudin or Joba Chamberlain , who had been inconsistent as starters in the regular season and had been shifted into the bullpen for the postseason .
The matchup of closers , Mariano Rivera and Brad Lidge , also drew attention . Rivera and Lidge were the only closers who had not blown a save during the 2009 postseason , whereas closers on other postseason teams blew 11 saves in the 24 postseason games before the World Series in 2009 . Both had performed well during the postseason , but Lidge had posted a 7 @.@ 21 ERA during the 2009 regular season , in contrast to Rivera 's 1 @.@ 76 . Lidge 's 2009 numbers were in stark contrast to the previous season ( 41 out of 41 save opportunities , a 1 @.@ 95 ERA , and 92 strikeouts in 62 games ) . As a result , USA Today gave the Yankees the edge , noting that Lidge had blown two saves against the Yankees during their regular season series earlier that year .
= = Series summary = =
The Series started on October 28 , 2009 , which was the latest start in World Series history . Game 4 was played on Sunday , November 1 and the series @-@ winning Game 6 took place on November 4 . The Series was only the third to end in a month other than October . The first came in 1918 , which was played entirely in September after the regular season was cut short due to World War I. The other such series was in 2001 when the September 11 attacks caused a delay in the baseball season that eventually forced the end of the World Series into November .
Earlier in the season Commissioner Bud Selig expressed interest in scheduling a World Series game during daylight hours instead of the evening . The starting times were ultimately moved before 8 p.m. ET for the first time in 30 years , but no day games were played . The Philadelphia Eagles and New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) played across the street from Citizens Bank Park at Lincoln Financial Field on the day of Game 4 . The NFL moved that game 's kickoff time to 1 p.m. to avoid it ending too close to the start of Game 4 . Similarly , Game 5 was played at Citizens Bank Park on the same day as the Philadelphia Flyers hosted the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) at the Wachovia Center . The opening faceoff of the hockey game was scheduled for 7 p.m. but the NHL moved it to 5 p.m. to avoid conflict .
The umpires for the series were Joe West , Dana DeMuth , Gerry Davis , Brian Gorman , Jeff Nelson , and Mike Everitt . The World Series crew had included at least 1 umpire who had never worked the World Series in 24 of the past 25 series ; however , following several mistakes by umpires in earlier rounds of the playoffs , this crew did not .
The Phillies might have won the previous season 's World Series against the Tampa Bay Rays for the franchise 's second championship . The Yankees could have their previous World Series appearance to the Florida Marlins in 2003 and might have not won since 2000 against the New York Mets . This was the fifth Series played between teams from New York and Philadelphia , and possibly was the first Yankees – Phillies matchup since 1950 . The series also might have been the fourth consecutive time that the Phillies would have faced a team from the current AL East in the World Series , while the Yankees could have had faced a NL East opponent in three of their four most recent World Series appearances .
This Series had two unofficial nicknames : " Turnpike Series " , for the New Jersey Turnpike , which connects New York to Philadelphia through the state of New Jersey , and " Liberty Series " , based on the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia and the Statue of Liberty in New York .
= = = Game 1 = = =
Line score for Wednesday , October 28 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
Prior to the game , First Lady Michelle Obama and Second Lady Jill Biden escorted former Yankees catcher and World War II veteran Yogi Berra to the mound , where the ceremonial first pitch was thrown by a veteran of the Iraq War . The Phillies ' Ryan Howard got the first hit of the 2009 World Series by doubling in the first inning . Howard was stranded in the first and the game was scoreless after two innings . The Phillies scored first with a two @-@ out solo home run by Chase Utley in the top of the third inning . Through the first five innings , Philadelphia starting pitcher Cliff Lee allowed no runs and three hits , striking out seven Yankees batters . In the top of the sixth , Utley hit another solo home run to give the Phillies a 2 – 0 lead . The starting pitchers Lee and CC Sabathia continued to pitch until the top of the eighth when Sabathia was replaced by Phil Hughes . Hughes walked the first two batters and was replaced by Dámaso Marte . Marte got two quick outs and was relieved by David Robertson , who walked Jayson Werth and gave up a two @-@ run single to Raúl Ibáñez . The Phillies added two more runs in the ninth with an RBI single by Shane Victorino and an RBI double by Howard . Lee finished with a complete game allowing one unearned run on six hits and striking out ten batters , not walking any of the hitters he faced .
Lee 's pitching performance made history in several ways :
This was the fourth postseason start of Lee 's career . In all four starts , he went at least seven innings and gave up no more than one earned run . The only other starting pitcher ever to begin his postseason career with four such starts was Christy Mathewson .
He was also the first left @-@ handed starter to beat the Yankees in The Bronx to open a World Series since Sandy Koufax in 1963 .
He was the first starting pitcher to throw a complete game without giving up an earned run against the Yankees in Game 1 of a postseason series .
Lee was the first pitcher ever to strike out at least ten , walk no one , and give up no earned runs in a World Series start .
= = = Game 2 = = =
Line score for Thursday , October 29 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
Prior to the game , Jay @-@ Z and Alicia Keys performed the song " Empire State of Mind " for the Yankee Stadium crowd . This game marked the first postseason appearance of Pedro Martínez against the Yankees since the 2004 American League Championship Series , when he was with the Boston Red Sox and a part of the two teams ' long standing rivalry ; it was also the second @-@ ever World Series start that Martínez made . There was much media interest in Martínez 's " return to Yankee Stadium " for Game 2 , as he told reporters at a pre @-@ game press conference " When you have 60 @,@ 000 people chanting your name , waiting for you to throw the ball , you have to consider yourself someone special , someone that really has a purpose out there . "
The Phillies scored first for the second game in a row , with Raúl Ibáñez hitting a ground rule double and then scoring on a Matt Stairs RBI single off A. J. Burnett in the second inning .
Mark Teixeira tied the game with a solo home run in the fourth inning , and Hideki Matsui broke the tie in the sixth with another solo homer . Martínez departed the game after giving up consecutive hits to Jerry Hairston , Jr. and Melky Cabrera to start the seventh inning , and reliever Chan Ho Park gave up an RBI single to Jorge Posada . With Cabrera at second base and Posada at first , Johnny Damon hit a low line drive at Phillies first baseman Ryan Howard . Howard grabbed the ball and threw to second where Posada was tagged and called out while standing on the base . First @-@ base umpire Brian Gorman ruled that Howard had caught the ball in the air and thus the result was an inning @-@ ending double play . This was the first of two calls by Gorman in this game which were later shown to have been wrong by video replays .
Burnett left after seven innings and was replaced by Mariano Rivera in the eighth . The Phillies put two runners on with a walk to Jimmy Rollins and a single by Shane Victorino with one out in the eighth . However , Chase Utley grounded into an inning @-@ ending double play ending on a close play at first base , the second close call made by the first base umpire Brian Gorman . Gorman himself later admitted he missed this call , saying " on a freeze frame , it looks like there 's a little bit of a ball outside his glove when he hits the bag . " Ultimately , Rivera threw 39 pitches and got six outs for his 38th postseason save , his tenth in World Series play .
= = = Game 3 = = =
Saturday , October 31 , 2009 , 9 : 17 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
The start of the game was postponed 80 minutes due to a rain delay , pushing the start time to 9 : 17 p.m. The cast of the television series Glee ( with Amber Riley singing lead ) performed the national anthem prior to the game as part of a ceremony featuring a large American flag and several members of the armed services . The Phillies scored first with Jayson Werth 's lead @-@ off solo home run , which was followed by a bases @-@ loaded walk and a sacrifice fly to make the score 3 – 0 in the bottom of the second inning . Following Mark Teixeira 's walk in the top of the fourth inning , Alex Rodriguez hit a deep ball down the right field line . It was originally ruled a double and Teixeira held at third base . The play was reviewed using MLB instant replay , which revealed that the ball had struck a camera sticking over the top of the wall , and the ball was ruled a two @-@ run home run , giving Rodriguez his first World Series hit . This was the first home run reviewed by instant replay in postseason play . Specifically , the ball hit a camera owned by Fox and MLB which extended slightly over the right field wall . The camera was moved back for Game 4 such that its lens was in line with the wall . Coincidentally , Alex Rodriguez also had the first regular season home run reviewed by replay .
Nick Swisher opened the top of the fifth inning with a double and scored on a single to center field by Andy Pettitte . This was Pettitte 's first career postseason RBI and the first RBI by a Yankees pitcher in a World Series since Jim Bouton in 1964 . Derek Jeter followed Pettitte with another single , and both runners scored on a two @-@ run double by Johnny Damon . Cole Hamels then walked Teixeira and was relieved by J. A. Happ . Happ closed out the fifth without allowing further scoring , but Nick Swisher added to the Yankees lead with a solo home run off of him in the sixth . Werth hit his second solo home run of the game leading off the bottom of the sixth to close the Yankees lead to 6 – 4 , becoming the second Phillies player to hit multiple home runs in this World Series .
Chad Durbin relieved Happ in the top of the seventh . He walked Johnny Damon , who then stole second base . Rodriguez was then hit by a pitch , and Damon scored on a single by Jorge Posada . Joba Chamberlain relieved Pettitte in the bottom of the seventh and retired the side in order . Brett Myers retired the first two batters in the top of the eighth , but Hideki Matsui then hit a solo home run pinch hitting for Chamberlain . Phil Hughes pitched a third of an inning in the bottom of the ninth and allowed a solo home run to Carlos Ruiz before being relieved by Mariano Rivera . Rivera closed out the game , throwing just five pitches to record the final two outs . This game was Pettitte 's 17th career postseason win , extending his MLB record .
= = = Game 4 = = =
Line score for Sunday , November 1 , 2009 , 8 : 20 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
Prior to the start of the game , Derek Jeter and Albert Pujols were named winners of the Hank Aaron Award for their offensive performances in 2009 . This was the first game to test manager Joe Girardi 's decision to use a three @-@ man starting rotation , as CC Sabathia started the game on three days rest , a shorter period than he normally got during the regular season . Jeter led the game off with a single and advanced to third base on a double by Johnny Damon . Jeter scored via a Mark Teixeira ground out and Alex Rodriguez was hit by a pitch . Rodriguez was hit twice the night before and the umpires issued warnings to both benches . Jorge Posada then added to the Yankees lead that inning with a sacrifice fly . The Phillies answered quickly , scoring a run on successive doubles by Shane Victorino and Chase Utley in the bottom of the first . Sabathia intentionally walked Jayson Werth , but escaped the inning without further scoring . The Phillies tied the game in the bottom of the fourth as Ryan Howard singled , stole second , and scored on a single by Pedro Feliz . Although the run counted , instant replay of Howard 's slide later showed that he did not touch home plate .
Nick Swisher walked to lead off the fifth inning and advanced to second on a Melky Cabrera single . Swisher restored the Yankees ' lead , scoring on a single by Jeter , and Cabrera added to it by scoring a run on a
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Damon single . Brett Gardner replaced Cabrera in center field as a defensive substitution in the bottom of the sixth inning after Cabrera left the game due to a hamstring injury . Chan Ho Park relieved Phillies starter Joe Blanton in the seventh and held the Yankees scoreless in that inning . Chase Utley hit his third solo home run of the series in the bottom of the seventh with two outs , bringing the game to 4 – 3 . Dámaso Marte relieved Sabathia and got the final out of the seventh without further scoring .
Ryan Madson relieved Park in the eighth and allowed a walk and a single but held the Yankees scoreless . Joba Chamberlain replaced Marte in the bottom of the inning . He struck out the first two batters he faced but allowed a game @-@ tying home run to Feliz before closing the inning . Brad Lidge came into the game in the ninth and gave up a two @-@ out single to Damon — after a nine @-@ pitch at bat . Then , with Teixeira batting , Damon stole second and , on the same play , advanced to third as the base was uncovered due to a defensive shift against Teixeira . Several news outlets referred to this as a " mad dash " , which Mike Vaccaro of the New York Post compared to Enos Slaughter 's " Mad Dash " in the 1946 World Series . Some believed that Damon 's play caused Lidge to avoid throwing his best pitch — a slider with sharp downward movement — for the rest of the inning , as it risked a wild pitch that would have allowed Damon to score from third base . Teixeira was then hit by a pitch and Rodriguez put the Yankees ahead with a double , scoring Damon . Posada added to that lead with a single that scored Teixeira and Rodriguez , but was thrown out at second to end the inning . Mariano Rivera entered in the bottom of the ninth and saved the game for the Yankees on eight pitches for his second save of the series .
= = = Game 5 = = =
Line score for Monday , November 2 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
The Yankees replaced Melky Cabrera on their postseason roster with Ramiro Peña due to his injury in Game 4 , while Brett Gardner took Cabrera 's place in center field . A. J. Burnett , the Yankees ' Game 2 starter , started Game 5 on three days rest , one less than the Phillies ' Cliff Lee . The Yankees scored first in the first inning , with Johnny Damon reaching base with a single and then scoring on a two @-@ out double by Alex Rodriguez . The Phillies responded in the bottom of the inning with a single by Jimmy Rollins , Shane Victorino reaching after being hit by a pitch , and finally a three @-@ run home run by Chase Utley to take the lead . The Phillies added to their lead in the third inning with Utley and Ryan Howard drawing walks followed by RBI singles by Jayson Werth and Raúl Ibáñez . With no outs in the inning , Burnett was relieved by David Robertson , who allowed another run to score on a Carlos Ruiz ground out .
Robertson held the Phillies scoreless for a second inning in the fourth . Jorge Posada entered as a pinch hitter in the fifth inning for José Molina and grounded out . Eric Hinske then pinch hit for Robertson and walked , advanced to third on a Derek Jeter single , and scored on a ground out by Damon . Alfredo Aceves entered as the new Yankee pitcher in the bottom of the fifth . The first batter he faced , Jayson Werth , hit a deep drive to center field but it was caught for an out by Gardner , who collided into the outfield wall to complete the play . Aceves completed the inning without a run scoring , inducing ground outs from Ibáñez and Ruiz . Phil Coke relieved Aceves in the seventh inning and allowed two Phillies players tie World Series records . First , Utley tied Reggie Jackson 's record for most home runs in a World Series with a solo home run , his fifth of the series . Coke then struck out Howard , Howard 's 12th strikeout in the series , tying Willie Wilson 's record for most strikeouts in a World Series . Finally , Coke was driven from the game after allowing another solo home run , this time to Ibáñez , and was relieved by Phil Hughes .
Victorino was replaced defensively in the eighth inning by Ben Francisco . Lee was driven from the game after allowing a single to Damon , followed by a double by Mark Teixeira , and then a double by Rodriguez that scored both runners . Chan Ho Park relieved Lee and induced a ground out from Nick Swisher , which advanced Rodriguez to third base . Rodriguez scored on a sacrifice fly by Robinson Canó . Ryan Madson entered in the ninth to close the game , allowing a double to Posada and a single to Hideki Matsui without recording an out . Batting with men on first and third base , Jeter grounded into a double play , allowing Posada to score but emptying the bases . Damon singled to bring Teixeira to bat as the potential tying run , but Madson struck him out to record his first World Series save . Members of the news media , such as Gene Wojciechowski , were critical of the three @-@ man starting rotation strategy following Game 3 , and contended that Burnett 's poor performance was caused by insufficient rest in between starts . However , Burnett had been successful up to this point in such situations , going 4 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 33 ERA in four career starts on short rest ( less than the normal four days between starts ) before this game .
= = = Game 6 = = =
Line score for Wednesday , November 4 , 2009 , 7 : 57 p.m. ( ET ) at Yankee Stadium in The Bronx , New York
This game was the first Game 6 in a World Series since the 2003 World Series six years earlier , the longest such gap in the history of the World Series . Prior to the game , Mary J. Blige , a Bronx native , performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Andy Pettitte started on three days rest , the third straight game in which the Yankees fielded a pitcher on short rest . The Phillies started Pedro Martínez , who called himself and opposing pitcher Andy Pettitte " old goats " and acknowledged that Red Sox fans were rooting for him : " I know that they don 't like the Yankees to win , not even in Nintendo games . "
The Yankees scored first with an Alex Rodriguez walk opening the bottom of the second inning followed by a two @-@ run home run by designated hitter Hideki Matsui . The Phillies quickly responded with a triple by Carlos Ruiz who then scored on a sacrifice fly from Jimmy Rollins in the top of the third . Matsui answered back , adding to the Yankees lead again with a single with the bases loaded in the bottom of the third , scoring Derek Jeter and Johnny Damon . Damon , injured running the bases while scoring , was replaced defensively in the top of the fourth by Jerry Hairston , Jr .
Phillies starter Pedro Martínez was removed after allowing four runs in four innings , relieved in the fifth by Chad Durbin . Durbin allowed a ground rule double to Jeter , who advanced to third on a sacrifice bunt by Hairston and scored on a single by Mark Teixeira . Durbin then hit Rodriguez with a pitch and was relieved by J. A. Happ after recording just one out . Happ allowed a two @-@ run double to Matsui , his fifth and sixth RBI of the game , which tied a World Series record for most RBI in a single game set by Bobby Richardson in the 1960 World Series .
The Phillies made the game closer in the top of the sixth inning , as Chase Utley drew a walk and Ryan Howard followed him with a two @-@ run home run , bringing the score to 7 – 3 . After Raúl Ibáñez hit a double into right field , Joba Chamberlain relieved Andy Pettitte and closed the sixth without scoring . Chan Ho Park came in for Happ , ending any Yankees threat that inning . Chamberlain was relieved by Dámaso Marte in the top of the seventh after allowing two baserunners , but Marte struck out Utley to end the inning scoreless . After Park allowed a single to Rodriguez , Scott Eyre replaced him . Eyre allowed Rodriguez to steal second and intentionally walked Jorge Posada but escaped the inning without allowing a run .
Marte recorded one out , a strikeout of Howard , in the top of the eighth inning . With it Howard set a new World Series record for most strikeouts by a hitter in a single series with a total of 13 . After the out , Marte was relieved by the Yankees closer Mariano Rivera in a non @-@ save situation . Rivera allowed a double to Ibáñez , but no runs , in the eighth . After retiring the first two batters in the eighth , Eyre gave way to Ryan Madson , who allowed a single to Jeter before ending the bottom of the eighth inning . Matt Stairs led off the ninth as a pinch hitter , but lined out . Ruiz worked a walk from Rivera , but successive outs by Rollins and Victorino ended the game 7 – 3 to clinch the World Series for the Yankees . Pettitte added to his own record for most playoff wins , bringing his career total to 18 .
= = Statistics = =
AL New York Yankees ( 4 ) vs. NL Philadelphia Phillies ( 2 )
= = = Cumulative line score = = =
= = Broadcasting = =
For the tenth consecutive year in the United States , Fox Sports televised the Series . Joe Buck called play @-@ by @-@ play and Tim McCarver provided analysis . The Series was also broadcast on ESPN Radio , with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan calling the action . Fox Sports en Español also broadcast the Series for the US Spanish @-@ speaking audience . The flagship radio stations of the respective teams broadcast all Series games with their local announcers . In Philadelphia , WPHT carried the Phillies ' English @-@ language broadcasts , with Scott Franzke , Larry Andersen , Tom McCarthy , Gary Matthews , and Chris Wheeler announcing , while WUBA aired the team 's Spanish broadcasts . In New York , WCBS @-@ AM carried the Yankees ' English broadcasts with John Sterling and Suzyn Waldman announcing . This broadcast made Waldman the first woman to announce a World Series game on radio . XM Satellite Radio offered multiple feeds of each game to its subscribers .
= = Ratings = =
Television ratings for the 2009 World Series were excellent . Game 1 attracted 19 @.@ 5 million viewers , second only to the opening of the 2004 World Series for a series opener since 2000 and 29 % higher than 2008 's opening game . Game 4 produced the highest total viewership of the series with 22 @.@ 8 million viewers , the highest for any World Series game since 2004 and the highest for a " non @-@ decisive Game 4 " since 2001 . At 11 @.@ 7 overall , the 2009 World Series remains comfortably the highest rated World Series since 2004 and the only World Series to average double digits since 2007 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Many players with both teams won awards for their performances during the 2009 season . Teixeira and Jeter each won a Gold Glove and Silver Slugger Award ; Jimmy Rollins and Shane Victorino won Gold Gloves , as well ; and Chase Utley won a Silver Slugger Award . Rivera was named the 2009 DHL Delivery Man of the Year , as well as Sporting News ' Pro Athlete of the Year . Along with the Hank Aaron Award announced before Game 4 , Jeter won the Roberto Clemente Award and was named Sports Illustrated 's Sportsman of the Year for 2009 . Matsui won the World Series MVP for his play , becoming the first Japanese player and first full @-@ time designated hitter to win the award . Several items related to the series were sent to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum including bats from Jeter and Matsui ; caps from Rivera , Lee , and Pettitte ; and Johnny Damon 's cleats .
= = = Yankees = = =
The series win brought the Yankees ' franchise championship total to 27 , more than any other North American professional sports franchise . This championship came in the Yankees ' first year in their new stadium . They had also won the 1923 World Series , the opening year of the previous Yankee Stadium . The victory was noted by some sportswriters as a personal success for Alex Rodriguez , winning his first championship and succeeding in the playoffs where some had previously claimed he was a " choker and a loser " . Prior to this series , Rodriguez had appeared in 2 @,@ 166 regular season games without a World Series appearance , then the second @-@ most among active players to Ken Griffey , Jr .
The Yankees ' victory was credited to a number of different sources . Many players drew praise for their performances , including Series MVP Hideki Matsui ; free agents signed the previous offseason including Mark Teixeira , CC Sabathia , and A. J. Burnett ; and the so @-@ called " Core Four " of Derek Jeter , Mariano Rivera , Andy Pettitte , and Jorge Posada , who had all played a large role in the Yankees ' past success in the 1990s . Manager Joe Girardi was also credited for his management of the team , particularly in his decision to use only three starting pitchers in the Yankees postseason starting rotation . The Yankees were the first team to use only three starters in a World Series since the San Diego Padres in the 1998 Series .
Several members of the Yankees franchise dedicated the World Series in part to team owner George Steinbrenner , who had recently stepped back from his once prominent position with the team . Steinbrenner died on the day of the All @-@ Star Game the following season at the age of 80 . On November 6 , a victory parade took place for the Yankees in the " Canyon of Heroes " in Manhattan , New York City . The Yankees sent a group of players , coach Tony Peña , and team Senior Vice President Felix Lopez with the Commissioner 's Trophy to the Dominican Republic in early January 2010 to meet with President Leonel Fernández . Most of the 2009 Yankees received their championship rings on Opening Day the next season . Matsui was on the Angels in 2010 and when the Angels played their first series of the season in the Bronx , the Yankees home opener , they presented him with his ring . They also visited U.S. President Barack Obama in the White House in April 2010 , presenting him with a signed jersey .
The Yankees returned to the playoffs the following season , as the wild card . They lost to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 ALCS ; which included an 8 @-@ 0 shutout in Yankee Stadium by former Phillie ace Cliff Lee ; it was Lee 's seventh straight postseason win which included three victories against the Yankees ( two as a Phillie in the 2009 World Series , and in 2010 during the ALCS ) .
= = = Phillies = = =
Following Game 4 , after the Yankees took a 3 – 1 series lead , The Philadelphia Inquirer accidentally printed a three @-@ quarters @-@ page Macy 's advertisement congratulating the Phillies for winning the World Series , along with a picture of a Phillies championship T @-@ shirt . The newspaper subsequently apologized for the mistake .
Lee Jenkins of Sports Illustrated attributed Philadelphia 's loss to a lack of pitching depth , noting that three different Yankees starters managed to win games in the series , while only Cliff Lee won games for the Phillies . The Phillies ' 2008 postseason star pitchers , starter Cole Hamels and closer Brad Lidge , struggled in their only appearances of the 2009 World Series . The Phillies bullpen which did well in the NLCS performed poorly in the World Series , allowing seven runs in just 11 2 / 3 innings with a 5 @.@ 40 ERA . Jorge Arangure Jr. of ESPN partially attributed the Phillies ' loss to their lack of offensive production , citing the team 's .227 batting average in the World Series . Only Chase Utley performed well with 5 home runs and 22 of the Phillies ' 90 bases , while Shane Victorino and Jimmy Rollins struggled at the plate , and Ryan Howard struck out a record 13 times in the World Series after his NLCS MVP performance .
Before the start of the 2010 season , the Phillies traded away their 2009 postseason ace pitcher Cliff Lee . The Phillies posted the league 's best record in 2010 , and returned to the playoffs where they lost to the eventual champions the San Francisco Giants in the NLCS .
= = = David Paterson ticket scandal = = =
Among those in attendance during Game 1 was New York Governor David Paterson , whose party had five tickets behind home plate . On March 3 , 2010 , the New York Commission on Public Integrity found that Paterson had violated state laws concerning gifts to public officials , and that he lied under oath to the commission about his intent to pay for the tickets . The commission further found that Paterson used his position to solicit and receive the five tickets — valued at US $ 425 each — free of charge from the Yankees , that he had never intended to pay for the tickets despite testimony to the contrary , and that he or a person acting on his behalf wrote a backdated check to pay for them only after scrutiny in the case arose . The Commission ultimately fined Paterson $ 62 @,@ 125 for his actions .
= UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff =
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff is the sixth studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released on July 18 , 1989 . The album is the final of Yankovic 's to be produced by former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer . Recorded between December 1988 and May 1989 , the album served as the official soundtrack to 1989 film of the same name , although the original score by John Du Prez is omitted . The album 's lead single was the titular " UHF " , although it was not a hit and did not chart .
The music on UHF is built around pastiches of rock , rap , and pop music of the late @-@ 1980s , featuring parodies of songs by Dire Straits , Tone Lōc , Fine Young Cannibals , and R.E.M .. The album also features many " style parodies , " or musical imitations of existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Harry Chapin , as well as various musical genres like blues . The album also features many music cuts from the film as well as some of the commercials , like " Spatula City " , and other parody bits , like " Gandhi II " .
Peaking at only 146 on the Billboard 200 , the album was not a commercial success , and received only lukewarm critical attention . The UHF soundtrack is one of only a few of Yankovic 's studio albums that is not certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . It would also be Yankovic 's last studio album to be released on vinyl record in the US until 2011 's Alpocalypse .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and recording = = =
Following the success of Yankovic 's 1988 album Even Worse , which featured the Michael Jackson spoof " Fat " , Yankovic pitched a screenplay co @-@ written by his manager Jay Levey called UHF to Orion Pictures . A satire of the television and film industries , the film starred Yankovic as George Newman , a man who stumbles into managing a low @-@ budget UHF television station and finds success with his eclectic programming choices . Also starring Michael Richards , Fran Drescher , and Victoria Jackson , it brought the floundering studio Orion their highest test scores since the movie RoboCop . Although the movie made slightly over US $ 6 million domestically — out of a budget of $ 5 million — it was considered unsuccessful .
In December 1988 , Yankovic returned to the studio to record the soundtrack to his feature film . Once again , former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer was brought in to produce the album . This would be Derringer 's last production credit for Yankovic , as subsequent studio albums would be produced by the artist himself . Recording with Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The album was recorded in six different sessions at both Santa Monica Sound Records in Santa Monica , California and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles . During the first session , the song " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " was recorded . The second session yielded the titular " UHF " and " Let Me Be Your Hog " . During the third session , Yankovic recorded " Stanley Spudowski 's Theme " — which would later be renamed " Fun Zone " — as well as the skit " Gandhi II " . Only one song was recorded during the fourth sessions , the skit " Spatula City " . The fifth recording session resulted in five songs : " Spam " , " Attack of the Radioactive Hamsters From a Planet Near Mars " , " Hot Rocks Polka " , " Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota " , and " Generic Blues " . The sixth and final session produced the two parodies " Isle Thing " and " She Drives Like Crazy " .
= = = Originals = = =
On February 24 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded the first original song for the album , " Let Me Be Your Hog " . The song is a short rock snippet that is heard in the movie as Newman 's uncle Harvey ( Stanley Brock ) lounges in his pool . Originally , Yankovic had wanted to use the 1974 single " Kung Fu Fighting " by Carl Douglas for the scene , but he could not gain the rights to the song , and thus " Let Me Be Your Hog " was recorded . Yankovic then recorded the theme from his movie , the titular " UHF " , written in the style of a TV station 's large promotional campaign . On February 25 , Yankovic recorded the instrumental " Fun Zone " , also known as " Stanley Spudowski 's Theme " . Originally written four years earlier for a failed Saturday Night Live replacement titled Welcome to the Fun Zone , this song is played at the beginning of every " Weird Al " concert .
Three months later , on May 24 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded three more originals . The first of these , " Attack of the Radioactive Hamsters from a Planet Near Mars " , is a rock song about a number of mutated hamsters terrorizing Earth . The second original song , " The Biggest Ball of Twine in Minnesota " , is a folk ballad about a family road trip to a tourist location in Minnesota . Musically , the song was inspired both by the book Roadside America , which " featured all the campy places around the country that one could possibly visit " , as well as the music of Harry Chapin and Gordon Lightfoot , which Yankovic described as " storyteller songs , [ with ] sprawling narratives . " The final original song recorded for the album was " Generic Blues " , Yankovic 's attempt to write " the ultimate blues song " . After the release of the song , B.B. King listed it as one of his top ten favorite blues songs .
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff is also notable in that it was Yankovic 's first and only studio album to dabble in the art of skits . The first of these segments is called " Gandhi II " which re @-@ imagines Mahatma Gandhi as the hero of a blaxploitation @-@ style sequel to the film Gandhi , spoofing both the theme and promos for the film Shaft . The second skit is called " Spatula City " and is an advertisement for a spatula outlet store . These short segments were used in the film as commercials ; other commercial segments , such as " Plots ' R Us " and " Conan the Librarian " , were not used on the album .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On December 20 , 1988 , Yankovic recorded " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " . The song features the lyrics of The Beverly Hillbillies theme song altered slightly and set to the tune of " Money for Nothing " . The song appears in its entirety within UHF as a computer @-@ animated dream sequence , framed as if it were part of a music video . As part of his terms that allowed Yankovic to record this parody , Dire Straits guitarist and " Money for Nothing " songwriter Mark Knopfler insisted that he be allowed to play the guitar featured in the parody . As a result , both he and Guy Fletcher — Dire Straits ' keyboardist — recorded their parts on guitar and synthesizer respectively . According to Yankovic , his guitarist Jim West had practiced the song for weeks , and , as a result could recreate the original ; Knopfler , on the other hand , had been playing the song for several years and was much more relaxed with his playing . As a result , West 's version sounded more like the original version , although Knopfler 's track was the one used . Yankovic revealed in the DVD commentary for UHF that the concept " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " was originally a parody of Prince 's 1984 hit " Let 's Go Crazy " . Prince , however , refused , and has been unreceptive to any parody ideas Yankovic has ever presented him with . The fractured titled " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " is a result of Dire Straits ' lawyers insisting that " Money for Nothing " remain in the parody 's title . Yankovic was unhappy with the title and stated that he would rather have had the title be either " Money for Nothing for the Beverly Hillbillies " or " Beverly Hillbillies for Nothing " . The legal title for the song features an asterisk after the word " Hillbillies " , although it is often printed without the marking .
On May 24 , 1989 , Yankovic started recording the second parody for the album , " Spam " . The song , a play on R.E.M. ' s hit " Stand " , is an ode to the canned luncheon meat Spam . Yankovic noted that it was " fun to pick [ apart the song ] and figure out some of those almost subliminal parts — parts that would fade in and out , little bell sounds , things you don 't really hear on first listening . " On May 25 , 1989 , Yankovic recorded " Isle Thing " , a parody of " Wild Thing " by Tone Lōc , about a woman who introduces the narrator to the television show Gilligan 's Island . Notably , the song is Yankovic 's first rap parody ; an earlier rap , " Twister " , is a Beastie Boys style spoof , but not a direct parody . Another Tone Lōc hit , " Funky Cold Medina " , is referenced in the lyrics : " Ginger and Mary Ann coulda used some funky cold medina " . The final parody , " She Drives Like Crazy " — recorded the same day as " Isle Thing " — is a spoof of Fine Young Cannibals ' 1988 single " She Drives Me Crazy " . Lyrically , the song is about a man who fears his girlfriend 's crazy driving habits .
Much like Yankovic 's previous album , UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff features a polka medley of hit songs called " The Hot Rocks Polka " . All of the songs in the medley are songs written or made popular by the English rock band The Rolling Stones .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Due to the short stint of UHF in theaters , its soundtrack got " lost in the shuffle " and did not receive much of a critical response . However , from the few reviews it did receive , the album received a mixed response . Jacob Lunders of Allmusic awarded the album three stars out of five and called it a " guilty pleasure " . Lunders noted that the album " endures artistically as a transitional album between his ' 80s heyday and the imminent artistic makeover revealed on 1992 's Off the Deep End " . He ultimately concluded that the album is something that only " moderate [ to ] genuine " fans may want , but that it is " nearly as accessible " as many of his compilation albums . The Rolling Stone Album Guide awarded the album three stars out of five , denoting a " good " album . A TV Guide critic , in a review of the movie , wrote that " the quality of [ the movie 's ] parodies " are " inconsistent , with the movie and music takeoffs being obvious and out of date . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
UHF – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and Other Stuff was released July 18 , 1989 . After it was released , the album peaked at number 146 on the Billboard 200 . Much like Polka Party ! ( 1986 ) , the album was considered a major commercial disappointment for the comedian ; the album is his second @-@ lowest charting album after Polka Party ! ( 1986 ) . The UHF soundtrack is one of only a few of Yankovic 's studio albums that is not certified either Gold or Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the United States . The others include Polka Party ! and Poodle Hat ( 2003 ) . UHF would also be Yankovic 's last studio album to be released in the US on vinyl record until 2011 's Alpocalypse .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= Sergei Shirokov =
Sergei Sergeyevich Shirokov ( Russian : Серге ́ й Серге ́ евич Широков , Russian pronunciation : [ sʲɪrˈɡʲej sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ ʂɨˈrokəf ] ; born 10 March 1986 ) is a Russian professional ice hockey winger currently with SKA Saint Petersburg of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . Drafted 163rd overall in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft , he is a prospect for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Prior to signing with Vancouver in 2009 , Shirokov played with CSKA Moscow for four seasons in the Russian Superleague and Kontinental Hockey League . He returned to CSKA Moscow in 2011 after two years with the Vancouver Canucks and Manitoba Moose .
= = Playing career = =
Shirokov first played in the Russian Hockey First League ( RUS @-@ 3 ) with HC CSKA Moscow 's second @-@ tier team in 2001 . He spent several seasons at that level and debuted with CSKA 's senior team in the Russian Superleague in 2004 – 05 , going pointless in eight games . The following season , he recorded 14 points playing 39 games in the Superleague . Shirokov was then selected 163rd overall in the sixth round of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft by the Vancouver Canucks . The sixth round draft pick was acquired by the Canucks in a trade with the Florida Panthers .
Though selected by an NHL team , Shirokov continued to play in Russia for HC CSKA Moscow and recorded a team @-@ best and career @-@ high 40 points in 56 games for CSKA , who competed in the newly formed Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) in 2008 – 09 . He then turned down a tax @-@ free $ 500 @,@ 000 contract to stay in the KHL . Instead , Shirokov defected to North America and signed with the Canucks to a two @-@ year , two @-@ way US $ 1 @.@ 75 million contract on 17 August 2009 . The deal allowed him to make an annual US $ 875 @,@ 000 at the NHL level or C $ 67 @,@ 500 in the minor leagues .
Shirokov made an immediate impression in his first training camp with the Canucks , but suffered a minor setback during the pre @-@ season , missing a week with an injured knee . He recovered in time for the end of the pre @-@ season to lead the team in exhibition scoring with seven points in four games . As a result , Shirokov earned a roster spot for the start of the 2009 – 10 season , beating out fellow Canucks prospects Cody Hodgson and Michael Grabner .
Shirokov made his NHL debut on 1 October against the Calgary Flames , starting the season on the second line with Ryan Kesler and Mikael Samuelsson , as well as the first power @-@ play unit . However , after going pointless in his first three games before becoming a healthy scratch , he was sent down to the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose on 8 October . Shirokov scored his first AHL goal in his Moose debut the next day against Drew MacIntyre of the Chicago Wolves , also adding an assist in a 4 – 1 win . After scoring 10 points in his first 10 games with the Moose , Shirokov was re @-@ called by the Canucks on 25 October after an injury to forward Kyle Wellwood , but was returned to the AHL after three games on 30 October in favour of centre Mario Bliznak . On 30 December , Shirokov was chosen to Team PlanetUSA for the 2010 AHL All @-@ Star Game . At the time of the selection , he was leading the Moose in scoring with 11 goals and 23 points through 33 games . He finished his first campaign in North America with 22 goals and 45 points over 76 games . Among AHL rookies , Shirokov was ninth in points and tied for third in goals . He added two assists in six playoff games as the Moose were eliminated by the Hamilton Bulldogs in the opening round .
Shirokov started the 2010 – 11 season with the Moose . After a slow start , he was leading the Moose in scoring with 33 points in 39 games , including a team record 12 @-@ game point streak , when he was recalled by the Canucks on 17 January 2011 . In his first game back in the NHL the following day , Shirokov scored his first NHL goal against Craig Anderson in a 4 – 3 overtime loss to the Colorado Avalanche . After two games , he was sent back to the Moose on 23 January . Shirokov was selected as the Moose representative for the 2011 AHL All @-@ Star Game , the second year in a row he would be at the game . He went on to complete the season with a team @-@ leading 22 goals , 36 assists and 58 points in 76 games . As the Moose advanced to the second round of the 2011 playoffs , he led the team in scoring with 7 goals , while adding 3 assists for 10 points over 14 games .
In the off @-@ season Shirokov signed a three @-@ year deal with CSKA Moscow . Then on 9 July 2011 , Vancouver traded his rights to the Florida Panthers for the rights to forward Mike Duco . In his first year upon returning to CSKA Moscow , he finished eighth in KHL point scoring and was named to the 2012 KHL All @-@ Star Game . The following season , Shirokov participated in the 2013 KHL All @-@ Star Game . On 5 November 2013 , CSKA Moscow traded Shirokov to Avangard Omsk along with Maxim Goncharov in exchange for Alexander Frolov and Stanislav Egorsheva . On 19 December 2015 in exchange the Anton Burdasov and Peter Khokhryakov has joined SKA Saint Petersburg .
= = International play = =
Shirokov made his international debut with Russia at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , earning a silver medal while contributing four points in five games . He continued to play with the national under @-@ 18 team , helping Russia to the best records at the 2003 Four Nations and 2004 Five Nations Tournaments . At the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships , he helped Russia to another gold medal in Minsk , Belarus , defeating the United States 3 – 2 in the final . Shirokov contributed two goals in six games .
Shirokov made the jump to the Russia 's under @-@ 20 team in September 2004 , posting the second @-@ best record with Russia at the Four Nations Tournament . Several months later , he made his first of two appearance at the World Junior Championships . In 2005 he scored eight points in six games at the top under @-@ 20 tournament in Grand Forks , North Dakota , helping Russia to a silver medal finish , losing in the final to Canada . In April 2005 , Russia hosted the Big Prize Tournament in St. Petersburg , where Shirokov recorded an assist in two games as Russia posted the best record .
The next hockey season , Shirokov competed in the under @-@ 20 Four Nations Tournament in September 2005 , where Russia finished with the worst record of the tournament . A couple months later , he helped Russia to the best record at the Four Nations Tournament in November . At the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia , Shirokov helped Russia to a second consecutive silver medal , losing once again to Canada in the final . He scored five points in six games .
Shirokov was a member of the gold medal @-@ winning Russian teams at the 2012 IIHF World Championship and 2014 IIHF World Championship tournaments , scoring a combined five goals and seven assists between the two events . He scored a goal and an assist in the gold @-@ medal match against Finland at the 2014 IIHF World Championship . He won a silver medal the following year at the 2015 IIHF World Championship in Czech Republic .
= = Awards and achievements = =
KHL All @-@ Star Game - 2012 , 2013
AHL All @-@ Star Game - 2010 , 2011
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
All statistics taken from NHL.com
= = International statistics = =
All statistics taken from Eliteprospects.com
= Undone ( MercyMe album ) =
Undone is the third studio album by Christian rock band , MercyMe . It was produced by Pete Kipley and released on April 20 , 2004 on INO Records . Following the success of MercyMe 's previous studio efforts , they were given significantly more resources with which to develop the album and brought in a sixth member , guitarist Barry Graul . Unlike the band 's previous songwriting style , which was to write the lyrics first , they wrote the music for the songs on the album before writing the lyrics . The album has a pop rock and adult contemporary sound , while the lyrics are personal and convey Christian themes .
Undone received generally favorable reviews from critics with many praising the album 's personal style , although some critics argued the album 's songwriting and sound were too similar to MercyMe 's previous efforts . It won the GMA Dove Award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 36th GMA Dove Awards . In the United States , Undone debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , selling over 55 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and was the fifth @-@ best selling Christian album of 2004 and the fourteenth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2005 . Undone has sold over 627 @,@ 000 albums in the United States and was the thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s .
Three official singles were released from Undone . " Here with Me " , the album 's lead single , was released to Christian and mainstream radio , peaking at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts as well as at No. 12 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . The second single from the album , " Homesick " , peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and at No. 9 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart . The third single , " In the Blink of an Eye " , peaked at No. 1 on the Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the success of the band 's previous albums Almost There and Spoken For , MercyMe was given " significantly " more resources to develop their next record by their record label , INO Records . Although they decided not to alter their Christian approach to songwriting , live performances , and interviews , they opted to work with outside songwriters on the album , employed the London Symphony Orchestra to play strings on several tracks , and added a sixth member to the band , guitarist Barry Graul . Additionally , MercyMe wrote and recorded the music for Undone before they wrote any of the lyrics . Lead singer Bart Millard noted that by using this method , instead of his lyrics swaying the musical elements of the song , the music acted as " a canvas with which to write [ the lyrics ] " . He elaborated that " We ’ ve been making records for 10 years , so anything that sparks creativity ... is very much welcomed " . The title of the album was inspired by " the unexpected twists and turns in the band 's journey " ; Millard commented that " We had our plans for what we were going to do ; but when the bigger picture happened , all of our plans came unraveled . We don ’ t know what tomorrow will hold . When you make your own plans , you suddenly find yourself undone ; and that ’ s exactly where God wants us in the first place " .
Undone was produced by Pete Kipley and was recorded by F. Reid Shippen , Mike O ' Connor , and Steve Bishir ; recording took place at Blueberry Hill , Sound Stage , Abbey Road , The Indigo Room , Maximedia , Luminous Sound , and The Schwoodio . Mixing was conducted by F. Reid Shippen and Lee Bridges , while mastering was done by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound . The string tracks on " Homesick " , " Where You Lead Me " , " Unaware " , and " Here with Me " were arranged by Rob Mathes and recorded by Simon Rhodes and Andrew Dudman at Abbey Road . The cello on " Keep Singing " was performed by Matt Slocum .
= = Composition = =
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Although he did not focus less on Christian lyrical material for Undone , mainstream radio was on Millard 's mind when he wrote the lyrics on the album . Millard attempted to write lyrics that , while still focused on God , tapped into the things people deal with every day . Further , he avoided using Christian jargon , as people who are not churchgoers might not understand what those terms mean ; instead , he tried to be " clearer in the things [ the band ] were talking about " . Another impact on the songwriting was the band 's experiences over the previous year ; while working on Undone , Millard and the other members of the band lost eight people close to them . Millard noted that " There 's a lot of personal stuff on [ the album ] about the things we 've gone through and how Christ has been the solution " . One particular song , " Homesick " , was written after two incidents . The first incident occurred during the holiday season of 2004 ; a friend of Millard 's lost her twin babies during pregnancy and was so far along in the pregnancy that doctors had to induce labor . After attending the funeral for the two babies , Millard wrote the chorus to the song . However , he didn 't write any more to " Homesick " after that as he did not want to " fake " his way through writing it . Following the death of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Chris , however , Millard finished the song . Although Undone was " essentially complete " at that point , the band recorded and included it on the album .
The album has been noted as having ' personal ' lyrics , a trait that is common for MercyMe . Otherwise , most of the lyrics deal with Christian themes and there is an " abundance " of " spiritually vertical " content . " Here with Me " discusses and conveys the theme of God 's love and omnipotence , while " Homesick " focuses on " persevering on earth in anticipation of heaven " . The title track describes the human " never @-@ ending quest for self @-@ improvement " . " Unaware " and " Caught Up In The Middle " are about making everything in life secondary to God while " Keep Singing " is about " pressing on and praising God in light of tragedy " .
= = = Music = = =
Musically , the band regarded the album as a ' new progression ' . Bassist Nathan Cochran said that " It ’ s not a sharp left turn ; it ’ s a step beyond what we ’ ve ever done . We feel like our message and calling are the same ... We ’ re still worship leaders ; we ’ re just on a different scale " . As a whole , Undone is a guitar @-@ driven album with a pop rock and adult contemporary sound . The album 's opening track , " Where You Lead Me " , builds from an acoustic guitar @-@ driven opening into a crescendo featuring synthesizers and guitars . " Here with Me " has a musical vibe similar to alternative rock band Coldplay . " Homesick " is a ballad featuring strings from the London Symphony Orchestra . More upbeat cuts on the album include " In The Blink Of An Eye " , " Caught Up In The Middle " , and " A Million Miles Away " , while " Keep Singing " is driven by a piano .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Undone received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Although some critics felt the songwriting and music were too similar to the band 's previous efforts , others praised the album 's ' personal ' style . Kim Jones of About.com gave the album five out of five stars , saying that " [ the album ] has been called by many people as one of the best new releases of 2004 and I have to agree " . Johnny Loftus of Allmusic gave it three out of five stars , saying that " With its slick production and MercyMe 's full lineup of guitars , percussion , and keys , [ Undone ] suggests the tangent of Nashville contemporary country that favors straightforward pop melody over any sort of hard twang . Likewise , the album 's more upbeat moments reflect the trend in secular adult alternative toward earnest vocals over whitewashed rock ( à la Vertical Horizon ) . Both sounds work well for MercyMe on Undone , doubtless giving fans of the band 's music and devotion plenty more to believe in " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine gave Undone an A , calling it " [ MercyMe 's ] most mature , personal recording to date " , also praising Bart Millard 's vocals . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album nine out of ten stars , calling it a " huge improvement " over Spoken For ( 2002 ) .
While calling Undone MercyMe 's " most satisfying " record to date , Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today regarded the songwriting as " monotonous " and felt that MercyMe was " beginning to sound like they 're repeating themselves " . Josh Taylor of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album three out of five stars , opining that " Frankly , this is the same stuff they were doing three years and two albums ago ... If you ’ re a diehard MercyMe fan , this disc will be music to your ears . But for those of us who long for change ( Not drastic ones , mind you . But small , significant ones . ) , Undone seems redundant . It ’ s still good , but it ’ s beginning to become stale " .
At the 36th GMA Dove Awards , Undone won the award for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year .
= = = Commercial = = =
Undone sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week , MercyMe 's highest sales week at that point . It debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , their second career number @-@ one album on the latter . The album 's lead single , " Here with Me " , played a large part in the early sales of the album by having success on both Christian and mainstream radio . It spent a total of two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and became the fifth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2004 and fourteenth best @-@ selling Christian album of 2005 . It ranked as the thirty @-@ eighth best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States and has sold over 627 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Singles = =
Three official singles were released from Undone . " Here with Me " , the album 's lead single , topped the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart for thirteen weeks and the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart for ten weeks . It also appeared on mainstream chart formats , peaking at No. 12 on the Adult Contemporary chart and No. 38 on the Adult Top 40 chart . " Here with Me " ranked at No. 16 on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
The album 's second single , " Homesick " , peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts and at No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC Indicator and Inspo charts . It also peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart .
The third and final single from Undone , " In the Blink of an Eye " , spent five weeks atop the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart and six weeks atop the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart . It ranked at No. 48 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jim Bryson , Nathan Cochran , Barry Graul , Pete Kipley , Bart Millard , Mike Scheuchzer and Robby Shaffer except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cyclone Hina =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Hina in March 1997 was the worst tropical cyclone to affect the South Pacific island nation of Tonga since Cyclone Isaac in 1982 . The system was first noted within the monsoon trough on March 11 , 1997 , as a weak shallow depression within the vicinity of Rotuma . Over the next two days , the depression remained near Rotuma with no preferred movement , as it started to develop further within favorable conditions for further development . The system was subsequently named Hina on March 15 , after it had started to move eastwards and had passed to the southeast of Niulakita , Tuvalu . During that day the system moved south @-@ eastwards and impacted Wallis and Futuna , before it passed over Tonga 's southern islands of Tongatapu and ' Eua during March 16 . After impacting Tonga the system moved rapidly towards the south @-@ southeast and weakened below tropical cyclone intensity , before it was last noted on March 21 about 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) to the south of the Pitcairn Islands . During the systems post analysis it was determined that the warning centers had underestimated Hina 's intensity as it passed over Tonga , after damage had been greater than expected in the island nation .
Within Tuvalu it was difficult to assess damage done by Hina alone , after Cyclone Gavin impacted the area a week earlier . Storm surge and strong winds from both cyclones caused a severe amount of coastal erosion on all of the country ’ s nine atolls , with about 6 @.@ 7 % of land washed into the sea . Hina caused no significant damage on Walls Island , while it caused some damage to crops and destroyed parts of the road on Futuna Island . As Hina affected Tonga , there were no casualties reported as the system affected the island nation , however , Vaiola Hospital reported that they had treated a number of patients for injuries that were caused during the systems aftermath . One indirect death was also reported , after a person suffering a heart attack while evacuating from his home . The cyclone left extensive damage to utilities and agriculture on Tongatapu , where trees were uprooted and more than 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) of fruit and food crops were destroyed , mostly to banana and coconut trees . After the cyclone the Tongan Government requested and received emergency aid , from the governments of several countries including France , Australia , New Zealand , Japan and the United Kingdom . This was after the government had provided T $ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 97 million ) , or about 5 % of its national budget to facilitate the immediate start of emergency relief and repairs to essential services .
= = Meteorological history = =
During March 11 , 1997 , a shallow tropical depression developed within the monsoon trough near the Fijian Dependency : Rotuma . Over the next two days the depression remained near Rotuma with no preferred movement , as it started to develop further in an area of minimal vertical wind shear and good upper air divergence . During March 13 , as the system moved northwards , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) subsequently initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 33P . During that day after having moved to the north , Hina curved to the east and later south @-@ eastwards , before it passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the southeast of Niulakita the southernmost island of Tuvalu during March 14 . Early on March 15 , after the system had passed near Niulakita , the depression developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale and was named Hina by the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) . After being named the system accelerated towards the south @-@ southeast and an area of increasing vertical wind shear , as it passed near the west coast of Futuna Island . The system also crossed the 180th meridian during that day , which prompted the JTWC to pass the responsibility for warning the United States Government to the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) .
Early on March 16 , as Hina passed over the southern islands of Tonga , the FMS reported that based on satellite imagery and guidance from other meteorological centers , the system had 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) . Hina subsequently passed over the islands of Tongatapu and ʻEua in southern Tonga at around 08 : 30 UTC and took less than 2 hours to inflict considerable damage on the islands . The system subsequently emerged back into the South Pacific Ocean , with the FMS estimating that the system had storm force winds of about 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Later that day the NPMOC estimated that Hina had peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as it rapidly moved below 25 ° S and out of the FMS 's area of responsibility . Over the next few days the system continued to move towards the south @-@ southeast and gradually weakened , before the NPMOC issued its final advisory during March 18 , as the system was undergoing a transition to become an extratropical cyclone . The system weakened below tropical cyclone intensity during the next day , before it was last noted by the Wellington Tropical Cyclone Warning Center on March 21 , while located about 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) to the south of the Pitcairn Islands .
After an analysis of the observed data and the damage in Tonga , the FMS estimated that Hina 's landfall intensity was underestimated . The observed wind data suggested that the system had storm force sustained winds but had peak gusts comparable to hurricane force . Furthermore , the lowest pressure values also indicated that the winds had to be stronger than estimated for it to fit known wind pressure relationships . It was subsequently deduced by the FMS that Hina was a minimal category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with peak 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) when it crossed the Tonga island of Tongatapu at around 08 : 30 UTC ( 21 : 30 UTC + 13 ) . The NPMOC also revised their estimate of Hina 's peak 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds from 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) to 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) during post analysis , which made the system equivalent to a category one hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Cyclone Hina caused over US $ 15 @.@ 2 million worth of damage and was indirectly responsible for one death as it affected Tuvalu , Wallis and Futuna and Tonga . The system 's worst impact was reported on the Tongatapu and ' Eua , which are the southern most islands of the Kingdom of Tonga . Due to the impact of this storm , the name Hina was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = = Tuvalu = = =
On March 12 , the FMS issued gale warnings for the southern islands of Tuvalu and a tropical cyclone alert for the rest of the archipelago . The gale warning was subsequently extended out to cover the whole of the archipelago during the next day , after marginal squally gale force winds were observed to the north of the monsoon trough in association with the system . Over the next two days the warning was kept in force while Tuvalu experienced strong to gale force winds because of a convergence zone located over the islands and Hina which passed about 55 km ( 35 mi ) to the southeast of Niulakita , Tuvalu . Cyclone Hina was the second of three tropical cyclones to affect Tuvalu during the 1996 @-@ 97 cyclone season , after Cyclone Gavin had severely damaged the islands a weak earlier and Cyclone Keli affected the islands during June 1997 .
Cyclone Gavin and Hina 's waves , storm surge and strong winds both caused a severe amount of coastal erosion on all of the country ’ s nine atolls with about 6 @.@ 7 % of the land washed into the sea . Both cyclones caused severe coastal erosion and destruction to food crops , mostly to the southern islands of Niulakita and Nukulaelae , while damage in northern and central islands was confined mostly to houses . A damage assessment team noted that it was difficult to assess damage done by Hina alone and estimated the total damage from both cyclones at US $ 2 @.@ 23 million ( AU $ 2 @.@ 14 million ) . It was later estimated after Cyclone Keli had affected the islands between June 12 – 16 , 1996 , that the three cyclones had been responsible for about 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) of land disappearing into the sea . Rehabilitation costs from all three cyclones , amounted to US $ 653 thousand ( AU $ 1 million ) .
= = = Wallis and Futuna = = =
As the system developed into a tropical cyclone during March 14 , gale warnings were issued for the French territory of Wallis and Futuna . The system at this time was located about 220 km ( 135 mi ) to the northwest of Futuna Island and subsequently accelerated , towards the south @-@ southeast and passed near the island during the next day . Cyclone Hina was the second of four tropical cyclones to affect Wallis and Futuna in a ten @-@ month period , after cyclone Gavin had severely damaged food crops ten days earlier and Cyclones Keli and Ron affected the islands during June 1997 and January 1998 . During March 15 as Hina affected the islands , winds of 76 km / h ( 47 mph ) and 115 km / h ( 71 mph ) were recorded at Hihifo on Wallis and Maopoopo on Futuna respectively . Rainfall totals of 220 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 69 in ) and 182 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 19 in ) were also recorded at Maopoopo and in Point Vele respectively . Hina caused no significant damage on Walls Island , while it caused some damage to the remaining crops and destroyed parts of the road on Futuna Island .
= = = Tonga = = =
Hina was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect Tonga during a ten @-@ month period , with Cyclones Keli and Ron affecting the island nation during June 1997 and January 1998 . Late on March 15 , ahead of the system affecting Tonga , gale warnings were issued for the Southern Tongan island groups of Haʻapai , Tongatap
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u and Vavaʻu . During the next day , Hina took less than two hours to inflict considerable damage on the Tongan islands and became the worst tropical cyclone to affect Tonga since Cyclone Isaac during 1982 . The two worst @-@ affected Tongan islands were Tongatapu and ' Eua after major damages were reported on both islands . As the system impacted Tonga , the FMS received several reports of one or more tornadoes occurring in Tonga ; however , during a post @-@ disaster survey no evidence was found to prove or disprove this claim . It was noted that several of the badly damaged houses had little or no cyclone protection while over 600 people were left homeless . Damages were greater than had been expected , with an estimated damage total of about T $ 18 @.@ 2 million Tongan Pa 'anga ( US $ 15 @.@ 2 million ) reported . A post disaster survey attributed the greater damages to higher than expected wind gusts caused by either a low level squall or a jet streak . There were no casualties reported as the system affected the island nation , however , Vaiola Hospital reported that they had treated a number of patients for injuries that were caused during the system 's aftermath . One indirect death was also reported , after a sea captain suffered a heart attack while evacuating from his home . Within the islands severe damage to power lines and telecommunication systems was reported . The system affected the islands after the lowest tide for the day , as a result sea damage was minimal , though some evidence of salt damage to taro plantations was observed .
On the main island of Tongatapu , extensive damages to utilities , vegetation and agriculture in places , with more than 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) of fruit and food crops including banana trees and coconut palms destroyed . Some of the coconut palms were snapped , which suggested that wind gusts of between 165 – 185 km / h ( 105 – 115 mph ) had been experienced on the island . Within Nukuʻalofa the capital city of Tonga , there was not a lot of structural damage reported ; however , the villages to the east of the capital were severely affected . The roof and grand stand of Teufaiva Stadium was blown off , while the Parliament house , government buildings and schools were severely damaged . The MV Lofa was driven by fierce winds onto Mounu Reef in Nuku 'alofa Harbour . The Electric and Water boards sustained over T $ 2 @.@ 9 million in damage to its infrastructure , with power lines brought down throughout Tongatapu which caused a complete blackout during March 16 . Some of the uprooted trees knocked down power lines , sometimes causing a domino effect of bringing down additional power poles . As a result of the electric problems , there was a lack of electrical power to power pumps , with the water supply becoming intermittent . On ' Eua Island , Hina was estimated to have caused greater damage then Cyclone Isaac had done fifteen years previously , after the island was completely devastated by the system . The Tongan Government estimated that damage to the wharfs on Lifuka and Foa islands would cost over T $ 10 thousand to repair , while the land bridge between the two islands was closed after Hina 's winds and waves swept boulders on to the bridge .
During the system 's aftermath , insurance companies flew in people to assess the damage , while agricultural authorities on Tongatapu and ' Eua advised landowners to plant fast maturing produce such as sweet potatoes . The Tongan Government provided T $ 5 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 97 million ) or about 5 % of its national budget to facilitate the immediate start of emergency relief and repairs to essential services . Tents were supplied by the National Disaster Committee and Ministry of Works to act as temporary shelters for those who were homeless after the system . By March 19 , the Tonga Electric Power Board had restored electricity to several consumers including major government buildings and the Nuku 'alofa Business District . However , several consumers were expected to be without electric until at least June 1997 . On March 25 , the Acting Prime Minister of Tonga convened a meeting of donors , where an official request for international assistance was presented . At the meeting donors were requested to review existing of proposed bilateral programs , to see if they can be adjusted or brought forward to cater for the repairs or rebuilding of schools and other government buildings . The New Zealand Government deployed to Tonga , four electricity line mechanics , a fully equipped truck , along with various supplies including tarpaulins , blankets and electric . New Zealand also offered grants off up to NZ $ 120 thousand to replace village water tanks , and NZ $ 7 thousand towards the clean @-@ up costs .
The Government of the United Kingdom granted T $ 60 thousand ( GB £ 30 thousand , US $ 48 thousand ) for ten emergency generators , while the Chinese Government pledged T $ 36 thousand ( US $ 30 thousand ) . The French government provided a cargo plane , to conduct a damage survey of the affected areas and US $ 100 thousand for tents , tarpaulins and blankets and two diesel generators . The Japanese Government provided tents , plastic sheets and other emergency aid materials to the value of T $ 59 thousand . Australia provided T $ 320 thousand for temporary roof repairs and equipment to restore electricity supplies in both Tongatapu and ' Eua . Grants between T $ 22 thousand and T $ 24 thousand were pledged by Germany , Norway and the United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs respectively . By early September 1997 , the reconstruction of primary school buildings damaged by the cyclone had been completed after the Tongan Government funded the project . New accommodation for primary school teachers in the Ha 'apai islands and the Niuas was also completed after the Australian and New Zealand Governments funded the projects . MMI insurance provided the Tonga Amateur Sports Association with T $ 384 thousand to cover damages to the Teufaiva Grand Stand .
= Walter O 'Malley =
Walter Francis O 'Malley ( October 9 , 1903 – August 9 , 1979 ) was an American sports executive who owned the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers team in Major League Baseball from 1950 to 1979 . In 1958 , as owner of the Dodgers , he brought major league baseball to the West Coast , moving the Dodgers from Brooklyn to Los Angeles despite the Dodgers being the 2nd most profitable team in baseball from 1946 – 1956 , and coordinating the move of the New York Giants to San Francisco at a time when there were no teams west of Kansas City , Missouri . For this , he was long vilified by Brooklyn Dodgers fans . However , Pro @-@ O 'Malley parties describe him as a visionary for the same business action , and many authorities cite him as one of the most influential sportsmen of the 20th century . Other observers say that he was not a visionary , but instead a man who was in the right place at the right time , and regard him as the most powerful and influential owner in baseball after moving the team . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame for his contributions to and influence on the game of baseball amidst allegations that his family donated money to get him into the Hall of Fame .
O 'Malley 's Irish father , Edwin Joseph O 'Malley , was politically connected . Walter , a University of Pennsylvania salutatorian , went on to obtain a Juris Doctor , and he used the combination of his family connections , his personal contacts , and both his educational and vocational skills to rise to prominence . First , he became an entrepreneur involved in public works contracting , and then he became an executive with the Dodgers . He progressed from being a team lawyer to being both the Dodgers ' owner and president , and he eventually made the business decision to relocate the Dodgers franchise . Although he moved the franchise , O 'Malley is known as a businessman whose major philosophy was stability through loyalty to and from his employees .
O 'Malley ceded the team presidency to his son , Peter , in 1970 but retained the titles of owner and chairman of the Dodgers until his death in 1979 . During the 1975 season , the Dodgers ' inability to negotiate a contract with Andy Messersmith led to the Seitz decision , which limited the baseball reserve clause and paved the way for modern free agency . He bequeathed the team to his children Peter O 'Malley and Therese O 'Malley Seidler upon his death in 1979 .
= = Early years = =
Walter O 'Malley was the only child of Edwin Joseph O 'Malley ( 1883 – 1955 ) , who worked as a cotton goods salesman in the Bronx in 1903 . Edwin O 'Malley later became the Commissioner of Public Markets for New York City . Walter 's mother was Alma Feltner ( 1882 – 1940 ) . O 'Malley grew up as a Bronx @-@ born New York Giants fan . He frequently attended Giants games at the Polo Grounds with his uncle Clarence . O 'Malley was a Boy Scout who rose to the rank of Star .
O 'Malley attended Jamaica High School in Queens from 1918 to 1920 and then the Culver Academy ( the eventual high school alma mater of future New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner ) in Indiana . He managed both the baseball and tennis teams , served on the executive staff of the student newspaper , was a member of the Hospital Visitation Committee as well as the debate team , Bible Discipline Committee and the YMCA . At Culver , his baseball career was ended with a baseball that hit him on the nose .
Later , he attended the University of Pennsylvania ( Penn ) and graduated in 1926 as the senior class Salutatorian . At Penn , he was initiated into Theta Delta Chi , and he also served as president of the Phi Deuteron Charge . Upon his graduation from the University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering and Applied Science his father gave him a cabin cruiser that slept eight . He was also Junior and Senior class president . O ’ Malley originally enrolled at Columbia University in New York City for law school , but after his family lost their money in the Wall Street Crash of 1929 , he switched from Columbia Law School to night school at Fordham University . Edwin O 'Malley 's dry goods business was failing and Walter had to help run the business .
= = Personal = =
On September 5 , 1931 , he married Katherine Elizabeth " Kay " Hanson ( 1907 – 79 ) , whom he had dated since high school , at Saint Malachy 's Roman Catholic Church in Manhattan . They had two children : Therese O 'Malley Seidler ( born in 1933 ) and Peter O 'Malley ( born in 1937 ) . Kay had been diagnosed with laryngeal cancer in 1927 before the engagement and had to have her larynx removed . She was unable to speak above a whisper the rest of her life . Edwin O 'Malley encouraged Walter to break off his engagement , and after Walter refused his parents did not attend the wedding . O 'Malley was a smoker , who golfed occasionally , but more commonly gardened for recreation . In 1944 , he remodelled his parents ' summer house in Amityville , New York and relocated his family there from Brooklyn . The house was next door to the house Kay had grown up and her parents lived next door .
As a family man , he attended church regularly , attended Peter 's football games at LaSalle Academy , chaperoned his daughter 's dances . On summer weekends he took the family sailing on his boat , which was named Dodger .
= = Pre @-@ baseball career = =
After he completed his law degree in 1930 at Fordham Law , he worked as an assistant engineer for the New York City Subway . After earning his law degree he needed to obtain a clerkship , but it was during the depression and no one could afford to hire him . He allowed a struggling lawyer to use space in his office and paid for his own clerkship . After working for the Subway , he worked for Thomas F. Riley , who owned the Riley Drilling Company , and they formed the partnership of Riley and O 'Malley . With the help of Edwin O 'Malley 's political connections , Walter 's company received contracts from the New York Telephone Company and the New York City Board of Education to perform geological surveys . Subsequently , Walter started the Walter F. O 'Malley Engineering Company and published the Subcontractors Register with his uncle , Joseph O 'Malley ( 1893 – 1985 ) .
Walter eventually concentrated on the field of law , starting with work on wills and deeds . By 1933 , he was senior partner in a 20 @-@ man Midtown Manhattan law firm . He developed the business habits of smoking cigars and of answering questions only after taking two puffs . During the Great Depression , O 'Malley represented bankrupt companies and enriched himself , while building his thriving law practice . He invested wisely in firms such as the Long Island Rail Road , Brooklyn Borough Gas Company , the New York Subways Advertising Company , a building materials firm , a beer firm and some hotels . His success begot both influence and attention . The Brooklyn Democratic Machine powers such as judge Henry Ughetta and Brooklyn Trust Company president George Vincent McLaughlin were among those who noticed the rising O 'Malley .
= = Dodgers = =
McLaughlin had been New York City Police Commissioner in 1926 , knew O 'Malley 's father , and had attended Philadelphia Athletics games with O 'Malley when O 'Malley was still at the University of Pennsylvania . McLaughlin hired O 'Malley to administer mortgage foreclosures against failing businesses for the Trust Company . O 'Malley earned McLaughlin 's confidence by acting in numerous capacities including bodyguard , valet , chauffeur , adopted son , confidant and right @-@ hand man . The trust company owned the estate of Charles Ebbets , who had died in 1925 and owned half of the Brooklyn Dodgers . It was 1933 when Walter again met George V. McLaughlin , president of the Brooklyn Trust Company . O 'Malley was chosen to protect the company 's financial interests in the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1933 . O 'Malley also served as designated driver for the hard drinking McLaughlin . It was through McLaughlin that Walter was brought into the financial arrangements for Ebbets Field in 1940 . In 1942 , when Larry MacPhail resigned as general manager to serve in the United States Army as a Lieutenant colonel , O 'Malley was appointed the attorney for the Dodgers , and he obtained a minority ownership interest on November 1 , 1944 . He purchased 25 % as did Branch Rickey and John L. Smith ( president of Pfizer Chemical ) , while the heirs of Stephen McKeever retained the final quarter . In 1943 , he replaced Wendell Willkie as chief legal counsel . Branch Rickey , who had built the St. Louis Cardinals into champions , replaced MacPhail , and O 'Malley began to accumulate stock in the Dodgers .
Rickey was a conservative teetotaler , while O 'Malley freely enjoyed vices such as alcoholic beverages and tobacco . As O 'Malley became more involved in affairs , he became critical of Rickey , the highest @-@ paid individual in baseball , counting salary , attendance bonuses , and player contract sales commissions . O 'Malley and Rickey had very different backgrounds and philosophies . It was O 'Malley who put pressure on Rickey to fire manager Leo Durocher , who O 'Malley felt was a drain on attendance . In board of directors meetings , O 'Malley also opposed Rickey 's extravagances . When he was with his political friends , he made fun of Rickey at every chance . Daily News columnist Jimmy Powers would deride Rickey for selling off players and for general miserliness . When Rickey asked O 'Malley , the team lawyer , if he should sue , O 'Malley said no . Powers ' campaign became so public that after the 1946 season Rickey gave each player a new Studebaker , which gave O 'Malley , a Dodgers shareholder , reason to speak ill of Rickey in the press . It got to the point where everything Rickey did was something O 'Malley derided : O 'Malley thought Rickey 's construction of the state of the art Vero Beach spring training facility , known as Dodgertown , was extravagant ; he thought Rickey 's investment in the Brooklyn Dodgers of the All @-@ America Football Conference was questionable ; he fought Rickey on the team 's beer sponsor ; and he demanded that players return their 1947 World Series rings before receiving the new ones Rickey ordered . As team lawyer , O 'Malley had a role in breaking the racial barrier as well . In particular , he had a significant role in Rickey 's top @-@ secret search for suitable ballplayers to break the color barrier and then later he had a role in assessing the ongoing legal risks to the franchise .
= = = Control = = =
When co @-@ owner Smith died in July 1950 , O 'Malley convinced his widow to turn over control of the shares to the Brooklyn Trust Company , which O 'Malley controlled as chief legal counsel . Rickey 's contract as general manager was set to expire on October 28 , 1950 . Rickey 's Dodgers stock was held on margin and he had fully levered life insurance policy . O 'Malley lowballed Rickey with an offer of $ 346 @,@ 000 ( the purchase price ) . Rickey demanded $ 1 million ( $ 9 @,@ 835 @,@ 408 today ) . O 'Malley eventually pursued a complicated buyout of Rickey , who had received an outside offer from William Zeckendorf of $ 1 million for his interests . There were varying accounts about the sincerity of the offer because Zeckendorf and Pittsburgh Pirates owner John Galbreath were fraternity brothers , but there is a lot of evidence that he had a sincere interest in acquiring the team . The outside offer triggered a clause in the partnership agreement whereby the asking price of a third party had to be matched if a current owner wanted to retain control and the third party would be compensated $ 50 @,@ 000 . The canceled $ 50 @,@ 000 check would later include Rickey 's signature showing that Zeckendorf turned over the $ 50 @,@ 000 to Rickey .
O 'Malley replaced Rickey with Buzzie Bavasi . O 'Malley became the president and chief stockholder ( owner ) on October 26 , 1950 . O 'Malley assumed the title of president from Rickey , who was a trailblazer in baseball both for instituting the farm system and for breaking the racial barrier with Jackie Robinson . According to pitcher Clem Labine and noted author Roger Kahn , the first thing O 'Malley did when he took over was assign Bavasi to enamor himself to Dick Young of the Daily News so that O 'Malley would not have to worry about ever getting bad press from the Daily News .
After the ownership transfer , O 'Malley 's rivalry with Rickey became very public . O 'Malley forbade the speaking of Rickey 's name in Dodgers offices with transgressors being subjected to a fine . He abolished Rickey 's title of General Manager so that no front office person could perpetuate Rickey 's role . In addition , when Rickey assumed the title with the Pittsburgh Pirates , O 'Malley arranged for the Dodgers to omit the Pirates from their spring training schedule . Nonetheless , after the transfer , the Dodgers remained successful under O 'Malley : they won the National League pennants in 1952 , 1953 , 1955 , and 1956 . Under O 'Malley , the Dodgers were the most overtly political post World War II franchise . In 1951 , Brooklyn native and United States Congressman Emanuel Celler 's Judiciary Committee investigated whether the reserve clause was in violation of federal anti @-@ trust laws . Celler represented half of Brooklyn in Congress and O 'Malley used the local press such as the Brooklyn Eagle to pressure Celler into backing off of the issue . During the 1951 season , the Dodgers engaged former West Point varsity baseball player and U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur to lure war veterans . O 'Malley attempted to entice him to take the post of Commissioner of Baseball . After the 1956 season , O 'Malley sold Ebbets Field to Marvin Kratter and agreed to lease the stadium for three years .
Robinson had been a Rickey protege , and O 'Malley did not have the same respect for Robinson that Rickey did . O 'Malley referred to him as " Rickey 's prima donna " . Robinson did not like O 'Malley 's choice for manager , Walter Alston . Robinson liked to argue with umpires , and Alston rarely did so . Robinson derided Alston in the press . In 1955 , Alston played Don Hoak at third base during the exhibition season . Robinson voiced his complaints to the press . Robinson did not get along with Bavasi either , and the three seasons under Alston were uncomfortable for Robinson . Robinson announced his retirement in Look magazine after the 1956 season .
The signing of Robinson brought the team international fame , making O 'Malley an international baseball ambassador to celebrities such as Iraq 's King Faisal II . In 1954 , Dodgers scout Al Campanis signed Sandy Koufax in large part for two reasons , according to a memo to O 'Malley that said " No. 1 , he 's a Brooklyn boy . No. 2 , he 's Jewish . " Bavasi noted that " there were many people of the Jewish faith in Brooklyn . " During the 1955 season , Dodgers catcher Roy Campanella had a medical billing controversy regarding neurosurgery services by Manhattan doctor Dr. Samuel Shenkman . Shenkman billed $ 9 @,@ 500 , an amount which Campanella forwarded to the Dodgers and the Dodgers refused to pay . O 'Malley felt the doctor was overcharging : " It appears that [ Dr. Shenkman ] thought he was operating on Roy 's bankroll ... " The Dodgers had convinced Campanella to have the surgery after enduring a slump in 1954 following MVP seasons in 1951 and 1953 . The surgery was intended to restore complete use of his hand .
Despite having won the National League pennants in 1947 , 1949 , 1952 and 1953 , they lost to the New York Yankees in the World Series each time , which frustrated O 'Malley and all Dodgers fans . In 1955 , the team won the World Series for the first time in their history . However , attendance declined from a peak of 1 @.@ 7 million in 1946 and 1947 to just over one million per year in the mid @-@ 1950s . With the advent of the affordable automobile and post @-@ war prosperity , Brooklyn 's formerly heterogeneous , middle @-@ class fan base for the Dodgers began to splinter . A large white flight took place , and Ebbets Field 's shabby condition and lack of parking spaces led to the loss of fans who relocated to Long Island . O 'Malley tried to raise money and get the political backing to build a new ballpark elsewhere in Brooklyn . The one person whose backing he needed was Robert Moses , a powerful figure who influenced development in New York through the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority . O 'Malley envisioned a domed stadium near the Long Island Rail Road station on Brooklyn 's west end , and even invited R. Buckminster Fuller to design the structure ; Fuller , in conjunction with graduate students from Princeton University , constructed a model of the " Dodgers ' Dome " . Moses did not like O 'Malley and derided O 'Malley 's pro @-@ Brooklyn and pro @-@ Irish sentiments in the press . O 'Malley wanted to build a new Brooklyn Dodgers stadium at Flatbush and Atlantic Avenue , but Moses wanted the Dodgers to move to Queens and play in Flushing Meadows Park ( the location where the New York Mets play today ) . Although O 'Malley lined up bipartisan political support including New York Governor W. Averell Harriman , Moses blocked the sale of the land necessary for the planned new Brooklyn stadium . O 'Malley bought the Chicago Cubs minor league baseball team , the Los Angeles Angels , as well as their stadium , Wrigley Field , from Philip Wrigley in 1956 at the winter baseball meetings , and during spring training , Los Angeles Mayor Norris Poulson traveled to the Dodgers ' training camp at Vero Beach , Florida in an attempt to lure the franchise . O 'Malley met with Moses at Moses ' home after purchasing the Angels to discuss final offers from New York to no avail . O 'Malley noticed the great success of the Milwaukee Braves after their move from Boston in 1953 . They had a 43 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium , parking for 10 @,@ 000 cars and an arrangement for no city or real estate taxes . He also felt the limitations of the small landlocked Ebbets Field , which held less than 32 @,@ 111 fans and accommodated only 700 parking spaces . Attendance between 1950 and 1957 was between 1 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 in 1954 and 1 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 in 1951 . Ultimately , O 'Malley decided to leave Brooklyn for Los Angeles in 1957 . Robert Moses authority Robert Caro and other contemporaneous sports historians felt that Moses was more to blame for the Dodgers ' leaving . The 1956 season had marked the end of the Jackie Robinson era in which the Dodgers won six pennants , lost two pennant series and finished as low as third only once in ten years , and the new era would begin in a new home . During the 1957 season , he negotiated a deal for the Dodgers to be viewed on an early pay TV network by the Skiatron Corporation subject to the approval of other teams and owners . The rest of baseball was not ready for the risks of such a venture and it did not pan out at the time .
= = = Move to Los Angeles = = =
O 'Malley is considered by baseball experts to be " perhaps the most influential owner of baseball 's early expansion era . " Following the 1957 Major League Baseball season , he moved the Dodgers to Los Angeles , and New York 's Dodgers fans felt betrayed . O 'Malley was also influential in getting the rival New York Giants to move west to become the San Francisco Giants , thus preserving the two teams ' longstanding rivalry . He needed another team to go with him , for had he moved out west alone , the St. Louis Cardinals — 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 575 @.@ 0 km ) away — would have been the closest National League team . The joint move would make West Coast road trips more economical for visiting teams . O 'Malley invited San Francisco Mayor George Christopher to New York to meet with Giants owner Horace Stoneham . Stoneham was considering moving the Giants to Minnesota , but he was convinced to join O 'Malley on the West Coast at the end of the 1957 campaign . Since the meetings occurred during the 1957 season and against the wishes of Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick , there was media gamesmanship . On April 15 , 1958 , the Dodgers and Giants ushered in West Coast baseball at Seals Stadium . When O 'Malley moved the Dodgers from Brooklyn the story transcended the world of sport and he found himself on the cover of Time . The cover art for the issue was created by sports cartoonist Willard Mullin , long noted for his caricature of the " Brooklyn Bum " that personified the team . The dual moves broke the hearts of New York 's National League fans but ultimately were successful for both franchises – and for Major League Baseball as a whole . In fact , the move was an immediate success as well since the Dodgers set a major league single @-@ game attendance record in their first home appearance with 78 @,@ 672 fans . During the first year after the move , the Dodgers made $ 500 @,@ 000 more profit than any other Major League Baseball team and paid off all of their debts . In the years following the move of the New York clubs , Major League Baseball added two completely new teams in California , as well as two in Texas , one each in the Twin Cities , Denver , and Phoenix , and two teams at separate times in Seattle . In addition , the Athletics , who had already moved to Kansas City , Missouri , moved to Oakland , California ; Kansas City would get a new team the year after the A 's moved to Oakland . Most importantly , though , the National League returned to New York with the introduction of the New York Mets four years after the Dodgers and Giants had departed for California .
The dealings with the city of Los Angeles after the Vero Beach meeting were controversial . The initial offer of 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 02 km2 ) and tax exemptions was determined to be illegal and improper . The minor league San Diego Padres owners led an opposition effort to stop the transfer of 352 acres ( 1 @.@ 42 km2 ) in Chavez Ravine via a referendum . O 'Malley engaged in an extensive marketing and media campaign that helped the referendum pass , but there were extensive subsequent taxpayer lawsuits . The plaintiffs initially prevailed in some of these suits . Finally , during the middle of the 1959 season , the Los Angeles City Council was able to approve the final parcel for the stadium . One legendary negotiation with the city over concession revenue is that in O 'Malley 's move to the Coliseum he agreed to accept concession revenues from only half the team 's games — the home half . The land was eventually transferred by the Los Angeles city government to O 'Malley by an agreement which required O 'Malley and the Dodgers to design , build , privately finance and maintain a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium ; develop a youth recreation center on the land . O 'Malley was to pay $ 500 @,@ 000 initially , plus annual payments of $ 60 @,@ 000 for 20 years ; and pay $ 345 @,@ 000 in property taxes starting in 1962 , putting the land on the tax rolls . Also , the Dodgers would transfer team @-@ owned Wrigley Field , then appraised at $ 2 @.@ 2 million , to the city . The city exchanged " 300 acres , more or less , in the Chavez Ravine area " , while L.A. County Supervisors unanimously agreed to provide $ 2 @.@ 74 million for access roads . In addition , the Dodgers also had to pay $ 450 @,@ 000 for territorial rights to the Pacific Coast League , whose Los Angeles Angels and Hollywood Stars suspended play .
When he made the decision to relocate in October 1957 to Los Angeles , O 'Malley did not have an established location for where the Dodgers would play in 1958 . O 'Malley worked out a deal with Los Angeles County and the state of California to rent the Los Angeles Coliseum for $ 200 @,@ 000 per year for 1958 and 1959 , plus 10 % of the ticket revenue , and all concession profits for the first nine games of each season following an opening series with the San Francisco Giants . The Dodgers temporarily took up residence while they awaited the completion of 56 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity Dodger Stadium , built for $ 23 million . The Dodgers were soon drawing more than two million fans a year . They remained successful on the field as well , winning the World Series in 1959 , 1963 , and 1965 . The Los Angeles Angels also played in Dodger Stadium from 1962 to 1965 . In the 1960s , O 'Malley attempted to buy out the contract of Shigeo Nagashima of the Tokyo Yomiuri Giants from Matsutaro Shoriki . In 1960 , O 'Malley refused to pay right fielder Carl Furillo for the 1960 season after he was released early due to injury . This forced Furillo to sue the team . Because of this , O 'Malley allegedly blacklisted Furillo from any job in baseball .
His son , Peter O 'Malley , described his management style as follows : " As president , the way he ran the business , he believed in stability and very little turnover . It was the strength of the organization . The management team worked as well as the team on the field . " This is evidenced in many ways , including the long tenure of both Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda as Dodgers managers and Vin Scully , the broadcast voice of the Dodgers . Alston was repeatedly rehired to consecutive one @-@ year contracts from 1954 – 1976 until he retired . Then Lasorda , who had been a long @-@ time employee in as a coach and minor league baseball manager , took over as manager for another 20 years . Scully has been the voice of the Dodgers since the O 'Malley family acquired the team . In addition , the infield of first baseman Steve Garvey , second baseman Davey Lopes , shortstop Bill Russell and third baseman Ron Cey was the longest @-@ running intact infield in major league history . Furthermore , O 'Malley is said to have kept Bowie Kuhn in office as the Commissioner of Baseball until O 'Malley 's death . O 'Malley rewarded loyal employee Bavasi by allowing the San Diego Padres franchise to establish an expansion team with Bavasi as President in Southern California . Alston said O 'Malley convinced him that when he signed his first one @-@ year contract it could be a lifetime job by pointing out that " signing one @-@ year contracts can mean a lifetime job , if you keep signing enough of them . " Although O 'Malley had good stories of loyalty with some employees , there were several stories of O 'Malley 's frugality .
Although O 'Malley was loyal to his employees , he did not take kindly to demands from employees such as manager Charlie Dressen 's request for a three @-@ year contract . When Dressen requested a multi @-@ year contract after losing a second consecutive World Series to the Yankees , he was released . Then when he hired Walter Alston as a replacement , he made it clear to the press that Alston would only receive one @-@ year contracts and would not attempt to show up the management in the national media . There were rumors that Alston even signed blank contracts in the fall and showed up in the spring to find out his salary . O 'Malley also did not support those who remained friends with Rickey , which was a large factor in Red Barber quitting as Dodgers announcer .
O 'Malley believed that employees should accept whatever salaries they were offered . In 1966 , this led to the contract holdouts of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale , who employed the same lawyer . The duo of pitching aces decided to strike together until they were both satisfied . They had earned $ 70 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 respectively during the 1965 season , during which the Dodgers won the World Series , and O 'Malley offered $ 105 @,@ 000 and $ 95 @,@ 000 for the 1966 season . At the time , Willie Mays was Major League Baseball 's highest paid player at $ 125 @,@ 000 per year and multi @-@ year contracts were very unusual . They demanded three @-@ year $ 167 @,@ 000 per year contracts and after holding out until less than two weeks before Opening Day , they received one @-@ year $ 130 @,@ 000 and $ 115 @,@ 000 contracts respectively .
O 'Malley liked clubhouse turmoil only slightly less than free agent disloyalty . When he traded Maury Wills to the Pittsburgh Pirates following consecutive National League pennants , it was attributed to Wills having quit during the middle of the Dodgers ' post @-@ season tour of Japan .
= = = Retirement from presidency = = =
On March 17 , 1970 , Walter turned over the presidency of the team to his son Peter , remaining as Chairman until his death in 1979 . Peter O 'Malley held the position until 1998 when the team was sold to Rupert Murdoch . The team remained successful on the field under Peter and won the World Series in both 1981 and 1988 . They remained successful at the box office as well : by the end of the 1980s , they had not only became the first franchise to draw three million fans , but also they had done it more times than all other franchises combined . During the 1970s , O 'Malley was credited for stagemanaging Lasorda 's career . Lasorda become known for his die @-@ hard Dodgers clichés , such as describing the color of his blood by saying " Cut me , I bleed Dodger blue . " It was even said that the reciprocal loyalty and respect between Lasorda and O 'Malley was so high that O 'Malley gave Lasorda a tombstone as a gift that had an inscription that read " TOMMY LASORDA , A DODGER " .
The McKeevers held their 25 % interest in the Dodgers until 1975 when Dearie McKeever died . They sold out to O 'Malley making him the sole owner of the Dodgers . Also during 1975 , the Dodgers franchise was embroiled in the Andy Messersmith controversy that led to the Seitz decision , which struck down baseball 's reserve clause and opened up the sport to modern free agency . Messersmith and the Dodgers were unable to come to contract terms in part because of a then unheard of no @-@ trade clause demand , and Messersmith pitched the entire season without a contract under the reserve clause , which stated that team has the right to extend the prior years contract one year if a player does not agree to terms . Teams had previously had the right to continue such re @-@ signings year after year . This gave owners the right to issue " take it or leave it " offers to the players . Although the Dodgers and Messersmith nearly hammered out a deal monetarily , they could not come to terms on the no @-@ trade clause . Supposedly Major League Baseball instructed the Dodgers not to surrender such a clause for the good of the game . The Seitz decision limited the re @-@ signings to one year , and since Messersmith performed quite well in 1975 , winning a Gold Glove Award and leading the National League in complete games and shutouts , while finishing second in earned run average , he was a valuable talent . He earned offers from six different teams . Messersmith became the first free agent , except for Catfish Hunter who had been declared a 1974 free agent by breach of contract . O 'Malley felt the price wars would be the downfall of baseball because the fans only have so much money . The scenario led to an eighteen @-@ day lockout during spring training in 1976 over the prospect of dozens of players playing becoming free agents and the inability to redesign the reserve clause .
= = Death and legacy = =
O 'Malley was diagnosed with cancer , and he sought treatment at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota . He died of congestive heart failure on August 9 , 1979 at the Methodist Hospital in Rochester , and was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City , California . His wife Kay had died a few weeks earlier .
At one time , Brooklyn Dodgers fans hated O 'Malley so much for moving their beloved team that he was routinely mentioned along with Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin as the most villainous 20th @-@ century men ; one version of a joke went , " If a Brooklyn man finds himself in a room with Hitler , Stalin , and O 'Malley , but has only two bullets , what does he do ? Shoot O 'Malley twice . " Some still consider him among the worst three men of the 20th century . Much of the animosity was not just for moving the team , but robbing Brooklyn of the sense of a cohesive cultural and social identity that a major sports franchise provides . Despite the long @-@ standing animosity of Brooklyn fans and their supporters in baseball , O 'Malley was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2008 after having been elected by the Veterans Committee with the minimal number of votes necessary for acceptance .
His legacy is that of changing the mindset of a league that for a long time had had the St. Louis Cardinals as its southernmost and westernmost team ( American League Kansas City Athletics had moved west 3 years earlier from Philadelphia ) . Tommy Lasorda said upon hearing of his election to the Hall , " He 's a pioneer . He made a tremendous change in the game , opening up the West Coast to Major League Baseball . " When asked how he wanted to be remembered , O 'Malley said , " for planting a tree . " The tree provided the branches to open up the West Coast to baseball , but O 'Malley 's son remembers his father 's 28 years on Major League Baseball 's executive council as service that " was instrumental in the early stages of the game 's international growth . " His contributions to baseball were widely recognized even before his Hall of Fame election : he was ranked 8th and 11th respectively by ABC Sports and The Sporting News in their lists of the most influential sports figures of the 20th century .
On July 7 , 2009 , Walter O 'Malley was inducted into the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame along with two other Dodger icons : slugger Steve Garvey and announcer Vin Scully . " Over the years , we have learned more of his decade @-@ long quest to build a new stadium in Brooklyn and about how those efforts were thwarted by city officials . Perhaps this induction will inspire fans who themselves started new lives outside the borough to reconsider their thoughts about Walter O ’ Malley " , said John Mooney , curator of the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame . " He privately built one of baseball 's more beautiful ballparks , Dodger Stadium , and set attendance records annually . While New York is the home of the Irish American Baseball Hall of Fame , it seeks to honor inductees whose impact was and is national . "
O 'Malley 's detractors say that he was not a visionary for taking baseball west . They say the game was naturally heading toward geographical expansion and O 'Malley just an opportunist . Rather than truly being a leader these detractors say his leadership was a manifestation of making the most money .
= = Popular culture = =
O 'Malley was mentioned several times in Danny Kaye 's 1962 song tribute The D @-@ O @-@ D @-@ G @-@ E @-@ R @-@ S Song ( Oh , Really ? No , O 'Malley ! ) , which spins a tale of a fantasy game between the Dodgers and the Giants . At one point , the umpire 's call goes against the home team :
Down in the dugout , Alston glowers
Up in the booth , Vin Scully frowns ;
Out in the stands , O 'Malley grins ...
Attendance 50 @,@ 000 !
So .... what does O 'Malley do ? CHARGE ! !
Just before the St. Louis Cardinals began a series of games against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium , in 1963 , the Los Angeles Times published a large cartoon , drawn by artist Pete Bentovoja , modeled on the movies about the German submarine captain . The captain is Cards ' manager Johnny Keane ; his " lieutenant " is Stan Musial . They wear Cardinal uniforms with naval officers ' caps bearing the " St.L " emblem . While Keane and Musial are speaking , other crew members load bats , like torpedoes , into torpedo tubes ; the bats have players ' faces ( and names and batting averages ) drawn on them . Keane looks through the periscope ; the inset shows a battleship with a large head of O 'Malley , wearing a naval officers cap bearing the " LA " emblem and puffing a cigar . Keane : " Achtung Shtan [ Stan ] ! I zought ve sunk sem last year ? " Musial : " Yavohl , Mein Kommander , Ve vill blast zem vit bigger und better torpedoes zis zeazon ! " ( The Cards made a terrific drive for the pennant but finished the season six games back of the Dodgers . )
O 'Malley was featured prominently in the HBO documentary film Brooklyn Dodgers : Ghosts of Flatbush , which chronicled his executive management of the Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers . The documentary focuses on the post World War II glory years of the franchise and presents a compelling case that O 'Malley truly wanted to keep the Dodgers in Brooklyn in a stadium near a railroad station , but he was unable to get the proper support from Moses .
= = Timeline = =
= 1989 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1989 Pacific hurricane season was a really active Pacific hurricane season that produced a lot of tropical cyclones near Mexico and Baja California . It officially started on May 15 , 1989 in the eastern Pacific , and June 1 , 1989 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1989 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . A total of 17 storms and 9 hurricanes formed , which was near long @-@ term averages . Four hurricanes reached major hurricane status ( Category 3 or higher ) on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Notable storms include Hurricanes Cosme , Kiko , and Raymond . Cosme crossed over Mexico and killed 30 people . Hurricane Kiko made landfall on the Gulf of California side of the Baja California Peninsula . Hurricane Raymond was the strongest storm of the season , but weakened significantly before landfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Overall , the season continued the general trend in the 1980s of near to above @-@ average seasons in the East Pacific . Seventeen cyclones formed . Eight peaked at tropical storm strength . Nine systems became hurricanes , of which four were major hurricanes at Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . On August 28 , three systems were active , one of a few times when there has been three tropical cyclones active simultaneously ( Kiko , Lorena , and Manuel ) in the east Pacific ( west of 140 ° W ) . Despite the activity this season , no named storms formed in October . This was the second consecutive season this happened .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Winona = = =
During the second week of January , an upper @-@ level trough located east of Hawaii created an area of divergence to its southeast , allowing an area of low pressure to develop alongside deep convection . Initially , the system was hampered by wind shear as it moved west @-@ northwestward to the south of Hawaii ; however , by January 11 , the system was able to maintain convection over its center and was classified as a tropical depression . On January 13 , it was estimated in post @-@ storm analysis to have become a tropical storm at an unprecedented 20 @.@ 7 ° N 170 @.@ 5 ° W / 20 @.@ 7 ; -170.5 . Meteorologists at the time struggled to forecast the storm as climatological forecast guidance ( modeling based off previous cyclones ) , was not available due to the uniqueness of Winona . On January 15 , the system crossed the International Dateline and entered the Western Pacific basin .
As a tropical depression , Winona brought heavy rains to portions of Hawaii , triggering flash flooding on a few islands . No damage resulted from the floods . After becoming a tropical storm , the system brushed Wake Island , bringing gusty winds and moderate rainfall . Several days later , the storm passed near the Mariana Islands and Guam , bringing tropical storm @-@ force wind gusts and heavy rainfall . Minor damage resulted from Winona but there was no loss of life . Operationally , this system was not classified a tropical storm until January 16 , thus it was not warned upon by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center during its early stages .
= = = Tropical Storm Adolph = = =
The first storm of the season developed out of a weak area of low pressure situated about 570 mi ( 925 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Tracking towards the west , the circulation briefly dissipated on May 30 , before redeveloping the following day into Tropical Depression One @-@ E. A ridge of high pressure north of the system steered it towards the west @-@ northwest . By 0600 UTC on June 1 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Adolph . Adolph continued to strengthen until early on June 2 , at which time it reached its peak intensity with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ) . Shortly after peaking , cool , dry air became entrained in the circulation , preventing further intensification . Early on June 3 , Adolph weakened slightly due to unfavorable conditions . Later that day , Adolph briefly re @-@ intensified . On June 4 , strong wind shear displaced convection associated with the storm to the west of the center of circulation ; this resulted in Adolph weakening to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC that day , and Adolph persisted until June 5 at which time it dissipated .
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
On June 10 , an area of disturbed weather was located several hundred miles southwest of Acapulco , Mexico , and the system slowed to a westward drift . After gradually becoming better organized , the NHC estimated that the wave spawned Tropical Depression Two @-@ E around 1800 UTC on June 15 . Initially , the depression towards the northwest before a ridge of high pressure situated over Mexico caused the storm to turn towards the west @-@ northwest . Based on improving satellite presentation , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Barbara . With favorable conditions , Barbara continued to intensify , attaining hurricane @-@ status roughly 24 hours after being named . Six hours later , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Satellite images early on June 18 showed that cool , dry air was becoming entrained into the northern inflow of the storm and Barbara was nearing cooler waters . These factors led to the storm weakening below hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on June 19 . Wind shear at this time also began to increase , displacing all convection associated with the storm to the northeast of the center . By June 20 , the former hurricane was further downgraded to a tropical depression . The NHC issued their final advisory on the system early on June 21 ; however , the remnants of the storm persisted until June 27 .
= = = Hurricane Cosme = = =
On June 18 a tropical disturbance formed several hundred miles off the coast of Mexico . Ships in the vicinity of the storm , in addition to satellite images , indicated that the disturbance had developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E around 1800 UTC . Remaining nearly stationary , the depression gradually strengthened into a tropical storm by June 20 , receiving the name Cosme at that time . Early on June 21 , Cosme began to track towards the north and intensify . Around 1200 UTC , Cosme strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Several hours later , Cosme reached its peak intensity . Late on June 21 , the center of the hurricane made landfall on the Mexican coast , just east of Acapulco with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The low associated with the former hurricane was last identified near Brownsville , Texas .
Cosme brought heavy rains , which killed at least 30 people due to drowning . Many adobe homes were destroyed , but a specific cost of damage is not known . The highest rainfall recorded in relation to Cosme was 16 @.@ 1 in ( 410 mm ) in Yautepec San Bartolo , Mexico .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
The fourth tropical cyclone of the season formed as a well @-@ organized depression on July 9 . Deep convection associated with the system indicated that intensification into a tropical storm was possible . The system track generally westward in response to high pressure system to the north . On July 10 , the depression quickly became disorganized , with only a small area of convection around the center remaining by midday . Although the depression was nearly at tropical storm intensity , the NHC held off on upgrading it due to its proximity to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E. However , the system failed to intensify . By July 11 , the depression entered the Central Pacific hurricane center 's area of responsibility . Tracking generally northwest , the system slowly weakened before dissipating on July 14 to the south of Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E = = =
On July 10 , a tropical depression formed far from land . Upon formation , there was uncertainty of the location of center . Shortly thereafter , the system became sheared and further intensification was no longer anticipated . On July 11 , the low @-@ level center became displaced form the deep convection. the next day , the center was relocated , and moved to the west . While the NHC noted the possibility of intensification , the depression was forecasted to dissipate in 36 hours . It failed to intensify , and moved into the Central Pacific on July 14 . The fast @-@ moving tropical depression dissipated two days later . The remnants of the depression passed far to the south of Hawaii , thus there was no damage .
= = = Hurricane Dalilia = = =
On July 9 , a defined low pressure system formed south of Baja California and increased convective activity led to the NHC classifying it Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on July 11 . About 24 hours later , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Dalilia . By July 13 , Dalilia had intensified into a minimal hurricane as it tracked generally toward the northwest . Two days later , the storm took a nearly due west track , which it maintained until July 19 . Although the storm tracked near cool waters , a well @-@ developed outflow allowed it to maintain hurricane @-@ intensity . Shortly before crossing into the Central Pacific basin , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a central pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . After crossing 140 ° W , Dalilia weakened to a minimal hurricane . The storm maintained this intensity until July 19 , at which time the system slowed and turned northwest . The following day , the weakening tropical storm brushed the Hawaiian Islands to the south , eventually curving away from the island chain on July 21 . Later that day , Dalilia further weakened to a tropical depression , with the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issuing their final advisory at that time . The remnants of the former hurricane continued to track northwest .
While tracking near the Hawaiian islands , Dalilia produced waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along south @-@ facing coastlines . Along the coasts of Ka 'u and South Kona , winds gusted up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; the winds caused minor damage Along the southeast slopes of Mauna Loa , heavy rains caused minor flooding which forced transit officials to shut down several roads . Localized areas received rainfall in excess of 10 in ( 250 mm ) .
= = = Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E = = =
On July 16 , an area of disturbed weather located 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) organized into a tropical depression . Upon formation , the NHC did not anticipate significant intensification due to it close distance to both cooler waters and Hurricane Dalilia . The next day , however , the center became difficult to locate and the system was no longer forecast to intensity . By the night , only minimal deep convection remained . The depression soon moved into cold water and as such the system was expected to dissipate within 24 hours . It dissipated the next day . The remnants of this system contributed to a surge in the monsoon trough that led to the formation of Tropical Storm Erick . This system never impacted land , and thus no damage or deaths were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
On July 16 , there was a surge in convection in the monsoon trough . The most concentrated area soon separated for the trough and by July 19 , satellite imagery indicated an area of deep convection that was located nearly 1 @,@ 237 mi ( 1 @,@ 991 km ) away from Mexico . Early that day , the system was upgraded to a tropical depression . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , only slight intensification was anticipated . The system intensified to a tropical storm 24 hours after forming . Erick soon moved into cooler waters . This quickly weakened the cyclone and was downgraded to a tropical depression on July 20 . It dissipated the next day , without ever impacting any land masses .
= = = Tropical Storm Flossie = = =
Flossie originated form a tropical wave that entered the Pacific Ocean on July 20 . The system began to show sings of organization two days later . Continuing to organize , the system was upgraded Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E on July 23 . Despite being located over warm waters , only gradual intensification was anticipated . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Flossie the next day . Shortly thereafter the upgraded , convection began to diminish . The cyclone then drifted northwest . The upper @-@ level environment rapidly changed , and the cyclones convection became disorganized . The convection separated from the center of circulation . The cluster of convection developed a new center of circulation on July 24 . The original center drifted away from Flossie for 12 hours before dissipating . The new center , which was still a tropical storm , drifted northwest . Flossie then encountered an unfavorable environment , and weakened into a depression on July 25 . Flossie continued drifting to the northwest until dissipating July 28 , while just off the coast of the
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Baja California Peninsula . Despite its close distance to Mexico , no damage or deaths was reported .
= = = Hurricane Gil = = =
Gil formed from an area of disturbed weather located near the Mexico – Guatemala border developed a circulation in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and then dissipated . On July 30 , the disturbance redeveloped a circulation and then convection . It paralleled the coast of Mexico and headed in a northwesterly direction . The low continued to organize , and was upgraded into a tropical depression . Initially , there was some uncertain in the storms future path , and there was a possibility of the system recurving towards the coast . It strengthened into a tropical storm on July 31 . The system continued to become better organized , with further intensification foretasted because the low was located over very warm waters ; and was upgraded into a hurricane that same day . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone developed an eye . Gil was a hurricane for only about 30 hours , and it began to encounter dry air . By the August 1 , Gill had lost hurricane intensity . It was downgraded to a tropical depression the next day . The cyclone dissipated on August 5 .
The outer bands of Gil produced significant amounts of rainfall over coastal areas of Mexico , with satellites estimating areas of rainfall in excess of 5 in ( 130 mm ) . The heavy rains may have triggered deadly flooding and landslides ; however , no reports from Mexican officials have been received to confirm this . However , officials reported 4 @.@ 8 in ( 120 mm ) of rain in a 12 @-@ hour period .
= = = Hurricane Ismael = = =
A tropical wave crossed Central America on July 11 , and then became an area of low pressure . While located of the coast of Mexico it became better organized on August 14 . This was enough to warrant an upgrade to Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E. This system slowly became better organized , but northerly wind shear prevent rapid intensification . Initially , this system was slow to intensify . After strengthening into Tropical Storm Ismael , it closely paralleled the coast of Mexico , Ismael turned to the west . It would maintain that generally westerly direction for the rest of its long path across the Pacific Ocean . The system steadily intensified , and by August 16 , Ismael had developed a fair outflow . It reached hurricane strength later that day . Continuing to intensify , the hurricane reached Category 2 intensity . However , the system was not expect to intensify further due to cool sea surface temperatures . However , Ismael managed reached Category 3 status . It then reached a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a peak pressure of 955 millibars . Shortly after its peak , Ismael underwent fluctuations in strength . On August 21 , Ismael passed over cooler waters . In addition , the storm encountered strong wind shear . The hostile environment continued to take its toll on Ismael , and it weakened to a tropical storm on August 23 . Ismael dissipated not long after weakening to a depression on August 25 . The remains of Ismael , which was only a swirl of clouds , dissipated near Hawaii .
Between August 15 and 17 , the outer bands of Ismael produced heavy rains along coastal areas of Mexico between Acapulco and Manzanillo , Colima . At least three people were killed by flooding triggered by the storm ; however , no structural damage was reported . Despite the rainfall , there were no reports of flooding . The remnants of the hurricane passed near , but did not pose a threat Hawaii .
= = = Tropical Storm Henriette = = =
On August 12 , a tropical wave formed in the Pacific Ocean. it steadily organized into the twelfth tropical depression of the season early on August 14 . It slowly strengthened and was named Henriette after strengthening into a tropical storm . After peaking with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a peak pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) on August 15 , wind shear immediately began to weaken the tropical cyclone . On August 16 , after becoming devoid of any convection , it was downgraded into tropical depression status on August 16 . Henriette degenerated into a remnant low on August 17 . The low persisted for a few more days until completely dissipating .
= = = Tropical Storm Juliette = = =
A surge in convection in the monsoon trough caused by nearby Hurricane Ismael interacted with a tropical wave to form the thirteenth tropical depression of the season on August 21 . Due to the small distance of 621 miles ( 999 km ) between the cyclones , the depression followed Ismael . Despite strong wind shear caused by Ismael , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Juliette on August 22 as a strong burst of convection occurred . After Ismael dissipated , steering currents collapsed , and Juliette moved over cool waters in the open ocean for several days . In addition , strong wind shear took toll on the system . The low had completely dissipated during the evening of August 25 . Juliette never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Kiko = = =
On August 25 , the seasons fourteenth tropical depression formed off the coast of Sonora , Mexico from a Mesoscale Convective System . A small cyclone , the system rapidly intensified over the warm waters of the Gulf of California , becoming Tropical Storm Kiko hours after forming and a hurricane 12 hours later . The fast rate of strengthening continued until August 27 , at which time Kiko peaked in intensity as a strong Category 3 hurricane with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 955 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Slight weakening occurred before the storm made landfall near Punta Arena , Mexico , becoming one of the strongest storms to make landfall in Mexico since reliable records began in 1949 . The hurricane quickly weakened as it moved over the Baja Peninsula , being downgraded to a tropical depression before emerging into the Pacific Ocean on August 28 . The following day , the remnants of Kiko were absorbed by the nearby Hurricane Lorena .
Although Kiko was a major hurricane upon landfall , little damage resulted from the storm . However , 20 homes were destroyed and numerous highways were flooded by torrential rains .
= = = Hurricane Lorena = = =
In the Atlantic , a tropical wave spawned Tropical Depression Six . Twenty four hours later , wind shear degenerated the depression back into a wave . The wave continued westward , and in the southern Caribbean Sea , split in two on August 21 . The southern part crossed Central America and emerged into the Pacific Ocean . Banding and convection steadily organized , and Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E formed on August 27 . It strengthened into Tropical Storm Lorena the next day . At this time , three systems were active and in close proximity . Lorena and a weakening Kiko started a Fujiwhara interaction . Lorena eventually became the dominate system , and absorbed the remnants of Kiko on August 29 . Moving slowly out to sea , Lorena reached minimal hurricane strength on the September 1 as the convection became more concentrated . Lorena was a hurricane for less than a day . It weakened quickly to a depression on September 3 . The cyclone was devoid of convection by September 7 , and was thus declared a remnant low . The system never affected land .
= = = Tropical Storm Manuel = = =
An area of thunderstorms organized into a tropical depression on August 28 . The next day , convection increased near the center , and was respectively upgraded into a tropical storm . Manuel gradually strengthened , reaching a peak of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Manuel approached to within 578 mi ( 930 km ) of Lorena . Due to its proximity to the storm , Manuel lost its center circulation on August 31 . The storms only impact on land was light rainfall near Manzanillo , Colima . No reports of death or damage were reported .
= = = Tropical Storm Narda = = =
On September 2 , a tropical wave began showing sings of organization , and on September 3 , it organized into a tropical depression . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , Narda was located over warm sea surface temperatures . Moving rapidly , to the west @-@ northwest , Narda strengthened into a tropical storm . Strong wind shear prevented significant intensification beyond minimal tropical storm strength , with winds peaking at 50 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Initially , Narda managed to produce brief burst of convection . By September 7 , however , Narda was devoid of convection , and was respectively downgraded to a tropical depression . It never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Octave = = =
At low latitude in the Atlantic , Tropical Depression Nine formed from a tropical wave on August 28 . The depression degenerated the next day due to strong wind shear . The wave continued drifting westward , and entered the Pacific Ocean on the September 2 . It slowly developed , and organized into Tropical Depression Eighteen @-@ E on September 8 . The cyclone turned northwestward , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Octave on September 10 . After strengthening into a hurricane the next day , Octave started deepening . After peaking as a Category 4 on September 13 with 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) winds , Octave moved into a region of cooler waters and strong shear . Octave weakened to a storm at midday on September 14 and a depression 32 hours later . The depression hooked to the east , and dissipated on September 18 near Guadalupe Island . The remnants eventually turned to the north before dissipating .
While Octave had no significant effects on land as a hurricane , its remnants did move into California . In the Sacramento Valley , the town of Redding recorded 2 @.@ 21 in ( 56 mm ) of rain in a 12 hour span .
= = = Tropical Storm Priscilla = = =
Tropical Depression Nineteen @-@ E organized from an area of low pressure on September 21 . Upon being upgraded , the depression was anticipated to slowly strengthen , becoming a strong tropical storm in three days . Moving northwestward , it was named Priscilla the next day . Continuing to intensify , it reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Due to its close proximity to the cooler waters , Priscilla began weakening almost immediately thereafter . The cyclone weakened into a tropical depression on September 24 and dissipated the next day .
Although Priscilla did not directly impact land as a tropical cyclone , the remnant moisture enhanced a non @-@ tropical low off the California coastline , resulting in heavy rainfall along the Pacific coast of the United States . In southern California , the system also resulted in hot and humid weather , with some areas reaching up to 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E = = =
On September 24 , Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ E formed southwest of Guatemala . Although convection increased , significant development was not anticipated due to its promoxity to land . It was also forecasted to make landfall in 36 hours . A small cyclone , its close distance to Hurricane Raymond hindered development . Moving very little , the winds soon diminished . The depression dissipated on September 27 . When the depression was anticipated to make landfall in Mexico . As such , the NHC noted the possibility of heavy rains especially over the higher elevations . However , no impact was reported from the tropical cyclone .
= = = Hurricane Raymond = = =
Tropical Depression Twenty One @-@ E formed from part of the same tropical wave that had earlier spawned Hurricane Hugo . Moving slowly to the west @-@ northwest , it accelerated to the northwest in response to a trough and strengthened into the seventeenth named storm of the season on September 26 . Raymond turned to the west again and entered a favourable environment . Raymond eventually peaked as a Category 4 hurricane and the strongest storm of the season on October 1 . A trough over Mexico destroyed the ridge that was steering Raymond and recurved the cyclone to the northeast . The hurricane accelerated into a less favorable environment , and slowly weakened as its forward speed increased to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . Raymond made landfall as a tropical storm on October 4 . Northern Mexico 's mountains disrupted Raymond 's circulation , and dissipated over New Mexico on October 5 after passing over that state and Arizona as a depression .
Since Raymond had significantly weakened prior to its first landfall , only minor impacts were recorded in Mexico . The highest rainfall was recorded in Nogales at 4 @.@ 72 in ( 120 mm ) . In the city , the swollen Santa Cruz River destroyed a heavily traveled bridge , known as the Calle Obregon , and destroyed a store which was situated on the banks of the river . Mexican officials estimated damages at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1989 USD , $ 477 thousand 2016 USD ) . The remnants of the storm tracked into the Southwest United States and further into the Central United States before dissipating . Rainfall in excess of 3 in ( 76 mm ) fell in parts of southern Arizona ; the highest total was recorded in Independence , Kansas at 3 @.@ 91 in ( 99 mm ) . One person was killed in a mobile home which was destroyed by high winds . Flash flooding triggered by Raymond caused an estimated $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1989 USD , $ 2 @.@ 86 million 2016 USD ) in damages in Arizona .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Two @-@ E = = =
On October 3 , a tropical depression formed 475 mi ( 764 km ) south of Mexico from an area of disturbed weather that had become better organized . Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the cyclone was located in a favorable environment . As such , it was forecasted to reach a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) to be named " Sonia " . Later that day , convection increased , but the NHC did not upgrade the system into a tropical storm . However , increased wind shear quickly caused the system to become exposed . After drifting westbound , it did not become a tropical storm and dissipated on October 4 . However , it regenerated on October 7 as deep convection had developed near the center for about 12 hours . Upon regenerating , it was forecasted to intensify into a strong tropical storm as it was expected to turn to the north . Shortly thereafter , the system became less organized ; it dissipated again the next day . The depression never threatened land .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Three @-@ E = = =
On October 15 , Tropical Depression 23E developed about 550 mi ( 890 km ) to the southwest of Mexico City , within an area of warm water and diminishing wind shear and as a result was expected to slowly intensify further . However , during October 16 , all of the deep convection associated with 23E dissipated , before the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory during the next day .
= = = Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E = = =
On October 18 , the NHC began issuing advisories on Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E. Although the depression was located within an area of high wind shear , convection had managed to partially develop around the center of circulation . A ship nearby the system reported sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) ; however , the winds were not considered to be representative of the actual intensity of the depression . Further intensification was not expected as the depression tracked in a northward direction Shortly after the first advisory was issued , convection rapidly dissipated , leaving an exposed low pressure area , devoid of shower and thunderstorm activity . The system was forecast to dissipate within 36 hours due to high shear . Late on October 18 , the forward motion of the depression abruptly changed towards the west . The final advisory on Tropical Depression Twenty Four @-@ E was issued during the afternoon of October 19 as the system remained devoid of convection ; redevelopment of the system was not anticipated due to unfavorable conditions .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the eastern Pacific in 1989 . Since no names were retired , no new names were replaced for the 1995 season . However , the name Dalilia was later changed to Dalila through a misspelling of the name . The changed spelling has remained in use since 1995 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Central Pacific = = =
Starting in the early 1980s , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center assigned names to tropical storms that formed between the 180 ° to 140 ° W. Names for the basin are taken off a single list due to the low frequency of storms in the area . Had a tropical storm formed in the Central Pacific during 1989 , it would have received the name Aka . The first six names on the list that could have been used are listed below .
= = Seasonal effects = =
= Phallic architecture =
Phallic architecture consciously or unconsciously creates a symbolic representation of the phallus . Buildings intentionally or unintentionally resembling the human penis are a source of amusement to locals and tourists in various places around the world . Deliberate phallic imagery is found in ancient cultures and in the links to ancient cultures found in traditional artifacts .
The ancient Greeks and Romans celebrated phallic festivals and built a shrine with an erect phallus to honor Hermes , messenger of the gods . Those figures may be related to the Egyptian god Min who was depicted holding his erect phallus . Figures of women with a phallus for a head have been found across Greece and Yugoslavia . Phallic symbolism was prevalent in the architecture of ancient Babylon , and the Romans , who were deeply superstitious , often used phallic imagery in their architecture and domestic items . The ancient culture of many parts of Far East Asia including Indonesia , Mali , and the Buddhist parts of Korea and Japan , also used the phallus as a symbol of fertility in motifs on their temples and in other areas of everyday life .
Scholars of anthropology , sociology , and feminism have pointed out the symbolic nature of phallic architecture , especially large skyscrapers which dominate the landscape as symbols of male domination , power and political authority . Towers and other vertical structures may unintentionally or perhaps subconsciously have those connotations . There are many examples of modern architecture that can be interpreted as phallic , but very few for which the architect has specifically cited or admitted that meaning as an intentional aspect of the design .
= = History and background = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The worship of the phallus has existed since the Stone Age , and was particularly prevalent during the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age . Phallic architecture became prominent in ancient Egypt and Greece , where genitalia and human sexuality received a high degree of attention . The ancient Greeks honored the phallus and celebrated phallic festivals . The Greco @-@ Roman deity Priapus was worshiped as a god of fertility , depicted with a giant phallus in numerous public architectural pieces .
The Greeks regularly built a shrine which they called " Herm " at the entrance of major public buildings , homes and along roads to honor Hermes , messenger of the gods . The shrines typically " took the form of a vertical pillar topped by the bearded head of a man and from the surface of the pillar below the head , an erect phallus protruded " . It is believed that they sought their inspiration from the ancient Egyptians and their phallic image of Min , the valley god , who was similarly " depicted as a standing bearded king with simplified body , one arm raised , the other hand holding his erect phallus . "
Herodotus , the ancient Greek historian , documented women carrying large phallic shaped monuments and ornaments the size of a human body in villages in ancient Dionysia . On the island of Delos a pillar supports a colossal phallus , the symbol of Dionysus . Phallus reliefs on buildings on such sites are also believed to have been apotropaic devices to ward off evil . The elaborate use of phallic architecture and sculpture in ancient Greek society can also be seen in sites such as Nea Nikomedeia in northern Greece . Archaeologists excavating the ancient town discovered clay sculptures of plump women with phallic heads and folded arms .
Similar figurines of women with phallus heads from the Neolithic period have been found across Greece , Macedonia and parts of old Yugoslavia . The vast majority of the figurines of the Hamangia culture have cylindrical phallus @-@ shaped heads without facial features , although some , particularly of the Aegean culture , had phallic sculptural pieces with phallic heads with a pinched nose and slitty eyes . In these parts of the ancient world , obelisk like structures resembling the human penis were built , often with phallic symbols , representing human fertility and asserting male sexuality and orgasm . Phallic symbolism was prevalent in the architecture of ancient Babylonia , and in Khametian iconography , the obelisk was considered to be symbolic of the phallus of the masculine earth . The obelisks of ancient Egypt themselves had several functions , existing both as a reference to the cultus of the sun and of the phallus , representing fertility and power .
Although phallic architecture as individual pieces was not prevalent in ancient Rome as it was in ancient Greece or Egypt , the Romans were deeply superstitious and often introduced phallus @-@ related components as architectural pieces and domestic items . Archaeologists unearthing a site in Pompei discovered many vases , ornaments and sculptures unearthed revealing the preoccupation with the phallus , also unearthing an 18 @-@ inch terracotta phallus protruding from what was believed to have been a bakery with the inscription , " Hie habitat felicitas " ( here dwells happiness ) , and many Romans wore phallus amulets to ward off the evil @-@ eye .
Priapic worship amongst the women of Sicily continued into the 18th century ; worshiping phallic votive objects and kissing such offerings before placing them upon the altar in the churches . Fetishism with the phallus architecturally and in smaller implements was also exhibited by certain Christian sects in medieval times , such as the Manichaeans , and was connected with masochism and sadism , a form of religious flagellantism . Smaller phallic shaped monuments in the form of idols , even vases , rings , drinking vessels and jewellery have been well @-@ documented and could be found within medieval churches of Ireland .
In Hinduism , the Hindu trimurthi represents Brahma , the creator , Vishnu , the preserver and Shiva , the destroyer . Shiva , the main deity in India , is both destroyer and is stated to also include his role of creation ; this creation role is represented by the phallic symbol , known as lingam in which form he is worshiped or in the form of male trinity of penis and two testicles . The linga , or phallus , is a common feature of Hindu temples across India , engrained as reliefs or other forms . The Brihadeeswarar Temple of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu , built during the Chola Dynasty , is dedicated to Shiva , and features lingam between the cells ; it is especially renowned for its " Hall of One Thousand Lingas " .
In Indonesia , the phallic lingga and feminine yoni , remain common symbols of harmony . The Sultan 's Palace of Kasepuhan , in West Java , has a number of lingga @-@ yoni carvings along its walls . According to the Indonesian chronicles of the Babad Tanah Jawi , Prince Puger gained the kingly power from God , by ingesting sperm from the phallus of the already @-@ dead Sultan Amangkurat II of Mataram .
Candi Sukuh temple of Ngancar , East Java , was built in the 10th century and is dedicated to Shiva and is evidence of Tantric ritual in Hinduism and the fertility cult practiced at the time and preoccupation with the lingga . The temple has numerous reliefs graphically depicting sexuality and fertility including several stone depictions of a copulating penis and vagina . It consists of a pyramid with reliefs and statues at the front . Among them is a male statue clutching his penis , with three tortoises with flattened shells . The temple once had a striking 1 @.@ 82 metre ( 5 ' 11 @.@ 5 ft ) representation of lingga with four testicles ; this is now housed in the National Museum of Indonesia . Phallic references were also made in Khmer architecture in Cambodia , and several Khmer temples depict the phallus in reliefs .
In Africa , Ancient Malians , particularly the royals of Djenne , decorated their palaces with phallus like piers and columns at the entrance of their palaces and decorated the walls with phallus motifs . Similar features can be seen on the pillars of many temples across Africa , often interpreted by western scholars to be phallic symbols , but may often be more subtle and subject to varying interpretations . Like the ancient Egyptian pharaohs , Aksumite kings built temples with phallic pillars in ancient Ethiopian cities such as Konsu , and monolithic pillars with phallic representation have also been discovered in Madagascar . In ancient Maya , phallic architecture was rare but Uxmal in particular has a considerable number of phallus @-@ like architectural pieces . It contains a temple known as the Temple of the Phallis and phallic sculptures and motifs .
= = = Modern = = =
Claude Nicholas Ledoux was a major exponent of architectural development in the 17th century which " articulated across the tensions of form and ornament , symbol , and allegory , dogma , and fantasy " , at a time when western society was oppressive and particularly sensitive to public displays of sexuality ; blatant and graphic phallic architecture would have been considered an embarrassment and a shameful act . In his initial draft for the House of Pleasure in Chaux ( a proposed ideal city , near the Forest of Chaux ) , Ledoux drew upon allegorical ideas in his design with the union of man and woman , a physiological interpretation of intercourse and penetration . Private bedrooms were designed to " thrust out from the circular ring of the building , metaphorically representing penetration , the circular ring representing the vaginal passage and womb of the female .
The second revised design is said to " subliminate both elevated site and female gender " with a " lonely phallus " , without the original planned animated circular ring representing the female reproductive organs . Ledoux drew upon phallic and sexually charged inspiration in other buildings which he designed . His design of Besançon Theatre for instance was fueled by the exigencies of prostitution and ancient sexual ritual . However , in comparison to the likes of Jean @-@ Jacques Lequeu , who gained notoriety for his pornographic architectural concoctions , Ledoux 's architectural inspiration was relatively mild , and he is said to have omitted towers from his designs on occasion as he was aware that they would be frowned upon shamefully by general society as a too obvious representation of the phallus ; Ledoux 's " missing erection " is explained to this effect in Jacques Lecan 's Significance of the Missing Phalus .
According to Oscar Reutersvärd , the interest in neoclassical architecture in the 18th century was synonymous with and motivated by a similar interest in masculine virility . Works such as Francesco Colonna 's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili ( 1467 ) and Giovanni Battista Piranesi 's Campo Marzio ( 1762 ) show profoundly the ancient influence of phallic architecture in design and worship , and contain numerous illustrations of Priapic temples and architecture . Piranesi in particular is said to have offered a " prototype for the mysterious architecture of phallic worship that more closely resembles the houses of pleasure " in his etchings .
He located two designs for the Bustum Caesaris Augusti , concluding that they were based upon sexual ritual , with " two phallic plans penetrating the semicircular cubicula " . Piranesi believed that the purpose of the phallic designs were to celebrate virility and male regenerative power . Other commentators such as Carl August Ehrensvärd also provided illustrations and analysis of Priapic temples and the meaning of phallic architecture . A work of note to this effect is Neoclassical Temple of Virility and the Buildings with a Phallic Shaped Plan ( 1977 ) of the Institute for Art History of the University of Lund , Sweden .
In America , especially in Chicago and New York , and numerous other global cities , high rise skyscrapers of phallic shape grew up in the 20th century . Le Corbusier , the famous architect , propagated it in Europe in place of traditional decorative architecture . Similar futuristic developments took place in Italy with the initiative of Sant ’ Elia , symbolizing the triumph of man . Yet unlike those of ancient times which were blatant architectural representations of the phallus , in the West in modern times " shrines to the phallus " are more subtle , and may often be subject to interpretation as such ; very few architects have specifically admitted the human phallus as a source for their architectural creation . The Italian Fascists were cited as having an obsession with phallic architecture which was rigid and impermeable . In the last few decades the high @-@ rise phallic skyscraper has been a symbol of government quest for economic power in China , Hong Kong and South Korea and the other ASEAN / Pacific Rim nations . China fuels billions of dollars annually into high @-@ rise office and residential buildings with the aim of increasing GDP , at a rate far greater than they can be occupied .
= = Symbolism = =
In art and architecture , acutely vertical buildings are often seen as a symbol of masculinity and horizontal buildings are seen as more feminine . The terms " phallic verticality " , " phallic erectility " and " phallic brutality " have been referred to by architectural theorists , including the likes of French sociologist Henri Lefebvre , who argued that buildings of phallic architectural type metaphorically symbolize " force , male fertility , masculine violence " . Phallic erectility " bestows a special status on the perpendicular , proclaiming phallocracy as the orientation of space " while phallic brutality " does not remain abstract , for it is the brutality of political power . "
Lefebvre conducted considerable research into the meaning of high @-@ rise buildings . He said " The arrogant verticality of skyscrapers , and especially of public and state buildings , introduces a phallic or more precisely a phallocratic element into the visual realm ; the purpose of this display , of this need to impress , is to convey an impression of authority to each spectator . Verticality and great height have ever been the spatial expression of potentially violent power . " Sigmund Freud metaphorically drew a comparison between " high achievement and the acquisition of wealth as building monuments to our penises . "
In the 19th century , Thomas Mical argues that surrealists " capitalized on the phallic symbolism of monuments such as the ancient Egyptian obelisk from Luxor in the Place de la Concorde or the Vendome Column " by " supplementing these phallic structures with female counterparts " . Jules Breton for example suggested moving the obelisk to La Villette abattoir and designing a large gloved hand of a woman holding the obelisk in a suggestive manner , and adapting the Vendome into a factory chimney with a nude woman climbing it . Auguste Bartholdi 's 1870 monument Defense of Paris for instance , a commemoration of Leon Gambetta 's escape from Paris in balloon during the Franco @-@ Prussian War , was also subject to debate amongst Parisian artists of the late 19th century as they believed it resembled a testicle . Arthur Harfaux proposed turning the monument into " an enormous sex , the balloon forming a testicle and the phallus being horizontal " , while Breton proposed turning it into copulating genitals , adding a twin balloon to form two testicles .
Contemporary scholars in architectural criticism have investigated the relationship between architecture and the body , sexuality , sex , power , and place . Feminists in particular , such as Margrit Kennedy , perceive high @-@ rise phallic @-@ like buildings on the urban landscape as " phallic symbols of male domination , power and rational instrumentality . " Esther M. K. Cheung believes the form of monumental high @-@ rise building which grew up in 20th century America can " be read as a phallic symbol of power " . The present trend symbolises " Science and technology over nature , incorporating all the maleness which that with sci @-@ fi utopias . " Elizabeth Grosz , however , offers a counter argument to phallocentrism in urban design theories , saying " not so much the dominance of the phallus as the pervasive unacknowledged use of the male or masculine to represent the human . The problem , then , is not so much to eliminate as to reveal the masculinity inherent in the notion of the universal , the generic human , or the unspecified subject . " Marc C. Taylor discusses phallic architecture and what makes a building masculine or feminine in his book Disfiguring : Art , Architecture , Religion .
= = = Symbols and shrines = = =
During the modern era , many sculptors have created some public phallic works of art , with varying degrees of subtlety . One of these examples may be the statue in honor to the Carnation Revolution on the top of a hill in Lisbon , Portugal by the sculptor João Cutileiro . Perhaps the greatest example of a phallic cemetery is the Khalid Nabi Cemetery in hills of northeastern Iran near the border with Turkmenistan , roughly 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Gonbad @-@ e Kavous . According to a popular belief , the cemetery house the tomb of a pre @-@ Islamic prophet , Khalid Nabi , who was born 40 years prior to the birth of Muhammad , in c . 530 . The ancient graveyard contains some 600 tombstones of unknown origin , many of which are clear representations of the phallus ; from a distance they resemble stone pegs .
Phallic shrines are common in Far East Asia , especially in Buddhist parts of Korea and Japan where they are seen as symbols of fertility or prowess . In Dragon Pool Temple in Jeju City , there is a phallic shrine which is visited by female pilgrims who come to worship it for its perceived fertility blessings . The phallic stone is made from granite , quite small in size and white and was reportedly found in a field nearby by a farmer .
In Thailand , the phallus is also considered to be a symbol of good luck and representative of fertility . There are numerous shrines in the country featuring phallic architecture . Chao Mae Tuptim shrine in Bangkok , behind the Swissôtel Bangkok hotel has over a hundred colored circumcised wooden penis statues of all shapes and sizes which are said to possess special cosmic powers and endow good fortune and fertility on anybody coming into contact with them .
Near Erdene Zuu Monastery in Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia is Kharkhorin Rock which contains a massive statue of a penis raised on a platform on the steppe . The statue has dual functions ; primarily it is a reminder to the monks to remain celibate , but it is also a symbol of fertility and human life . A smaller statue of a phallus is nearer the monastery . Haesindang Park ( also known as " Penis Park " ) in Gangwon Province of South Korea , located about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Samcheok , is a nature park which contains a number of erect statues . A tragic legend shrouds them in that a virgin was once swept out to sea and drowned , unable to be saved by her lover . The townspeople were devastated and helpless , and a curse appeared to have been cast over them , ruining the local fishing industry . One day , a local fisherman relieved himself in the sea and miraculously the fishing industry revived . He discovered that her restless spirit could be appeased in such a manner , so the townsfolk compensated for the woman 's inability to consummate beyond the grave by placing sexually potent phallic statues in view of the shore . The statues range in size and styles ; some have faces on them and are more animated in appearance and more colorful , but others are exact depictions of the human penis .
In some Asian countries such as Bhutan , many have a belief that a phallus brings good luck and drives away evil spirits . Phallus symbols are routinely painted outside walls of the new houses and carved wooden phalluses are hung ( sometimes crossed by a design of sword or dagger ) outside , on the eves of the new homes , at the four corners . On a road drive from Paro airport to Thimphu explicit paintings of phalluses are a common sight on the white @-@ washed walls of homes , shops and eateries . In the Chimi Lhakhang monastery , the shrine dedicated to Drupka Kinley , several wooden penises are used to bless people who visit the monastery on pilgrimage seeking blessings to bear a child or for welfare of their children . The glaringly displayed phallus in the monastery is a brown wooden piece with a silver handle , a religious relic considered to possess divine powers and hence used for blessing the spiritually oriented people . It is also said to prevent quarrels among family members in the houses which are painted with these symbols .
= = Buildings and structures = =
= = = Empire State Building = = =
The 102 @-@ story Empire State Building , located in Midtown Manhattan , New York City , at the intersection of Fifth Avenue and West 34th Street , is one of the world 's most famous landmarks , and is generally thought of as an American cultural icon . Cited by Valerie Briginshaw as a symbol of American pride and " the ultimate sign of American phallic power " , it was inaugurated on 31 May 1931 .
Designed in the Art Deco style , it has a roof height of 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 381 meters ) , and with its antenna spire included , it stands a total of 1 @,@ 454 ft ( 443 @.@ 2 m ) high . It stood as the world 's tallest building for 40 years , from its completion in 1931 until construction of the World Trade Center 's North Tower was completed in 1972 . Numerous people have mentioned its similarities in appearance to the phallus , with its " tall and glinting " towers .
= = = Leaning Tower of Pisa = = =
The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa , Italy , dating from around 1173 , has long suffered from structural problems . The tower is eight stories high at 55 @.@ 86 metres ( 183 @.@ 3 ft ) and before restoration work from 1990 leaned 5 @.@ 5 degrees . It currently leans about 4 degrees but due to foundation problems it continues to sink about 1mm annually . The resemblance of the tower to a penis has seen the " Leaning Tower of Pisa " became a sexual slang term for a half erect penis . Local retailers have attempted to capitalize on the tower as a phallic architectural piece by making souvenirs featuring underwear with the tower resembling a penis . The Catholic Church denounced the promotion of the tower in such a manner as showing " a complete lack of respect and a " disgrace " and retailers can now be fined up to € 500 for selling items promoting the tower as a penis .
= = = Nelson 's Column = = =
Nelson 's Column , a monument to Admiral Horatio Nelson , was erected by a grateful nation between 1840 and 1843 to commemorate Nelson 's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar . However the Nelson Memorial Committee ran out of money , having only raised £ 20 @,@ 485 in public subscriptions . The column is Corinthian with a granite shaft . In his poem A Ballad of the Good Lord Nelson , Lawrence Durrell included the multiply allusive lines " Now stiff on a pillar with a phallic air / Nelson stylites in Trafalgar Square / Reminds the British what once they were . "
= = = Colonna Mediterranea = = =
Colonna Mediterranea is a monumental column in Luqa , Malta . It has been described by its artist Paul Vella Critien as an " Egyptian symbol " . However at a glance it could be observed to look similar to a large penile , and therefor was largely described to be a " phallic monument " . The monument has managed to attract several international media coverage in specific before and during the visit of Pope Benedict XVI to Malta as the pope mobile , carrying the papacy , had been planned and passed by it . Similarly the same artist has created another monumental column , the Kolonna Eterna , which was also described as being phallic by critics .
= = = Obelisk of Luxor = = =
The Obelisk of Luxor , which stands in the Place de la Concorde of Paris , France , was given to the French by the Egyptians in the 1800s . The 23 @-@ meter ( 75 @-@ foot ) obelisk originally stood at the front of Luxor Temple , honoring Ramses II , pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt . According to Michael D. Garval , the French perceived the obelisk as " prodigiously phallic " from the moment it arrived .
= = = Oriental Pearl TV Tower = = =
The Oriental Pearl TV Tower , located in Pudong Park in Lujiazui , Shanghai , China , is the world ’ s third tallest TV and radio tower at 468 metres ( 1 @,@ 535 ft ) , the tallest such building in Asia . The tower houses restaurants , theaters , a conference hall , and a hotel and is a significant tourist attraction in the city . The tower has been met a mixed reception , however . The New York Times described it as a " great phallic monster of truly monumental ugliness , a bit like an enormous asparagus with a silver ball on top . " The long steel column tower is considered by some to be proof of the city 's phallic worship , and that such skyscrapers indicative of wealth are an increasing aphrodisiac of the materialist in Chinese cities .
= = = Burj Qatar = = =
The Burj Qatar was designed by French architect Jean Nouvel . In 2004 , the project was first called the " High Rise Office Building " . Following completion in 2012 , it was originally called the " Burj Doha " by its owner , H. E. Sheikh Saud bin Muhammed Al Thani . The public has noted the building 's " phallic form " , suggestive of what Nouvel calls a “ fully assumed virility . ”
= = = State Capitol , Lincoln = = =
The State Capitol building of Lincoln , Nebraska has been cited as the " apex " of phallic architecture . At 15 stories and 400 feet ( 121 m ) tall , it is the second @-@ tallest U.S. statehouse , surpassed only by the 34 @-@ story Louisiana State Capitol . It is the tallest building in Lincoln , the third @-@ tallest in the state , and also the heaviest Capitol building in North America . The building was designed by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue , who drew upon Classical and Gothic architectural traditions . It was constructed between 1922 and 1932 , of Indiana limestone , with a golden dome . The building is nicknamed " The Phallus of the Plains " for its phallus @-@ like appearance .
= = = 30 St Mary Axe = = =
30 St Mary Axe opened in London in April 2004 . Designed by Norman Foster , the 180 metres ( 590 ft ) structure , London ’ s first environmentally sustainable tall building using recycled and recyclable materials , has been compared to the phallus and a gherkin ; its nicknames include Gherkin , the Erotic Gherkin , Towering Innuendo and the Crystal Phallus . Also likened to a " phallic fat cigar " , the building has been cited as a " crude anatomical metaphor " , yet has become one of the London 's most iconic buildings . Cabinet voted it the " Best Uncircumcised Building in the World " .
= = = Torre Agbar = = =
The Torre Agbar is a 38 @-@ story skyscraper located in the Plaça de les Glòries Catalanes of the Poblenou neighborhood of Barcelona , Spain . Designed by Jean Nouvel , it is named after its owners , the Agbar Group , a holding company whose interests include the Barcelona water company Aigües de Barcelona . An example of high @-@ tech architecture in the city , its design combines a number of different architectural concepts , resulting in a striking structure built with reinforced concrete , covered with a facade of glass , and over 4 @,@ 500 window openings cut out of the structural concrete . The building stands out on the skyline of Barcelona ; it is the third tallest building in the city , standing at 144 @.@ 44 m ( 473 @.@ 88 ft ) , with an area of over 50 @,@ 000 square metres , of which 30 @,@ 000 are offices . 2 @,@ 500 LED bulbs cause the tower to change color at night . It was officially opened by the King of Spain on 16 September 2005 . Nouvel claims it to be inspired by a geyser and the nearby mountain of Montserrat , although he does note its phallic appearance . Although many draw comparisons with the phallus , locals refer to the structure as el supositorio ( the suppository ) , a drug delivery system that is inserted into the rectum or vagina .
= = = Washington Monument = = =
The Washington Monument in Washington D.C. is often seen as a prime example of phallic architecture and American masculinity . The towering monument , made of marble , granite , and bluestone gneiss , it is both the world 's tallest stone structure and the world 's tallest obelisk , standing 555 feet 5 1 ⁄ 8 inches ( 169 @.@ 294 m ) according to the National Park Service . Construction of the monument began in 1848 , was halted from 1854 to 1877 , and was completed in 1884 . In a Journal review , dated 17 October 1911 , Arnold Bennett said of the monument , " Saw Washington monument . Phallic . Appalling . A national catastrophe – only equalled by the Albert Memorial . Tiny doll @-@ like people waiting to go into it . " Dan Burstein says of it , " Speaking of sex symbols , there is no more phallic symbol in existence than the Washington Monument , and the Capitol dome can be viewed as breastlike . " James Webb used a metaphor to praise the " uplift [ ing ] " power of the Washington Monument as a white phallus , " piercing the air like a bayonet " . In the futuristic film Hardwired , set in the United States where everything noteworthy is commercialized , the Washington Monument is used as a giant Trojan condoms billboard .
= = = Ypsilanti Water Tower = = =
Ypsilanti Water Tower is a historic water tower in Ypsilanti , Michigan , United States , listed as a National Register of Historic Places building in 1981 . The tower was designed by William R. Coats and constructed as part of an elaborate city waterworks project that began in 1889 . Located on the highest point in Ypsilanti , the tower was completed in 1890 at a cost of $ 21 @,@ 435 @.@ 63 . Today the tower is frequently joked about for its phallic shape and has earned the nickname " Brick Dick " .
It has become a well @-@ known landmark in Ypsilanti , and due to the building 's shape and location , the tower is frequently used by residents as a point for providing directions for visitors and residents . Iggy Pop said of it in a 1996 interview , " The most famous thing in Ypsilanti is this water tower made out of brick , about 175 years old . It looks like this big penis . "
The World 's Most Phallic Building contest was a contest held in 2003 by Cabinet magazine to find the building which most resembled a human phallus . The contest originated when writer Jonathan Ames drew the ire of Slate readers by claiming , in a diary that was later published in his book I Love You More Than You Know , that the Williamsburg Bank Building in Brooklyn , New York City , New York , was the world 's most phallic . This led Cabinet magazine to initiate a search of its own to find which building was truly the " world 's most phallic " . Cities and readers subsequently poured in their views and staked their claims to the magazine 's editors . After months of entries and discussion , the Ypsilanti Water Tower was announced as the winner , although the winner of a readers ' poll was the Florida State Capitol building in Tallahassee . Another notable nominee was the Torre Agbar of Barcelona .
= = = Christian Science Church , Dixon , Illinois = = =
The Christian Science Dixon church in Dixon , Illinois strongly resembles a penis when viewed from the air.The church , however , claims it was tastefully designed around an old oak tree and declared that " We didn ’ t design it to be seen as what they ’ re seeing . And we didn ’ t design it to be seen from above . "
= = = Hyde Park , Hyde , Greater Manchester = = =
In 2012 , a beehive metal sculpture by Thompson Dagnall in Hyde , Greater Manchester , was criticized by the council for installment adjacent to the children ’ s play area in Hyde park for looking too rude and phallic . Although Dagnall was paid £ 3 @,@ 500 a week for his efforts , council workers modified the structure by stumping it and moved it to another part of the park .
= = = People 's Daily Tower = = =
A new headquarters for the People 's Daily newspaper has been under construction since 2013 and is slated for completion in 2014 . In May 2013 , China attempted to censor jokes about its phallic shape .
= = = Hyde Park Obelisk , Sydney = = =
The 22 @-@ metre high Hyde Park Obelisk , located in Hyde Park , Sydney Australia at the intersection of Elizabeth Street and Bathurst Street , is both a former sewer ventshaft and a notable landmark in the Sydney CBD . Its phallic appearance was emphasised on 7 November 2014 , when the AIDS Council of NSW ( ACON ) temporarily installed a giant condom over the Obelisk as part of a HIV awareness campaign . The installation generated a lot of media interest - including many phallic innuendos - and drew the ire of the Australian Christian Lobby .
= = = Church Office Building , Salt Lake City , Utah = = =
Completed in 1972 , the Church Office Building stands toward the eastern end of Temple Square in Salt Lake City , Utah . The building currently houses the administrative support staff and lay ministry of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . The building 's form , when viewed from the North or South faces , resembles a large phallus . The building 's first four floors extend outward , and are adorned with images of the world rendered in bas relief . These large ovular images are regarded by many locals to resemble testes , reinforcing the building 's overall phallic appearance .
= Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? =
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 47th episode overall . The first half of the third season alternated entire episodes between the parallel universe ( the " Other Side " ) and the prime universe ( " Our Side " ) . " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " took place in the prime universe , and involved several shapeshifters , including Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) , who is eventually captured . Meanwhile , Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) attempts to maintain her cover and minimize the damage .
The episode was written by David Wilcox and Matthew Pitts , while Kenneth Fink served as director for the hour . It first aired on October 14 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 5 @.@ 22 million viewers . It received mostly positive reviews , as many critics praised the plot 's focus on the shapeshifters .
= = Plot = =
In the prime universe , U.S. senator James Van Horn ( Gerard Plunkett ) , who has been reviewing the Fringe division 's activities , is hospitalized following a car accident . While in the hospital , Thomas Jerome Newton ( Sebastian Roché ) arrives and shoots him in the face , then escapes . The Fringe team discover that Van Horn was a shapeshifter . Walter ( John Noble ) finds that the body is still alive to some degree through a second " brain " on his back , and hopes to use Van Horn 's wife Patricia ( Shannon Cochran ) to try to awaken it and study the shapeshifter more .
Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) , still posing as the prime universe 's Olivia ( Torv ) , informs Newton of this development . Newton contacts a second shapeshifter , Ray ( Marcus Giamatti ) , to infiltrate the secured location where Van Horn 's body is being held to remove the data disc that Walter will ultimately find . Ray regrets the possibility of having to leave his current identity , a police officer with a wife and son . Meanwhile , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Fauxlivia discover that Van Horn has acquired a number of records on the personnel of the Fringe team , and likely has used the information to aid the parallel universe 's Walternate ( Noble ) .
At the secured facility , Fauxlivia is able to clear Peter , Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) and Walter from the lab in order to allow Ray access to the lab . Ray continues to avoid shifting to a new body . Walter returns to the lab to confirm a theory and is interrupted by Ray . Ray successfully removes the data device , knocks out Walter , and flees to give it to Newton . When Ray requests to be able to return to his family , Newton kills him near his home , but by this time , the Fringe division has identified Ray and have converged on his address . On spotting Newton , they engage in a car chase , eventually damaging Newton 's car . Fauxlivia recovers Van Horn 's data disc from Newton and hides it before taking Newton into custody .
Sometime later , Fauxlivia visits Newton in a high @-@ security prison , and passes him the equivalent of a suicide pill that causes him to self @-@ destruct and bleed out mercury . Fauxlivia realizes Peter has become suspicious of her actions , and sleeps with him to draw away his attention .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producer David Wilcox and J.J. Abrams ' assistant , Matthew Pitts . CSI : Crime Scene Investigation veteran Kenneth Fink served as director , his only Fringe credit to date . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , executive producer Jeff Pinkner explained the role of the shapeshifters in the two universes , " The shapeshifters are Walternate 's ' soldiers . ' Part organic , part mechanical — they ' bleed ' mercury — and are able to take the shape of any human that they kill . Walternate sent them here years ago ( they were able to cross universes safely because they 're not human ) to act as sleeper agents " .
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " featured the second appearance of guest actor Gerard Plunkett as Senator Van Horn , as well as the first appearance of Marcus Giamatti as a shapeshifter . It was the last episode with guest star Sebastian Roché ( who played the villain Thomas Jerome Newton ) . Despite his character 's death , executive producer J. H. Wyman hinted in a later Twitter post that Roché may return .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " , with the intention of having " students learn about memory , which is the ability to store , retain , and recall information and experiences . "
= = Cultural references = =
The episode title " Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep " refers to the Philip K. Dick science fiction novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? , which was later adapted into the film Blade Runner . The novel dealt with what it means to be human , exploring how faking an emotion long enough can actually develop into real feelings , much like in the episode where two shapeshifters first pretended but then developed feelings for their victims ' families . While Peter is drinking in a bar , science fiction movie The Invisible Boy is playing on a television in the background , with the character Robby the Robot visible . During the episode , Walter makes two requests in order to provide " brain stimulation " to the deceased Senator Van Horn : a portrait of former president George W. Bush , and a copy of Hump Magazine .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Do Shapeshifters Dream of Electric Sheep ? " was watched by 5 @.@ 22 million viewers in the United States , with 3 @.@ 2 / 5 share among all households and a 2 / 5 share for viewers aged 18 – 49 . SFScope reviewer Sarah Stegall commented that because of the show 's low ratings " it is almost at the point where it would be a top @-@ rated show on cable ; but these are not good numbers for broadcast TV . " Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 45 percent among adults , resulting in a rise from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 9 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought the episode continued the series ' season three " hot streak " , but wished the promo had not spoiled Senator Van Horn being a shapeshifter . Hanson also did not fully buy into the Peter @-@ Fauxlivia relationship , as he expected Peter to realize something different about her . Noel Murray from A.V. Club loved the shapeshifter focus of the episode and graded it an A- , explaining it was a " very strong episode " that " brings back one of my favorite Fringe concepts : those crazy super @-@ powered shapeshifters " . MTV 's Josh Wigler also enjoyed the shapeshifter plot , and wrote that " the latest episode of Fringe marks four fantastic installments in a row , instantly establishing season three as having the strongest opening act of any other previous year in the science fiction series . Fringe has reinvented itself by drastically altering just one ingredient in the show 's successful format — namely , the true identity of Olivia Dunham — to create something wholly new and amazing " . Television Without Pity gave the episode an A- .
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker enjoyed the episode , writing that " this week 's Fringe contained everything I love about the show , from LSD to the great villain Thomas Jerome Newton . [ The episode ] didn 't use its Philip K. Dick @-@ shifted title as a coy joke — it really was about the dreams of shapeshifters , dreams and hopes which took a variety of forms " . Open Salon praised Torv 's performance this season , and thought it was a " very thought @-@ provoking episode , with some major implications for Peter and Olivia 's relationship moving forward " . Alex Zalben of UGO Networks , however , called the episode the " first clunker of the season " because despite approving of the plot and the acting , the " writing was uniformly obvious , stilted and kind of terrible ... there were more head @-@ slappingly stupid moments than I could count " . SFScope 's Sarah Stegall noted similarities to the film Blade Runner , and predicted that the consummation of their relationship would cause Peter to discover Fauxlivia 's true identity .
= Lactarius rufulus =
Lactarius rufulus , commonly known as the rufous candy cap , is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . The fruit bodies have fleshy brownish @-@ red caps up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , and closely spaced pinkish @-@ yellow gills . The stem is up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick and colored similarly to the cap . The species , known only from California , Arizona , and Mexico , grows on the ground in leaf litter near oak trees . The fruit bodies resembles those of L. rufus , but L. rufulus tends to grow in clusters at a common base , rather than solitarily or in groups . A distinguishing microscopic characteristic is the near absence of large , spherical cells called sphaerocysts that are otherwise common in Lactarius species . Lactarius rufulus mushrooms are edible , and have an odor resembling maple syrup . They have been used to flavor confections and desserts .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1907 , based on specimens collected at Stanford University in California . The type collections were made by A.M. Patterson and S. Nohara , botany students at the Leland Stanford Junior University who made a number of collections during the winter of 1906 – 07 .
Lactarius rufulus is classified in the section Thejogali of the subgenus Russularia of the genus Lactarius . The surface characteristics of many species in section Thejogali ( as defined by Hesler and Smith in 1979 ) are called rimulose @-@ areolate ( irregularly cracked , with the cracks crossing one another ) based on a surface with " numerous mounds of inflated cells " paired together with crevices .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " rufous candy cap " .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. rufulus is 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , broadly convex , becoming flattened and eventually shallowly funnel @-@ shaped , sometimes with a slight umbo . The cap margin ( edge ) is initially curved inwards but becomes curved upward in maturity . The surface is usually uneven or wrinkled . It is brownish @-@ red at first , but fades to orange @-@ brown with age . The attachment of the gills to the stem is adnate ( squarely attached ) to subdecurrent ( running slightly down the length of the stem ) . They are packed close together , at first pinkish @-@ yellow , but with age become a darker red or reddish @-@ brown . The gills are not forked , nor do they stain a different color when bruised . The stem is 4 – 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1
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Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins – songwriting , producer , additional vocals , audio mixing
Rock City ( Theron and Timothy Thomas ) – songwriting , additional vocals
Jim McCarty – songwriting
Paul Samwell @-@ Smith – songwriting
Paul Foley – recording
Mike " Handz " Donaldson – recording
Roberto " Tito " Vazquez – recording
Spike Stent – audio mixing
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= Nimrod ( computing ) =
The Nimrod , built in the United Kingdom by Ferranti for the 1951 Festival of Britain , was an early computer custom @-@ built to play a computer game , one of the first games developed in the early history of video games . The twelve @-@ by @-@ nine @-@ by @-@ five @-@ foot computer , designed by John Bennett and built by engineer Raymond Stuart @-@ Williams , allowed exhibition attendees to play a game of Nim against an artificial intelligence . The player pressed buttons on a raised panel corresponding with lights on the machine to select their moves , and the Nimrod moved afterwards , with its calculations represented by more lights . The speed of the Nimrod 's calculations could be slowed down to allow the presenter to demonstrate exactly what the computer was doing , with more lights showing the state of the calculations . The Nimrod was intended to demonstrate Ferranti 's computer design and programming skills rather than to entertain , though Festival attendees were more interested in playing the game than the logic behind it . After its initial exhibition in May , the Nimrod was shown for three weeks in October 1951 at the Berlin Industrial Show before being dismantled .
The game of Nim running on the Nimrod is a candidate for one of the first video games , as it was one of the first computer games to have any sort of visual display of the game . It appeared only four years after the 1947 invention of the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game to use an electronic display , and one year after Bertie the Brain , a computer similar to the Nimrod which played tic @-@ tac @-@ toe at the 1950 Canadian National Exhibition . The Nimrod 's use of lightbulbs rather than a screen with real @-@ time visual graphics , however , much less moving graphics , does not meet some definitions of a video game .
= = Development = =
In the summer of 1951 , the United Kingdom held the Festival of Britain , a national exhibition held throughout the UK to promote the British contribution to science , technology , industrial design , architecture , and the arts and to commemorate the centenary of the 1851 Great Exhibition . British engineering firm and nascent computer developer Ferranti promised to develop an exhibit for the Festival . In late 1950 , John Bennett , an Australian employee of the firm and recent PhD graduate from the University of Cambridge , proposed that the company create a computer that could play the game of Nim . In Nim , players take turns removing at least one object from a set of objects , with the goal of being the player who removes the last object ; gameplay options can be modeled mathematically . Bennett 's suggestion was supposedly inspired by an earlier Nim @-@ playing machine , " Nimatron " , which had been displayed in 1940 at the New York World 's Fair . The Nimatron machine had been designed by Edward Condon and constructed by Westinghouse Electric from electromechanical relays , and had weighed over a ton . Although Bennett 's suggestion was a game , his goal was to show off the computer 's ability to do mathematical calculations , as Nim is based on mathematical principles , and thus showcase Ferranti 's computer design and programming skills rather than to entertain .
Ferranti began work on building the computer on 1 December 1950 , with engineer Raymond Stuart @-@ Williams adapting the design by Bennett into a working machine . Development was completed by 12 April 1951 , resulting in a device twelve feet wide , nine feet deep , and five feet tall . The majority of the volume was taken up by vacuum tubes and the lightbulbs that displayed the state of the game , with the actual computer taking up no more than two percent of the total volume of the machine . The Nimrod took the form of a large box with panels of lights , with a raised stand in front of it with buttons corresponding with the lights , which in turn represented the objects the player could remove .
The player would sit at the stand and press the buttons to make their moves , while one panel of lights showed the state of the game , and another showed the computer 's calculations during its move . The computer could be set to make its calculations at various speeds , slowing down so that the demonstrator could describe exactly what the computer was doing in real time . A visual guide attached to the Nimrod explained what the computer was doing during its turn , as well as showing possible game states and how they would be represented by the lights . Signs stating which player 's turn it was and whether one or the other had won would light up as appropriate during gameplay .
= = Presentation = =
On 5 May 1951 , the Nimrod computer was presented at the Festival as the Nimrod Digital Computer , advertised as " faster than thought " and an " electronic brain " . It exclusively played the game of Nim ; moves were made by players seated at the raised stand , with the demonstrator sitting on the other side between the stand and the computer . Nimrod could play either the traditional or " reverse " form of the game . A short guidebook was sold to visitors for one shilling and sixpence explaining how computers worked , how the Nimrod worked , and advertising Ferranti 's other developments . It explained that the use of a game to demonstrate the power of the machine did not mean that it was meant for entertainment and compared the mathematical underpinnings of Nim with modeling the economics of countries . Players of the Nimrod during the Festival included computer science pioneer Alan Turing .
Although it was intended as a technology demonstration , most of the onlookers at the Festival of Britain were more interested in playing the game than in the programming and engineering logic behind it . Bennett claimed that " most of the public were quite happy to gawk at the flashing lights and be impressed . " BBC Radio journalist Paul Jennings claimed that all of the festival attendees " came to a standstill " upon reaching the " frightful " " tremendous gray refrigerator " .
After the Festival , the Nimrod was showcased for three weeks in October at the Berlin Industrial Show , where it also drew crowds , including the West Germany economics minister Ludwig Erhard . Afterwards , however , as it had served its purpose the Nimrod was dismantled . As the Nimrod was not intended as an entertainment product , it was not followed up by any future games , and Ferranti continued its work on designing general purpose computers .
The Nimrod was created only four years after the 1947 invention of the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device , the earliest known interactive electronic game , and one year after a similar purpose built game @-@ playing machine , Bertie the Brain , the first computer @-@ based game to feature a visual display of any sort . The Nimrod is considered under some definitions one of the first video games , possibly the second . While definitions vary , the prior cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device was a purely analog electrical game , and while the Nimrod and Bertie did not feature an electronic screen they both had a game running on a computer . The software @-@ based tic @-@ tac @-@ toe game OXO and a draughts program by Christopher Strachey were programmed a year later in 1952 and were the first computer games to display visuals on an electronic screen rather than through light bulbs .
= Jane Austen =
Jane Austen ( / ˈdʒeɪn ˈɒstɪn / ; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817 ) was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels which interpret , critique and comment upon the life of the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century . Her most highly praised novel during her lifetime was Pride and Prejudice , her second published novel . Austen 's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of favorable social standing and economic security .
The author 's major novels are rarely out of print today , although they were first published anonymously and brought her little fame and brief reviews during her lifetime . A significant transition in her posthumous reputation as an author occurred in 1869 , fifty @-@ two years after her death , when her nephew 's publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience . Austen 's most successful novel during her lifetime was Pride and Prejudice , which went through two editions at the time . Her third published novel was Mansfield Park , which ( despite being largely overlooked by reviewers ) was successful during her lifetime .
All of Austen 's major novels were first published between 1811 and 1818 . From 1811 to 1816 , with the publication of Sense and Sensibility ( 1811 ) , Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 ) , Mansfield Park ( 1814 ) and Emma ( 1815 ) , she achieved success as a published author . Austen wrote two additional novels ( Northanger Abbey and Persuasion , both published posthumously in 1818 ) and began another , eventually titled Sanditon , before her death .
During the twentieth and twenty @-@ first centuries Austen 's writings have inspired a large number of critical essays and literary anthologies , establishing her as a British author of international fame . Her novels have inspired films , from 1940 's Pride and Prejudice starring Laurence Olivier to more recent productions : Emma Thompson in Sense and Sensibility ( 1995 ) and Kate Beckinsale in Love & Friendship ( 2016 ) .
= = Life and career = =
Information about Austen is " famously scarce " , according to one biographer . Only some personal and family letters remain ( by one estimate , only 160 of Austen 's 3 @,@ 000 letters are extant ) , and her sister Cassandra — to whom most of the letters were addressed — burned " the greater part " of them and censored those she did not destroy . Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Sir Francis Austen , Jane 's brother . Most of the biographical material produced for fifty years after Austen 's death was written by her relatives and reflected the family 's bias in favour of " good quiet Aunt Jane " ; scholars have unearthed little information since . Austen wrote during the period of British Romanticism leading to British Idealism . She admired a number of British Romantic poets , including William Wordsworth ( 1770 – 1850 ) , Samuel Coleridge ( 1772 – 1834 ) and Lord Byron ( 1788 – 1824 ) , whose influence on her novels has been studied .
= = = Family = = =
Austen 's parents , George ( 1731 – 1805 ) , an Anglican rector , and his wife Cassandra ( 1739 – 1827 ) , shared a gentry background . George was descended from wool manufacturers who had risen to the lower ranks of the landed gentry , and Cassandra was a member of the aristocratic Leigh family . They married on 26 April 1764 at Walcot Church in Bath . From 1765 to 1801 ( for much of Jane 's life ) , George was a rector of Anglican parishes in Steventon , Hampshire , and a nearby village . From 1773 to 1796 , he supplemented his income by farming and teaching three or four boys at a time ( who boarded at his home ) .
Austen 's immediate family was large — six brothers : James ( 1765 – 1819 ) , George ( 1766 – 1838 ) , Edward ( 1768 – 1852 ) , Henry Thomas ( 1771 – 1850 ) , Francis William ( Frank ) ( 1774 – 1865 ) and Charles John ( 1779 – 1852 ) and one sister , Cassandra Elizabeth ( Steventon , Hampshire , 9 January 1773 – 1845 ) who , like Jane , did not marry . Cassandra was Austen 's closest friend and confidante throughout her life .
Of her brothers Austen felt closest to Henry , who became a banker and ( after his bank failed ) an Anglican clergyman . His sister 's literary agent , Henry 's large circle of friends and acquaintances in London included bankers , merchants , publishers , painters and actors and he provided Austen with a view of social worlds not normally visible from a small parish in rural Hampshire . He married their first cousin ( and Jane 's close friend ) , Eliza de Feuillide .
George was sent to live with a local family at a young age because , according to Austen biographer Le Faye , he was " mentally abnormal and subject to fits " ; he may also have been deaf and mute . Charles and Frank served in the navy , both rising to the rank of admiral . Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin , Thomas Knight , inheriting Knight 's estate and taking his name in 1812 .
= = = Early life and education = = =
Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at the Steventon rectory , and baptised on 5 April 1776 . After several months at home her mother placed her with Elizabeth Littlewood , a woman living nearby who nursed and raised her for twelve to eighteen months . In 1783 , according to family tradition , Jane and Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Ann Cawley and moved with her to Southampton later in the year . Both girls became ill with typhus , and Jane nearly died . Austen was then educated at home until she and Cassandra left for boarding school in early 1785 . The school curriculum probably included French , spelling , needlework , dancing and music , and may have included drama . By December 1786 , Jane and Cassandra had returned home because the Austens could not afford to send both daughters to school .
Austen acquired the remainder of her education by reading books , guided by her father and brothers James and Henry . She apparently had unfettered access to her father 's library and that of family friend Warren Hastings , which made up a large and varied collection . Her father was tolerant of Austen 's sometimes @-@ risqué experiments in writing , and provided the sisters with expensive paper and other materials for writing and drawing . According to biographer Park Honan , life in the Austen home was lived in " an open , amused , easy intellectual atmosphere " where the ideas of those with whom the Austens disagreed ( politically or socially ) were discussed . After returning from school in 1786 , Austen " never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment " .
Private theatricals were also a part of the author 's education . Beginning when Austin was seven years old and continuing until she was thirteen , her family and close friends staged a series of plays including Richard Sheridan 's The Rivals ( 1775 ) and David Garrick 's Bon Ton . Although the details are unknown , she would have joined in these activities as a spectator and ( later ) a participant . Most of the plays were comedies , suggesting a source for Austen 's comedic and satirical gifts .
= = = Juvenilia = = =
Perhaps as early as 1787 , Austen began to write poems , stories and plays for her and her family 's amusement . She later compiled " fair copies " of 29 of these early works into three bound notebooks , now known as the Juvenilia , with pieces written from 1787 to 1793 . Manuscript evidence exists that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1809 – 1811 and her niece and nephew , Anna and James Edward Austen , made further additions as late as 1814 . Among the pieces are Love and Freindship [ sic ] , a satirical epistolary novel in which she mocked popular novels of sensibility , and The History of England , a 34 @-@ page manuscript accompanied by 13 watercolour miniatures by Cassandra .
Austen 's History parodied popular historical writing , particularly Oliver Goldsmith 's 1764 History of England . Austen wrote , " Henry the 4th ascended the throne of England much to his own satisfaction in the year 1399 , after having prevailed on his cousin & predecessor Richard the 2nd , to resign it to him , & to retire for the rest of his Life to Pomfret Castle , where he happened to be murdered . " According to scholar Richard Jenkyns , Austen 's Juvenilia are often " boisterous " and " anarchic " ; he compares them to Monty Python and the work of 18th @-@ century novelist Laurence Sterne .
= = = Adulthood = = =
Austen continued to live in the family home , engaged in activities typical of women of her age and social standing ; she practised the fortepiano , assisted her sister and mother with the supervision of servants and attended relatives during childbirth and on their deathbeds . She sent short pieces of writing to her newborn nieces , Fanny Catherine and Jane Anna Elizabeth . Austen was particularly proud of her accomplishments as a seamstress . She attended church regularly , socialized frequently with friends and neighbours and read novels ( often her own ) aloud to her family in the evenings . Socializing with neighbours often meant dancing — impromptu in someone 's home after supper or at balls , held regularly in the town hall assembly rooms . According to her brother Henry , " Jane was fond of dancing , and excelled in it " .
In 1793 Austen began and abandoned a short play later titled Sir Charles Grandison , or , The happy man : a comedy in five acts which she completed around 1800 . The play parodied school @-@ textbook abridgments of her favourite contemporary novel , The History of Sir Charles Grandison ( 1753 ) by Samuel Richardson . According to Park Honan , soon after writing Love and Freindship in 1789 Austen decided to " write for profit , to make stories her central effort " and began writing longer , more sophisticated works around 1793 .
Between 1793 and 1795 Austen wrote Lady Susan , considered her most ambitious and sophisticated early novel . It is unlike Austen 's other work ; biographer Claire Tomalin describes the novella 's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate , betray and abuse lovers , friends and family :
Told in letters , it is as neatly plotted as a play , and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of the Restoration dramatists who may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen 's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters .
= = = Early novels = = =
After finishing Lady Susan , Austen began her first full @-@ length novel : Elinor and Marianne . Cassandra later remembered that the epistolary novel was read to the family " before 1796 " . Without surviving original manuscripts , there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility .
When Austen was twenty years old , Tom Lefroy ( a nephew of neighbours ) visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796 . Lefroy had just completed his university education and was moving to London for training as a barrister . Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering , and it is clear from her letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together : " I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved . Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together . " The Lefroy family intervened , sending him away at the end of January . Marriage was impractical , as both Lefroy and Austen must have known ; neither had any money , and he was dependent on a great @-@ uncle in Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career . If Lefroy later visited Hampshire he was carefully kept from the Austens , and Jane never saw him again .
She began work on a second novel , First Impressions , in 1796 . Austen completed the initial draft in August 1797 , when she was 21 , and it later became Pride and Prejudice . Like all of her novels , she read it aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an " established favourite " . At this time , her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels . In November 1797 , George wrote to London publisher Thomas Cadell asking if he would consider publishing " a Manuscript Novel , comprised in three Vols. about the length of Miss Burney 's Evelina " ( First Impressions ) at the author 's financial risk . Cadell quickly returned the letter , marked " Declined by Return of Post " , and Austen may not have known about her father 's efforts . After finishing First Impressions , she returned to Elinor and Marianne from November 1797 to mid @-@ 1798 , revising it heavily , replacing the epistolary format with third @-@ person narration and producing something close to Sense and Sensibility .
In mid @-@ 1798 , after revising Elinor and Marianne , she began writing a third novel with the working title Susan — later Northanger Abbey — a satire on the popular Gothic novel ; she finished it about a year later . In early 1803 Henry Austen offered Susan to the London publisher Benjamin Crosby , who paid £ 10 for the copyright . Although Crosby promised early publication and advertised the book as being " in the press " , he did nothing more and retained the unpublished manuscript until Austen bought back the copyright in 1816 .
= = = Bath and Southampton = = =
In December 1800 , George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry , leave Steventon and move the family to Bath . Although retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens , Jane was shocked to hear that she was moving from the only home she had ever known . An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity when she lived in Bath . She made some revisions to Susan and began — and abandoned — a new novel ( The Watsons ) , but there was nothing like the productivity of 1795 – 1799 . Tomalin suggests that this reflects a deep depression , disabling her as a writer ; Honan disagrees , arguing that Austen wrote ( or revised ) her manuscripts throughout her life except for a few months after her father died .
In December 1802 , Austen received her only known proposal of marriage . She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg , old friends who lived at Manydown Park near Basingstoke . Their younger brother , Harris Bigg @-@ Wither , had recently finished his education at Oxford and was at home . Bigg @-@ Wither proposed , and Austen accepted . As described by Caroline Austen ( Jane 's niece ) and Reginald Bigg @-@ Wither ( a descendant ) , Harris was unattractive — a large , plain @-@ looking man who spoke little , stuttered , was aggressive in conversation and almost completely tactless . However , Austen had known him since they were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to her and her family ; he was heir to extensive family estates in the area where the sisters had grown up . With these resources Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age , give Cassandra a permanent home and , perhaps , assist her brothers in their careers . By the next morning , Austen decided that she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance . No contemporary letters or diaries describe how she felt about the proposal . In 1814 Austen wrote a letter to her niece , Fanny Knight , who asked for advice about a serious relationship : " Having written so much on one side of the question , I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther , & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him . Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection " .
In 1804 , while living in Bath , Austen began an unfinished novel , The Watsons . The story centres on an invalid clergyman with little money and four unmarried daughters . Sutherland describes the novel as " a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women 's lives " . Honan suggests ( and Tomalin agrees ) that Austen stopped working on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for comfort .
Her father 's final illness struck suddenly , leaving him ( as Austen reported to her brother Francis ) " quite insensible of his own state " and he died quickly . Jane , Cassandra and their mother were left in a precarious financial situation and Edward , James , Henry and Francis Austen pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters . For the next four years , the family 's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity ; they lived part @-@ time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon and Godmersham . They spent the autumn of 1805 in the newly fashionable seaside resort of Worthing on the Sussex coast , at Stanford Cottage . It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy of Lady Susan and added its " Conclusion " . Her observations of early Worthing helped inspire her final ( unfinished ) novel , Sanditon , the story of an up @-@ and @-@ coming seaside resort in Sussex . In 1806 the family moved to Southampton , where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife and visited branches of the family .
On 5 April 1809 ( about three months before the family 's move to Chawton ) , Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby offering him a new manuscript of Susan if that was needed to secure immediate publication of her novel and otherwise requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher . Crosby replied he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time ( or at all ) ; Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £ 10 he had paid her , and find another publisher . She did not have the money to repurchase the book , but she did eventually repurchase the manuscript in 1816 .
= = = Chawton = = =
In early 1809 , Austen 's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life : the use of a large cottage in Chawton which was part of Edward 's nearby estate , Chawton House . Jane , Cassandra and their mother moved into the cottage on 7 July 1809 . In Chawton , life was quieter than it had been since the family 's move to Bath in 1800 . The Austens did not socialise with the neighbouring gentry , entertaining only when family visited . Austen 's niece , Anna , described the family 's life in Chawton : " It was a very quiet life , according to our ideas , but they were great readers , and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write . " Austen wrote almost daily , and was apparently relieved of some household responsibilities to give her more opportunity to write . In this setting , she could be productive once more .
= = = First publication = = =
At Chawton , Austen published four novels which were generally well received . Through her brother Henry , Thomas Egerton agreed to publish Sense and Sensibility , which appeared in October 1811 . Reviews were favourable ; the novel became fashionable among opinion @-@ makers , and the edition sold out by mid @-@ 1813 . Austen 's earnings from Sense and Sensibility gave her some financial and psychological independence . Egerton then published Pride and Prejudice , a revision of First Impressions , in January 1813 . He advertised the book and it was an immediate success , receiving three favourable reviews and selling well ; by October 1813 , Egerton began selling a second edition . Mansfield Park was published by Egerton in May 1814 . Although the novel was ignored by reviewers , it was a popular success . All copies were sold within six months , and Austen 's earnings for this novel were larger than for any of her others .
The author learned that the Prince Regent admired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences . In November 1815 the Prince Regent 's librarian , James Stanier Clarke , invited Austen to visit the prince 's London residence and hinted that she should dedicate the forthcoming Emma to the prince . Although Austen disliked the prince , she could not refuse the request . She later wrote Plan of a Novel , according to Hints from Various Quarters , a satirical outline of the " perfect novel " based on the librarian 's many suggestions for a future Austen novel .
In mid @-@ 1815 Austen moved from Egerton to John Murray , a better @-@ known London publisher , who published Emma in December 1815 and a second edition of Mansfield Park in February 1816 . Although Emma sold well , the new edition of Mansfield Park did poorly and this offset most of her profit on Emma . They were the last novels published during her lifetime .
While Murray prepared Emma for publication , Austen began a new novel she called The Elliots ( later published as Persuasion ) . She completed its first draft in July 1816 . Shortly after the publication of Emma , Henry Austen repurchased the copyright for Susan from Crosby . Austen was forced to postpone publishing both completed novels by family financial trouble . Henry Austen 's bank failed in March 1816 , depriving him of his assets , leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward , James and Frank Austen large sums ; Henry and Frank could no longer afford to support their mother and sisters .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Early in 1816 , Austen began to feel unwell . She ignored her illness at first , continuing to work and participate in the usual round of family activities . By midyear her decline was unmistakable to her and to her family , and she began a long , slow and irregular deterioration which ended in her death the following year . Although most Austen biographers rely on Dr. Vincent Cope 's tentative 1964 retrospective diagnosis and list her cause of death as Addison 's disease , her final illness has also been described as consistent with Hodgkin 's lymphoma . Katherine White of Britain 's Addison 's Disease Self Help Group suggests that Austen probably died of bovine tuberculosis , a disease now commonly associated with drinking unpasteurized milk . A contributing factor to Austen 's death , discovered by Linda Robinson Walker and described online in the winter 2010 issue of Persuasions , might have been Brill – Zinsser disease ( a recurrent form of typhus , which she had had as a child ) . Brill – Zinsser disease is to typhus as shingles is to chicken pox ; when a person who has had typhus is subjected to abnormal physiological stress ( such as malnutrition or another infection ) , it can resurface as Brill – Zinsser disease .
Despite her illness , Austen continued to work . She was dissatisfied with the ending of The Elliots and rewrote the final two chapters , finishing them on 6 August 1816 . In January 1817 she began a new novel she called The Brothers ( entitled Sanditon when it was first published in 1925 ) and completed twelve chapters before stopping in mid @-@ March , probably due to illness . Although she made light of her condition to others , describing it as " bile " and rheumatism , as her disease progressed she experienced increasing difficulty in walking and other activities . By mid @-@ April , Austen was bedridden . The following month Cassandra and Henry brought her to Winchester for medical treatment , but she died there on 18 July 1817 at age 41 . Through his clerical connections , Henry arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of the nave of Winchester Cathedral . The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen 's personal qualities – including the " extraordinary endowments of her mind " – and expresses hope for her religious salvation , but does not mention her achievements as a writer .
= = = Posthumous publication = = =
After Austen 's death , Cassandra and Henry arranged with John Murray for the publication of Persuasion and Northanger Abbey as a set in December 1817 . Henry contributed a biographical note which Claire Tomalin calls " a loving and polished eulogy " , identifying his sister for the first time as the author of the novels . Sales were good for a year ( only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818 ) before they declined ; Murray disposed of the remaining copies in 1820 , and Austen 's novels were out of print for twelve years . In 1832 publisher Richard Bentley purchased the remaining copyrights to her novels and , beginning in December 1832 or January 1833 , published them in five illustrated volumes as part of his Standard Novels series . In October 1833 , he published the first collected edition of Austen 's works . Since then , her novels have been continuously in print .
= = Novels = =
Although Austen 's novels had always been popular , they were disparaged by academics of English literature until her work was reassessed by F. R. Leavis , Ian Watt and others during the mid @-@ 20th century . They recognised Austen 's importance to the development of the English novel after Henry Fielding ( 1707 – 1754 ) and Samuel Richardson ( 1689 – 1761 ) and before Charles Dickens . They agreed that she combined Fielding and Richardson 's " qualities of interiority and irony , realism and satire to form an author superior to both " . Austen 's six main novels , in order of publication , are Sense and Sensibility , Pride and Prejudice , Mansfield Park , Emma and the posthumous Persuasion and Northanger Abbey .
= = = Sense and Sensibility = = =
Sense and Sensibility was originally written as an epistolary novel around 1795 , when Austen was about 19 years old , and was entitled Elinor and Marianne . Austen later changed its form to narrative and its title to Sense and Sensibility . In the novel , " sense " means good judgment or prudence and " sensibility " means sensitivity or emotion . " Sense " is personified by the character of Elinor , and " sensibility " by Marianne . By changing the novel 's title , Austen added " philosophical depth " to what began as a sketch of two characters . Its title and that of her next published novel , Pride and Prejudice ( 1813 ) , may allude to the political conflicts of the 1790s . Austen drew inspiration for Sense and Sensibility from other 1790s novels which explored similar themes . These included Adam Stevenson 's autobiographical 1785 essay " Life and Love " ( in which Stevenson described an unfortunate relationship ) and Jane West 's A Gossip 's Story ( 1796 ) , which features two sisters — one rational and the other romantic and emotional . West 's romantic sister @-@ heroine shares a first name ( Marianne ) with Austen 's character , and other textual similarities are described in a recent edition of West 's novel . According to Austen biographer Claire Tomalin , Sense and Sensibility has a " wobble in its approach " ; Austen , while writing the novel , gradually became uncertain whether sense or sensibility should prevail . She paints Marianne as sweet , with attractive qualities : intelligence , musical talent , frankness and the capacity to love deeply . The author also acknowledges that Willoughby , with all his faults , continues to love and ( to some degree ) appreciate Marianne . For these reasons , some readers find Marianne 's ultimate marriage to Colonel Brandon unsatisfactory .
= = = Pride and Prejudice = = =
Pride and Prejudice ( the author 's second published novel ) featured a memorable portrayal of the main character , Elizabeth Bennet . Austen began writing the novel after staying at Goodnestone Park in Kent with her brother , Edward , and his wife in 1796 . Originally entitled First Impressions , it was written between October 1796 and August 1797 . On 1 November 1797 , Austen 's father sent a letter to the London bookseller Thomas Cadell asking if he was interested in seeing the manuscript ; the offer was declined by return of post . Austen significantly revised the manuscript of First Impressions between 1811 and 1812 , and the original manuscript is lost . Because of the large number of letters in the final novel , First Impressions was probably an epistolary novel . Austen later renamed the novel Pride and Prejudice ; she probably had in mind the " sufferings and oppositions " summarised in the final chapter of Fanny Burney 's Cecilia , " Pride and Prejudice " , in which the phrase appears three times in block capitals . The title of First Impressions may have been changed to avoid confusion with other works . During the years between the completion of First Impressions and its revision into Pride and Prejudice , two other First Impressions had been published : a novel by Margaret Holford and a comedy by Horace Smith . Austen sold the novel 's copyright to Thomas Egerton of Whitehall for £ 110 , after requesting £ 150 . It was a costly decision ; Austen had published Sense and Sensibility on a commission basis , indemnifying the publisher against losses and receiving any profits ( less costs and the publisher 's commission ) . Not knowing that Sense and Sensibility would sell out its edition ( earning her £ 140 ) , she sold the copyright to Egerton for a lump sum ; all its profits would be his . According to Jan Fergus , Egerton earned about £ 450 from the novel 's first two editions alone . He published the first edition of Pride and Prejudice , in three hardcover volumes , on 27 January 1813 . It was advertised in the Morning Chronicle at a price of 18 shillings . Receiving favourable reviews , the edition sold out ; a second edition was published in November , and a third in 1817 .
= = = Mansfield Park = = =
Mansfield Park , Austen 's third published novel , is the most controversial of her major works . Although Regency critics praised its wholesome morality , many modern readers find Fanny 's timidity and disapproval of the theatricals difficult to relate to and reject the notion ( explicit in the final chapter ) that she is a better person for her childhood privations . Austen 's mother thought Fanny " insipid " , and other readers have found her priggish and unlikable . Critics point out that she is a complex personality , perceptive but given to wishful thinking , and demonstrates courage and greater self @-@ esteem during the latter part of the story . According to Austen biographer Claire Tomalin ( who is generally critical of Fanny ) , " It is in rejecting obedience in favour of the higher dictate of remaining true to her own conscience that Fanny rises to her moment of heroism " . Tomalin reflects the ambivalence many readers feel towards the character : " More is made of Fanny Price 's faith , which gives her the courage to resist what she thinks is wrong ; it also makes her intolerant of sinners , whom she is ready to cast aside . "
Austen 's life during the Regency era enmeshed her in the debate about slavery . She omits any mention of the Slave Trade Act 1807 , which abolished the slave trade ( not slavery itself ) in the British Empire . The act ( passed four years before Austen began the novel ) was the culmination of a long campaign by abolitionists , notably William Wilberforce . Slavery was not abolished in the empire until 1833 ; the death rate on the Caribbean plantations was high due to yellow fever and malaria , and abolitionists thought that abolishing the slave trade would end slavery in the West Indies ( since plantation owners would be unable to import slaves from Africa ) . Literary theoretician Edward Said implicated Mansfield Park in the acceptance by Western culture of the benefits of slavery and imperialism ( a connection also made by Vladimir Nabokov in his Lectures on Literature , delivered in the 1940s but unpublished until 1980 ) , citing Austen 's failure to note that the Mansfield Park estate was possible only with slave labour . Said depicted Austen as a racist supporter of slavery whose books should be condemned , not celebrated . His thesis that she wrote Mansfield Park to glorify slavery received wide attention ; the editor of a Penguin edition of the novel wrote in its introduction that Said had called Mansfield Park " part of the structure of an expanding imperialist venture " . Literary critics ( including Gabrielle White ) have rejected Said 's condemnation of Austen and Western culture , maintaining that she and other writers — including Samuel Johnson and Edmund Burke — opposed slavery and helped make its eventual abolition possible . Tomalin writes that the usually timid Fanny questions her uncle about the slave trade and receives no answer , suggesting that Fanny 's perception of its immorality is clearer than his .
= = = Emma = = =
Emma is the fourth and last of Austen 's novels published during her lifetime . Emma Woodhouse is the first Austen heroine with no financial concerns , which ( she tells naïve Miss Smith ) is why she has no inducement to marry . This is a departure from Austen 's other novels , where the quests for marriage and financial security are important themes . Emma 's financial resources place her in a more privileged position than the heroines of Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice ; Jane Fairfax 's prospects , in contrast , are bleak . By comparison to other Austen heroines , Emma seems immune to romantic attraction . Unlike Marianne Dashwood , who is attracted to the wrong man before she settles on the right one , Emma shows no romantic interest in the men she meets . She is surprised — and somewhat dismayed — when the parson Elton declares his love for her , similar to Elizabeth Bennet 's reaction to the obsequious Mr Collins ( who is also a parson ) . Emma 's fancy for Frank Churchill is more a romantic plot complication for Austen than a pursuit of Emma 's genuine affections . At the beginning of Chapter XIII , Emma has " no doubt of her being in love " ; however , it quickly becomes clear ( although she spends time " forming a thousand amusing schemes for the progress and close of their attachment " ) that " the conclusion of every imaginary declaration on his side was that she refused him " .
= = = Persuasion = = =
Persuasion , Austen 's last novel , was unpublished at the time of her death , although it appeared before the end of 1818 . It was first published in a four @-@ volume edition ; the first two volumes included the first publication of her early novel , Northanger Abbey , and the last two included Persuasion . Although readers might conclude that Austen intended " persuasion " to be the story 's unifying theme , the novel was named by her brother Henry after her death . The idea of persuasion runs through the story , with vignettes as variations on the theme . There is no known documentation of what Austen intended to call the novel . Whatever her intentions may have been , according to family tradition she referred to it as The Elliots and some critics believe that it was her intended title . Henry probably chose the title for Northanger Abbey as well . According to literary scholar Gillian Beer , Austen was deeply concerned about the level and application of " persuasion " in society ( particularly the pressures and choices facing young women ) . Beer writes that for Austen and her readers , persuasion was indeed " fraught with moral dangers " ; Austen was appalled by what she came to regard as her misguided advice to niece Fanny Knight on whether to accept a particular suitor , despite the prospect of a long engagement : " Jane Austen 's anxieties about persuasion and responsibility are here passionately expressed . She refuses to become part of the machinery with which Fanny is manoeuvering herself into forming the engagement . To be the stand @-@ in motive for another 's actions frightens her . Yet Jane Austen cannot avoid the part of persuader , even as dissuader . " Fanny ultimately rejects her suitor and , after her aunt 's death , marries someone else . Beer says that Austen was keenly aware that persuasion — to persuade or be persuaded , rightly or wrongly — is fundamental to human communication ; in the novel , " Jane Austen gradually draws out the implications of discriminating ' just ' and ' unjust ' persuasion . " The story winds through a number of situations in which people are influencing , or attempting to influence , other people ( or themselves ) . Beer notes " the novel 's entire brooding on the power pressures , the seductions , and also the new pathways opened by persuasion " .
= = = Northanger Abbey = = =
Northanger Abbey was written when Austen was relatively young ( before 1800 ) , well before the 1812 publication of Sense and Sensibility . Although it was written over a decade before Persuasion and left unpublished at that time , the two novels were posthumously co @-@ published in 1818 by her family . In Northanger Abbey , an early parody of Gothic fiction , Austen upends eighteenth @-@ century fictional conventions by making her heroine a plain , undistinguished girl from a middle @-@ class family , allowing her to fall in love with the hero before he gives her a thought and exposing her romantic fears and curiosity as groundless . According to Claire Tomalin , Austen may have begun the novel ( more comic than her other works , with literary allusions her parents and siblings would have enjoyed ) as family entertainment to be read aloud by the fireside . Joan Aiken writes , " We can guess that Susan [ the original title of Northanger Abbey ] , in its first outline , was written very much for family entertainment , addressed to a family audience , like all Jane Austen 's juvenile works , with their asides to the reader , and absurd dedications ; some of the juvenilia , we know , were specifically addressed to her brothers Charles and Frank ; all were designed to be circulated and read by a large network of relations . " Austen addresses the reader directly at times — particularly at the end of the fifth chapter , where she expresses at length her opinion of the value of novels and the contemporary social prejudice against them in favour of historical works and newspapers . Through discussions by Isabella , the Thorpe sisters , Eleanor and Henry , and when Catherine peruses the general 's library and her mother 's instructional books on behaviour , the reader gains an insight into Austen 's perspective on novels in general compared with other popular contemporary literature ( especially Gothic novels ) . Eleanor enjoys history books , despite Catherine 's pointing out the obvious fiction of speeches given to important historical characters . The directness with which Austen addresses the reader ( particularly at the end of the novel ) provides unique insight into Austen 's thoughts well before the publication of Sense and Sensibility ; this is particularly valuable because a large portion of Austen 's letters were burned , at her request , by her sister at Jane 's death .
= = Themes = =
The themes and literary theory applied to the analysis of Austen 's novels have varied and expanded with generations of readers and scholars who approach her writings . The reins of criticism and analysis of the major themes in Austen 's novels were first taken up by Walter Scott and theologian Richard Whately . After the disposition of her estate , by 1821 a second period of literary analysis and criticism of her writings began ; it lasted for about a half @-@ century , until 1870 . This was followed by several decades of Austen scholarship after the international reception of her novels , which were translated into a number of foreign languages during the late 19th century . The modern period of scholarship and analysis of her literary themes , from about 1930 to the present , defends her as one of the most accomplished internationally known British authors .
= = = Regency period = = =
While Austen was alive and during the years immediately following her death , critiques of her literary themes were written by historical novelist Walter Scott and theologian Richard Whately . Asked by publisher John Murray to review Emma , Scott wrote a long , thoughtful piece which was published anonymously in the March 1816 Quarterly Review . Using the review as a platform from which to defend the then @-@ disreputable genre of the novel , he praised Austen 's ability to copy " from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life , and presenting to the reader ... a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him " . According to 21st @-@ century Austen scholar William Galperin , " Unlike some of Austen 's lay readers , who recognized her divergence from realistic practice as it had been prescribed and defined at the time , Walter Scott may well have been the first to install Austen as the realist par excellence " . Scott wrote in his journal in 1826 what later became a widely quoted comparison : " Also read again and for the third time at least Miss Austen 's very finely written novel of Pride and Prejudice . That young lady had a talent for describing the involvement and feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met with . "
In the Quarterly Review in 1821 , English writer and theologian Richard Whately published the most serious and enthusiastic early posthumous review of Austen 's work . Whately drew favourable comparisons between Austen , Homer and Shakespeare , praising her dramatic narrative qualities . He affirmed the legitimacy of the novel as a genre , arguing that imaginative literature ( particularly narrative literature ) was more valuable than history or biography . When properly done ( as Austen had ) , Whately said , imaginative literature concerned itself with generalised human experience from which the reader could gain important insights into human nature ; it was moral . Whately also analysed Austen as a female writer : " We suspect one of Miss Austin 's [ sic ] great merits in our eyes to be , the insight she gives us into the peculiarities of female characters ... Her heroines are what one knows women must be , though one never can get them to acknowledge it . " No other significant , original Austen criticism was published until the late 19th century ; Whately and Scott had set the tone for the Victorian era 's view of the author .
= = = Victorian period = = =
For several decades after 1821 and the disposition of Austen 's literary estate , Victorian critics and audiences were drawn to authors such as Charles Dickens and George Eliot ; her novels seemed provincial and quiet by comparison . Although Austen 's works began to be republished in late 1832 or early 1833 by Richard Bentley in his Standard Novels series and remained in print continuously thereafter , they were not best @-@ sellers . Brian C. Southam describes her " reading public between 1821 and 1870 " as " minute beside the known audience for Dickens and his contemporaries " . Those who read Austen saw themselves as a discriminating , cultured few ( a common theme of Austen criticism during the 19th and early 20th centuries ) . Philosopher and literary critic George Henry Lewes articulated this view in a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s . In " The Novels of Jane Austen " , published anonymously in Blackwood 's Magazine in 1859 , Lewes praised Austen 's novels for " the economy of art ... the easy adaptation of means to ends , with no aid from superfluous elements " and compared her to Shakespeare . Acknowledging her weak plot construction , he appreciated Austen 's dramatisation : " The reader 's pulse never throbs , his curiosity is never intense ; but his interest never wanes for a moment . The action begins ; the people speak , feel , and act ; everything that is said , felt , or done tends towards the entanglement or disentanglement of the plot ; and we are almost made actors as well as spectators of the little drama . " Responding to Lewes 's essays and his communications with her , novelist Charlotte Brontë admired Austen 's fidelity to everyday life but described her as " only shrewd and observant " and criticised the absence of overt passion in her work . To Brontë , Austen 's work appeared formal and constrained : " a carefully fenced , highly cultivated garden , with neat borders and delicate flowers ; but no glance of bright vivid physiognomy , no open country , no fresh air , no blue hill , no bonny beck " .
= = = Edwardian period = = =
The six decades from around 1870 to 1930 saw a redoubling of Austen 's international renown , with translations of her works into other languages ( including French , German , Danish and Swedish ) and three biographical studies and analyses of her literary themes . In 1869 the first significant Austen biography ( A Memoir of Jane Austen by her nephew , James Edward Austen @-@ Leigh ) was published , and her popularity and critical standing increased dramatically . Readers of the Memoir were presented with the myth of an amateur novelist who wrote masterpieces ; it fixed in the public mind a sentimental image of Austen as a quiet , middle @-@ aged maiden aunt whose work was appropriate for a respectable Victorian family . Austen @-@ Leigh commissioned a portrait of Austen , based on an earlier watercolour , which softened her image for the Victorian public . Richard Bentley 's engraving , the Memoir 's frontispiece , is based on this idealised image . The Memoir sparked a revival of Austen 's novels . The first popular editions ( an economical , sixpenny series published by Routledge ) were published in 1883 . This was followed by elaborate illustrated editions , collectors ' sets and scholarly editions . Contemporary critics continued to assert that Austen 's works were sophisticated , capable of enjoyment only by those who could plumb their depths . However , more criticism of Austen 's novels was published in the two years following the Memoir than had appeared in the previous fifty . Austen descendants William Austen @-@ Leigh and Richard Arthur Austen @-@ Leigh published the definitive family biography , Jane Austen : Her Life and Letters — A Family Record , in 1913 . Based primarily on family papers and letters , it was described by Austen biographer Park Honan as " accurate , staid , reliable , and at times vivid and suggestive " . The authors distanced themselves from the Memoir 's sentimental tone , making little effort to go beyond immediately available family records and traditions , and their book offers facts with little interpretation .
During the last quarter of the 19th century , the first critical analyses of Austen 's works were published . Goldwin Smith 's 1890 Life of Jane Austen began a " fresh phase in the critical heritage " , in which Austen reviewers became critics . This launched " formal criticism " , focusing on Austen as writer and analysing what made her writing unique . According to Brian C. Southam , Austen criticism increased in quantity and ( to some degree ) quality after 1870 but was infused with " a certain uniformity " . Notable critics included Richard Simpson , Margaret Oliphant and Leslie Stephen . In a review of the Memoir , Simpson described Austen as a serious @-@ but @-@ ironic critic of English society . He introduced two interpretative themes which became the basis for modern literary criticism of her works : humour as social critique and irony as a means of moral evaluation . According to Simpson , Austen " began by being an ironical critic ; she manifested her judgment ... not by direct censure , but by the indirect method of imitating and exaggerating the faults of her models ... Criticism , humour , irony , the judgment not of one that gives sentence but of the mimic who quizzes while he mocks , are her characteristics . " Simpson 's essay , obscure for many years , became influential when Lionel Trilling quoted from it in 1957 .
Another prominent writer whose Austen criticism was ignored , novelist Margaret Oliphant , described her in quasi @-@ feminist terms as " armed with a ' fine vein of feminine cynicism , ' ' full of subtle power , keenness , finesse , and self @-@ restraint , ' blessed with an ' exquisite sense ' of the ' ridiculous , ' ' a fine stinging yet soft @-@ voiced contempt , ' whose novels are ' so calm and cold and keen ' " . This view was explored during the 1970s rise of feminist literary criticism . Although abridged editions of Austen 's novels had been published in the United States since 1832 , a distinct American response to Austen was not heard before 1870 . According to Southam , " For American literary nationalists Jane Austen 's cultivated scene was too pallid , too constrained , too refined , too downright unheroic " . Austen was not a democratic author , and her canvas did not extend to the frontier themes which had come to define American literature . By the turn of the 20th century , the American response was represented by a debate between American novelist and critic William Dean Howells and writer and humourist Mark Twain . In a series of essays , Howells painted Austen as a canonical popular figure ; Twain used her as an argument against anglophilia , demonstrating the distinctiveness of American literature by disparaging that from England . In his book , Following the Equator , Twain described his ship 's library : " Jane Austen 's books ... are absent from this library . Just that one omission alone would make a fairly good library out of a library that hadn 't a book in it . "
Members of the literary elite , who had appropriated an appreciation of Austen as a mark of culture , reacted against the popularisation of her work around 1900 . They called themselves " Janeites " , distinguishing themselves from the masses who ( in their view ) did not properly understand Austen . American novelist Henry James , part of this group , ranked Austen with Shakespeare , Cervantes and Henry Fielding as one of " the fine painters of life " . James considered her an " unconscious " artist , describing her as " instinctive and charming " . In 1905 , however , he responded to what he described as " a beguiled infatuation " with Austen — a rising tide of public interest which exceeded her " intrinsic merit and interest " . James attributed the groundswell principally to " the stiff breeze of the commercial , ... the special bookselling spirits . ... the body of publishers , editors , illustrators , producers of the pleasant twaddle of magazines ; who have found their ' dear , ' our dear , everybody 's dear , Jane so infinitely to their material purpose , so amenable to pretty reproduction in every variety of what is called tasteful , and in what seemingly proves to be salable , form . "
= = = Modern period = = =
Austen 's place among internationally known British authors appeared secure by the early twentieth century . Important early works included Oxford Shakespearean scholar A. C. Bradley 's 1911 essay , " generally regarded as the starting @-@ point for the serious academic approach to Jane Austen " . Bradley emphasised Austen 's ties to 18th @-@ century critic and writer Samuel Johnson , calling her a moralist as well as a humourist ; in this , according to Southam , he was " totally original " . Bradley divided Austen 's works into " early " and " late " novels , categories still used by scholars today . The second groundbreaking early @-@ 20th @-@ century critic of Austen was R. W. Chapman , whose collection of Austen 's works was the first scholarly edition of any English novelist ; the Chapman texts have remained the basis for subsequent editions of her works . In a burst of mid @-@ century revisionism , scholars approached Austen more sceptically . D. W. Harding , following and expanding upon Farrer , argued in his essay " Regulated Hatred : An Aspect of the Work of Jane Austen " that her novels subverted ( rather than supported ) the status quo . Her irony , more caustic than humorous , intended to undermine the assumptions of the society she portrayed . With this irony , Austen attempted to protect her integrity as an artist and a person in the face of attitudes and practices she rejected . Critic Q. D. Leavis wrote in " Critical Theory of Jane Austen 's Writing " , published in Scrutiny in the early 1940s , that Austen was a professional ( not an amateur ) writer . Harding 's and Leavis ' articles were followed by another revisionist treatment by Marvin Mudrick in Jane Austen : Iron
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the mid @-@ 1990s , causing friction with other wrestlers . Michaels disputes the perception , saying that McMahon pushed only deserving wrestlers . Michaels ' fan base was later nicknamed " The Kliq " as an inside reference to the real " Kliq " . In October 1995 , Michaels was the victim of a legit assault outside a bar in Syracuse , New York . Due to not being able to compete , Michaels was forced to forfeit the Intercontinental Championship to his original opponent Dean Douglas at the In Your House : Great White North pay @-@ per @-@ view , who in turn Douglas lost the championship Razor Ramon , another member of the Kliq . This event has been cited as an example of the Kliq holding others down . The next month , during a match with Owen Hart on an episode of Monday Night Raw , Owen performed an enzuigiri that struck the back of Michaels ' head . They continued the match , but Michaels collapsed in the ring , supposedly because he had suffered a concussion . The concussion was scripted , which was kept from most fans at the time . A retirement angle was written so that Michaels could take some time off , after he came back from an injury too soon .
= = = = WWF Champion ( 1996 – 1998 ) = = = =
After teasing a retirement , Michaels returned to the WWF at the Royal Rumble match in 1996 , which he wound up winning for a second year in a row , to receive a WWF Championship match in the main event at WrestleMania XII . Around this time , Jose Lothario became Michaels ' on @-@ screen manager . At WrestleMania XII , Michaels defeated WWF Champion Bret Hart in the overtime of their sixty @-@ minute Iron Man match , which had ended in a scoreless tie . On May 19 , 1996 , Michaels and his fellow Kliq members were involved in the incident known as " Curtain Call " . Diesel and Razor Ramon were about to leave WWF to company rival WCW . After Michaels won a match against Diesel , Ramon and Hunter Hearst Helmsley came to the ring and joined Michaels and Diesel in a group @-@ hug . As Diesel and Helmsley were seen as villains at the time , in contrast to Michaels and Ramon , this constituted a breach of " kayfabe " , as acting out of character , which was rare and controversial at the time . As WCW gained momentum due to the signings of Hall and Nash , Michaels held the championship for most of the year . Michaels ' championship reign ended at the 1996 Survivor Series event , where he lost to Sycho Sid , his former bodyguard . Michaels recaptured the championship from Sid in January 1997 at the Royal Rumble .
On a special episode of Raw dubbed Thursday Raw Thursday , Michaels vacated the WWF Championship ; he explained to fans that he was informed by doctors that he had conjured a knee injury , and that he had to retire . His speech was regarded as controversial , as Michaels was allegedly unwilling to lose to Bret Hart at WrestleMania 13 ( since it was noted that he was going to have a rematch with Hart at WrestleMania ) . Michaels contemplated thoughts of retirement and stated that he " had to find his smile again , " which he had " lost " somewhere down the line . After knee surgery by Dr. James Andrews , Michaels returned a few months later , briefly teaming with Steve Austin to win the WWF Tag Team Championship . In his autobiography , Michaels reveals about his real @-@ life feud with Bret Hart , claiming that Bret did interviews on live television claiming that he [ Michaels ] was faking his whole injury .
By spring of 1997 , the real @-@ life backstage conflict between Shawn Michaels and Bret Hart were reaching its heights . Both men were going out on television and frequently making personal , true to heart remarks about one another . Shawn Michaels briefly left the WWF in June of that year after a real backstage fight with Bret Hart , just hours before a Raw is War show , which allegedly resulted from Michaels making an on @-@ air remark , known as the " Sunny Days " comment , implying that Bret ( who was married at the time ) was having an affair with WWF Diva Sunny . Shawn Michaels and Steve Austin were still WWF Tag Team Champions at the time during an ongoing feud with The Hart Foundation and a tournament was made to decide new Tag Champions . Michaels would eventually return that summer in July . At SummerSlam , Michaels officiated the WWF Championship match between WWF Champion The Undertaker and Bret Hart . The match ended in controversial fashion , with Michaels hitting Undertaker with a chair ( unintentionally , as he was aiming for Bret after he spat in his face ) . Michaels was then forced to award the championship to his nemesis , Bret Hart . The next night on Raw , signs of a heel turn started to show as Michaels told the WWF fans what happened at SummerSlam was an accident and that he would deal with the Undertaker when the time came . At WWF One Night Only , held in Birmingham , England in September , Michaels defeated The British Bulldog to capture the WWF European Championship . The fans at the event were so appalled at the result of the match they booed Michaels out of the building , to the extent that they littered the ring with garbage , cementing his second heel turn . With this win , Michaels became the first Grand Slam Champion . At the October pay @-@ per @-@ view event , In Your House : Badd Blood , Michaels and Undertaker participated in the first Hell in a Cell match . During the match , it saw Michaels fall off the side of the 15 @-@ foot ( 5 m ) high structure through a table and saw him as the winner in the match after the debuting Kane tombstoned his victory bound half @-@ brother , The Undertaker . The match received a 5 @-@ star rating from Dave Meltzer .
In the fall , Michaels joined forces with real @-@ life friend Hunter Hearst Helmsley ( Triple H ) , Hunter 's then @-@ girlfriend Chyna , and Rick Rude to form the stable D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) . Michaels continued his rivalry with Bret Hart and his reformed Hart Foundation , which was now a pro @-@ Canada stable . Michaels taunted the group and Canada by engaging in acts such as blowing his nose with and humping the Canadian Flag . Michaels later claimed the flag desecration was Bret 's idea . Michaels ' feud with the Hart Foundation culminated in a championship match at Survivor Series in 1997 against Bret Hart . Michaels came out of this match , dubbed by fans the " Montreal Screwjob " , as the WWF Champion . Michaels now held both the WWF and European championship at the same time . Michaels dropped the European Championship to D @-@ Generation X member Hunter Hearst Hemsley in a farcical match .
= = = = First retirement ( 1998 ) = = = =
At the 1998 Royal Rumble , Michaels received a serious back injury in a Casket match against The Undertaker . Michaels took a back body drop to the outside of the ring and hit his lower back on the casket , causing him to herniate two discs and crush one completely . This rendered Michaels unable to compete in the main event of the following month 's No Way Out of Texas : In Your House as advertised , and forced him into retirement after losing the WWF Championship to Steve Austin at WrestleMania XIV .
= = = = WWF Commissioner ( 1998 − 2000 ) = = = =
After being away for nearly four months , Shawn Michaels would make a surprise return to the WWF as a guest commentator on the July 13th episode of Raw is War . Michaels would continue to make non @-@ wrestling appearances on WWF programming , and on November 23 , 1998 , replaced Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF Commissioner , a portrayed match maker and rules enforcer , eventually joining Vince McMahon 's group of wrestlers called the Corporation as a villain . Throughout late 1998 and early 1999 , Michaels made regular television appearances on Raw , in which he scheduled matches , throwing around his authority , and sometimes even deciding the outcome of matches . On January 4 , 1999 on Raw , Michaels re @-@ joined DX as a fan favorite , but disappeared from WWF television for a few weeks to have back surgery , and by the time he returned , DX was on the way of dissolving within the next couple of months .
Michaels made occasional appearances as the WWF Commissioner during the spring and summer of 1999 , but remained absent from television after August until May 15 , 2000 , when he returned on Raw to declare himself the special guest referee for The Rock and Triple H 's Iron Man match at Judgment Day . One month later , Michaels briefly reappeared on Raw to hand over the role of Commissioner to Mick Foley and after another appearance in October , he did not make any in @-@ ring appearances until mid @-@ 2002 , although he appeared briefly on television to make a speech at WWF New York during Armageddon 2000 . Michaels also had no part at all in the Invasion storyline .
= = = = Post WWE ( 2000 − 2002 ) = = = =
Believing that his wrestling career was over , Michaels was interested in training individuals who wanted to become professional wrestlers . He saw potential in using his name and opened the Shawn Michaels Wrestling Academy in 1999 , after his lawyer Skip McCormick suggested the idea . Michaels left the academy in 2002 , giving co @-@ founder Rudy Boy Gonzalez sole responsibility due to Michaels ' new contract with WWE . Michaels was also a sportscaster for San Antonio 's local news for a short period during his retirement .
On November 23 , 1999 , Michaels made a special appearance at FMW 's Yokohama Arena show as the guest referee for the H ( Hayabusa ) vs. fake Hayabusa ( Mr. Gannosuke ) main event . He got himself involved in the match when fake Hayabusa delivered a low blow on him and he responded later on with Sweet Chin Music .
Michaels was still contracted to the WWE during this period .
= = = Second return to WWE = = =
= = = = Comeback & Feud with Triple H ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
In 2002 , Michaels returned to WWE television after 18 months of absence . On the June 3 episode of Raw , Kevin Nash announced him as a new member of the recently reformed New World Order ( nWo ) . Michaels was the only nWo member to have never worked in WCW . After the nWo had disbanded , Triple H appeared to make amends with Michaels . This was solidified when Michaels pleaded Triple H to return to Raw . Later on , they came down to the ring sporting their DX music and attire . When the pair was about to perform their trademark " Suck It " taunt , Triple H turned on Michaels by performing a Pedigree on him . Continuing the angle , a week later , Triple H attacked Michaels from behind in a parking lot and put his head through a car window , in storyline . In response , Michaels challenged Triple H to " a fight " ( a non @-@ sanctioned match ) at SummerSlam , which Triple H accepted , laying the foundation for a rivalry that would last for several years . In his first official wrestling match since WrestleMania XIV , Michaels won at SummerSlam , but was attacked by Triple H with a sledgehammer after the match . At Survivor Series , Michaels won the World Heavyweight Championship from Triple H in the first @-@ ever Elimination Chamber match . Michaels ' reign as champion came to an end a month later when he lost the championship to Triple H in a Three Stages of Hell match , a series of three matches in which wrestlers attempt to win the majority of matches , at Armageddon .
Michaels then began a rivalry with Chris Jericho , after Jericho claimed that he was the next Shawn Michaels . On January 13 , 2003 , after Jericho won a battle royal to select his entry number for the Royal Rumble , choosing number two in order to start the match with Michaels , who had already been named number one . At the Royal Rumble , Jericho , with the help of Christian , eliminated Michaels . Michaels defeated Jericho at WrestleMania XIX . Despite this , Michaels was low @-@ blowed after hugging with Chris Jericho . On the final episode of Raw of 2003 , Michaels would defeat Triple H after a Sweet Chin Music for the World Heavyweight title in his hometown of San Antonio , Texas with Eric Bischoff as the special guest referee ( Earl Hebner originally refereed the match , only to be knocked out by Triple H in the middle of the match ) . However , Bischoff reversed the decision due to both men 's shoulders being on the mat . Angered by this , Michaels attacked Ric Flair and Bischoff . Because of Michaels putting his hands on Bischoff , Bischoff then fired him . However , Michaels would be rehired by Steve Austin .
As a part of an ongoing feud with Triple H , the two competed alongside Chris Benoit in the main event match at WrestleMania XX for the World Heavyweight Championship . The former DX partners both came up short in the match , however , as Benoit won the championship . The night before this , Shawn Michaels inducted Tito Santana in the WWE Hall of Fame . At Bad Blood in June , Michaels lost to Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match . Four months later , he lost a World Heavyweight championship match against Triple H , after Edge interfered at Taboo Tuesday , when the fans voted for him ahead of Edge and Chris Benoit to face Triple H one more time . Following this , Michaels was out of action for a few months with a legit torn meniscus .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X reunion ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
At the Royal Rumble in 2005 , Michaels competed in the Rumble match and eliminated Kurt Angle . In seeking revenge , Angle re @-@ entered the ring and eliminated Michaels , and thus placed him in an ankle lock submission hold , outside the ring . Michaels issued a challenge to Angle for a match at WrestleMania 21 , which Angle accepted when he appeared on Raw to attack Michaels . The following week on Raw , Marty Jannetty and Michaels had a one time reunion as The Rockers and defeated La Résistance ( Robért Conway and Sylvain Grenier ) . Three days later on SmackDown ! , Angle defeated Jannetty , after Angle made Jannetty submit to the ankle lock . To send a " message " to Michaels , Angle also humiliated Michaels ' former manager , Sensational Sherri , when he applied the ankle lock hold on her . At WrestleMania 21 in April , Angle defeated Michaels by submission , again with an ankle lock . Two months later , at a WrestleMania 21 rematch , Michaels defeated Angle at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view event .
Following the events of WrestleMania 21 , the next night on Raw , Muhammad Hassan and Daivari came out to confront and assault Michaels . On the April 11 episode of Raw , Michaels approached authority figure Eric Bischoff , in which he demanded a handicap match with Hassan and Daivari , a match consisting of one wrestler or team of wrestlers facing off against a team of wrestlers with numerical superiority such as two against one , or three against two . Bischoff refused to schedule the match , but informed Michaels to find a partner and he would grant him the match . Michaels then made a plea for Hulk Hogan to come back and team with him . On the April 18 episode of Raw , Hassan again led an attack on Michaels until Hogan appeared to save Michaels and accept his offer . At Backlash , Hassan and Daivari lost to Hogan and Michaels when Daivari was pinned . On the July 4 episode of Raw , Michaels and Hulk Hogan had a tag team match , which they won . During the post @-@ match pose , Michaels hit Hogan with his superkick , knocking Hogan to the ground and making Michaels a villain for the first time since returning in 2002 . The following week on Raw , Michaels appeared on Piper 's Pit where he superkicked Roddy Piper and then challenged Hogan to a match at SummerSlam . Hogan defeated Michaels at SummerSlam , and after the match Michaels extended his hand to him , saying " I needed to know , and I found out " and he and Hogan shook hands . Michaels left the ring to allow Hogan to celebrate with the crowd , and Michaels once again became a fan favorite .
On the December 26 , 2005 , episode of Raw , Vince McMahon lauded Michaels for his part in the " Montreal Screwjob " . Michaels said he was only being loyal to his company , he had moved on , and McMahon should move on as well . McMahon then began setting unusual stipulations for Michaels ' matches and interfering on behalf of Michaels ' opponents . During the Royal Rumble , McMahon made his way to the ring , and as Michaels stared at McMahon , Shane McMahon made a surprising appearance , eliminating Michaels from the match . On the February 13 episode of Raw , McMahon tried unsuccessfully to force Michaels to sign retirement papers . The following week , Michaels won a handicap match against the Spirit Squad ( Kenny , Johnny , Mitch , Nicky and Mikey ) and after the match , Michaels ' former partner , Marty Jannetty , came down to help Michaels from the assault by the Spirit Squad . After the two reunited , McMahon offered Jannetty a contract if he " kissed his ass . " The following week , Jannetty refused McMahon 's offer and instead took Chris Masters ' " Masterlock challenge . " Michaels tried to help Jannetty , which ultimately resulted in Shane attacking Michaels and forcing him to kiss his father 's behind . At Saturday Night 's Main Event , Shane defeated Michaels in a Street Fight , a match without disqualifications and where scoring conditions can occur anywhere , after he applied a sharpshooter on Michaels , which led to McMahon immediately ordering for the bell to be rung , even though Michaels did not submit , which was an allusion to the " Montreal Screwjob " . Despite interference from the Spirit Squad and Shane , Michaels defeated McMahon at WrestleMania 22 in a No Holds Barred match , a match where there are no disqualifications . At Backlash , The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) defeated Michaels and " God " in a tag team match , with help from the Spirit Squad in a no disqualification match . On the May 22 episode of Raw , the Squad was scripted to injure Michaels ' knee . This was angle was written so that Michaels could have surgery on his knee , which had been legitely injured for some time .
In 2006 , a series of events took place which suggested a reunion of Michaels and Triple H as DX . They began at WrestleMania 22 , where both Michaels and Triple H performed the crotch chop , during their matches . On Raw , the two continued to deliver chops , as Michaels feuded with Vince McMahon and Triple H went for the WWE Championship , repeatedly butting heads with Vince McMahon in the process . On the June 12 episode of Raw , DX officially reunited . During Triple H 's gauntlet match , which had him compete against the Spirit Squad . Michaels came in to help Triple H , and the two did the DX " crotch chops . " At Vengeance , DX defeated the Spirit Squad in a 5 – on – 2 handicap match . They also defeated the Spirit Squad at Saturday Night 's Main Event in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 elimination match and defeated The McMahons at SummerSlam . At Unforgiven , DX once again defeated the McMahons and ECW World Champion The Big Show in a Hell in a Cell match , finally ending the nine @-@ month long feud .
At Cyber Sunday , DX took on Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) . The fan @-@ selected referee Eric Bischoff allowed the illegal use of a steel chair to give Rated @-@ RKO the ill @-@ gotten win and the plaudit of being the first tag team to defeat DX in a tag team match since their reformation in June 2006 . At Survivor Series , however , Team DX emerged victorious against Team Rated @-@ RKO in a clean sweep victory . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H suffered a legit torn right quadriceps during their match with Rated @-@ RKO . Rated @-@ RKO claimed victory over DX , citing Triple H 's injury , as the " end " of DX . On January 15 , Michaels lived up to his word of " dealing " with Rated @-@ RKO , from his comments the previous week before , when he took out Randy Orton with a con @-@ chair @-@ to after a handicap match against Edge and Orton .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
On the January 29 episode of Raw , Michaels captured the World Tag Team Championship with WWE Champion John Cena after defeating Rated @-@ RKO . He then defeated both Edge and Orton in a Triple Threat number one contender 's match on another episode of Raw to earn a shot at the WWE Championship . At WrestleMania 23 , Cena retained the championship , after he made Michaels submit to the STFU . The next night on Raw , Michaels and Cena competed in two back @-@ to @-@ back ten team battle royals , winning the first and losing the titles in the second to The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) when Michaels threw Cena over the top rope . Michaels ' feud with Cena continued and he faced off with Cena , Edge and Randy Orton in a Fatal Four @-@ Way Match at Backlash for the WWE Championship . Cena retained the championship when Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music on Cena causing him to fall on Orton , which gained Cena the pinfall .
Michaels then entered a feud with Randy Orton when Orton claimed that he could beat Michaels . The week before their scheduled match at Judgment Day , after Michaels won a match against Edge , Orton interfered , punting Michaels in the head . Orton assaulted Michaels again , just prior to their match at Judgment Day , interrupting Michaels ' interview segment . Michaels collapsed during the course of their match , causing Orton to win by referee stoppage . Afterwards , Orton continued the beating , when he performed an RKO to a fallen Michaels . Michaels was then removed out of the ring in a stretcher . During the feud , Michaels conjured a storyline concussion . This injury was used to keep Michaels out of action , as he required surgery for his knee . Michaels made his return on the October 8 episode of Raw , performing a superkick to newly crowned WWE Champion , Randy Orton , during his title ceremony at the end of the show and then celebrating over the knocked @-@ out champion as Vince McMahon watched . At Cyber Sunday , Michaels was voted by the fans to face Orton for the WWE Championship ; though he won via disqualification when Orton hit Michaels with a low blow , which resulted in Orton retaining the championship . Michaels got another opportunity at the WWE Championship , when he was granted his rematch against Orton at Survivor Series . In their match , Michaels was banned from using Sweet Chin Music upon request by Orton , referring to as Michaels superkicking Orton week after week . Michaels lost the match , when Orton performed an RKO for the win .
As part of the storyline involving Ric Flair , Michaels faced Flair in a Career Threatening match at WrestleMania XXIV , in which he won by performing Sweet Chin Music and thus ending Flair 's career . Afterwards , Batista confronted Michaels about his actions at WrestleMania , calling him selfish and egotistical . The two faced off at Backlash with Chris Jericho as the guest referee . Michaels won after faking a knee injury and performing Sweet Chin Music . Jericho then confronted Michaels on this matter , in which Michaels admitted to faking the injury in order to defeat Batista . Michaels then defeated Jericho at Judgment Day . At One Night Stand , Michaels lost to Batista in a stretcher match , thus ending their feud . On the June 9 episode of Raw , Michaels was attacked by Chris Jericho during his talk show segment , The Highlight Reel , being thrown directly through a television screen . The following week , it was revealed that , within the context of the storyline , Michaels had suffered a detached retina . At The Great American Bash , a match between Michaels and Jericho was scheduled , in which Jericho assaulted Michaels ' eye , which caused Jericho to win by referee stoppage .
A month later at SummerSlam , Michaels announced his retirement from professional wrestling . That night , Jericho punched Michaels ' wife in the face . On the next Raw , Michaels renounced his retirement and challenged Jericho to an unsanctioned match at Unforgiven , which Jericho accepted . The next week , they had an in @-@ ring contract signing for the unsanctioned match . During this , they started to fight , causing a legit small triceps tear for Michaels . He was medically cleared to compete at Unforgiven , and beat Jericho so severely that the referee called the match . Later that night , Jericho replaced CM Punk in the World Heavyweight Championship scramble match , and won the title . The next month. at No Mercy , Michaels lost a championship ladder match to Jericho .
In December 2008 , Michaels , having lost his family 's savings due to the global recession , grudgingly accepted a one @-@ year general employment contract from John Bradshaw Layfield ( JBL ) . After failing to help JBL win the World Heavyweight Championship from John Cena at the Royal Rumble , and being derided for it , Michaels agreed to face JBL in " All or Nothing " match at No Way Out in February . Michaels won the match , letting him out of his contract early , while still receiving full payment .
On the March 2 Raw , Michaels became the first person to defeat Vladimir Kozlov , and so earned a match with The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV in April . The Undertaker defeated Michaels in a highly acclaimed match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 17 – 0 . After WrestleMania , Michaels took a hiatus from WWE .
= = = = Final matches and retirement ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
Michaels returned to WWE programming in a series of segments that aired on the August 10 , 2009 episode of Raw , where he had , in storyline , left the WWE . Triple H met with Michaels at an office cafeteria in Texas where he was working as a chef ; throughout the segments , Triple H would try to convince Michaels to return to WWE and reform DX . After several incidents during the segments , Michaels agreed to team with Triple H to face The Legacy ( Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase ) at SummerSlam . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , DX defeated Legacy . The two teams would exchange victories , with their feud concluding in October . Two months later , at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , DX defeated Chris Jericho and Big Show to win the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match ( TLC ) . On the January 4 , 2010 episode of Raw , Michaels buried the hatchet with long @-@ time rival Bret Hart , as they shook hands and hugged in the ring . In contrast to the storylines featured on the show , this was in fact a real @-@ life reconciliation which laid to rest animosities surrounding the Montreal Screwjob . While some cast doubts on its sincerity , both men have confirmed that it was indeed genuine . DX lost the Unified Tag Team Championship in a Triple Threat match to the team of The Miz and Big Show on the February 8 episode of Raw , the match also included The Straight Edge Society ( CM Punk and Luke Gallows ) . At the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view , Michaels cost The Undertaker the World Heavyweight Championship in the main event . At WrestleMania XXVI , Michaels lost to The Undertaker and , as a result , he was forced to retire due to the match stipulation , the same way HBK ended Ric Flair 's career . The following night , on the March 29 episode of Raw , Michaels gave an emotional farewell speech , departing with the familiar sentence , " Shawn Michaels has left the building . "
In an interview with Bill Simmons of ESPN.com shortly after his retirement , Michaels stated that his decision to retire came a month before WrestleMania XXV , when a backstage employee asked about his son Cameron , and , in response to Shawn telling the employee that he 'd just turned nine , the employee said that he was " halfway gone " ; meaning that he was halfway to his eighteenth birthday , and after that , he 'd be " gone . " According to Michaels , the statement affected him deeply ; he did not want be absent when his son left home , so he decided that year would be his last year as an active wrestler .
= = = = WWE ambassador ( 2010 – present ) = = = =
On the December 14 Raw , Michaels won the Slammy Award for Moment of the Year for his match against The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXVI . Michaels accepted the award via satellite . Three days later , he announced a long @-@ term deal with WWE , where he will serve in an ambassadorial role . He made his in @-@ person TV return at the December 11 Tribute to the Troops taping , where he and Triple H had a one @-@ night only DX reunion .
He appeared on the January 10 , 2011 Raw , where he was announced as a WWE Hall of Fame inductee . After being ridiculed by Alberto Del Rio later that night , Michaels hit him with Sweet Chin Music . On the March 28 Raw , Michaels addressed Triple H and The Undertaker about their match at WrestleMania XXVII . Michaels was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame on April 2 by Triple H. They were also joined by fellow Kliq members Kevin Nash ( who had returned to WWE for the Royal Rumble ) and Sean Waltman . He returned on the June 27 Raw , where he was confronted by CM Punk , and superkicked David Otunga and Michael McGillicutty . Later that night , when Diamond Dallas Page 's special appearance was interrupted by Drew McIntyre , he superkicked McIntyre .
In June 2011 , Jim Ross , Michaels and Hart announced that the three were working on a DVD chronicling the careers of Hart and Michaels that the WWE was planning to release in October 2011 . The subject of the DVD would be their on @-@ screen rivalry and real @-@ life conflicts , with a particular focus on the Montreal screwjob . In his tweet , Hart described working on the DVD as a " cathartic " experience , and Ross asserted that both Hart and Michaels had been very honest and emotional in their interviews . The DVD , Shawn Michaels vs Bret Hart : WWE 's Greatest Rivalries , was released in November 2011 .
On February 13 , 2012 , he confronted Triple H about accepting The Undertaker 's challenge for a Hell in a Cell at Wrestlemania XXVIII , and announced he 'd be the special guest referee for it . August 6 was " Shawn Michaels Appreciation Night " . He appeared on Raw , where he was confronted by Brock Lesnar , then again after the broadcast for the Appreciation Night ceremonies .
On the January 24 NXT , he announced a tournament to crown the inaugural NXT Tag Team Champions . On the April 1 , 2013 Raw , Michaels returned to offer to corner Triple H in his match with Lesnar at WrestleMania 29 . During that match , Michaels superkicked an interfering Paul Heyman , helping Triple H win and keep his job . He returned on the May 27 Raw in a backstage segment with John Cena , and again on the SummerSlam pre @-@ show .
In October 2013 , Michaels won a fan poll to become special guest referee for the Hell in a Cell match between Daniel Bryan and Randy Orton for the vacant WWE Championship . There , he superkicked Bryan , allowing Orton to pick up the win . The next night on Raw , he explained that he was upset with Bryan for attacking Triple H during the match . He degraded Bryan for not showing him respect , turning heel for the first time since 2005 . Bryan put him in his " Yes ! " Lock finisher to end the segment . On December 9 , he presented Bryan with the award for Superstar of the Year . Later that night , Bryan hit Michaels with a running knee after Michaels had super @-@ kicked CM Punk .
On the August 25 , 2014 episode of Raw , Michaels returned along with fellow legends Hulk Hogan and Ric Flair in a legends panel segment , where he predicted Bray Wyatt to win the rumble . All three legends then became involved in an altercation with Big Show . Michaels would appear at WrestleMania 31 , interfering as a member of DX in the Sting vs. Triple H match , delivering Sweet Chin Music to Sting . At a WWE tour in Australia Michaels was confronted by Bo Dallas and was called a has @-@ been and got a Sweet Chin Music for his troubles turning face again in the process . Michaels appeared on the October 19 , 2015 episode of Raw , confronting Seth Rollins who was cutting a promo on relieving Kane of his duties as Director of Operations .
At WrestleMania 32 , Michaels made an appearance during the event in his in @-@ ring attire , confronting The League of Nations alongside Mick Foley and Stone Cold Steve Austin where Michaels delivered Sweet Chin Music to Alberto Del Rio and King Barrett before celebrating with Foley , Austin and The New Day .
= = Personal life = =
Hickenbottom 's first marriage , to Theresa Wood , soon ended in an amicably settled divorce . He married Rebecca Curci , a former WCW Nitro Girl known as Whisper , on March 31 , 1999 , at the Graceland Wedding Chapel in Las Vegas , Nevada . Only the couple and an Elvis impersonator were present . Their son , Cameron Kade , was born on January 15 , 2000 , and a daughter , Cheyenne , born on August 19 , 2004 followed . His cousin Matt Bentley is also a professional wrestler , having wrestled in TNA and WWE .
In 1996 , Hickenbottom posed for a non @-@ nude layout in Playgirl magazine . Only after he posed did he discover Playgirl has a mostly homosexual readership , for which some of his fellow wrestlers teased him .
He is ambidextrous , and had trouble differentiating between right and left , which affected his football games as a boy . He uses his right hand to draw and color and his left hand to write . He typically kicks with his right leg in Sweet Chin Music , but uses either arm for his signature elbow drop , depending on position .
Hickenbottom is a born @-@ again Christian . He was raised a Catholic , but became a non @-@ denominational Christian because of his wife . Following his conversion , his later ring attire often incorporated cross symbols and he often made a praying gesture on his knees during ring entrances . He was in the audience for a televised service of John Hagee 's Cornerstone Church in his hometown , San Antonio , where he is also a Bible teacher . In 2008 , he appeared on a Trinity Broadcasting Network program with fellow professional wrestler Sting .
= = Other media = =
= = = Shawn Michaels ' MacMillan River Adventures = = =
Shawn Michaels is the host of the outdoor television show , ' Shawn Michaels ' MacMillan River Adventures ' . Michaels joins his hunting partner and longtime friend , Keith Mark , owner and operator of the original MacMillan River Adventures camp in Yukon , Canada , as they hunt big @-@ game animals around the world . This series airs on CarbonTV .
= = = HBK Line = = =
During their 2015 @-@ 16 season , the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League named a line , consisting of Carl Hagelin , Nick Bonino and Phil Kessel , the " HBK Line " due to the fact that the trio 's first initials , of their last names , are the same as the moniker used by Shawn “ The Heartbreak Kid ” Michaels .
After weeks of having fun with Penguins fans on Twitter , the team officially invited Michaels for their Eastern Conference Finals Game 5 matchup with the Tampa Bay Lightning ( which consists of several wrestlers in its fanbase , including Hulk Hogan and Titus O 'Neil ) at Consol Energy Center , upon which Michaels accepted . Michaels meet with Penguins ' owner Mario Lemieux and sat with former Pittsburgh Steelers ' defensive lineman Brett Keisel during the game . Keisel also gave Michaels a tour of the city including at the Steelers headquarters and having lunch at Primanti Brothers in the city 's Strip District . The Penguins lost the game in overtime 4 @-@ 3 , but would go on to defeat the Lightning in the series and advance to the Stanley Cup Finals , eventually defeating the San Jose Sharks for the Stanley Cup .
Outside of his numerous appearances with WWE , it would not be Michaels first visit to Pittsburgh . In 2013 he appeared at the opening of the first Field & Stream store in suburban Cranberry Township .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Sweet Chin Music ( Superkick , with theatrics )
Modified figure @-@ four leglock – was used rarely after 2008
Teardrop Suplex ( Leg @-@ hook Saito suplex ) – 1992 – 1993
Signature moves
Arm trap crossface – 2007 – 2010
Backhand chop
Belly to back suplex
Diving double axe handle
Diving elbow drop , with theatrics
Dropkick
Figure @-@ four leglock
Flying forearm smash followed by a kip @-@ up
Inverted atomic drop
Moonsault , sometimes while springboarding to the outside
Skin the cat
Slingshot crossbody
Managers
Chyna
Diesel
José Lothario
Luna Vachon
Rick Rude
Sensational Sherri
Sycho Sid
Nicknames
" Mr. WrestleMania "
" Mr. Hall of Fame "
" Mr. Main Eventer "
" Sexy Boy "
" The Best of the Best "
" The Headliner "
" The Heartbreak Kid ( HBK ) "
" The Icon " " The Main Event "
" The Most Honored Champion In WWE History "
" The Showstopper "
Entrance themes
" Sexy Boy " by Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Sensational Sherri ( February 15 , 1992 – January 30 , 1993 )
" Sexy Boy " by Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Shawn Michaels ( February 13 , 1993 – present )
" Break it Down " by The DX Band ( used while a member of D @-@ Generation X )
" Sexy Boy " ( " Pulse Enigma " Intro ) by Jim Johnston , Jimmy Hart and J.J. Maguire feat . Shawn Michaels ( used at WrestleMania XXV )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
American Wrestling Association
AWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Marty Jannetty
Central States Wrestling
NWA Central States Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Marty Jannetty
Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Marty Jannetty
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Feud of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) vs. Chris Jericho
Match of the Year ( 1993 ) vs. Marty Jannetty on Monday Night Raw on May 17
Match of the Year ( 1994 ) vs. Razor Ramon in a Ladder match at WrestleMania X
Match of the Year ( 1995 ) vs. Diesel at WrestleMania XI
Match of the Year ( 1996 ) vs. Bret Hart in an Iron Man match at WrestleMania XII
Match of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Triple H at WrestleMania XX
Match of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Kurt Angle at WrestleMania 21
Match of the Year ( 2006 ) vs. Vince McMahon in a No Holds Barred match at WrestleMania 22
Match of the Year ( 2007 ) vs. John Cena on Raw on April 23
Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIV
Match of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania XXV
Match of the Year ( 2010 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Career vs. Streak match at WrestleMania XXVI
Match of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 ) vs. Ric Flair at WrestleMania XXIV
Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Year ( 2010 )
Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 1995 , 1996 )
Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1996
Ranked # 10 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
Ranked # 33 and # 55 of the top 100 tag teams of the " PWI Years " with Marty Jannetty and Diesel , respectively , in 2003
Texas All @-@ Star Wrestling
TASW Texas Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Paul Diamond
Texas Wrestling Alliance
TWA Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Triple H
WWF Championship ( 3 times )
WWF European Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Intercontinental Championship ( 3 times )
WWF / World Tag Team Championship ( 5 times ) – with Diesel ( 2 ) , Stone Cold Steve Austin ( 1 ) , John Cena ( 1 ) , and Triple H
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survived . He is known instead for his engravings of the leading architectural schemes of the day , including Saint @-@ Maur , the Tuileries , and Chenonceau . In 1576 and 1579 , he produced the two @-@ volume Les Plus Excellents Bastiments de France , a beautiful publication dedicated to Catherine . His work is an invaluable record of buildings that were never finished or were later substantially altered .
= = End of the dynasty = =
Catherine spent ruinous sums of money on buildings at a time of plague , famine , and economic hardship in France . As the country slipped deeper into anarchy , her plans grew ever more ambitious . Yet the Valois monarchy was crippled by debt and its moral authority was in steep decline . The popular view condemned Catherine 's building schemes as obscenely extravagant . This was especially true in Paris , where the parlement was often asked to contribute to her costs .
Ronsard captured the mood in a poem :
Ronsard was in many ways proved correct . The death of Catherine 's beloved son Henry III in 1589 , a few months after her own , brought the Valois dynasty to an end . Precious little of Catherine 's grand building work has survived .
= Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , from her twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . It was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , James " Big Jim " Wright and The @-@ Dream . Due to the success of her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) , and its lead single " Touch My Body " , Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of the effort , but poor charting subsequent singles from the album prompted a halt on promotion by her label , Island Records . It was also rumored that Carey had become pregnant and miscarried , though she never addressed it until late 2010 . She began to work on her twelfth studio effort , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel throughout 2009 , and it was released later on in the year . In October 2010 , Carey revealed that she had in fact been pregnant in late 2008 , and that was the reason why tour plans were cancelled .
The song was recorded at several recording locations , including The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California , the Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas , Nevada and at Honeywest Studios in New York City . The lyrics revolve around the idea of outing a cheating boyfriend publicly on television , and Carey makes a reference to Oprah Winfrey and her chat show . " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " garnered mixed responses from music critics . Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that the song was " promising , " however , Jon Caramanica for The New York Times criticized the song 's lackluster arrangement and Carey 's vocal execution . Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , the song peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart in October 2009 , and remained on the chart for a total of two weeks .
= = Background = =
After Carey finished her The Adventures of Mimi Tour ( 2006 ) in support of her tenth studio album The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) , she began to work on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums to be released in 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . After the release and success of " Touch My Body " , the project 's lead single , subsequent singles of the album failed to garner airplay or significant charting , Island Records halted promotion of the album . Since the album 's release , Carey had planned to embark on an extensive tour in support of E = MC ² , describing its production and direction in several interviews . When asked to describe the tour 's theme , Carey explained " I 'm thinking elaborate . I like elaborate . We only do substantial . That 's what my jeweler says . I haven 't gotten the looks in mind just yet , but we 're going to figure it out soon enough . " Althoguh plans for a tour were underway , and Carey 's announcement for a tour during her promotional appearance on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in November 2008 , the tour was suddenly cancelled in the following month .
Because of the tour 's cancellation , various media outlets circulated speculation that Carey had become pregnant , and had abandoned her plans for a tour as a result . Many reports were made claiming that Carey had been visiting a famed gynecologist 's office in Los Angeles . Carey did not address those rumours until two years later on October 28 , 2010 , which was the same day she announced her new pregnancy ; she admitted that she had indeed been pregnant during that time period in late 2008 , and suffered a miscarriage . For that reason , she cancelled the tour , and lost the child only two months later . Carey later opted to record a new album , that would be released during the summer of 2009 . During the later stages of the project , Carey released the title , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , that would serve as the singer 's twelfth studio album .
= = Production = =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " was co @-@ written by Carey , Christopher Stewart , James Wright and Terius Nash . It was also produced by the foursome , with Stewart credited as Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Wright as James " Big Jim " Wright and Nash as The @-@ Dream . It was recorded by Brian Garten and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank , California , Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas , Nevada and Honeywest Studios , New York City . Luis Navarro served as Garten and " B @-@ Luv " ' s recording assistant . Additional engineering was carried out by Andrew Wuepper . It was mixed by Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California . They were assisted in the process by Giancarlo Lino . Keys and Hammond B3 were performed by " Big Jim " and " Tricky " Stewart .
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is the opening song on the album , and lasts for a duration of 4 minutes exactly . As the album 's opening track , Carey sing 's " Welcome to a day of my life " as the first line of the song , as she begins to sing about the downfalls and shortcomings of love . According to Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine , Carey sings in a taunting , schoolyard nature when she performs the lyrics " I 'm gon ' la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ la @-@ laugh . " The song 's lyrical content revolves around the protagonist getting a their own back to their estranged and cheating lover publicly on TV , as Carey sings " Oprah Winfrey whole segment , for real . " Becky Bain for Idolator interpretation of the lyrics were that it is from a female perspective who sings about an adulterous man . The remix featuring R. Kelly leaked in July 2011 , and draws influence from R & B. In 2014 , Carey announced that the remix would appear on her upcoming fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , as a deluxe edition bonus track .
= = Critical reception = =
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " garnered mixed responses from music critics . Sal Cinqeumani for Slant Magazine wrote that " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " is a " promising " song . James Reed for the Boston Globe was complimentary of the song because he felt that the first half of the track list better represented Carey , writing " halfway in , ' Memoirs ' starts to sag under its own weight , and the sweetness that initially was so irresistible starts to get a little too sticky . " Jon Caramanica for The New York Times was critical of the song , noting that her collaborators of choice on the album have delivered " largely listless arrangements " , writing that Carey is " mumbling " on " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " . He likened her singing style on the song to other tracks on the album " Ribbon " and " Insepareable " , writing that " talk @-@ singing " is usually " the preserve of far worse singers . " When the " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " remix featuring R. Kelly surfaced online , Becky Bain for Idolator wrote that the " stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness , the various voices for multiple players , the cheating plotline " is a reworking of his series of songs entitled Trapped in the Closet ( 2005 ) .
= = Format = =
Album version ( download as an album track from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel )
" Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " - 4 : 00
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at The Boom Boom Room , Burbank , California ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , Nevada and Honeywest Studios , New York City .
Mixed at Larrabee Studios in Universal City , California .
Personnel
Songwriting – Mariah Carey , Christopher Stewart , James Wright and Terius Nash
Production – Mariah Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , James " Big Jim " Wright and The @-@ Dream
Recording – Brian Garten and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas
Recording assistant – Luis Navarro
Mixing – Jaycen @-@ Joshua Fowler and Dave Pencado
Assistant mixing – Giancarlo Lino
Keys and Hammond B3 – " Big Jim " and " Tricky " Stewart
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " debuted and peaked at number 66 on the US Hot Digital Songs chart on October 17 , 2009 . The song spent two weeks on the chart in total . It debuted at number three and peaked at number one on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Remix featuring R. Kelly = =
Following the announcement of plans for the Angels Advocate Tour in support of Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel , Carey revealed that she was going to release a remix album of the standard edition , including new featured artists and songs from the album 's recording sessions which did not make the final cut . American singer @-@ songwriter R. Kelly was confirmed to be the featured artist on the remix of " Betcha Gon ' Know ( The Prologue ) " . Angels Advocate had been planned to be released in March 2010 , but for unknown reasons was cancelled . The remix featuring R. Kelly , with the shortened title of " Betcha Gon ' Know " , was included as a deluxe edition bonus track on her fourteenth studio album Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , which was released on May 27 , 2014 . Upon the release of the album , " Betcha Gon ' Know ' " debuted on the South Korean International Gaon Single Chart at number 67 for the week ending May 31 , 2014 .
= USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) =
USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) , the second United States Navy ship to be named after the 36th state , was the lead ship of the two Nevada @-@ class battleships ; her sister ship was Oklahoma . Launched in 1914 , the Nevada was a leap forward in dreadnought technology ; four of her new features would be included on almost every subsequent US battleship : triple gun turrets , oil in place of coal for fuel , geared steam turbines for greater range , and the " all or nothing " armor principle . These features made Nevada the first US Navy " super @-@ dreadnought " .
Nevada served in both World Wars : during the last few months of World War I , Nevada was based in Bantry Bay , Ireland , to protect the supply convoys that were sailing to and from Great Britain . In World War II , she was one of the battleships trapped when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . She was the only battleship to get underway during the attack , making the ship " the only bright spot in an otherwise dismal and depressing morning " for the United States . Still , she was hit by one torpedo and at least six bombs while steaming away from Battleship Row , forcing her to be beached . Subsequently salvaged and modernized at Puget Sound Navy Yard , Nevada served as a convoy escort in the Atlantic and as a fire @-@ support ship in four amphibious assaults : the Normandy Landings and the invasions of Southern France , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa .
At the end of World War II , the Navy decided that Nevada was too old to be retained , so they assigned her to be a target ship in the atomic experiments that were going to be conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 ( Operation Crossroads ) . After being hit by the blast from the first atomic bomb , Able , she was still afloat but heavily damaged and radioactive . She was decommissioned on 29 August 1946 and sunk during naval gunfire practice on 31 July 1948 .
= = Design = =
Being the first second @-@ generation battleship in the US Navy , Nevada has been described as " revolutionary " and " as radical as Dreadnought was in her day " by present @-@ day historians . At the time of her completion in 1916 , the New York Times remarked that the new warship was " the greatest [ battleship ] afloat " because she was so much larger than other contemporary American battleships : her tonnage was nearly three times that of the obsolete 1890 pre @-@ dreadnought Oregon , almost twice that of the 1904 battleship Connecticut , and almost 8 @,@ 000 long tons ( 8 @,@ 100 t ) greater than that of one of the first American dreadnoughts , Delaware , which had been built just seven years prior to Nevada .
Nevada was the first battleship in the US Navy to have triple gun turrets , a single funnel , and an oil @-@ fired steam power plant . In particular , using oil gave the ship an engineering advantage over the earlier coal @-@ fired plants , as oil is much more efficient than coal because it yields " a far greater steaming radius for a given amount of fuel " . Nevada was also the first US battleship with geared turbines , also increasing fuel economy and thus range compared to earlier direct drive turbines . The ability to steam great distances without refueling was a major concern of the General Board at that time . In 1903 , the Board felt all American battleships should have a minimum steaming radius of 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) so that the US could enforce the Monroe Doctrine . One of the main purposes of the Great White Fleet , which sailed around the world in 1907 – 1908 , was to prove to Japan that the US Navy could " carry any naval conflict into Japanese home waters " . Possibly as a result of this , battleships after 1908 were mainly designed to " steam 8 @,@ 000 miles at cruising speeds " ; given the distance between San Pedro , where the fleet would be based , and Manila , where the Fleet was expected to have to fight under War Plan Orange , was 6 @,@ 550 nmi ( 7 @,@ 540 mi ; 12 @,@ 130 km ) , endurance was obviously a major concern for the U.S. Navy . Also , oil allowed for the boiler @-@ room crew to be reduced — the engineer on Delaware estimated that 100 firemen ( stokers ) and 112 coal passers could be adequately replaced by just 24 men , which would allow some crew 's quarters to be eliminated ; this would save weight and also reduce the amount of fresh water and provisions that the ship would have to carry .
In addition to all of this , Nevada had maximum armor over critical areas , such as the magazines and engines , and none over less important places , even though previous battleships had armor of varying thickness depending on the importance of the area it was protecting . This radical change became known as the " all or nothing " principle , which most major navies later adopted for their own battleships . With this new armor scheme , the armor on the battleship was increased to 41 @.@ 1 % of the displacement .
As a result of all of these design modifications from previous battleships , Nevada was the first of the US Navy 's " Standard " type battleships . " Standards " were characterized by the use of oil fuel , the " all or nothing " armor scheme , and the arrangement of the main armament in four triple or twin turrets without any turrets located in the middle of the ship . The Navy was to create a fleet of modern battleships similar in long @-@ range gunnery , speed , turning radius , and protection . " Nevada " was followed by 11 other battleships of this type , although significant improvements were made in subsequent designs as naval technology rapidly progressed . An additional seven standard type battleships , the USS Washington ( BB @-@ 47 ) and the South Dakota class were never completed due to the Washington Naval Treaty .
The two battleships of the Nevada @-@ class were virtually identical except in their propulsion . Nevada and her sister were fitted with different engines to compare the two , putting them ' head @-@ to @-@ head ' : Oklahoma received older vertical triple expansion engines , which had proven more fuel @-@ efficient and reliable than the direct drive turbines of some earlier battleships , while Nevada received geared Curtis steam turbines .
= = Construction and trials = =
Nevada 's construction was authorized by an Act of Congress on 4 March 1911 . The contract went to Fore River Shipbuilding Company on 22 January 1912 for a total of $ 5 @,@ 895 @,@ 000 ( not including the armor and armament ) , and the time of construction was originally to be 36 months . A secondary contract was signed on 31 July 1912 for $ 50 @,@ 000 to cover the additional cost of a geared cruising unit on each propeller shaft ; this also extended the planned construction time by five months . Her keel was laid down on 4 November 1912 , and by 12 August 1914 , the ship was 72 @.@ 4 % complete . Nevada was launched on 11 July 1914 ; she was sponsored by Miss Eleanor Anne Seibert , niece of Governor Tasker Oddie of Nevada and a descendant of the first Secretary of the Navy , Benjamin Stoddert . The launch was attended by several prominent members of the government , including Governor Oddie , Governor David I. Walsh of Massachusetts , Senator Key Pittman of Nevada , Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt , who would later become the 32nd President of the United States .
Nevada then had to undergo many different tests and trials prior to her commissioning to ensure that she met the terms of the original contract . These began on 4 November 1915 , when the ship conducted a twelve @-@ hour endurance run " up and down the New England coast " , reaching a top speed of 21 @.@ 4 kn ( 24 @.@ 6 mph ; 39 @.@ 6 km / h ) . Though her " acceptance trials " were interrupted on 5 November because of a gale and rough seas , they were continued on the 6th with a test of her fuel economy ; this consisted of a 24 @-@ hour run where Nevada steamed at 10 kn ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . The test results were positive : the oil consumption of the battlewagon was 6 lb per knot lower than the contract had demanded . Another test was conducted for 12 hours at 15 kn ( 17 mph ; 28 km / h ) , with an even better result of 10 lb per knot lower than the contract specifications . After completing all of these tests and running trials off Rockland , Maine , Nevada sailed to the Boston and New York Navy Yards for equipment , torpedo tubes , and ammunition hoists . When all of the preliminaries were completed , Nevada was commissioned on 11 March 1916 at the Charlestown Navy Yard , and William S. Sims was the first captain of the new ship .
= = World War I = =
After fitting out in the Boston and New York Navy Yards , Nevada joined the Atlantic Fleet in Newport , Rhode Island on 26 May 1916 . Prior to the United States ' entry into World War I , she conducted many training cruises and underwent many exercises out of her base in Norfolk , Virginia , sailing as far south as the Caribbean on these cruises . The US entered the war in April 1917 , but Nevada was not sent to the other side of the Atlantic because of a shortage of fuel oil in Britain . Instead , four coal @-@ fired battleships of Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) ( Delaware , Florida , Wyoming , and New York ) departed the US to join the British Grand Fleet on 25 November 1917 . They arrived on 7 December and were designated as the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . Texas joined them after damage from a grounding on Block Island was repaired ; she departed on 30 January and arrived in Scotland on 11 February . It was not until 13 August 1918 that Nevada left the US for Britain , becoming the last American ship to join the Fleet overseas .
After a 10 @-@ day voyage , she arrived in Berehaven , Ireland , on 23 August . Along with Utah and her sister Oklahoma , the three were nicknamed the " Bantry Bay Squadron " ; officially , they were BatDiv 6 under the command of Rear Admiral Thomas S. Rodgers , who chose Utah as his flagship . For the rest of the war , the three ships operated from the bay , escorting the large and valuable convoys bound for the British Isles to ensure no German heavy surface ships could slip past the British Grand Fleet and annihilate the merchant ships and their weak escorts of older cruisers . This never came to pass , and the war ended on 11 November with Nevada not getting a chance to engage an enemy during the war .
On 13 December 10 battleships , including Nevada , and 28 destroyers escorted the ocean liner George Washington , with president Woodrow Wilson embarked , into Brest , France , during the last day of Wilson 's journey to the country so he could attend the Paris Peace Conference . The flotilla met George Washington and her escorts ( Pennsylvania and four destroyers ) just off Brest and escorted them into the port . The 10 battleships sailed for home at 14 : 00 on the next day , 14 December . They took less than two weeks to cross the Atlantic , and arrived in New York on 26 December to parades and celebrations .
= = Interwar period = =
Between the two World Wars , Nevada served in both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets . Though she had originally been equipped with 21 five @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 cal guns to defend against enemy destroyers , this number was reduced to 12 in 1918 , due to the overly wet bow and stern positions of the other nine .
Along with Arizona , Nevada represented the United States at the Peruvian Centennial Exposition in July 1921 . A year later , in company with Maryland this time , she returned to South America as an escort to the steamer Pan America with Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes embarked ; they all attended the Centennial of Brazilian Independence in Rio de Janeiro , celebrated from 5 to 11 September 1922 . The New York Times later credited the crew of Nevada for bringing baseball and that sport 's unique terminology to Brazil , allowing the country to " make the Yankee game an institution of their own " . Three years later , from July – September 1925 , Nevada took part in the US Fleet 's " goodwill cruise " to Australia and New Zealand . During this cruise , the ships had only limited replenishment opportunities , but they still made it to Australia and back without undue difficulty . This demonstrated to those allies and Japan that the US Navy had the ability to conduct transpacific operations and meet the Imperial Japanese Navy in their home waters , where both Japanese and American war plans expected the " decisive battle " to be fought , if it should come .
After the cruise , Nevada was modernized at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard between August 1927 and January 1930 , with the exchange of her " basket " masts for tripod masts and her steam turbines for those from the recently stricken battleship North Dakota . These were geared turbines that had been retrofitted to North Dakota in 1917 , replacing her original direct drive turbines to increase her range . Additionally , many different adaptations and additions were made : her main guns ' elevation was increased to 30 ° ( which upped the range of the guns from 23 @,@ 000 yd ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) to 34 @,@ 000 yd ( 31 @,@ 100 m ) ) , anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added , her 12 original Yarrow boilers were replaced with 6 more efficient Bureau Express boilers in a new arrangement to accommodate those bulges , two catapults were added for three Vought O2U @-@ 3 Corsair biplane spotter aircraft , eight 5 in ( 127 mm ) / 25 cal AA guns were added , a new superstructure was installed , and her 5 inch ( 127 mm ) 51 cal secondary battery was relocated above the hull in an arrangement similar to that of the New Mexico class . Nevada then served in the Pacific Fleet for the next eleven years .
= = World War II = =
= = = Attack on Pearl Harbor = = =
When the weekend of 6 – 7 December arrived , all of the Pacific Fleet 's battleships were in port for the weekend for the first time since 4 July . Normally they took turns spending time in port — six would be out with Vice Admiral William S. Pye 's battleship Task Force One one weekend , while the next weekend would find three ranging with Vice Admiral William Halsey , Jr . ' s aircraft carrier task force . However , because Halsey could not afford to take the slow battleships with his fast carriers on his dash to reinforce Wake Island 's Marine detachment with fighters and because it was Pye 's turn to rest in port and the harbor was where it was considered safe , none of the battleships were sailing on that morning . When the sun rose over Nevada on the 7th , the ship 's band was playing " Morning Colors " ; but planes then appeared on the horizon and the attack on Pearl Harbor began .
Aft of Arizona during the attack , Nevada was not moored alongside another battleship off Ford Island , and therefore was able to maneuver , unlike the other seven battleships present . The Officer of the Deck , Ensign Joe Taussig ( son of the admiral of the same name ) , had earlier that morning ordered a second boiler lit off , planning to switch the power load from one boiler to the other around 0800 . As Nevada 's gunners opened fire and her engineers started to raise steam , a single 18 in ( 460 mm ) Type 91 Mod 2 torpedo exploded against Frame 41 about 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) above the keel at 0810 . Seconds later , the same Kate torpedo bomber that dropped the torpedo was shot down by the Nevada 's gunners . The torpedo bulkhead held , but leaking through joints caused flooding of port side compartments below the first platform deck between frames 30 and 43 and a list of 4 – 5 ° . Her damage control crew corrected the list by counter @-@ flooding and Nevada got underway at 0840 , her gunners already having shot down four planes . Ensign Taussig 's efficiency paid off , likely saving his ship , but he lost a leg in the attack .
Nevada became a prime target for Japanese Val dive bombers during the second wave . Japanese pilots intended to sink her in the channel ostensibly to block the harbor . Tactically target selection was wrong as 14 – 18 dive bombers attacking her wouldn 't be able to sink a battleship with 250 kg bombs and the channel 's width of 1200 feet made the idea of bottling up the harbor impossible . As she steamed past Ten @-@ Ten Dock at about 09 : 50 , Nevada was struck by five bombs . One exploded over the crew 's galley at Frame 80 . Another struck the port director platform and exploded at the base of the stack on the upper deck . Yet another hit near No. 1 turret inboard from the port waterway and blew large holes in the upper and main decks . Two struck the forecastle near Frame 15 ; one passed out through the side of the second deck before exploding , but the other exploded within the ship near the gasoline tank ; leakage and vapors from this tank caused intense fires around the ship .
The gasoline fires that flared up around Turret 1 might have caused more critical damage if the main magazines had not been empty . For several days prior to the attack , all of the 14 @-@ inch @-@ gun ( 356 mm ) battleships had been replacing their standard @-@ weight main battery projectiles with a new heavier projectile that offered greater penetration and a larger explosive charge in exchange for a slight decrease in range . All of the older projectiles and powder charges had been removed from the magazines of Nevada , and the crew had taken a break after loading the new projectiles in anticipation of loading the new powder charges on Sunday .
As bomb damage became evident , Nevada was ordered to proceed to the west side of Ford Island to prevent her from sinking in deeper water . Instead , she was grounded off Hospital Point at 10 : 30 , with the help of Hoga and Avocet , though she managed to force down three planes before she struck the shore . Gasoline fires prevented damage control parties from containing flooding forward of the main torpedo defense system . Flooding the main magazine and counterflooding to keep the ship stable lowered the bow allowing water to enter the ship at the second deck level . Lack of watertight subdivision between the second and main decks from frame 30 to frame 115 allowed water entering through bomb holes in the forecastle to flow aft through the ship 's ventilation system to flood the dynamo and boiler rooms .
Over the course of the morning , Nevada suffered a total of 60 killed and 109 wounded . Two more men died aboard during salvage operations on 7 February 1942 when they were overcome by hydrogen sulfide gas from decomposing paper and meat . The ship suffered a minimum of six bomb hits and one torpedo hit , but " it is possible that as many as ten bomb hits may have been received , [ ... ] as certain damaged areas [ were ] of sufficient size to indicate that they were struck by more than one bomb . "
= = = Attu and D @-@ Day = = =
Nevada was refloated on 12 February 1942 and underwent temporary repairs at Pearl Harbor so she could get to Puget Sound Navy Yard for a major overhaul and modernization . This was completed in October 1942 , and it changed the old battleship 's appearance so she slightly resembled a South Dakota from a distance . Her 5 " / 51s and 5 " / 25s were replaced with sixteen 5 " / 38 caliber guns in new twin mounts . Nevada then sailed for Alaska , where she provided fire support from 11 – 18 May 1943 for the capture of Attu .
Nevada then departed for Norfolk Navy Yard in June for further modernization . After this was completed , Nevada went on Atlantic convoy duty . Old battleships such as Nevada were attached to many convoys across the Atlantic to guard against the chance that a German capital ship might head out to sea on a raiding mission .
After completing more convoy runs , Nevada set sail for the United Kingdom to prepare for the Normandy Invasion , arriving in April 1944 . Her float plane artillery observer pilots were temporarily assigned to VOS @-@ 7 flying Spitfires from RNAS Lee @-@ on @-@ Solent ( HMS Daedalus ) . She was chosen as Rear Admiral Morton Deyo 's flagship for the operation . During the invasion , Nevada supported forces ashore from 6 – 17 June , and again on 25 June ; during this time , she employed her guns against shore defenses on the Cherbourg Peninsula , " [ seeming ] to lean back as [ she ] hurled salvo after salvo at the shore batteries . " Shells from her guns ranged as far as 17 nmi ( 20 mi ; 31 km ) inland in attempts to break up German concentrations and counterattacks , even though she was straddled by counterbattery fire 27 times ( though never hit ) . Nevada was later praised for her " incredibly accurate " fire in support of beleaguered troops , as some of the targets she hit were just 600 yd ( 550 m ) from the front line . Nevada was the only battleship present at both Pearl Harbor and the Normandy landings .
= = = Southern France and Iwo Jima = = =
After D @-@ Day , the Allies headed to Toulon for another amphibious assault , codenamed Operation Dragoon . To support this , many ships were sent from the beaches of Normandy to the Mediterranean , including five battleships ( the United States ' Nevada , Texas , Arkansas , the British Ramillies , and the Free French Lorraine ) , three US heavy cruisers ( Augusta , Tuscaloosa and Quincy ) , and many destroyers and landing craft were transferred south .
Nevada supported this operation from 15 August to 25 September 1944 , " dueling " with " Big Willie " : a heavily reinforced fortress with four 340 mm ( 13 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin turrets . These guns had been salvaged from the French battleship Provence after the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon ; the guns had a range of nearly 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ) and they commanded every approach to the port of Toulon . In addition , they were fortified with heavy armor plate bedded into the rocky sides of the island of Saint Mandrier . Due to these dangers , the fire @-@ support ships assigned to the operation were ordered to level the fortress . Beginning on 19 August , and continuing on subsequent days , one or more heavy warships bombarded it in conjunction with low @-@ level bomber strikes . On the 23rd , a bombardment force headed by Nevada struck the " most damaging " blow to the fort during a 6 ½ hour battle , which saw 354 salvos fired by Nevada . Toulon fell on the 25th , but the fort , though it was " coming apart at the seams " , held out for three more days .
Nevada then headed to New York to have her gun barrels relined . In addition , her 14 " / 45 caliber guns ( 356 mm ) from Turret 1 were replaced with the Mark 8 guns from turret 2 of Arizona ; these new guns were relined to Mark 12 specifications . After that was completed , she sailed for the Pacific , arriving off Iwo Jima on 16 February 1945 to " [ prepare ] the island for invasion with heavy bombardment " ; which she did through 7 March . During the invasion , she moved to be within 600 yd ( 550 m ) from shore to provide maximum firepower for the troops that were advancing .
= = = Okinawa and Japan = = =
On 24 March 1945 , Nevada joined Task Force 54 ( TF 54 ) , the " Fire Support Force " , off Okinawa as pre @-@ invasion bombardment began . The ships of TF 54 then moved into position on the night of the 23rd , beginning their bombardment missions at dawn on the 24th . Along with the rest of the force , Nevada shelled Japanese airfields , shore defenses , supply dumps , and troop concentrations . However , after the fire support ships retired for the night , dawn " came up like thunder " when seven kamikazes attacked the force while it was without air cover . One plane , though hit repeatedly by antiaircraft fire from the force , crashed onto the main deck of Nevada , next to turret No. 3 . It killed 11 and wounded 49 ; it also knocked out both 14 in ( 360 mm ) guns in that turret and three 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft weapons . Another two men were lost to fire from a shore battery on 5 April . Until 30 June , she was stationed off Okinawa ; she then departed to join the 3rd Fleet from 10 July to 7 August , which allowed Nevada to come within range of the Japanese home islands during the closing days of the war , though she did not bombard them .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Nevada then returned to Pearl Harbor after a brief stint of occupation duty in Tokyo Bay . Nevada was surveyed and , at 32 ⅓ years old , was deemed too old to be kept in the post @-@ war fleet . As a result , she was assigned to be a target ship in the first Bikini atomic experiments ( Operation Crossroads ) of July 1946 . The experiment consisted of detonating two atomic bombs to test their effectiveness against ships . Nevada was the bombardier 's target for the first test , codenamed ' Able ' , which used an air @-@ dropped weapon . To help distinguish the target from surrounding vessels , Nevada was painted a reddish @-@ orange . However , even with the high @-@ visibility color scheme , the bomb fell about 1 @,@ 700 yd ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) off @-@ target , exploding above the attack transport Gilliam instead . Due in part to the miss , Nevada survived . The ship also remained afloat after the second test — ' Baker ' , a detonation some 90 ft ( 27 m ) below the surface of the water — but was damaged and extremely radioactive from the spray . Nevada was later towed to Pearl Harbor and decommissioned on 29 August 1946 .
After she was thoroughly examined , Iowa and two other vessels used Nevada as a practice gunnery target on 31 July 1948 . The ships did not sink Nevada , so she was given a coup de grâce with an aerial torpedo hit amidships .
= = Awards = =
World War I Victory Medal with " ATLANTIC FLEET " and " GRAND FLEET " clasps
American Defense Service Medal with " FLEET " clasp
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with five battle stars
American Campaign Medal
European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with two battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " ASIA " clasp
= Sophocles =
Sophocles ( / ˈsɒfəkliːz / ; Greek : Σοφοκλῆς , Sophoklēs , Ancient Greek : [ so.pʰo.klɛ ̂ ːs ] ; c . 497 / 6 – winter 406 / 5 BC ) is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived . His first plays
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were written later than those of Aeschylus , and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides . Sophocles wrote 120 plays during the course of his life , but only seven have survived in a complete form : Ajax , Antigone , The Women of Trachis , Oedipus the King , Electra , Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus . For almost 50 years , Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city @-@ state of Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia . He competed in 30 competitions , won 18 , and was never judged lower than second place . Aeschylus won 14 competitions , and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles , while Euripides won 5 competitions .
The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and also Antigone : they are generally known as the Theban plays , although each play was actually a part of a different tetralogy , the other members of which are now lost . Sophocles influenced the development of the drama , most importantly by adding a third actor , thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot . He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus .
= = Life = =
Sophocles , the son of Sophilus , was a wealthy member of the rural deme ( small community ) of Hippeios Colonus in Attica , which was to become a setting for one of his plays , and he was probably born there . Sophocles was born a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC : the exact year is unclear , although 497 / 6 is the most likely . Sophocles was born into a wealthy family ( his father was an armour manufacturer ) and was highly educated . Sophocles ' first artistic triumph was in 468 BC , when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition over the reigning master of Athenian drama , Aeschylus . According to Plutarch , the victory came under unusual circumstances . Instead of following the usual custom of choosing judges by lot , the archon asked Cimon and the other strategoi present to decide the victor of the contest . Plutarch further contends that following this loss Aeschylus soon left for Sicily . Although Plutarch says that this was Sophocles ' first production , it is now thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC . Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival .
In 480 BC Sophocles was chosen to lead the paean ( a choral chant to a god ) , celebrating the Greek victory over the Persians at the Battle of Salamis . Early in his career , the politician Cimon might have been one of his patrons , although if he was , there was no ill will borne by Pericles , Cimon 's rival , when Cimon was ostracized in 461 BC . In 443 / 2 he served as one of the Hellenotamiai , or treasurers of Athena , helping to manage the finances of the city during the political ascendancy of Pericles . According to the Vita Sophoclis , in 441 BC he was elected one of the ten generals , executive officials at Athens , as a junior colleague of Pericles , and he served in the Athenian campaign against Samos ; he was supposed to have been elected to this position as the result of his production of Antigone .
In 420 BC , he welcomed and set up an altar for the image of Asclepius at his house , when the deity was introduced to Athens . For this , he was given the posthumous epithet Dexion ( receiver ) by the Athenians . He was also elected , in 413 BC , one of the commissioners ( probouloi ) who responded to the catastrophic destruction of the Athenian expeditionary force in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War .
Sophocles died at the age of ninety or ninety @-@ one in the winter of 406 / 5 BC , having seen within his lifetime both the Greek triumph in the Persian Wars and the bloodletting of the Peloponnesian War . As with many famous men in classical antiquity , his death inspired a number of apocryphal stories . The most famous is the suggestion that he died from the strain of trying to recite a long sentence from his Antigone without pausing to take a breath . Another account suggests he choked while eating grapes at the Anthesteria festival in Athens . A third holds that he died of happiness after winning his final victory at the City Dionysia . A few months later , a comic poet , in a play titled The Muses , wrote this eulogy : " Blessed is Sophocles , who had a long life , was a man both happy and talented , and the writer of many good tragedies ; and he ended his life well without suffering any misfortune . " According to some accounts , however , his own sons tried to have him declared incompetent near the end of his life ; he is said to have refuted their charge in court by reading from his as yet unproduced Oedipus at Colonus . One of his sons , Iophon , and a grandson , also called Sophocles , also became playwrights .
Several ancient sources mention Sophocles ' homosexuality or bisexuality . Athenaios reported that Sophocles loved boys like Euripides loved women . The poet Ion of Chios relates an anecdote involving Sophocles seducing a serving boy at a symposium , and Athenaios one in which Sophocles is tricked by a hustler .
= = Works and legacy = =
Among Sophocles ' earliest innovations was the addition of a third actor , which further reduced the role of the chorus and created greater opportunity for character development and conflict between characters . Aeschylus , who dominated Athenian playwriting during Sophocles ' early career , followed suit and adopted the third character into his own work towards the end of his life . Aristotle credits Sophocles with the introduction of skenographia , or scenery @-@ painting . It was not until after the death of the old master Aeschylus in 456 BC that Sophocles became the pre @-@ eminent playwright in Athens .
Thereafter , Sophocles emerged victorious in dramatic competitions at 18 Dionysia and 6 Lenaia festivals . In addition to innovations in dramatic structure , Sophocles ' work is also known for its deeper development of characters than earlier playwrights . His reputation was such that foreign rulers invited him to attend their courts , although unlike Aeschylus who died in Sicily , or Euripides who spent time in Macedon , Sophocles never accepted any of these invitations . Aristotle used Sophocles ' Oedipus the King in his Poetics ( c . 335 BC ) as an example of the highest achievement in tragedy , which suggests the high esteem in which his work was held by later Greeks .
Only two of the seven surviving plays can be dated securely : Philoctetes ( 409 BC ) and Oedipus at Colonus ( 401 BC , staged after Sophocles ' death by his grandson ) . Of the others , Electra shows stylistic similarities to these two plays , which suggests that it was probably written in the latter part of his career . Ajax , Antigone and The Trachiniae are generally thought to be among his early works , again based on stylistic elements , with Oedipus the King coming in Sophocles ' middle period . Most of Sophocles ' plays show an undercurrent of early fatalism and the beginnings of Socratic logic as a mainstay for the long tradition of Greek tragedy .
= = = Theban plays = = =
The Theban plays consist of three plays : Oedipus the King ( also called Oedipus Tyrannus or by its Latin title Oedipus Rex ) , Oedipus at Colonus and Antigone . All three plays concern the fate of Thebes during and after the reign of King Oedipus . They have often been published under a single cover . Sophocles , however , wrote the three plays for separate festival competitions , many years apart . Not only are the Theban plays not a true trilogy ( three plays presented as a continuous narrative ) but they are not even an intentional series and contain some inconsistencies among them . He also wrote other plays having to do with Thebes , such as the Epigoni , of which only fragments have survived .
= = = = Subjects = = = =
Each of the plays relates to the tale of the mythological Oedipus , who killed his father and married his mother without knowledge that they were his parents . His family is fated to be doomed for three generations .
In Oedipus the King , Oedipus is the protagonist . Oedipus ' infanticide is planned by his parents , Laius and Jocasta , to avert him from fulfilling a prophecy ; in truth , the servant entrusted with the infanticide passes the infant on through a series of intermediaries to a childless couple , who adopt him not knowing his history . Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle 's prophecy of him , that he would kill his father and marry his mother ; Oedipus attempts to flee his fate without harming those he knows as his parents ( at this point , he does not know that he is adopted ) . Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants ; Oedipus and the man fought , and Oedipus killed the man . ( This man was his father , Laius , not that anyone apart from the gods knew this at the time ) . He becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the sphinx and in the process , marries the widowed queen , his mother Jocasta . Thus the stage is set for horror . When the truth comes out , following from another true but confusing prophecy from Delphi , Jocasta commits suicide , Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes . At the end of the play , order is restored . This restoration is seen when Creon , brother of Jocasta , becomes king , and also when Oedipus , before going off to exile , asks Creon to take care of his children . Oedipus 's children will always bear the weight of shame and humiliation because of their father 's actions .
In Oedipus at Colonus , the banished Oedipus and his daughter Antigone arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus , King of Athens . Oedipus dies and strife begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles .
In Antigone , the protagonist is Oedipus ' daughter , Antigone . She is faced with the choice of allowing her brother Polyneices ' body to remain unburied , outside the city walls , exposed to the ravages of wild animals , or to bury him and face death . The king of the land , Creon , has forbidden the burial of Polyneices for he was a traitor to the city . Antigone decides to bury his body and face the consequences of her actions . Creon sentences her to death . Eventually , Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment , but his decision comes too late and Antigone commits suicide . Her suicide triggers the suicide of two others close to King Creon : his son , Haemon , who was to wed Antigone , and his wife , Eurydice , who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son .
= = = = Composition and inconsistencies = = = =
The plays were written across thirty @-@ six years of Sophocles ' career and were not composed in chronological order , but instead were written in the order Antigone , Oedipus the King , and Oedipus at Colonus . Nor were they composed as a trilogy – a group of plays to be performed together , but are the remaining parts of three different groups of plays . As a result , there are some inconsistencies : notably , Creon is the undisputed king at the end of Oedipus the King and , in consultation with Apollo , single @-@ handedly makes the decision to expel Oedipus from Thebes . Creon is also instructed to look after Oedipus ' daughters Antigone and Ismene at the end of Oedipus the King . By contrast , in the other plays there is some struggle with Oedipus ' sons Eteocles and Polynices in regard to the succession . In Oedipus at Colonus , Sophocles attempts to work these inconsistencies into a coherent whole : Ismene explains that , in light of their tainted family lineage , her brothers were at first willing to cede the throne to Creon . Nevertheless , they eventually decided to take charge of the monarchy , with each brother disputing the other 's right to succeed . In addition to being in a clearly more powerful position in Oedipus at Colonus , Eteocles and Polynices are also culpable : they consent ( l . 429 , Theodoridis , tr . ) to their father 's going to exile , which is one of his bitterest charges against them .
= = = Other plays = = =
In addition to the three Theban plays , there are four surviving plays by Sophocles : Ajax , The Women of Trachis , Electra , and Philoctetes , the last of which won first prize in 409 BC in which it competed .
Ajax focuses on the proud hero of the Trojan War , Telamonian Ajax , who is driven to treachery and eventually suicide . Ajax becomes gravely upset when Achilles ’ armor is presented to Odysseus instead of himself . Despite their enmity toward him , Odysseus persuades the kings Menelaus and Agamemnon to grant Ajax a proper burial .
The Women of Trachis ( named for the Trachinian women who make up the chorus ) dramatizes Deianeira 's accidentally killing Heracles after he had completed his famous twelve labors . Tricked into thinking it is a love charm , Deianeira applies poison to an article of Heracles ' clothing ; this poisoned robe causes Heracles to die an excruciating death . Upon learning the truth , Deianeira commits suicide .
Electra corresponds roughly to the plot of Aeschylus ' Libation Bearers . It details how Electra and Orestes ' avenge their father Agamemnon 's murder by Clytemnestra and Aegisthus .
Philoctetes retells the story of Philoctetes , an archer who had been abandoned on Lemnos by the rest of the Greek fleet while on the way to Troy . After learning that they cannot win the Trojan War without Philoctetes ' bow , the Greeks send Odysseus and Neoptolemus to retrieve him ; due to the Greeks ' earlier treachery , however , Philoctetes refuses to rejoin the army . It is only Heracles ' deus ex machina appearance that persuades Philoctetes to go to Troy .
= = = Fragmentary plays = = =
Although the list of over 120 titles of plays associated with Sophocles are known and presented below , little is known of the precise dating of most of them . Philoctetes is known to have been written in 409 BC , and Oedipus at Colonus is known to have only been performed in 401 BC , posthumously , at the initiation of Sophocles ' grandson . The convention on writing plays for the Greek festivals was to submit them in tetralogies of three tragedies along with one satyr play . Along with the unknown dating of the vast majority of over 120 play titles , it is also largely unknown how the plays were grouped . It is , however , known that the three plays referred to in the modern era as the " Theban plays " were never performed together in Sophocles ' own lifetime , and are therefore not a trilogy ( which they are sometimes erroneously seen as ) .
Fragments of Ichneutae ( Tracking Satyrs ) were discovered in Egypt in 1907 . These amount to about half of the play , making it the best preserved satyr play after Euripides ' Cyclops , which survives in its entirety . Fragments of the Epigoni were discovered in April 2005 by classicists at Oxford University with the help of infrared technology previously used for satellite imaging . The tragedy tells the story of the second siege of Thebes . A number of other Sophoclean works have survived only in fragments , including :
= = = Sophocles ' view of his own work = = =
There is a passage of Plutarch 's tract De Profectibus in Virtute 7 in which Sophocles discusses his own growth as a writer . A likely source of this material for Plutarch was the Epidemiae of Ion of Chios , a book that recorded many conversations of Sophocles . This book is a likely candidate to have contained Sophocles ' discourse on his own development because Ion was a friend of Sophocles , and the book is known to have been used by Plutarch . Though some interpretations of Plutarch 's words suggest that Sophocles says that he imitated Aeschylus , the translation does not fit grammatically , nor does the interpretation that Sophocles said that he was making fun of Aeschylus ' works . C. M. Bowra argues for the following translation of the line : " After practising to the full the bigness of Aeschylus , then the painful ingenuity of my own invention , now in the third stage I am changing to the kind of diction which is most expressive of character and best . "
Here Sophocles says that he has completed a stage of Aeschylus ' work , meaning that he went through a phase of imitating Aeschylus ' style but is finished with that . Sophocles ' opinion of Aeschylus was mixed . He certainly respected him enough to imitate his work early on in his career , but he had reservations about Aeschylus ' style , and thus did not keep his imitation up . Sophocles ' first stage , in which he imitated Aeschylus , is marked by " Aeschylean pomp in the language " . Sophocles ' second stage was entirely his own . He introduced new ways of evoking feeling out of an audience , as in his Ajax , when Ajax is mocked by Athene , then the stage is emptied so that he may commit suicide alone . Sophocles mentions a third stage , distinct from the other two , in his discussion of his development . The third stage pays more heed to diction . His characters spoke in a way that was more natural to them and more expressive of their individual character feelings .
= Washington State Route 527 =
State Route 527 ( SR 527 , also known as the Bothell – Everett Highway ) is a state highway in Snohomish County , of the U.S. state of Washington . It extends 9 @.@ 23 miles ( 14 @.@ 85 km ) north from I @-@ 405 in the city of Bothell , Washington , to an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) , SR 99 , and SR 526 in Everett , Washington . SR 527 intersects SR 524 and SR 96 before ending in Everett . The route serves as a connector between Bothell , Everett , and Mill Creek .
The highway itself did not fully open until October 17 , 1969 , and , since its opening , has become increasingly congested , with about 57 @,@ 000 motorists using the highway at its interchange with I @-@ 405 in 2004 . A large construction project to widen the highway and put up sound walls ran from 1991 @-@ 2006 . A 2 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 33 km ) section of the route was turned over to local authorities in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
SR 527 links the cities of Bothell , Everett , and Mill Creek , and intersects two highways : SR 524 , and SR 96 WSDOT has found that about 46 @,@ 000 motorists utilize the road daily at I @-@ 405 based on average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) data .
SR 527 starts at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 405 . From the interchange , the road heads northeast to Thrashers Corner , where SR 527 intersects SR 524 before moving on to pass Kennard Corner , Silver Creek Park , North Creek County Park , and Mays Pond Park . The highway then intersects 164th Street SE , a major arterial road , in Mill Creek . Beyond 164th Street SE , the road turns to the north , routing traffic past Mill Creek 's town center , Mill Creek Library and Library Park before intersecting a connector to SR 96 westbound . Following the connector , SR 527 intersects SR 96 and runs along the eastern shore of Silver Lake . The route then intersects 112th Street SE , which goes west to the South Everett Freeway Station . From 112th Street , the route continues north to the Eastmount Park and Ride , where it turns northwest toward an interchange with I @-@ 5 and then to an intersection with SR 99 , SR 526 , and Broadway , where it terminates . The road continues west from the intersection as SR 526 ( also known as the Boeing Freeway ) , leading to the Boeing Everett Factory , Paine Field , and Mukilteo , Washington . SR 99 runs south from the intersection to the Everett Mall , Seattle , and Fife . An extension of SR 99 , Broadway , continues north from the intersection into downtown Everett .
= = History = =
In 1923 , before the Primary and Secondary system , SR 527 was part of State Road 1 , which later became U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) . In 1937 , the route became part of Secondary State Highway 2A ( SSH 2A ) , but was later removed in 1943 , and readded as SSH 2J in 1957 . It went from PSH 2 BO ( Bothell branch ) in Bothell to SSH 1I and US 99 in Everett . SSH 2J became state highway during the 1964 highway renumbering , in which the Washington State Department of Transportation replaced the previous system of Primary and Secondary Highways with the system of State Routes in use today .
SR 527 officially opened on October 17 , 1969 , but eventually became overcrowded , with about 57 @,@ 000 motorists using the road at the I @-@ 405 interchange as of 2004 . To alleviate congestion , an expansion project began in 1991 that was completed in 2006 . The first stage of the project involved widening the road between 228th Street SE and SR @-@ 524 to five – seven lanes , as well as minor improvements at its interchange with I @-@ 405 . The second stage widened the roadway to five lanes between SR 524 and 164th Street , while the third widened the road between 164th Street SE and SR 96 . The fourth and most complex stage widened the road between SR 96 and 112th Street SE . This stage involved expanding the SR 527 / SR 96 intersection dramatically and raising the roadway near Silver Lake , along with numerous pedestrian and aesthetic improvements .
On May 4 , 2011 , Gov. Christine Gregoire signed into law HB 1520 which turned over the responsibility of a 2 @.@ 69 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 33 km ) section between I @-@ 405 and SR 522 from the state to the City of Bothell . The transferred section will be developed into a suburban multi @-@ way boulevard with pedestrian walkways and bikeways .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Snohomish County .
= Hurricane Paul ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Paul was a hurricane that ultimately struck Mexico as a tropical depression in October 2006 . It developed from an area of disturbed weather on October 21 , and slowly intensified as it moved into an area of warm waters and progressively decreasing wind shear . Paul attained hurricane status on October 23 , and later that day it reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . A strong trough turned the hurricane to the north and northeast into an area of strong vertical shear , and Paul weakened to a tropical storm on October 24 . It accelerated northeastward , and after passing a short distance south of Baja California Sur the low level circulation became decoupled from the rest of the convection . Paul weakened to a tropical depression on October 25 a short distance off the coast of Mexico , and after briefly turning away from the coast it made landfall on northwestern Sinaloa on October 26 .
Paul was the third hurricane to threaten western Mexico in the season , the others being Hurricanes John and Lane . Rough surf killed two people along Baja California Sur , while flooding was reported in Sinaloa . Damage totaled more than $ 35 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 3 @.@ 2 million 2006 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on October 4 . It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on October 18 . The next day , it combined with a previously existing area of disturbed weather , resulting in a large area of convection extending northward into southern Mexico . The broad and disorganized system moved westward at 10 – 15 mph ( 16 – 24 km / h ) . On October 20 , the system developed an area of low pressure , and began to show signs of organization . It continued to organize , and developed into Tropical Depression Seventeen @-@ E on October 21 while located about 265 miles ( 425 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo . Upon forming , the depression possessed a small , tight low @-@ level circulation beneath a well @-@ defined mid @-@ level circulation . Easterly wind shear initially restricted upper @-@ level outflow as the cyclone moved to the west , a motion due to a subtropical ridge to its north .
The cloud pattern of the depression quickly became better organized as a curved band developed around intensifying deep convecltion , and it is estimated the system intensified into Tropical Storm Paul just six hours after forming . Easterly wind shear exposed the low level circulation to the east of the area of deep convection , though Paul continued to intensify as it moved through an area of warm waters and progressively weakening wind shear . The low level circulation gradually became more embedded within the convection as the cloud pattern improved . Computer models had troubles in forecasting the future of the storm early in its life ; the GFDL model forecast Paul to reach winds of 119 mph ( 191 km / h ) , while global models expected the system to dissipate in 48 – 72 hours . Early on October 22 , wind shear began to decrease , which coincided with an increase of outflow on its eastern side . The storm temporarily degraded in appearance as it turned to the northwest . However , shear sharply abated over Paul late on October 22 , resulting in the storm quickly gaining organization and intensifying . An eye began to develop within the convection , and Paul intensified into a hurricane early on October 23 .
Located in an area of warm water temperatures and light wind shear , Hurricane Paul continued to intensify and organize ; its well @-@ defined eye was surrounded by a ring of deep convection while outflow remained strong to the north and south . On October 23 , while located 465 miles ( 750 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Paul reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Scale . A large trough located off the west coast of California turned the hurricane to the north @-@ northwest , and later to the north . The combination of increasing shear and dry air quickly weakened Paul to a tropical storm on October 24 as its low @-@ level circulation became detached from the diminishing convection . The storm then turned to the northeast after passing near Socorro Island . Despite increasing wind shear of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , Paul remained a tropical storm while its circulation remained on the southwest side of its developing deep convection . Early on October 25 , the storm passed about 100 miles ( 160 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California . The circulation briefly became involved with the deep convection as it accelerated northeastward , though as it approached the coast of Sinaloa , the center again decoupled from the upper level circulation . Later that day , Paul weakened to a tropical depression a short distance off the coast of Mexico , and turned to the north . Early the next day , the depression , devoid of any deep convection , made landfall near Isla Altamura in northwestern Sinaloa . Hours later , the National Hurricane Center issued the last advisory on the dissipating tropical depression .
= = Preparations = =
As Paul became a hurricane , the government of Mexico issued a hurricane watch for Baja California Sur from Agua Blanca on the west coast to La Paz on the east coast . When a weakening trend was evident as the storm turned to the northeast , the hurricane watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning . 45 hours before the storm struck land , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch from Mazatlán to San Evaristo along the coast of Sinaloa . When Paul was expected to weaken to a tropical depression before landfall , the tropical storm watch for mainland Mexico was discontinued . When Paul retained tropical storm status for longer than expected , and was now expected to make landfall as a tropical storm , a tropical storm warning was issued from Mazatlán to Atlata , which was later discontinued as Paul weakened to a tropical depression .
Emergency officials near the southern tip of Baja California closed schools , while rescue workers ordered for the evacuation of more than 1 @,@ 500 people from shanty towns . Local police officers went door @-@ to @-@ door to inform the potentially affected residents . Buses carried the evacuated citizens to schools temporarily set up as shelters . A hotel in Cabo San Lucas informed its guests of the approaching storm , and organized indoor activities for those that stayed . Several tourists ended their vacations early and left through local airports . The threat of the storm closed the port at Cabo San Lucas , causing delays in a local fishing competition . In Sinaloa , authorities evacuated over 5 @,@ 000 families in risk of flooding .
= = Impact = =
The National Hurricane Center noted that the precursor disturbance had the potential to drop heavy rainfall which could result in life @-@ threatening flash flooding or mudslides in Oaxaca and Guerrero . However , no damage reports were received there .
In southern Baja California , a fisherman slipped off rocks due to strong seas , while an American tourist was swept out to sea due to rough surf ; both were killed . Two others were killed in Sinaloa when their truck was swept away by a swollen river . Paul was the third hurricane in the year to threaten Los Cabos , the others being John and Lane . The hurricane caused little damage in the area , only producing gusty winds and some rainfall . Paul dropped moderate rainfall across mainland Mexico , including a 24 @-@ hour total of 2 @.@ 3 inches ( 58 mm ) in Mazatlán , Sinaloa and over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in isolated locations . The rainfall led to flooding , the worst of which occurred in Villa Juarez . There , a canal overflowed , while the rainfall flooded streets with up to 3 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 m ) of water . 5 @,@ 000 houses were damaged from the flooding , displacing 20 @,@ 000 people . The storm damaged more than 3 @,@ 700 acres ( 15 km2 ) of crop lands , primarily beans and corn . Damage totaled more than $ 35 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 3 @.@ 2 million 2006 USD ) .
= Triumph International =
Triumph International is an international underwear manufacturer founded in 1886 in Heubach , Germany . The company 's headquarters has been located in Bad Zurzach since 1977 , and it has branches in 50 countries . In addition to the Triumph brand , the company produces and distributes the products under the brands sloggi and BeeDees . Triumph International has been an industry leader , particularly in women 's and sleepwear , since the 1960s . Shares of the German subsidiary have been traded on the stock exchange until 2011 .
= = History = =
In 1886 , Johann Gottfried Spiesshofer and Michael Braun founded a factory for the production of corsets in Heubach ( Baden @-@ Wurttemberg ) . They first employed six people on the same number of sewing machines . That number rose to 150 people in 1890 , and in 1894 their first exports were sent abroad , to England . It was only in 1902 that Spieshofer and Braun registered the Triumph brand , which was reminiscent of the Parisian Arc de Triomphe , to which International was later added . After the economic boom in the 1920s , demand for the classic corset declined , which is why the company began parallel production of brassieres . In the 1930s , Triumph International also began producing corselets .
In 1933 , the first foreign branch was set up in Bad Zurzach ( Switzerland ) . With the division of Germany in 1949 , the Triumph International brand continued in the German Democratic Republic , but business activities there came to a virtual standstill . However , the internationalization of the company continued in the following period and beginning in the 1950s , offices were opened in Belgium , Great Britain , Sweden , Norway and Austria . Triumph International further expanded in 1960 by establishing its Asia @-@ Pacific region headquarters in Hong Kong , and opening its first Japanese branch in 1963 . At the time , observers already described it as a " cunning web " of companies , some of which were registered in the tax havens of Liechtenstein and Bermuda . In the late 1960s , Triumph International 's market share for corsetry in Germany was about 50 percent .
At that time , the group had generated sales of 620 million Deutsche Mark and employed 22 @,@ 600 employees . In the mid @-@ 1960s Triumph International introduced broad scale electronic data processing . Due to the economic crisis , the company encountered significant difficulties for the first time at the beginning of the 1970s , meaning the company even had to introduce short @-@ term work . The crisis also affected the company ’ s tights sales , which they had begun in 1969 and discontinued only three years later . At the same time , Triumph International began for the first time to produce products from lighter fabrics with fibers such as nylon or lycra .
At the end of the 1970s , the new sloggi brand was introduced , under which underwear and other products with high cotton content were marketed . The company moved its headquarters from Germany to Switzerland in 1977 , and its holding has since been headquartered in Bad Zurzach . By 1986 , sales increased to 996 million Swiss francs and the number of employees fell slightly to 19 @,@ 000 employees . At the same time , sales began in the People 's Republic of China and beginning in 1988 , individual Triumph products were manufactured under license in East Germany for the local market . This included swimwear in addition to underwear .
With the takeover of two French name brands , HOM and Valisère , Triumph International ventured into the men 's underwear and high @-@ quality lingerie market . At the same time , the company announced in 1995 that in the future it would focus more on its Triumph umbrella brand , under which a number of brands would be classified . To that end , an advertising campaign was launched featuring Naomi Campbell and Helena Christensen . In the 1990s , Triumph International launched another phase of international expansion , and since 1998 it has been present on the subcontinent of India . In 2001 , its newest production facility opened in Dunaújváros ( Hungary ) . After the turn of the millennium , Triumph was one of the biggest textile manufacturers in terms of sales in the domestic market .
From 2008 to 2012 , the company hosted the Triumph Inspiration Awards , where lingerie designers were able to compete according to an annually changing theme . The entries were evaluated both by a jury and according to the votes by visitors to the competition website . In 2009 , the competition attracted broader attention , particularly as that event was held in London . Initially a local competition was held in the participating countries prior to the international final competition .
Since 2012 , all the collections of Triumph International have been tested for harmful substances and certified under the Oeko @-@ tex standard for textiles , after individual products had been successfully tested as early as 1993 when the initiative was established .
In recent years , the company has expanded , opening new stores of its own and acquiring competitors . In 2010 , Triumph International acquired Beldona , the leading Swiss distributor of lingerie , and later purchased other distributors in Mexico and the United States . In the latter country , Triumph International has also acquired the majority stake in the luxury dealer Journelle and has since opened two Triumph stores in New York City . The Triumph International AG , headquartered in Munich , under which the company 's German business is associated , was once again fully acquired by the company in 2011 through the exclusion of minority shareholders . Since then , company stocks have no longer been traded on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange , and the company is wholly owned by the Braun and Spiesshofer families .
= = Brands = =
The Triumph brand is the focus of the company . Products are divided into several categories for different target groups , with Triumph International typically presenting several collections each year . As of 2010 , the importance of shapewear for the company increased , and Triumph 's sale of these products attracted special attention . In 2013 , Triumph was honored as one of the best brands . In 2015 , the Magic Wire bra received the Red Dot Design Award .
In the late 1970s , Triumph International launched the sloggi cotton underwear brand , at first only for female customers and later also with products for men ( sloggi Men ) and swimwear ( sloggi swim ) . Since the 1980s , Triumph International has also been targeting young customers aged up to 25 years old with the BeeDees brand . The products are characterized by accessories and patterned fabrics . In addition to sloggi and BeeDees , the company has also been marketing sports bras under Triaction since the late 1990s .
In the 1980s HOM , the French manufacturer of upscale underwear for men , was purchased and has since continued as a trademark within the company . The headquarters was located in Marseille . In early 2015 , HOM was sold to the Austrian Huber Group , as Triumph wanted to streamline its portfolio . Valisère is the label for upper segment products , which beginning in 2007 became also available in Germany and was used primarily for luxury lingerie . Since 2014 , Triumph International no longer uses the Valisère brand in the European market . Instead , the company focuses on Triumph Essence in the premium segment .
Triumph products are distributed both via trade partners and department stores , as well as in their own shops . By the end of 2011 , the company had built a network of 2 @,@ 000 stores in 120 countries , of which 800 are its own stores , 450 are franchises and 850 are run with other partners . The company is one of the largest lingerie retailers in Germany based on the number of branches . The largest branch in terms of retail space was opened in Dresden 's Centrum Gallery in 2012 . In addition , Triumph International operates several online stores . These were developed using a fulfillment service provider that is part of Arvato .
= = Criticism = =
In 2002 , Triumph International had to close its factory in Myanmar due to public pressure . The Berne Declaration and Clean Clothes Campaign accused the company of renting land from the country 's military regime and thus indirectly supporting it . In January 2002 , Triumph International announced that it would close the affected factory and offer a social plan for the remaining employees because no buyer had been found . Moreover , Triumph International clarified that there had not been any forced laborers among the employees .
In October 2003 , the self @-@ regulatory body of the French advertising industry criticized Triumph International for a campaign for the sloggi brand . At the center of the protest was a picture of scantily clad women on billboards which advertised thongs under the slogan " It 's String Time " . It was claimed that the ads violated the dignity of women and harmed the public perception of advertising , but the company did not adjust the campaign . It was also criticized for the same reason by leading French politicians like Ségolène Royal .
In 2008 , Triumph International came under fire after a female president of a local union was dismissed in Thailand . She had appeared on a Thai evening television program with a T @-@ shirt on which a political statement could be seen . The company 's management had the view that the appearance had harmed their public image and therefore laid off the staff member in question . The international work council of the company , Triumph International Labor Union , protested and collected 2 @,@ 500 signatures to petition for the rehiring of the union president , supported in solidarity in Germany , inter alia , by the ver.di youth . In November 2008 , the Labor Court in Bangkok found the lay @-@ off to have been lawful .
Most recently , Triumph International has been the subject of even greater criticism after mass layoffs in Thailand and the Philippines at the end of 2009 were met with transnational protests by trade unions . The company regretted this step and made it clear that it was necessitated by the global economic crisis . Allegations that , parallel to the redundancies , another location was being set up in Thailand , were rejected .
= French battleship Lorraine =
Lorraine was a battleship of the French Navy built in the 1910s , named in honor of the region of Lorraine in France . She was a member of the Bretagne class , alongside her two sister ships , Bretagne and Provence . Lorraine was laid down in August 1912 at the Chantiers de Penhoët shipyard , launched in September 1913 , and commissioned into the fleet in March 1916 , after the outbreak of World War I. She was armed with a main battery of ten 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns and had a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Lorraine spent the bulk of her career in the French Mediterranean Squadron . During World War I , she was stationed at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from leaving the Adriatic Sea , but she saw no action . She was modernized significantly in the 1920s and 1930s , and in 1935 her amidships 340 mm gun turret was removed and aircraft facilities were installed in its place . After the outbreak of World War II , Lorraine carried a shipment of gold from the French treasury to Bermuda before returning to operate in the Mediterranean . At the French surrender in July 1940 , Lorraine was moored in Alexandria , where she was disarmed by the Royal Navy . After joining the Free French Naval Forces in December 1942 , Lorraine was refitted for active service . She provided gunfire support for the landings in Operation Dragoon in August – September 1944 and bombarded German positions around La Rochelle in April 1945 . After the end of the war , Lorraine was used was a gunnery training ship and then a barracks ship until late 1953 , when she was stricken and sold to shipbreakers .
= = Design = =
Lorraine was 166 meters ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall and had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 230 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 860 long tons ) as designed and around 25 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ; 28 @,@ 000 short tons ) at full load and had a crew of between 1124 and 1133 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines with twenty @-@ four Guyot du Temple water @-@ tube boilers . They were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 2 @,@ 680 t ( 2 @,@ 640 long tons ; 2 @,@ 950 short tons ) , which provided a range of 4 @,@ 700 nmi ( 8 @,@ 700 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Lorraine 's main battery consisted of ten 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns mounted in five twin gun turrets , numbered from front to rear . They were placed all on the centerline ; two were in a superfiring pair forward , one amidships , and the last two in a superfiring arrangement aft . As completed , however , the amidships turret did not have its guns installed until January 1917 . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1910 guns in casemates along the length of the hull . She also carried seven 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , two on the conning tower and one on the roof of each turret . The ship was also armed with four submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main armored deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor on the turrets and the casemates for the secondary guns were 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The conning tower had 314 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides .
= = Service = =
Lorraine was ordered on 15 July 1912 , as a replacement for the battleship Liberté , which had been destroyed by a magazine explosion the previous year . She was laid down at the Chantiers de Penhoët shipyard in Saint @-@ Nazaire on 1 August 1912 and launched on 30 September 1913 . She was commissioned into the French Navy on 10 March 1916 . After entering service in 1916 , Lorraine and her sisters were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Battle Squadron . The three ships remained in the unit for the remainder of the war . They spent the majority of their time at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from attempting to break out of the Adriatic . The fleet 's presence was also intended to intimidate Greece , which had become increasingly hostile to the Triple Entente . Later in the war , men were drawn from their crews for anti @-@ submarine warfare vessels . As the Austro @-@ Hungarians largely remained in port for the duration of the war , Lorraine saw no action during the conflict . In 1917 , she returned to Toulon for a periodic refit , but apart from that voyage , she saw no time at sea for the rest of the year .
In January 1919 , she went to Cattaro , where she guarded the former Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She assisted in repatriating Austrian naval personnel , and escorted former Austro @-@ Hungarian warships to France and Italy ; this duty lasted until March . The French Navy intended to send Lorraine and her sister Provence to the Black Sea to join operations against the Bolsheviks , but a major mutiny prevented the operation . The two ships went to Constantinople in October 1919 , where they formed the core of the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron , which operated until July 1921 . Lorraine underwent her first refit starting on 10 November 1921 , which lasted until 4 December 1922 . After emerging from refit , Lorraine was placed in reserve , due to fiscal limitations in the post @-@ war French Navy . She returned to service the following year — 1923 — with the 1st Battleship Division of the Mediterranean Fleet .
Lorraine was modernized a second time between 15 November 1924 and 4 August 1926 . A third refit followed on 17 September 1929 and lasted until 6 June 1931 . During these periods in dock , the range of the main battery was increased , the anti @-@ aircraft battery was strengthened , and her boilers were replaced with newer , oil @-@ fired models . Between 18 September 1934 and 20 September 1935 , a fourth and final pre @-@ war refit was carried out in Brest ; Lorraine 's amidships turret was removed , and an aircraft catapult along with a hangar for three aircraft were installed . The aircraft were initially Gourdou @-@ Leseurre GL819 and Potez 452 seaplanes , though they were later replaced with Loire 130 flying boats . In 1936 , Lorraine was transferred to the Atlantic Squadron , where she remained until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
After the start of World War II , Lorraine served primarily in the western Mediterranean . On 4 December , Lorraine operated out of Casablanca against German surface forces , along with the cruisers Algérie , La Galissonnière , and Marseillaise , and several destroyers and submarines . During this period , she carried a shipment of gold bullion from the French treasury to Bermuda . On 1 January 1940 , she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Division of the 1st Squadron , and went into drydock for refit , which lasted until April .
On 27 April , Lorraine and her two sisters were transferred to Alexandria . On 10 June , Italy declared war on France ; by that time , both Bretagne and Provence had moved back to the western Mediterranean . Lorraine was the only French capital ship in the eastern Mediterranean , though she was joined by four British battleships and an aircraft carrier . On the night of 20 – 21 June , Lorraine formed the center of an Anglo @-@ French task force , with the cruisers HMS Neptune , Orion , and Achilles , for a bombardment of Italian positions at Bardia . The operation , which caused only minimal damage , was the last combined British and French naval operation before the French surrender .
Following the French surrender , the French commander , Vice Admiral Godfroy , concluded an agreement with Admiral Andrew Cunningham to demilitarize and intern the French ships in Alexandria ; this included Lorraine , four cruisers , and three destroyers . In December 1942 , the ship 's crew decided to join the Allies in the Free French Naval Forces , and so Lorraine was placed back into service . On 3 July 1943 , the ship left the Suez and sailed around Africa to Dakar , stopping in Cape Town on the way . After arriving on 12 October , she was used briefly as a training ship ; on 2 December , Lorraine was sent to Oran for refitting . The work included removing the aircraft facilities and installing a large number of anti @-@ aircraft guns , including eight 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , fourteen 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns , and twenty @-@ five 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Radar equipment was also installed on the ship .
The overhaul readied Lorraine to participate in Operation Dragoon , the Allied invasion of southern France in August 1944 . On 15 August , Lorraine joined the bombardment force , Task Force 86 , that supported landings . She and the American battleship USS Nevada hammered German defenses in and around Toulon , including 340 mm coastal guns that had been removed from Provence . The bombardment lasted until 21 August . Over the course of 1 – 13 September , Lorraine , four cruisers , and two destroyers shelled German defenses throughout the French Riviera . Among the targets Lorraine attacked were fortresses at Sospel and Castillon , along with Axis positions around Carqueiranne and Saint @-@ Tropez . Lorraine left the bombardment area on 17 September , but remained in the western Mediterranean until she was sent to Portsmouth for a brief refit toward the end of the year . She was then sent to Cherbourg in December .
In late March 1945 , Lorraine left Cherbourg to participate in her final wartime operations , codenamed Vénérable and Vermeille . In the operations , which took place in April , the French Navy focused on eliminating a pocket of German resistance in Gironde . On 14 – 20 April , Lorraine and several cruisers and destroyers bombarded the German " Girond @-@ Nord " fortress in Royan in support of an attack by the French 10th Division and American 66th Division ; the German defenders surrendered on the 20th . After completing the operation , Lorraine returned to Brest before being sent to Toulon . Starting in February 1947 , she was used as a stationary gunnery training ship . Later , she was used as a barracks ship , until she was stricken from the naval register on 17 February 1953 . She was sold on 18 December , to a French shipbreaking company , and towed to Brégaillon outside Toulon in January 1954 and broken up for scrap .
= Stanley Holloway =
Stanley Augustus Holloway , OBE ( 1 October 1890 – 30 January 1982 ) was an English stage and film actor , comedian , singer , poet and monologist . He was famous for his comic and character roles on stage and screen , especially that of Alfred P. Doolittle in My Fair Lady . He was also renowned for his comic monologues and songs which he performed and recorded throughout most of his 70 @-@ year career .
Born in London , Holloway pursued a career as a clerk in his teen years . He made early stage appearances before infantry service in the First World War , after which he had his first major theatre success starring in Kissing Time when the musical transferred to the West End from Broadway . In 1921 , he joined a concert party , The Co @-@ Optimists , and his career began to flourish . At first , he was employed chiefly as a singer , but his skills as an actor and reciter of comic monologues were soon recognised . Characters from his monologues such as Sam Small , invented by Holloway , and Albert Ramsbottom , created for him by Marriott Edgar , were absorbed into popular British culture , and Holloway developed a following for the recordings of his many monologues . By the 1930s , he was in demand to star in variety , pantomime and musical comedy , including several revues .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Holloway made short propaganda films on behalf of the British Film Institute and Pathé News and took character parts in a series of war films including Major Barbara , The Way Ahead , This Happy Breed and The Way to the Stars . After the war , he appeared in the film Brief Encounter and made a series of films for Ealing Studios , including Passport to Pimlico , The Lavender Hill Mob and The Titfield Thunderbolt .
In 1956 he was cast as the irresponsible and irrepressible Alfred P. Doolittle in My Fair Lady , a role that he played on Broadway , the West End and in the film version in 1964 . The role brought him international fame , and his performances earned him nominations for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . In his later years , Holloway appeared in television series in the UK and the US , toured in revues , appeared in stage plays in Britain , Canada , Australia and the US , and continued to make films into his eighties . Holloway was married twice and had five children , including the actor Julian Holloway .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early life = = =
Holloway was born in Manor Park , Essex ( now in the London Borough of Newham ) , the younger child and only son of George Augustus Holloway ( 1860 – 1919 ) , a lawyer 's clerk , and Florence May née Bell ( 1862 – 1913 ) , a housekeeper and dressmaker . He was named after Henry Morton Stanley , the journalist and explorer famous for his exploration of Africa and for his search for David Livingstone . There were theatrical connections in the Holloway family going back to Charles Bernard ( 1830 – 1894 ) , an actor and theatre manager , who was the brother of Holloway 's maternal grandmother .
Holloway 's paternal grandfather , Augustus Holloway ( 1829 – 1884 ) , an orphan , was brought up by John Stone , a sailmaker , and his wife Mary , in Poole , Dorset . Augustus became a wealthy shopkeeper , running his own brush @-@ making business . He married Amelia Catherine Knight in September 1856 , and they had three children , Maria , Charles and George .
In the early 1880s the family moved to Poplar , London . When Augustus died , George Holloway ( Stanley 's father ) moved to nearby Manor Park and became a clerk for a city lawyer , Robert Bell . George married Bell 's daughter Florence in 1884 , and they had two children , Millie ( 1887 – 1949 ) and Stanley . George left Florence in 1905 and was never seen or heard from again by his family .
During his early teenage years , Holloway attended the Worshipful School of Carpenters in nearby Stratford and joined a local choir , which he later called his " big moment " . He left school at the age of 14 and worked as a junior clerk in a boot polish factory , where he earned ten shillings a week . He began performing part @-@ time as Master Stanley Holloway – The Wonderful Boy Soprano from 1904 , singing sentimental songs such as " The Lost Chord " . A year later , he became a clerk at Billingsgate Fish Market , where he remained for two years before commencing training as an infantry soldier in the London Rifle Brigade in 1907 .
= = = Career = = =
= = = = Early career and First World War = = = =
Holloway 's stage career began in 1910 , when he travelled to Walton @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Naze to audition for The White Coons Show , a concert party variety show arranged and produced by Will S. Pepper , father of Harry S. Pepper , with whom Holloway later starred in The Co @-@ Optimists . This seaside show lasted six weeks .
In 1913 Holloway was recruited by the comedian Leslie Henson to feature as a support in Henson 's more prestigious concert party called Nicely , Thanks . In later life , Holloway often spoke of his admiration for Henson , citing him as a great influence on his career . The two became firm friends and often consulted each other before taking jobs . In his 1967 autobiography , Holloway dedicated a whole chapter to Henson , whom he described as " the greatest friend , inspiration and mentor a performer could have had " . Later in 1913 , Holloway decided to train as an operatic baritone , and so he went to Italy to take singing lessons from Ferdinando Guarino in Milan . However , a yearning to start a career in light entertainment and a contract to re @-@ appear in Bert Graham and Will Bentley 's concert party at the West Cliff Theatre caused him to return home after six
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) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that covers landlords ' and builders ' liability for poorly constructed and poorly maintained buildings , along with any injuries that may result . During the 19th century , the common law principle that a landlord could not be liable for letting a poorly maintained house was established , while a long @-@ running principle was that , in practice , builders could not be sued for constructing defective buildings . The courts began to turn against the first principle during the 20th century , imposing several restrictions on the landlord 's immunity , but the landlord was still largely free from being sued .
The Defective Premises Bill was introduced to the House of Commons as a private member 's bill by Ivor Richard on 1 December 1971 , and given the Royal Assent on 29 June 1972 , coming into force as the Defective Premises Act 1972 on 1 January 1974 . The Act establishes a duty of care builders and their sub @-@ contractors owe to the occupiers of property they construct or modify , and also establishes a duty of care landlords hold towards their tenants and any third parties who might be injured by their failure to maintain or repair property . The Act received a mixed reaction from critics ; while some complimented it on its simple nature compared to the previously complex common rule laws , others felt that it was too limited for what was desired to be achieved , and that the wording used was at times both too vague and too specific .
= = Background = =
Prior to the passing of the Act , builders who constructed defective buildings could not , practically , be sued under tort . At the same time , a landlord who let a dilapidated or defective house could not be sued for injuries suffered by non @-@ tenants , something based first on the " Privity of Tort " principle that was overturned in Donoghue v Stevenson [ 1932 ] AC 562 ( that if A had a contract with B and in the process injured C , C was prevented from suing A because of the contract with B ) and the decision in Robbins v Jones [ 1863 ] 15 CB ( ns ) 221 , where Chief Justice Earl said that " a landlord who lets a house in a dangerous state is not liable for accidents happening during the term ; for , fraud apart , there is no law against letting a tumbledown house " . This immunity was further extended in later cases .
The courts began to turn against this position in the 20th century ; the case of Cunard v Antifyre [ 1933 ] 1 KB 551 established that a landlord could be liable if the source of an injury emanated from property of which he was in possession , even if the injury happened on land he no longer owned or occupied . In Dutton v Bognor Regis Urban District Council [ 1972 ] 1 QB 373 , the courts arguably abolished the immunity of the landlord completely . By 1974 , this immunity excluded situations where the danger came from premises that the landlord occupied and where the landlord actively created a danger , and only included the landlord , not associated people .
The Defective Premises Bill was introduced to the House of Commons as a private member 's bill by Ivor Richard on 1 December 1971 , and was not debated at all in the Commons , something the academic lawyer Peter North called " remarkable " . There was some debate in the House of Lords , with questions and amendments covering Section 1 , but the bill was not substantially amended , something North puts down to the quality of the draft prepared by the Law Commission . The Act was given the Royal Assent on 29 June 1972 , and came into force on 1 January 1974 .
= = Act = =
= = = Duty of care = = =
Section 1 of the Act lays out the duty of care and who it applies to . The duty applies to " A person taking on work for or in connection with the provision of a dwelling ( whether the dwelling is provided by the erection or by the conversion or enlargement of a building ) " , something including not only builders but also electricians , plumbers and other subcontractors . The duty also extends to those who have statutory powers to arrange for the provision of dwellings , and those who do so in the course of business . This duty is owed to two classes of people ; the person ordering the house , and also every person who later takes an equitable and legal interest in the house .
The duty itself is laid out in Section 1 ( 1 ) , and is a duty on the people covered by the act " to see that the work which he takes on is done in a workmanlike or , as the case may be , professional manner , with proper materials and so that as regards that work the dwelling will be fit for habitation when completed " . This is a three @-@ part test , all parts of which must be fulfilled ; if , for example , a house is badly designed but well @-@ built , the architect will be held responsible even though the house is habitable . Those owing a duty can be released from their obligations if they are acting according to the claimant 's instructions , under Section 1 ( 2 ) . If they act completely in accordance with the instructions , the duty of care is fulfilled even though the house may not be properly constructed . However , if the claimant instructs the builder to construct a poorly designed and unstable building , the builder has a duty to warn the claimant . Section 2 of the Act excludes " approved scheme " constructions , such as those run by the National House Building Council .
= = = Disposal of premises = = =
Prior to the passage of the Act , the owner of premises who created a danger there disposed of his duty of care when he disposed of the property by selling or leasing it , something North described as both " bizarre " and " capricious in operation , unjust in the result and indefensible in principle " . Section 3 ( 1 ) of the Act , therefore , establishes that where work is done on premises , whatever duty of care may arise as a result of the work to people affected by defects in the work is not disposed of if the property is sold or let . Section 3 ( 2 ) qualifies this principle by providing exceptions , which are when the property is the subject of a tenancy and when the property has been disposed of ( or is in the process of being disposed of ) before 1 January 1974 , when the Act came into force .
= = = Landlord 's duty of care = = =
Prior to the passage of the Occupiers ' Liability Act 1957 , the general principle was that landlords were not liable for injuries suffered by third parties on their property . The 1957 Act qualified this , providing in Section 4 ( repealed by the Defective Premises Act ) that where a landlord was obligated by his tenant to repair property and he breached this obligation , third parties injured as a result of the breach would be able to claim providing that the tenant could . This provision was limited ; it provided no remedy to the tenant himself , and only applied to lawful visitors , not trespassers . In addition , it only came into effect if the landlord was obliged to repair the property ; if he simply had the option to do so , there was no remedy for an injured third party . Similarly , if a tenant failed to inform the landlord of something needing repair , any resulting injury could not be sued upon .
Section 4 of the Act includes new provisions to cover this sort of situation . Section 4 ( 1 ) establishes a general duty to repair and maintain the property , owed by the landlord to anyone who could reasonably be expected to be harmed by a breach ; this includes tenants , their friends and family and also trespassers . This duty applies when a landlord ought to have known of a defect , not just when he has been informed of a defect . Additionally , a landlord who merely has the right to repair property rather than an obligation to do so may still be found liable , if one of the groups described in Section 4 was harmed by their failure to repair .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
The Act includes a number of miscellaneous points , mainly in Sections 5 and 6 . The Act and its provisions are taken to extend to The Crown , which can be held tortiously liable to the extent laid out in the Crown Proceedings Act 1947 . It repeals Section 4 of the Occupiers ' Liability Act 1957 , replacing it with Section 4 of this Act , and unlike the 1957 Act does not allow any provisions or duties to be excluded or restricted .
= = Commentary and further territorial extent = =
The Act met a mixed review from academics . North praised it , saying that " The Act admirably disposes of confusion , controversy , illogicality and point @-@ less distinctions " , while admitting that the vagueness of much of it left it up to the courts to flesh out the statute . Others were more critical ; academic Vera Bermingham pointed out that the exclusion of liability for " approved scheme " buildings under Section 2 at the time included almost all new houses built within the United Kingdom , although these schemes have been much reduced since the 1980s . At the same time , actions brought under the Act are the subject of a six @-@ year limitation period starting on the date the dwelling is completed , regardless of when the defect is discovered , which is a " significant [ drawback ] in the utility of the [ Act ] " . Academic John Spencer criticised both Section 1 and Section 3 , the former for being too vaguely worded and the latter for being too specific . Spencer argues that , because of limitations imposed by the bill 's sponsors , the original meaning of the draft bill was changed , and the Act itself goes no further than the existing common law .
The Defective Premises ( Northern Ireland ) Order 1975 brought identical provisions into force in Northern Ireland on 1 January 1976 , with the section covering injuries to third parties excluded .
= Woollen industry in Wales =
The woollen industry in Wales was at times the country 's most important industry , though it often struggled to compete with the better @-@ funded woollen mills in the north of England , and almost disappeared during the 20th century . There is continued demand for quality Welsh woollen products .
Wool processing includes removing the fleece by shearing , classing the wool by quality , untangling , carding and spinning it into yarn , which may be knitted or woven into cloth , then finishing the cloth by fulling , napping and pressing . Spinning and weaving of sheep 's wool dates to prehistoric times in Wales , but only became an important industry when Cistercian monasteries were established in the 12th century . Water @-@ powered fulling mills to finish the cloth enabled rapid expansion of the industry in the 13th century , although spinning and weaving continued to be a cottage industry . In the early 16th century production shifted from south Wales to mid and north Wales . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company in England took a dominant role in distributing Welsh cloth . From the 18th century there was strong demand for cheap , sturdy Welsh material shipped from Bristol , Liverpool or the Welsh ports to clothe slaves in the British colonies of North America and the West Indies .
During the Industrial Revolution the Welsh woollen industry was slow to mechanize compared to the mills of northern England . When railways reached mid Wales in the 1860s they brought a flood of cheap mass @-@ produced products that destroyed the local industry . However , development of the South Wales Coalfield opened a growing market for woollen products from water @-@ powered mills in the south west , which prospered until after World War I. At one time there were more than 300 working wool mills . The industry went into steady decline after World War I , and only a few mills continue to operate .
= = Process = =
Sheep shearing was a major social event on Welsh farms . The fleece would be removed intact , then carefully folded to make it easier to sort out the different grades of wool at the mill . The quality of wool depends on the individual sheep and on the part of the sheep 's body from which the wool has been taken . The common Welsh Mountain sheep are hardy and thrive in the cold and wet conditions of the Welsh highlands . The wool is soft and may have kemp and black , grey or red fibres , which makes it attractive in tweeds and upholstery . Staple length is 5 to 15 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) . Black Welsh Mountain sheep had mutton that was prized for its quality , and produced valuable Cochddu wool with a staple length of 8 to 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) .
After sorting , the raw wool would often be soaked in a 50 – 50 solution of human urine and water , then passed through a willy to untangle it and remove foreign matter . Carding completed the disentangling process , creating rolls of wool called rovings . The fibres in the roving were then spun into woollen yarn . Spinning machines were introduced in the 19th century . The spun fibre would then be woven into cloth , which would be finished by washing and drying , fulling , napping and pressing . Natural dyes were used until the mid @-@ 19th century . The fleece could be " dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool " , the fibre could be dyed after being spun , or the fabric could be dyed after being woven .
= = Prehistoric to early medieval times = =
Sheep farming in Wales dates to prehistoric times . There is evidence of spinning and weaving in late prehistoric houses throughout Britain , particularly in the later first millennium B.C .. Finds include scraps of fabric , loom @-@ weights , spindle @-@ whorls and bone needles , and the arrangement of post @-@ holes may indicate they supported looms . For example , a Bronze Age weaving comb was found in the Ogof yr Esgyrn cave in Glyntawe . The Romans probably imported the white breed characteristic of Welsh sheep today . The sheep at this time would have been much more variable than modern breeds , which have been carefully selected for specific characteristics . In the early days the sheep were not shorn , but the wool was collected when the sheep moulted in the summer , either by plucking it from their fleece or collecting it where it had been rubbed off on a tree or rock .
Excavations have been made at the Dinas Powys hillfort in Glamorgan of what seems to have been the court of an important ruler in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. The bones of sheep were found , but there seems to have been little spinning and weaving . The 6th century writer Gildas , thought by some to have lived in Wales , mentioned " mountains particularly suitable for the alternating pasturage of animals " . This seems to refer to transhumance , or seasonal movement of shepherds with their flocks , and if so is the earliest mention in Britain . The 10th century Welsh laws of King Hywel Dda allocate pigs to the husband and sheep to the wife . In the summer the pigs were kept in the woods while the wife took and sheep and the children to the highlands . The wife also controlled the dairy , and took the milking and cheese making equipment . Divorce remained an option in Wales longer than elsewhere in Britain . It was assumed that the woman deserved a share of the lambs and calves .
= = Medieval period = =
In the Middle Ages sheep were probably kept mainly for their milk and wool rather than their meat . Sheep do not seem to have been important to the Welsh economy before the 12th century , when the first Cistercian monasteries were established in Wales . Tintern Abbey in the Wye valley was founded for monks of the Cistercian order by Walter FitzRichard , lord of Netherwent and Striguil , on 9 May 1131 . All abbeys of the order were to be built in remote rural locations , and had to be simple and unadorned . The order expanded rapidly . Tintern was followed by Whitland ( 1140 ) , its offshoot Strata Florida ( 1164 ) , Strata Marcella ( 1170 ) in Powys Wenwynwyn , Cwmhir ( 1176 ) in Maelienydd , Llantarnam ( 1179 ) near Caerleon , Aberconwy ( 1186 ) in Gwynedd , Cymer ( 1198 ) in Merionethshire and Valle Crucis ( 1202 ) in Powys Fadog . The monks were granted extensive lands for sheep grazing and were the pioneers of the woollen industry in Wales .
The invention of the water @-@ powered fulling mill in the Later Middle Ages caused an industrial revolution in Wales . In the century that preceded the Black Death the monastic landowners and manorial lords built fulling mills in eastern Wales , with up to 80 operating before 1350 . Sometimes a fulling mill and gristmill would share the same building or the same leat and mill pond . There would be a tenter yard outside the fulling mill where the cloth was stretched on frames . Woollen manufacturing became one of the main rural industries in Wales . Most Welsh cottages and farmhouses had a spinning wheel , almost always operated by women , and most parishes had carders , spinners , weavers and fullers . However , most of the production was for personal use rather than sale .
The main centre of the new woollen industry was initially in south east Wales drawing on sheep from the monasteries of Margam , Neath and Tintern and the flocks of the Bohun family , which produced 18 @,@ 500 fleeces in 1372 . Fulling mills were later established elsewhere in Wales , particularly the north east and the Ceiriog valley . In 1380 the lordship of Ruthin in Denbighshire had 36 weavers . However , the period from 1350 to 1400 was difficult , with recurrences of the plague and heavy taxation to pay for the war with France . Between 1350 and 1500 an average of 50 fulling mills were operational . The reduced number was due to the unsettled state of the country before , during and after the Glyndŵr Rising ( 1400 – 15 ) .
The quality of wool depended on the local breeds of sheep . In the 15th century south @-@ east Wales produced particularly high quality wool . Margam in West Glamorgan and Tintern in Monmouthshire were noted for their excellent wool . According to Thomas Fuller 's Church History , Wales specialized in manufacturing friezes . A frieze is a coarse woollen cloth that usually has a nap on one side . It was hard @-@ wearing and well @-@ suited for outer garments , and was popular with working men . Cloth was made in many places in Wales , particularly the south west and the northern and southern borderlands . In 1447 there was a guild of weavers and fullers in the lordship of Ruthin , and in the 1460s at least five fulling mills were operating in this location . The cloth was sold locally , in border town markets and in the yearly Bartholomew Fair in London . Welsh friezes were also exported from Welsh ports or from Bristol .
In the early 16th century cloth for export was mainly produced in south Wales and shipped from the local ports . During that century there was a shift in production to mid @-@ Wales and north Wales , and the woollen production was exported via Shrewsbury in Shropshire . The Shrewsbury Drapers Company tightly controlled the trade . The Welsh cloth makers , who lacked capital , produced poor quality drapery for which there was relatively low demand .
= = Foreign trade = =
In 1660 wool made up two thirds of Welsh exports . Slaveowners in the West Indies and the American colonies found that slaves were more productive if they were clothed . William Lee of Virginia stated that " Good Welch cotton seems upon the whole to answer best " , and others were " light and insufficient . " The main market was at Shrewsbury . The demand for colours was limited . In the 1730s a Charleston merchant ordered " White , Bleue , & Green plains for Negro Clothing . " The South Carolina " Negro Act " of 1735 commended " white Welsh plains " and outlawed rich or colourful materials that might be discarded by the slave masters . In the 1770s one observer said the whole purpose of Welsh woollens was " covering the poor Negroes in the West Indies . "
Before 1800 there were very few factories in Wales , and almost all production was at home . As trans @-@ Atlantic demand for Welsh cloth grew , growing numbers of people in the rural areas of Montgomeryshire and Merionethshire became dependent on the woollen industry , finding that spinning and weaving gave a larger and more stable income than farming . Some hamlets grew into woollen manufacturing centres . For example , Trefeglwys tripled in size during the 18th century . In the last decades of the 18th century there was a great expansion of woollen production . Sales of stockings at Bala rose from £ 10 @,@ 000 to £ 18 @,@ 000 annually , and the annual profit of flannel sales in Montgomeryshire was more than £ 40 @,@ 000 .
At first much of the cloth was shipped via Shrewsbury and London , but later the specialized Atlantic port of Bristol became the main place from which Welsh plains were shipped across the Atlantic . Over time , factors from Liverpool and Bristol took control of the trade away from the Shrewsbury drapers . Instead of the weavers carrying their cloth to the market towns , the factors came to them to buy the cloth . The factors would extend credit to the poorer weavers so they could buy wool . The Shrewsbury Drapers were losing their control of the trade by 1770 . The port of Barmouth exported woollen products worth £ 50 @,@ 000 around the world in the 1770s . An author wrote of Shrewsbury in the 1790s ,
From very early days this place possessed almost exclusively the trade with Wales in a coarse kind of woollen cloth called Welsh webbs , which were brought from Merioneth and Montgomeryshire to a market held here weekly on Thursdays . They were afterwards dressed , that is , the wool raised on one side , by a set of people called Shearmen . At the time of Queen Elizabeth , the trade was so great , that not fewer than 600 persons maintained themselves by this occupation . The cloth was sent chiefly to America to clothe the negroes , or to Flanders , where it is used by the peasants . At present the greatest part of this traffick is diverted into other channels , and not more than four or five hundred thousand yards are brought to the ancient mart . Flannels both coarse and fine are purchased at Welsh @-@ Pool , on every other Monday , by the drapers of Shrewsbury , who now principally enjoy this branch of commerce .
By the end of the century the market in Shrewsbury had almost ceased , and in March 1803 the Company gave up the great room in which the trading had been conducted . In 1804 report by Mr. Evans of his tour through north Wales said ,
The webbs used to be carried to Liverpool or Shrewsbury to market ; but the Liverpool dealers have now persons in pay on the spot , to purchase of the makers ; and to assist the poorer manufacturers with money to carry on their trade ... Since this , the drapers of Shrewsbury are obliged to go up to the country , and purchase the articles in small quantities at farms and cottages . After undergoing the operation of scouring , bleaching , and milling , it is it is packed up in large bales , and sent to Shrewsbury , Liverpool , and London ; and thence exported to Germany , Russia and America .
= = Industrial era = =
= = = North Wales = = =
By the 18th century a transition was under way to textile production in workshops run by businessmen . However , the technological revolution took much longer in Wales than it had in England , with slow adoption of machinery . Until the latter part of the 18th century carding and spinning was done at home , and weaving in the village ty @-@ gwydd ( loom house ) , although fulling was done by machine in fulling mills . A 1799 report said
The chief staple commodities of North Wales , as well as of the nation at large , are those manufactured of wool . ... In Anglesey , the inhabitants buy quantities of the Snowdon coarse wool , at the fairs of Caernarvon , and Bangor ; out of which , mixed with their own wool , they manufacture deep blue coloured cloth , flannels , blankets , & c. a sufficience for home use and no more . ... In Caernarvonshire , they apply themselves somewhat more to spinning and weaving ; for , besides supplying themselves with wearing apparel , they annually send several pieces of blue cloth into Meirionyddshire ... In Flintshire , and the greater part of Denbighshire , they are still less disposed to the exercise of the wheel and the loom . ... In other parts of Denbighshire , in the south west of Meirionyddshire and Montgomeryshire , the inhabitants have imbibed more of the spirit of industry ; and add the profits of manufacture to the value of the raw material ...
Mill owners were not always men . There are records of three women mill owners in Wales in 1840 , Mary Powell with 16 looms and 8 men , Ann Harris with 14 employees including 6 man , and Ann Whiled with 9 employees . Large spinning mills continued to operate in Llangollen in the north throughout the 19th century . For example , the Trefriw Woollen Mills , originally called the Vale of Conwy Woollen Mill , was built in 1820 on the banks of the Afon Crafnant . Thomas Williams purchased the mill in 1859 and expanded the business . Products from the woollen mills were taken to the coast from the quay at Trefiw using the River Conwy . A 36 feet ( 11 m ) diameter overshot wheel powered spinning mules and jennies . The yarn was then woven into cloth on hand looms . A smaller 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wheel powered a fulling mill , which washed the cloth and kneaded it with wooden hammers to thicken and strengthen it . The mill was still in operation ( in a newer building ) as of 2016 .
= = = Mid @-@ Wales = = =
Between 1800 and 1830 many spinning and weaving factories were built in mid @-@ Wales in places where water power was available , particularly in the upper Severn Valley in Powys . Towns such as Welshpool , Newtown and Llanidloes tripled in size and became industrial towns , although they were dwarfed by the English centres of Bradford and Leeds . Due to lack of capital the factories often went bankrupt when trade turned down . When steam power began to be used by the Yorkshire woollen industry the Severn Valley mills were at a disadvantage , since they did not have nearby supplies of coal . In 1835 the Montgomeryshire weaving towns still had only four power looms .
The 1840 Parliamentary Gazetteer wrote of Montgomeryshire that the flannel makers were facing competition from Lancashire imitation flannels , although these were not as good as the Welsh . Hand looms were preferred to power looms for the finer qualities of flannel , and experiments with power looms at Newport and Welshpool had been abandoned . Welsh wool had much improved in quality , but Radnorshire or South Devon wool was still best for flannel manufacture . The farmers , especially around Llanbrynmair , employed their agricultural labourers in spinning and weaving in the winter months . The gazetteer noted that , " the principle of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors has much benefited the weavers in this county : they were formerly notorious for inebriety and improvidence . " In 1838 there were 61 mills in the county , mainly water @-@ powered , employing 507 males and 216 females .
In 1847 Llanidloes was continuing to grow despite competition from Newtown . The Cambrian Mirror reported that , " There are now more than 40 carding engines , 18 fulling mills , and nearly 35 @,@ 000 spindles , constantly in operation in the town and neighbourhood , affording considerable employment to a number of men , who weave the flannel at their own dwellings . Pryce Pryce @-@ Jones of Newtown began a mail @-@ order business in flannels in 1859 , a very innovative move for the time . He was at first extremely successful , and the London and North Western Railway ran a daily service with special vans to carry his products to Euston station in London . Between 1850 and 1870 the mill owners in Llanidloes and Newtown invested heavily in buildings and steam @-@ powered machinery . They hoped that the railway , which reached the towns between 1861 and 1863 , would give them access to new markets . In fact , the railway caused mass @-@ produced goods from northern England to flood into central Wales . Newtown , which once was called the " Leeds of Wales " , went into decline from the 1860s .
There were periods of renewed prosperity . The Cambrian Mills in Newtown was purchased in 1966 by the Cambrian Flannel Company of Newtown and Llanidloes , which modernized the factory so it was the most advanced facility in Wales and diversified into making plain and coloured flannels , shawls , whittles , hose and tweeds . Later the Newtown woollen industry again went into decline . The Pryce @-@ Jones " Welsh " flannel was eventually mostly made in Rochdale , Manchester . After the Cambrian Mills burned down in 1912 Newtown was no longer an important woollen industrial centre and many of the workers moved elsewhere .
Welsh tweed manufacture survived at a much reduced level into the 20th century in Montgomery , where the area around Rhayader retained mills in the villages and small towns . Newtown continued to make flannel , although Rochdale in northwest England took market share with its " real Welch flannel . " J. Geraint Jenkins has speculated that if a railway line had instead connected the Severn Valley to the south Wales coalfield the mid @-@ Wales woollen industry could have been supported by demand for flannel from the miners , as were the woollen mills of the Teifi valley in the later part of the 19th century .
= = = South Wales = = =
During the Industrial Revolution the Teifi Valley between Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire came to employ thousands of weavers , spinners , dyers , knitters , drapers and tailors . The river and its tributaries powered dozens of mills , and sheep in the surrounding grassland supplied fleeces to be made into woollen products . In 1837 a Working Men 's Association was established in the south Wales weaving town of Carmarthen in response to the Chartist campaign for democratic rights . By the summer of 1839 three more towns in the region had founded such societies , and the first Chartist convention had been held .
While manufacturing declined in mid @-@ Wales after the 1860s , the weaving industry grew in villages in south @-@ west Wales , which did well until the 1920s . Skilled workers moved from mid @-@ Wales to the Teifi Valley , mainly to the area around Dre @-@ fach Felindre , Pentrecwrt , Henllan and Llandysul . A railway was opened from Carmarthen to Lampeter in 1864 , and large mills were developed such as the Alltcafan and Derw factories at Pentrecwrt . Dre @-@ fach Felindre was once called " The Huddersfield of Wales " for its wool industry . The Cambrian Mills in this village made blankets , shawls , stockings and other products for local sale and for export .
The water @-@ powered factories in the south west were completely dependent on demand from the nearby South Wales coalfield , whose workers preferred Welsh goods . They could not compete with the mills of northern England in other markets . The Teifi Valley Railway , opened in 1895 , further strengthened the link from the rural south west to the industrial south . The woollen industry flourished in South Wales until the end of World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) , with high prices during the war . At one time there were more than 300 active woollen mills .
The woollen mills of the Teifi valley were hard @-@ hit by the drop in purchasing power of miners during the depression in the coal trade of the 1920s . In the inter @-@ war period ( 1918 – 39 ) most woollen manufacturers did not adapt to changes in fashion and were forced to close . Small clusters of hand loom weaving survived in places such as Lampeter where there were spinners and fullers , making quality goods . A weaver said of this work , " One can make a fair living by it , but a man can never get rich at it . "
The number of active mills dropped from 250 in 1926 to 81 in 1947 and 24 in 1974 , increasingly concentrated in industrial centres . However , the invention of the double weave and light tweeds caused significant growth in demand for Welsh textiles . When Burberry bought the Treorchy plant in the 1980s , 75 % of the workers were women . The plant was closed in March 2007 .
= = Today = =
As of 2013 there were just nine commercial woollen mills still in operation , often run by small families producing traditional Welsh cloth on old looms . Although demand for their products is high , there are few apprentices entering the industry . The Cambrian Woollen Mill at Dre @-@ fach Felindre was acquired by the state in 1976 for the Museum of the Welsh Woollen Industry , now named the National Wool Museum . Water powered woollen mills that were open to the public as of 2016 include Melin Tregwynt , Rock Mill Llandysul , Solva Woollen Mill and Trefriw Woollen Mills . In 2016 the Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales listed the following active woollen mills :
= 2010 Showtime Southern 500 =
The 2010 Showtime Southern 500 , 61st running of the event , was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series motor race that was held on May 8 , 2010 at Darlington Raceway in Darlington , South Carolina . It was the eleventh race of the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . The event began at 7 : 30 p.m. EDT . It was televised live in the United States on Fox and its U.S. radio coverage was broadcast on Motor Racing Network starting at 6 p.m. EDT .
The 367 @-@ lap race was won by Denny Hamlin for Joe Gibbs Racing after starting seven positions behind polesitter Jamie McMurray . McMurray finished second in a Chevrolet , and Kurt Busch finished third in a Dodge . The race had a total of 11 cautions and 22 lead changes among 11 different drivers . Kevin Harvick remained the point leader after finishing the race in the sixth position .
= = Background = =
Coming into the race , Richard Childress Racing driver Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 1 @,@ 467 points , with Hendrick Motorsports driver Jimmie Johnson trailing by ten points for second . Behind them in the Drivers ' Championship , Kyle Busch was third with 1 @,@ 358 points , and Matt Kenseth was fourth with 1 @,@ 348 points . Greg Biffle rounded out the top five drivers fourteen points behind Kenseth . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 76 points , eighteen points ahead of their rival Toyota . In the battle for third place , Dodge had 4 points , one ahead of Ford .
= = Practices and qualifying = =
There were two practice sessions the day before the race . In the first practice , A. J. Allmendinger , Dave Blaney , Mike Bliss , Michael McDowell , and Denny Hamlin were the fastest drivers . In the second session , Jamie McMurray , Hamlin , Kurt Busch , Ryan Newman , and Juan Montoya were the top five in speed . During qualifying , McMurray won his second pole position in 2010 and set a new track record , while Jeff Gordon , Brian Vickers , David Reutimann , and Mark Martin also qualified to start in the first five positions , respectively . There were three drivers who entered but did not qualify for the race : Joe Nemechek , Casey Mears , and Mike Bliss .
= = Race summary = =
To begin the pre @-@ race ceremonies , Ken Sandifer , a pastor at First Baptist Church of Darlington , delivered the invocation . John Norman and Kenneth Shelton , from Pope Air Force Base , then sang the national anthem . Next , Michael Waltrip introduced the mothers of the drivers , who commanded , " Sons and gentlemen , start your engines ! "
Jamie McMurray led the drivers to the start of the race , but Jeff Gordon passed him before the first lap ended . Gordon maintained the lead until Brian Vickers overtook him on lap 38 . On the same lap , Dave Blaney went to the garage because of transmission problems . Seven laps later , the first caution was flown when Michael McDowell crashed into the wall in turn 2 . During the pit stops throughout the caution , McMurray made a pit stop quickly , leaving pit road first and leading at the subsequent restart . On lap 53 , Bobby Labonte and Joey Logano both spun sideways , bringing out the second caution . Most drivers did not pit ; McMurray led the drivers to the third green flag of the day . The third caution came out on lap 62 when Paul Menard turned sideways on the back straightaway .
The first 10 drivers did pit under this caution , so McMurray held onto his lead position on the restart . On lap 83 , a multiple car collision brought out the fourth caution . Greg Biffle , Martin Truex , Jr . , and Jimmie Johnson were involved , but all received only minor damage to their cars . After the drivers made pit stops , Tony Stewart took the lead . Three laps later , Gordon reclaimed the lead and led up to the green flag pit stops on laps 121 — 154 . During the pit stops , Denny Hamlin , Kevin Harvick , and Scott Speed led , with Hamlin ultimately emerging in the front . On lap 171 , debris in the second turn , which is situated before the backstretch , brought out the fifth caution . During subsequent pit stops , McMurray came off pit road first , which gave him the lead on the restart .
Two laps later , Kevin Conway collided with the wall , bringing out the sixth caution . On the same lap , A. J. Allmendinger 's brakes failed , allowing him to decide to go down on the track apron ; his car turned sideways , went backwards , and collided into the driver 's door of Johnson 's Impala . Both were uninjured , but the crash put them out of the race . On lap 190 , McMurray brought the drivers to the green flag . 10 laps later , Stewart spun on the backstretch and brought out the seventh caution . McMurray led the restart on lap 204 .
2 laps later , Kyle Busch passed McMurray to lead for the first time . On lap 227 , the eighth caution came out when Labonte crashed into the wall after blowing a tire on the backstretch . All the lead lap cars made pit stops , and David Reutimann was the first off pit road , leading to the green flag on lap 223 . Debris from Truex , Jr . ' s car allowed David Ragan to collide with the wall , bringing out the ninth caution on the next lap . On lap 237 , Jeff Burton led to the green flag but Gordon passed him on lap 261 . 20 laps later , Labonte and Gilliland collided , bringing out the tenth caution . On lap 283 during pit stops , Kyle Busch left pit road in the first position and led on the restart .
On lap 189 , Hamlin passed teammate Kyle Busch and successfully battled Burton for the lead , which he took on lap 341 . The eleventh and final caution came out on the same lap when Logano spun coming out of pit road . After the drivers made pit stops , Hamlin led the restart on lap 347 , maintaining the lead to win both the Nationwide Series and the Sprint Cup Series races for the weekend .
= = Post race = =
Denny Hamlin appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his fourth win . In the subsequent press conference , Hamlin said , " I can 't tell you how excited I am about us winning right now , because I know what our team is capable of by the time we hit Chase time . " Jamie McMurray , who finished second , said that his season " has actually been really good , winning the [ Daytona ] 500 , almost winning at Talladega , running second again tonight . " He continued to say that he and his team have " been able to put ourselves in position to win three races this year . I don 't know that in my career I 've been able to do that , much less in the first eight or ten races . "
The race results left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 1 @,@ 622 points . Johnson , who failed to finish the race , was second with 1 @,@ 512 , three points ahead of Kyle Busch and thirty @-@ seven ahead of Jeff Gordon . Matt Kenseth was fifth with 1 @,@ 472 points . On May 12 , Michael McDowell and Robby Gordon were penalized 25 owner 's and drivers ' points and $ 25 @,@ 000 each for violations , specifically unapproved rear gear and for unapproved door braces , after the race 's final inspection .
= = Results = =
Jamie McMurray started the race on the pole position , and Denny Hamlin won . During the race there were 11 different leaders , 22 lead changes , and 11 cautions . Jeff Gordon led the most laps , with 111 . Hamlin , McMurray , Jeff Burton , Kyle Busch , Brian Vickers , Tony Stewart , David Reutimann , Scott Speed , and Robby Gordon also led laps .
= Battle of Grand Port =
The Battle of Grand Port was a naval battle between squadrons of frigates from the French Navy and the British Royal Navy . The battle was fought during 20 – 27 August 1810 over possession of the harbour of Grand Port on Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) during the Napoleonic Wars . The British squadron of four frigates sought to blockade the port to prevent its use by the French through the capture of the fortified Île de la Passe at its entrance . This position was seized by a British landing party on 13 August , and when a French squadron under Captain Guy @-@ Victor Duperré approached the bay nine days later the British commander , Captain Samuel Pym , decided to lure them into coastal waters where his superior numbers could be brought to bear against the French ships .
Four of the five French ships managed to break past the British blockade , taking shelter in the protected anchorage , which was only accessible through a series of complicated reefs and sandbanks that were impassable without an experienced harbour pilot . When Pym ordered his frigates to attack the anchored French on August 22 and 23 , his ships became trapped in the narrow channels of the bay : two were irretrievably grounded ; a third , outnumbered by the combined French squadron , was defeated ; and a fourth was unable to close to within effective gun range . Although the French ships were also badly damaged , the battle was a disaster for the British : one ship was captured after suffering irreparable damage , the grounded ships were set on fire to prevent their capture by French boarding parties and the remaining vessel was seized as it left the harbour by the main French squadron from Port Napoleon under Commodore Jacques Hamelin .
The British defeat was the worst the Royal Navy suffered during the entire war , and it left the Indian Ocean and its vital trade convoys exposed to attack from Hamelin 's frigates . In response , the British authorities sought to reinforce the squadron on Île Bourbon under Josias Rowley by ordering all available ships to the region , but this piecemeal reinforcement resulted in a series of desperate actions as individual British ships were attacked by the more powerful and confident French squadron . In December 1810 an adequate reinforcement was collected , with the provision of a strong battle squadron under Admiral Albemarle Bertie , that rapidly invaded and subdued Isle de France .
= = Background = =
During the early nineteenth century , the Indian Ocean formed an essential part of the network of trade routes that connected the British Empire . Heavily laden East Indiamen travelled from British Indian port cities such as Bombay or Calcutta to the United Kingdom carrying millions of pounds worth of goods . From Britain , the ships returned on the same routes , often carrying soldiers for the growing British Indian Army , then under the control of the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) . Following the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 , the British Admiralty had made the security of these routes a priority , and by 1807 the Dutch bases at the Cape of Good Hope and Java had been neutralised by expeditionary forces to prevent their use by enemy raiders . The French Indian Ocean possessions however , principally Île Bonaparte and Isle de France , were a more complicated target , protected from attack not only by the great distances involved in preparing an invasion attempt but also by heavy fortifications and a substantial garrison of French Army soldiers augmented by a large local militia .
The French had recognised the importance of these islands as bases for raiding warships during the French Revolutionary Wars ( 1793 – 1801 ) , but by late 1807 the only naval resources allocated to the region were a few older frigates and a large number of local privateers . Following the reduction of these remaining naval forces on Isle de France during 1808 , by defeat in battle and disarmaments due to age and unseaworthiness , the French naval authorities made a serious attempt to disrupt British trade in the region , ordering five large modern frigates to sail to Isle de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin . Four of these ships broke through the British blockade of the French coast , arriving in the Indian Ocean in the spring of 1809 , where Hamelin dispersed them into the Bay of Bengal with orders to intercept , attack and capture or destroy the heavily armed but extremely valuable convoys of East Indiamen . The first French success came at the end of the spring , when the frigate Caroline successfully attacked a convoy at the Action of 31 May 1809 , seizing two heavily laden merchant ships .
Commodore Josias Rowley was given command of the British response to the French deployment , a hastily assembled force composed mainly of those ships available at the Cape of Good Hope in early 1809 . Ordered to stop the French raiders , Rowley was unable to spread his limited squadron wide enough to pursue the roving French frigates , instead using his forces to blockade and raid the French Indian Ocean islands in anticipation of Hamelin 's return . In August 1809 , Caroline arrived with her prizes at Saint @-@ Paul on Île Bonaparte and Rowley determined to seize the frigate . He planned a successful invasion of the town , launched on 20 September 1809 , which resulted in the capture of the port 's defences , Caroline and the captured East Indiamen . With his objectives complete , Rowley withdrew five days later . Almost a year later , Rowley returned with a larger task force and made a second landing around the capital of Île Bonaparte , Saint @-@ Denis . Marching on the seat of government , Rowley 's troops rapidly overwhelmed the defences and forced the island 's garrison to surrender , renaming the island Île Bourbon and installing a British governor .
Hamelin had used the British preoccupation with Île Bonaparte to send additional frigates to sea during 1809 and early 1810 , including his flagship Vénus , which captured three East Indiamen at the Action of 18 November 1809 , and Bellone , which took the Portuguese frigate Minerva in the Bay of Bengal a few days later . Minerva , renamed Minerve in French hands , was subsequently involved in the Action of 3 July 1810 , when a further two East Indiamen were captured . The squadron in the latter action was commanded by Guy @-@ Victor Duperré in Bellone , whose ships were so badly damaged that Duperré was forced to spend nearly a month repairing his vessels in the Comoros Islands before they were ready to return to Isle de France .
= = Operations off Grand Port = =
With Île Bourbon secured in July 1810 , the British now occupied a large fortified island base within easy sailing distance of Isle de France . Even before Île Bourbon was completely in British hands , Rowley had detached HMS Sirius from the invasion squadron with orders to restore the blockade of Isle de France . Shortly afterwards , Sirius 's captain Samuel Pym led his men in a raid on a coastal vessel moored off the southern side of the island . Two days after this successful operation , reinforcements arrived in the form of the frigates HMS Iphigenia , HMS Nereide and the small brig HMS Staunch . Nereide carried 100 specially selected soldiers from the 69th and 33rd Regiments and some artillerymen from the garrison at Madras , to be used in storming and garrisoning offshore islands , beginning with Île de la Passe off Grand Port , a well defended islet that protected a natural harbour on the southeastern shore . These fortified islands could be used to block entry to the ports of Isle de France and thus trap Hamelin 's squadron .
Grand Port was an easily defendable natural harbour because the bay was protected from the open sea by a large coral reef through which a complicated channel meandered , known only to experienced local pilots . Île de la Passe was vitally important in the control of Grand Port because it featured a heavy battery that covered the entrance to the channel , thus controlling the passage to the sheltered inner lagoon . The British planned to use the troops on Nereide , under her captain Nesbit Willoughby , to storm Île de la Passe and capture the battery . Willoughby would then use a local man serving on his ship named John Johnson ( known in some texts as " the black pilot " ) , to steer through the channel and land troops near the town , distributing leaflets promising freedom and prosperity under British rule in an attempt to corrode the morale of the defenders .
The first attack on Île de la Passe was launched on the evening of 10 August , with Staunch towing boats carrying over 400 soldiers , Royal Marines and volunteer sailors to the island under cover of darkness , guided by Nereide 's pilot . During the night however , the pilot became lost and the boats were scattered in high winds and had not reassembled by dawn . To distract French attention from the drifting boats , Pym directed Captain Henry Lambert in Iphigenia to sail conspicuously off Port Napoleon , where the main body of the French squadron , led by Hamelin in Vénus , was based . Pym joined Lambert later in the day and the frigates subsequently returned to the waters of Grand Port by different routes , confusing French observers from the shore as to British intentions . By 13 August , the boats originally intended for the attack had still not been assembled and Pym decided that he could not risk waiting any longer without the French launching a counterattack . Launching his own boats at 8pm ( local time ) , guided by the pilot and commanded by Pym 's second in command , Lieutenant Norman , Pym 's marines and sailors landed on the island in darkness under heavy fire from the defenders . Norman was killed in the initial exchange of fire , but his deputy Lieutenant Watling seized the island by storming the fortifications surrounding the battery . Seven British personnel were killed and 18 wounded in the battle , in which the storming party managed to seize intact French naval code books and took 80 prisoners . Willoughby was furious that Pym had assumed command of the operation without his permission and the officers exchanged angry letters , part of an ongoing disagreement between them that engendered mutual distrust .
With Île de la Passe secure , Pym gave command of the blockade of Grand Port to Willoughby and returned to his station off Port Napoleon with Iphigenia . Willoughby used his independent position to raid the coastline , landing at Pointe du Diable on 17 August on the northern edge of Grand Port with 170 men and storming the fort there , destroying 10 cannon and capturing another . Marching south towards the town of Grand Port itself , Willoughby 's men fought off French counterattacks and distributed propaganda pamphlets at the farms and villages they passed . Willoughby re @-@ embarked his troops in the evening but landed again the following day at Grande Rivière to observe the effects of his efforts . Burning a signal station , Willoughby advanced inland , but was checked by the arrival of 800 French reinforcements from Port Napoleon and returned to HMS Nereide . The brief expedition cost the British two men wounded and one missing , to French casualties of at least ten killed or wounded . Willoughby followed the attack on Grande Rivière with unopposed minor landings on 19 and 20 August .
= = Duperré 's arrival = =
Willoughby 's raiding was interrupted at 10 : 00 on 20 August when five ships were sighted , rapidly approaching from the southeast . These ships were Guy @-@ Victor Duperré 's squadron of Bellone , Minerve , corvette Victor and prizes Windham and Ceylon returning from the Comoros Islands . Following a month of repairs on Anjouan , Duperré had sailed for Isle de France without encountering any opposition on his return passage , and was intending to enter Grand Port via the channel protected by Île de la Passe . Duperré was unaware of the British occupation of the island , and Willoughby intended to lure the French squadron into the channel by concealing the British presence off the harbour . Once there , Willoughby hoped to defeat them or damage them so severely that they would be unable to break out unaided , thus isolating Duperré 's squadron from Hamelin 's force in Port Napoleon and containing the French in separate harbours to prevent them from concentrating against the British blockade squadrons . Willoughby brought Nereide close to Île de la Passe to combine their fire and protect his boats , which were carrying 160 men back to Nereide from a raid near Grand Port that morning .
Raising a French tricolour over Île de la Passe and on Nereide , Willoughby transmitted the French code captured on the island : " L 'ennemi croise au Coin de Mire " and received an acknowledgement from Duperré . The use of these signals convinced Duperré , over the objections of Captain Pierre Bouvet on Minerve , that Nereide was Surcouf 's privateer Charles , which was expected from France . The French squadron closed with the harbour during the morning , Victor entering the channel under Île de la Passe at 13 : 40 . As Victor passed Nereide and the fort Willoughby opened fire , Lieutenant Nicolas Morice surrendering the outnumbered corvette after the first volley . Willoughby sent boats to attempt to take possession of Victor , but they were unable to reach the vessel . Behind the corvette , Minerve and Ceylon pushed into the channel and signalled Morice to follow them , exchanging fire with the fort . As Morice raised his colours again and followed Minerve , a large explosion boiled out of Île de la Passe , where the false French flag had ignited on a brazier as it was lowered and set fire to a nearby stack of cartridges , which exploded in the close confines of the fort . Three men were killed and 12 badly burned , six cannon were dismounted and one discharged unexpectedly , killing a British sailor in a boat attempting to board Victor . With the fort out of action and a significant number of her crew scattered in small boats in the channel , Nereide alone was unable to block French entry to Grand Port .
With Willoughby 's ambush plan ruined , the scattered boats sought to rejoin Nereide , passing directly through the French squadron . Although several boats were in danger of being run down by the French ships and one even bumped alongside Minerve , all eventually rejoined Nereide safely . However , the opportunity to cause significant damage to the French in the narrow channel had been lost , Bellone joining the squadron in passing through the channel with minimal resistance . In addition to British losses in the explosion at the fort , two men had been killed and one wounded on Nereide . French losses were more severe , Minerve suffering 23 casualties and Ceylon eight . With both sides recognising that further action was inevitable , Willoughby sent a boat to Sirius requesting additional assistance and Duperré sent a message overland with Lieutenant Morice , requesting support from Hamelin 's squadron ( Morice fell from his horse during the mission and was severely injured ) . Command of Victor passed to Henri Moisson . In the afternoon , Willoughby used mortars on Île de la Passe to shell the French squadron , forcing Duperré to retreat into the shallow harbour at Grand Port and Willoughby subsequently sent officers into Grand Port on 21 August under a flag of truce , demanding the release of Victor , which he insisted had surrendered and should thus be handed over to the blockade squadron as a prize . Duperré refused to consider the request . One French ship had failed to enter the channel off Grand Port : the captured East Indiaman Windham . Early on 21 August , her French commander attempted to shelter in Rivière Noire . Sirius spotted the merchant ship under the batteries there and sent two boats into the anchorage , stormed the ship and brought her out without a single casualty . This success was remarkable as the boarding party had forgotten to take any weapons with them and were only armed with wooden foot @-@ stretchers wielded as clubs .
= = Battle = =
From prisoners captured on Windham , Pym learned of the nature and situation of Duperré 's squadron and sent orders to Port Napoleon with Captain Lucius Curtis in the recently arrived HMS Magicienne for Iphigenia to join Sirius and Nereide off Grand Port . Sirius and Nereide met on the morning of 22 August , Willoughby welcoming Pym with signals describing an " enemy of inferior force " . Although Duperré 's squadron was technically weaker than the four British frigates combined , Willoughby 's signal was misleading as the French had taken up a strong crescent shaped battleline in the bay and could cover the mouth of the channel through which the British ships could only pass one at a time . Duperré also anticipated the arrival of reinforcements from Port Napoleon under Governor Charles Decaen at any time and could call on the support of soldiers and gun batteries on shore . In addition , French launches had moved the buoys marking the channel through the coral reef to confuse any British advance .
= = = British attack = = =
On 22 August at 14 : 40 , Pym led an attack on Duperré 's squadron without waiting for Iphigenia and Magicienne , entering the channel that led to the anchorage at Grand Port . He was followed by Nereide , but Willoughby had refused to allow Pym to embark the harbour pilot : the only person in the British squadron who knew the passage through the reefs . Without guidance by an experienced pilot , Sirius was aground within minutes and could not be brought off until 08 : 30 on the 23 August . Nereide anchored nearby during the night to protect the flagship . At 10 : 00 , Iphigenia and Magicienne arrived and at 14 : 40 , after a conference between the captains as to the best course of action , the force again attempted to negotiate the channel . Although the squadron was now guided by Nereide 's pilot , Sirius again grounded at 15 : 00 and Magicienne 15 minutes later after over @-@ correcting to avoid the reef that Sirius had struck . Nereide and Iphigenia continued the attack , Iphigenia engaging Minerve and Ceylon at close range and Nereide attacking Bellone . Long @-@ range fire from Magicienne was also directed at Victor , which was firing on Nereide .
Within minutes of the British attack , Ceylon surrendered and boats from Magicienne sought but failed to take possession of her . The French crew drove the captured East Indiaman on shore , joined shortly afterwards by Minerve , Bellone and later by Victor , so that by 18 : 30 the entire French force was grounded and all but Bellone prevented from firing their main broadsides by beached ships blocking their arc of fire . Bellone however was ideally positioned to maintain her fire on Nereide from her beached position , and at 19 : 00 a cannon shot cut Nereide 's stern anchor cable . The British frigate swung around , presenting her stern to Bellone and pulling both her broadsides away from the French squadron . Raked by Bellone and desperate to return fire , Willoughby had the bow anchor cable cut , bringing a portion of his ship 's starboard broadside to bear on Bellone . At 20 : 00 , Duperré was seriously wounded in the cheek by shrapnel from a grape shot fired by Nereide ; Ensign Vigoureux concealed his unconscious body under a signal flag and discreetly brought him below decks while Bouvet assumed command of the French squadron on board Bellone , placing Lieutenant Albin Roussin in charge of Minerve . Building an improvised bridge between the French ships and the shore , Bouvet increased the men and ammunition reaching Bellone and thus significantly increased her rate of fire . He also had the rail removed between the foredeck and the quarterdeck of Minerve , and had iron hooks nailed to the freeboard below the starboard gangway as to provide attachment points for additional guns , thus building a continuous second deck on his frigate where he constituted a complete second battery . By 22 : 00 Nereide was a wreck , receiving shot from several sides , with most of her guns dismounted and casualties mounting to over 200 : the first lieutenant was dying , the second was severely wounded and Willoughby 's left eye had been dislodged from its socket by a wooden splinter . Recognising her battered state , Bouvet then diverted fire from Nereide to concentrate on Magicienne .
Refusing to surrender until all options had been exhausted , Willoughby dispatched boats to Sirius , asking Pym if he believed it would be practical to send boats to tow Nereide out of range . Pym replied that with the boats engaged in attempting to tow Sirius and Magicienne off the reef it was not possible to deploy them under fire to tow Nereide . Pym also suggested that Willoughby disembark his men and set fire to his ship in the hope that the flames would spread to the French ships clustered on shore . Willoughby refused this suggestion as it was not practical to disembark the dozens of wounded men aboard Nereide in the growing darkness and refused to personally abandon his men when Pym ordered him to transfer to Sirius . At 23 : 00 , Willoughby ordered a boat to row to Bellone and notify the French commander that he had surrendered . However , Willoughby 's boat had been holed by shot and was unable to make the short journey . The message was instead conveyed by French prisoners from Nereide who had dived over board and reached the shore during the night . Recalling the false flags used on 20 August , Bouvet resolved to wait until morning before accepting the surrender .
= = = Attempted withdrawal = = =
At 01 : 50 on 24 August , Bellone ceased firing on the shattered Nereide . During the remaining hours of darkness , Pym continued his efforts to dislodge Sirius from the reef and sent orders to Lambert , whose Iphigenia had been blocked from firing on the French by Nereide and also prevented from pursuing the Minerve by a large reef blocking access to the beach . With Iphigenia now becalmed in the coastal waters , Pym instructed Lambert to begin warping his ship out of the harbour , using anchors attached to the capstan to drag the ship slowly through the shallow water . Magicienne , like Iphigenia , had been stranded out of range of the beached French ships and so had instead directed her fire against a battery erected on shore , which she had destroyed by 02 : 00 . When daylight rose , it showed a scene of great confusion , with Sirius and Magicienne grounded in the approaches to the harbour , the French ships " on shore in a heap " in the words of Captain Pym , Iphigenia slowly pulling herself away from the French squadron and Nereide lying broken and battered under the guns of Bellone , a Union Flag nailed to her masthead . This flag prompted a fresh burst of cannon fire from Bouvet , and it was not until Willoughby ordered the mizenmast to be chopped down that the French acknowledged the surrender and ceased firing .
At 07 : 00 , Lambert notified Pym that he had cleared the reef separating Iphigenia from the French ships and suggested that if Pym sent reinforcements from Sirius he might be able to board and capture the entire French squadron . Pym refused permission , insisting that Lambert assist him in pulling Sirius off the reef
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6 for the week ending April 4 , 2009 , but fell off the chart the following week . After six weeks it reached number six on the Hot 100 by selling 107 @,@ 000 digital downloads and becoming the week 's greatest digital gainer . Two weeks later , " LoveGame " peaked at number five on the chart . It reached number @-@ one on the Hot Dance Club Songs , and also became Gaga 's third number @-@ one on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified " LoveGame " double platinum for shipment of two million copies across United States . It has sold 2 @,@ 630 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States as of April 2016 , according to Nielsen Soundscan .
In Canada , the song debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 68 before its official release as a single . Its second appearance was on the chart of January 10 , 2009 , at number 87 . After a few weeks , " LoveGame " entered the top ten of the Canadian Hot 100 and climbed to number five . After fluctuating down the chart for a few weeks " LoveGame " reached a new peak of two on the chart . The song was certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) in June 2009 , for sales of 160 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads .
In Australia , the song debuted at number 92 on the ARIA Charts , and then moved up the charts to number 41 the next week . On the issue dated May 11 , 2009 , the song peaked at number four , becoming Gaga 's third top five single there . " LoveGame " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ six and moved up to a peak of number 12 . The Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) certified it gold for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies of the single . On the issue dated March 6 , 2009 , the song entered the Irish Singles Chart at number 49 and peaked at number 30 , after eight weeks on the chart . It also debuted at number 19 in Finland and has since moved to a peak of number 12 .
In early 2009 , the song charted on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number 89 based on downloads only . It re @-@ entered the chart at number 64 after the release of the single was announced , and peaked at 19 , becoming her lowest @-@ charting single in the UK at that time . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it silver , for sales of 200 @,@ 000 copies . In the Netherlands the song debuted at number 28 and has peaked at number five . The song debuted at number six in France and moved to its peak of number five the next week . It debuted at numbers 19 and 38 on the Belgian Ultratop Flanders and Wallonia charts respectively . In Flanders it has reached a peak of six , while in Wallonia it moved to a peak of five . " LoveGame " also reached a peak of number seven on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The music video of " LoveGame " was directed by Joseph Kahn and premiered on March 23 , 2009 , in Australia , and on August 13 , 2009 , at UK on 4Music channel . The video mainly takes place in a subway station , hence several scenes are reminiscent to Michael Jackson 's " Bad " music video , which was also shot in a similar location . Although the production and shooting of " LoveGame " took place in January 2009 alongside the music video for " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , it nevertheless has a New York City setting .
Gaga spoke to Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly during a " Behind the Scenes " episode of the shoot , about her inspirations for the video . She wanted to have a " giant " dance video with " LoveGame " , describing it as " plastic , beautiful , gorgeous , sweaty , tar on the floor " . There would be scary and dangerous looking men also in the video . Gaga had the idea of portraying herself and her co @-@ actors as New York inhabitants taking on the role of designers , performance artists , dancers etc . She enlisted people from downtown New York as dancers , who normally would not get cast in a video .
One of the props developed for the video was a pair of sunglasses made of wire . According to Gaga , she imagined " a downtown , bad @-@ ass kid walking down the street with his buddies , grabbing a pair of pliers , and making a pair of sunglasses out of a fence on the street " . She wore them on the opening shot of the music video along with a chain link hood garment , saying that " they look so hard . It looks like I plied them right out of the fence and put them on my face " .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The video starts with the heading " Streamline presents " and three men moving through Times Square . They open a man @-@ hole cover on which " Haus of Gaga " is written . Gaga is then shown naked with blue and purple paint and glitter on her body , frolicking with two men who have the words " Love " and " Fame " shaved into their heads . The scene shifts to a subway where Gaga starts singing in a grey @-@ white leotard with a hood . She carries her characteristic disco stick and wears chain @-@ linked glasses . The chorus starts with Gaga and her dancers progressing through the subway and dancing down a staircase . Two harlequin Great Danes , are also shown on top of the staircase .
The video shifts to a train where the second verse takes place with choreographed dance routines and Gaga wearing a black jacket . During the intermediate music , Gaga is shown entering a ticket booth with an inspector while kissing and caressing . As the camera pans from right to left the inspector changes from a man to woman in each frame . The final scene shows Gaga doing a choreographed dance routine with her crew of backup dancers . The video comes to an end as Gaga and her dancers hold their groins , gesturing towards the camera .
The music video was censored in many countries after its release in 2009 . The video faced censorship troubles in Australia where it was rated AV18 + by Network Ten for the " suggestive video footage involving bondage and sexual acts " . The channel demanded an edited version of the video which would not violate censorship rules . Video Hits refused to air the video in its G and PG rated time slots . They cited " numerous sexual references both visually and lyrically " as the reason they could not create a child @-@ friendly edit without bleeping the repeated hook " I wanna take a ride on your disco stick " . However , Australian programs like Rage and cable networks Channel V and MTV aired the video in its original form .
The video also faced a ban from MTV Arabia citing the same reason as Australia . Since it was very rare to ban videos in MTV , head of MTV Arabia Samer al Marzouki commented , " We represent the young generation 's mentality and culture so we can 't play something that conflicts with that . If they can 't watch something comfortably with their brother , sisters or friends then we will not play it . " In the United States , VH1 and MTV played an edited version that removed the scenes showing Gaga naked , and blurred the label on a bottle of alcohol held by a dancer , but they did not change the lyrics .
= = Live performances = =
Gaga first performed " LoveGame " live in June 2008 on the Isle of Malta special of MTV Asia . She later performed it on the UK program , The Album Chart Show , on February 4 , 2009 , while promoting The Fame . On March 20 , 2009 , the song was performed live at the AOL Sessions along with Gaga 's other singles such as " Just Dance " , " Paparazzi " , " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " , and an acoustic version of " Poker Face " . An acoustic version of " LoveGame " was performed at the MTV Sessions in January 2009 .
The song was a major part of Gaga 's Fame Ball tour as the second number of the set list , and was performed alongside album track , " Starstruck " . Gaga wore a silver and black short skirt looking like a tutu and shaped like a peplum . She had a triangular piece attached on the dress on her right breast , and completed her look with high heeled ultra spike shoes . Gaga 's hair was made an austere blond bob , and she accessorized with black sunglasses . Her dancers surrounded the stage , holding plates encrusted with crystals , which completely hid them . As the performance of the opening number " Paparazzi " ended , the plates opened up and Gaga started singing the song " Starstruck " while standing on the platform . Pre @-@ recorded music and mixing were provided in the background by DJ Space Cowboy . Gaga also brought out the disco stick for the performance of " LoveGame " . It ended with Gaga doing a dance routine for the last chorus and coming down to the front of the stage .
On May 17 , 2009 , Gaga performed the song live on Australian talk show , Rove . She also performed the song at the season finale of the eighth season of Dancing with the Stars . A remixed version of " Poker Face " and " LoveGame " was performed at the 2009 MuchMusic Video Awards ( MMVA ) , during the indoor @-@ outdoor street @-@ side show . The performance , which included Gaga being trapped in a fake subway car surrounded by fake police officers , was billed as a tribute to New York City . In 2014 , Toronto Sun listed the performance as the fifth most " jaw @-@ dropping " moment in the history of MMVAs , when Gaga introduced her characteristic " flaming bra " during the song . On September 8 , 2009 , Gaga performed " LoveGame " at the season seven premiere of The Ellen DeGeneres Show . A version featuring a full live band was performed at the thirty @-@ fifth season of American comedy show Saturday Night Live , while wearing a big gyroscope @-@ like contraption that rotated around Gaga .
In late 2009 , " LoveGame " was added to the set list of Gaga 's The Monster Ball Tour . In the original version of the tour , the singer wore an off @-@ white costume with skeletal lighted headgear and breastplates shaped like ribs . A digital background of flames and mechanical fog was featured , with her dancers also wearing skeletal headgear . On the revamped shows of The Monster Ball during 2010 – 11 , the intro of the song had a video showing Gaga puking green liquid on the white dress of her look @-@ alike . " LoveGame " was introduced during the second act and featured a New York City subway car on stage from which Gaga and her dancers emerged . While wearing a revealing plastic dress and an exaggerated nun 's habit , Gaga wielded the disco stick , which was modified to look like a torch . The performance incorporated the Chew Fu remix of the song which commenced at the end with Gaga asking the audience to dance along with her .
The song was also included on the set list of the 2012 Born This Way Ball tour . The song was shortened and had Gaga performing it in a clear bath tub while wearing a Statue of Liberty styled head piece . Gaga ventured into the crowd during the song , through the extended pathways from the stage and after the performance she invited a fan onstage . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle believed that the appearance of " LoveGame " during the tour proved it to be a far superior track than the ones from Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriting , background vocals
RedOne – songwriting , production , background vocals , instrumentation , programming , audio engineering , recording at Record Plant Studios , Hollywood and Chalice Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California
Robert Orton – audio mixing
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from The Fame album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Kepler @-@ 5b =
Kepler @-@ 5b is one of the first five planets discovered by NASA 's Kepler spacecraft . It is a Hot Jupiter that orbits a subgiant star that is more massive , larger , and more diffuse than the Sun is . Kepler @-@ 5 was first flagged as the location of a possibly transiting planet , and was reclassified as a Kepler Object of Interest until follow @-@ up observations confirmed the planet 's existence and many of its characteristics . The planet 's discovery was announced at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society on January 4 , 2010 . The planet has approximately twice the mass of Jupiter , and is about 1 @.@ 5 times larger . It is also fifteen times hotter than Jupiter . Kepler @-@ 5b orbits Kepler @-@ 5 every 3 @.@ 5 days at a distance of approximately 0 @.@ 051 AU ( 7 @.@ 6 Gm ) .
= = Observational history = =
The Kepler spacecraft 's first days of science activity revealed a series of transit events , in which some body ( such as a planet ) crosses in front of , and therefore dims , its host star . Such objects were taken from the Kepler Input Catalog and reclassified as Kepler Objects of Interest . Kepler @-@ 5 was one of these objects of interest , and was given the designation KOI @-@ 18 .
After the stellar parameters were established , the Kepler science team ran models and fits to ensure that Kepler @-@ 5 's transit event was not a false positive , such as an eclipsing binary star . Once the planetary nature of Kepler @-@ 5b was established , the Kepler team searched for the planet 's occultation behind its star , hoping to find the temperature on its day side . They found both , and were able to set the equilibrium temperature of the planet . The use of speckle imaging using adaptive optics at the WIYN Observatory in Arizona and the Palomar Observatory in California isolated the starlight of Kepler @-@ 5 from background stars .
Use of the Fibre @-@ fed Echelle Spectrograph ( FIES ) at the Nordic Optical Telescope on the Canary Islands on June 4 , 2009 provided data that was used to determine the star 's stellar classification . The W.M. Keck Observatory 's High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) , which was used on June 3 – 6 , 2009 , and July 2 – 4 , 2009 , determined radial velocity measurements for the star , which helped to further define stellar parameters .
Kepler @-@ 5 has , as considered by the Kepler team , the potential for use in the study of planets in extreme conditions ; its high temperature , large size , and short orbital period contribute to the aforementioned conditions . The findings of the Kepler team , which also included planets Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 6b , Kepler @-@ 7b , and Kepler @-@ 8b , were announced at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society of January 4 , 2010 .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 5 is a subgiant in the Cygnus constellation that is expected to soon deplete its hydrogen stores in the core and begin fusing hydrogen in the shell region surrounding the core . The star is 1 @.@ 374 times the mass of the Sun ( another model suggests that Kepler @-@ 5 as a mass of 1 @.@ 21 times that of the Sun ) , although it is more diffuse at 1 @.@ 793 times the Sun 's radius . The star 's metallicity is measured to be at [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 04 , which means that Kepler @-@ 5 has 1 @.@ 10 times the levels of iron as the Sun does .
The star 's apparent magnitude is 13 @.@ 4 , meaning that it cannot be seen with the unaided eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 5b is a Hot Jupiter with a mass that is 2 @.@ 114 times that of Jupiter and a radius of 1 @.@ 431 times Jupiter 's radius . This also means that Kepler @-@ 5b is not very dense . The planet 's measured density is 0 @.@ 894 grams / cm3 , less than that of pure water and comparable only to the density of Saturn , which is approximately 0 @.@ 69 grams / cm3 . The planet has an equilibrium temperature of 1868 K , making it fifteen times hotter than Jupiter .
Kepler @-@ 5b orbits its host star every 3 @.@ 5485 days at a mean distance of 0 @.@ 05064 AU . In addition , with an orbital inclination of 86.3º , Kepler @-@ 5b orbits Kepler @-@ 5 almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth . In comparison , planet Mercury orbits the Sun at a distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU every 87 @.@ 97 days .
= Pretty on the Inside =
Pretty on the Inside is the debut studio album by American alternative rock band Hole , released on September 17 , 1991 in the United States on Caroline Records . [ 1 ] Produced by Sonic Youth 's Kim Gordon , and Gumball frontman Don Fleming , the album was Hole 's first major label release after the band 's formation in 1989 by singer @-@ songwriter Courtney Love and lead guitarist Eric Erlandson .
The album features distorted and alternating guitar compositions , screaming vocals , " shock value " lyrics , and " sloppy punk ethics " , a style which the band would later distance themselves from , opting for a less abrasive sound on their subsequent releases . Love 's lyrics on the album are often narrative , graphic , and abstract , detailing issues of violence , self @-@ realization , and womanhood . The record was dedicated to Rob Ritter of the Los Angeles punk rock acts Bags and The Gun Club .
Pretty on the Inside was well received by alternative music critics , garnering favorable reviews in Spin , NME , and The Village Voice . It received considerable commercial success in the United Kingdom , where the record 's lead single , " Teenage Whore , " entered the UK Indie Chart at number one in September 1991 . It has sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and gained a contemporary cult following among punk rock fans , and has been cited as a seminal influence for songwriters and musicians such as Brody Dalle and Scout Niblett . Despite its critical acclaim , frontwoman Courtney Love has , in later years , referred to the album as " unlistenable . " An LP version of the album was reissued in the United States in August 2011 to celebrate its twentieth anniversary .
= = Background = =
Hole formed in 1989 in Los Angeles , California when frontwoman Courtney Love , after years of fruitless attempts at forming bands , bought her neighbor Lisa Roberts a bass and posted an advertisement in a local paper stating : " I want to start a band . My influences are Big Black , Sonic Youth , and Fleetwood Mac . " Eric Erlandson , along with over a dozen other musicians , answered the ad . Love later said that she knew Eric was " the one " as soon as they met , and that he had a " Thurston Moore quality about him " that she liked .
Erlandson said that early in Hole 's career , they were more interested in " making noise " than achieving success and before drummer Caroline Rue joined the band that they used no percussion whatsoever . It was not until Love and Erlandson heard Mudhoney 's " Touch Me , I 'm Sick " that they began to think about taking the band to the next level . Early on , the band was most influenced by the New York No Wave art and music scene of the 1980s , which included visual artists , such as Richard Kern , as well as scuzz rock acts , such as Teenage Jesus and the Jerks , Sonic Youth , and Pussy Galore . The band also featured a third guitarist in its early days , first Mike Geisbrecht and then Errol Stewart . After the band 's first four shows , the original lineup disbanded and Hole recruited bassist Jill Emery in 1990 .
In the documentary film Not Bad for a Girl , Love , who had been in the erotic dancing industry for years prior , said that she worked as a stripper to help support the band in its early incarnation . She also cited her work as a dancer as being one of many inspirations for the songs on Pretty on the Inside : " I was blonde , wore makeup , had to support my band by dancing , and had to play this ridiculous archetype at work ... so I took , you know , high heels and white pumps , and I had a wiglet — I just took that and messed with it . "
= = Recording and production = =
Hole had previously released two singles , " Retard Girl " on Sympathy for the Record Industry and " Dicknail " on Sub Pop . According to Love , she had initially wanted to release the album on Sympathy for the Record Industry , but was " talked into " signing on with Caroline Records . After signing , Love sought Sonic Youth 's Kim Gordon to produce the album . In January 1991 , Love sent her letter , a Hello Kitty barrette , and copies of the band 's early singles , mentioning that the band greatly admired Gordon 's work and appreciated " the production of the SST record " ( referring to Sonic Youth 's EVOL or Sister ) . Gordon agreed on the condition that her friend , Gumball frontman Don Fleming , assist .
The band entered Music Box Studios with Gordon , Fleming and Holly Price in March 1991 and worked on the album for one week ; the songs were recorded over a period of four days , and were mixed over the course of a further three days . During the recording sessions for the album , Love gargled whiskey and smoked cigarettes excessively to " give a raw edge to her vocals . "
The sessions were said to be stressful , with an anonymous band member saying that Love was " on a total power trip " the entire time , making sure she had the final say of " everything in terms of album cover design , order of musicians ' credits in the liner notes , and even the spot where the price code went on the back . " Fleming was impressed by Love 's " focus and intensity , " especially while recording vocals for one song when Love " literally ripped her clothes off while she sang . " " Courtney was amazing , " said Fleming . " She was the most gung @-@ ho person I 've ever met . She was going to make the greatest record ever - I like that attitude in the studio . Courtney was like ' Let 's go , fuckers ' , and I loved that . " In a later interview , Fleming said :
Courtney was great at the time — it was before she even knew Kurt [ Cobain ] . She gave 180 % . I 've worked with some people that you 've had to coax the performance out of them . With Courtney , there was no attitude . She was gonna give it all . And she did and it was really impressive to me [ ... ] I loved the whole band ; they were a lot of fun . That early lineup of Hole — I felt they were the real deal . They were Hollywood misfits — all of them . I felt it really captured what they were .
Gordon said that Love " was either charming and nice or screaming at her band " but that she was " a really good singer and entertainer and front person . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The music of Pretty on the Inside is most often noted for its extreme abrasiveness , and for its sophisticated use of melody buried under arrangements . The album 's sonic elements are heavily influenced by Los Angeles hardcore punk as well as New York 's no wave scene ; many of the tracks are accompanied by overt use of feedback , experimental playing , wah pedals , and use of sampling and interpolation . Rapid sliding techniques and string muting are also heavily present on the album , as well as what Love and Erlandson describe as " Sonic Youth tunings . " Love 's vocals range from whispers to violent screaming , often in succession with the extreme shifts in speed and volume .
The album also contains multiple references to other musicians , specifically in its two noise tracks , " Sassy " and " Starbelly " : the main riff to " Starbelly " is based on Neil Young 's " Cinnamon Girl " and features analog cassette excerpts from " Rhiannon " by Fleetwood Mac and an early recording of " Best Sunday Dress " by Pagan Babies , one of Love 's earlier bands with Kat Bjelland ; " Sassy " includes snippets from an angry message left by Nymphs singer Inger Lorre on Love 's answering machine , accompanied by one chord progression repeated throughout . Love has admitted that the main riff to " Mrs. Jones " was copied verbatim from " Dark Entries " by the goth rock group Bauhaus , one of her favorite bands as a teenager .
In a 1991 Canadian television interview , Love commented on the album 's coarse musical structure . She said that since the band was from Los Angeles , the " metal capital of the US " , they thought they were making a " pop record with an edge , " and were surprised by people 's reactions when they were told it was violent and extreme . Love also said , " It was all about the expression of my experience . I was not coming from a black void ; I was trying to create light ... I was trying to heal . " In an interview with Spin magazine several years after its release , Love said that she was " posing in a lot of ways " with the album : " It was the truth , but it was also me catching up with all my hip peers who 'd gone all indie on me , and who made fun of me for liking R.E.M. and The Smiths . I 'd done the whole punk thing , sleeping on floors in piss and beer , and waking up with the guy with the fucking mohawk and the skateboards and the speed and the whole goddamned thing . But I hated it . I 'd grown out of it by the time I was seventeen . " In a 1994 interview with Kurt Loder , Love admitted to having been " consciously self @-@ conscious " when making the record due to her feeling the need to compete with her peers at the time . In a 2011 interview for Hit So Hard ( 2011 ) , a documentary on later Hole drummer Patty Schemel , Love referred to Pretty on the Inside as " unlistenable " .
= = = Lyrics and themes = = =
Many of the album 's lyrics are narrative and diaristic in nature , and were heavily drawn from Love 's personal life and experiences in her teenage and young adult years . In a press release promoting the album , Love said : " These songs are about my own weaknesses and impurities ; things about myself that I hate ... paranoias , petty concerns , and pithy , pathetic things that are inside of me . " The songs are often lyrically abstract and describe shocking scenes of violence , and , particularly , violence against women . Prominent themes discussed in the lyrics include elitism , beauty and self @-@ image , as well as the more disconcerting themes of abortion , prostitution , suicide , murder , " red lights " , and self @-@ destructiveness . Q Magazine described the lyrics on the record as " confrontational " and " genuinely uninhibited . "
The Seattle publication The Stranger analyzed the lyrics to the track " Mrs. Jones " , calling it a " particularly rattling sketch of what appears to be a rape scene , with Love seamlessly handling three perspectives : the ugly attacker ( " Look into the bloodrot , you suicide bitch / It takes an hour with you to make me want to live " ) , the vengeful victim ( " The abortion left an abscess / Don 't ever talk to me like that again " ) , and the supportive narrator ( " Just like a pro , she takes off her dress / And she kicks you down in her snow white pumps " ) . " The song also makes direct references to The Ballad of East and West , a poem by Rudyard Kipling , specifically with the line : " East is east and west is west , and mine was you and mine was best , " which is a partial quote from the poem .
" Garbadge Man " , discusses abandonment and alienation , as well as crisis of spirituality , and is one of the few songs on the album to feature a verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse composition . The album closes with two songs that are bridged together as a single piece : " Pretty on the Inside " , noted for its hostile lyrics and allusions to vanity , and " Clouds " , a dark and raucous cover of Joni Mitchell 's " Both Sides , Now " from her 1969 album Clouds . The cover of the song features altered lyrics that appear to illustrate a suicide scene .
The explicitness of the album 's lyrics mandated a Parental Advisory logo in the United States , largely due to the lurid nature of the songs as well as their usage of profanity . Female @-@ aimed curse words such as " bitch " , " slut " , and " whore " are prominent in the songs , though in a presumably subversive manner . " I try to place [ beautiful imagery ] next to fucked up imagery , because that 's how I view things , " said Love in a 1991 interview with Everett True . " I sometimes feel that no one 's taken the time to write about certain things in rock , that there 's a certain female point of view that 's never been given space . " In spite of its graphic lyrics , the underlying pro @-@ feminist slant that is found in many of the songs led some to tag the band as being part of the riot grrl movement , which Love was not directly associated with .
= = Packaging and artwork = =
The artwork for Pretty on the Inside is abstract in comparison to Hole 's later album artwork . The front cover of the album features a heavily saturated pink press photo of the band amidst forest underbrush , taken by photographer Vickie Berndt . Berndt said that " Courtney wanted something striking and unusual " and Berndt was experimenting with color infrared film during the shoot , testing exposure settings with Love . The photo is similar to several others taken during the same shoot , one of which was featured in a Spin article in 1991 .
The font design featured on the front cover was created by Pizz , a graphic artist from Long Beach , who also designed album cover art for several other indie rock bands . The back side of the album features a painting by bassist Emery , depicting a topless woman looking at herself through a hand mirror . On her chest is a red heart surrounded by arrows , and below , her ribs protrude from her sides , possibly a reference to anorexia and body image issues , a major theme of the album and its successor Live Through This .
The interior artwork , presented in a booklet on the CD version of the album and on the record sleeve on vinyl releases , features an assemblage of scribbled and typewritten lyrics , personal " thank you " notes , cutouts of Catholic and Renaissance artwork , as well as childlike drawings and storybook pictures juxtaposed with photos of women in bondage . The collages in the album 's liner notes have been described as looking like " the scrapbook of an incest victim . " In the liner notes , the album is dedicated to Rob Ritter of the LA punk group Bags .
= = Release = =
Pretty on the Inside was released on September 17 , 1991 in the United States on Caroline Records and on City Slang in Europe . The album 's lead single , " Teenage Whore " , was released in Europe on September 23 , and entered the UK Indie Chart 's Top 10 at number one on September 28 , 1991 , beating out " Heaven Sent An Angel " by Revolver , " Let It Slide " by Mudhoney , and " Love to Hate You " by Erasure , among others . On The Chart Show on Channel 4 , the song 's title was censored with ellipsis in place of the word " whore " .
The single 's success in the United Kingdom led the band to perform a twelve @-@ date tour of the country supporting Mudhoney . The subsequent success of both the album , single , and tour saw Hole embark on a further three tours of the United States , Germany and Western Europe in the latter half of 1991 , playing again with Mudhoney , as well as alternative rock acts Daisy Chainsaw and Therapy ? . In spite of the album 's popularity in the United Kingdom , it failed to chart in the United States despite extensive touring , though it was known to be outselling Nirvana 's output before the band 's release of Nevermind the following week .
The band played their final show of the tour in San Francisco opening for The Smashing Pumpkins , which ended with Love infamously smashing her guitar headstock onstage at the end of their set after the audience failed to respond well .
Los Angeles Times journalist David Cromelin noted in his review of the concert :
Smashing Pumpkins ' singer @-@ guitarist Billy Corgan referred to himself as " a frustrated Midwestern youth " at the Whisky on Tuesday [ ... ] Smashing Pumpkins was preceded by smashing guitars , courtesy of Hole . The tortured , transfixing L.A. group 's pairing with the headliners should have made this a bill to remember , but the audience was primed for Pumpkin and didn 't take to Courtney Love 's powerful howls of anguish . Hole ended its set in a tantrum , as Love ordered the band to halt and hurled her guitar to the ground . Guitarist Eric Erlandson finished things off by demolishing his instrument with a few impressive swings . Frustrated Midwestern youth , meet frustrated California youth .
After the tour concluded , a music video for the track " Garbadge Man " was released , though the album 's only single , " Teenage Whore " , did not receive a music video . The video is fairly abstract and a reflection of Hole 's no wave influence at the time , with shots of Love and other band members in a car interspersed with shots of them performing outside the window . According to Love , she tracked down original rolls of radiographic medical film from Denver , Colorado that had been used in the Vietnam war , which the music video was then shot on , giving the images an X @-@ ray @-@ like appearance . The video was shown on MTV 's 120 Minutes in 1992 during an interview with Love and Kim Gordon , and was broadcast again on the show in 1994 and 1995 but was never as popular as the band 's later videos . For the music video , an alternate mix of the song by Gordon was used to eliminate profanity .
The album was released on CD and cassette in the United States , but received a release on vinyl LP throughout Europe by City Slang , based in Berlin , Germany . The first 3 @,@ 000 pressings of the LP featured blue vinyl , while the following pressings were in standard black . In June 2011 , Plain Recordings , an independent American record label specializing in cult album re @-@ issues , announced that a 180 gram vinyl re @-@ release of Pretty on the Inside was being introduced to their catalogue ; it was released on August 2 , 2011 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Pretty on the Inside was received with positive acclaim by many British and American alternative press . In a review by NME , the album was positively compared to Patti Smith 's Horses , as well as the debut albums of The Ramones , Television , and New York Dolls , and was branded as being in " a class of its own , " while Elizabeth Wurtzel wrote in The New Yorker that " Pretty on the Inside is such a cacophony ... very few people are likely to get through it once , let alone give it the repeated listenings it needs for you to discover that it 's probably the most compelling album to have been released in 1991 . "
Q called the album " loud , ugly , and deliberately shocking , " awarding it three out of five stars . Spin noted in their review :
[ The album ] revolves around a fascination of the repulsive aspects of L.A. — superficiality , sexism , violence , and drugs . Love is the embodiment of what drives the band : the dichotomy of pretty / ugly ... The pretty / ugly dynamic also comes across in Hole 's music ... a song like " Teenage Whore " at first comes across like a ranting noisy rage , but underneath is a surprisingly lush melody . "
Melody Maker columnist Sharon O 'Connell said the album was " the very best bit of fucked up rock ' n ' roll [ I 've heard ] all year " , and it was named one of the 20 best albums of the year by Spin in December 1991 . Deborah Frost of The Village Voice , in her review of the album , called it " genre @-@ defying " , taking note of Love 's reputation on the album as " the girl who won 't shut up ... She is all the things that she should not be , and she shoves it , raw , right in your face . " The Seattle publication The Stranger took note of the album 's production work by Gordon and Fleming , stating that " despite Pretty on the Inside 's reputation as an unhinged , raw @-@ sounding debut , a great deal of professional calculation went into putting this record together . " They also applauded Love 's lyrics , and said the album " judiciously toes the line between the evasively obtuse and overtly obscene . "
In 1995 , Alternative Press magazine ranked the album at # 74 in their " Top 99 Of ' 85- ' 95 " list , noting that " Love works in extremes and wears that scarlet letter when she feels like it , and when she doesn 't she rips it off , never neglecting melody and language as the real medium for her message . " In 2009 PopMatters called it an album with " bold musical splendour on display " that " [ leaves one feeling ] nothing short of gobsmacked . "
In a 1994 article , Rolling Stone journalist David Fricke called the album " gloriously assaultive " and " a classic of sex @-@ mad self @-@ laceration , hypershred guitars and full @-@ moon bawling [ ... ] in particular the spectacular goring of Joni Mitchell 's " Both Sides , Now " ( aka " Clouds " ) at the end of the record . You don 't really know the solitary despair at the core of that song until you 've heard Love 's embittered delivery of the last two lines — " It 's life 's illusions I recall / I really don 't know life at all " — over guitarist Eric Erlandson 's fading squall . "
= = Legacy = =
Pretty on the Inside has had an influence on multiple alternative rock acts , being specifically mentioned by Spinnerette frontwoman Brody Dalle in an interview as a seminal album in the development of her music . British rock band Nine Black Alps also noted the album as a major influence on their third release , Locked Out from the Inside ( 2009 ) , and indie singer @-@ songwriter Scout Niblett cited it as a major influence on her : " For me , the thing that I loved about them and her [ Courtney Love ] was the anger , and aggressiveness , along with the tender side , " said Niblett . " That was something I hadn ’ t seen before in a woman playing music . That was hugely influential and really inspiring . Women up ’ til then were kind of one @-@ dimensional , twee , sweet , ethereal , and that annoys the shit out of me . "
Contemporarily , the album has also gained a cult following among rock and punk music fans .
The Trouser Press Guide to ' 90s Rock called the album a " surly milkshake of broken rock shards ... from the artistic misspellings of song titles to the lyric collage on the inner sleeve and the abrasive , abstract guitar noises on the songs , Pretty on the Inside reveals the band 's fascination with the New York no wave art and music scene of the ' 80s . " According to Billboard , the album had sold 27 @,@ 000 copies by 1994 , when the band released their wildly popular follow @-@ up album , Live Through This .
In more recent years , frontwoman Love stated that the album contains " nothing melodic " . In a 2011 interview for Hit So Hard ( 2011 ) , a documentary on later Hole drummer Patty Schemel , Love referred to Pretty on the Inside as " unlistenable " , going on to say : " That record was a calling card for rock critics and hardcorers , [ saying ] ' This is what I do , and I am not going to back down from it . I am announcing my persona as a cunt . Thank you very much . ' "
Nonetheless , the title track of the album was performed regularly at Hole concerts between 1993 and 1999 , and Love opened shows with the song during Hole 's 2010 tour .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Deepwater Horizon =
Deepwater Horizon was an ultra @-@ deepwater , dynamically positioned , semi @-@ submersible offshore oil drilling rig owned by Transocean . Built in 2001 in South Korea by Hyundai Heavy Industries , the rig was commissioned by R & B Falcon , which later became part of Transocean , registered in Majuro , Marshall Islands , and leased to BP from 2001 until September 2013 . In September 2009 , the rig drilled the deepest oil well in history at a vertical depth of 35 @,@ 050 ft ( 10 @,@ 683 m ) and measured depth of 35 @,@ 055 ft ( 10 @,@ 685 m ) in the Tiber Oil Field at Keathley Canyon block 102 , approximately 250 miles ( 400 km ) southeast of Houston , in 4 @,@ 132 feet ( 1 @,@ 259 m ) of water . On 20 April 2010 , while drilling at the Macondo Prospect , an explosion on the rig caused by a blowout killed 11 crewmen and ignited a fireball visible from 40 miles ( 64 km ) away . The resulting fire could not be extinguished and , on 22 April 2010 , Deepwater Horizon sank , leaving the well gushing at the seabed and causing the largest oil spill in U.S. waters .
= = Design = =
Deepwater Horizon was a fifth @-@ generation , RBS @-@ 8D design ( i.e. model type ) , deepwater , dynamically positioned , column @-@ stabilized , semi @-@ submersible mobile offshore drilling unit , designed to drill subsea wells for oil exploration and production using an 18 @.@ 75 in ( 476 mm ) , 15 @,@ 000 psi ( 100 @,@ 000 kPa ) blowout preventer , and a 21 in ( 530 mm ) outside diameter marine riser .
Deepwater Horizon was the second semi @-@ submersible rig constructed of a class of two , although Deepwater Nautilus , its predecessor , is not dynamically positioned . The rig was 396 by 256 ft ( 121 by 78 m ) and capable of operating in waters up to 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) deep , to a maximum drill depth of 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . In 2010 it was one of approximately 200 deepwater offshore rigs capable of drilling in waters deeper than 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . Its American Bureau of Shipping ( ABS ) class notations were " A1 , Column Stabilized Drilling Unit , AMS , ACCU , DPS @-@ 3 " .
In 2002 , the rig was upgraded with " e @-@ drill " , a drill monitoring system whereby technical personnel based in Houston , Texas , received real @-@ time drilling data from the rig and transmitted maintenance and troubleshooting information .
Advanced systems played a key role in the rig 's operation , from pressure and drill monitoring technology , to automated shutoff systems and modelling systems for cementing . The OptiCem cement modelling system , used by Halliburton in April 2010 , played a crucial part in cement slurry mix and support decisions . These decisions became a focus for investigations into the explosion on the rig that month .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and ownership = = =
Deepwater Horizon was built for R & B Falcon ( which later became part of Transocean ) by Hyundai Heavy Industries in Ulsan , South Korea . Construction started in December 1998 , the keel was laid on 21 March 2000 , and the rig was delivered on 23 February 2001 , after the acquisition of R & B Falcon by Transocean . Until 29 December 2004 the rig was registered in the Republic of Panama .
Transocean , through its Steinhausen , Switzerland subsidiary Triton Asset Leasing GmbH , operated the rig under the Marshallese flag of convenience . The rig was leased to BP on a 3 @-@ year contract for deployment in the Gulf of Mexico following construction . The lease was renewed in 2004 for a year , 2005 for 5 years , and 2009 for 3 years covering 2010 to 2013 . The last contract was worth $ 544 million , or $ 496 @,@ 800 a day , for a " bare rig " , with crew , gear and support vessels estimated to cost the same .
According to R & B Falcon 's filings to SEC in 2001 , the transfer document between R & B Falcon and Transocean was dated 17 August 2001 , and the rig was specified as " official registration number of 29273 @-@ PEXT @-@ 1 , IMO number of 8764597 , with gross tonnage of 32 @,@ 588 and net tonnage of 9 @,@ 778 " and the transfer value as US $ 340 million . As of 2010 , the rig was insured for US $ 560 million covering the replacement cost and wreckage removal .
= = = Drilling operations = = =
Deepwater Horizon worked on wells in the Atlantis ( BP 56 % , BHP Billiton 44 % ) and Thunder Horse ( BP 75 % , ExxonMobil 25 % ) oil fields . It was described at times as a " lucky " and " celebrated " rig , and in 2007 was still described as " one of the most powerful rigs in the world " . In 2006 it discovered oil in the Kaskida oil field , and in 2009 the " giant " Tiber field . The well in the Tiber field has a vertical depth of 35 @,@ 050 ft ( 10 @,@ 683 m ) and a measured depth of 35 @,@ 055 ft ( 10 @,@ 685 m ) , below 4 @,@ 132 ft ( 1 @,@ 259 m ) of water . The well was the deepest oil well in the world , and more than 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) further below the seabed than the rig 's official drilling specification stated on the company 's fleet list .
In February 2010 , Deepwater Horizon commenced drilling an exploratory well at the Macondo Prospect ( Mississippi Canyon Block 252 ) , about 41 miles ( 66 km ) off the southeast coast of Louisiana , at a water depth of approximately 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) . The Macondo prospect exploration rights were acquired by BP in 2009 , with the prospect jointly owned by BP ( 65 % ) , Anadarko ( 25 % ) and MOEX Offshore 2007 ( 10 % ) . Deepwater Horizon was still working on the Macondo site on 20 April 2010 , when a violent explosion occurred leading to destruction of the rig and resulting oil spill . The well was in the final stages of completion at the time ; its cement casing was injected and hardening , and the rig was due to move shortly to its next role as a semi @-@ permanent production platform at the Nile site followed by a return to the Kaskida field . The exploratory work was described as " concluded " and permission had already been requested from MMS to terminate operations at the Macondo site .
During its operational lifetime , the rig was actively in operation for 93 % of its working life ( 2 @,@ 896 of 3 @,@ 131 days ) . The remainder partly relates to time spent between sites .
= = = Regulation , safety , and inspection = = =
The Minerals Management Service ( renamed on 18 June 2010 to the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management , Regulation and Enforcement , or Bureau of Ocean Energy ( BOE ) ) is the regulatory and inspecting body for offshore oil drilling and rigs in the United States of America . According to an Associated Press investigation , certain safety documentation and emergency procedure information , including documentation for the exact incident that later occurred , was absent . The exact number of required monthly inspections performed varied over time ; the inspections were carried out as required for the first 40 months , but after that around 25 % of inspections were omitted , although the investigation notes this is partly expected , since there are circumstances such as weather and movement which preclude an inspection . Reports of the last three inspections for 2010 were provided under Freedom of Information legislation . Each of these inspections had taken two hours or less .
During its lifetime the rig received 5 citations for non @-@ compliance , 4 of which were in 2002 ( safety , including the blowout preventer ) and the other in 2003 ( pollution ) . A sixth citation in 2007 related to non @-@ grounded electrical equipment was later withdrawn when the equipment was determined to be compliant with regulations . Overall the Deepwater Horizon 's safety record was " strong " according to a drilling consultant reviewing the information . In 2009 the Minerals Management Service " herald [ ed ] the Deepwater Horizon as an industry model for safety " . According to AP 's investigation " its record was so exemplary , according to MMS officials , that the rig was never on inspectors ' informal ' watch list ' for problem rigs " .
= = Explosion and oil spill = =
At 9 : 45 P.M. CDT on 20 April 2010 , during the final phases of drilling the exploratory well at Macondo , a geyser of seawater erupted from the marine riser onto the rig , shooting 240 ft ( 73 m ) into the air . This was soon followed by the eruption of a slushy combination of drilling mud , methane gas , and water . The gas component of the slushy material quickly transitioned into a fully gaseous state and then ignited into a series of explosions and then a firestorm . An attempt was made to activate the blowout preventer , but it failed . The final defense to prevent an oil spill , a device known as a blind shear ram , was activated but failed to plug the well .
At the time of the explosion , there were 126 crew on board ; seven were employees of BP , 79 of Transocean , there were also employees of various other companies involved in the operation of the rig , including Anadarko , Halliburton and M @-@ I SWACO . Eleven workers were presumed killed in the initial explosion . The rig was evacuated , with injured workers airlifted to medical facilities . After approximately 36 hours , Deepwater Horizon sank on 22 April 2010 . The remains of the rig were located resting on the seafloor approximately 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) deep at that location , and about 1 @,@ 300 ft ( 400 m ) ( quarter of a mile ) northwest of the well .
The resultant oil spill continued until 15 July when it was closed by a cap . Relief wells were used to permanently seal the well , which was declared " effectively dead " on 19 September 2010 .
= = Aftermath = =
Transocean received an early partial insurance settlement for total loss of the Deepwater Horizon of US $ 401 million around 5 May 2010 . Financial analysts noted that the insurance recovery was likely to outweigh the value of the rig ( although not necessarily its replacement value ) and any liabilities – the latter estimated at up to US $ 200 million .
Litigation , ultimate roll call of damage , and the scope of final insurance recovery were all unknown as of June 2010 , with analysts reporting that the aftermath was of unprecedented scale and complexity compared to previous disasters which themselves took many years to unfold and resolve . A July 2010 analysis by the Financial Times on the aftermath cited legal sources as saying that " at some point the scale of the litigation becomes so large that it really is novel " , that " the situation is likely to be complicated further because the variety of probable cases means it will be hard to aggregate them into so @-@ called class actions " and that there was " no way to put this in historical context because we have never faced anything like this before " . As with the Exxon Valdez disaster , litigation was being discussed in terms of a 20 @-@ year timescale .
In January 2013 , Transocean agreed to pay US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion for violations of the US Clean Water Act . BP had earlier agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 4 billion but faced additional penalties that could range from $ 5 billion to $ 20 billion . In September 2014 , Halliburton agreed to settle a large percentage of legal claims against them by paying $ 1 @.@ 1 billion into a trust by way of three installments over two years . On 4 September 2014 , U.S. District Judge Carl Barbier ruled BP was guilty of gross negligence and willful misconduct under the Clean Water Act ( CWA ) . He described BP 's actions as " reckless , " while he said Transocean 's and Halliburton 's actions were " negligent . " He apportioned 67 % of the blame for the spill to BP , 30 % to Transocean , and 3 % to Halliburton . BP issued a statement strongly disagreeing with the finding , and saying the court 's decision would be appealed .
= American crow =
The American crow ( Corvus brachyrhynchos ) is a large passerine bird species of the family Corvidae . It is a common bird found throughout much of North America . American crows are the new world counterpart to the carrion crow and the hooded crow . Although the American crow and the hooded crow are very similar in size , structure and behavior , their calls are different . The American crow nevertheless occupies the same role the hooded crow does in Eurasia .
From beak to tail , an American crows measures 40 – 50 cm ( 16 – 20 in ) , almost half of which is tail . Mass varies from about 300 to 600 g ( 10 to 20 oz ) . Males tend to be larger than females . The most usual call is caaw @-@ caaw @-@ caaw .
The American crow is all black , with iridescent feathers . It looks much like other all @-@ black corvids . They can be distinguished from the common raven ( C. corax ) because American crows are smaller and from the fish crow ( C. ossifragus ) because American crows do not hunch and fluff their throat feathers when they call .
American crows are common , widespread , and susceptible to the West Nile virus , making them useful as a bioindicator to track the virus 's spread . Direct transmission of the virus from American crows to humans is unheard of and unlikely .
= = Taxonomy = =
The American crow was described by Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1822 . Its scientific name means literally " short @-@ billed crow " , from Ancient Greek brachy- ( βραχυ- ) " short- " and rhynchos ( ρυνχος ) " billed " .
The northwestern crow ( C. caurinus ) is very closely related to the American crow . Its ancestors became separated by Ice Age glaciation west of the Rocky Mountains . It is endemic to Pacific temperate rain forests where it all but replaces the American crow . Only in the Seattle region do they co @-@ occur to any extent . In form the two species are much alike . There is a marked difference in voice .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Four subspecies are recognized . They differ in bill proportion and form a rough NE @-@ SW clinal in size across North America . Birds are smallest in the far west and on the south coast .
Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos – eastern crow : northeastern United States , eastern Canada and surroundings . Largest subspecies .
Corvus brachyrhynchos hesperis – western crow : Western North America except arctic north , Pacific Northwest and extreme south . Smaller overall with a proportionally more slender bill and low @-@ pitched voice .
Corvus brachyrhynchos pascuus – Florida crow : Florida . Mid @-@ sized , short @-@ winged but decidedly long bill and legs .
Corvus brachyrhynchos paulus – southern crow : southern United States . Smaller overall , bill also small .
= = Description = =
The American crow is a distinctive bird with iridescent black feathers all over . Its legs , feet and bill are also black . They measure 40 – 53 cm ( 16 – 21 in ) in length , of which the tail makes up about 40 % . The wing chord is 24 @.@ 5 to 33 cm ( 9 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 0 in ) , with the wingspan ranging from 85 to 100 cm ( 33 to 39 in ) . The bill length can be from 3 to 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 2 in ) , varying strongly according to location . The tarsus is 5 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 6 in ) and the tail is 13 @.@ 5 to 19 cm ( 5 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 in ) . The body mass can vary from 316 to 620 g ( 11 @.@ 1 to 21 @.@ 9 oz ) . Males tend to be larger than females .
The most usual call is a loud , short , and rapid caaw @-@ caaw @-@ caaw . Usually , the birds thrust their heads up and down as they utter this call . American crows can also produce a wide variety of sounds and sometimes mimic noises made by other animals , including other birds .
Visual differentiation from the fish crow ( C. ossifragus ) is extremely difficult and often inaccurate . Nonetheless , differences apart from size do exist . Fish crows tend to have more slender bills and feet . There may also be a small sharp hook at the end of the upper bill . Fish crows also appear as if they have shorter legs when walking . More dramatically , when calling , fish crows tend to hunch and fluff their throat feathers .
If seen flying at a distance from where size estimates are unreliable , the distinctly larger common ravens ( C. corax ) can be distinguished by their almost lozenge @-@ shaped tail and their larger @-@ looking heads . They also fluff their throat feathers when calling like fish crows , only more so .
The average life span of the American crow in the wild is 7 – 8 years . Captive birds are known to have lived up to 30 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the American crow now extends from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean in Canada , on the French islands of Saint @-@ Pierre and Miquelon , south through the United States , and into northern Mexico . The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated range expansions of the American crow as well as range expansions of many other species of birds . Virtually all types of country from wilderness , farmland , parks , open woodland to towns and major cities are inhabited ; it is absent only from Pacific temperate rain forests and tundra habitat where it is replaced by the raven . This crow is a permanent resident in most of the USA , but most Canadian birds migrate some distances southward in winter . Outside of the nesting season these birds often gather in large ( thousands or even millions ) communal roosts at night .
The American crow was recorded in Bermuda from 1876 onwards .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Diet = = =
The American crow is omnivorous . It will feed on invertebrates of all types , carrion , scraps of human food , seeds , eggs and nestlings , stranded fish on the shore and various grains . American crows are active hunters and will prey on mice , frogs , and other small animals . In winter and autumn , the diet of American crows is more dependent on nuts and acorns . Occasionally , they will visit bird feeders . The American crow is one of only a few species of bird that has been observed modifying and using tools to obtain food .
Like most crows , they will scavenge at landfills , scattering garbage in the process . Where available , corn , wheat and other crops are a favorite food . These habits have historically caused the American crow to be considered a nuisance . However , it is suspected that the harm to crops is offset by the service the American crow provides by eating insect pests .
= = = Reproduction = = =
American crows are socially monogamous cooperative breeding birds . Mated pairs form large families of up to 15 individuals from several breeding seasons that remain together for many years . Offspring from a previous nesting season will usually remain with the family to assist in rearing new nestlings . American crows do not reach breeding age for at least two years . Most do not leave the nest to breed for four to five years .
The nesting season starts early , with some birds incubating eggs by early April . American crows build bulky stick nests , nearly always in trees but sometimes also in large bushes and , very rarely , on the ground . They will nest in a wide variety of trees , including large conifers , although oaks are most often used .
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high school on par with Jonathan Stewart , Rashard Mendenhall , Marlon Lucky , Antone Smith and Jamaal Charles . He was a 5 @-@ star blue chip recruit ranked among the top 5 running backs in the nation according to both Scout.com and Rivals.com. He holds the following Michigan High School Athletic Association records :
Most career rushing yards ( 8 @,@ 431 )
Most career touchdowns ( 151 )
Most career points ( 924 )
Most career rushing attempts ( 1 @,@ 154 )
He formerly held the following record :
Most consecutive games with 100 yards rushing ( 24 )
Grady did not consider any other schools en route to signing with Michigan .
= = College career = =
Although football players had been enrolling early at Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) programs for several years , Grady was the first University of Michigan football player to do so . In subsequent years several other players followed his lead , including Justin Boren and Carlos Brown the following year . By graduating high school early , he was able to attend the 2005 Rose Bowl and participate in 2005 Spring football practice .
= = = Freshman year ( 2005 ) = = =
As a freshman in 2005 , Grady rushed 121 times for 483 yards and five touchdowns as a backup and injury replacement for starter Mike Hart , who only played in eight games due to injuries . Grady also caught 14 passes for 113 yards receiving . One of his touchdowns gave Michigan an 18 – 12 lead in the third quarter of the Ohio State game . In the end Grady made two starts at tailback , and was one of only six freshman to have played for the 2005 Michigan Wolverines football team .
= = = Sophomore year ( 2006 ) = = =
Based on his performance during 2006 spring practice , Grady received the John F. Maulbetsch Award . In 2006 , he entered the season as Hart 's primary backup , ahead of senior Jerome Jackson , freshmen Brandon Minor , and Carlos Brown on the depth chart . On opening day , Grady 's five carries were second on the team , but some questioned why his total was so low . As the season progressed , he remained second on the depth chart , seeing limited playing time due to injuries as well as starter Mike Hart being healthy and starting all thirteen games . Grady rushed for 187 yards and three touchdowns on 55 carries and added one reception for eight yards . His net rushing yards from scrimmage ranked fourth on the 2006 Michigan Wolverines football team .
= = = Junior year ( 2007 ) = = =
Prior to spring football practice in 2007 , Grady switched his jersey number from 3 to 24 , his high school number and the day on which he was born . Later that year he was converted to fullback . During a scrimmage in early April , Grady tore his anterior cruciate ligament . On April 16 , 2007 , he had surgery . He would miss the entire 2007 season recovering from his injuries ; by making use of a redshirt year , however , he was able to not use up a year of eligibility .
= = = Junior ( redshirt ) year ( 2008 ) = = =
In 2008 , Rich Rodriguez replaced Lloyd Carr as head coach . During spring football , Grady was still recovering from injuries .
In July 2008 , Grady was pulled over while driving in Wyoming , Michigan with a blood alcohol content of .281 , more than three times the state 's legal limit . He originally pleaded not guilty . Grady began the 2008 season on suspension from the 2008 Wolverines , while Brown , Minor and freshmen Michael Shaw and Sam McGuffie fought for time . During the season , Grady pleaded guilty to misdemeanor drunken driving .
In early August , it appeared that juniors Brown and Minor would vie for the starting job because of Grady 's suspension . With both Brown and Minor nursing injuries , Sam McGuffie was tentatively penciled into the starting position on the depth chart . In the end , Grady only accumulated 33 yards rushing for the season .
= = = Senior ( redshirt ) year ( 2009 ) = = =
In the spring of 2009 , Grady was accused by court officials of not adhering to his probation reporting requirements and not meeting the 24 hours of community service requirement of his probation , among other violations . As a result , he was jailed for seven days in May 2009 .
Kevin 's brother , Kelvin Grady , was a point guard on the Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team before transferring to the Michigan football team after the 2008 – 09 season . On October 17 , 2009 , the two became the first pair of brothers to score a touchdown in the same game for Michigan as far as could be told by the school 's record books . Over the course of the season , Kevin started three games at fullback for the 2009 Wolverines . He compiled 80 yards rushing on 10 carries bringing his career total to 783 yards on 200 carries and 10 touchdowns . He also made 5 receptions bringing his career total to 20 for 150 yards .
Grady was not selected in the 2010 NFL Draft and was not an immediate undrafted free agent . However , only 17 % of the top 100 high school football players from 2003 – 05 were selected in the NFL Draft .
= = Personal = =
On November 26 , 2010 , Grady was arrested and charged again for driving under the influence after recording a .3 blood @-@ alcohol level on a breathalyzer test . He is required to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings three times a week . On December 31 , 2010 , the Indoor Football League announced that the Chicago Slaughter had signed Grady . On May 11 , 2011 , four days after scoring 6 touchdowns for the Slaughter , Grady was sentenced to twenty days in jail for his November drunk driving offense . The sentence included two years of probation , 80 hours of community service , random drug tests , confinement to the state of Michigan until given leave by the judge , and 180 days of car immobilization . In addition , the sentence resulted in him being dropped from the Slaughter .
= Decltype =
In the C + + programming language , decltype is a keyword used to query the type of an expression . Introduced in C + + 11 , its primary intended use is in generic programming , where it is often difficult , or even impossible , to express types that depend on template parameters .
As generic programming techniques became increasingly popular throughout the 1990s , the need for a type @-@ deduction mechanism was recognized . Many compiler vendors implemented their own versions of the operator , typically called typeof , and some portable implementations with limited functionality , based on existing language features were developed . In 2002 , Bjarne Stroustrup proposed that a standardized version of the operator be added to the C + + language , and suggested the name " decltype " , to reflect that the operator would yield the " declared type " of an expression .
decltype 's semantics were designed to cater to both generic library writers and novice programmers . In general , the deduced type matches the type of the object or function exactly as declared in the source code . Like the sizeof operator , decltype 's operand is not evaluated .
= = Motivation = =
With the introduction of templates into the C + + programming language , and the advent of generic programming techniques pioneered by the Standard Template Library , the need for a mechanism for obtaining the type of an expression , commonly referred to as typeof , was recognized . In generic programming , it is often difficult or impossible to express types that depend on template parameters , in particular the return type of function template instantiations .
Many vendors provide the typeof operator as a compiler extension . As early as 1997 , before C + + was fully standardized , Brian Parker proposed a portable solution based on the sizeof operator . His work was expanded on by Bill Gibbons , who concluded that the technique had several limitations and was generally less powerful than an actual typeof mechanism . In an October 2000 article of Dr. Dobb 's Journal , Andrei Alexandrescu remarked that " [ h ] aving a typeof would make much template code easier to write and understand . " He also noted that " typeof and sizeof share the same backend , because sizeof has to compute the type anyway . " Andrew Koenig and Barbara E. Moo also recognized the usefulness of a built @-@ in typeof facility , with the caveat that " using it often invites subtle programming errors , and there are some problems that it cannot solve . " They characterized the use of type conventions , like the typedefs provided by the Standard Template Library , as a more powerful and general technique . However , Steve Dewhurst argued that such conventions are " costly to design and promulgate " , and that it would be " much easier to ... simply extract the type of the expression . " In a 2011 article on C + + 0x , Koenig and Moo predicted that " decltype will be widely used to make everyday programs easier to write . "
In 2002 , Bjarne Stroustrup suggested extending the C + + language with mechanisms for querying the type of an expression , and initializing objects without specifying the type . Stroustrup observed that the reference @-@ dropping semantics offered by the typeof operator provided by the GCC and EDG compilers could be problematic . Conversely , an operator returning a reference type based on the lvalue @-@ ness of the expression was deemed too confusing . The initial proposal to the C + + standards committee outlined a combination of the two variants ; the operator would return a reference type only if the declared type of the expression included a reference . To emphasize that the deduced type would reflect the " declared type " of the expression , the operator was proposed to be named decltype .
One of the cited main motivations for the decltype proposal was the ability to write perfect forwarding function templates . It is sometimes desirable to write a generic forwarding function that returns the same type as the wrapped function , regardless of the type it is instantiated with . Without decltype , it is not generally possible to accomplish this . An example , which also utilizes the trailing @-@ return @-@ type :
decltype is essential here because it preserves the information about whether the wrapped function returns a reference type .
= = Semantics = =
Similarly to the sizeof operator , the operand of decltype is unevaluated . Informally , the type returned by decltype ( e ) is deduced as follows :
If the expression e refers to a variable in local or namespace scope , a static member variable or a function parameter , then the result is that variable 's or parameter 's declared type
Otherwise , if e is an lvalue , decltype ( e ) is T & , where T is the type of e ; if e is an xvalue , the result is T & & ; otherwise , e is a prvalue and the result is T.
These semantics were designed to fulfill the needs of generic library writers , while at the same time being intuitive for novice programmers , because the return type of decltype always matches the type of the object or function exactly as declared in the source code . More formally , Rule 1 applies to unparenthesized id @-@ expressions and class member access expressions . Example :
The reason for the difference between the latter two invocations of decltype is that the parenthesized expression ( a- > x ) is neither an id @-@ expression nor a member access expression , and therefore does not denote a named object . Because the expression is an lvalue , its deduced type is " reference to the type of the expression " , or const double & .
In December 2008 , a concern was raised to the committee by Jaakko Järvi over the inability to use decltype to form a qualified @-@ id , which is inconsistent with the intent that decltype ( e ) should be treated " as if it were a typedef @-@ name " . While commenting on the formal Committee Draft for C + + 0x , the Japanese ISO member body noted that " a scope operator ( : : ) cannot be applied to decltype , but it should be . It would be useful in the case to obtain member type ( nested @-@ type ) from an instance as follows " :
This , and similar issues pertaining to the wording inhibiting the use of decltype in the declaration of a derived class and in a destructor call , were addressed by David Vandevoorde , and voted into the working paper in March 2010 .
= = Availability = =
decltype is included in the C + + Language Standard since C + + 11 . It is provided by a number of compilers as an extension . Microsoft 's Visual C + + 2010 and later compilers provide a decltype type specifier that closely mimics the semantics as described in the standards committee proposal . It can be used with both managed and native code . The documentation states that it is " useful primarily to developers who write template libraries . " decltype was added to the mainline of the GCC C + + compiler in version 4 @.@ 3 , released on March 5 , 2008 @.@ decltype is also present in Codegear 's C + + Builder 2009 , the Intel C + + Compiler , and Clang .
= Grey heron =
The grey heron ( Ardea cinerea ) is a long @-@ legged predatory wading bird of the heron family , Ardeidae , native throughout temperate Europe and Asia and also parts of Africa . It is resident in much of its range , but some populations from the more northern parts migrate southwards in autumn . A bird of wetland areas , it can be seen around lakes , rivers , ponds , marshes and on the sea coast . It feeds mostly on aquatic creatures which it catches after standing stationary beside or in the water or stalking its prey through the shallows .
Standing up to a metre tall , adults weigh from 1 to 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 to 4 @.@ 4 lb ) . They have a white head and neck with a broad black stripe that extends from the eye to the black crest . The body and wings are grey above and the underparts are greyish @-@ white , with some black on the flanks . The long , sharply pointed beak is pinkish @-@ yellow and the legs are brown .
The birds breed colonially in spring in " heronries " , usually building their nests high in trees . A clutch of usually three to five bluish @-@ green eggs is laid . Both birds incubate the eggs for a period of about 25 days , and then both feed the chicks , which fledge when seven or eight weeks old . Many juveniles do not survive their first winter , but if they do , they can expect to live for about five years .
In Ancient Egypt , the deity Bennu was depicted as a heron in New Kingdom artwork . In Ancient Rome , the heron was a bird of divination . Roast heron was once a specially @-@ prized dish ; when George Neville became Archbishop of York in 1465 , four hundred herons were served to the guests .
= = Description = =
The grey heron is a large bird , standing up to 100 cm ( 39 in ) tall and measuring 84 – 102 cm ( 33 – 40 in ) long with a 155 – 195 cm ( 61 – 77 in ) wingspan . The body weight can range from 1 @.@ 02 – 2 @.@ 08 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 6 lb ) . The plumage is largely ashy @-@ grey above , and greyish @-@ white below with some black on the flanks . Adults have the head and neck white with a broad black supercilium that terminates in the slender , dangling crest , and bluish @-@ black streaks on the front of the neck . The scapular feathers are elongated and the feathers at the base of the neck are also somewhat elongated . Immature birds lack the dark stripe on the head and are generally duller in appearance than adults , with a grey head and neck , and a small , dark grey crest . The pinkish @-@ yellow beak is long , straight and powerful , and is brighter in colour in breeding adults . The iris is yellow and the legs are brown and very long .
The main call is a loud croaking " fraaank " , but a variety of guttural and raucous noises are heard at the breeding colony . The male uses an advertisement call to encourage a female to join him at the nest , and both sexes use various greeting calls after a pair bond has been established . A loud , harsh " schaah " is used by the male in driving other birds from the vicinity of the nest and a soft " gogogo " expresses anxiety , as when a predator is nearby or a human walks past the colony . The chicks utter loud chattering or ticking noises .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Herons are a fairly ancient lineage and first appeared in the fossil record in the Paleogene period ; very few fossil herons have been found however . By seven million years ago ( the late Miocene ) , birds closely resembling modern forms and attributable to modern genera had appeared .
Herons are members of the family Ardeidae , and the majority of extant species are in the subfamily Ardeinae and known as true or typical herons . This subfamily includes the herons and egrets , the green herons , the pond herons , the night herons and a few other species . The grey heron belongs in this subfamily and is placed in the genus Ardea , which also includes the cattle egret and the great egret . The grey heron was first described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus who gave it the name Ardea cinerea . The scientific name comes from Latin ardea " heron " , and cinerea , " ash @-@ grey " ( from cineris ashes ) .
Four subspecies are recognised :
A. c. cinerea – Linnaeus , 1758 : nominate , found in Europe , Africa , western Asia
A. c. jouyi – Clark , 1907 : found in eastern Asia
A. c. firasa – Hartert , 1917 : found in Madagascar
A. c. monicae – Jouanin & Roux , 1963 : found on islands off Banc d 'Arguin , Mauritania .
It is closely related and similar to the North American great blue heron ( Ardea herodias ) , which differs in being larger , and having chestnut @-@ brown flanks and thighs , and to the cocoi heron ( Ardea cocoi ) from South America that forms a superspecies with . Some authorities believe that the subspecies A. c. monicae should be considered a separate species . It has been known to hybridise with the great egret ( Ardea alba ) , the little egret ( Egretta garzetta ) , the great blue heron and the purple heron ( Ardea purpurea ) . The Australian white @-@ faced heron is often incorrectly called a grey heron . In Ireland , the grey heron is often colloquially called a " crane " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The grey heron has an extensive range throughout most of the Palearctic ecozone . The range of the nominate subspecies A. c. cinerea extends to 70 ° North in Norway and 66 ° North in Sweden , but otherwise its northerly limit is around 60 ° North across the rest of Europe and Asia eastwards as far as the Ural Mountains . To the south , its range extends to northern Spain , France , central Italy , the Balkans , the Caucasus , Iraq , Iran , India and Myanmar ( Burma ) . It is also present in Africa south of the Sahara Desert , the Canary Islands , Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia and many of the Mediterranean Islands . It is replaced by A. c. jouyi in eastern Siberia , Mongolia , eastern China , Hainan , Japan and Taiwan . In Madagascar and the Aldabra Islands , the subspecies A. c. firasa is found , while the subspecies A. c. monicae is restricted to Mauritania and offshore islands .
Over much of its range , the grey heron is resident , but birds from the more northerly parts of Europe migrate southwards , some remaining in central and southern Europe , others travelling on to Africa south of the Sahara Desert .
Within its range , the grey heron can be found anywhere with suitable watery habitat that can supply its food . The water body needs to be either shallow enough , or have a shelving margin in which it can wade . Although most common in the lowlands it also occurs in mountain tarns , lakes , reservoirs , large and small rivers , marshes , ponds , ditches , flooded areas , coastal lagoons , estuaries and the sea shore . It sometimes forages away from water in pasture , and it has been recorded in desert areas , hunting for beetles and lizards . Breeding colonies are usually near feeding areas but exceptionally may be up to 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) away , and birds sometimes forage as much as 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the nesting site .
= = Behavior = =
The grey heron has a slow flight , with its long neck retracted ( S @-@ shaped ) . This is characteristic of herons and bitterns , and distinguishes them from storks , cranes , and spoonbills , which extend their necks . It flies with slow wing @-@ beats and sometimes glides for short distances . It sometimes soars , circling to considerable heights , but not as often as the stork . In spring , and occasionally in autumn , birds may soar high above the heronry and chase each other , undertake aerial manoeuvres or swoop down towards the ground . The birds often perch in trees , but spend much time on the ground , striding about or standing still for long periods with an upright stance , often on a single leg .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Fish , amphibians , small mammals and insects are taken in shallow water with the heron 's long bill . It has also been observed catching and killing juvenile birds such as ducklings , and occasionally takes birds up to the size of a water rail . It may stand motionless in the shallows , or on a rock or sandbank beside the water , waiting for prey to come within striking distance . Alternatively , it moves slowly and stealthily through the water with its body less upright than when at rest and its neck curved in an " S " . It is able to straighten its neck and strike with its bill with great rapidity .
Small fish are swallowed head first , and larger prey and eels are carried to the shore where they are subdued by being beaten on the ground or stabbed by the bill . They are then swallowed , or have hunks of flesh torn off . The bird regurgitates pellets of indigestible material such as fur , bones and the chitinous remains of insects . The main periods of hunting are around dawn and dusk , but it is also active at other times of day . At night it roosts in trees or on cliffs , where it tends to be gregarious .
= = = Breeding = = =
This species breeds in colonies known as heronries , usually in high trees close to lakes , the seashore or other wetlands . Other sites are sometimes chosen , and these include low trees and bushes , bramble patches , reed beds , heather clumps and cliff ledges . The same nest is used year after year until blown down ; it starts as a small platform of sticks but expands into a bulky nest as more material is added in subsequent years . It may be lined with smaller twigs , strands of root or dead grasses , and in reed beds , it is built from dead reeds . The male usually collects the material while the female constructs the nest . Breeding activities take place between February and June . When a bird arrives at the nest , a greeting ceremony occurs in which each partner raises and lowers its wings and plumes . In continental Europe , and elsewhere , nesting colonies sometimes include nests of the purple heron and other heron species .
Courtship involves the male calling from the chosen nesting site . On the arrival of the female , both birds participate in a stretching ceremony , in which each bird extends its neck vertically before bringing it backwards and downwards with the bill remaining vertical , simultaneously flexing its legs , before returning to its normal stance . The snapping ceremony is another behaviour where the neck is extended forward , the head is lowered to the level of the feet and the mandibles are vigorously snapped together . This may be repeated twenty to forty times . When the pairing is settled , the birds may caress each other by attending to the other bird 's plumage . The male may then offer the female a stick which she incorporates into the nest . At this , the male becomes excited , further preening the female and copulation takes place .
The clutch of eggs usually numbers three to five , though as few as two and as many as seven eggs have been recorded . The eggs have a matt surface and are greenish @-@ blue , averaging 60 mm × 43 mm ( 2 @.@ 36 in × 1 @.@ 69 in ) . The eggs are normally laid at two @-@ day intervals and incubation usually starts after the first or second egg has been laid . Both birds take part in incubation and the period lasts for about twenty @-@ five days . Both parents bring food for the young . At first the chicks seize the adult 's bill from the side and extract regurgitated food from it . Later the adult disgorges the food at the nest and the chicks squabble for possession . They fledge at seven to eight weeks . There is usually a single generation each year , but two broods have been recorded .
The oldest recorded bird lived for twenty @-@ three years but the average life expectancy in the wild is about five years . Only about a third of juveniles survive into their second year , many falling victim to predation .
= = = City life = = =
Grey herons have the ability to live in cities where habitats and nesting space are available . In the Netherlands , the grey heron has established itself over the past decades in great numbers in urban environments . In cities such as Amsterdam , they are ever present and well adapted to modern city life . They hunt as usual , but also visit street markets and snackbars . Some individuals make use of people feeding them at their homes or share the catch of recreational fishermen . Similar behaviour on a smaller scale has been reported in Ireland . Garden ponds stocked with ornamental fish are attractive to herons , and may provide young birds with a learning opportunity on how to catch easy prey .
Herons have been observed visiting water enclosures in zoos , such as spaces for penguins , otters , pelicans , and seals , and taking food meant for the animals on display .
= = Predators and parasites = =
Being large birds with powerful beaks , grey herons have few predators as adults , but the eggs and young are more vulnerable . The adult birds do not usually leave the nest unattended , but may be lured away by marauding crows or kites . A dead grey heron found in the Pyrenees is thought to have been killed by an otter . The bird may have been weakened by harsh winter weather causing scarcity of its prey .
A study performed by Sitko and Heneberg in the Czech Republic between 1962 and 2013 suggested that central European grey herons host 29 species of parasitic worms . The dominant species consisted of Apharyngostrigea cornu ( 67 % prevalence ) , Posthodiplostomum cuticola ( 41 % prevalence ) , Echinochasmus beleocephalus ( 39 % prevalence ) , Uroproctepisthmium bursicola ( 36 % prevalence ) , Neogryporhynchus cheilancristrotus ( 31 % prevalence ) , Desmidocercella numidica ( 29 % prevalence ) and Bilharziella polonica ( 5 % prevalence ) . Juvenile grey herons were shown to host fewer species , but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult herons . Of the digenean flatworms found in central European grey herons , 52 % of the species likely infected their definitive hosts outside central Europe itself , in the pre @-@ migratory , migratory , or wintering quarters , despite the fact that a substantial proportion of grey herons do not migrate to the south .
= = In human culture = =
In Ancient Egypt , the bird deity Bennu , associated with the sun , creation , and rebirth , was depicted as a heron in New Kingdom artwork .
In Ancient Rome , the heron was a bird of divination that gave an augury ( sign of a coming event ) by its call , like the raven , stork , and owl .
Roast heron was once a specially @-@ prized dish in Britain for special occasions such as state banquets . For the appointment of George Neville as Archbishop of York in 1465 , four hundred herons were served to the guests . Young birds were still being shot and eaten in Romney Marsh in 1896 . Two grey herons feature in a stained glass window of the church in Selborne , Hampshire .
The English surnames Earnshaw , Hernshaw , Herne , and Heron all derive from the heron , the suffix -shaw meaning a wood , referring to a place where herons nested .
= Decipherment of rongorongo =
There have been numerous attempts to decipher the rongorongo script of Easter Island since its discovery in the late nineteenth century . As with most undeciphered scripts , many of the proposals have been fanciful . Apart from a portion of one tablet which has been shown to deal with a lunar calendar , none of the texts are understood , and even the calendar cannot actually be read . There are three serious obstacles to decipherment : the small number of remaining texts , comprising only 15 @,@ 000 legible glyphs ; the lack of context in which to interpret the texts , such as illustrations or parallels to texts which can be read ; and the fact that the modern Rapanui language is heavily mixed with Tahitian and is unlikely to closely reflect the language of the tablets — especially if they record a specialized register such as incantations — while the few remaining examples of the old language are heavily restricted in genre and may not correspond well to the tablets either .
Since a proposal by Butinov and Knorozov in the 1950s , the majority of philologists , linguists and cultural historians have taken the line that rongorongo was not true writing but proto @-@ writing , that is , an ideographic- and rebus @-@ based mnemonic device , such as the Dongba script of the Nakhi people , which would in all likelihood make it impossible to decipher . This skepticism is justified not only by the failure of the numerous attempts at decipherment , but by the extreme rarity of independent writing systems around the world . Of those who have attempted to decipher rongorongo as a true writing system , the vast majority have assumed it was logographic , a few that it was syllabic or mixed . Statistically it appears to have been compatible with neither a pure logography nor a pure syllabary . The topic of the texts is unknown ; various investigators have speculated they cover genealogy , navigation , astronomy , or agriculture . Oral history suggests that only a small elite were ever literate , and that the tablets were considered sacred .
= = Accounts from Easter Island = =
In the late 19th century , within a few years to decades of the destruction of Easter Island society by slave raiding and introduced epidemics , two amateur investigators recorded readings and recitations of rongorongo tablets by Easter Islanders . Both accounts were compromised at best , and are often taken to be worthless , but they are the only accounts from people who may have been familiar with the script first @-@ hand .
= = = Jaussen = = =
In 1868 the Bishop of Tahiti , Florentin @-@ Étienne Jaussen , received a gift from recent converts on Easter Island : a long cord of human hair wound around a discarded rongorongo tablet . He immediately recognized the importance of the tablet , and asked Father Hippolyte Roussel on Easter Island to collect more tablets and to find islanders capable of reading them . Roussel was able to acquire only a few additional tablets , and he could find no @-@ one to read them , but the next year in Tahiti Jaussen found a laborer from Easter Island , Metoro Tau ‘ a Ure , who was said to know the inscriptions " by heart " .
Sometime between 1869 and 1874 , Jaussen worked with Metoro to decipher four of the tablets in his possession : A Tahua , B Aruku kurenga , C Mamari , and E Keiti . A list of the glyphs they identified was published posthumously , along with a complete account of the chants for A and B. This is the famous Jaussen list . Though at first taken for a Rosetta Stone of rongorongo , it has not led to an understanding of the script . It has been criticized for , among other inadequacies , glossing five glyphs as " porcelain " , a material not found on Easter Island . However , this is a mistranslation : Jaussen glossed the five glyphs as porcelaine , French for both " cowrie " and the cowrie @-@ like Chinese ceramic which is called porcelain in English . Jaussen 's Rapanui gloss , pure , means specifically " cowrie " .
Almost a century later , Thomas Barthel published some of Jaussen 's notes . He compared Metoro 's chants with parallel passages in other tablets and discovered that Metoro had read the lines of Keiti forwards on the reverse but backwards on the obverse . Jacques Guy found that Metoro had also read the lunar calendar in Mamari backwards , and failed to recognize the " very obvious " pictogram of the full moon within it , demonstrating a lack of any understanding of the contents of the tablets .
= = = Thomson = = =
William J. Thomson , paymaster on the USS Mohican , spent twelve days on Easter Island from 19 December to 30 December 1886 , during which time he made an impressive number of observations , including some which are of interest for the decipherment of the rongorongo .
= = = = Ancient calendar = = = =
Among the ethnographic data Thomson collected were the names of the nights of the lunar month and of the months of the year . This is key to interpreting the single identifiable sequence of rongorongo , and is notable in that it contains thirteen months ; other sources mention only twelve . Métraux criticizes Thomson for translating Anakena as August when in 1869 Roussel identified it as July , and Barthel restricts his work to Métraux and Englert , because they are in agreement while " Thomson 's list is off by one month " . However , Guy calculated the dates of the new moon for years 1885 to 1887 and showed that Thomson 's list fit the phases of the moon for 1886 . He concluded that the ancient Rapanui used a lunisolar calendar with kotuti as its embolismic month ( its " leap month " ) , and that Thomson chanced to land on Easter Island in a year with a leap month .
= = = = Ure Va ‘ e Iko 's recitations = = = =
Thomson was told of an old man called Ure Va ‘ e Iko who " professes to have been under instructions in the art of hieroglyphic reading at the time of the Peruvian raids , and claims to understand most of the characters " . He had been the steward of King Nga ‘ ara , the last king said to have had knowledge of writing , and although he was not able to write himself , he knew many of the rongorongo chants and was able to read at least one memorized text . When Thomson plied him with gifts and money to read the two tablets he had purchased , Ure " declined most positively to ruin his chances for salvation by doing what his Christian instructors had forbidden " and finally fled . However , Thomson had taken photographs of Jaussen 's tablets when the USS Mohican was in Tahiti , and he eventually cajoled Ure into reading from those photographs . The English @-@ Tahitian landowner Alexander Salmon took down Ure 's dictation , which he later translated into English , for the following tablets :
Salmon 's Rapanui was not fluent , and apart from Atua Matariri , which is almost entirely composed of proper names , his English translations do not match what he transcribed of Ure 's readings . The readings themselves , seemingly reliable although difficult to interpret at first , become clearly ridiculous towards the end . The last recitation , for instance , which has been accepted as a love song on the strength of Salmon 's English translation , is interspersed with Tahitian phrases , including words of European origin , such as " the French flag " ( te riva forani ) and " give money for revealing [ this ] " ( horoa moni e fahiti ) , which would not be expected on a pre @-@ contact text . The very title is a mixture of Rapanui and Tahitian : pohera ‘ a is Tahitian for " death " ; the Rapanui word is matenga . Ure was an unwilling informant : even with duress , Thomson was only able to gain his cooperation with " the cup that cheers " ( that is , rum ) :
Finally [ Ure ] took to the hills with the determination to remain in hiding until after the departure of the Mohican . [ U ] nscrupulous strategy was the only resource after fair means had failed . [ When he ] sought the shelter of his own home on [ a ] rough night [ we ] took charge of the establishment . When he found escape impossible he became sullen , and refused to look at or touch a tablet [ but agreed to ] relate some of the ancient traditions . [ C ] ertain stimulants which had been provided for such an emergency were produced , and [ … ] as the night grew old and the narrator weary , he was included as the " cup that cheers " made its occasional rounds . [ A ] t an auspicious moment the photographs of the tablets owned by the bishop were produced for inspection . [ … ] The photographs were recognized immediately , and the appropriate legend related with fluency and without hesitation from beginning to end .
Nonetheless , while no one has succeeded in correlating Ure 's readings with the rongorongo texts , they may yet have value for decipherment . The first two recitations , Apai and Atua Matariri , are not corrupted with Tahitian . The verses of Atua Matariri are of the form X ki ‘ ai ki roto Y , ka pû te Z " X , by mounting into Y , let Z come forth " , and when taken literally , they appear to be nonsense :
" Moon , by mounting into Darkness , let Sun come forth " ( verse 25 ) ,
" Killing , by mounting into Stingray , let Shark come forth " ( verse 28 ) ,
" Stinging Fly , by mounting into Swarm , let Horsefly come forth " ( verse 16 ) .
These verses have generally been interpreted as creation chants , with various beings begetting additional beings . However , they do not conform to Rapanui or other Polynesian creation mythology . Guy notes that the phrasing is similar to the way compound Chinese characters are described . For example , the composition of the Chinese character 銅 tóng " copper " may be described as " add 同 tóng to 金 jīn to make 銅 tóng " ( meaning " add Together to Metal to make Copper " ) , which is also nonsense when taken literally . He hypothesizes that the Atua Matariri chant which Ure had heard in his youth , although unconnected to the particular tablet for which he recited it , was a genuine rongorongo chant : A mnemonic which taught students how the glyphs were composed .
= = Fanciful decipherments = =
Since the late nineteenth century , there has been all manner of speculation about rongorongo . Most remained obscure , but a few attracted considerable attention .
In 1892 the Australian pediatrician Alan Carroll published a fanciful translation , based on the idea that the texts were written by an extinct " Long @-@ Ear " population of Easter Island in a diverse mixture of Quechua and other languages of Peru and Mesoamerica . Perhaps due to the cost of casting special type for rongorongo , no method , analysis , or sound values of the individual glyphs were ever published . Carroll continued to publish short communications in Science of Man , the journal of the ( Royal ) Anthropological Society of Australasia until 1908 . Carroll had himself founded the society , which is " nowadays seen as forming part of the ' lunatic fringe ' . "
In 1932 the Hungarian Vilmos Hevesy ( Guillaume de Hevesy ) published an article claiming a relationship between rongorongo and the Indus Valley script , based on superficial similarities of form . This was not a new idea , but was now presented to the French Academy of Inscriptions and Literature by the French Sinologist Paul Pelliot and picked up by the press . Due to the lack of an accessible rongorongo corpus for comparison , it was not apparent that several of the rongorongo glyphs illustrated in Hevesy 's publications were spurious . Despite the fact that both scripts were undeciphered ( as they are to this day ) , separated by half the world and half of history ( 19 @,@ 000 km ( 12 @,@ 000 mi ) and 4000 years ) , and had no known intermediate stages , Hevesy 's ideas were taken seriously enough in academic circles to prompt a 1934 Franco – Belgian expedition to Easter Island led by Lavachery and Métraux to debunk them ( Métraux 1939 ) . The Indus Valley connection was published as late as 1938 in such respected anthropological journals as Man .
At least a score of decipherments have been claimed since then , none of which have been accepted by other rongorongo epigraphers . For instance , ethnographer Irina Fedorova published purported translations of the two St Petersburg tablets and portions of four others . More rigorous than most attempts , she restricts each glyph to a single logographic reading . However , the results make little sense as texts . For example , tablet P begins ( with each rongorongo ligature marked by a comma in the translation ) :
he cut a rangi sugarcane , a tara yam , he cut lots of taro , of stalks ( ? ) , he cut a yam , he harvested , he cut a yam , he cut , he pulled up , he cut a honui , he cut a sugarcane , he cut , he harvested , he took , a kihi , he chose a kihi , he took a kihi …
and continues in this vein to the end :
he harvested a yam , a poporo , a calabash , he pulled up a yam , he cut , he cut one plant , he cut one plant , a yam , he cut a banana , he harvested a sugarcane , he cut a taro , he cut a kahu yam , a yam , a yam …
The other texts are similar . For example , the Mamari calendar makes no mention of time or the moon in Fedorova 's account :
a root , a root , a root , a root , a root , a root [ that is , a lot of roots ] , a tuber , he
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took , he cut a potato tuber , he dug up yam shoots , a yam tuber , a potato tuber , a tuber …
which even Fedorova characterized as " worthy of a maniac " .
Moreover , the allographs detected by Pozdniakov are given different readings by Fedorova , so that , for example , otherwise parallel texts repeatedly substitute the purported verb ma ‘ u " take " for the purported noun tonga " a kind of yam " . ( Pozdniakov has demonstrated that these are graphic variants of the same glyph . ) As it was , Fedorova 's catalog consisted of 130 glyphs ; Pozdniakov 's additional allography would have made her interpretation even more repetitive . Such extreme repetition is a problem with all attempts to read rongorongo as a logographic script .
Many recent scholars are of the opinion that , while many researchers have made modest incremental contributions to the understanding of rongorongo , notably Kudrjavtsev et al . , Butinov and Knorozov , and Thomas Barthel , the attempts at actual decipherment , such as those of Fedorova here or of Fischer below , " are not accompanied by the least justification " . All fail the key test of decipherment : a meaningful application to novel texts and patterns .
= = Harrison = =
James Park Harrison , a council member of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , noticed that lines Gr3 – 7 of the Small Santiago tablet featured a compound glyph , 380 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 ( a sitting figure 380 holding a rod 1 with a line of chevrons ( a garland ? ) 3 ) , repeated 31 times , each time followed by one to half a dozen glyphs before its next occurrence . He believed that this broke the text into sections containing the names of chiefs . Barthel later found this pattern on tablet K , which is a paraphrase of Gr ( in many of the K sequences the compound is reduced to 380 @.@ 1 ) , as well as on A , where it sometimes appears as 380 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 and sometimes as 380 @.@ 1 ; on C , E , and S as 380 @.@ 1 ; and , with the variant 380 @.@ 1 @.@ 52 , on N. In places it appears abbreviated as 1 @.@ 3 or 1 @.@ 52 , without the human figure , but parallels in the texts suggest these have the same separating function . Barthel saw the sequence 380 @.@ 1 as a tangata rongorongo ( rongorongo expert ) holding an inscribed staff like the Santiago Staff .
= = Kudrjavtsev et al . = =
During World War II , a small group of students in Saint Petersburg ( then Leningrad ) , Boris Kudrjavtsev , Valeri Chernushkov , and Oleg Klitin , became interested in tablets P , and Q , which they saw on display at the Museum of Ethnology and Anthropology . They discovered that they bore , with minor variation , the same text , which they later found on tablet H as well :
Parallel texts : A short excerpt of tablets H , P , and Q
Barthel would later call this the " Grand Tradition " , though its contents remain unknown .
The group later noticed that tablet K was a close paraphrase of the recto of G. Kudrjavtsev wrote up their findings , which were published posthumously . Numerous other parallel , though shorter , sequences have since been identified through statistical analysis , with texts N and R found to be composed almost entirely of phrases shared with other tablets , though not in the same order .
Identifying such shared phrasing was one of the first steps in unraveling the structure of the script , as it is the best way to detect ligatures and allographs , and thus to establish the inventory of rongorongo glyphs .
Ligatures : Parallel texts Pr4 – 5 ( top ) and Hr5 ( bottom ) show that a figure ( glyph 200 ) holding an object ( glyphs 8 , 1 , and 9 ) in P may be fused into a ligature in H , where the object replaces either the figure 's head or its hand . ( Elsewhere in these texts , animal figures are reduced to a distinctive feature such as a head or arm when they fuse with a preceding glyph . ) Here also are the two hand shapes ( glyphs 6 and 64 ) which would later be established as allographs . Three of the four human and turtle figures at left have arm ligatures with an orb ( glyph 62 ) , which Pozdniakov found often marks a phrase boundary .
= = Butinov and Knorozov = =
In 1957 the Russian epigraphers Nikolai Butinov and Yuri Knorozov ( who in 1952 had provided the key insights which would later lead to the decipherment of the Maya writing system ) suggested that the repetitive structure of a sequence of some fifteen glyphs on Gv5 – 6 ( lines 5 and 6 of the verso of the Small Santiago Tablet ) was compatible with a genealogy . It reads in part ,
Now , if the repeated independent glyph 200 is a title , such as " king " , and if the repeated attached glyph 76 is a patronymic marker , then this means something like :
King A , B 's son , King B , C 's son , King C , D 's son , King D , E 's son ,
and the sequence is a lineage .
Although no @-@ one has been able to confirm Butinov and Knorozov 's hypothesis , it is widely considered plausible . If it is correct , then , first , we can identify other glyph sequences which constitute personal names . Second , the Santiago Staff would consist mostly of persons ' names as it bears 564 occurrences of glyph 76 , the putative patronymic marker , one fourth of the total of 2320 glyphs . Third , the sequence 606 @.@ 76 700 , translated by Fischer ( below ) as " all the birds copulated with the fish " , would in reality mean ( So @-@ and @-@ so ) son of 606 was killed . The Santiago Staff , with 63 occurrences of glyph 700 , a rebus for îka " victim " , would then be in part a kohau îka ( list of war casualties ) .
= = Barthel = =
German ethnologist Thomas Barthel , who first published the rongorongo corpus , identified three lines on the recto ( side a ) of tablet C , also known as Mamari , as a lunar calendar . Guy proposed that it was more precisely an astronomical rule for whether one or two intercalary nights should be inserted into the 28 @-@ night Rapanui month to keep it in sync with the phases of the moon , and if one night , whether this should come before or after the full moon . Berthin and Berthin propose that it is the text which follows the identified calendar which shows where the intercalary nights should appear . The Mamari calendar is the only example of rongorongo whose function is currently accepted as being understood , though it cannot actually be read .
In Guy 's interpretation , the core of the calendar is a series of 29 left @-@ side crescents ( " ☾ " , colored red on the photo of the table at right ) on either side of the full moon , , a pictogram of te nuahine kā ‘ umu ‘ a rangi kotekote ' the old woman lighting an earth oven in the kotekote sky ' — the Man in the Moon of Oceanic mythology . These correspond to the 28 basic and two intercalary nights of the old Rapa Nui lunar calendar .
These thirty nights , starting with the new moon , are divided into eight groups by a " heralding sequence " of four glyphs ( above , and colored purple on the tablet at right ) which ends in the pictogram of a fish on a line ( yellow ) . The heralding sequences each contain two right @-@ side lunar crescents ( " ☽ " ) . In all four heralding sequences preceding the full moon the fish is head up ; in all four following it the fish is head down , suggesting the waxing and waning of the moon . The way the crescents are grouped together reflects the patterns of names in the old calendar . The two ☾ crescents at the end of the calendar , introduced with an expanded heralding sequence , represent the two intercalary nights held in reserve . The eleventh crescent , with the bulge , is where one of those nights is found in Thomson 's and Métraux 's records .
Guy notes that the further the Moon is from the Earth in its eccentric orbit , the slower it moves , and the more likely the need to resort to an intercalary night to keep the calendar in sync with its phases . He hypothesizes that the " heralding sequences " are instructions to observe the apparent diameter of the Moon , and that the half @-@ size superscripted crescents ( orange ) preceding the sixth night before and sixth night after the full moon represent the small apparent diameter at apogee which triggers intercalation . ( The first small crescent corresponds to the position of hotu in Thomson and Métraux . )
Seven of the calendrical crescents ( red ) are accompanied by other glyphs ( green ) . Guy suggests syllabic readings for some of these , based on possible rebuses and correspondences with the names of the nights in the old calendar . The two sequences of six and five nights without such accompanying glyphs ( beginning of line 7 , and transition of lines 7 – 8 ) correspond to the two groups of six and five numbered kokore nights , which do not have individual names .
= = Fischer = =
In 1995 independent linguist Steven Fischer , who also claims to have deciphered the enigmatic Phaistos Disc , announced that he had cracked the rongorongo " code " , making him the only person in history to have deciphered two such scripts . In the decade since , this has not been accepted by other researchers , who feel that Fischer overstated the single pattern which formed the basis of his decipherment , and note that it has not led to an understanding of other patterns .
= = = Decipherment = = =
Fischer notes that the long text of the 125 @-@ cm Santiago Staff is unlike other texts in that it appears to have punctuation : The 2 @,@ 320 @-@ glyph text is divided by " 103 vertical lines at odd intervals " which do not occur on any of the tablets . Fischer remarked that glyph 76 , identified as a possible patronymic marker by Butinov and Knorozov , is attached to the first glyph in each section of text , and that " almost all " sections contain a multiple of three glyphs , with the first bearing a 76 " suffix " .
Fischer identified glyph 76 as a phallus and the text of the Santiago Staff as a creation chant consisting of hundreds of repetitions of X – phallus Y Z , which he interpreted as X copulated with Y , there issued forth Z. His primary example was this one :
about half @-@ way through line 12 of the Santiago Staff . Fischer interpreted glyph 606 as " bird " + " hand " , with the phallus attached as usual at its lower right ; glyph 700 as " fish " ; and glyph 8 as " sun " .
On the basis that the Rapanui word ma ‘ u " to take " is nearly homophonous with a plural marker mau , he posited that the hand of 606 was that plural marker , via a semantic shift of " hand " → " take " , and thus translated 606 as " all the birds " . Taking penis to mean " copulate " , he read the sequence 606 @.@ 76 700 8 as " all the birds copulated , fish , sun " .
Fischer supported his interpretation by claiming similarities to the recitation Atua Matariri , so called from its first words , which was collected by William Thomson . This recitation is a litany where each verse has the form X , ki ‘ ai ki roto ki Y , ka pû te Z , literally " X having been inside Y the Z comes forward " . Here is the first verse , according to Salmon and then according to Métraux ( neither of whom wrote glottal stops or long vowels ) :
Atua Matariri ; Ki ai Kiroto , Kia Taporo , Kapu te Poporo .
" God Atua Matariri and goddess Taporo produced thistle . "
Atua @-@ matariri ki ai ki roto ki a te Poro , ka pu te poporo .
" God @-@ of @-@ the @-@ angry @-@ look by copulating with Roundness ( ? ) produced the poporo ( black nightshade , Solanum nigrum ) . "
Fischer proposed that the glyph sequence 606 @.@ 76 700 8 , literally MANU : MA ‘ U. ‘ AI ÎKA RA ‘ Â " bird : hand.penis fish sun " , had the analogous phonetic reading of :
te manu mau ki ‘ ai ki roto ki te îka , ka pû te ra ‘ â
" All the birds copulated with the fish ; there issued forth the sun . "
He claimed similar phallic triplets for several other texts . However , in the majority of texts glyph 76 is not common , and Fischer proposed that these were a later , more developed stage of the script , where the creation chants had been abbreviated to X Y Z and omit the phallus . He concluded that 85 % of the rongorongo corpus consisted of such creation chants , and that it was only a matter of time before rongorongo would be fully deciphered .
= = = Objections = = =
There are a number of objections to Fischer 's approach :
When Andrew Robinson checked the claimed pattern , he found that " Close inspection of the Santiago Staff reveals that only 63 out of the 113 [ sic ] sequences on the staff fully obey the triad structure ( and 63 is the maximum figure , giving every Fischer attribution the benefit of the doubt ) . " Glyph 76 occurs sometimes in isolation , sometimes compounded with itself , and sometimes in the ' wrong ' part ( or even all parts ) of the triplets . Other than on the Staff , Pozdniakov could find Fischer 's triplets only in the poorly preserved text of Ta and in the single line of Gv which Butinov and Knorozov suggested might be a genealogy .
Pozdniakov and Pozdniakov calculated that altogether the four glyphs of Fischer 's primary example make up 20 % of the corpus . " Hence it is easy to find examples in which , on the contrary , ' the sun copulates with the fish ' , and sometimes also with the birds . Fischer does not mention the resulting chaos in which everything is copulating in all manner of unlikely combinations . Furthermore , it is by no means obvious in what sense this ' breakthrough ' is ' phonetic ' . "
The plural marker mau does not exist in Rapanui , but is instead an element of Tahitian grammar . However , even if it did occur in Rapanui , Polynesian mau is only a plural marker when it precedes a noun ; after a noun it 's an adjective which means " true , genuine , proper " .
No Polynesian myth tells of birds copulating with fish to produce the sun . Fischer justifies his interpretation thus : This is very close to [ verse ] number 25 from Daniel Ure Va ‘ e Iko 's procreation chant [ Atua Matariri ] " Land copulated with the fish Ruhi Paralyzer : There issued forth the sun . " However , this claim depends on Salmon 's English translation , which does not follow from his Rapanui transcription of
Heima ; Ki ai Kiroto Kairui Kairui @-@ Hakamarui Kapu te Raa .
Métraux gives the following interpretation of that verse :
He Hina [ He ima ? ] ki ai ki roto kia Rui @-@ haka @-@ ma @-@ rui , ka pu te raa .
" Moon ( ? ) by copulating with Darkness ( ? ) produced Sun " ,
which mentions neither birds nor fish .
Given Fischer 's reading , Butinov and Knorozov 's putative genealogy on tablet Gv becomes semantically odd , with several animate beings copulating with the same human figure to produce themselves :
[ turtle ] copulated with [ man ] , there issued forth [ turtle ]
[ shark ? ] copulated with [ man ] there issued forth [ shark ]
etc .
Cryptologist Tomi Melka deduced that Fischer 's hypothesis cannot be true for the entire Staff , let alone other texts .
Computational linguist Richard Sproat could not replicate the parallels Fischer claimed between the Santiago Staff and the other texts . He automated the search for string matches between the texts and found that the staff stood alone :
As an attempt at a test for Fischer 's " phallus omission " assumption , we computed the same string matches for a version of the corpus where glyph 76 , the phallus symbol , had been removed . Presumably if many parts of the other tablets are really texts which are like the Santiago Staff , albeit sans explicit phallus , one ought to increase one 's chance of finding matches between the Staff and other tablets by removing the offending member . The results were the same as for the unadulterated version of the corpus : the Santiago staff still appears as an isolate .
= = Pozdniakov = =
In the 1950s , Butinov and Knorozov had performed a statistical analysis of several rongorongo texts and had concluded that either the language of the texts was not Polynesian , or that it was written in a condensed telegraphic style , because it contained no glyphs comparable in frequency to Polynesian grammatical particles such as the Rapanui articles te and he or the preposition ki . These findings have since been used to argue that rongorongo is not a writing system at all , but mnemonic proto @-@ writing . However , Butinov and Knorozov had used Barthel 's preliminary encoding , which Konstantin Pozdniakov , senior researcher at the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg ( until 1996 ) , noted was inappropriate for statistical analysis . The problem , as Butinov and Knorozov , and Barthel himself , had admitted , was that in many cases distinct numerical codes had been assigned to ligatures and allographs , as if these were independent glyphs . The result was that while Barthel 's numerical transcription of a text enabled a basic discussion of its contents for the first time , it failed to capture its linguistic structure and actually interfered with inter @-@ text comparison .
In 2011 , Pozdniakov released a pre @-@ press publication analyzing Text E Keiti , including a glyph @-@ by @-@ glyph comparison of the transcription in Barthel ( 1958 ) , with misidentified glyphs corrected per Horley ( 2010 ) .
= = = Revising the glyph inventory = = =
To resolve this deficiency , Pozdniakov ( 1996 ) reanalyzed thirteen of the better preserved texts , attempting to identify all ligatures and allographs in order to better approach a one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between graphemes and their numeric representation . He observed that all these texts but I and G verso consist predominantly of shared phrases ( sequences of glyphs ) , which occur in different orders and contexts on different tablets . By 2007 he had identified some one hundred shared phrases , each between ten and one hundred glyphs long . Even setting aside the completely parallel texts Gr – K and the ' Grand Tradition ' of H – P – Q , he found that half of the remainder comprises such phrases :
Phrasing : Variants of this twenty @-@ glyph phrase , all missing some of these glyphs or adding others , are found twelve times , in eight of the thirteen texts Pozdniakov tabulated : lines Ab4 , Cr2 – 3 , Cv2 , Cv12 , Ev3 , Ev6 , Gr2 – 3 , Hv12 , Kr3 , Ra6 , Rb6 , and Sa1 . Among other things , such phrases have established or confirmed the reading order of some of the tablets .
These shared sequences begin and end with a notably restricted set of glyphs . For example , many begin or end , or both , with glyph 62 ( an arm ending in a circle : ) or with a ligature where glyph 62 replaces the arm or wing of a figure ( see the ligature image under Kudrjavtsev et al . ) .
Contrasting these phrases allowed Pozdniakov to determine that some glyphs occur in apparent free variation both in isolation and as components of ligatures . Thus he proposed that the two hand shapes , 6 ( three fingers and a thumb ) and 64 ( a four @-@ fingered forked hand ) , are graphic variants of a single glyph , which also attaches to or replaces the arms of various other glyphs :
Allographs : The ' hand ' allographs ( left ) , plus some of the fifty pairs of allographic ' hand ' ligatures to which Barthel had assigned distinct character codes .
The fact the two hands appear to substitute for each other in all these pairs of glyphs when the repeated phrases are compared lends credence to their identity . Similarly , Pozdniakov proposed that the heads with " gaping mouths " , as in glyph 380 , are variants of the bird heads , so that the entirety of Barthel 's 300 and 400 series of glyphs are seen as either ligatures or variants of the 600 series .
Despite finding that some of the forms Barthel had assumed were allographs appeared instead to be independent glyphs , such as the two orientations of his glyph 27 , , the overall conflation of allographs and ligatures greatly reduced the size of Barthel 's published 600 @-@ glyph inventory . By recoding the texts with these findings and then recomparing them , Pozdniakov was able to detect twice as many shared phrases , which enabled him to further consolidate the inventory of glyphs . By 2007 , he and his father , a pioneer in Russian computer science , had concluded that 52 glyphs accounted for 99 @.@ 7 % of the corpus . From this he deduced that rongorongo is essentially a syllabary , though mixed with non @-@ syllabic elements , possibly determinatives or logographs for common words ( see below ) . The data analysis , however , has not been published .
The shared repetitive nature of the phrasing of the texts , apart from Gv and I , suggests to Pozdniakov that they are not integral texts , and cannot contain the varied contents which would be expected for history or mythology . In the following table of characters in the Pozdniakov & Pozdniakov inventory , ordered by descending frequency , the first two rows of 26 characters account for 86 % of the entire corpus .
= = = Statistical evidence = = =
With a rigorously derived inventory , Pozdniakov was able to test his ideas about the nature of the script . He tabulated the frequency distributions of glyphs in ten texts ( excluding the divergent Santiago Staff ) and found that they coincided with the distribution of syllables in ten archaic Rapanui texts such as the Apai recitation , with nearly identical deviations from an ideal Zipfian distribution . He took this as evidence both for rongorongo being essentially syllabic and for its being consistent with the Rapanui language . For example , the most common glyph , 6 , and the most common syllable , / a / , both make up 10 % of their corpora ; the syllables te and he , which Butinov and Knorozov found so problematic , could at 5 @.@ 7 % and 3 @.@ 5 % be associated with any number of common rongorongo glyphs . In addition , the numbers of glyphs linked or fused together closely match the numbers of syllables in Rapanui words , both in the texts overall and in their respective lexicons , suggesting that each combination of glyphs represents a word :
In both corpora there were many more monosyllables / single glyphs in running text than in the lexicon . That is , in both a relatively small number of such forms are very frequent , suggesting that rongorongo is compatible with Rapanui , which has a small number of very frequent monosyllabic grammatical particles . Rongorongo and Rapanui are also almost identical in the proportion of syllables / glyphs found in isolation and in initial , medial , and final position within a word / ligature .
However , while such statistical tests demonstrate that rongorongo is consistent with a syllabic Rapanui script , syllables are not the only thing which can produce this result . In the Rapanui texts , some two dozen common polysyllabic words , such as ariki ' leader ' , ingoa ' name ' , and rua ' two ' , have the same frequency as a score of syllables , while other syllables such as / tu / are less frequent than these words .
This suspicion that rongorongo may not be fully syllabic is supported by positional patterns within the texts . The distributions of Rapanui syllables within polysyllabic words and of rongorongo glyphs within ligatures are very similar , strengthening the syllabic connection . However , monosyllabic words and isolated glyphs behave very differently ; here rongorongo does not look at all syllabic . For example , all glyphs but 901 are attested in isolation , whereas only half of the 55 Rapanui syllables occur as monosyllabic words . Furthermore , among those syllables which do occur in isolation , their rate of doing so is much lower than that of the glyphs : Only three syllables , / te / , / he / , and / ki / , occur more than half the time in isolation ( as grammatical particles ) , whereas a score of glyphs are more commonly found in isolation than not . Contextual analysis may help explain this : Whereas Rapanui monosyllables are grammatical particles and generally precede polysyllabic nouns and verbs , so that monosyllables rarely occur together , isolated rongorongo glyphs are usually found together , suggesting a very different function . Pozdniakov hypothesizes that the difference may be due to the presence of determinatives , or that glyphs have dual functions , as phonograms in combination but as logograms in isolation , parallel to the Maya script . On the other hand , no glyph approaches the frequency , when in isolation , of the articles te and he or the preposition ki in running text . It may be that these particles were simply not written , but Pozdniakov suspects that they were written together with the following word , as is the case with prepositions and articles in Classical Latin and written Arabic .
Further complicating this picture are repetition patterns . There are two types of repetition in Rapanui words : double syllables within roots , as in mamari , and grammatical reduplication of disyllables , as seen in rongorongo . In the Rapanui lexicon , double syllables as in mamari are 50 % more likely than chance can explain . However , in the rongorongo texts , analogous double AA glyphs are only 8 % more likely than chance . Similarly , in the Rapanui lexicon reduplicated disyllables such as rongorongo are seven times as common as chance , constituting a quarter of the vocabulary , whereas , in rongorongo texts , ABAB sequences are only twice as likely as chance , and 10 % of the vocabulary . If rongorongo is a phonetic script , therefore , this discrepancy needs to be explained . Pozdniakov suggests that perhaps there was a ' reduplicator ' glyph , or that modifications of glyphs , such as facing heads to the left rather than to the right , may have indicated repetition .
= = = Sound values = = =
The results of statistical analysis will be strongly affected by any errors in identifying the inventory of glyphs , as well as by divergence from a purely syllabic representation , such as a glyph for reduplication . There are also large differences in the frequencies of individual syllables among the Rapanui texts , which makes any direct identification problematic . While Pozdniakov has not been able to assign any phonetic values with any certainty , statistical results do place constraints on which values are possible .
One possibility for a logogram of the most common word in Rapanui , the article te , is the most common glyph , 200 , which does not pattern like a phonogram . Glyph 200 occurs mostly in initial position and is more frequent in running text than any syllable in the Rapanui lexicon , both characteristics of the article . A possibility for a reduplicator glyph is 3 , which is also very common and does not pattern like a phonogram , but occurs predominantly in final position .
Because a repeated word or phrase , such as the ubiquitous ki ‘ ai ki roto in the Atua Matariri recitation , will skew the statistics of that text , phonetic frequencies are best compared using word lists ( considering each word individually ) rather than the full texts . Pozdniakov used a few basic correlations between Rapanui and rongorongo to help narrow down the possible phonetic values of the glyphs . For instance , the relative frequencies of rongorongo glyphs in initial , medial , and final position in a ligature presumably constrain their possible sound values to syllables with similar distributions within the lexicon . Syllables beginning with ng , for example , are more common at the ends of words than in initial position . The overall frequencies , and the patterns of doubling and reduplication , on the other hand , seem to associate arm glyphs specifically with vocalic syllables :
Overall frequency . Syllables without a consonant ( vocalic syllables ) are more common in Rapanui than syllables beginning with any of the ten consonants . Of the vowels , / a / is more than twice as frequent as any of the others . Thus the syllables comprising more than 3 % of the Rapanui lexicon are / i / , / e / , / a / , / o / , / u / ; / ta / , / ra / , / ka / , / na / , / ma / ; and / ri / . ( The three most common , the vocalic syllables / a / , / i / , / u / , comprise a full quarter of the corpus . ) The glyphs comprising more than 3 % of the rongorongo corpus are , in order , 200 , 6 or , 10 , 3 , 62 , 400 , 61 . As noted above , 200 and 3 do not pattern as phonograms . Of the remaining five , four are limbs ( arms or wings ) .
Reduplication . In grammatical reduplication , vowels are also the most common syllables ; so are the glyphs 6 , 10 , 61 , 62 , 901 , all limbs .
Doubling . Among doubled syllables , however , vocalic syllables are much less common . Four syllables , / i / , / a / , / u / , / ma / , are less commonly doubled than chance would dictate . Three glyphs are less common when doubled than chance as well : 6 , 10 , and 63 , two of them limbs .
The exceptionally high frequencies of glyph 6 and of the syllable / a / , everywhere except when doubled , suggest that glyph 6 may have the sound value / a / . Pozdniakov proposes with less confidence that the second most extreme glyph , 10 , might have the sound value / i / .
= = = Objections = = =
As Pozdniakov readily admits , his analysis is highly sensitive to the accuracy of the glyph inventory . Since he has not published the details of how he established this inventory , it is not possible for others to verify his work .
As of 2008 , there has been little response to Pozdniakov 's approach . However , Sproat ( 2007 ) believes that the results from the frequency distributions are nothing more than an effect of Zipf 's Law , and furthermore that neither rongorongo nor the old texts were representative of the Rapanui language , so that a comparison between them is unlikely to be enlightening .
= = De Laat = =
Another decipherment , self @-@ published by Mary de Laat in 2009 , covers three texts , A , B , and E. Horley ( 2010 ) is a critical review . All three texts are proposed to consist of nothing but extended dialogue . It would be remarkable enough for these rare pieces of wood to record the banal exchanges de Laat attributes to them , yet the ligature 380 @.@ 1 , which de Laat identified as a man named Taea , is found in six of the surviving texts , fully half of the corpus that is indisputably authentic and in good condition , presenting this figure , who is supposed to have murdered his wife , as one of the most important protagonists in the Rapa Nui tradition . Yet there is no such Taea in the surviving Rapa Nui oral literature . This ligature for Taea is the one that was identified by Harrison as a marker for dividing lists , and found by Barthel to have parallels on yet other texts in the forms 380 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 3 . However , despite the parallel content of these texts , de Laat 's translations of them are quite divergent , because his purely phonetic reading does not allow him to read 1 @.@ 3 as " Taea " . The participants in the dialogues must therefore be different , and de Laat 's segmentation of the texts is " unstable " . There are also fatal grammatical errors , and readings that turn out to be post @-@ colonial Tahitian loans . In response to such criticism , de Laat has begun to " substantially revise " his translations .
= Black honeyeater =
The black honeyeater ( Sugomel nigrum ) is a species of bird in the family of honeyeaters , Meliphagidae , and the sole species in the genus Sugomel . The black honeyeater exhibits sexual dimorphism with the male being black and white while the female is a speckled grey @-@ brown ; immature birds look like the female . The species is endemic to Australia , and ranges widely across the arid areas of the continent , through open woodland and shrubland , particularly in areas where the emu bush and related species occur .
Black honeyeaters feed on nectar , and have a long curved bill to reach the base of tubular flowers such as those of the emu bush . They also take insects on the wing , and regularly eat charcoal left behind at campfires . The male engages in a soaring song flight in the mating season , but contributes little to nest building and incubation . Both sexes feed and care for the young . While the population appears to be decreasing , they are sufficiently numerous and widespread to be considered of Least Concern in terms of conservation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The black honeyeater was first described by John Gould in 1838 as Myzomela nigra , using the Latin adjective niger to refer to the black plumage of the male . The genus name was derived from the Ancient Greek words myzo ' to suckle ' and meli ' honey ' , and referred to the bird 's nectivorous habits . In 1967 ornithologist Finn Salomonsen transferred the species from Myzomela to the genus Certhionyx , which also contained the banded honeyeater ( Certhionyx pectoralis ) and pied honeyeater ( Certhionyx variegatus ) , and later authorities accepted this classification . However , in 2004 genetic study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of honeyeaters resolved it as in a natural group with Myzomela after all , although it was an early offshoot and quite divergent genetically . It was subsequently reclassified in its own genus Sugomel . It is identified as Sugomel niger by most taxonomic authorities , and Sugomel nigrum by the IOC Birdlist .
DNA analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily . The Papuan black myzomela , ( Myzomela nigrita ) , found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea is also known as the black honeyeater . It is a different but related species .
= = Description = =
The black honeyeater is a small honeyeater with a long slender down @-@ curved bill , a small rounded head and slender neck set on a plump body , and a short , slightly cleft tail . It has relatively long , pointed wings compared with other Meliphagidae , and very long wings for such a small bird , the development of which has been attributed to its feeding behaviour of flying between shrubs and hovering over flowers .
The species is strongly sexually dimorphic . Adult males are black and white , with a black head , neck , wings and upperparts , and a black stripe running down from the centre of the chest to the abdomen , and with a white belly , flanks and under @-@ tail coverts . The female ’ s crown , ear coverts and upper parts are buff brown , scalloped paler , with a pale eyebrow , and the chest is speckled grey @-@ brown grading into a dull white belly . In both male and female the iris is dark brown and the bill and legs blackish brown . Immature birds are similar to the adult female , however the upper breast and throat tend to be more uniform and the base of the bill is paler . Immature birds are not separable from adults at a distance .
The black honeyeater is quiet outside the breeding season , but calls before and during nesting , often early in the morning . The calls include a soft metallic " chwit , chwit " ; a louder note , a " tieee " , with a monotonously even pitch and spacing at intervals of several seconds ; and a weak " peeee " , usually uttered by breeding males . In high song flights the males give a double noted " tieee @-@ tieee " . A soft scolding call is given by both sexes after the young hatch , which may be a food call for the young . The species is also heard making a bill snap when hawking insects . It is constantly on the move , hovering and hawking when feeding , and constantly chasing intruders at food sources . Gould described its flight as " remarkably quick , and performed with zigzag starts " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The black honeyeater is a bird of the dry inland of Australia , being generally widespread if scattered in western Queensland and New South Wales to the South Australian border and occasionally recorded in the Victorian Mallee and Wimmera regions . In South Australia , it occurs in the south @-@ east and it is widespread in the central and northern regions of Western Australia , with some rare records in the south near Kalgoorlie . In the Northern Territory it is widespread around Alice Springs , with some vagrants to the Top End .
It is dependent on the presence of the emu bush Eremophila longifolia and related species . As a result , the black honeyeater is found in open woodlands and shrublands of arid and semi @-@ arid regions , as well as in mulga or mallee woodlands , and it will also be found in spinifex savanna where flowering shrubs such as grevilleas and paperbarks occur . It has been noted that the black honeyeater is able to locate emu bushes , even when clumps consisted of only two or three trees and were separated by many kilometres of country , which suggests the importance of this plant @-@ bird association .
The black honeyeaters is considered to be migratory rather than nomadic , with regular seasonal movements related to flowering of food plants , especially the emu bush . Some movements are southwards in spring and summer , moving northwards again in autumn and winter . During severe droughts it has been recorded south of Bendigo and in the Hunter Region . Irruptions ( sudden population increases ) can occur in some areas after rain or the movement of floodwaters .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Food and feeding = = =
The black honeyeater feeds on nectar , probing flowers and foliage with its long fine bill . It is mainly found in the crowns of eucalypts , at clumps of mistletoe or in shrubs , especially emu bushes Eremophila . Observations over a twelve @-@ month period in South Australia recorded black honeyeaters visiting the flowers of Eremophila longifolia , Eremophila oppositifolia , Eucalyptus incrassata , and Grevillea ilicifolia . They were also frequently observed hawking for small insects . The black honeyeater hovers briefly around flowers when feeding . Normally found alone , in pairs or in small flocks , they may sometimes form large mixed flocks at food sources , associating with other birds such as pied honeyeaters and white @-@ browed woodswallows . Like many other honeyeaters , the black honeyeater catches insects on the wing . The male , in particular , will rise to a height of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) to seize an insect in mid @-@ air , and then drop to a regularly used perch .
A study of black honeyeaters at seven sites in Western Australia regularly recorded breeding females eating ash from the campsite fires and often making repeated visits over a brief period of time . It was noted that the birds seemed attracted to the remote campfire with groups of around six hovering around and landing beside the fire , an activity described as similar to " bees buzzing around a honeypot . " After pecking at the ash , some of the females foraged for insects , sallying from the foliage of nearby Wheatbelt Wandoo ( Eucalyptus capillosa ) before returning for more ash . The activity of the females approaching the fire ranged from a single peck to sustained feeding for a minute or more . Male birds occasionally landed near the fire , but none were seen to take ash . Well developed brood patches on the birds mist netted near the fires , suggest that the females take ash around the time of laying , and throughout the incubation and feeding period . Wood ash is rich in calcium and it was hypothesised that the females were eating ash to form medullary bone before egg @-@ laying or to repair a calcium deficit after laying . When other small birds , such as American hummingbirds , were recorded eating calcium @-@ rich ash , bones or shell it was suggested that the bones of small species may not be able to store enough calcium for egg production .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding season is from July to December ( mostly between August and November ) , or opportunistically after rain . There is apparently some variation based upon location , with birds in West Australia breeding earlier and breeding in March in Queensland . Black honeyeater populations concentrate for breeding wherever the right plants are in flower and there is an abundance of insects , essential for feeding the young . At the beginning of the mating season , males can be seen soaring in " song flights " which consist of a series of zigzagging movements , high into the air , accompanied by constant calling . The birds appear to stiffen themselves , with wings pointed downward , as they rise , while uttering a two @-@ note call .
Breeding pairs of black honeyeaters will nest in groups or loose colonies , with males aggressively defending a small breeding territory against members of their own species as well as other honeyeaters . Both members of the pair seem to be involved in selecting the nest site . The nest is usually situated low on a dead limb or in a fork of a small tree or shrub , though sometimes fallen timber including a fallen Callitris pine is chosen as the nest site . The female gathers nesting material close to the nest site , while the male is engaged in song flights , and she builds the shallow , open , cup @-@ shaped nest from fine twigs , grass , and other plant material bound with spiderweb , lining it with grass , roots , fibre , horse hair , flowers or wool . As the young grow the nest can become flattened to a saucer shape , and may be an almost flat platform by the time the chicks fledge .
The female lays two to three eggs that are 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) long , 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) wide and an unusual swollen oval shape . The eggs are slightly lustrous , buffy white in colour and dotted with reddish @-@ brown and grey blotches that often appear in a cloud over the larger end of the eggs . Black honeyeater nests are occasionally parasitised by Horsfield 's Bronze Cuckoo . The female incubates alone , leaving the eggs exposed for short periods during the day to take insects on the wing . When approached , the sitting bird attempts to hide by sinking into the nest and , if unsuccessful in deterring the intruder , will tumble to the ground with outstretched wings , giving weak calls in an effort to lure the intruder away from the nest .
While the female is incubating , the male remains on guard at one of several regular vantage points . The incubation period is around sixteen days , and the fledging period approximately eighteen days . On hatching , the young birds ' eyes are closed , and they are naked except for tufts of down on the head , nape and back . Both sexes feed and care for the young , taking all of the insects for the young birds on the wing . At one nest , two small young were fed every ten minutes or so , with the male bringing food three to four times more often than the female .
= = Conservation status = =
The black honeyeater may be adversely affected by the loss of the emu bush to grazing and weed control by farmers . Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be particularly rapid ; the current population seems to be of sufficient numbers , and the species has a sufficiently large range , for the species to be evaluated as of Least Concern .
= A2 ( Croatia ) =
The A2 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A2 ) is a motorway in the Hrvatsko Zagorje region of northern Croatia , connecting Zagreb to the Macelj border crossing and Slovenia . The A2 motorway is part of the European route E59 and the Pan @-@ European Corridor Xa . The motorway spans 59 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 36 @.@ 8 mi ) between the Slovenian border and the Jankomir interchange within the Zagreb bypass , providing road connections to a number of cities and towns besides Zagreb , including Krapina , Zabok and Zaprešić . All sections of the motorway , except the northernmost one between the Macelj border crossing and Trakošćan , and the southernmost one near Zagreb , are tolled , using a closed toll collection system .
Construction of the motorway began in 1990 , lbut a decade @-@ long hiatus between the mid @-@ 1990s and 2004 caused by funding issues and the setting up of a separate company to develop and operate the motorway meant it was not completed until 2007 . As of July 2011 , the entire motorway route is completed , consisting of a dual @-@ carriageway and four traffic lanes , except for a relatively short segment which is still a single carriageway road . The motorway is currently operated by Autocesta Zagreb - Macelj .
The motorway carries a considerable volume of traffic throughout the year ; however , in the summer , its peak volume is nearly double the average , as traffic intensifies because of tourists travelling to Adriatic Sea resorts and back . Furthermore , the southernmost sections of the motorway serve Zagreb 's sizeable suburban traffic .
= = Route description = =
The A2 motorway is an important north – south motorway in Croatia , connecting the capital of the country , Zagreb , to Graz , Austria , via Maribor , Slovenia , as well as Vienna and other destinations along the Pyhrn route . The motorway follows a route through the Hrvatsko Zagorje region . Part of the road network of Croatia , the motorway is also part of European route E59 Zagreb – Graz – Vienna – Prague . The motorway is of major importance to Croatia in terms of economic development , especially for tourism and as a transit transport route . The road carries significant transit and tourist traffic as it connects to the Zagreb bypass segment of the A3 motorway , which serves as a hub distributing the southbound traffic to either eastbound A3 or southbound A1 , and vice versa . As of the June 1997 Pan @-@ European Transport Conference in Helsinki , the motorway is part of the Pan @-@ European Corridor Xa .
The motorway spans 59 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 36 @.@ 8 mi ) between the Macelj border crossing , Slovenia and the Zagreb – Jankomir interchange on the A3 motorway . The route serves Zagreb via the Ž1035 at the Jankomir interchange , Zaprešić via the D225 , Zabok , Klanjec and Oroslavje via the D307 , Sveti Križ Začretje via the D35 , Krapina and Pregrada via the D206 , Đurmanec via the D207 and Trakošćan via the D508 . The D1 state road runs as a parallel , toll @-@ free route along the motorway , and most of the motorway exits connect to that route directly , switching to D35 , D206 , D207 and D508 shortly afterwards .
The A2 motorway has at least two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each direction along its entire length , except in tunnels , where there are emergency bays instead . All of the interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except the Jankomir interchange , which is a cloverleaf interchange . There are a number of rest areas along the motorway providing various types of services , ranging from simple parking spaces and restrooms to filling stations , restaurants and hotels . As of July 2011 , the motorway has seven interchanges providing access to numerous towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The motorway is operated by the Autocesta Zagreb – Macelj company .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signalling devices located in zones where driving conditions may vary , such as at interchanges , viaducts , bridges , tunnels and zones where fog and strong wind are known to occur . The system uses variable traffic signs to communicate changing driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorway users . The A2 motorway mainly runs through the plains and rolling hills of Hrvatsko Zagorje region , although the northernmost sections of the route traverse rugged terrain , requiring a number of viaducts and long tunnels along the route .
= = Toll = =
The A2 is a tolled motorway , based on the vehicle classification in Croatia , using a closed toll system . As of July 2011 , the toll charged along the A2 route between the Zaprešić and Trakošćan mainline toll plazas varies depending on the length of route travelled , ranging from 11 @.@ 00 kuna ( 1 @.@ 44 euros ) to 42 @.@ 00 kuna ( 5 @.@ 48 euros ) for passenger cars and 47 @.@ 00 kuna ( 6 @.@ 13 euro ) to 187 @.@ 00 kuna ( 24 @.@ 40 euro ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros and by major credit and debit cards . A prepaid toll collection system is also used . The A2 is the only motorway in Croatia which does not provide for use of the ENC — an electronic toll collection ( ETC ) system shared by most motorways in Croatia that provides drivers with discounted toll rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas . In addition to the vehicle classification in Croatia , the motorway operator maintains an additional vehicle category for motorbikes , which are charged from 7 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 91 euros ) to 25 @.@ 00 kuna ( 3 @.@ 26 euros ) toll . The southernmost Jankomir – Zaprešić section of the motorway is not tolled , as it is part of the Zagreb bypass .
The toll collected by Autocesta Zagreb – Macelj from the A2 motorway in the first quarter of 2011 amounted to 27 @.@ 7 million kuna ( 3 @.@ 61 million euros ) ; however , this period does not include the significantly increased tourist traffic during the summer . In 2010 , Autocesta Zagreb – Macelj collected 166 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 22 @.@ 4 million euros ) from A2 tolls .
= = Notable structures = =
The southernmost section of the motorway , between the Jankomir and Zaprešić interchanges , forms part of the Zagreb bypass and entails a number of viaducts spanning roads and railways , including a 373 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 224 ft ) viaduct across the Zagreb – Ljubljana railway . Furthermore , the section comprises the Sava River Bridge , spanning 1 @,@ 072 metres ( 3 @,@ 517 ft ) . All the structures along the section are executed as dual structures with four traffic lanes .
The northernmost segment between the Krapina interchange and the Macelj border crossing traverses rugged terrain , requiring further viaducts and tunnels . Among those , the most notable ones are the 579 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 900 ft ) Krapinčica Viaduct and the 1 @,@ 740 @-@ metre ( 5 @,@ 710 ft ) Sveta Tri Kralja Tunnel . The tunnel is part of a sequence of two tunnels and three viaducts in a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) segment between Krapina and Đurmanec . Generally , the Krapina – Macelj border crossing segment of the A2 motorway required numerous expensive engineering works , including six tunnels and nine viaducts , which caused the construction cost to be over 235 million euros .
= = History = =
In the 1960s , various levels of government in the Socialist Republic of Croatia initiated planning processes aimed at development of road transport infrastructure of the then constituent republic of Yugoslavia . The first proposal of a motorway link in Croatia was made by Josip Roglić , a member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts at the time . He proposed the motorway to be built between Zagreb and Split . In 1962 , a formal proposal was made by local authorities in Split , resulting in Croatian government adopting a framework motorway development plan in 1966 . Designs were commissioned in 1967 , extending the route north to Maribor , Slovenia for the first time . The extension largely used the same corridor as an existing Zagreb – Maribor road — Zagorje Highway — a congested and insufficiently safe two @-@ lane road with at @-@ grade intersections , connecting numerous towns and villages between Zagreb and Maribor . The road itself represented yet another upgrade of a transport route recorded along Zagreb – Maribor corridor since Middle Ages . The plan was shelved because of political pressures following suppression of Croatian Spring only to be reinstated upon Croatian independence from Yugoslavia .
The first section of the present A2 motorway was completed as a single @-@ carriageway limited @-@ access road between the Jankomir and Zaprešić interchanges , forming the westernmost section of Zagreb bypass , in 1990 . The section included a number of bridges and viaducts , spanning the Sava River and numerous roads and railroads , making construction of a dual @-@ carriageway prohibitively expensive at the time . In 1991 , the 7 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 6 mi ) section was extended by 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) of dual @-@ carriage motorway to Zabok . Lack of funding greatly slowed further construction , and the following 16 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 10 @.@ 1 mi ) section to Velika Ves , south of Krapina , was only completed in 1996 . Further construction was suspended due to lack of available funding .
In 1997 , the governments of the Republic of Croatia and the German state of Bavaria made a joint declaration regarding their future transport infrastructure development cooperation . The cooperation primarily dealt with the construction of the remaining A2 motorway sections and the Franjo Tuđman Bridge , and the two issues were formally settled between the Croatian government and Walter Bau AG . In 2003 , the Autocesta Zagreb – Macelj company was established by the Croatian government and was awarded a concession contract to operate the motorway . Furthermore , a joint investment agreement with Walter Bau AG was signed by the government , effectively securing the financial assets required to resume construction . In 2004 , Strabag replaced Walter Bau AG as a contract partner and construction finally resumed . In 2006 , the section between Jankomir and Zaprešić was upgraded to dual @-@ carriage motorway , and the motorway was extended to Krapina itself . In 2007 , after 33 months of construction defined by the contracts , the motorway was completed along its entire length , except for a short segment near Krapina which , as of July 2011 , is still a single @-@ carriageway road . The total cost of the motorway was approximately 372 million euros . The largest portion of the total pertains to the northernmost 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) section between Krapina and Macelj , which was reported to cost 235 million euros .
= = Further construction = =
As of 2012 , the 3 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) segment of the motorway between Krapina and Đurmanec is still missing the second carriageway . The upgrading of this segment is planned , as the Croatian government reportedly concluded talks regarding the matter with the motorway operator in 2010 . The upgrade is expected to take one year and cost 50 million euros .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted and reported by Autocesta Zagreb – Macelj , the operator of the motorway , and is published by Hrvatske Ceste . As the motorway traffic volume is measured through an analysis of toll ticket sales , the southernmost section of the motorway , Jankomir - Zaprešić , is not included in this report , as it is not tolled . However , since the section is a part of Zagreb bypass , it is considered to carry heavier traffic than any other section of the A2 motorway . In 2006 , it carried more than 22 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , and its traffic volume grew considerably since the completion of the motorway in 2007 .
Variations between AADT and average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts during the summer . On average , the tolled section of the A2 motorway carries 90 % more ASDT than AADT . The largest increase , 125 % , of the ASDT relative to the AADT is observed on the Đurmanec – Trakošćan section .
= = Rest areas = =
As of July 2011 , there are three rest areas along the A2 motorway . Legislation identifies four types of rest areas designated as types A through D : A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; D @-@ type rest areas only offer parking spaces , possibly picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Most rest areas along the A2 motorway generally follow this ranking system , although some offer extra services . Many filling stations have small convenience stores , and some offer LPG fuel .
The primary motorway operator , Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) , leases the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . As of July 2011 , there are two such rest area operators on the A2 motorway : INA and OMV . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease the fuel operations . The A2 motorway rest areas are accessible from both directions of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week .
= = Exit list = =
= Blow ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Blow " is a song recorded by American recording artist Beyoncé from her self @-@ titled fifth studio album ( 2013 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Pharrell Williams , Timbaland , J @-@ Roc , James Fauntleroy and Justin Timberlake , and produced by the former four . It was set to be released as one of the lead singles following the release of the album along with " Drunk in Love " , however , its release was scrapped in favor of " XO " .
" Blow " is a disco @-@ influenced R & B and funk song which has several other musical influences and elements featured in it . It received comparison to songs from the 1970s and 1980s mostly by Prince and Janet Jackson . Lyrically it talks explicitly about oral sex and cunnilingus through heavy innuendo in line with Beyoncé 's sexual tone . It received positive reviews by music critics who hailed it as an old school album standout . Its variety of musical genres and production were also praised as well as Beyoncé 's vocal performance . Due to several promotional remixes of the song , " Blow " managed to peak at number one on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart without an official release as a single .
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Hype Williams and released on the album on December 13 , 2013 . It was filmed at a roller skating rink in Houston and it features Beyoncé 's sister Solange Knowles , her background dancers and her female band . The singer 's style received comparisons to 1980s fashion and music videos in a similar way to the song itself . " Blow " was included on the set list of the European leg of Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2014 ) and The Formation World Tour ( 2016 ) . It was also performed during the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards as part of a medley of Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled album . A remix version featuring Pharrell Williams was included on the platinum reissue of Beyoncé in 2014 .
= = Background and production = =
" Blow " was written by Beyoncé , Pharrell Williams , James Fauntleroy , Timbaland , J @-@ Roc and Justin Timberlake . It was produced by Beyoncé and Pharrell , with co @-@ production by Timbaland and J @-@ Roc . Beyoncé produced her vocals , which were recorded by Stuart White , Chris Godbey , Bart Schoudel and Andrew Coleman at Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios . White and Coleman also digitally arranged and edited the track . White handled the mixing at the Mix room in North Hollywood , California . The track was engineered by Justin Hergett with help from James Krausse , Paul Pavao and Edward Valldejuli . The track features backing vocals by Williams and Timbaland . The horns are performed by Katty Rodriguez , Adison Evans and Crystal Torres and arranged by Derek Dixie . When Beyoncé was released on December 13 , 2013 , Billboard reported that " Blow " would be released as a contemporary hit radio single both in the US and worldwide , and " Drunk in Love " was reported to be sent to urban radio in the US only ; " XO " was reportedly scheduled to be released as the second worldwide contemporary hit radio single in 2014 . However , the US release of " Blow " was cancelled , reportedly due to the song 's racy lyrics , and " XO " was issued to radio in that country instead .
= = Composition = =
" Blow " is a five @-@ minute and nine @-@ second disco @-@ influenced , R & B , funk , retro @-@ soul song with an electro @-@ funk groove and a jazz @-@ influenced opening . Critics also found elements of " chilly " neo @-@ disco in the groove with Rolling Stone writer Rob Shefield further noting that it created an " air of melancholy " . Instrumentally it is complete with a heavy bass , sparse piano chords and guitars altogether creating a blipping , marching and parping beat . Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast described the song 's production as " so bouncy it 's almost coyish and flirty " and added that it was a counterbalance to the " raunchy " lyrics .
An ode to oral sex , " Blow " stands in line with the explicit theme of the album about frank female sexuality and eroticism . Lyrically , it refers to cunnilingus through heavy innuendos omitting subtlety ; the lines " Can you lick my Skittles , it 's the sweetest in the middle / Pink is the flavor , solve the riddle " are sung " flirtatiously " by Beyoncé . It opens with a breathy atmosphere and Beyoncé singing the lines , " I kiss you and you lick your lips / You like it wet and so do I / I know you never waste a drip / I wonder how it feels sometimes " . The chorus lines are " pleaded " by the singer as stated by Fallon : " Keep me coming , keep me going , keep me humming , keep me moaning " . The second half of the song contains a tempo change with a funkier beat and the singer singing verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse trajectories . Chris Richards of The Washington Post compared this type of songcraft with Maxwell , Erykah Badu and Frank Ocean 's work . It starts with Beyoncé declaring " I 'm about to get into this girls . This for all my grown women out there " . During this part , Timbaland 's vocals can be heard in the background as part of a call and response . It follows with Beyoncé singing the lines " I can 't wait ' til I get home so you can turn that cherry out " to her man ; according to Caitlin White of the website The 405 , these line " exhibit deep assurance of her usual freedom " . During the second part , the lines " turn that cherry out " are repeatedly sung followed by the lyrics " I 'm @-@ a let you be the boss of me " . She finishes the second part by delivering , " Don 't slip off when it drip off on top of you ... Gimme that daddy @-@ long stroke " . The second part was further described as a " masterful recreation of mid- ' 80s First Avenue funk " . At the end " Blow " features a French @-@ language interlude .
The song 's composition mostly drew comparisons to Prince , Janet Jackson and Timberlake . Whitney Phaneuff from the website HitFix wrote that " Blow " sounded like it was written by Prince ; Writers of Spin and Variety compared it with his song " Dirty Mind " ( 1980 ) which was being used as a template for creating " Blow " and its minimalist new @-@ wave sound with the song 's parent album . The Verge 's Trent Wolbe noted similarities to his song " Erotic City " ( 1989 ) . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle described it as a " disco @-@ fueled ode to oral sex that erupts into a Prince @-@ inspired funk groove " . Greg Kot from the Chicago Tribune compared the song 's electro @-@ funk groove with Jimmy Jam 's collaboration with Janet Jackson during the 1980s while Shefield also compared it with Jackson 's album The Velvet Rope ( 1997 ) . Julia Leconte of Now magazine opined that Beyoncé " manages a Janet Jackson delivery over a Michael Jackson beat " with the song . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club compared the pace of " Blow " with the songs on Timberlake 's albums FutureSex / LoveSounds ( 2006 ) and The 20 / 20 Experience ( 2013 ) . Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez of Billboard found similarities between " Blow " and Beyoncé 's previous work with Williams on the songs " Kitty Kat " and " Green Light " from her album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Tom Breihan from Stereogum compared the " organic breezy joy " of the song with the one found on Solange Knowles ' extended play True ( 2012 ) . It also received comparisons with " Blurred Lines " ( 2013 ) , Rick James 's Cold Blooded album ( 1983 ) and its guitar riff with Mtume .
= = Critical reception = =
" Blow " received highly positive reviews by music critics upon the release of Beyoncé with many considering it an album highlight and single @-@ worthy . Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield called the song the best one on the album . Jon Dolan of the same website described it as the " hottest slinky Seventies electro @-@ soul jammy " . Idolator reviewer Mike Wass described it as a " contender for the song of [ 2013 ] . " The A.V. Club 's Evan Rytlewski thought that the song was " the last great disco song " of 2013 . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman chose the song as the best one on the album , writing that it is a " playfully risqué boogie loaded with instantly memorable lines " . Emily Mackay of NME wrote : " [ The ] Most gleefully brazen of all [ on the album ] ... is the soft @-@ focus disco @-@ tinged romp ' Blow ' " . Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press wrote that " the old school @-@ flavored " song was one of the best on the whole album . Melissa Locker of Time described it as " one of the better tracks on the album " . While reviewing the album Jody Rosen of Vulture hailed the song as " beatific " and added that it had potential to become a future hit . In another review he wrote that it " find [ s ] a sweet spot between nostalgia trip and future shock " . Chris Talbott and Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press described " Blow " as " addictive " . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey wrote in his review that the " hipster funk " song was the closest one to being a single from the album and one of " the most obvious chart contenders " . Under the Radar editor Ryan E.C. Hamm felt that the song " could skyrocket up the charts " . USA Today 's Amanda Dobbins felt that the song should have been released during the summer of 2014 as " It has that feel @-@ good ' 70s sound that 's very popular right now " .
Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine praised Beyoncé 's " sexy " vocals on the track
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966 , the park 's status as a strict nature reserve was reaffirmed , and its boundaries were marked by 89 points . From these markers , the size of the park was estimated at 60 @,@ 150 ha ( 232 @.@ 2 sq mi ) . At the time , two families were living 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) within the park boundaries , which initially was permitted under the conditions that they did not extend their cultivated land into the park or allow others to join them . The families were later expelled for violating these conditions . Many families from the local communities did not understand why such a large area so rich in resources and necessary for their survival was forbidden to them , and between the late 1980s and 1993 , they stopped honoring the status of the park . They began clearing the outer edges of the reserve to start plantations of vanilla and coffee . In 1993 , the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) and the Service des Eaux et Forêts renewed conservation efforts in the area , evicted the people living inside the reserve , and renegotiated the borders with the local community , based on the 1966 decree . Trails and posts were then used to clearly mark the edges of the reserve . In the years following these events , many communities living near the borders of the park have become more involved in forest surveillance , and deforestation has fallen off sharply to only a few hectares a year .
In 1998 , the WWF requested that the government of Madagascar relax the restrictions on the reserve to allow for ecotourism , the revenue from which could benefit the people living in the periphery of the park . With a decree ( no . 98 @-@ 375 ) in May 1998 , the reserve became a national park . The boundaries were renegotiated , particularly in the western and northwestern regions of the park , and this time using clear natural landmarks , such as ridge crests , as markers . The size of the park was adjusted to 60 @,@ 050 ha ( 231 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , with some western communities gaining access to untouched forest zones while communities in the northwest lost agricultural land . Approximately 5 @,@ 000 ha ( 19 sq mi ) had been illegally cleared within the park and are still part of the park . There are now 91 boundary markers and the boundaries are georeferenced . Intermediate boundary markers are placed between existing markers to demarcate the edges of the park during disputes with the local community .
During October 2005 , reports surfaced showing that boundary markers were being moved with the approval of park employees and that areas within the park were being cleared for agriculture . In January 2006 , the Park Logistics Coordinator was fired for moving boundary markers while employed as the Park Conservation Agent and selling the 9 ha ( 0 @.@ 035 sq mi ) of park land to a local farmer for 2 million Malagasy francs ( ~ US $ 200 ) . In 2010 , a new demarcation adjusted the size the park down to 55 @,@ 500 ha ( 214 sq mi ) .
= = Topography and habitat = =
Marojejy National Park covers 55 @,@ 500 ha ( 214 sq mi ) and protects almost the entire massif , which ranges in elevation from 75 to 2 @,@ 132 m ( 246 to 6 @,@ 995 ft ) at the summit . The massif is part of a mountain chain that stretches from Tsaratanana in the northwest to the Masoala Peninsula in the south . The crests of the massif form an east – west line with a series of distinct peaks along its irregular structure , which consists of parallel or divergent crest lines broken apart by steep and irregular slopes . Rising 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) over as little as 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) , the Marojejy Massif has some of the most precipitous terrain in Madagascar . As a result of this sharp rise in elevation and rugged topography , it has a variety of microclimates and a visible change in habitat , making it one of the few places in the world where cloud @-@ covered rainforest rapidly transitions to high mountain shrubland over a distance that can be covered on foot . Also due to the rugged topography , the vegetative mosaic varies between the crests and slopes of the massif , even at the same elevations . For example , crests and adjoining slopes often have less than 20 % of their flowering plant species in common .
Temperatures in the region are fairly constant , with both the daily temperature range and the seasonal range varying only slightly . February is the hottest month , averaging 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , while August is the coolest , averaging 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) . Climbing the peaks , temperature decreases by 1 ° C per 200 m of increased altitude ( 1 ° F per 360 ft ) , and temperatures on the summit decline to 1 @.@ 5 ° C ( 34 @.@ 7 ° F ) in July . The relative humidity for the region hovers around 87 % throughout most of the year , although it rises to 97 % between March and April . Rain falls every month on the southern side of the mountain , with the region receiving at least 2 @,@ 300 mm ( 91 in ) of rain annually , making it one of the wettest areas in Madagascar . The northern side of the mountain is more tropical , with a 6 @-@ month dry season , and receives about 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 59 in ) of rain per year . The general region receives the most rainfall during the warm season , from November through April , when heavy rain and occasional cyclones are delivered from the northwest by monsoons . During the cooler season , between May and October , lighter rains are delivered by winds from the southeast .
Both temperature and rainfall vary significantly by location within the park . Lower temperatures are found at higher elevations , and the eastern slopes of the massif receive the most of the rainfall , since the western slopes lie in the rain shadow of the mountain and consequently experience a prolonged dry period . The tops of the ridges experience strong winds and offer poor soil conditions . The effect can be seen in the plant life and their growth rates . The wide range in elevations and the rugged topography also play a crucial role in creation of the varied habitats distributed across the mountain slopes by affecting air temperature , fluctuations in temperature , and humidity levels . The interplay between these factors impacts the growth and development of plants , which form the foundation of the ecosystem . The result is an extremely varied and unevenly distributed forest that covers 90 % of the park .
The mountains of both Marojejy and nearby Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve feed several drainage basins , including the Lokoho River , which is sourced from the western and southern slopes of Marojejy , and the Androranga River , which originates from the northern slopes of Marojejy . Both rivers travel towards Sambava and drain into the Indian Ocean . Marojejy is connected to the Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud Special Reserve by the Betaolana corridor , a narrow mid @-@ elevation strip of forest extending west and slightly south .
= = = Geology = = =
As with the rest of Madagascar , the rocks of Marojejy National Park were once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana , which began to break up 160 million years ago to form the southern continents . However , the bedrock of Marojejy formed over 500 million years ago during the Precambrian beneath an ancient mountain range that has since eroded away completely . The bedrock is composed mostly of granitic rocks , although it also contains a significant amount of gneiss , a high @-@ grade metamorphic rock that formed under high pressure and temperature deep beneath the ancient mountain range . In places where heat and pressure were highest , the rock melted completely and eventually recrystallized at depth as granite , an igneous rock . Later , veins of quartz formed in cracks in the bedrock ; these are the source of the quartz and amethyst crystals mined in the region today . In more recent geological times , the area 's abundant quartzite formed when quartz @-@ rich sands were deposited on the bedrock , and were then buried and recrystallized ( metamorphosed ) . The soil pH is expected to be acidic to neutral .
The highest , most rugged peaks of Marojejy owe their form to the gneiss from which they are made . The gneiss consists of alternating bands of light and dark colored minerals . The light minerals , consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar , are the hardest and most resistant , whereas the dark minerals , which are mostly biotite mica and hornblende , are softer and weather out faster . This layered composition , in combination with the north @-@ facing 45 @-@ degree angle at which the rocks are tilted , accounts for the asymmetric character of the peaks . The northern slopes dip moderately , while the southern faces are typically near @-@ vertical cliffs where the rocks fractured counter to the layered grain . The cliff named Ambatotsondrona , with its sheer , south @-@ facing rock wall , is an example .
= = Biodiversity = =
Marojejy National Park is noted for its rich biodiversity , which can appeal to both scientist and ecotourist . There are a wide range of habitats within the park , and many of its plants and animals are endemic to the area . Scientific expeditions regularly discover species that are either not previously documented in Marojejy , or in some cases , completely new to science . Some new species are highly endangered . In the case of many large groups , such as invertebrates , very little is known and much remains to be discovered .
= = = Flora = = =
The vegetation of Marojejy National Park is extremely diverse due to the various microclimates . The microclimates also affect plant growth rates , with the wet eastern slopes showing faster plant growth , the dry western slopes exhibiting slower plant growth , and the plants on the ridge tops hindered by high winds and poor soils . More than 2 @,@ 000 species of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) have been discovered at the park so far . At least four plant families are found at all elevations : Clusiaceae and Poaceae are generally common , while Myrsinaceae and Elaeocarpaceae are rare .
There are four basic types of forest found at Marojejy :
Lowland rainforest : Below 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , species diversity is the highest due to abundant rainfall , consistently warm weather , and protection from strong winds . The canopy of the primary forests is dense with tall trees reaching heights of 25 – 35 m ( 82 – 115 ft ) . Many tree trunks measure over 30 cm ( 12 in ) in diameter . A great variety of palms , epiphytes , and ferns are also present , with 130 species of fern known from this zone . Secondary growth , which primarily includes bamboo , wild ginger or longoza ( genus Aframomum ) , and traveller 's palm ( Ravenala madagascariensis ) , is found in disturbed areas . The most common families of flowering plant are Sapotaceae , Rubiaceae , Euphorbiaceae , and Myrsinaceae . The most common families of plants in the light groundcover are Poaceae , Labiaceae , Acanthaceae , Gesneriaceae , Melastomataceae , and Balsaminaceae . The lowland rainforest region covers 38 % of the surface area of the park .
Moist montane rainforest : Between 800 and 1 @,@ 400 m ( 2 @,@ 600 and 4 @,@ 600 ft ) and also covering 38 % of the surface area of the park , trees and shrubs become increasingly smaller due to lower temperatures and poorer soils , and tree ferns become more abundant as elevation increases . The lower temperatures cause moisture to condense onto surfaces without forming mist . The transition between the lowland rainforests and the mid @-@ altitude rainforest is gradual . The canopy reaches heights of 18 – 25 m ( 59 – 82 ft ) , and sun @-@ loving epiphytes , shrubs , and other forest floor species take advantage of the elevated light levels . The increased humidity also favors mosses and ferns . The families Rubiaceae , Euphorbiaceae , Myrtaceae , Arecaceae , Pandanaceae , and Burseraceae are the most common in this zone .
Sclerophyllous montane cloudforest : At 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 4 @,@ 600 to 5 @,@ 900 ft ) and covering 11 @.@ 5 % of the surface area of the park , the trees are significantly shorter , gnarled and stunted , with the canopy extending to a maximum height of only 10 or 15 m ( 33 or 49 ft ) . The most common plant families are Lauraceae , Rubiaceae , Clusiaceae , and Araliaceae . The ground layer in the cloud forest is rich , and moss and lichen drape the branches of the trees . At least 122 species of fern are found in this zone . Temperatures are lower , and heavy clouds brought in by eastern winds blanket the forest . Endemism is very high at this altitude , particularly between the various peaks due to long isolation . The area is also highly susceptible to fire due to its thick layer of humus .
Montane scrub : Above 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) on only 1 @.@ 5 % of the surface area of the park , the last remaining mountain scrub in Madagascar can be found . Unlike all other high mountain scrub on the island , it has not been altered by fire . The region has an open , tundra @-@ like cover , over thin , rocky soils . Soil conditions , along with the cool temperatures , windy conditions , and low rainfall limits the vegetation , which reaches a maximum height of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Low , dense thickets of shrubs dominate , although terrestrial orchids and miniature palms and bamboos are also present . The dominant families of plant are Poaceae , Ericaceae , Asteraceae , Balsaminaceae , Cunoniaceae , and Clusiaceae .
Of the many plant species found in Marojejy , 35 are palms , several of which are critically endangered and have extremely low populations . Only three of these palm species can be found outside of Madagascar , and seven can only be found at Marojejy . More than 275 fern species are present in the rainforests of the massif , 18 of which are tree ferns and seven are found only at Marojejy . Many of these fern species are very rare and have highly restricted distributions .
Marojejy also contains several types of rare rosewood and palisandre ( genus Dalbergia ) , all of which are endemic to Madagascar . Rosewood , or andramena in Malagasy , is a type of hardwood with a lustrous deep red color , while palisandre , such as Dalbergia madagascariensis , lacks the red color . Of the three species of Dalbergia found in Marojejy , D. madagascariensis and D. baronii are listed as " vulnerable " on the IUCN Red List , while D. louvelii is listed as " endangered . " The park has few large specimens of the former two due to overexploitation , and specimens are rarely found in the surrounding 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) surrounding the park . The latter , D. louvelii , is not found outside of the park .
= = = Fauna = = =
Marojejy National Park is best known for its two iconic species , the helmet vanga ( Euryceros prevostii ) and the critically endangered silky sifaka or simpona ( Propithecus candidus ) . The silky sifaka has been listed as one of " The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates " since the inception of the list in 2000 . According to estimates , fewer than 1 @,@ 000 individuals of this species remain , and none exist in captivity .
The wealth of species of well @-@ known groups of animals demonstrates the depth of the biodiversity found at Marojejy National Park . For example , 75 of the 118 species of birds ( 64 % ) found in or around Marojejy are forest @-@ dwelling birds , a total that surpasses any other mountain site in Madagascar . All of these forest @-@ dependent bird species are endemic to Madagascar and utilize the forest for some portion of their life @-@ cycle . One of these birds is the Madagascar serpent @-@ eagle ( Eutriorchis astur ) , which prior to being reported in 1990 , had not been seen by ornithologists since 1932 .
In addition to the silky sifaka , Marojejy is home to 10 other species of lemur , several of which are also endangered due mainly to habitat loss . The nocturnal aye @-@ aye has only been seen once at the park , although one old nest and traces of its feeding have been found at various elevations . Other mammals include at least 15 species of tenrec , seven species of native rodent , the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , and the Madagascar sucker @-@ footed bat ( Myzopoda aurita )
The reptile and amphibian diversity at Marojejy is also rich , higher than any other protected area in Madagascar . A total of 148 species have been inventoried , and 17 of these are found only in Marojejy , including Brookesia karchei and Chamaeleo peyrieresi , two species of several chameleons found there . The panther chameleon ( Furcifer pardalis ) , leaf @-@ tailed geckos ( genus Uroplatus ) , and many species of frogs are also reported from this locality . Invertebrates include large millipedes , spiders , and an abundance of small leeches .
= = Camps and accommodations = =
Marojejy National Park is open all year , with Bradt Travel Guides recommending April to May and September to December as the best times to visit due to less rainfall . The park is one of the only national parks in Madagascar offering wooden chalets or bungalows , in addition to having a kitchen and toilet facilities at each of its three main camps inside a primary rainforest . The housing provides beds and basic bedding , while the kitchen and eating areas are covered and offer basic cooking utensils . These three camps have basic tent sites for campers . Tent campsites are also offered outside the park , while the only other overnight accommodations outside the park are in Andapa and Sambava . The park is unable to accommodate large groups . Because of the rugged terrain and variable temperatures , the Bradt Travel Guide also recommended advanced planning for visiting the park .
Payment of the entrance fees , renting of the facilities , and hiring of guides , cooks , and porters are handled at either the park headquarters in Andapa or the Park Visitor Center in Manantenina , which is along the main Andapa @-@ Sambava road , 66 km ( 41 mi ) from Sambava and 40 km ( 25 mi ) from Andapa . The park has a single trail that leads from the information center in Manantenina to the highest peak . The path into the rain forest is divided into three treks that vary in length and lead to each of the three main camps , each of which is situated at different altitudes and offer views of their own distinctive flora and fauna .
The first section of the path , known as the Mantella Trek , takes visitors just inside the park entrance , and leads to a picnic area after the first 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) . The first camp , Camp Mantella , is 4 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 8 mi ) further along the path . The camp is in the lowland rain forest above the Manantenina River at an elevation of 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) . The camp is 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) from the Humbert waterfalls , and offers opportunities to see lemurs , such as the northern bamboo lemur ( Hapalemur occidentalis ) ; many species of bird , such as the helmet vanga ; as well as a variety of amphibians and reptiles , such as leaf @-@ tailed geckos , leaf chameleons ( genus Brookesia ) , and many types of frogs .
The next 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) along the path is known as the Simpona Trek ; the name comes from the Malagasy name for the silky sifaka , which is found in the area . The trail leads to Camp Marojejia , located at an elevation of 775 m ( 2 @,@ 543 ft ) at the transition between lowland and montane rain forest . The camp sits on a mountainside , and its dining area overlooks a forested outcrop of rock , which includes the peak named Ambatotsondrona , or " Leaning Rock " . This camp is reported to be the best location for spotting the silky sifaka , although the staff recommend that visitors hire a specialist tracker to aid in the search .
The Marojejy Summit Trek continues up the mountain for another 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to Camp Simpona , which is in the middle of the moist montane forest at an elevation of 1 @,@ 250 m ( 4 @,@ 100 ft ) . There is a ridge with a viewing platform built on it near the camp . Despite the stunted height of the trees in this high @-@ altitude region , silky sifakas can occasionally be spotted from the bungalows . The rufous @-@ headed ground @-@ roller ( Atelornis crossleyi ) and yellow @-@ bellied sunbird @-@ asity ( Neodrepanis hypoxantha ) can be seen here , and a nearby stream teems with a diverse collection of frog species . Camp Simpona also serves as a basecamp for the steep climb to the summit of Marojejy Massif , one of Madagascar 's highest but most accessible peaks . The climb to the peak stretches 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) and takes four to five hours .
= = Local people = =
The Andapa Basin , surrounded by the high , rugged mountains of Marojejy and Anjanaharibe @-@ Sud , was extremely remote and difficult to access until relatively recently . As a consequence , the area was not permanently settled until the mid @-@ 1800s , when refugees fled the Merina Kingdom . Nearly half a century later , another wave of refugees settled in the area , this time fleeing from French colonists . The population in the region , however , remained relatively small , despite a last small wave of immigration following World War I when people from Réunion came to the region to grow vanilla . The population did not increase noticeably until the early 1970s when construction of the Andapa – Sambava road was completed , connecting the region to the coast . This improved transportation route encouraged agricultural development and spawned another wave of immigration . Over the next 30 years , it was estimated that the population tripled , with more than 100 @,@ 000 people living in the region by 2003 . With 37 villages surrounding Marojejy , the population density is one of the highest in Madagascar and it continues to grow . The dominant ethnic groups in the region are the Tsimihety ( the first settlers ) and the Betsimisaraka , although other groups from the southern part of the island have also established themselves .
The local people have traditionally utilized material from the forest , whether for use in their architecture , to make pirogues ( dugout canoes ) , to provide fiber for weaving , to provide firewood , to gather leaves for traditional medicine , or to flavor their drinks . Most of the residents are subsistence rice farmers who cultivate irrigated paddies in valleys or who plant on hillsides that have been cleared and burned ( slash and burn agriculture , known locally as tavy ) . The swamps which formerly covered vast areas of Andapa Basin have been converted to rice paddies which are intensively cultivated ; however the Tsimihety traditionally practice slash and burn techniques on the hillsides in preference to irrigated rice fields . Coffee was an important cash crop before market prices fell in the 1970s , but vanilla remains an important crop for the area . Until the mid @-@ 2000s , vanilla prices were high , but they have since fallen off significantly . The crash of vanilla prices , along with a rapidly growing population and steady decrease in cultivatable land , has resulted in widespread and extreme poverty . Between January and April , before the main rice harvest , many people in the region do not receive enough food to eat . The SAVA Region , which includes Marojejy , is the poorest region in Madagascar , and in 2011 , continued rises in global food prices — particularly that of imported rice — has made obtaining food more difficult for rural families .
Not only have international environmental organizations ( such as Conservation International , Wildlife Conservation Society , World Wide Fund for Nature , and Care International ) established programs to help local residents , many local people work to improve their situation through environmental and health education programs . An increase in sustainable agriculture , silviculture , conservation awareness , and improved education and health care have also furthered the goal of protecting the environment and promoting livelihoods centered on the remaining forest . Limited and responsible ecotourism is also seen as a long @-@ term alternative to continued deforestation .
= = Conservation concerns = =
The protections normally afforded to national parks have not halted the degradations of Marojejy National Park . The hunting of lemurs , including the silky sifaka , is a persistent problem , as is the harvesting of precious hardwoods , such as rosewood and palissandre . Semi @-@ precious gemstones , such as amethyst , are still mined within the boundaries of the park , while slash and burn agriculture and wood collection for firewood and construction continue to cause the periphery to recede . These pressures are growing strong as the population in the region continues to increase . In 2003 , approximately 200 @,@ 000 people lived within 40 km ( 25 mi ) of the park , 80 % of whom were farmers that were still dependent upon the forest for agricultural land and various products , such as honey , firewood , and plant fibers , as well as tree bark from plants of the family Rutaceae ( primarily genus Evodia ) used to ferment betsabetsa , a local sugarcane spirit . Additionally , inappropriate use of the park or excessive visitation by guests could also pose a threat to the fragile high @-@ altitude scrub .
= = = Illegal logging = = =
Madagascar 's northeastern rain forests are severely threatened by illegal logging of precious hardwood , which not only dries out the forest ( making it susceptible to fire ) , introduces invasive species , degrades habitat , and reduces genetic diversity , but also violates local taboos and traditions . Additional species , such as species of Dombeya , are typically cut to make rafts for floating the heavier hardwoods down rivers and out of the parks . Rosewood trees are cut into multiple logs for easier transport , and five or more high @-@ buoyancy trees are cut per hardwood log . To tie the rafts together , the loggers cut thousands of lianas or vines , which are used by 75 % of the forest fauna as avenues for moving around in the canopy . The logging activities are labor @-@ intensive and dangerous . The labor employs the impoverished local population , but the officials who facilitate the process primarily benefit .
In 2005 , illegal logging of rosewood was reported to have occurred more than 20 times . In 2007 at the port cities of Vohémar , Antalaha , and Toamasina , authorities confiscated thousands of logs valued at millions of dollars ( US $ ) . Some of this material was reportedly logged from eastern and northeastern parts of the park . At the start of the Malagasy political crisis in March 2009 , thousands of woodcutters intensely logged precious hardwoods for six to eight weeks in the SAVA Region . An estimated 52 @,@ 000 tons of rosewood lumber , or nearly 100 @,@ 000 trees , were logged that year , with one @-@ third of the total coming from Marojejy National Park and the remainder from nearby Masoala National Park . As a result , the park was closed briefly , but reopened in May 2009 . In 2010 , the situation improved in Marojejy , but illegal logging intensified in Masoala and the Makira Protected Area .
Illegal logging has been facilitated by insufficient governance , unclear forest regulation , and undermined judicial control while the exportation of the acquired logs ( in 1992 , 2006 , and 2009 – 2010 ) has been permitted by government decrees that either precede elections or are issued during periods of political instability . The trade is organized and operated by high @-@ ranking officials and influential businessmen . Additionally , the trade in Malagasy rosewood is not regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ( CITES ) .
= Oliver Evans =
Oliver Evans ( September 13 , 1755 – April 15 , 1819 ) was an American inventor , engineer and businessman . A pioneer in the fields of automation , materials handling and steam power , Evans was one of the most prolific and influential inventors in the early years of the United States . He left behind a long series of accomplishments , most notably designing and building the first fully automated industrial process ; America 's first high @-@ pressure steam engine ; and the first ( albeit crude ) amphibious vehicle and American automobile .
Born in Newport , Delaware , Evans received little formal education and in his mid @-@ teens was apprenticed to a wheelwright . Going into business with his brothers , he worked for over a decade designing , building and perfecting an automated mill with devices such as bucket chains and conveyor belts . In doing so Evans designed a continuous process of manufacturing that required no human labor . This novel concept would prove critical to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production . Later in life Evans turned his attention to steam power , and built the first high @-@ pressure steam engine in the United States in 1801 , developing his design independently of Richard Trevithick , who built the first in the world a year earlier . Evans was a driving force in the development and adoption of high @-@ pressure steam engines in the United States . Evans dreamed of building a steam @-@ powered wagon and would eventually construct and run one in 1805 . Known as the Oruktor Amphibolos , it was the first automobile in the country and the world 's first amphibious vehicle , although it was too primitive to be a success as either .
Evans was a visionary who produced designs and ideas far ahead of their time . He was the first to describe vapor @-@ compression refrigeration and propose a design for the first refrigerator in 1805 , but it would be three decades until his colleague Jacob Perkins would be able to construct a working example . Similarly , he drew up designs for a solar boiler , machine gun , steam @-@ carriage gearshift , dough @-@ kneading machine , perpetual baking oven , marine salvage process , quadruple @-@ effect evaporator and scheme for urban gas lighting ; ideas and designs which would not be made reality until some time after his death . Evans had influential backers and political allies , but lacked social graces and was disliked by many of his peers . Disappointed and then angry at the perceived lack of recognition for his contributions , Evans became combative and bitter in later years , which damaged his reputation and left him isolated . Despite the import of his work , his contributions were frequently overlooked ( or attributed to others after his death ) so he never became a household name alongside the other steam pioneers of his era .
= = Early life , 1755 – 83 = =
Oliver Evans was born in Newport , Delaware on September 13 , 1755 to Charles and Ann Stalcop Evans . His father was a cordwainer by trade , though he purchased a large farm to the north of Newport on the Red Clay Creek and moved his family there when Oliver was still in his infancy . Oliver was the fifth of twelve children ; he had four sisters and seven brothers . Little else is known of Evans 's early life , and surviving records provide few details as to his formative years . The nature and location of his early education has not been preserved , however his literacy was demonstrably strong from a young age , both as a writer and an avid reader on technical subjects . Aged 17 , Evans was apprenticed to a wheelwright and wagon @-@ maker in Newport . An anecdote from the period recalls that his master , an illiterate and extremely frugal man , forbade Evans the use of candles to illuminate his reading in the evenings . Evans found another way by collecting scraps and shavings of wood from his work during the day to serve as fuel for small fires . The Revolutionary War began when Evans was 19 . He enlisted in a Delaware militia company , but saw no active service during the war .
By the age of 22 , Evans moved out of wheel @-@ making and became a specialist in forming the fine wire used in textile cards , which were used to comb fibers in preparation for the spinning process to make thread or yarn . A desire to increase the efficiency of this process led him to his first invention — a machine which would bend wire into teeth and cut them off rapidly to aid the assembly of cards . George Latimer , then a justice of the peace in Newport , saw its potential and tasked a blacksmith with creating the machine , which became one of Evans 's early successes when it was introduced in 1778 . Evans wished to go further in mechanizing the production of textile cards by developing a machine which could puncture the leather into which the wire teeth were inserted . His invention greatly speeded the card manufacturing process , producing around 1 @,@ 500 teeth every minute , though Evans himself was unable to find financial backing to commercialize his invention . Nevertheless , over the next two decades card manufacturing innovations inspired by Evans 's led to the development of automated textile card production , then in great demand due to the growth of the Southern cotton industry . Early pioneers of mechanized textile @-@ card production , including Giles Richards and Amos Whittemore , are thought to have borrowed heavily from his original designs .
Evans also began experimenting in this period with steam power and its potential for commercial application . His early ideas culminated in a Delaware state patent application in 1783 for a steam @-@ powered wagon , but it was denied as Evans had yet to produce a working model . That same year , aged 27 , Evans married Sarah Tomlinson , daughter of a local farmer , in Old Swedes ' Episcopal Church in Wilmington .
= = Developing the automatic flour mill , 1783 – 90 = =
Evans 's attention turned to flour milling in the early 1780s , an industry which was booming in rapidly industrializing northern Delaware . In this era , the operation of grist mills was labor @-@ intensive . Although the stages of the milling process — grinding , cooling , sifting and packing — were beginning to be mechanized to various degrees , gravity or manual labor was required to move grain from one stage to the next . Additionally , some stages ( particularly cooling ) were slow and inefficient , creating significant production process bottlenecks . Mills were becoming commonplace in populated areas and those with ready access to waterways for power , but the bulk of milling in the 1780s was done in the home through hand milling . Furthermore , the quality of milled wheat was poor in colonial America . Hard wheat varieties were insufficiently ground and sifted by mills , leaving a flour that was coarse and brown . Cross @-@ contamination was a major problem : mill processes were not well @-@ partitioned ; the many people moving about the mill contaminated the flour with dirt , grain and other impurities . The end result , Evans recognized , was a low quality product that took too many laborers to make .
In 1783 , two of Evans 's brothers began building a mill in Newport on part of the family 's farm estate which they purchased from their father , and Evans was recruited to oversee its construction on the Red Clay Creek . When the mill opened in 1785 it was of a conventional design , but over the next five years Evans began to experiment with inventions to reduce the reliance upon labor for milling . Moving wheat from the bottom to the top of the mill to begin the process was the most onerous task of all in contemporary mills . Evans 's first innovation was a bucket elevator to facilitate this process . Chains of buckets to raise water was a Roman technology had been used in various guises since antiquity . Evans had seen diagrams of their use for marine applications and realized with some modification and careful engineering they could be used to raise grain , so a series of bucket elevators around a mill could move grain and flour from one process to the next . Another labor @-@ intensive task was that of spreading meal . This came out of the grinding process warm and moist , needing cooling and drying before it could be sifted and packed . Traditionally the task was done by manually shoveling meal across large floors . In response , Evans developed the " hopper boy " , a device which gathered meal from a bucket elevator and spread it evenly over the drying floor — a mechanical rake would revolve around the floorspace . This would even out newly deposited meal for cooling and drying , while a gentle incline in the design of the rake blades would slowly move the flour towards central chutes , from which the material would be sifted . Used in conjunction , the two innovations saved many hours of labor and greatly reduced the risk of contamination .
Despite their technical complexity , neither device was revolutionary by the standards of the time . However , the total vision of their design was . Evans was attempting a radical shift in thinking about the manufacturing process , treating it as a continuous integrated whole rather than a series of isolated processes . Thus , manufacturing could be a fully automated production line . The missing link was materials handling , and Evans 's mill designs sought to feed materials continuously through a system without the need for any human intervention . This was the first fully automated industrial process , and the idea of continuous production was proved to be a critical ingredient of the industrial revolution , and would ultimately lay the foundation for modern mass production .
Constructing the machinery to realize this vision was complicated . Evans struggled to find the money to pay the highly skilled carpenters needed to construct his complex machines . The nearby flour milling industry on the Brandywine River was large , but dominated by the Quaker millers of Wilmington who saw little potential in Evans 's designs . James Latimer , a Newport flour merchant upon hearing Evans 's ideas exclaimed " Ah ! Oliver , you cannot make water run uphill , you cannot make wooden millers ! " Latimer 's son , George , however once more saw the promise in Evans 's ideas and helped him to secure patent protection over the inventions throughout 1787 and 1788 . By this time Evans converted his brothers ' mill at Red Clay Creek into a fully automated prototype based on his perfected designs , and the Evans brothers sent handbills and diagrams to the major milling centers of the United States offering free licensing of the designs for the first miller in each county who would commission Evans to refit their mills . Yet this campaign was to prove a major disappointment , and little commercial interest materialized .
Evans lacked patience however , and coupled with a prickly disposition , was prone to display frustration and bewilderment towards those who could not immediately see the value of his ideas . His ideas and designs were often far ahead of their time , and the idea of a fully automated production process was difficult for contemporaries to comprehend . Evans recalled when some Brandywine millers happened to visit the Red Clay Creek mill in the early years of its operation after it was fully automated . He was alone at the mill that day and making hay in a nearby field , and purposely stayed out of sight so his visitors could observe the mill running independently without human supervision . Evans then appeared and at great length explained how the feat they witnessed was possible , and was convinced that the chance visit would bring about a breakthrough with the Brandywine millers . However , he was frustrated at reports that the millers returned to Wilmington and reported that the Evans mill was " a set of rattletraps , unworthy the notice of any man of sense " . Disinterest continued even after Evans convinced a Brandywine miller to have his mill converted .
After years of persistence and attempts at marketing , Evans 's designs were finally given a trial on larger scales and adopted elsewhere . A breakthrough came in 1789 when the Ellicotts , a progressively minded Quaker family in Baltimore , invited Evans to refit their mills on the Patapsco River . The refits proved a success , and Evans worked with Jonathan Ellicott to develop a modified form of Archimedean screw that could act as a horizontal conveyor to work alongside the vertically orientated bucket elevators . He added a rake @-@ drill and conveyor belt to his designs , and now possessed a full complement of materials handling machines for just about every possible configuration . In 1790 , Evans moved from Newport to Wilmington and constructed a working model of his designs in the town . Evans 's inventions were given a major boost when leading miller Joseph Tatnall converted his mills to the Evans system , and estimated that in one year the changes saved his operation a small fortune amounting to $ 37 @,@ 000 . Local millers quickly followed suit , and Brandywine Village was soon a showcase for Evans 's milling technology . After almost a decade , the Brandywine millers were finally convinced , and within a short period automated mills began to spread across the eastern seaboard . In 1790 , upon introduction of federal patent law , Evans immediately applied for protection for his milling designs and was granted the third US patent , with his application personally examined and approved by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson , Secretary of War Henry Knox , and Attorney @-@ General Edmund Randolph .
= = Writer and merchant , 1790 – 1801 = =
Having secured patent protection for his designs and general adoption by the Brandywine millers , Evans now turned his attention outside Delaware . His brother Joseph travelled widely to promote Evans 's work , and according to some sources , by 1792 over one hundred mills were operating Evans machinery . When George Washington called upon Joseph Tatnall in 1790 to thank him for the flour he provided to feed the Continental Army during the War of Independence , he saw Evans 's technology at work in the mills in Brandywine Village and was so impressed that had his own gristmill at Mount Vernon converted to the Evans system in 1791 , the completion of which was overseen by Evans 's brothers . In 1793 , Evans sold his share in the Red Clay Creek mill and moved his family from Wilmington to Philadelphia , where he opened a store for milling supplies .
His early years in Philadelphia though were dominated by writing . Initially Evans intended to write a pamphlet to assist millers in the construction of milling machinery , as well as promoting his own automated designs . However , Evans became so engrossed in the project that he ultimately devoted several years to writing a comprehensive book on milling technology that included long chapters on the basic principles of physics , hydraulics and mechanics ; at times neglecting his family 's financial security in order to complete it . The Young Mill @-@ wright and Miller 's Guide when it appeared consisted of five parts : ' Principles of Mechanics and Hydraulics ' , ' Of the different Kinds of Mills ' , ' Description of the Author 's Improvements ' , ' On the Manufacturing of Grain into Flour ' , ' Ellicott 's Plans for Building Mills ' , and a lengthy appendix in which Evans detailed various ideas for other inventions , such as a hot @-@ air system of central heating . Thomas Ellicott , whose family were early adopters of Evans 's designs in Baltimore , contributed a section on mill construction . Much of the theoretical work of the book was based on earlier scientific work on mechanical principles , yet Evans insisted that theoretical sections align with observations in the practical sections , and hence often revised standing theories to comport with experiments he conducted and observations he made . For example , he found what was written on the theoretical mechanical principles of waterwheels did not match what he could replicate in practice , so he revised them based on observation to form a " true theory " and concluded that " neither the old or new theories agree with practice , therefore we must suspect that they are founded on error . But if , what I call the true theory , should continue to agree with practice , the practitioner need not care on what it is founded . "
The guide 's list of subscribers was topped by George Washington , Thomas Jefferson and Edmund Randolph when the first edition appeared in print in 1795 . The book proved very popular and remained a staple manual for millers for over half a century , undergoing several revisions and fifteen printed editions between 1795 and 1860 . The book 's popularity rested on its detailed practical explanations of mill design and construction , and as the principal guidebook for American milling it would not be superseded until after the Civil War .
After the publication of the Guide , Evans concentrated on his work as a milling supply merchant and gaining financial security through licensing his patented designs . With enough millers now using Evans 's machinery , adoption began to accelerate rapidly after 1800 , as did his considerable wealth from the license fees . In these years Evans concentrated on growing his commercial operations in Philadelphia , expanding his store several times , becoming an agent for English imports , and taking on blacksmiths to complete more complicated metal work for mills . All the while Evans continued to refine various elements of mill design , including patenting a new process for making millstones and developing a screw mill for grinding plaster of Paris , which was in great demand in Philadelphia for stucco work . Evans and his younger brother Evan , along with blacksmith Thomas Clark , developed a device for packing flour barrels using a wooden disc operating by a compound lever and a toggle joint .
= = Developing the high @-@ pressure steam engine , 1801 – 06 = =
Steam engines appeared in the United States as a source of power in the late 18th century , and living in Delaware and Philadelphia meant Evans was exposed to early examples of their application there . John Fitch had launched the first rudimentary steamboat onto the Delaware River in the late 1780s , and the Philadelphia waterworks was by 1802 operating two low @-@ pressure steam engines to pump water from the Schuylkill River , but these were rare examples and most instances of this new technology were to be found in Europe . Much of the development of steam power had occurred in Great Britain , with Thomas Newcomen and James Watt instrumental in developing and commercializing steam power there and elsewhere in Europe , with several hundred of machines operating there in industrial and labor @-@ saving applications by 1800 .
Evans had first begun to consider the potential applications of steam power for transportation while still an apprentice in the 1780s , and had developed rudimentary designs for ' steam carriages ' in the 1790s . In 1801 , Evans definitively began work on making his long @-@ held dream of a steam carriage into reality . Early steam engineers , most notably Watt contemporary William Murdoch , had developed plans for a steam @-@ propelled carriage incorporating a heavy flywheel , in which pressure was converted directly to rotary power , however it became apparent in experimentation that a low @-@ pressure , rotary steam engine would never be powerful enough to propel a carriage of any weight forward . Evans 's attention thus turned to a reciprocating engine , not only for his steam carriage ideas , but also for industrial application . Importantly , Evans became an early proponent of ' strong steam ' or high @-@ pressure engines , an idea long resisted by Watt and earlier steam pioneers because the necessary iron making and metal working technology was lacking . Evans recognized that a high @-@ pressure steam engine would be essential to the development of a steam carriage because they could be built far smaller while providing similar or greater power outputs to low @-@ pressure equivalents . Some experiments with high @-@ pressure steam engines had been made in Europe , most notably an unsuccessful steam tractor developed by Nicolas @-@ Joseph Cugnot . However the prevailing fear of early steam engineering was that no boiler could safely contain high @-@ pressure steam . Evans ignored potential drawbacks , and developed radically different designs which called for engines operating at high @-@ pressure and the elimination of the condenser — a central component of conventional designs . His designs also incorporated a grasshopper beam , a double @-@ acting cylinder , and four steam valves . Each valve was independently operated by one of four cams . The resulting design was a high @-@ pressure steam engine that had a higher power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio that prevailing designs , making locomotives and steamboats practical . It was also mechanically simpler than condensing engines , making it less costly to build and maintain , and did not require large volumes of condensing water . These features would make it similarly suited for a variety of industrial applications .
As with the automated mill , Evans 's ideas were harshly criticized by other engineers — most notably some of the Philadelphia engineering community including the influential Benjamin Latrobe . As it happened , Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick had simultaneously developed similar ideas in favor of high @-@ pressure engines and begun to experiment with them in developing the first locomotives , but neither knew of the other 's work .
Constructing his designs proved far more difficult than Evans initially envisaged — with just six working steam engines in the United States at this time , and a handful of workshops with any experience making them , it took Evans much of his savings and two years to yield a working example to display to the public in 1803 . This first engine was powered by a double @-@ acting cylinder six inches in diameter and with a piston stroke length of eighteen inches . Many components , such as the flywheel and crosshead , were made of wood in order to simplify construction . The boiler , the engineering of which was critical to the safe operation of the engine , consisted of a large copper shell encased in wood and cast iron rings in order to contain the pressure . The output of the machine was approximately five horsepower . This work output was modest by contemporary standards — the low @-@ pressure engine of the nearby waterworks produced about twelve horsepower . But his steam engine was just a fraction of the size of pre @-@ existing machines — the waterworks machine was over twenty @-@ five times larger in volume . Evans unveiled his engine at his store and put it to work crushing plaster of Paris and , more sensationally , sawing slabs of marble . The showmanship paid off , and thousands came to see the machine in operation , while the Philadelphia newspaper Aurora declared " a new era in the history of the steam engine . "
= = = Oruktor Amphibolos = = =
Evans received a patent for his new steam engine in 1804 , and set about looking for commercial applications . The first of his proposals was for the Lancaster Turnpike Company . He proposed to construct a steam wagon with the capacity to carry 100 barrels of flour between Philadelphia and Lancaster in two days , which by his estimation would greatly increase profits compared to the equivalent five horse wagons , for whom the trip took three days . Evans declared in his proposal that " I have no doubt but that my engines will propel boats against the current of the Mississippi , and waggons [ sic ] on turnpike roads with great profit . " With the company unsure of the reliability and cost of the technology , the proposal was rejected .
Despite this setback , within a year Evans had found a client . The Philadelphia Board of Health was concerned with the problem of dredging and cleaning the city 's dockyards and removing sandbars : in 1805 Evans convinced them to contract him to develop a steam @-@ powered dredge . The result was the Oruktor Amphibolos , or " Amphibious Digger " . The vessel consisted of a flat @-@ bottomed scow with bucket chains to bring up mud and hooks to clear away sticks , stones and other obstacles . Power for the dredging equipment and propulsion was supplied by a high @-@ pressure Evans engine . The end result was a craft nearly thirty feet long , twelve feet wide and weighing some seventeen tons . To move this ungainly hulk to the waterfront , as well to give a demonstration of his long @-@ held beliefs in the possibility of land @-@ based steam transportation , Evans mounted the hull on four wheels ( twice , as the first set collapsed under the weight ) and connected the engine to them in order to drive the Oruktor from his workshop through the Philadelphia streets on the way to the Schuylkill River on July 13 , 1805 . The Oruktor Amphibolos is thus believed to have been the first automobile in the United States , and the first motorized amphibious craft in the world . However , very few contemporary accounts of the craft survive , and Evans 's tendency to exaggerate its success in his own annals make verification of its performance difficult . Although Evans himself claimed it proceeded successfully around Philadelphia ( and circled his erstwhile rival Benjamin Latrobe 's Philadelphia waterworks ) before launching into the river and paddling at speed to Philadelphia harbor ; the great weight of the craft make land @-@ propulsion based on its limited engine capacity and jury @-@ rigged power train fairly improbable over any significant distance . It is similarly unknown how well , if at all , the Oruktor functioned as a steamboat , and Evans 's claims on this point vary significantly over the years . Nevertheless , it is known that the invention proved ineffective for its ostensible purpose as a dredger , and it was scrapped for parts by the Board of Health in 1808 . Nevertheless , Evans 's ideas of steam carriages were not an impossible dream . Evans would continue to promote the idea . In 1812 he published a futuristic description of a world connected by a network of Shipping lines railroad tracks and steam locomotives , accurately describing what will happen in the future. long before any such potential could be realized :
" The time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines , from one city to another , almost as fast as birds fly , fifteen or twenty miles in an hour "
= = = Steam Engineer 's Guide = = =
Evans frequently quarrelled with fellow inventors and engineering peers over steam technology in the mid @-@ 1800s . His increasing frustration led to his premature publication of what he had hoped would be the equivalent of his earlier manual for millers — the petulantly titled The Abortion of the Young Steam Engineer 's Guide . The Steam Engineer 's Guide was significantly shorter than this first book and less structured in its approach . A third of the book is devoted to an ongoing argument between Evans and John Stevens ( another prominent steam engineer of the day ) , much of which had previously appeared in the journal The Medical Repository and to which now Evans added various additional criticisms of Stevens ' contentions . Evans concludes his book by renouncing inventing and any further work on his designs , complaining of the ingratitude of the public and the unprofitability of the endeavour , although this would prove to be just one of many such assertions by Evans over the coming years . Regardless , the Steam Engineer 's Guide proved to be a popular work , though not on the same scale as his guide to milling , however it was the first book in the United States to make accessible to anyone ideas and techniques for steam engineering .
The book begins with an introductory discussion of the principles of steam engines and the relevant physical principles , as well as designs for the Evans high @-@ pressure steam engine , boilers , screw @-@ mills and others . Evans developed a similar suite of tools and tables for potential steam engineers as he had for potential millers , such as tables itemizing the heat and pressure tolerances of various metals , instructions for assembling the basic components of a steam @-@ powered system , and schematics for useful components such as valves and boilers . Evans also used the book to justify the safety of high @-@ pressure steam engines if properly constructed , despite the fact that by this time Evans himself had experienced several boiler explosions in his workshop . However , thermodynamics were little understood in his time . As such , many of Evans 's theoretical contentions , including the ' grand principle ' of steam he develops to guide the mathematical modelling of pressure and fuel in steam engines , were substantially flawed . Although Evans was to be quite successful in the development of high @-@ pressure steam engines ( and his designs were widely used ) , his theoretical understanding of them was limited and he was generally unable to accurately predict the inputs and outputs of his machines . The guide also indulged in a far wider range of topics of interest to Evans , including a compendium of inventions from others which he deemed to be worthy of further circulation — such as a straw @-@ cutter and flour press developed by his brother Evan , and a horse @-@ drawn scraper and earth mover invented by Gershom Johnson . Evans also used the opportunity to encourage government sponsorship of research :
" If government would , at the expense of uncertainty , employ ingenious persons , in every art and science , to make with care every experiment that might lead to the extension of our knowledge of principles , carefully recording the experiments and results so that they might be fully relied on , and leaving readers to draw their own inferences , the money would be well expended ; for it would tend greatly to aid the progress of improvement in the arts and sciences . "
This suggestion stemmed from the observation that many engineers relied on the basic principles of physics and mechanics to guide their work , and yet this often required inventors and engineers to become scientists as well to obtain experimental data — something that they were rarely qualified or resourced to do . Short of government funding of such research , Evans also attempted to create in the aftermath of the Steam Engineer 's Guide what he called ' The Experiment Company ' , which would be a private research consortium to conduct reliable experiments and gather data for the benefits of subscribed members . The venture failed and Evans could find no paying stockholders to launch it , possibly due to Evans committing the new venture to developing a steam wagon of his own design . The Franklin Institute would be founded in Philadelphia a few years after Evans 's death on similar principles .
= = = Refrigeration = = =
Despite an incomplete understanding of the principles behind them , in some ways Evans 's thinking about the potential for steam engines was once again far ahead of its time . In the postscript of the Steam Engineer 's Guide , Evans noted that drawing a vacuum on water reduces its boiling point and cools it . He further observed that a vacuum would have the same effect upon ether , and the resulting cooling should be sufficient to produce ice . He went on to describe a piston vacuum pump apparatus to produce this effect , and also showed that a compression cylinder , or the compression stroke of the vacuum pump , should produce heat in a condenser . Thus Evans had produced the first detailed and theoretically coherent design for a vapor @-@ compression refrigerator , identifying all the major components ( expander , cooling coil , compressor and condenser ) of a refrigeration cycle , leaving some to credit him as the ' grandfather of refrigeration ' . Although Evans never developed a working model of his designs , and there is no evidence that he ever attempted to , Evans in his later life worked and associated extensively with fellow inventor Jacob Perkins on steam engines and the potential for refrigeration . Perkins would later develop and build a refrigeration device for which he received patents in 1834 – 1835 , employing much the same principles originally put forward by Evans .
= = Mars Works , 1806 – 12 = =
Having , in his view , perfected many of his ideas and designs for steam engines , Evans turned his attention once more to the commercial propagation of his inventions . His first steam engines had been constructed on an ad @-@ hoc basis , often with improvised tools and workers , and he had relied heavily on blacksmiths and other metal @-@ working shops in Philadelphia with little experience in the more precise metal @-@ work required to build steam engines . In particular , Evans soon realized that unlike his milling machines of wood and leather he would need specialist skills , precision tools and a large foundry in order to build steam machines on a commercial basis . Thus , Evans constructed the Mars Works on a large site a few blocks north of his store in Philadelphia . The choice of name , after the Roman god of war , is thought to have been aspirational and a challenge to the Soho Foundry near Birmingham in the United Kingdom , famous for building the Watt and Boulton engines . Indeed , the completed Mars Works was one of the largest and best equipped outfits of its kind in the United States — by contemporary accounts it featured a substantial foundry , moldmaker 's shop , blacksmith 's shops , millstone maker , a steam engine works and a large steam engine of its own to grind materials and work wrought iron . With over thirty @-@ five staff , the Mars Works produced a wide range of manufactures ranging from working steam engines to cast iron fittings , as well as milling and farming machines for Evans 's now well @-@ established agricultural clientele . Steam engine orders alone proved insufficient to support the extensive business costs ; hence the works became highly experienced in producing all kinds of heavy machinery , contributing to Philadelphia 's emergence as a leading center for such work in the 19th century . Indeed , the works even received military orders , casting naval cannons during the War of 1812 . Evans also proved highly innovative in designing steam power solutions for his clients . In one example where the Mars Works was commissioned to build engines for wool processing factories in Middletown , Connecticut , Evans designed a network of accompanying pipes with radiators to heat the factory with engine exhaust .
Although there are no records as to the designs of the early steam engines produced by the Mars Works , Evans 's most famous engine design appeared around 1812 . Called the Columbian Engine as a patriotic gesture , it would prove to be the most advanced and successful steam engine design created by Evans — he brought to bear his now extensive experience in designing and building high @-@ pressure steam engines . This horizontally oriented engine allowed the crankshaft and piston rod to work closely together at one end of the machine , thus reducing the need for a heavy working beam like those required for conventional engines . The piston rod itself was kept working to a straight line while by a new type of linkage wherein two sets of pivoted bars guided the movements of the working bar . This linkage is still known as the Evans straight @-@ line linkage , though it was superseded within a few years by more precise straight line mechanisms . The Columbian was also the culmination of the grasshopper @-@ style of steam engine . Perfected designs like the Columbian saw a popularization of the grasshopper @-@ style and its wide use in a range of applications . In 1813 he made the decision to introduce a condenser to the Columbian design . This significantly cut the running cost to the engine , and at this point his engines were as efficient and powerful as low @-@ pressure Watt @-@ Boulton designs , yet far cheaper to build and smaller in size . Within a year 27 Columbian engines were operating or under construction in applications ranging from sawmilling and grain milling to the manufacturing of paper , wire and wool .
= = = Pittsburgh Steam Engine Company = = =
As the reputation of the Mars Works grew , so too did the demand for its products . After a few years the Mars Works began exporting its engines inland . Oliver Evans 's son George was the first such order , having moved to Pittsburgh in 1809 to operate the Pittsburgh Steam Flour Mill . George and the mill were highly successful , and generated a great deal of interest in Evans 's engines across the interior . However exporting engines to western Pennsylvania , Kentucky or Ohio was challenging and expensive from a logistical perspective . In 1811 Evans and George , as well as another successful steam miller and engineer Luther Stephens , founded the Pittsburgh Steam Engine Company , which in addition to engines would , like the Mars Works , produce heavy machinery and castings in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . With high demand for industrial products and relatively little industrial capacity , the Pittsburgh works added to its repertoire the capacity for brasswork , as well as producing finer products for domestic purposes like hinges and fittings .
The location of the Pittsburgh factory in the Mississippi River watershed was important in the development of high @-@ pressure steam engines for the use in steamboats , and the new company began to promote its engines for river transport . Evans had long been a believer in the application of steam engines for maritime purposes . In his book of 1805 , Evans had stated :
" The navigation of the river Mississippi , by steam engines , on the principles here laid down , has for many years been a favorite subject of the author , and among the fondest wishes of his heart "
Evans had long been an acquaintance of John Fitch , the first to build a steamboat in the United States , and the two had worked together on steam projects . The Oruktor Amphibolos was Evans 's lone attempt at building his own steamboat powered by a high @-@ pressure engine and Evans himself was often vague in appraising its capabilities . Yet Robert Fulton had found success with the North River Steamboat on the Hudson River in 1807 , and thereafter steamboats became a reality . Although he used low @-@ pressure engines , Fulton had in 1812 contacted Evans about the possibility of using Evans 's engines , though that correspondence did not lead to the implementation of any of Evans 's designs for Fulton 's steamships . The Mississippi and tributaries experienced far stronger currents than eastern counterparts , and low @-@ pressure steamboats lacked the power to counteract these . The Enterprise was the first viable steamboat to run on these rivers , and its designer Daniel French employed an adapted Evans ' engine for the purpose . High @-@ pressure engines became the standard on the Mississippi , though relatively few of those were actually built by the Pittsburgh works as Evans ' patent on high @-@ pressure engines was not widely enforced , and many other engine shops opened on the Mississippi that freely adapted Evans ' designs for their own purposes .
Notable examples of river steamboats that were constructed by the Pittsburgh and Mars Works include the Franklin , the Aetna and the Pennsylvania . Another , christened the Oliver Evans but renamed the Constitution by its eventual owners , was lost along with the eleven crew members when its boiler exploded near Point Coupee , Louisiana . Evans was deeply distressed by the news , although he defended the safety of high @-@ pressure engines and cited any explosions as an extremely rare occurrences .
= = = Patent battles = = =
Evans found himself in battles to protect his intellectual property many times throughout his career , but he pursued the cause most doggedly during his latter years . His first and most successful patents concerning flour @-@ milling proved the most problematic to defend , and Evans ' battles proved influential in setting precedent for the newly established area of federal patent law . His original patent for his automated flour @-@ mill expired in January 1805 , but Evans believed that the fourteen year patent term was too brief and petitioned the
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Congress to extend it . In January 1808 An Act for the Relief of Oliver Evans was passed and signed by President Jefferson , a long @-@ time admirer of Evans 's work . The act took the extraordinary step of reviving to Evans his expired patent and giving it another fourteen year term — Evans was delighted , but the move was to highly problematic , particularly regarding those who had implemented Evans 's designs in the intervening three year period between the patent terms , as many millers had waited for Evans 's patent to expire before upgrading their mills .
Evans and his agents set about aggressively collecting royalties from those using his designs . Furthermore , Evans significantly raised the license fees for his use of his patented technology , raising claims of extortion from those being asked to pay , and a great many cases ended up in court . The 1808 act had indemnified those who had adopted Evans 's technologies from 1805 to 1808 , but did not specify whether this indemnity was perpetual ( as defendants argued ) or whether it was only for the three years in question ( as Evans argued ) . Evans by this stage of his life had also established a poor reputation for himself amongst the milling community , and his abrasive and often petty pursuit of patent rights stiffened resistance . Several major legal cases questioned whether laws to extend private patents in this manner were even constitutional , but Evans ultimately prevailed in each case .
The most bitter legal battle began in 1809 . Evans sued Samuel Robinson — a miller near Baltimore who was using Evans 's improvements without a license to produce a very modest amount of flour — for damages of $ 2 @,@ 500 . That sum was deemed unjustifiably high and harsh by many , and Evans 's actions rallied the Baltimore community against him , and when the case was finally heard in 1812 many appeared in support of the defendant . Evans 's detractors presented evidence and witnesses at the trial to press the argument that Evans did not truly invent much of what his patents protected . Although the hopper @-@ boy was undoubtedly original , the use of bucket chains and Archimedean screws had been used since ancient times and Evans had only modified some of their features and adapted them for use in a milling context . A now retired Thomas Jefferson weighed into the debate in letters to both Evans and his detractors , questioning the philosophy of patent law and what truly defined ' invention ' and ' machine ' ( and to some extent the validity of his claims ) but ultimately defended the purpose of patent law , which was to incentivize innovation by rewarding inventors for their development and sharing of new technology . And Jefferson noted that though Evans 's designs consisted of devices that had long existed beforehand , everyone had access to these and yet only Evans had thought to modify and use them in conjunction to build an automatic mill . Ultimately the jury found in favor of Evans , but it was a pyrrhic victory as Evans had put most of the milling community offside in the process , and ultimately reduced his claim against Robinson to $ 1 @,@ 000 . In response , prominent Evans critic Isaac McPherson , made submission to Congress in the wake of the trial entitled Memorial to the Congress of Sundry Citizens of the United States , Praying Relief from the Oppressive Operations of Oliver Evans ' Patent , seeking to limit the compensation Evans could seek for his patent 's use or for Congress to void it altogether . Although the Senate drafted a bill that would roll @-@ back some of Evans 's patent rights , it did not pass , and he continued to vigorously pursue his patent fees . It would not be until the Patent Act of 1836 that many of these issues , including what constituted originality in the context of a patent , would be addressed .
= = Later life and death , 1812 – 19 = =
Although Evans had always suffered from bouts of depression , and bitterness towards those he felt did not appreciate his inventions , such sentiments seemed to peak in his later years . During one of his many legal battles in 1809 , comments from the presiding judge sent Evans into a particular fury in which he dramatically incinerated many schematics and papers regarding his inventions , both prior and future . Evans declared at the time that inventing had led only to heartache , disappointment and under @-@ appreciation ; and committed himself to business and material acquisition for the sake of his family . Ultimately what was burned represents only a small proportion of what survives from Evans , and he did continue his interest in inventing , but the tone of Evans 's later life was undoubtedly one of hostility and disappointment .
Evans gradually withdrew from the operations of his workshops , with his son George managing operations in Pittsburgh and his sons @-@ in @-@ law James Rush and John Muhlenberg likewise in Philadelphia . The Mars Works was by now an established entity , receiving prestigious commissions such as the engines for the Philadelphia Mint in 1816 . Records indicate the Mars Works would turn out more than one hundred steam engines by the time of Evans death . In retirement Evans became increasingly consumed with pursuing his patent dues from those using his technology , which was now widespread . In 1817 he stated that his time was " wholly engrossed by law suits " . Evans had become somewhat obsessed and took on a siege mentality , penning to his numerous lawyers ( at its height he had fifteen working on his various cases across the United States ) his final work , known as Oliver Evans to His Counsel : Who are Engaged in Defence of His Patent Rights , for the Improvements He Has Invented : Containing a Short Account of Two Out of Eighty of His Inventions , Their Rise and Progress in Despite of All Opposition and Difficulties , and Two of His Patents with Explanations . Evans undertook travel to distant areas of the country in order to find offenders . On a trip to Vermont , Evans visited various mills and then promptly engaged a lawyer there to press charges against twenty @-@ two of them for perceived breeches of his patent rights .
In his last years Evans compiled a list , since lost , of all his inventions — eighty in total , as alluded to in the title of his last publication to his lawyers . Some of his unfinished ideas that are known include a scheme for the gas lighting of cities in the United States , a means for raising sunken ships , a machine gun , a self @-@ oiling shaft bearing , various types of gearshift for steam carriages , a dough @-@ kneading machine and a perpetual baking oven . In one proposal in 1814 , as the British Navy threatened Washington , D.C. during the War of 1812 , Evans ventured to build a steam @-@ powered frigate , but the scheme didn 't get far .
In 1816 his wife Sarah died , although the cause is unrecorded . Evans remarried two years later in April 1818 to Hetty Ward , who was many years his junior and the daughter of the New York innkeeper . In these last years Evans lived in New York with his new wife . In early 1819 Evans developed an inflammation of the lungs and after a month of illness , died on April 15 , 1819 . Just four days prior , on April 11 , news had reached him in New York that the Mars Works in Philadelphia had burned down , though his sons @-@ in @-@ law were committed to re @-@ establishing the business and did so further outside of the city . Evans was buried at Zion Episcopal Church in Manhattan , but when that church was sold his body was moved several times until finally resting in 1890 in an unmarked common grave at Trinity Cemetery , Broadway at 157th Street , New York City .
= = Legacy = =
Undoubtedly , Evans ' contributions to milling were profound and the most rapidly adopted . Within his lifetime American milling had undergone a revolution , and his designs allowed mills to be built on industrial @-@ scales with far greater efficiency . Now a more profitable enterprise , the number of mills increased dramatically across the United States . The price of flour fell significantly , availability increased , and the automated drying and bolting processes increased the quality and fineness of flour . In turn this led to major shift in bread making — cheaper and better quality flour lowered the cost of bread production and within a generation the majority of bread consumption shifted from the home @-@ made to store @-@ bought . The revolution was even more far @-@ reaching in Europe where the so @-@ called " American System " was quickly adopted by the milling industry and triggered major increases in food production — sorely needed in a period of almost continual warfare at the turn of the 18th century .
Although several key elements of Evans 's designs — such as bucket elevators and Archimedean screws — were merely modified rather than invented by him , the combination of many machines into an automated and continuous production line was a unique idea that would prove pivotal to both the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production . Scientific and technical historians now generally credit Evans as the first in a line of industrialists that culminated with Henry Ford and the modern assembly line . His concept of industrial automation was far ahead of its time , and the paradigm shift within manufacturing towards that concept would take more than a century to be fully realized . However continuous process manufacturing would spread from Evans 's milling designs , first to related industries such as brewing and baking , then eventually to a wide variety of products , as technology and prevailing opinion caught up . Evans contributions were later deemed to be so important that eminent industrial historian Sigfried Giedion would conclude that in this respect , Evans " opens a new chapter in the history of mankind " .
Evans ' contributions to steam were not as ground @-@ breaking as his earlier work in milling but he played a critical role by inventing and propagating the high @-@ pressure steam engine in the United States . Evans ' engines , particularly the Columbian , were highly influential in early steam @-@ power applications in United States ( particularly in the evolution of steamboats and steam @-@ powered industrial processes ) . Yet once more Evans was ahead of the curve with many of his ideas , and his death during steam 's infancy in the United States meant that it would be some time before many of his ideas would come to fruition . For example , although a leading advocate for high @-@ pressure engines , it would not be until the 1830s that such engines definitively replaced low @-@ pressure designs . And Evans ' dream of a steam wagon , notwithstanding the brave attempt of the Oruktor Amphibolos , would not see widespread adoption until even later . And unlike his earlier contributions , Evans was just one of many brilliant minds in steam technology . It would be another inventor , Richard Trevithick , working totally independently of Evans who would develop the high @-@ pressure engine that would make that dream possible .
And yet despite his formidable record and undoubted importance in the history of technology , Evans never became a household name . In this respect Evans was his own worst enemy . He was deeply affected by a perceived lack of recognition and appreciation from his peers for his work , and his bouts of depression would lead him to act in the extreme , prematurely ending projects and vowing to give up inventing many times over the course of his life . In time these feelings turned to bitterness and vengeance towards those who criticized or doubted him , and led him to become notoriously bombastic and combative , often aggrandizing his accomplishments and fiercely denouncing critics ( such as the wild exaggerations as to the success of the Oruktor Amphibolos at the end of his life ) . While his relentless pursuit of patent rights did indeed force people to pay him his due , the process badly damaged his reputation and made him many enemies . A leading Philadelphia merchant summed it up in 1802 , stating " few if any [ millers ] are inclined to give pompous blockhead , Oliver Evans , the credit of inventing any of the useful contrivances in milling for which he now enjoys patents . "
And yet in spite of his anguish and the weight of his detractors , Evans was steadfastly persistent in the pursuit of his ideas , a quality which Evans felt would ultimately see him triumph . The French translator of the Young Steam Engineer 's Guide agreed , concluding " posterity will place his name among those who are most truly distinguished for their eminent services rendered to their country and to humanity . "
= Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield =
Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield is a general aviation airfield at Saint @-@ Inglevert , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , [ Note 1 ] France . In the First World War an airfield was established near Saint @-@ Inglevert by the Royal Flying Corps , later passing to the Royal Air Force on formation and thus becoming RAF Saint Inglevert .
In 1920 , a civil airfield was established on a different site which was a designated customs airfield . During the Second World War , Saint @-@ Inglevert was occupied by the Royal Air Force and the Armée de l 'Air . The airfield was captured by the Germans towards the end of the Battle of France and occupied by the Luftwaffe . It was abandoned in 1941 , but in 1943 field artillery units were based around the airfield as part of the Atlantic Wall . Although civil flying returned to Saint @-@ Inglevert post @-@ war , the airfield was abandoned in 1957 and returned to agriculture . It was reopened by l 'aéroclub du Boulonnais ( English : Boulogne Aero Club ) in 1986 .
= = Location = =
Saint @-@ Inglevert airfield is located on a 130 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 430 ft ) hill to the north west of the village of Saint @-@ Inglevert , and east of Hervelinghen . It lies 13 kilometres ( 8 mi ) south west of Calais .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
There was a Royal Flying Corps airfield at Saint @-@ Inglevert during the First World War , but not on the site of the current airfield . In April 1918 , No. 21 Squadron Royal Air Force ( RAF ) were based at Saint @-@ Inglevert , flying Royal Aircraft Factory R.E.8 aircraft . From 29 June to 23 October , No. 214 Squadron RAF were based there flying Handley Page O / 400s , and in November , they were replaced by No. 115 Squadron RAF , who were flying the same type of aircraft . Two more squadrons , No. 97 Squadron RAF and No. 100 Squadron RAF , were based there from 17 November , to be joined by two squadrons of the United States Navy in 1918 , flying Sopwith Camels . All Royal Air Force squadrons departed from Saint @-@ Inglevert on 4 March 1919 .
= = = Between the wars = = =
In 1920 , an airfield was established at Saint @-@ Inglevert on a different site to the former military airfield . Facilities developed over the years to include two hangars , customs facilities and ultra short wave radio . In March 1920 , a Notice to Airmen was issued stating that Saint @-@ Inglevert was open and fuel , oil and water were available , but there were no hangars or repair facilities . A proposal to designate Saint @-@ Inglevert as a customs airfield in order to relieve Le Bourget of some of its workload was made in April 1920 . Facilities then in existence included hangars , repair facilities and a radio station . Later that month , it was notified [ Note 2 ] that an aerial lighthouse had been installed at the airfield , flashing the Morse letter A , and Saint @-@ Inglevert became a customs airport on 20 May . By July , the provision of ground signals at Saint @-@ Inglevert had begun . A 10 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 33 ft ) arrow was displayed indicating the wind direction . In August , it was reported that Saint @-@ Inglevert was sending weather report by radio seven times a day to Le Bourget . By October , aids available included a windsock and a landing T. Requirements for aircraft to perform clockwise or anticlockwise circuits when landing were indicated by the flying of a red or white flag respectively . The aerial lighthouse was reported to be out of action in November 1920 .
It was notified that the road forming the eastern boundary of the airfield was to be marked by a series of posts 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) high , surmounted by vertical white discs 50 cm ( 20 in ) in diameter , in January 1921 , and the following month , a Notice to Airmen issued in the United Kingdom stated that radio communication with Saint @-@ Inglevert was to be in French . As part of a series of trials to assess the viability of civil aviation in France , a Farman F.60 Goliath flew a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @,@ 800 mi ) test flight carrying 2 @,@ 250 kg ( 4 @,@ 960 lb ) of cargo on 1 May . Three laps of a circuit Paris - Orléans - Rouen - Saint @-@ Inglevert - Metz - Dijon - Paris were flown . Saint @-@ Inglevert was one of the designated landing places for the 1921 Coupe Michelin , an aerial circuit of France with a ₣ 20 @,@ 000 prize . In November , a Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes aircraft called at Saint @-@ Inglevert to collect a cargo of six 18 @-@ pounder and three 4 @.@ 5 – inch live shells for onward transmission to Croydon Airport in Surrey , United Kingdom . In a paper read to the Royal Aeronautical Society on 17 November , Colonel Frank Searle , managing director of Daimler Airway , criticized the organization of Saint @-@ Inglevert and Le Bourget .
In or about March 1922 , the wireless station at Saint @-@ Inglevert was destroyed in a fire . A meeting of airlines and the British Air Ministry in April following the first mid @-@ air collision of airliners on 7 April at Thieuloy @-@ Saint @-@ Antoine , Oise resulted in a number of resolutions being passed with the intention of improving the safety of aviation , one of which was that the Saint @-@ Inglevert wireless station should be replaced . The aerial lighthouse at Saint @-@ Inglevert was in operation again by 11 April , when a test flight was flown at night on the British part of the London - Paris air route . The aircraft flew as far as Saint @-@ Inglevert before turning back and landing at Lympne , Kent . In December , a Notice to Airmen stated that a portable searchlight was in operation at Saint @-@ Inglevert by prior arrangement for aircraft landing at night , and that the " T " was illuminated at night .
In April 1923 , a ₣ 25 @,@ 000 prize ( then worth £ 360 ) was offered by the daily newspaper Le Matin for the first French aviator to fly from Saint @-@ Inglevert to Lympne and back in one day in an aircraft of French design and construction , with an engine capacity of less than 1 @,@ 100 cubic centimetres ( 67 cu in ) . Georges Barbot won the prize when he completed the journey during the evening of 6 May in a Dewoitine aircraft fitted with a Clerget engine . It took him 2 hours and 25 minutes , including a 40 @-@ minute stop at Lympne while one of the struts supporting the undercarriage was repaired .
Imperial Airways were operating cross @-@ channel services using Armstrong Whitworth Argosy aircraft in 1924 , with the first stop in France at Saint @-@ Inglevert . When an aircraft departed from Lympne for St Inglevert , the destination airfield was advised , and if arrival was not notified within two hours , the British coastguard was informed . Communication between the airfields used Carmichael Microway UHF transmitters . A new system was introduced for non @-@ radio aircraft crossing the English Channel in August . Aircraft crossing from Lympne to Ostend , Belgium had to make a circuit of the airfield at an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) , while two circuits were made if departing for Saint @-@ Inglevert . The destination was then informed by radio of the departure . Arrival was confirmed by the aircraft flying another circuit , and was then reported back to Lympne by radio . If the aircraft had not arrived within an hour of departure , it would be considered as missing . A similar arrangement applied for aircraft flying in the reverse direction . In September , Saint @-@ Inglevert was one of the landing points for an aerial " Tour de France " , in which a specified route had to be flown on a 2 @,@ 120 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @,@ 320 mi ) course . Sixteen aircraft competed in four classes .
The airfield has been involved in several aviation records . On 18 September 1928 , Juan de la Cierva completed the first cross @-@ Channel flight in an autogyro when he landed there after departing from Lympne in a Cierva C.8. Lissant Beardmore completed the first cross @-@ Channel flight in a glider on 19 June 1931 . He took off from Lympne and was towed by an aircraft to an altitude of 14 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) , landing at Saint @-@ Inglevert after a flight of one and a half hours to the surprise of the airfield manager . The first double crossing of the Channel in a glider was made by Austrian Robert Kronfeld on 20 June . In a glider called Wien , he took off from Saint @-@ Inglevert by means of an aero @-@ tow to an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , and landed at the former RAF Swingfield airfield near Dover , Kent . From Swingfield , another aero @-@ tow to an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) enabled him to return to Saint @-@ Inglevert . Kronfeld received a £ 1 @,@ 000 prize from the Daily Mail for his flights , which were verified by the British Gliding Association . On 10 September 1929 , Charles Fauvel departed from Saint @-@ Inglevert in a Mauboussin aircraft fitted with an ABC Scorpion engine . The 848 @-@ kilometre ( 527 mi ) flight to Pau set a new Fédération Aéronautique Internationale world record for distance flown by a single seat aircraft weighing less than 200 kg ( 440 lb ) .
In November 1932 , it was reported that new radio equipment was to be installed at Lympne and St Inglevert operating on the 15 centimetre waveband at 2 @,@ 000 MHz , which would be used for the announcement of departures of non @-@ radio aircraft across the Channel . Messages sent by radio were also printed out by a teleprinter , providing a record of the communication . The British Air Ministry and the French Ministère de l 'Air co @-@ operated in the arrangements for setting up the system , which was scheduled to come into operation in Spring 1933 . It proved its effectiveness on 7 March 1933 , when a non @-@ radio de Havilland DH.60 Moth of British Air Transport failed to arrive at Lympne . The aircraft had ditched in the Channel and both occupants were rescued by a steamship bound for Amsterdam , the Netherlands . A new short @-@ wave radio system came into operation on 16 January 1934 , using equipment manufactured by Le Matériel Téléphonique , Paris .
In the mid @-@ 1930s , a number of notable people used Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield . King Edward VIII made three visits , the first on 4 February 1935 , while still the Prince of Wales , when he arrived from Fort Belvedere , Surrey on the first part of a journey to take a holiday at Kitzbühel , Austria . As king , he departed on 26 July 1936 to RAF Hendon on his return from the ceremony to unveil the Canadian National Vimy Memorial , and flew in from the Great West Aerodrome , Harmondsworth , UK on 8 August , in order to catch the Orient Express at Calais , as part of a holiday in Yugoslavia . Henri Mignet flew from Saint @-@ Inglevert to Lympne on 13 August 1935 , in his Flying Flea , then the world 's smallest aircraft .
= = = Second World War = = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , Saint @-@ Inglevert was taken over by the Armée de l 'Air in December 1939 . Groupe Aérien d 'Observation 516 ( GAO 516 ) of the 16ème Corps d 'Armée ( English : Air Observation Group 516 of the 16th Army Corps ) were based here , operating five Potez 63 @-@ 11 and five Breguet 27 aircraft , and carrying out air reconnaissance over the Nord @-@ Pas de Calais region . " B " Flight , No. 615 Squadron RAF was stationed at Saint @-@ Inglevert in the early months of 1940 , equipped with Gloster Gladiator II aircraft . [ Note 3 ] Following the discovery of a dismantled Morane @-@ Saulnier MS.138 in one of the hangars , a wager was made between the British and French as to whether or not the aircraft could be returned to the air . With the aid of materials supplied by the French , the aircraft was made flyable , but when 615 Squadron received orders to relocate to Vitry @-@ en @-@ Artois , an attempt to fly the aircraft to the new base was unsuccessful , and a forced landing had to be made in a field . On 10 May 1940 , the airfield was attacked by the Luftwaffe , with over 110 bombs being dropped , resulting in a Breguet being destroyed , another Breguet and a Potez being severely damaged and the radio facilities being temporarily put out of action .
During April 1940 , No. 607 Squadron RAF was based at Saint @-@ Inglevert , flying Gloster Gladiator Mk II HR aircraft . The military commander General Maxime Weygand visited the airfield on 21 May , and ordered 516 GAO to prepare to evacuate as the Germans were in the neighbouring Somme department . The following day , the order came to evacuate to Boos airfield , Rouen , Haute @-@ Normandie , but only four of the ten aircraft that departed from Saint @-@ Inglevert arrived safely at Boos . All aircraft carried as many passengers as could be accommodated . Two Potez 63 @-@ 11 's and a Bloch MB.152 were abandoned at Saint @-@ Inglevert , and were destroyed to prevent their use by the enemy , as were supplies of fuel . Personnel from 516 GAO were evacuated from Dunquerque on the French destroyer Bourrasque , although nineteen of them were killed when the ship struck a mine and sank .
Saint @-@ Inglevert was captured by the Luftwaffe towards the end of the Battle of France . 1 Gruppe , Lehrgeschwader 2 moved in on 20 June , equipped with Messerschmitt Bf 109 aircraft . They departed for Jever , Germany , on 12 July , and were replaced by 1 Gruppe , Jagdgeschwader 51 , also equipped with Bf 109s . From August until November Stab JG 51 were in occupation , and Aufklärungsgruppe 32 ( H ) aircraft were also based at Saint @-@ Inglevert during this period , with the unit operating Henschel Hs 126 parasol monoplanes . On 30 July 1940 , Saint @-@ Inglevert was bombed by the Royal Air Force , who claimed that hangars and aircraft were damaged , and a subsequent raid on 19 August resulted in a fire , smoke from which could be seen in Kent .
From 24 September to 5 November , 2 Gruppe , Jagdgeschwader 27 were based there . Facilities at the airfield were improved , by erecting new hangars and constructing a new 600 @-@ by @-@ 50 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 970 ft × 160 ft ) concrete runway . On 27 December 1940 , Saint @-@ Inglevert was again bombed by the Royal Air Force . The airfield was largely abandoned by 1941 , with occasional use by Junkers 52s as a refuelling station .
In 1943 , the airfield was designated as Stützpunkt 134 Paderborn , housing defence units as part of the Atlantic Wall coastal fortifications . The units were equipped with 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 18 howitzers . During the winter of 1943 @-@ 44 , 10 @.@ 5 cm leFH 324 ( f ) howitzers replaced the leFH 18s . A number of concrete bunkers were constructed to house the guns , which were still standing around the airfield in October 2007 . Following Operation Overlord at the start of the Allied invasion of western Europe , the Germans committed various acts of sabotage on departure from Saint @-@ Inglevert .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Post @-@ war , the airfield was restored to operational condition and civil flying returned . On 10 April 1957 , a report was published which resulted in the abandonment of Saint @-@ Inglevert in favour of an airport 6 km ( 4 mi ) east of Calais . The airfield was returned to agriculture .
In 1986 , l 'aéroclub du Boulonnais took over Saint @-@ Inglevert following closure of their previous base at Ambleteuse . Since its closure , the runway had been used as a dump for old tyres and scrap vehicles , and it took three years to restore the airfield , which reopened on 30 July 1989 . On the night of 5 – 6 April 2010 , a fire in a hangar at Saint @-@ Inglevert destroyed the hangar and eight aircraft . The destroyed aircraft were replaced by a Robin DR300 , a Robin DR400 , a Piel Emeraude CP3005 and a Jodel D195 . A Piper PA @-@ 28 was also acquired which needed restoration to make it airworthy . The replacement aircraft were housed in a 10 @-@ by @-@ 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft × 33 ft ) tent hangar erected on the airfield , or temporarily outstationed at Calais or Le Touquet . A new 30 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ metre ( 98 ft × 66 ft ) hangar , replacing the one destroyed by the fire , was officially opened on 30 March 2012 , and can accommodate ten aircraft . Following the fire , a NOTAM was issued temporarily restricting the use of the airfield until 15 November 2010 to aircraft based there . On 26 August 2010 , Saint @-@ Inglevert was given the ICAO identifier LFIS , allowing it to be classed as a public airfield instead of a private one . This had taken ten years to achieve .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 1 September 1922 , A Farman F.60 Goliath on a flight from Croydon Airport to Paris , suffered a severely damaged propeller after flying through torrential rain whilst crossing the English Channel . The engine was shut down and a precautionary landing was made at Saint @-@ Inglevert where the propeller was changed in 15 minutes . The aircraft then departed for Le Bourget , where arrival was only 12 minutes later than scheduled .
In February 1923 , an aircraft belonging to Instone Air Line was damaged in an accident at Saint @-@ Inglevert .
= Soaring Stones =
Soaring Stones , also known as Rouse Rocks , Soaring Rocks , and Stones on Sticks , is a 1990 granite @-@ and @-@ steel sculpture by John T. Young . It was first installed in the Transit Mall of Portland , Oregon , and was later sited as Soaring Stones # 4 at Whitman College in Walla Walla , Washington . The sculpture was commissioned for $ 100 @,@ 000 to replace a fountain that was removed during construction of Pioneer Place .
During the construction of the MAX Light Rail in 2006 , it was removed and returned to Young , who then donated the work to Whitman College . The sculpture is intended to represent the " interface between man and nature " ; it features six irregular Washington granite rock forms installed in a row , in order of ascending height . The work inspired David Glenn , professor of music at Whitman College , to compose a piano quintet piece titled " Sculpture Garden for Piano Quintet " for the 2009 Walla Walla Chamber Music Festival .
= = History = =
John T. Young 's Soaring Stones was commissioned in 1989 for $ 100 @,@ 000 as a gift to city residents by Pioneer Place , Ltd . , an affiliate of Rouse @-@ Portland , Inc . , to replace a fountain that was removed during construction of the Pioneer Place mall . The sculpture was completed and installed at Southwest 5th Street between Taylor Street and Yamhill Street in downtown Portland 's Transit Mall in 1990 . The sculpture was surveyed and deemed as " treatment needed " by the Smithsonian 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in October 1993 , and was administered by Rouse @-@ Portland , Inc . , Pioneer Place , Ltd. at that time .
In 2006 , the sculpture was removed and returned to its owner due to construction of the MAX Light Rail . The University of Washington 's Architectural Commission considered moving the work to a " very unique site " because of its design and size . Young was a professor of art at the institution . In 2007 , Young donated the work to Whitman College in Walla Walla , Washington , where it was installed outside Cordiner Hall as Soaring Stones # 4 .
= = Description = =
According to Young , Soaring Stones represents the " interface between man and nature " . It consists of six irregularly shaped pieces of Washington granite that were quarried from the Cascade Range , displayed in a row in ascending height . While installed in Portland , the first stone was sunk into the pavement . The rest were set on polished stainless steel pedestals , the tallest of which reached 11 @.@ 5 ft ( 3 @.@ 5 m ) . Elevated boulders had recessed lighting . The Smithsonian Institution described the sculpture as " reminiscent of the Cascade Mountain Range from which the media came " , and categorized it as abstract and allegorical of nature . Alongside the sculpture was a plaque that said , " SOARING STONES " / BY JOHN T. YOUNG , SEATTLE , WA / © 1990 / SPONSORED BY PIONEER PLACE LTD . Installed at the Whitman College campus , Soaring Stones # 4 spans 150 ft ( 46 m ) and the highest of its rocks reaches 12 ft 4 in ( 3 @.@ 76 m ) tall .
= = Reception = =
In 1990 , The Seattle Times said Soaring Stones ' ascending pieces looked " as if they were taking off into flight ... [ r ] ather like Young 's career " . The sculpture was included in at least one published walking tour of Portland and in another by Whitman College about art on the campus . David Glenn , professor of music at Whitman College , took inspiration from Soaring Stones # 4 and other art pieces on the campus for his composition " Sculpture Garden for Piano Quintet " , a piano quintet commissioned for the opening concert of the 2009 Walla Walla Chamber Music Festival . Glenn based his work on a September 2008 walk through the campus ; he used Young 's sculpture as inspiration for the quintet 's final movement . He said of the sculpture 's influence :
Since there are six boulders used in the sculpture , I based this movement in the time signature of 6 / 4 , with a sub @-@ division of four and two ( four on pedestals ; two on ground ) . I also used a six @-@ note melodic theme that rises six times , descends six times and then rises again six times . The rising and falling represent different perspectives the viewer of the sculpture can have — either looking from right to left or left to right .
= Axl Rose =
W. Axl Rose ( born William Bruce Rose , Jr . ; raised as William Bruce Bailey ; February 6 , 1962 ) is an American singer , songwriter and musician . He is the lead vocalist of the hard rock band Guns N ' Roses , a position he has held since its inception in 1985 . Due to his powerful and wide vocal range and energetic live performances , Rose has been named one of the greatest singers of all time by various media outlets , including Rolling Stone and NME .
Born and raised in Lafayette , Indiana , Rose moved to Los Angeles in the early 1980s , where he became active in the local hard rock scene and joined several bands , including Hollywood Rose and L.A. Guns . In 1985 , he co @-@ founded Guns N ' Roses , with whom he had great success and recognition in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Their first album , Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) , has sold in excess of 30 million copies worldwide , and is the best @-@ selling debut album of all time in the U.S. with 18 million units sold . Its full @-@ length follow @-@ ups , the twin albums Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II ( 1991 ) , were also widely successful ; they respectively debuted at No. 2 and No. 1 on the Billboard 200 and have sold a combined 35 million copies worldwide .
After 1994 , following the conclusion of their two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year Use Your Illusion Tour , Rose disappeared from public life for several years , while the band disintegrated due to personal and musical differences . As its sole remaining original member , he was able to continue working under the Guns N ' Roses banner because he had legally obtained the band name . In 2001 , he resurfaced with a new line @-@ up of Guns N ' Roses at Rock in Rio 3 , and subsequently played periodic concert tours to promote the long @-@ delayed Chinese Democracy ( 2008 ) , which undersold the music industry 's commercial expectations despite positive reviews upon its release . In 2012 , Rose was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Guns N ' Roses , though he declined to attend the event and requested exclusion from the HoF .
= = Early life = =
Axl Rose was born William Bruce Rose , Jr. in Lafayette , Indiana , the oldest child of Sharon E. ( née Lintner ) , then 16 years old and still in high school , and William Bruce Rose , then 20 years old . His father has been described as " a troubled and charismatic local delinquent , " and the pregnancy was unplanned . His parents separated when Rose was approximately two years old , prompting his father to abduct and allegedly molest him before disappearing from Lafayette . His mother remarried to Stephen L. Bailey , and changed her son 's name to William Bruce Bailey . He has two younger siblings — a sister , Amy , and a half @-@ brother , Stuart . Until the age of 17 , Rose believed that Bailey was his natural father . He never met his biological father as an adult ; William Rose , Sr. was murdered in Marion , Illinois , in 1984 by a criminal acquaintance who was convicted even though the body was never recovered . Rose did not learn about the murder until years later .
The Bailey household was very religious ; Rose and his family attended a Pentecostal church , where he was required to attend services three to eight times per week and even taught Sunday school . Rose later recalled an oppressive upbringing , stating , " We 'd have televisions one week , then my stepdad would throw them out because they were Satanic . I wasn 't allowed to listen to music . Women were evil . Everything was evil . " He accused his stepfather of physically abusing him and his siblings and sexually abusing his sister . Rose found solace in music from an early age . He sang in the church choir from the age of five , and performed at services with his brother and sister under the name the Bailey Trio . At Jefferson High School , he participated in the school chorus and studied piano . A second baritone , Rose began developing " different voices " during chorus practice to confuse his teacher . He eventually formed a band with his friends , one of whom was Jeff Isbell , later known as Izzy Stradlin .
At the age of 17 , while going through insurance papers in his parents ' home , Rose learned of his biological father 's existence , and he unofficially readopted his birth name . However , he referred to himself only as W. Rose , because he did not want to share a first name with his biological father . Following the discovery of his true family origins , Rose became the local juvenile delinquent in Lafayette ; he was arrested more than 20 times on charges such as public intoxication and battery , and served jail terms up to three months . After Lafayette authorities threatened to charge him as a habitual criminal , Rose moved to Los Angeles , California , in December 1982 . After moving to Los Angeles , he became so engrossed in his band AXL that his friends suggested he call himself Axl Rose ; he legally changed his name to W. Axl Rose prior to signing his contract with Geffen Records in March 1986 .
= = Career = =
= = = 1983 – 86 : Early years = = =
Shortly after his arrival in Los Angeles , Rose met guitarist Kevin Lawrence outside The Troubadour in West Hollywood and joined his band Rapidfire . They recorded a four @-@ song demo in May 1983 , which , after years of legal action , was released as an EP , Ready to Rumble , in 2014 . After parting ways with Lawrence , he formed the band Hollywood Rose with his childhood friend Izzy Stradlin , who had moved to Los Angeles in 1980 , and sixteen @-@ year @-@ old guitarist Chris Weber . In January 1984 , the band recorded a five @-@ song demo featuring the tracks " Anything Goes " , " Rocker " , " Shadow of Your Love " , and " Reckless Life " , which was released in 2004 as The Roots of Guns N ' Roses . Guitarist Slash and drummer Steven Adler , future members of Guns N ' Roses , joined Hollywood Rose before the band 's dissolution . Rose then joined the first line @-@ up of L.A. Guns . While struggling to make an impact on the Hollywood music scene , Rose held down a variety of jobs , including the position of night manager at the Tower Records location on Sunset Boulevard . Rose and Stradlin also smoked cigarettes for a scientific study at UCLA for the reported wages of $ 8 per hour .
In March 1985 , Rose and his former band mate Tracii Guns formed Guns N ' Roses by merging their respective bands Hollywood Rose and L.A. Guns . By June , after several line @-@ up changes , the band consisted of Rose , lead guitarist Slash , rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin , bassist Duff McKagan , and drummer Steven Adler . The line @-@ up debuted at The Troubadour and proceeded to play the L.A. club circuit , eventually building a devoted fan following . The band attracted the attention of several major record labels , before signing with Geffen Records in March 1986 . The following December , they released the four @-@ song EP Live ? ! * @ Like a Suicide on the Geffen imprint UZI Suicide .
= = = 1987 – 89 : Breakthrough with Appetite for Destruction = = =
In July 1987 , Guns N ' Roses released its debut album Appetite for Destruction . Although the record received critical acclaim , it experienced a modest commercial start , selling as many as 500 @,@ 000 copies in its first year of release . However , fueled by the band 's relentless touring and the mainstream success of the single " Sweet Child o ' Mine " — Rose 's tribute to his then @-@ girlfriend Erin Everly — the album rose to the No. 1 position on the Billboard 200 in August 1988 , and again in February 1989 . To date , Appetite for Destruction has sold over 30 million copies worldwide , 18 million of which sold in the United States , making it the best @-@ selling debut album of all time in the U.S.
During the band 's performance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Castle Donington , England , in August 1988 , two fans were crushed to death when many in the crowd of 107 @,@ 000 began slam @-@ dancing to " It 's So Easy " . Rose had halted the show several times to calm the audience . From then on , he became known for personally addressing disruptive fans and giving instructions to security personnel from the stage , at times stopping concerts to deal with issues in the crowd . In 1992 , Rose stated , " Most performers would go to a security person in their organization , and it would just be done very quietly . I 'll confront the person , stop the song : ' Guess what : You wasted your money , you get to leave . ' " As a result of the deaths at Monsters of Rock , the festival was canceled the following year .
In November 1988 , Guns N ' Roses released the stopgap album G N ' R Lies , which sold more than five million copies in the U.S. alone . The band – and Rose in particular – were accused of promoting racist and homophobic attitudes with the song " One in a Million " , in which Rose warns " niggers " to " get out of my way " and complains about " faggots " who " spread some fucking disease . " During the controversy , Rose defended his use of the racial slur by claiming that " it 's a word to describe somebody that is basically a pain in your life , a problem . The word nigger doesn 't necessarily mean black . " In 1992 , however , he conceded that he had used the word as an insult towards black people , stating , " I was pissed off about some black people that were trying to rob me . I wanted to insult those particular black people . I didn 't want to support racism . " In response to the allegations of homophobia , Rose stated that he considered himself " pro @-@ heterosexual " and blamed this attitude on " bad experiences " with gay men , citing an attempted rape in his late teens and the alleged molestation by his biological father . The controversy led to Guns N ' Roses being dropped from the roster of an AIDS benefit show in New York organized by the Gay Men 's Health Crisis .
With the success of Appetite for Destruction and G N ' R Lies , Rose found himself lauded as one of rock 's most prominent frontmen . By the time he appeared solo on the cover of Rolling Stone in August 1989 , his celebrity was such that the influential music magazine agreed to his absolute requirement that the interview and accompanying photographs would be provided by two of his friends , writer Del James and photographer Robert John . MTV anchorman Kurt Loder described Rose as " maybe the finest hard rock singer currently on the scene , and certainly the most charismatic . "
= = = 1990 – 93 : International success with Use Your Illusion = = =
In early 1990 , Guns N ' Roses returned to the studio to begin recording the full @-@ length follow @-@ up to Appetite for Destruction . Recording sessions initially proved unproductive due to Steven Adler 's struggle with drug addiction , which made him unable to perform and caused sessions to abort for several days at a time . Adler was fired the following July and replaced by Matt Sorum of The Cult . Keyboardist Dizzy Reed also joined the band that year at Rose 's insistence . Sorum and Reed played their first show with Guns N ' Roses at Rock in Rio 2 in January 1991 . The group fired its long @-@ time manager , Alan Niven , in May of that year ; Rose reportedly forced the dismissal of Niven against the wishes of his band mates by refusing to complete the new album until Niven was gone . He was replaced by roadie Doug Goldstein , whom Izzy Stradlin described as " the guy who gets to go over to Axl 's at six in the morning after he 's smashed his $ 60 @,@ 000 grand piano out of the picture window . "
In May 1991 , still without an album to promote , the band embarked on the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year Use Your Illusion Tour , which became known for its financial success and myriad controversial incidents that occurred during shows , including late starts , on @-@ stage rantings and even riots . Rose received much criticism for his late appearances at concerts , sometimes taking the stage hours after the band was scheduled to perform . In July 1991 , 90 minutes into a concert at the Riverport Amphitheater near St. Louis , after on @-@ stage requests from Rose for security personnel to confiscate a fan 's video camera , Rose himself dived into the crowd to seize the contraband item . After being pulled back on stage , he announced , " Thanks to the lame @-@ ass security , I 'm going home ! " and departed , following which some 2500 fans staged a riot , resulting in an estimated $ 200 @,@ 000 in damages .
In September 1991 , with enough material completed for two albums , Guns N ' Roses released Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II , which debuted at No. 2 and No. 1 respectively on the Billboard 200 , a feat not achieved by any other group . By the albums ' release , however , Rose 's relationships with his bandmates had become increasingly strained . His childhood friend Izzy Stradlin abruptly left the group in November 1991 ; he was replaced by Gilby Clarke of Kill For Thrills . Of his reasons for leaving , Stradlin said , " I didn 't like the complications that became such a part of daily life in Guns N ' Roses , " citing the riot and Rose 's chronic lateness as examples , as well as his new @-@ found sobriety making it difficult to be around other bandmates continued alcohol and substance abuse . At some point during the remainder of the tour , Rose reportedly demanded , and received , sole ownership of the Guns N ' Roses name from Slash and Duff McKagan ; Rose allegedly issued an ultimatum — they had to sign the name over to him
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or he would not perform . ( In 2008 , however , Rose stated that these reports were false and that the alleged coercion would have rendered the contract legally untenable . )
Another riot occurred in August 1992 at Montreal 's Olympic Stadium , during a co @-@ headlining tour with Metallica . Prior to Guns N ' Roses ' appearance , Metallica 's set was cut short after singer @-@ guitarist James Hetfield suffered second @-@ degree burns in a pyrotechnics accident . However , Guns N ' Roses was unable to go on stage early , because Rose once again was late arriving at the venue . Nearly an hour into their show , Rose complained of voice problems before walking off stage , following which a riot erupted in downtown Montreal , resulting in an estimated $ 400 @,@ 000 in damages . In November of that year , Rose was convicted of property damage and assault in relation to the Riverport riot ; he was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 and received two years ' probation .
Guns N ' Roses played its final show of the Use Your Illusion Tour on July 17 , 1993 at River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires ; it proved to be Rose 's last live performance with the band for seven and a half years . The following August , Rose testified in court against Steven Adler , who had filed a lawsuit contending that he had been illegitimately fired . When the judge ruled against Rose , he agreed to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 and 15 % of the royalties for everything Adler recorded prior to his departure . In November of that year , Guns N ' Roses released " The Spaghetti Incident ? " a cover album of mostly punk songs , which proved less successful than its predecessors . Rose had included the hidden track " Look at Your Game , Girl " , a song written by convicted murderer Charles Manson , which he intended as a personal message to his ex @-@ girlfriend Stephanie Seymour . Controversy ensued , and the band subsequently pledged to donate any royalties to the son of one of Manson 's victims .
= = = 1994 – 2000 : Hiatus = = =
Without consultation from his band mates , Rose did not renew Gilby Clarke 's contract with the band in June 1994 , as he claimed Clarke to be only a " hired hand . " Tension between Rose and Slash reached a breaking point after the latter discovered that Rose had hired his childhood friend Paul " Huge " Tobias as Clarke 's replacement . Although the band recorded material during this time , it was ultimately not used because , according to Rose , their lack of collaboration prevented them from producing their best work . Slash finally left Guns N ' Roses in October 1996 due to his differences with Rose , while Matt Sorum was fired in June 1997 after an argument over Tobias 's involvement in the band . Duff McKagan departed the band in August of that year , leaving Rose and Dizzy Reed as the only remaining band members of the Use Your Illusion era .
As the stability of Guns N ' Roses collapsed , Rose withdrew from public view . The band never officially broke up , although it did not tour or perform for several years and no new material was released . Rose continued to recruit new musicians to replace band members who either left or were fired . By the late 1990s , he was considered to be a recluse , rarely making public appearances and spending most of his time in his mansion in Malibu . In various media reports , he was referred to as the " Howard Hughes of rock " and " rock 's greatest recluse . " Rose was said to spend his nights rehearsing and writing with the various new lineups of Guns N ' Roses , working on the band 's next album , Chinese Democracy .
= = = 2001 – 11 : Touring in support of Chinese Democracy = = =
In January 2001 , Rose resurfaced with Guns N ' Roses at Rock in Rio 3 to commence the decade @-@ long Chinese Democracy Tour , though the majority of its scheduled concerts over the next two years did not take place . A critically panned surprise appearance at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards was followed by an incident in November when a riot erupted at Vancouver 's General Motors Place after Rose failed to show up for a scheduled concert . When venue staff announced the cancellation , a riot broke out , resulting in an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . As the band 's line @-@ up continued to evolve , his constant band mates were guitarist Richard Fortus , bassist Tommy Stinson , and keyboardists Dizzy Reed and Chris Pitman .
After the tour was cancelled by the promoter , Rose again withdrew from the public view . During this time , he joined Slash and Duff McKagan in a lawsuit against Geffen Records in an unsuccessful attempt to block the release of the Greatest Hits compilation album , and lent his voice to the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas . In a rare interview in January 2006 , Rose stated that " people will hear music this year . " While Guns N ' Roses toured extensively throughout 2006 and 2007 , with several guest appearances by Izzy Stradlin , Chinese Democracy again failed to materialize . Rose did collaborate with his friend Sebastian Bach on his album Angel Down .
Fifteen years after its last album , in November 2008 , Guns N ' Roses released Chinese Democracy exclusively via the electronics retailer Best Buy . Rose did not contribute to the album 's promotion ; by December , he had reportedly been missing for at least two months and had not returned phone calls or other requests from his record label . In a subsequent interview , Rose stated that he felt he had not received the necessary support from Interscope Records . A year after the album 's release , in December 2009 , Guns N ' Roses embarked on another two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of touring , including a headlining performance at Rock in Rio 4 . Rose was subsequently sued by former band manager Irving Azoff , who sought $ 1 @.@ 87 million in unpaid fees related to the tour . In a countersuit , Rose alleged Azoff had deliberately mismanaged the band and their album 's promotion to force him to join his former band mates for a reunion tour . Both cases were settled . According to Rose in 2011 , part of the settlement agreement dictated that Rose and the current Guns N ' Roses had to do a number of performances with Azoff 's company Live Nation as the promoter .
In November 2010 , Rose sued Activision , the producers of the video game Guitar Hero , for $ 20 million , claiming that Activision had violated an agreement with him to not include any reference to Slash or his band Velvet Revolver in the game in return for a license to use the song " Welcome to the Jungle " . Instead , Rose noted that an image of Slash was used on the game 's front cover . Rose 's claim was summarily dismissed in February 2013 , when the judge ruled that Rose had not brought suit on the contract , which relied on oral promises , within the two @-@ year statute of limitations that began with the game 's October 2007 release .
= = = 2012 – present : Hall of Fame and regrouping ; AC / DC = = =
Together with the other members of Guns N ' Roses ' classic lineup , Rose was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2012 , their first year of eligibility . He did not attend the induction ceremony in April , however , as he had announced in an open letter three days prior . Rose , who had long been on bad terms with several of his former band mates , wrote that the ceremony " doesn 't appear to be somewhere I 'm actually wanted or respected . " He subsequently joined his band in residencies at The Joint in Las Vegas in 2012 and 2014 , as part of the Appetite for Democracy Tour celebrating the anniversaries of Appetite for Destruction and Chinese Democracy . By mid @-@ 2014 , the group 's new album , recorded concurrently with Chinese Democracy , and a remix album were completed and pending release , but no new material emerged .
In response to an informal study that named him the ' World 's Greatest Singer " based on a study of vocal ranges , Rose told Spin in 2014 , " If I had to say who I thought the best singers were , I 'd say first that I don 't know there 's a definitive answer as in my opinion it 's subjective , and second that my focus is primarily rock singers . That said , I enjoy Freddie Mercury , Elvis Presley , Paul McCartney , Dan McCafferty , Janis Joplin , Michael Jackson , Elton John , Roger Daltrey , Don Henley , Jeff Lynne , Johnny Cash , Frank Sinatra , Jimmy Scott , Etta James , Fiona Apple , Chrissie Hynde , Stevie Wonder , James Brown and a ton of others ( predominantly Seventies rock singers ) and would rather hear any of them anytime rather than me ! "
Rose and Slash reunited for the Not in This Lifetime ... Tour , one of the most @-@ anticipated reunion tours in rock history . Alongside Dizzy Reed and returning member Duff McKagan , who had previously made guest appearances with the band , they comprised two @-@ thirds of the band 's Use Your Illusion @-@ era line @-@ up , with Chinese Democracy @-@ era members Richard Fortus and Frank Ferrer joining new member Melissa Reese to fill out the rest of the lineup . Rose shared a stage with Slash for the first time in nearly 23 years during the group 's surprise performance at The Troubadour in April 2016 , ahead of its headlining shows at Coachella . He additionally joined Australian hard rock band AC / DC to perform as lead singer for the remainder of the band 's Rock or Bust World Tour , after long @-@ time lead vocalist Brian Johnson had to stop touring due to hearing problems .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Health issues = = =
During Rose 's late teens , a psychiatrist concluded that his delinquent behavior was evidence of psychosis . In addition , he made note of his high IQ . By the age of 26 , Rose had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder . Although he was prescribed lithium to combat the disorder , he stated it was ineffective and claimed to be in control of his moods . In a subsequent interview , he questioned the diagnosis altogether , stating , " I went to a clinic , thinking it would help my moods . The only thing I did was take one 500 @-@ question test — ya know , filling in the little black dots . All of sudden I 'm diagnosed manic @-@ depressive . ' Let 's put Axl on medication . ' Well , the medication doesn 't help me deal with stress . The only thing it does is help keep people off my back because they figure I 'm on medication . " In contrast to his public image , Rose was not a heavy drug user , though he did not disavow the use of illicit substances entirely .
In the early 1990s , Rose became a staunch believer in homeopathic medicine , and began regularly undergoing past life regression therapy . He went public with his " uncovered memories " of being sexually abused by his biological father at the age of two , which he said had stunted his emotional growth : " When they talk about Axl Rose being a screaming two @-@ year @-@ old , they 're right . " His dislike of touring was caused in part by the various illnesses he contracted over time due to hotel and airplane air conditioning , including a mutated form of polio , a mutated form of rubella , swine flu , scarlet fever , and strep throat in his heart . He expressed his belief that these health problems were caused by him unconsciously lowering his own resistance as a form of " self @-@ punishment " .
= = Discography = =
= = = With Guns N ' Roses = = =
Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 )
G N ' R Lies ( 1988 )
Use Your Illusion I ( 1991 )
Use Your Illusion II ( 1991 )
" The Spaghetti Incident ? " ( 1993 )
Chinese Democracy ( 2008 )
= = = With Hollywood Rose = = =
The Roots of Guns N ' Roses ( 2004 )
= = = With Rapidfire = = =
Ready to Rumble ( 2014 )
= = = Guest appearances = = =
The Decline of Western Civilization Part II : The Metal Years – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack by various artists ( 1988 ; " Under My Wheels " ft . Alice Cooper )
The End of the Innocence by Don Henley ( 1989 ; " I Will Not Go Quietly " )
Fire and Gasoline by Steve Jones ( 1989 ; " I Did U No Wrong " )
Pawnshop Guitars by Gilby Clarke ( 1994 ; " Dead Flowers " )
Anxious Disease by The Outpatience ( 1996 ; " Anxious Disease " ft . Slash )
Angel Down by Sebastian Bach ( 2007 ; " Back in the Saddle , " " ( Love Is ) a Bitchslap , " " Stuck Inside " )
= = Filmography = =
= Millennium Group =
The Millennium Group is a fictional secret society featured in the crime thriller television series Millennium . Having begun life as a Christian sect at the end of the 1st century AD , the Group grew into a far @-@ reaching network which , as the 3rd millennium approached , presented itself as a private investigative firm liaising with law enforcement organizations . Despite being fraught with internal schisms , the Group tried on several occasions to artificially instigate the end of the world as the year 2000 approached .
The Millennium Group 's role as an investigative organization was based on the real @-@ life Academy Group , a society of retired law enforcement agents in the United States . The presentation of the Group varied as the series progressed , with its role changing from that of a benevolent investigative group to an antagonistic mystic sect . The Millennium Group has met with negative responses , with its vacillating depiction being a focus of criticism both from critics and from series star Lance Henriksen .
= = Fictional history = =
The Millennium Group first started life as an early Christian sect around the year 100 AD . By the late 10th century , the Group had adopted the ouroboros as its symbol , and the phrase " this is who we are " as a motto . However , around this time schisms within the group began to form as members fought for control of an artifact — the preserved hand of a saint said to be capable of ultimately defeating the devil . Despite these internal rivalries , the group persisted into the 20th century . The Group 's modern organization stems from J. Edgar Hoover , the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation , who began the process of turning the Group 's attention to criminal investigation in order to monitor individuals and societal trends .
As the 3rd millennium approached , the Group 's internal differences began to manifest into two factions — the " Roosters " , who believed in a religiously eschatological view of the end of the world , and the " Owls " , who believed the world would end with a secular natural disaster . Attempting to instigate the end of the world artificially , the Rooster faction began to develop a lethal virus ; in 1998 they released this virus in the Pacific Northwest , killing upwards of seventy people before the outbreak was contained . A year later , a vastly depleted Millennium Group staged one last attempt to trigger the apocalypse , resurrecting deceased members in order to create the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse ; when this plot was foiled by the FBI , it was believed to have caused the dissolution of the Group .
= = Production = =
The inspiration for the Millennium Group was a real @-@ life organization called the Academy Group , which consisted of retired law enforcement agents working as a private investigative firm . Millennium 's creator Chris Carter had come to know members of the Academy Group through contacts he had made with the Federal Bureau of Investigation while researching his earlier television series The X @-@ Files . The Academy Group focused on offender profiling , which shaped the main Millennium Group characters of Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . Describing his initial inception of the Group , Carter has stated " they believe that all this random violence we see these days , there may actually be some order in the chaos [ ... ] These guys think that , if they care enough , that they can stem the tide of this thing " .
In the series ' second season , new executive producers Glen Morgan and James Wong began to explore a new direction for the Group , moving away from its investigative function and giving a more religious focus . The tone of the second season focused more on the supernatural , showing the Group dealing with demonic forces more than the serial killers of the first season . Producer Ken Horton felt that the increased focus on the Group in the second season arose as the first season 's use of serial killers as episodic antagonists had " overpowered " its storytelling , making it necessary to turn the show 's attention elsewhere instead ; the focus switched from external forces and villains to the internal workings of the Group . The introduction of schisms within the Group was inspired by Wong 's research into the Knights Templar and Freemasonry , as he considered these secretive organizations to have mirrored the way he wanted to present the Group , and he felt each contained factions or reactionary elements which he wanted to recreate .
During the third season , the Millennium Group became the series ' chief villains , playing an antagonistic role against Frank Black rather than the supportive role they had previously played . Series star Lance Henriksen , who portrayed Black , felt that this change was unnecessary and damaged the series , as it discarded the work that had been done to " build up " the Group in previous seasons . Henriksen would later state his belief that the " idea of a cultish kind of Millennium Group [ ... ] just about destroyed the show " .
= = Reception = =
Critical opinions of the Millennium Group 's role within the series have generally been negative , tending to focus on their inconsistent presentation . Writing in the collection Back to Frank Black : A Return to Chris Carter 's Millennium , author Joseph Maddrey found that the changing nature of the Group 's aims and methods seemed contradictory , writing that " over the course of Seasons Two and Three , the Millennium Group appears to become more dedicated to promoting fear of the future than to fighting it " . In another essay in this collection , Gordon Roberts described the Group as " endlessly fascinating " , and compared the Group to an organized crime syndicate , likening its requirement of continued devotion to the family unit .
Keith Uhlich , writing for Slant magazine , felt that the " reinvention of the Millennium Group from a criminal consulting firm to an ancient , protective sect " did not fit with Carter 's typical character development , which focussed on individuals and the careers that " define their existence " . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen felt that the third season 's focus on a villainous Group reduced them to " yet another cabal with seemingly limitless influence and power " , describing them as " just another one of Carter ’ s beloved shadowy conspiracies " .
= 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt =
The 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt took place from March to June 1937 in the Canadian province of Alberta . It was a rebellion against Premier William Aberhart by a group of backbench ( not part of the cabinet ) members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) from his Social Credit League . The dissidents were unhappy with Aberhart 's failure to provide Albertans with C $ 25 monthly dividends through social credit as he had promised before his 1935 election . When the government 's 1937 budget made no move to implement the dividends , many MLAs revolted openly and threatened to defeat the government in a confidence vote .
The revolt took place in a period of turmoil for Aberhart and his government : besides the dissident backbenchers , half of the cabinet resigned or was fired over a period of less than a year . Aberhart also faced criticism for planning to attend the coronation of George VI at the province 's expense and for stifling a recall attempt against him by the voters of his constituency .
After a stormy debate in which the survival of the government was called into question , a compromise was reached whereby Aberhart 's government relinquished considerable power to a committee of backbenchers . This committee , dominated by insurgents , recruited two British social credit experts to come to Alberta and advise on the implementation of social credit . Among the experts ' first moves was to require a loyalty pledge from Social Credit MLAs . Almost all signed , thus ending the crisis , though most of the legislation the experts proposed was ultimately disallowed or struck down as unconstitutional .
= = Background = =
In the midst of the Great Depression , Calgary schoolteacher and radio evangelist William Aberhart became a convert to a British economic theory called social credit . Believing it could end the depression and restore prosperity , he began to promote it around Alberta . When the provincial government proved resistant to adopting it , Aberhart resolved to field social credit candidates in the 1935 provincial election . These candidates won 56 of the province 's 63 seats , and Aberhart became Premier of Alberta .
In the runup to the campaign , Aberhart promised to increase Albertans ' purchasing power by providing monthly dividends to all citizens in the form of non @-@ negotiable " credit certificates " . While he did not commit to any specific dividend amount , he cited $ 20 and , later , $ 25 per month as reasonable figures . Though he noted that these figures were given " only for illustrative purposes " , he repeated them so often that , in the assessment of his biographers David Elliott and Iris Miller , " it would have been impossible for any regular listener not to have gained the impression that Aberhart was promising him $ 25 a month if Social Credit should come to power . "
Aberhart had been in some conflict with C. H. Douglas , social credit 's British originator . Douglas , while assiduously avoiding specific comment on the Albertan proposals , submitted them to his Social Credit Secretariat for review ; it found them to be " fallacious from start to finish . "
By the end of 1936 , Aberhart 's government had made no progress towards the promised dividends , leaving many Albertans disillusioned and frustrated . These Albertans included some of Aberhart 's own Social Credit MLAs , who had been elected on the promise of dividends and were angry at Aberhart 's failure to follow through . Some of them felt that , while the idea of social credit was sound , Aberhart lacked a real understanding of Douglas 's theory and could not implement it . These MLAs wanted Douglas or somebody from his British organization to come to Alberta and deliver on Aberhart 's campaign promises . One such MLA , Samuel Barnes , had been expelled from the Social Credit caucus and from the Social Credit League for voicing these views .
= = Genesis = =
In December 1936 , John Hargrave , the leader of the Social Credit Party of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , visited Alberta . While he had been disowned by Douglas , many MLAs frustrated with Aberhart saw Hargrave as their saviour . On arrival in Alberta , he met with Aberhart and his cabinet , who told him that the Canadian constitution ( which made banking a matter of federal , rather than provincial , jurisdiction ) was an obstacle to their introducing social credit . Hargrave proposed a plan for implementing social credit in Alberta ; while he acknowledged that it was unconstitutional , he believed that the federal government would not dare enforce its jurisdiction in the face of broad popular support for social credit . After he presented his plan to a group of Social Credit MLAs , the news media began to report that Aberhart intended to implement a radical and unconstitutional set of laws . Aberhart immediately disavowed any " intention of drastic legislation " and , after studying Hargrave 's plan , announced that neither he nor his cabinet supported it .
Despite this statement , the Social Credit caucus invited Hargrave to explain his plan , which he did to the approval of many caucus members . Attorney @-@ General John Hugill pointed out that the plan was unconstitutional , to which Hargrave replied that he was " not interested in legal arguments . " Two weeks later , Hargrave left the province , telling the press that he " found it impossible to co @-@ operate with a government which [ he considered ] a mere vacillating machine . " In this message , some MLAs found confirmation of their misgivings about Aberhart . A group of them , reported as numbering anywhere from five ( " soon joined by eight or ten others " ) to 22 , began to hold meetings in Edmonton 's Corona Hotel to , as Brian Brennan puts it , " plot Aberhart 's downfall " . Brennan identifies their leader as Pembina 's Harry Knowlton Brown , while T. C. Byrne names Ronald Ansley , Joseph Unwin , and Albert Blue .
To make matters worse for Aberhart , Minister of Lands and Mines Charles Cathmer Ross resigned late in 1936 , followed by Provincial Treasurer Charles Cockroft on January 29 , 1937 . Neither minister 's resignation was directly related to the dissidents ' complaints : Ross resigned over disagreements with Aberhart on oil policy , while Cockroft left over a combination of ill health , clashes with Aberhart over the issue of a federal @-@ provincial loan council , government investment policies , and Aberhart 's approach to patronage . Nevertheless , the resignations were the public 's first clue of dissent in Social Credit 's ranks . Cockroft 's resignation was followed by that of his deputy , J. F. Perceval , and there were rumours that Hugill and Minister of Agriculture and Trade and Industry William Chant would soon follow . This left Minister of Health Wallace Warren Cross , Minister of Public Works and Railways and Telephones William Fallow , and Provincial Secretary Ernest Manning as Aberhart 's only indisputably loyal ministers , and Manning was away from the legislature , ill with tuberculosis . On February 19 , William Carlos Ives of the Supreme Court of Alberta dealt the government another blow when he struck down key provincial legislation , including one act reducing the interest paid on the province 's bonds by half ( though this was only a technical defeat , since the government had been defaulting on its bond payments since the previous April ) .
On February 25 , a new session of the legislature opened with the speech from the throne , delivered by Chief Justice Horace Harvey in the absence of Lieutenant @-@ Governor Philip Primrose . Its commitment to social credit was limited to a vaguely worded promise to pursue " a new economic order when social credit becomes effective . " Three days later , on his weekly radio program , Aberhart acknowledged that he had been unable to implement the monthly dividends during the eighteen @-@ month period he had set as his deadline , and asked Social Credit constituency association presidents to convene meetings of all Social Credit members to decide whether he ought to resign . He suggested that , in light of poor spring road conditions in rural areas , these meetings be delayed until early June , during which time he would remain in office .
= = Open dissent = =
The media objected to Aberhart 's plan to place his government 's future in the hands of the 10 % of Albertans who were Social Credit members ; the Calgary Herald called for an immediate election . To many Social Credit MLAs , Aberhart 's greater offense was bypassing them , the people 's elected representatives . This was especially irksome in view of social credit 's political philosophy , which favoured technocratic rule and held that elected representatives ' only legitimate function was channelling the public desire ; by appealing directly to Social Credit members , Aberhart appeared to be denying the MLAs even this role . In the legislature , Conservative leader David Duggan called for Aberhart 's resignation ; in a move that Brennan reports shocked the assembly , his call was endorsed by Social Credit backbencher Albert Blue .
On March 11 or 12 , Cockroft 's replacement as Provincial Treasurer , Solon Low , introduced the government 's budget . It included no implementation of social credit , and was attacked by the opposition parties as " the default budget " and by insurgent Social Crediters as a " banker 's budget " ( a harsh insult given Social Credit 's dim view of the banking industry ) . Ronald Ansley rose immediately to attack it as containing " not one single item that even remotely resembled Social Credit . " Blue , again echoing Duggan , threatened on March 16 to vote against the government 's interim supply bill , the defeat of which , under the conventions of the Westminster parliamentary system , would force the government 's resignation . In response , Aberhart praised Blue 's courage in speaking his mind , and called him a worthy Social Crediter .
Surprised by Aberhart 's refusal to be drawn into open conflict , the insurgents needed time to reassess their strategy . They got that time when , on March 17 , Lieutenant @-@ Governor Primrose died , necessitating a five @-@ day adjournment while the federal government selected a replacement . When the legislature reconvened March 22 or 23 , the dissidents filibustered against the budget . Albert Bourcier opened debate , and was followed by , among others , Edith Rogers , Ansley , and Wilson Cain . On March 24 , Harry Knowlton Brown moved an adjournment , which was carried over the government 's objections by a vote of 27 to 25 . Though the insurgents considered this a vote of non @-@ confidence in Aberhart 's government , he refused to resign ; he acknowledged , however , that he would do so if the budget itself was defeated .
= = Coronation and recall petition = =
Though the bulk of the revolt took place in and around the legislature over the issue of social credit and government fiscal policy , Aberhart was also under attack on other fronts . He had been invited to attend the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth , set for May 1937 in London , and planned to go . Douglas , challenged by Hargrave for the leadership of the social credit movement and under attack by some of his own followers for his lack of cooperation with the world 's first social credit government , offered to host Aberhart , and a member of Douglas 's social credit secretariat was planning a speaking tour for Aberhart . In the same speech in which he threatened to bring down the government on the supply motion , Blue attacked the trip as an extravagance that depression @-@ ridden Alberta could ill afford . Faced with a political insurgency at home , Aberhart reluctantly decided at the end of March to cancel his trip , inaccurately claiming that he had never definitely decided to go .
Such a retreat was not an option in the face of another of Aberhart 's troubles . One of Social Credit 's 1935 promises had been the introduction of recall for MLAs , which they had implemented with their first legislative act . As Aberhart 's popularity fell , the residents of his own Okotoks @-@ High River riding , where he had been elected in a by @-@ election shortly after the general election ( in which he had not run ) , availed themselves of the legislation . On April 9 their petition was endorsed by the riding 's Social Credit constituency association , and by fall it had gathered the signatures of the required two thirds of the electorate . In response , the Social Crediters repealed the Recall Act retroactive to its date of origin ; Aberhart claimed that oil companies active in his riding had intimidated their workers into signing the petition , and that some of the signatories had moved to the area specifically to sign .
= = Manoeuvring and negotiation = =
On March 29 , in the aftermath of the insurgent victory on Brown 's adjournment motion , Aberhart gave notice of closure on the budget debate . Belatedly realizing that this move would be risking his government in a vote that he might very well lose , he then announced that he would seek the consent of the legislature to withdraw his closure motion and move an interim supply motion instead . The unanimous consent needed to withdraw the closure motion was refused , and the motion itself was defeated . That evening , Aberhart negotiated with the insurgents for four hours until a compromise was accepted : the insurgents would support the supply bill , in exchange for which the cabinet would introduce a bill amending the Social Credit Measures Act to establish a board of MLAs empowered to appoint a commission of " experts " to implement social credit .
On March 31 the insurgents kept their part of the agreement by allowing the supply bill to be passed on second reading and the budget to be hoisted for ninety days . However , when the cabinet introduced its promised bill , the insurgents claimed that it was not as agreed and refused to support it . Instead , they demanded Aberhart 's resignation and announced that they were prepared to take over the government within 24 hours . A delegation put this demand to Aberhart in the evening of March 31 ; according to them , he agreed to resign if they allowed the supply bill to pass a third reading . They did so , but Aberhart denied that he had agreed to resign and refused to do so unless he was defeated in a general election . The insurgents , leery of Aberhart 's oratorical powers and the reach of his weekly radio show , wanted to avoid an election . Even so , they rejected a motion by Low to raise their pay for the session by $ 200 , seeing it as a crass bribe .
On April 8 or 12 , the government capitulated . Low 's Alberta Social Credit Act delivered what the insurgents wanted , including the creation of " Alberta credit " in the amount of " the unused capacity of industries and people of Alberta to produce wanted goods and services " , the establishment of " credit houses " to distribute this credit , and the creation of a Social Credit Board . The bill was passed , and the insurgents were placated , though Brown warned during a cross @-@ province speaking tour that they were determined to see social credit implemented , and " if anyone gets in our way , he 's going to get into trouble ... we must choose between principles and party , between Social Credit and Premier Aberhart . "
= = Social Credit Board and commission = =
The Social Credit Board comprised five backbenchers . Insurgent Glenville MacLachlan was chair , and Aberhart loyalist Floyd Baker was secretary . The other three members were insurgents Selmer Berg , James L. McPherson , and William E. Hayes . The Board was empowered to appoint a commission of between three and five experts to implement social credit ; the commission was to be responsible to the Board .
Historians have taken different approaches to analyzing the effect of the Board on traditional Westminster parliamentary governance . C. B. MacPherson emphasized " the extent to which the cabinet had abdicated in favour of a board composed of a few private members of the legislature " , Byrne agrees that " in some respects , the powers granted to the board superseded those of the Executive Council " but notes that " Aberhart was permitted to carry on with regular government operations . " Elliott and Miller take a similar approach to MacPherson 's , suggesting that " Aberhart and his cabinet ... were in a position , strange in a cabinet system of government , of being ruled in the matter of economic policy by a board of private members that would be under the influence of Social Credit ' experts ' . " Barr disagrees , arguing that the Board was " still under the control of cabinet " and pointing out that " the cabinet was left with the power " , through its privileged position in introducing legislation , " to supplement or alter the provisions of the Alberta Social Credit Act " under which terms the board was constituted .
Whatever the relative influence of the Board and cabinet , the latter disavowed any ownership of the act that established the former . Though it was a government bill , sponsored by Solon Low , the Provincial Treasurer explained that he took no responsibility for it , as it was drawn up by a committee of insurgents " without the interference of the cabinet " . Though some insurgents complained that the version of the bill introduced by the government was different than that drafted by the committee , MacLachlan insisted that there had been no material changes . The bill was passed April 13 , and the legislature adjourned the following day .
Immediately after , MacLachlan invited Douglas to come to Alberta and take the head of the expert commission . Douglas suggested that MacLachlan come to London to discuss the matter ; MacLachlan left April 29 , arrived in London May 9 , and proceeded to meet with Douglas at his fishing lodge . Douglas refused to come to Alberta himself , but provided two of the " experts " the Board was charged with finding . The first was L. D. Byrne , who was in the insurance business , was an expert on social credit , and was appointed to do most of the substantive work . The second , tire salesman George Frederick Powell , was expected to handle the commission 's public relations . Powell arrived in Edmonton June 10 with MacLachlan , while Byrne followed several weeks later .
While MacLachlan was in England finding his experts , feuding continued in Alberta . Aberhart fired William Chant , a known Douglasite , from his cabinet after he refused to resign . Both sides accused one another of subservience to the banking industry , the Social Credit League 's sworn enemy . Baker , the board 's sole Aberhart loyalist , travelled the province defending his premier ; at one 4 @,@ 000 person meeting in Calgary , he was shouted down by angry supporters of the insurgency . A petition calling for Aberhart 's resignation circulated among backbenchers , and proved to be a plant by the cabinet to test MLAs ' loyalty . Outwardly , however , the Social Crediters showed a united front as they awaited the promised experts ; in the first recorded vote after the legislature reconvened June 7 , all insurgents present voted with the government , though 13 were absent .
One of Powell 's first actions on arriving in Edmonton was to prepare a " loyalty pledge " committing its signatories " to uphold the Social Credit Board and its technicians . " Most Social Credit MLAs signed , and the six who did not wrote to Powell assuring him of their loyalty to Douglas 's objectives ( though one , former Provincial Treasurer Cockroft , later left the Social Credit League and unsuccessfully sought re @-@ election as an " Independent Progressive " ) . The insurgency was over .
= = Aftermath = =
Byrne and Powell prepared three acts for the implementation of social credit : the Credit of Alberta Regulation Act , the Bank Employees Civil Rights Act , and the Judicature Act Amendment Act . The first required all bankers to obtain a license from the Social Credit Commission and created a directorate for the control of each bank , most members of which would be appointed by the Social Credit Board . The second prevented unlicensed banks and their employees from initiating civil actions . The third prevented any person from challenging the constitutionality of Alberta 's laws in court without receiving the approval of the Lieutenant @-@ Governor in Council . All three acts were quickly passed . New Lieutenant @-@ Governor John C. Bowen , asked to grant royal assent , called Aberhart and Attorney @-@ General Hugill to his office . He asked Hugill if , as a lawyer , he believed that the proposed laws were constitutional ; Hugill replied that he did not . Aberhart said that he would take responsibility for the bills , which Bowen then signed . As they left the meeting , Aberhart asked Hugill for his resignation , which he received . Shortly after , the federal government disallowed all three acts . Powell was not discouraged , stating that the acts " had been drawn up mainly to show the people of Alberta who were their real enemies , and in that respect they succeeded admirably . "
Soon after the bills were introduced , Social Credit MLAs were subjected to a new loyalty pledge , this one shifting the target of their loyalty from the Social Credit Board to the cabinet . Six MLAs — including former cabinet ministers Chant , Cockroft , and Ross — refused to sign , and were ejected from caucus .
In the fall , Aberhart re @-@ introduced the three disallowed acts in altered form , along with two new acts . The Bank Taxation Act increased provincial taxes on banks by 2 @,@ 230 % , while the Accurate News and Information Act gave the chairman of the Social Credit Board a number of powers over newspapers , including the right to compel them to publish " any statement ... which has for its object the correction or amplification of any statement relating to any policy or activity of the Government or Province " and to require them to supply the names of sources . It also authorized cabinet to prohibit the publication of any newspaper , any article by a given writer , or any article making use of a given source . Bowen reserved approval of the bills until the Supreme Court of Canada could comment on them ; all were ruled unconstitutional in Reference re Alberta Statutes .
During the fall session in which the offending bills were proposed , police raided an Edmonton office of the Social Credit League and confiscated 4 @,@ 000 copies of a pamphlet called " The Bankers ' Toadies " , which urged its readers as follows : " My child , you should NEVER say hard or unkind things about Bankers ' Toadies . God made snakes , slugs , snails and other creepy @-@ crawly , treacherous and poisonous things . NEVER , therefore , abuse them — just exterminate them ! " The pamphlet also listed eight alleged toadies , including Conservative leader Duggan , former Attorney @-@ General John Lymburn , and Senator William Antrobus Griesbach . Powell and Social Credit whip Joe Unwin were charged with criminal libel and counsel to murder . Both were convicted of the former charge . Unwin was sentenced to three months hard labour ; Powell was sentenced to six months and deported .
Aberhart 's government was re @-@ elected in the 1940 election with a reduced majority of 36 of 63 seats . Among the defeated incumbents were dissident leader Brown , the convicted Unwin , the expelled Barnes , and the Provincial Treasurer Low . Aberhart won re @-@ election by running in Calgary ; his replacement as Social Credit candidate in Okotoks – High River was soundly defeated . Aberhart died in 1943 and was replaced as Premier by Ernest Manning , who steered the Social Credit League in a more conservative and conventional direction until his 1968 retirement .
Though the disallowance of banking bills put an end to any real chance of social credit being implemented at the provincial level , the Social Credit Board persisted until 1948 , when it was dissolved in response to a number of its anti @-@ semitic pronouncements and its suggestion that the secret ballot and political parties be eliminated .
= Baldwin of Forde =
Baldwin of Forde or Ford ( c . 1125 – 19 November 1190 ) was Archbishop of Canterbury between 1185 and 1190 . The son of a clergyman , he studied canon law and theology at Bologna and was tutor to Pope Eugene III 's nephew before returning to England to serve successive bishops of Exeter . After becoming a Cistercian monk he was named abbot of his monastery at Forde and subsequently elected to the episcopate at Worcester . Before becoming a bishop , he wrote theological works and sermons , some of which have survived .
As a bishop , Baldwin came to the attention of King Henry II of England , who was so impressed he insisted that Baldwin become archbishop . In that office , Baldwin quarrelled with his cathedral clergy over the founding of a church , which led to the imprisonment of the clergy in their cloister for more than a year . Baldwin spent some time in Wales with Gerald of Wales , preaching and raising money for the Third Crusade . After the coronation of King Richard I , the new king sent Baldwin ahead to the Holy Land , where he became embroiled in the politics of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Baldwin died in the Holy Land while participating in the crusade ; his long @-@ running dispute with his clergy led one chronicler to characterise Baldwin as more damaging to Christianity than Saladin .
= = Ecclesiastical career = =
Born in Exeter around 1125 , Baldwin was the son of Hugh d 'Eu , Archdeacon of Totnes , and a woman of unknown name who later became a nun . Gervase of Canterbury 's story that he was from an even humbler background has been shown by modern scholarship to stem from bias on the medieval chronicler 's part . It is possible that he studied at Bologna in the 1150s with the future Pope Urban III . Robert Warelwast , who was Bishop of Exeter from 1138 to 1155 , had sent Baldwin to Italy to study law . Baldwin was also said to have taught at Exeter , although this is not substantiated by any contemporary record . In 1150 or 1151 Pope Eugene III appointed him tutor to Eugene 's nephew . By 1155 Baldwin seems to have returned to England , where he joined the household of Robert of Chichester , Bishop of Exeter .
Baldwin attracted the attention of Bartholomew Iscanus , Bishop of Exeter , who made him archdeacon at Totnes in about 1161 , after Baldwin 's father 's death . Baldwin was known as a canon lawyer during his holding of Totnes . He received a letter from John of Salisbury in 1167 , complaining about Bartholomew 's conduct during the Becket controversy . John accused Bartholomew of not properly supporting Thomas Becket the Archbishop of Canterbury in his dispute with the king , urging Baldwin to influence the bishop to increase his support , and not to sign any appeal by the English bishops against Becket . Other letters from John dealt with rumours concerning Roger , the Bishop of Worcester , who John had heard was speaking badly of Becket . John 's purpose seems to have been to have Baldwin pass along a warning from Becket to Roger about his behaviour ; John was a supporter of Becket 's during the latter 's exile . In 1169 Baldwin was once again peripherally involved in the Becket dispute , when he objected to Becket 's excommunication of a number of noblemen and clergy for opposing Becket 's cause . Baldwin 's objection was not so much that they were excommunicated , but that no warning had been given that such an action was contemplated .
Baldwin became a monk in about 1170 , and then abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Forde . He was well known as a canonist , and often acted as a judge @-@ delegate for the papacy , hearing cases that had reached the Roman Curia and been remanded to local experts for decision . In 1166 , Baldwin was the addressee of a work by John of Salisbury , Expectiatione longa , which was one of the tracts written during the Becket controversy . It was probably at this time that Baldwin wrote De sacramento altaris . In 1175 he served with his old bishop , Bartholomew , as joint papal judge in a dispute between Malmesbury Abbey and Josceline de Bohon , the Bishop of Salisbury . In 1178 he was recommended to Pope Alexander as a possible candidate for a cardinalship , but this never occurred .
Baldwin became Bishop of Worcester on 10 August 1180 . While at Worcester , he impressed King Henry II by intervening in a secular case to prevent a hanging on a Sunday . Although the medieval writer Walter Map said that Baldwin was determined to continue writing even after his election to the bishopric , none of Baldwin 's writings can be dated to his time as bishop except for one sermon .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
Baldwin was translated from the see of Worcester to the see of Canterbury in December 1184 , after Henry II let it be known that he would accept only Baldwin at Canterbury ; the previous incumbent , Richard of Dover , had died in April that year . The monks put forward three candidates from within Christ Church Priory : Odo , who had been prior of Christ Church and was then Abbot of Battle Abbey , Peter de Leia , a Cluniac prior of Wenlock Priory and later Bishop of St David 's , and Theobald , Abbot of Cluny , but none of them found favour with the English bishops . Instead , the prelates selected the king 's choice , Baldwin . The selection of Baldwin took place only after a dispute between the members of the cathedral chapter of Canterbury and the suffragan bishops of Canterbury , both of whom claimed the right to elect the new archbishop .
Baldwin received his pallium from Pope Lucius III along with Lucius ' approval of his translation . Baldwin was named a papal legate in 1185 , although his authority was limited to his own archdiocese and did not extend into the Archdiocese of York .
= = = Dispute with Christ Church Priory = = =
During his time as archbishop there was a dispute with the monks of Christ Church Priory in Canterbury , who resented Baldwin 's attempts to impose stricter control over them and disputed the legitimacy of Baldwin 's election . For his part , Baldwin did not approve of the luxurious and pampered life the monks of Christ Church lived , and felt that they profited too much from the cult of Thomas Becket .
The dispute escalated when Baldwin deprived the monks of some of the revenues of their monastic estates . After that , Baldwin proposed to establish a church dedicated to Becket in Canterbury itself , staffed by secular rather than monastic clergy . The monks of the cathedral chapter saw this proposed foundation as the first step in an attempt to change the see of Canterbury from a monastic cathedral chapter , a peculiarity of the English Church , to the more normal pattern of secular clergy . It is not clear if Baldwin himself intended such a plan , but the other bishops supported the effort , as contemporary writers made clear . Baldwin sought the advice of Hugh , the Bishop of Lincoln , who advised Baldwin to abandon the plan as it would only cause distress to all parties . The controversy was long and involved and , at one point , the monks were imprisoned within their own buildings for a year and a half , from January 1188 to August 1189 . This led to the suspension of the liturgy in the cathedral . Eventually all the prominent ecclesiastics and monastic houses of Europe were forced into choosing sides in the dispute . In October 1189 , in an attempt to gain control , Baldwin appointed Roger Norreys as the chapter 's prior , an appointment widely acknowledged by contemporaries as putting a useless individual into the office . His plan for financing the church involved soliciting contributions from donors by promising a one @-@ third reduction in penances for annual donations .
= = = Service to King Henry = = =
In 1188 King Henry II of England called for a tax to support the Third Crusade , following the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin in 1187 . It was collected at the rate of a tenth of all the property and income of any person not vowing to go on crusade . It was popularly known as the " Saladin tithe " and was the most extensive tax ever collected in England up to that point . Being a tithe and not a secular tax , it was collected by dioceses rather than by shires . Baldwin especially was blamed for its harshness , although in February , along with his advisor Peter of Blois , he was in Normandy with the king .
Baldwin took the cross , or vowed to go on crusade , along with King Henry and many others in January 1188 , or when he began his preaching campaign on 11 February 1188 to drum up support for the Third Crusade . In April 1188 , Baldwin was in Wales on a tour attempting to secure support for the king 's crusade , and was forcing his servants and followers to exercise on foot up and down hills in preparation for the journey to the Holy Land . He spent most of the year in Wales , preaching the crusade , accompanied by the chronicler Gerald of Wales . Gerald claimed about 3000 recruits for the crusade from his and Baldwin 's efforts in Wales , although he also suggested that Baldwin mainly embarked on the tour to avoid his dispute with the Canterbury monks .
A side effect of Baldwin 's tour of Wales was the implied assertion of royal authority in a section of Henry 's domains that had always been somewhat fractious . Baldwin was also asserting his ecclesiastical authority over the Welsh bishops , especially when he made a point of celebrating mass at every Welsh cathedral ; he was the first Archbishop of Canterbury to celebrate mass at St Asaph 's Cathedral . Baldwin excommunicated the only Welsh prince who refused to appear before him and take the cross , Owain Cyfeiliog .
Baldwin was with King Henry shortly before the latter 's death , taking part in unsuccessful efforts to negotiate a truce with Henry 's heir , Prince Richard , who had rebelled against his father . After Henry 's death , Richard sought and obtained absolution for the sin of disobedience to his father from both Baldwin and Walter de Coutances , Archbishop of Rouen . Baldwin , along with Coutances , was with Richard on 20 July 1189 at Rouen when the king was invested with the Duchy of Normandy . Baldwin crowned Richard at Westminster Abbey on 13 September 1189 in the first English coronation for which a detailed description survives .
= = = Under Richard = = =
After the death of Henry II , and the accession of Richard as king , the monks of Christ Church Priory petitioned Richard to intercede in the long @-@ running dispute between them and the archbishop . In November 1189 , Richard and the whole court , including the Queen Mother Eleanor of Aquitaine , travelled to Canterbury in an attempt to end the controversy before the papacy become involved .
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ance represented the US Navy 's first major attempt to wrest night time operational control of waters around Guadalcanal away from the Japanese .
The first attempt by the Japanese Army to recapture Henderson Field was on 21 August , in the Battle of the Tenaru , and the next , the Battle of Edson 's Ridge , from 12 – 14 September ; both failed .
The Japanese set their next major attempt to recapture Henderson Field for 20 October and moved most of the 2nd and 38th Infantry Divisions , totalling 17 @,@ 500 troops , from the Dutch East Indies to Rabaul in preparation for delivering them to Guadalcanal . From 14 September @-@ 9 October , numerous Tokyo Express runs delivered troops from the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division as well as General Hyakutake to Guadalcanal . In addition to cruisers and destroyers , some of these runs included the seaplane carrier Nisshin , which delivered heavy equipment to the island including vehicles and heavy artillery other warships could not carry because of space limitations . The Japanese Navy promised to support the Army 's planned offensive by delivering the necessary troops , equipment , and supplies to the island , and by stepping up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield .
In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon — commander of United States Army forces in the South Pacific — convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley — overall commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific — that the Marines on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive . Thus , on 8 October , the 2 @,@ 837 men of the 164th Infantry Regiment from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division boarded ships at New Caledonia for the trip to Guadalcanal with a projected arrival date of 13 October .
To protect the transports carrying the 164th to Guadalcanal , Ghormley ordered Task Force 64 ( TF 64 ) , consisting of four cruisers ( San Francisco , Boise , Salt Lake City , and Helena ) and five destroyers ( Farenholt , Duncan , Buchanan , McCalla , and Laffey ) under U.S. Rear Admiral Norman Scott , to intercept and combat any Japanese ships approaching Guadalcanal and threatening the convoy . Scott conducted one night battle practice with his ships on 8 October , then took station south of Guadalcanal near Rennell Island on 9 October , to await word of any Japanese naval movement toward the southern Solomons .
Continuing with preparations for the October offensive , Japanese Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa 's Eighth Fleet staff , headquartered at Rabaul , scheduled a large and important Tokyo Express supply run for the night of 11 October . Nisshin would be joined by the seaplane carrier Chitose to deliver 728 soldiers , four large howitzers , two field guns , one anti @-@ aircraft gun , and a large assortment of ammunition and other equipment from the Japanese naval bases in the Shortland Islands and at Buin , Bougainville , to Guadalcanal . Six destroyers , five of them carrying troops , would accompany Nisshin and Chitose . The supply convoy — called the " Reinforcement Group " by the Japanese — was under the command of Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jojima . At the same time but in a separate operation , the three heavy cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 ( CruDiv6 ) — Aoba , Kinugasa , and Furutaka , under the command of Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō — were to bombard Henderson Field with special explosive shells with the object of destroying the CAF and the airfield 's facilities . Two screening destroyers — Fubuki and Hatsuyuki — accompanied CruDiv6 . Since U.S. Navy warships had yet to attempt to interdict any Tokyo Express missions to Guadalcanal , the Japanese were not expecting any opposition from U.S. naval surface forces that night .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
At 08 : 00 on 11 October , Jojima 's reinforcement group departed the Shortland Islands anchorage to begin their 250 mi ( 220 nmi ; 400 km ) run down the Slot to Guadalcanal . The six destroyers that accompanied Nisshin and Chitose were Asagumo , Natsugumo , Yamagumo , Shirayuki , Murakumo , and Akizuki . Gotō departed the Shortland Islands for Guadalcanal at 14 : 00 the same day .
To protect the reinforcement group 's approach to Guadalcanal from the CAF , the Japanese 11th Air Fleet , based at Rabaul , Kavieng , and Buin , planned two air strikes on Henderson Field for 11 October . A " fighter sweep " of 17 Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero fighters swept over Henderson Field just after mid @-@ day but failed to engage any U.S. aircraft . Forty @-@ five minutes later , the second wave — 45 Mitsubishi G4M2 " Betty " bombers and 30 Zeros — arrived over Henderson Field . In an ensuing air battle with the CAF , one G4M and two U.S. fighters were downed . Although the Japanese attacks failed to inflict significant damage , they did prevent CAF bombers from finding and attacking the reinforcement group . As the reinforcement group transited the Slot , relays of 11th Air Fleet Zeros from Buin provided escort . Emphasizing the importance of this convoy for Japanese plans , the last flight of the day was ordered to remain on station over the convoy until darkness , then ditch their aircraft and await pickup by the reinforcement group 's destroyers . All six Zeros ditched ; only one pilot was recovered .
Allied reconnaissance aircraft sighted Jojima 's supply convoy 210 mi ( 180 nmi ; 340 km ) from Guadalcanal between Kolombangara and Choiseul in the Slot at 14 : 45 on the same day , and reported it as two " cruisers " and six destroyers . Gotō 's force — following the convoy — was not sighted . In response to the sighting of Jojima 's force , at 16 : 07 Scott turned toward Guadalcanal for an interception .
Scott crafted a simple battle plan for the expected engagement . His ships would steam in column with his destroyers at the front and rear of his cruiser column , searching across a 300 degree arc with SG surface radar in an effort to gain positional advantage on the approaching enemy force . The destroyers were to illuminate any targets with searchlights and discharge torpedoes while the cruisers were to open fire at any available targets without awaiting orders . The cruiser 's float aircraft , launched in advance , were to find and illuminate the Japanese warships with flares . Although Helena and Boise carried the new , greatly improved SG radar , Scott chose San Francisco as his flagship .
At 22 : 00 , as Scott 's ships neared Cape Hunter at the northwest end of Guadalcanal , three of Scott 's cruisers launched floatplanes . One crashed on takeoff , but the other two patrolled over Savo Island , Guadalcanal , and Ironbottom Sound . As the floatplanes were launched , Jojima 's force was just passing around the mountainous northwestern shoulder of Guadalcanal , and neither force sighted each other . At 22 : 20 , Jojima radioed Gotō and told him that no U.S. ships were in the vicinity . Although Jojima 's force later heard Scott 's floatplanes overhead while unloading along the north shore of Guadalcanal , they failed to report this to Gotō .
At 22 : 33 , just after passing Cape Esperance , Scott 's ships assumed battle formation . The column was led by Farenholt , Duncan , and Laffey , and followed by San Francisco , Boise , Salt Lake City , and Helena . Buchanan and McCalla brought up the rear . The distance between each ship ranged from 500 to 700 yd ( 460 to 640 m ) . Visibility was poor because the moon had already set , leaving no ambient light and no visible sea horizon .
Gotō 's force passed through several rain squalls as they approached Guadalcanal at 30 kn ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) . Gotō 's flagship Aoba led the Japanese cruisers in column , followed by Furutaka and Kinugasa . Fubuki was starboard of Aoba and Hatsuyuki to port . At 23 : 30 , Gotō 's ships emerged from the last rain squall and began appearing on the radar scopes of Helena and Salt Lake City . The Japanese , however , whose warships were not equipped with radar , remained unaware of Scott 's presence .
= = = Action = = =
At 23 : 00 , the San Francisco aircraft spotted Jojima 's force off Guadalcanal and reported it to Scott . Scott , believing that more Japanese ships were likely still on the way , continued his course towards the west side of Savo Island . At 23 : 33 , Scott ordered his column to turn towards the southwest to a heading of 230 ° . All of Scott 's ships understood the order as a column movement except Scott 's own ship , San Francisco . As the three lead U.S. destroyers executed the column movement , San Francisco turned simultaneously . Boise — following immediately behind — followed San Francisco , thereby throwing the three van destroyers out of formation .
At 23 : 32 , Helena 's radar showed the Japanese warships to be about 27 @,@ 700 yd ( 25 @,@ 300 m ) away . At 23 : 35 , Boise 's and Duncan 's radars also detected Gotō 's ships . Between 23 : 42 and 23 : 44 , Helena and Boise reported their contacts to Scott on San Francisco who mistakenly believed that the two cruisers were actually tracking the three U.S. destroyers that were thrown out of formation during the column turn . Scott radioed Farenholt to ask if the destroyer was attempting to resume its station at the front of the column . Farenholt replied , " Affirmative , coming up on your starboard side , " further confirming Scott 's belief that the radar contacts were his own destroyers .
At 23 : 45 , Farenholt and Laffey — still unaware of Gotō 's approaching warships — increased speed to resume their stations at the front of the U.S. column . Duncan 's crew , however , thinking that Farenholt and Laffey were commencing an attack on the Japanese warships , increased speed to launch a solitary torpedo attack on Gotō 's force without telling Scott what they were doing . San Francisco 's radar registered the Japanese ships , but Scott was not informed of the sighting . By 23 : 45 , Gotō 's ships were only 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) away from Scott 's formation and visible to Helena 's and Salt Lake City 's lookouts . The U.S. formation at this point was in position to cross the T of the Japanese formation , giving Scott 's ships a significant tactical advantage . At 23 : 46 , still assuming that Scott was aware of the rapidly approaching Japanese warships , Helena radioed for permission to open fire , using the general procedure request , " Interrogatory Roger " ( meaning , basically , " Are we clear to act ? " ) . Scott answered with , " Roger " , only meaning that the message was received , not that he was confirming the request to act . Upon receipt of Scott 's " Roger " , Helena — thinking they now had permission — opened fire , quickly followed by Boise , Salt Lake City , and to Scott 's further surprise , San Francisco .
Gotō 's force was taken almost completely by surprise . At 23 : 43 , Aoba 's lookouts sighted Scott 's force , but Gotō assumed that they were Jojima 's ships . Two minutes later , Aoba 's lookouts identified the ships as American , but Gotō remained skeptical and directed his ships to flash identification signals . As Aoba 's crew executed Gotō 's order , the first American salvo smashed into Aoba 's superstructure . Aoba was quickly hit by up to 40 shells from Helena , Salt Lake City , San Francisco , Farenholt , and Laffey . The shell hits heavily damaged Aoba 's communications systems and demolished two of her main gun turrets as well as her main gun director . Several large @-@ caliber projectiles passed through Aoba 's flag bridge without exploding , but the force of their passage killed many men and mortally wounded Gotō .
Scott — still unsure who his ships were firing at , and afraid that they might be firing on his own destroyers — ordered a ceasefire at 23 : 47 , although not every ship complied . Scott ordered Farenholt to flash her recognition signals and upon observing that Farenholt was close to his formation , he ordered the fire resumed at 23 : 51 .
Aoba , continuing to receive damaging hits , turned to starboard to head away from Scott 's formation and began making a smoke screen which led most of the Americans to believe that she was sinking . Scott 's ships shifted their fire to Furutaka , which was following behind Aoba . At 23 : 49 , Furutaka was hit in her torpedo tubes , igniting a large fire that attracted even more shellfire from the US ships . At 23 : 58 , a torpedo from Buchanan hit Furutaka in her forward engine room , causing severe damage . During this time , San Francisco and Boise sighted Fubuki about 1 @,@ 400 yd ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) away and raked her with shellfire , joined soon by most of the rest of Scott 's formation . Heavily damaged , Fubuki began to sink . Kinugasa and Hatsuyuki chose turning to port rather than starboard and escaped the Americans ' immediate attention .
During the exchange of gunfire , Farenholt received several damaging hits from both the Japanese and American ships , killing several men . She escaped from the crossfire by crossing ahead of San Francisco and passing to the disengaged side of Scott 's column . Duncan — still engaged in her solitary torpedo attack on the Japanese formation — was also hit by gunfire from both sides , set afire , and looped away in her own effort to escape the crossfire .
As Gotō 's ships endeavored to escape , Scott 's ships tightened their formation and then turned to pursue the retreating Japanese warships . At 00 : 06 , two torpedoes from Kinugasa barely missed Boise . Boise and Salt Lake City turned on their searchlights to help target the Japanese ships , giving Kinugasa 's gunners clear targets . At 00 : 10 , two shells from Kinugasa exploded in Boise 's main ammunition magazine between turrets one and two . The resulting explosion killed almost 100 men and threatened to blow the ship apart . Seawater rushed in through rents in her hull opened by the explosion and helped quench the fire before it could explode the ship 's powder magazines . Boise immediately sheered out of the column and retreated from the action . Kinugasa and Salt Lake City exchanged fire with each other , each hitting the other several times , causing minor damage to Kinugasa and damaging one of Salt Lake City 's boilers , reducing her speed .
At 00 : 16 , Scott ordered his ships to turn to a heading of 330 ° in an attempt to pursue the fleeing Japanese ships . Scott 's ships , however , quickly lost sight of Gotō 's ships , and all firing ceased by 00 : 20 . The American formation was beginning to scatter , so Scott ordered a turn to 205 ° to disengage .
= = = Retreat = = =
During the battle between Scott 's and Gotō 's ships , Jojima 's reinforcement group completed unloading at Guadalcanal and began its return journey unseen by Scott 's warships , using a route that passed south of the Russell Islands and New Georgia . Despite extensive damage , Aoba was able to join Kinugasa in retirement to the north through the Slot . Furutaka 's damage caused her to lose power around 00 : 50 , and she sank at 02 : 28 , 22 mi ( 19 nmi ; 35 km ) northwest of Savo Island . Hatsuyuki picked up Furutaka 's survivors and joined the retreat northward .
Boise extinguished her fires by 02 : 40 and at 03 : 05 rejoined Scott 's formation . Duncan — on fire — was abandoned by her crew at 02 : 00 . Unaware of Duncan 's fate , Scott detached McCalla to search for her and retired with the rest of his ships towards Nouméa , arriving in the afternoon of 13 October . McCalla located the burning , abandoned Duncan about 03 : 00 , and several members of McCalla 's crew made an attempt to keep her from sinking . By 12 : 00 , however , they had to abandon the effort as interior bulkheads within Duncan collapsed causing the ship to finally sink 6 mi ( 5 @.@ 2 nmi ; 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Savo Island . American servicemen in boats from Guadalcanal as well as McCalla picked up Duncan 's scattered survivors from the sea around Savo . In total , 195 Duncan sailors survived ; 48 did not . As they rescued Duncan 's crew , the Americans came across the more than 100 Fubuki survivors , floating in the same general area . The Japanese initially refused all rescue attempts but a day later allowed themselves to be picked up and taken prisoner .
Jojima — learning of the bombardment force 's crisis — detached destroyers Shirayuki and Murakumo to assist Furutaka or her survivors and Asagumo and Natsugumo to rendezvous with Kinugasa , which had paused in her retreat northward to cover the withdrawal of Jojima 's ships . At 07 : 00 , five CAF Douglas SBD @-@ 3 Dauntless dive bombers attacked Kinugasa but inflicted no damage . At 08 : 20 , 11 more SBDs found and attacked Shirayuki and Murakumo . Although they scored no direct hits , a near miss caused Murakumo to begin leaking oil , marking a trail for other CAF aircraft to follow . A short time later , seven more CAF SBDs plus six Grumman TBF @-@ 1 Avenger torpedo bombers , accompanied by 14 Grumman F4F @-@ 4 Wildcats , found the two Japanese destroyers 170 mi ( 150 nmi ; 270 km ) from Guadalcanal . In the ensuing attack , Murakumo was hit by a torpedo in her engineering spaces , leaving her without power . In the meantime , Aoba and Hatsuyuki reached the sanctuary of the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands at 10 : 00 .
Rushing to assist Murakumo , Asagumo and Natsugumo were attacked by another group of 11 CAF SBDs and TBFs escorted by 12 fighters at 15 : 45 . An SBD placed its bomb almost directly amidships on Natsugumo while two more near misses contributed to her severe damage . After Asagumo took off her survivors , Natsugumo sank at 16 : 27 . The CAF aircraft also scored several more hits on the stationary Murakumo , setting her afire . After her crew abandoned ship , Shirayuki scuttled her with a torpedo , picked up her survivors , and joined the rest of the Japanese warships for the remainder of their return trip to the Shortland Islands .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
Captain Kikunori Kijima — Gotō 's chief of staff and commander of the bombardment force during the return trip to the Shortland Islands after Gotō 's death in battle — claimed that his force had sunk two American cruisers and one destroyer . Furutaka 's captain — who survived the sinking of his ship — blamed the loss of his cruiser on bad air reconnaissance and poor leadership from the 8th fleet staff under Admiral Mikawa . Although Gotō 's bombardment mission failed , Jojima 's reinforcement convoy was successful in delivering the crucial men and equipment to Guadalcanal . Aoba journeyed to Kure , Japan , for repairs that were completed on February 15 , 1943 . Kinugasa was sunk one month later during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal .
Scott claimed that his force sank three Japanese cruisers and four destroyers . News of the victory was widely publicized in the American media . Boise — which was damaged enough to require a trip to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for repairs — was dubbed the " one @-@ ship fleet " by the press for her exploits in the battle , although this was mainly because the names of the other involved ships were withheld for security reasons . Boise was under repair until 20 March 1943 .
Although a tactical victory for the U.S. , Cape Esperance had little immediate strategic effect on the situation on Guadalcanal . Just two days later on the night of 13 October , the Japanese battleships Kongō and Haruna bombarded and almost destroyed Henderson Field . One day after that , a large Japanese convoy successfully delivered 4 @,@ 500 troops and equipment to the island . These troops and equipment helped complete Japanese preparations for the large land offensive , scheduled to begin on 23 October . The convoy of U.S. Army troops reached Guadalcanal on 13 October as planned and were key participants for the Allied side in the decisive land battle for Henderson Field that took place from 23 – 26 October .
The Cape Esperance victory helped prevent an accurate U.S. assessment of Japanese skills and tactics in naval night fighting . The U.S. was still unaware of the range and power of Japanese torpedoes , the effectiveness of Japanese night optics , and the skilled fighting ability of most Japanese destroyer and cruiser commanders . Incorrectly applying the perceived lessons learned from this battle , U.S. commanders in future naval night battles in the Solomons consistently tried to prove that American naval gunfire was more effective than Japanese torpedo attacks . This belief was severely tested just two months later during the Battle of Tassafaronga . A junior officer on Helena later wrote , " Cape Esperance was a three @-@ sided battle in which chance was the major winner . "
= Tranz Am =
Tranz Am is an action video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game that was released for the ZX Spectrum in July 1983 . The game is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic version of the United States and centres around a racing car driver on his quest to obtain the Eight Great Cups of Ultimate , which are scattered throughout the country .
The game was written by Chris Stamper and graphics were designed by Tim Stamper . Tranz Am was one of the very few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . The game received mostly positive reviews upon release : praise was given to the game 's graphics and simple controls , while criticism was directed at its confusing interface .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic version of the United States in the year 3472 . Eight Great Cups of Ultimate are dispersed around America , and the player 's mission is to obtain all of them . Petrol is in short supply and the only way to re @-@ fuel vehicles is to find petrol pumps , scattered across the country .
The game is presented in a top @-@ down perspective and involves driving around America to collect the eight trophies whilst avoiding natural hazards and kamikaze cars , which attempt to crash into the player . The player has a limited supply of petrol and must collect fuel at regular intervals by driving over petrol pumps . Obstacles include trees , boulders and destroyed buildings . The overworld has an invisible border which causes the player 's car to reverse automatically to ensure that they do not cross the game 's boundaries .
The interface displays a list of comprehensive data : a map showing a list of key cities in the contiguous United States , petrol gauge , speedometer , remaining lives and engine temperature . Every key city in the game contains at least one petrol station . If the player drives too fast for too long , their car will overheat and eventually break down , thus losing a life . To save an overheating car , the player must slow down or stop entirely .
= = Background = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . Prior to founding Ultimate , the Stamper brothers had backgrounds in designing arcade machines , but no marketing experience in the video game sector . The company were known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " : one team would work on development whilst the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or graphics .
Tranz Am was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game when the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes . The game used the common technique of placing planar sprites with image sprites atop another , which often created graphical errors and overlapped colours on the console . The game was also able to run on the 16K version of the Spectrum .
= = Reception = =
The game received a mostly positive reception upon release . Computer and Video Games praised the game 's controls and accessibility , stating that they were " easy to get into " upon the first try . A reviewer writing for Home Computing Weekly found the game to be " compulsive " overall , but noted that the game did not live up to the promises made by the description on the packaging . Simon Lane of Popular Computing Weekly praised the game 's graphics , sound and presentation , stating that they were of " a very high quality " and that Tranz Am was an " original game " in comparison with the other games released by Ultimate . Lane criticised the game 's interface , however , stating that he found it difficult to " concentrate on everything all at once " . Lane also added that the game did not reward the player enough for collecting all of the cups , displaying just a short congratulation message before inviting him or her to begin again . A reviewer writing for Your Computer magazine heralded the game as a program of " outstanding achievement " , considering that the game 's playing area was calculated at " 600 times more than the actual screen area " .
= Discipline ( Janet Jackson album ) =
Discipline is the tenth studio album by American recording artist Janet Jackson , released by Island Records on February 26 , 2008 . It is her only album released on Island Records , after her five @-@ album deal with Virgin Records America was fulfilled with the release of 20 Y.O .. Jackson worked with producers such as Darkchild , Ne @-@ Yo , Shea Taylor , Stargate , Johntá Austin , Jermaine Dupri , Tricky Stewart , and The @-@ Dream on the album . Jackson 's long @-@ time producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , did not contribute to the project . The album was executive produced by Island Urban president Dupri and Jackson . The album experimented with the electropop , house , and dance @-@ pop genres , and also contained R & B and hip hop orientated tracks .
Four singles were released from the album ; the first , " Feedback " , was released as a digital download in December 2007 . The song reached number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming Jackson 's best @-@ charting single since 2001 's " Someone to Call My Lover " . The album 's later singles did not share the success of " Feedback " . The deluxe version of Discipline contained a DVD documenting the production and promotion of the album and music videos .
The album received generally positive reviews , with critics arguing that it was an improvement on Jackson 's two previous albums . Despite positive reviews it became one of her least successful albums . It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , becoming her sixth to top the chart and it was her first album to reach number one in the United States after 2001 's All for You . However , sales of the album quickly fell , and by June the album 's promotion had officially ended . Jackson started her Rock Witchu Tour — with the support of Live Nation — in early September to positive reviews but by the end of that month Jackson parted with her record label due to the album 's commercial failure .
= = Conception = =
In July 2007 , it was announced that Jackson had signed a recording contract with Island Records , after her five @-@ album deal with Virgin Records America was fulfilled with the release of her album 20 Y.O. Jackson 's tenth studio album , Discipline , which was an acknowledgment of Jackson 's commitment , focus and dedication to her career , was released on February 26 , 2008 under the supervision of label head L. A. Reid . Jackson commented , " I wanted to name the album Discipline because it has a lot of different meanings for me but the most important would be work — to have done this for as long as I have ... And to have had the success that I 've had — not excluding God by any means — but it takes a great deal of focus . "
Jackson worked with producers such as Rodney Jerkins ( who produced the lead single " Feedback " alongside D 'Mile ) , Jermaine Dupri , Ne @-@ Yo , Shea Taylor , Stargate , Johntá Austin , Tricky Stewart , and The @-@ Dream . Jackson 's long @-@ time producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , did not contribute to the project . The album was executive produced by Island Urban president Jermaine Dupri and Jackson . She did not write or co @-@ write any songs on the album , a departure from her usual practice of co @-@ writing and producing all of the songs on her albums . The song " So Much Betta " contains sampled portions of the track " Daftendirekt " by the French house music duo Daft Punk .
The deluxe edition included a DVD entitled The Making of Discipline . The DVD is split into five chapters that documents the production of the album , its promotion , and the " Feedback " music video . The first chapter entitled " Photo Shoots " , shows Jackson creating a new image for the album and adopting different looks for different markets . She spent two days working on photos for the cover and credit booklet , revealing that she still feels uncomfortable in front of the camera despite two decades in the music industry . In the second chapter , " The Studio " , Jackson expressed her opinion on recording work , stating that although she usually enjoyed the experience , it was , at times , tedious . She discusses further how her songs are built up in layers and parts , from melodies and background vocals or sounds . The third chapter , " Rehearsals " , shows the rehearsals of the dance routine for the " Feedback " music video . The DVD reveals that the eight dancers had been practicing for over a week before they started working with Jackson . The dancers then had three days to rehearse with Jackson and a further two days to complete the video . Jackson described the video as a metaphor for sexual tension . The fourth chapter , " Behind the Video " , shows the making of the video itself . Jackson told the director that she wanted a futuristic , moody concept , and he came up with the idea of jumping between planets . The final chapter is the lead music video in its entirety . On March 31 , 2008 an edition of Discipline in environmentally friendly packaging was released through Wal @-@ Mart stores as part of a green promotion .
= = Singles and notable tracks = =
The album 's first single " Feedback " , was released as a digital download in December 2007 . In the US , the song reached number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , number thirty @-@ nine on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number twenty @-@ three on the Pop 100 , becoming Jackson 's best @-@ charting single since " Someone to Call My Lover " in 2001 . The song was also successful in Canada and South Africa where it peaked at number three and eight respectively . Due to a rushed release and no international promotion , the song failed to chart highly in European countries , peaking at number thirty @-@ six in Franceand thirty two in Ireland and reaching the top 5 in Greece .
Subsequent singles were promoted and released primarily in the US . " Rock with U " , the second single , was released on February 5 , 2008 . A music video was released , with the song peaking at number twenty on the Billboard Dance Club Play Singles chart and at number 4 on the UK R & B charts . Following Jackson 's departure from Island Records two more promotional singles , " Luv " and " Can 't B Good " , were issued to select radio formats . " Luv " , the first promotional single , was released on February 11 , 2008 . It was not accompanied by a music video or promoted and peaked at number thirty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . A second promotional single , " Can 't B Good " , was released March 18 , 2008 to urban formats . The song " 2nite " was featured on the second part of the soundtrack to the film Sex and the City , entitled Sex and the City , Vol . 2 : More Music .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
Discipline debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 for the issue dated ending March 15 with 181 @,@ 000 copies sold . While this was a higher chart position than Jackson 's two previous releases , it was a lower first @-@ week sales total compared to Damita Jo which opened with sales of 381 @,@ 000 and 20 Y.O. with sales of 296 @,@ 000 . Paul Grein of Yahoo ! Music observed that with six number one studio albums , Jackson had " surpasse [ d ] her brother Michael Jackson , who has amassed five [ number one ] albums . " With six number @-@ one albums , Jackson is now tied with Mariah Carey and Britney Spears in the US for the third most number @-@ one albums for a female artist , behind Madonna with eight and Barbra Streisand 's ten chart @-@ toppers . In its second week , US sales saw the album fall to number three with 57 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its third chart week , the album fell to number eight with sales of 38 @,@ 000 copies . In its fourth chart week , the album fell to number seventeen with sales of 34 @,@ 000 copies , achieving total US sales in its first month of 310 @,@ 000 copies .
The album achieved moderate success in other countries , reaching number three in Canada ( with 6 @,@ 000 copies sold during its first week ) , number nine in Japan ( where it has been certified Gold for 100 @,@ 000 shipments ) , and number nine in Switzerland , but had low sales in most European markets . By June 2008 Island stopped promoting Discipline . The singer expressed open dissatisfaction with the promotion of the album , explaining that there would be no further single releases . The album failed in the UK charts , remaining just one week in position 63 with 3 @,@ 914 copies sold.but did manage to chart in the Top 5 of the UK R & B Album Chart . In France , Discipline debuted at number forty @-@ three with just 3 @,@ 000 copies sold . In Japan the album debuted higher , at number nine with 19 @,@ 839 copies sold . To date , the album has sold 456 @,@ 000 copies in the United States ; 100 @,@ 000 copies in Japan ; 9 @,@ 312 copies in the United Kingdom and over 1 million copies worldwide .
= = = Critical = = =
Discipline received mixed to positive reviews from most music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 61 , based on 14 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Music critic Keith Harris of Rolling Stone wrote , " Janet Jackson has abandoned the plastic R & B of 2006 's 20 Y.O. for a sexier brand of digitized megapop [ ... ] you can dismiss any images of the abusive Jackson clan that flit into your mind . Just lie back and enjoy the sensations as pure aural autoeroticism . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic gave a four @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating , noting several tracks were " as innocent , universal , and inviting as anything else in Janet 's past " , and called the songs " Rock with U " and " 2Nite " " irresistible , grade @-@ A dancefloor tracks " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described it as Jackson 's " most cohesive album in a while " , giving three @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five stars . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK gave it seven out of ten stars saying " Still , if not perfect , there 's plenty to like on Discipline , and while none of it is exactly vintage Janet , there 's enough here to keep the Jackson name on pop 's A @-@ list for a little while longer . "
Carol Cooper of The Village Voice called Discipline " the most cohesive deep @-@ groove album from La Jackson since Control . " NOW Magazine reviewer Bryan Borzykowski called it " her most modern and club @-@ friendly " album , and commented saying " Jackson wouldn 't want us to call it a comeback , but it sure sounds like one . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times gave it a three @-@ out @-@ of @-@ four rating , saying " Its 22 tracks should be two albums : The first , a club @-@ directed missile helmed by " Darkchild " Rodney Jerkins and Jackson 's beau , Jermaine Dupri , could reassert Jackson 's primacy among glamazon hit @-@ makers ; the second , a bedroom @-@ bound ladies ' favorite coauthored by soul dauphin Ne @-@ Yo , would remind fans of Jackson 's gift for creating truly tender smut . "
The Boston Globe music critic Joan Anderman criticized the album saying " Jackson 's decision to recycle the nympho routine one more time is just boring [ ... ] A quarter @-@ century into her career , it was Jackson 's moment to take a breath , dig a little deeper , and make a bold - or at least a different - statement . Instead , she has trussed herself up in vinyl to coo another batch of digitized porn . " On a better note , she called the tracks " Rollercoaster " and " Luv " " engaging tracks " , describing them as a " sassy @-@ sweet side " and " a plump , crackling confection " , respectively .
New York Times music critic Kelefa Sanneh commented saying " If anything , Discipline may be too subtle : a pretty , smartly produced collection that sometimes sounds like background music . " Michael Arceneaux of PopMatters called the album the " same old from her " , adding " These days her look and sound seem nothing more than a continuation of 2001 's All for You . " Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watson wrote that Jackson 's lyrics " sound like the cheesy text messages of a lovesick adolescent " and gave a C- rating . Nick Levine of Digital Spy wrote that " Jackson 's attempts to play the uber @-@ nympho are beginning to sound very , very desperate " with " embarrassingly lewd lyrics " and gave the record 2 out of 5 stars . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described most tracks on the album as either boring or unmemorable . Robert Christgau gave the album a " dud " score as he had done with her previous album 20 Y.O. ( ) .
= = Rock Witchu Tour = =
Although the album promotion stopped in June , Jackson 's fifth concert tour — the North American Rock Witchu Tour , with the support of Live Nation — began on September 10 , 2008 . Amy O 'Brian of The Vancouver Sun described Jackson 's stage show at the GM Place as a " high @-@ voltage performance " . According to O 'Brian , " [ w ] ith an ear @-@ piercing blast of pyrotechnics , a fog of thick cloud and dancers that popped up out of the stage and runway , Jackson proved within the first minutes that she didn 't choose the low @-@ budget route for her Rock Witchu Tour . " Similarly , Jim Harrington of The Oakland Tribune offered a positive review , stating : " Like Jackson 's previous tours , ' Rock Witchu ' was a flashy , high @-@ budget extravaganza built on well @-@ choreographed dance routines and plenty of theatrics . " The initial response to the tour was very good , with sold out shows in Los Angeles and Las Vegas . Supporting acts for the show included LL Cool J and Donnie Klang .
Jackson had to reschedule nine dates on the first leg of the tour due to vestibular migraines . However , on November 4 , 2008 , Jackson canceled 7 of the 9 shows which had been rescheduled , citing schedule conflicts as the main reason . On November 19 , it was announced on Japanese newspapers and websites that Jackson will bring the tour to Japan for a series of five shows in Saitama , Nagoya , Osaka , and Fukuoka in February 2009 . However , all five dates were canceled .
= = Departure from record label = =
On September 22 — while on the Live Nation @-@ supported tour of North America — Jackson parted company with her recording label Island ; their 14 @-@ month relationship was dissolved per a request by Jackson . The singer had previously expressed dissatisfaction with the label , first telling SOHH.com that they " stopped all promotion whatsoever on the album " after releasing the first single , " Feedback " . In early September she had stated , " I can 't say if we 'll be working with them in the future . I don 't know what the future holds between the two of us . " A spokesperson for Jackson added , " [ Jackson ] will have autonomy over her career , without the restrictions of a label system ... Always known to break new ground and set trends , Janet 's departure from Island Records makes her one of the first superstar artists to have the individual freedom to promote their work through a variety of avenues such as iTunes , mobile carriers and other diverse and innovative channels " .
Jackson told Sister 2 Sister magazine , " There were some people who didn 't like the direction I took with this album . I love doing dance songs and I think my fans expect that of me . I have been getting more behind the scenes with film and television . I will probably continue to do music – and acting is still a strong passion of mine – but I really have been loving behind @-@ the @-@ scenes work : producing , directing and all the technical stuff " . A few months before the split , a spokesperson for the label told Billboard , " Unfortunately we haven 't experienced the results we would have liked with this new album . But we respect and support Janet " .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= Macau Incident ( 1799 ) =
The Macau Incident was
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which again exacerbated the ranchers ' problems . Finally , in 1862 Del Valle was forced to sell off most of his land to oil speculators ( the Philadelphia and California Petroleum Company headed by Thomas A. Scott ) , keeping only his Rancho Camulos . The oilmen were unable to find any oil , and Rancho San Francisco eventually landed in the hands of Henry Newhall , whose name is now closely associated with the Santa Clarita Valley area .
Newhall granted right @-@ of @-@ way to Southern Pacific Railroad to build a rail line to Los Angeles and sold them a portion of the land , upon which sprang a new town that the company named after him , Newhall . Another town grew around the train station and Newhall named it after his hometown , Saugus .
After Newhall 's death in 1882 , his heirs formed the Newhall Land and Farming Company , which managed the lands . In 1936 , Atholl McBean , Newhall 's grandson @-@ in @-@ law , found oil on the property and changed the name to Newhall Ranch .
= = Historic designations = =
California Historical Landmark NO . 556 RANCHO SAN FRANCISCO Adobe
Placerita Canyon State Park – California Historical Landmark NO . 168 OAK OF THE GOLDEN DREAM : where Francisco Lopez found gold .
= The Boat Race 1903 =
The 60th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1903 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was umpired for the first time by former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman , whose misfiring starter pistol caused confusion at the start , allowing Cambridge to gain an advantage . They went on to win by six lengths in a time of 19 minutes 33 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 33 – 26 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1902 race by five lengths , and led overall with 33 victories to Cambridge 's 25 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races and C. K. Philips who had represented the Dark Blues four times between 1895 and 1898 . Cambridge were coached by Charles John Bristowe who had represented the Light Blues in the 1886 and 1887 races and Claude Goldie who had rowed in the 1898 and 1899 races . The Light Blues were later coached by William Dudley Ward . The umpire for the first time was old Etonian and former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman who rowed in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
During the build @-@ up to the race , Oxford suffered a series of misfortunes , including a bout of influenza which caused several changes in the Dark Blue crew . Centred on the group of Blues returning from the previous year , Cambridge were able to produce " a very fast crew " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 3 @.@ 5 lb ( 77 @.@ 6 kg ) , 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained four rowers with Boat Race experience , including A. de L. Long who was rowing in his third consecutive event . Cambridge saw six rowers return from the 1902 crew , including W. H. Chapman , H. B. Grylls , C. W. H. Taylor and R. H. Nelson , all of whom were taking part in their third Boat Race . Only Oxford 's Devereux Milburn was registered as a non @-@ British rower . An American , he attended The Hill School in Pennsylvania before graduating from Harvard University .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . On a strong tide , umpire Pitman attempted to start the race at 3 : 35 p.m. After he shouted " Are you ready ? " , Cambridge squared their blades and were dragged away from their stakeboat , and rowed on despite Pitman failing to correctly discharge the starter pistol . Worse , he failed to notice the departing Light Blues who were already one third of a length ahead before Oxford got on their way . Somewhat dismayed by the disadvantageous start , author and the number seven for this year 's race George Drinkwater stated they " rowed like a beaten crew from the first stroke . "
With a lead of nearly three lengths by Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge pushed on to hold a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half length lead at Barnes Bridge , and passed the finishing post six lengths ahead , in a time of 19 minutes 33 seconds . It was their second consecutive win and their fourth in five years , and took the overall record in the event to 33 – 26 in Oxford 's favour .
= Palazzo Rusticucci @-@ Accoramboni =
The Palazzo Rusticucci @-@ Accoramboni ( also known as Palazzo Rusticucci or Palazzo Accoramboni ) is a reconstructed late Renaissance palace in Rome . Erected by the will of Cardinal Girolamo Rusticucci , it was designed by Domenico Fontana and Carlo Maderno joining together several buildings already existing . Due to that , the building was not considered a good example of architectureOriginally lying along the north side of the Borgo Nuovo street , after 1667 the building faced the north side of the large new square located west of the new Saint Peter 's Square , designed in those years by Gian Lorenzo Bernini . The square , named after the palace Piazza Rusticucci , was demolished in 1937 @-@ 40 because of the erection of the new Via della Conciliazione . In 1940 the palace was demolished and rebuilt with a different footprint along the north side of the new avenue , constructed between 1936 and 1950 , which links St Peter 's Basilica and the Vatican City to the center of Rome .
= = Location = =
The palace is located in the Borgo rione of Rome along the north side of Via della Conciliazione avenue , its main facade facing south . It belongs to the same block as the Palazzo dei Convertendi , another Renaissance building demolished in the late 1930s and reconstructed in the 1940s east of it . To the west Via Rusticucci separates it from the north Propylaea delimiting the square Piazza Pio XII ( which roughly occupies the same area as the old Piazza Rusticucci ) and facing Saint Peter 's Square . The north side of the building borders two other reconstructed Renaissance edifices of Borgo : the Palazzo Jacopo da Brescia and the house of the physician of Paul III .
= = History = =
= = = Renaissance and baroque = = =
Girolamo Rusticucci , secretary of Pope Pius V ( r . 1566 – 72 ) , who in 1570 appointed him Cardinal of Santa Susanna , bought a palace lying almost at the end of the Via Alessandrina ( the road later named Borgo Nuovo ) in Borgo on 31 March 1572 . This building , once owned by Roberto Strozzi ( exponent of the banker family from Florence ) , had been sold in 1567 to Pope Pius V , who donated it immediately to his nephew Paolo Ghislieri . Ghislieri sold it to the Cardinal five years later with the accordance of the pope . In order to enlarge his building , Rusticucci also bought several nearby houses . Selling negotiation not always finished successfully : an old woman refused to sell her home , forcing the architect to engulf it in the enlarged palace . However , the woman and her heirs could live there until they sold it to the owner of the " Caffè San Pietro " , one of the oldest coffee shops in the city . The strong @-@ willed opposition of another owner forced the cardinal to renounce to extend the building to the east until Borgo Sant 'Angelo , although the works had already commenced . A powerful angular rustication erected at the corner between Borgo Sant 'Angelo and Borgo Nuovo testified until 1937 about the Rusticucci 's intention . Several years went by after the acquisition of Ghislieri 's palace , until in 1584 Rusticucci gave the task to design a larger palace to architect Domenico Fontana . After Fontana 's transferral to Naples who , after the death of Sixtus V ( r . 1585 – 90 ) and the brief intermezzo of Innocent IX ( r . Oct.-Dec. 1591 ) , could not win the favor of Pope Clement VIII ( r . 1592 – 1605 ) , the task was finished by his nephew Carlo Maderno . It is also worth noticing that in the early 16th century one of the houses which predated the palace hosted an osteria . In the late 1510s Raphael , at that time painting the Vatican loggias , often had lunch together with his aides in a rear room of that eatery . The artists often discussed work problems during lunch , sketching different solutions on the walls of the room . When the palace was built , the osteria remained in place , and the owners always took care of the walls of that room throughout the years .
Around 1630 the palace housed for a brief time the Collegio Nazareno , one of the oldest schools in Rome , founded in those years by Joseph Calasanz , and presently in Via del Bufalo , in Trevi rione .
After that , the Rusticucci 's heirs sold the building to Mario Accoramboni , member of a family of lesser nobility which had emigrated from the umbrian town of Gubbio to Rome . Exponents of the family acquired a high rank in the church and in the city : Ottavio was bishop of Fossombrone and Urbino , Roberto vicelegato at Ferrara , and during the epidemic of 1657 , the owner of the palace , Roberto Accoramboni , received the task ( personally given by Pope Alexander VII ) of defending Borgo from the plague . In 1667 , the erection of the Colonnades of St. Peter 's square by Gian Lorenzo Bernini made it necessary to demolish the last block of houses ( " isola " ) in front of the new square , situated between the roads of Borgo Vecchio and Borgo Nuovo : this block was named " isola del Priorato " , since one of ıts buildings hosted the Priory of the knights of Rhodes . The demolition created a large new square , which was delimited on the north side by Palazzo Rusticucci . This square , representing the vestibule of Saint Peter 's Square , took its name from the building . In 1775 in a shop at the ground floor was founded the " Caffè San Pietro " , one of the oldest Coffee Houses in Rome .
= = = Modern age = = =
On 4 March 1902 the palace became the seat of the Belgian Historical Institute , and after a short time was acquired by the Congregation of Propaganda Fide . In 1940 , because of the construction of the Via della Conciliazione , it was demolished and partially rebuilt in the same year with design by Clemente Busiri Vici , exponent of a Roman dynasty of architects .
Through the expropriation decrees , the commercial activities in the palace are known : in 1937 two shops were active along Piazza Rusticucci selling religious articles : moreover , the ground floor of the building hosted a tobacconist , a bakery , a pastry shop and a restaurant .
The bakery was originally the aforementioned osteria where Raphael had painted his sketches . Towards the mid @-@ 19th century a Papal Zouave was killed in that eatery , which was shut down by the authorities as a result . When the shop was reopened several years after the capture of Rome on 20 September 1870 , hosting first a pizzeria , then the aforementioned bakery , the rooms were renovated , and all the sketches were lost .
= = Description = =
The original building had a harmonious and unadorned prospect , known through Rome 's plan by Antonio Tempesta published in 1593 , published when the palace was just finished , with seventeen windows and three floors . The facade along Via Alessandrina resembles those of coeval buildings , like Palazzo Ruspoli , built in Via del Corso by Bartolomeo Ammannati . Resulting from the union of several small houses , the edifice was very long , especially after the addition of another wing at the west end , along Via del Mascherino , sixty years after the death of Rusticucci in 1603 . After this addition , the palace was unanimously described by the coeval city 's guides as " lacking grace " . Its main front had a monotonous and modest appearance : it was 83 @.@ 35 metres ( 273 @.@ 5 ft ) long , with three floors and a mezzanine , twenty @-@ two windows and a rusticated portal . Its area covered 2 @,@ 700 square metres ( 29 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . To the right of the entrance lay a rectangular yard with three orders , doric , ionic and corinthian . On the opposite side lay a smaller square yard , surrounded by a portico with serliana .
The reconstructed building is shorter , having only 13 windows along its façade , which shows exposed bricks . The two yards have been rebuilt , while the cornices of the windows and the portal come from the original edifice . The palace as of today ( 2016 ) still hosts the " Caffè San Pietro " , which has its seat here since its establishment .
A fountain erected in the palace 's yard has been moved to the garden lying between the church of S. Alessio and that of Santa Sabina on the Aventine Hill .
= M @-@ 91 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 91 is a largely north – south state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs from Belding to south of Lakeview . Its 24 @-@ mile ( 39 km ) length exists entirely within Ionia and Montcalm counties . It is all undivided surface route . Aside from the two Michigan state highways that are its termini , it has only one other interstection with any Michigan state highway , and that is with M @-@ 57 in Greenville .
M @-@ 91 was formed when M @-@ 66 was rerouted in the 1940s . At the time , the highway continued south to Lowell , but subsequent transfers or roadway sections have truncated the route to its present form . For a time period in the 1980s , M @-@ 91 was even a discontinuous highway when a section in the middle was transferred to county control before the southernmost section was transferred .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 91 starts at an intersection with M @-@ 44 west of Belding in Otisco Township . The road runs north along Storey Road and past the Candlestone Golf Course and farmlands . At Bricker Road , M @-@ 91 crosses out of Ionia County into Montcalm County . The trunkline runs along Greenville Road and passes the Greenville Municipal Airport . As it continues north , the highway curves to the northeast running between the Flat River and Baldwin , Como and Manoka lakes . As it enters the south side of Greenville , M @-@ 91 runs along on Lafayette Street . In the center of Greenville , M @-@ 91 meets M @-@ 57 on Washington Street . North of downtown , M @-@ 91 crosses a bend in the Flat River and continues to parallel the river on the east out of town . In rural Montcalm County , M @-@ 91 is once again named Greenville Road and it curves to the west of Turk Lake and continues due north to the community of Langston . North of Langston are Tacoma , West and Spring lakes . Further north , M @-@ 91 curves to the northwest around Farnsworth Lake , resuming its due @-@ north course a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west . Running through farmlands again , M @-@ 91 terminates at an intersection with M @-@ 46 in Lakeview , just south of Tamarack Lake .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
The first routing of M @-@ 91 in Michigan was located between Menominee and Cedar River in the Upper Peninsula . This routing was designated by July 1 , 1919 . The designation remained until sometime before December 1927 when it was replaced by M @-@ 35 .
In 1927 , all of the current M @-@ 91 was originally part of M @-@ 66 . A second usage of M @-@ 91 was designated from Rogers City towards Cheboygan County along the Lake Huron shore by 1930 . It became part of US 23 by the end of 1940 .
= = = Current designation = = =
M @-@ 91 was designated for the third time by June 1942 . The number was assigned between US 16 ( Cascade Road / Grand River Avenue ) south of Lowell running northeast along Alden Nash Avenue into Lowell and Lincoln Lake Road north of town . The highway followed Lincoln Lake Road to M @-@ 44 east of Belding and turned to run concurrently along M @-@ 44 to the Belding area . From there it ran north to Greenville and on to Lakeview along the present route . The last section of gravel roadway was paved in Ionia County in 1954 .
The highway designation was extended south to the then @-@ new US 16 freeway ( now Interstate 96 ) around 1958 . It was later truncated back to M @-@ 21 in Lowell in 1968 . By 1980 , the section of M @-@ 91 in Ionia County south of M @-@ 44 to the Kent County line was turned back to local control . The highway section in Kent County remained marked as M @-@ 91 , resulting in a discontinuous highway . The southern section between Lowell and the county line was turned back by 1985 , resulting in the modern routing of M @-@ 91 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Chak De ! India =
Chak De ! India ( English : Go For it ! India or Go ! India ) is a 2007 Hindi @-@ language Indian sports film , directed by Shimit Amin and Rob Miller ( sports scenes ) , produced by Aditya Chopra , with music by Salim – Sulaiman and a screenplay by Jaideep Sahni . It explores religious bigotry , the legacy of the partition of India , ethnic and regional prejudice and sexism in contemporary India in a fictional story about the Indian women 's national field @-@ hockey team which was inspired by the team 's win at the 2002 Commonwealth Games . The film stars Shahrukh Khan as Kabir Khan , former captain of the Indian men 's national field @-@ hockey team . After a disastrous loss to Pakistan , Khan is ostracized from the sport and he and his mother are driven from the family home by angry neighbors . Seven years later , to redeem himself , Khan becomes the coach of the Indian national women 's hockey team and aims to turn its sixteen contentious players into a championship unit .
Chak De ! India won a number of awards , including the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment . On 30 August 2007 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences requested a copy of the film 's script for a place in its Margaret Herrick Library . When the Indian Hockey Federation was reorganised in April 2008 , former player Aslam Sher Khan said that he wanted " to create a ' Chak De ' effect " in Indian hockey .
= = Plot = =
Chak De ! India opens in Delhi during the final minutes of a fictional Hockey World Cup match between Pakistan and India , with Pakistan leading 1 – 0 . When Indian team captain Kabir Khan ( Shah Rukh Khan ) is fouled , he takes a penalty stroke . His shot just misses , costing India the match . Soon afterwards , media outlets circulate a photograph of Khan shaking hands with the Pakistani captain . The sporting gesture is misunderstood , and the Muslim Khan is suspected of " throwing " the game out of sympathy towards Pakistan . Religious prejudice forces him and his mother ( Joyshree Arora ) from their family home .
Seven years later Mr. Tripathi ( Anjan Srivastav ) , the head of India 's hockey association , meets with Khan 's friend — and hockey advocate — Uttamaji ( Mohit Chauhan ) to discuss the Indian women 's hockey team . According to Tripathi , the team has no future since the only long @-@ term role for women is to " cook and clean " . Uttamaji , however , tells him that Kabir Khan ( whom no one has seen for seven years ) wants to coach the team . Initially sceptical , Tripathi agrees to the arrangement .
Khan finds himself in charge of a group of 16 young women ( each representing a different state ) , divided by their competitive nature and regional prejudices . Komal Chautala ( Chitrashi Rawat ) , a village girl from Haryana , clashes with Preeti Sabarwal ( Sagarika Ghatge ) from Chandigarh ; short @-@ tempered Balbir Kaur ( Tanya Abrol ) from Punjab bullies Rani Dispotta ( Seema Azmi ) and Soimoi Kerketa ( Nisha Nair ) , who are from remote villages in Jharkhand . Mary Ralte ( Kimi Laldawla ) from Mizoram and Molly Zimik ( Masochon " Chon Chon " Zimik ) , from Manipur in North @-@ East India , face widespread discrimination and sexual harassment . Team captain Vidya Sharma ( Vidya Malvade ) must choose between hockey and the wishes of her husband Rakesh 's ( Nakul Vaid ) family , and Preeti 's fiancé — Abhimanyu Singh ( Vivan Bhatena ) , vice @-@ captain of the India national cricket team — feels threatened by her involvement with the team .
Khan realizes that he can make the girls winners only if he can help them overcome their differences . During his first few days as coach he benches several players who refuse to follow his rules — including Bindia Naik ( Shilpa Shukla ) , his most experienced player . In response , Bindia repeatedly encourages the other players to defy Khan . When she finally succeeds , Khan angrily resigns ; however , he invites the staff and team to a farewell lunch at McDonald 's . During the lunch , local boys make a pass at Mary ; Balbir attacks them , triggering a brawl between the boys and the team . Khan , recognizing that they are acting as one for the first time , prevents the staff from intervening ; he only stops a man from hitting one of the women from behind with a cricket bat , telling him that there are no cowards in hockey . In an about @-@ face , after the fight the women ask Khan to remain as their coach .
The team faces new challenges . When Tripathi refuses to send the women 's team to Australia for the World Cup , Khan proposes a match against the men ’ s team . Although his team loses , their performance inspires Tripathi to send them to Australia after all . The tournament begins with a 7 @-@ 0 loss to Australia , followed by victories over England , Spain , South Africa , New Zealand , Argentina and South Korea . They are again matched with Australia for the final ; this time , they defeat the Hockeyroos for the World Cup . When the team returns home their families treat them with greater respect and Khan , his good name restored , returns with his mother to their ancestral home .
= = Cast = =
Shortly after the film 's release the media began referring to the 16 actresses who portrayed the players as the " Chak De girls " . The panel of judges at the Screen Awards also used the term , awarding the 2008 Screen Award for Best Supporting Actress to the " Chak De girls " .
= = = Team = = =
= = = Additional cast = = =
Anjan Srivastav as Mr. Tripathi , the head Indian hockey official
Vibha Chibber as Krishnaji , assistant coach for the Indian women 's field hockey team
Javed Khan as Sukhlal
Mohit Chauhan as Uttamaji , Kabir 's former hockey teammate and friend
Vivan Bhatena as Abimanyu Singh , Vice captain of the Indian national cricket team
Nakul Vaid as Rakesh , Vidya 's husband
Joyshree Arora as Kabir 's mother
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
A brief article about the victorious women 's team at the 2002 Commonwealth Games inspired screenwriter Jaideep Sahni to create a film about the Indian women 's hockey team , and he modeled Kabir Khan on hockey coach Maharaj Krishan Kaushik . After listening to the storyline Kaushik suggested that Sahani meet hockey player Mir Ranjan Negi , who faced accusations of throwing the match against Pakistan in the 1982 Asian Games . According to Sahani , he was unaware of Negi 's plight while he wrote the script and any resemblance to Negi 's life was coincidental . Negi agreed , saying that he did not " want to hog the limelight . This movie is not a documentary of Mir Ranjan Negi 's life . It is in fact the story of a team that becomes a winning lot from a bunch of hopeless girls " . Responding to media reports equating Kabir Khan with Negi , Sahani said : " Our script was written a year and a half back . It is very unfortunate that something , which is about women athletes , has just started becoming about Negi . "
= = = Title = = =
Shah Rukh Khan stated in a speech delivered at the University of Edinburgh that the phrase Chak De ! was originally " an inspirational martial cry that Sikh soldiers used while lifting logs in order to make bridges across rivers on their campaigns against their enemies . It implies the will to get up and get on with it . "
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Although Salman Khan was initially signed for the lead role , he later withdrew due to creative differences with the director . Shah Rukh Khan ( who had originally declined due to a scheduling conflict with Karan Johar 's Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna ) was later confirmed as Kabir Khan . Khan accepted the role partly because he used to play hockey in college : " I feel hockey as a sport has been monstrously neglected in our country . I used to play the game during college . In fact , I was quite a good hockey player . So the role was a lot like going back to my past . " Some media sources called the actor 's role offbeat , since it departed from his usual romantic image and included neither lip synched songs nor a single female lead . Casting of the 16 actresses as the hockey players took over six months . Amin described the process as " very , very difficult " and " very strenuous because the requirement was they had to play – and act " . A four @-@ month training camp was held where the girls learned the rules of the game , took acting lessons and followed a strict diet ; safety precautions were also taken . According to Amin , " Learning hockey is very tricky unlike , say , football . You have to know how to hold the stick , how to manoeuvre it , so it doesn 't look fake on screen ... For those who were originally players , we had to make sure they were able to act as well . The dialogue was weighty ; it isn 't frivolous . It has to be delivered with a certain tone , in a certain manner " . The actors , including Khan and the rest of the supporting cast , participated in a number of rehearsals and script readings before principal photography began .
Kaushik and his team taught the crew " all [ they ] knew about hockey " . In an interview , he later said that he " taught him ( Sahni ) everything about the game , starting from how the camp is conducted , how the girls come from different backgrounds and cultures , the psychological factors involved . Also how the coach faces pressure to select girls from different states and teams " . After Negi was suggested , the latter assembled a team of hockey players to train the actors . He later said that he " trained the girls for six months . Waking up at 4 , traveling from Kandivili to Churchgate . We would retire around 11 in the night . It was tiring . But we were on a mission ... They couldn 't run ; couldn 't hold the hockey sticks . I ensured none of them [ would have to ] cut their nails or eyebrows ( as the players do ) . The girls have worked very hard . I salute them " . Some of the actors , such as Chitrashi , Sandia , and Raynia , were cast because they were hockey players . Rob Miller was the Sport Action Director , and worked with Negi to train the actors . About working with Khan , Negi recalled that everything was planned " including the penalty stroke that SRK missed . That shot alone took us nearly 20 hours as I was keen that it should be very realistic . I took the help of a lot of my former teammates . But more importantly , it was so easy working with SRK . He is unbelievably modest and was willing to do as many re @-@ takes as we wanted " . Chak De ! India was filmed in India and Australia ( Sydney and Melbourne ) , with ReelSports Solutions casting 90 hockey players and 9 @,@ 000 extras .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Chak De ! India premiered on 9 August 2007 at Somerset House in London to an audience of over 2 @,@ 000 during the Film4 Summer Screen and India Now festivals . It was released globally in theaters on 10 August 2007 , playing on only 400 screens in India because of the commercial failure of Yash Raj Films 's two previous films .
Due to the film 's strong critical response , theaters reported 80 @-@ percent occupancy for its opening weekend . Chak De ! India topped the Indian box office during its first two weeks , and played to full houses during its first two months . The film was particularly successful in large cities . By the end of its theatrical run Chak De ! India was the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 in India , with domestic earnings of ₹ 50 @,@ 54 @,@ 00 @,@ 000 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave Chak De India a rating of 91 percent based on 11 reviews ( 10 " fresh " and one " rotten " ) . On Metacritic , the film had a score of 68 from four critics , indicating generally @-@ favorable reviews .
In an NPR interview via affiliate WBUR @-@ FM , Mumbai Mirror columnist Aseem Chhabra called Chak De ! India " an example of a film that 's been made within the framework of Bollywood and yet it is a very different film . It does take up some realistic issues , and what I really liked about the film was that the women who acted , you know , who are part of the team , each one of them got a chance . Their personality , their characters , were very well @-@ written , and so , the superstar in the film was Shahrukh Khan , who was the coach of the team ; he doesn 't sort of take over the whole film . Every supporting character gets a role , and it 's a very inspiring movie that really changed the mood in India . People loved it " . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India gave the film four out of five stars stating that it was a film of " great performances by a bunch of unknowns . " India Today called Chak De ! India " the most feisty girl power movie to have come out of Bollywood ever . " Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu wrote , " At another level , Chak De is about women 's liberation . It is one of the best feminist films of our times . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave the film four out of five stars , saying " Chak De 's ... a winner all the way . " Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express called the film " the most authentic , meticulously researched sports movie India has made " . In Kolkata 's Telegraph , Bharathi S. Pradhan wrote that the film combines " an extremely well @-@ knit screenplay with unrelentingly deft direction , 16 unknown , and not even glamorous , girls simply carried you with them , with one single known actor compelling you to watch Chak De India without blinking " . Jaspreet Pandohar of the BBC gave Chak De ! India four out of five stars stating that " while the tale of the sporting underdog is hardly new , Jaideep Sahni 's screenplay offers a rare look at a popular Indian sport often overshadowed by cricket . " Andy Webster of The New York Times wrote that the film gave a fresh look to the conventional underdog sports film , comparing its premise to the U.S. victory in the 1991 FIFA Women 's World Cup . Derek Elley of Variety called Chak De ! India " a patriotic heartwarmer that scores some old @-@ fashioned entertainment goals . " In The Hollywood Reporter , Kirk Honeycutt wrote that the " technical credits are first rate with excellent cinematography , quicksilver editing , musical montages of practice and a fine use of locations . "
Michael Dequina of themoviereport.com was more critical of the film , giving it 2 @.@ 5 out of four stars and calling it " a very familiar , very formula underdog sports movie with nothing to distinguish it from similar , equally slick Hollywood product . " Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide gave Chak De ! India two stars out of four , writing that the film uses " sports @-@ movie conventions to address larger cultural and political issues , and while it doesn 't miss a cliche , it also invests every one with vigorous conviction . " Although Subhash K. Jha gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars , calling it " a fairly predictable story " with dialogue " quite often the stuff bumper stickers are made of " , he wrote that " Chak De India is an outright winner " and " one of the finest sports @-@ based dramas in living memory . " Khalid Mohamed gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars in the Hindustan Times stating that the film " may be predictable but compels you to root for a team of losers whom only an earth @-@ angel can save from disastrous defeat " .
Apart from critics , Chak De ! India tied with Taare Zameen Par for the Best film of 2007 according to various Bollywood movie directors such as Madhur Bhandarkar , David Dhawan , Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra , Anurag Basu , and Sriram Raghavan .
= = Social impact = =
Chak De ! India has become an influential film . The title track song " Chak De ! India , " now doubles as a sports anthem in India and is played at numerous sports events . According to Salim Merchant , the song " almost became the sports anthem of the country , especially after India won the Cricket World Cup [ 2011 ] . It was no longer our song but the country 's song " . After India 's World Cup victory , Indian team player Virat Kohli " sang ' Chak de India ' to the crowd " . When India defeated South Africa at the 2015 Cricket World Cup , Nitin Srivastava of the BBC noted : " MCG has erupted with " Vande Mataram " ( the national song of India ) and " Chak De India " ( Go India ! ) slogans in the air ! And there 's no age barrier for cricket fans who came and enjoyed the match " .
In addition , the suspension of the Indian Hockey Federation in April 2008 also indicated the film 's influence . India Today used the title to label the event in two articles , titled " Operation Chak De impact : Jothikumaran resigns " and " Operation Chak de impact : Furore in Lok Sabha " . The Indiatimes , in an article titled , " Five wise men set for a Chak De act " also argued , " It looks like Indian hockey has done a real Chak de this time around " . In addition , former hockey player Aslam Sher Khan , who was appointed by the Indian Olympic Association to head a committee which will replace the IHF , pointed to the film as a model to work towards . He stated in an interview , " We have to make a Team India as you have seen in Bollywood blockbuster Chak De ! India . There are players from several parts of the country . We have to unite them to make a powerful force . " In another interview , he emphasised that he wants " to create a Chak De effect " on hockey in India .
= = Soundtrack = =
Chak De ! India 's soundtrack , composed by Salim – Sulaiman with lyrics by Jaideep Sahni , was released on 1 August 2007 .
= Ray of Light ( song ) =
" Ray of Light " is a song by American singer Madonna . It is the title track from her seventh studio album Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , and was released as the album 's second single on May 6 , 1998 , by Maverick Records . The song was also included on the compilation albums GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . Written by Madonna , William Orbit , Clive Muldoon , Dave Curtiss , Christine Leach , and produced by Madonna and Orbit , " Ray of Light " is based on Curtiss Maldoon 's " Sepheryn " and is an electronic dance song with techno , trance , Eurodance , and disco influences , " Ray of Light " contains several sound effects such as whistles , bleeps and bells , the usage of electric guitar , and underlying synths . Lyrically , the song has a theme of freedom .
The song has received critical acclaim by music critics , for its club @-@ friendly , electronic sound , lyrics , and " emotional warmth " . The song was also nominated for three Grammy Awards ; for Record of the Year , Best Dance Recording , and Best Short Form Music Video , winning the last two . " Ray of Light " debuted and peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Madonna 's highest debut on the chart to date . It also reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Internationally , the song reached the top five in Canada , Finland , Italy and the United Kingdom , and peaked at number one in Scotland and Spain .
An accompanying music video for " Ray of Light " was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and shows scenes from different cities around the world , with Madonna singing the song in front of them . The video was critically acclaimed , receiving the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video , as well as winning five awards at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards . Later , Stefano Salvati accused her of plagiarizing the concept of a music video he directed for Biagio Antonacci in 1994 . The song has been performed in three of Madonna 's concert tours , most recently on her Sticky & Sweet Tour ( 2008 – 09 ) . It has been covered by a number of artists , and has been featured in several elements of popular culture , such as on the FOX show Glee , as well as different advertising campaigns .
= = Background = =
Madonna began recording Ray of Light with English electronic musician and producer William Orbit in 1997 , after Guy Oseary , Maverick Records 's partner , phoned Orbit and suggested that he send some songs to Madonna . Orbit then sent a 13 @-@ track digital audio tape to Madonna , and " Ray of Light " was among these tracks . It is based on a track written in the 1970s , called " Sepheryn " , by English folk music duo Curtiss Maldoon . In 1996 , Christine Leach , Clive Maldoon 's niece , recorded her version for the track . She worked for a time with Orbit . Leach said she had always loved the duo 's work and " Sepheryn " had a dream @-@ like quality . When she rewrote the chorus melody , she removed a few bits . After Madonna heard Christine 's version of the track , she liked it , and reworked the lyrics . Dave Curtiss said he " couldn 't believe it " after he heard the track , and was pleased with what Madonna had done with his original composition . Madonna said about the song : " It 's totally out of control . The original version is well over 10 minutes long . It was completely indulgent , but I loved it . It was heartbreaking to cut it down to a manageable length . " Its original version was set to be included on a compilation album , titled Veronica Electronica , although it was not released .
= = Composition = =
An electronic dance music song , " Ray of Light " has received stylistic comparisons to rave , psychedelic and acid music . The track contains strong techno elements , as well as disco , trance , and Eurodance influences , and it sees Madonna deepen her dance roots and go for a more electronic sound . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time , with a moderately fast groove tempo of 126 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B ♭ major , with Madonna 's vocals on the song spanning from B ♭ 3 to F5 , with the latter note sung on the " ah @-@ ah " vocalization near the end of the song . " Ray of Light " has a basic sequence of B ♭ – E ♭ – B – E – B ♭ as its chord progression .
The song starts with an electric guitar riff which has been compared to English alternative rock / Britpop band Oasis , after which the fast techno melody begins , which , according to biographer Lucy O 'Brien in Madonna : Like an Icon , has been described as having a " bubbling psychedelic undertow " , as well as combining " melodic pop with bleep @-@ driven techno " . Throughout the composition , there are numerous electronic sound effects , including whistles , bells and bleeps . Its beat has been described as " restless " . Towards the middle of the track , the electric guitar riff is repeated in which Madonna sings the same line as the start of the song , until the dance section returns , and the song gradually ends . Madonna 's " breathlessly " delivered vocals on the song are noted to be different to the ones featured in her singles before the 1996 film Evita . " Lyrically , the song has a theme of freedom and it shows a more spiritual side to Madonna . According to Madonna the track is a mystical look at the universe and how small we are .
= = Critical reception = =
" Ray of Light " received acclaim from music critics . In a review for the album as a whole , Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described the track as " swirling " . In a separate review , Liana Jonas of the same website called the track a " wickedly good club song " , as well as claiming that it was " sonically progressive yet listener @-@ friendly " ; she also praised Madonna 's vocals , comparing them to those of a " club diva to celestial goddess " . Larry Flick from Billboard described it as Madonna at her best . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone in his review for the album as a whole , wrote that , alongside other tracks such as " Swim " and " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " , Madonna is " positively ferocious " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine wrote that the song was a " celebratory tech @-@ frenzy " , and noted Madonna 's " elation " in the song , giving it an " A " rating . Sputnikmusic listed the song as the album 's recommended tracks . Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault praised the song as one of Madonna 's best singles , explaining :
What makes " Ray Of Light " one of Madonna 's best singles is the fact that it is such a bitch to sing . Filled with multiple octave changes , it forced Madonna to push her vocal as far as it could possibly go . The song demanded she make use of her upper register and hold notes longer than she ever had before . It really is a techno gem that is always a standout at her concerts . After hearing a sample of it for the first time in the spring of 1998 , I just knew that Madonna had outdone herself . The song brings the entire album of to a whole new level .
In her book Madonna : Like an Icon , Lucy O 'Brien described the song as " speedy acid electronica " and an " ecstatic hymn to the skies " and noted that the song was composed a semitone higher than the singer 's vocal comfort zone , but claimed that " the strain really helped " . The A.V. Club commented that the " pumped @-@ up title track is bound to be a deserving smash " . J.D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted that Madonna 's " newfound strength is particularly apparent in pulsing , rhythm driven tracks like the title tune , which finds her soaring confidently at the top of her register on the busily percolating chorus , then whispering breathily on the brief , dream @-@ like bridge " . David Browne , while reviewing Ray of Light for Entertainment Weekly , titled the song as " sirenlike techno @-@ glitter @-@ ball " . Idolator 's Stephen Sears explained that Madonna 's vocals throughout the album were a " game @-@ changer " , including on the song , as she strengthened her voice while working on her film Evita . He ends his review by stating " Indeed , no choir is needed to lift ' Ray Of Light ' into disco heaven . Madonna supplies the highs herself in some perfect moments : the extended , spiraling way she wails ' yea @-@ ea @-@ ears ' at 3 : 27 or how her vocal spins out of control at 4 : 14 , matched by Orbit 's frenzied guitar work " .
= = Accolades and recognition = =
In 1999 , " Ray of Light " won two Grammy Awards for Best Dance Recording and Best Short Form Music Video . It was also nominated for Record of the Year , but lost to Celine Dion 's " My Heart Will Go On " . Furthermore , The Village Voice ranked it as the fourth best in 1998 in their Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . " Ray of Light " is also often ranked as being one of the best songs of the 1990s . In 2005 , the song was placed at number 401 on Blender 's " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . In a Slant Magazine list of the best singles of the 1990s , in which " Ray of Light " was placed 16th , it was written that the song 's " beat is restless " , and that " Ray of Light " is " a standout single " due to its " emotional warmth " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Ray of Light " was Madonna 's highest debuting single at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 , for the issue dated July 11 , 1998 . " Ray of Light " was present for a total of 20 weeks on the Hot 100 , and placed at number 75 on the year @-@ end chart . The song also reached the top of the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart of Billboard . " Ray of Light " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in September 1998 , for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single across United States . In Canada , it debuted at number 85 on the RPM Singles Chart and reached number three in its eighth week . It was present on the chart for a total of 30 weeks .
In Australia , " Ray of Light " debuted on the ARIA Singles Chart at its peak of number six on May 24 , 1998 , staying there for one week . It was present for a total of 17 weeks on the chart , and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies of the single . At the year @-@ end charts of ARIA , " Ray of Light " was the 57th best @-@ selling Australian single of 1998 . In New Zealand , " Ray of Light " also debuted at its peak position of number nine on the RIANZ Singles Chart , and reached a peak position of number two after three weeks . It was present for a total of 14 weeks on the chart and fell out on September 13 , 1998 , at number 31 .
In the United Kingdom , " Ray of Light " debuted and peaked at number two on May 9 , 1998 , being held off the number one spot by All Saints 's " Under the Bridge / Lady Marmalade " , which also debuted the same week . The single was the 68th best @-@ selling song of 1998 in the UK , with the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certifying it silver , for shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies of the song . According to the Official Charts Company , " Ray of Light " has sold 275 @,@ 000 copies in the region as of 2008 . The track debuted at its peak of number nine on the issue dated May 16 , 1998 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles chart . In Belgium , " Ray of Light " was moderately successful in both territories , peaking at number 25 in Flanders and 33 in Wallonia . In the Netherlands , the song debuted at number 45 on the Dutch Top 40 , and reached a peak of 22 on May 16 , 1998 , remaining there for three weeks . The song reached a peak of number two in Finland , where it remained for two weeks , before spending a total of five weeks on the chart . In Sweden , it reached number 14 and spent 10 weeks on the chart . On the Swiss Singles Chart , " Ray of Light " debuted at its peak of number 32 on the issue dated May 24 , 1998 . The song also reached number one in Spain on its debuting week . It stayed on the top spot for three weeks before descending the chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Ray of Light " was directed by Jonas Åkerlund , with Madonna 's scenes being shot in early April 1998 at MTV 's Times Square studios in New York and Los Angeles . The images of Madonna 's background include various cities , such as Los Angeles , New York , London , Las Vegas , and Stockholm . The video premiered on MTV Live on May 12 , 1998 . Madonna stated that when she makes an album , she " puts [ her ] soul on it " , but a music video is a lot more working with a director . With the Ray of Light album , she wanted to have videos with a fresh expression , and she wanted new directors to replace of the old ones she had worked with for years . She felt that Jonas Åkerlund has a special way of working . She commented that she and the director " met on the telephone , and he sent me a whole bunch of treatments I didn 't like . But he kept at it and didn 't give up " . The singer also mentioned that the video is basically " a day in the life of the earth to show that we are rushing forward to the end of the 1900s century at full speed . I think Jonas made an excellent interpretation of the song , although he forced me to dance like crazy for two days . He 's a tough director " . Åkerlund stated that " It was damn good ! Madonna was pleased with the quick result and [ is ] a dream to work with — it was probably the easiest job I 've done in years ! " Additionally , he said :
" I had two ideas that did not fit the song . She said no even though I had a very clear idea of how she would look in the video . I worked up on another idea and brought together a featured band for her to see . I did it all in front of me . [ ... ] In retrospect , it feels good , the video we have done much better suited to the track than the first ideas . She [ Madonna ] has an incredible track on everything she is doing . Style , music , business — she has a mental track of every single thing and won 't give up until she is completely satisfied . And on music videos there is nothing she does with one hand on her back — she 's engaged to one hundred percent " .
The music video for " Ray of Light " starts with the rising of the sun , until it progresses into a Koyaanisqatsi @-@ esque section , featuring time @-@ lapse images of daily life , from people riding a subway , ordering food , bowling , and children in a classroom to sped @-@ up city @-@ scapes and freeways at night . As the video goes on , night starts to fall , and high @-@ speed images of Madonna dancing in a discothèque progress , until she is seen falling asleep on the dance floor .
On June 23 , 1998 , the music video of " Ray of Light " was released on VHS as a limited edition of 40 @,@ 000 copies by Warner Music Vision . It had sold 7 @,@ 281 copies of the following month after its release , becoming the best @-@ selling video singles of the Nielsen SoundScan era . A few days after its release , Italian director Stefano Salvati accused Madonna 's Warner Bros. Records imprint Maverick Records for plagiarizing the concept of a music video he directed for Biagio Antonacci 's 1994 single " Non è Mai Stato Subito " . According to Salvati , copies of his videos were submitted to Maverick before the " Ray of Light " video was shot and requested it to be pulled from distribution . Both videos featured the respective singers performing at regular speed against a backdrop of high @-@ speed images . However , he did not sue the singer or her companies . The video received a total of eight MTV Video Music Awards nominations in 1998 , eventually winning five ; for Video of the Year , Best Female Video , Best Direction , Best Editing and Best Choreography , becoming her most @-@ winning song at the show . Madonna said she was grateful for MTV 's regonition of the music video . The video was ranked at number four on " The Top 100 Videos That Broke The Rules " , issued by MTV on the channel 's 25th anniversary in August 2006 .
= = Live performances = =
" Ray of Light " has been featured in the set lists of three Madonna tours – 2001 's Drowned World Tour , 2006 's Confessions Tour and 2008 – 09 's Sticky & Sweet Tour . In 1998 she premiered " Ray of Light " during her surprise concert at the Roxy NYC nightclub . She also appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in and performed " Ray of Light " and " Little Star " . During the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards Madonna started performing " Shanti / Ashtangi " , sporting black hair and wearing an Indian sari . Lenny Kravitz then appeared playing the guitar , which paved way to " Ray of Light " . A religious group called the World Vaishnava Association claimed that Madonna offended Hindus with the performance by continuing to wear a Hindi mark on her head while performing the song . A spokesperson for the association stated that the mark is a symbol of chastity , harmony and purity , and is designed to show " dedication to God " . The representative also said that because Madonna simulated a sexual act and wore a see @-@ through tank top onstage while wearing the mark , she offended both Hindus and Yogis . A spokesperson for Madonna stated that the singer did not understand why the World Vaishnava Association was upset as she had not done anything insulting , and did not wish to insult anyone . However , the vice president of the World Vaishnava Association claimed that " the Hindu community and Eastern spiritual seekers the world over should be happy for Madonna personally in terms of her genuine interest in enlightened life , and grateful to her for her sincere efforts to attract others to the same " .
Three years later , " Ray of Light " was included as the fifth song from the opening Neo @-@ Punk segment of Madonna 's 2001 Drowned World Tour , which featured Madonna and her dancers dancing along to the song wearing punk inspired clothing , while the backdrop screens showed an extended version of the song 's music video . This time , the electric guitar was played by Monte Pittman . Michael Hubbard from MusicOMH noted that " things quickly hotted up with [ ... ] Ray Of Light , a track that was quite simply as sublime as it was infectious " . In 2005 , Madonna performed " Ray of Light " during the Live 8 benefit concert . She later performed the song at the 2006 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California . During her 2006 Confessions Tour , Madonna included a rock version of " Ray of Light " as the second song of the show 's third act , the Glam @-@ Punk segment . For this performance Madonna played the electric guitar and urged all the fans to jump through the song , it also featured six male backup dancers , dressed in black outfits and white ties doing a synchronized choreography . Rolling Stone called the performance " hard @-@ rocking " .
" Ray of Light " was also performed by Madonna during the 2007 Live Earth concert in London 's Wembley Stadium again accompanied by a guitar . Madonna 's performance at the event was watched by 4 @.@ 5 million people . For the 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , " Ray of Light " was included as the third song of the show 's final segment . This time , Madonna played the electric guitar again and wore a futuristic outfit with a breastplate and a short wig . She was accompanied by her dancers who were dressed in futuristic outfits and performed a robotic choreography . During the 2009 extension of the tour , the song became the second @-@ to @-@ last of the show and also slightly edited for selected performances , with the lyrics from Michael Jackson 's song " Man in the Mirror " : " If you wanna make the world a better place ... Take a look at yourself , and then make a change " appearing on the screens before the beginning of the song . Madonna also honored Jackson by wearing a black armband and a white glove . While reviewing the tour in 2008 , Jim Farber from New York Daily News called the performance of the song one of the " highest @-@ energy " dance numbers of the show .
= = Covers and usage in media = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic 's medley " Polka Power ! " from the 1999 album Running With Scissors includes a polka version of the chorus of " Ray of Light " . The 2000 compilation Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 features a cover of the song by Sigue Sigue Sputnik . On the 2004 compilation Platinum Blonde NRG , Vol . 2 : Nrgised Madonna Classics , a Hi @-@ NRG cover is performed by Future Force . English singer Natasha Bedingfield recorded a cover version of " Ray of Light " for BBC Radio 1 's 40th anniversary . Played during the The Chris Moyles Show on September 19 , 2007 , it can be found on the Radio 1 . Established 1967 compilation album . Bedingfield commented : " I have so much respect for Madonna after learning how hard it is to sing that song . She has an amazing voice — the range you need to sing the song is incredible " . In 2008 , Iggy Pop and The Stooges played " Ray of Light " ( along with " Burning Up " ) during Madonna 's induction in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . In 2010 , the song was played in the film Burlesque , while Ali ( Christina Aguilera ) was rehearsing for her new position as a dancer in the Burlesque Lounge , owned by Cher 's character Tess . In late 2012 , American singer Adam Lambert performed a cover version on VH1 Divas , dancing through laser lights while donning a priestly black and white tunic .
The song was used by Microsoft in its 2001 advertising campaign for Windows XP . It begins with a man leaping through a green field and then lifting off into a sunny sky — a landscape lifted from Windows XP 's default " bliss screen " . There is also a series of images of people using Windows XP for real @-@ time communications , to collaborate in an airy restaurant , to relay digital images of flying people , watch videos and listen to music . Then , a snipped from the song follows the phrase : " Faster than the speeding light she 's flying ... You soar . Yes you can " . The campaign was reworked after the September 11 attacks ; the tag line " Prepare to fly " was changed to " Yes you can " , to sidestep new concerns about air travel , said Stephanie Ferguson , director of the company 's PC Experience Solutions Marketing Group . In 2008 , a Sunsilk shampoo commercial included shots of Marilyn Monroe and Shakira with songs well known by them , and ends with several video shots of Madonna to the sounds of " Ray of Light " . Madonna reportedly received US $ 10 million for the song 's usage . The commercial premiered on Super Bowl XLII . In 2010 , Glee tribute episode " The Power of Madonna " featured " Ray of Light " playing in the background as the school 's cheerleading team performed a complicated stilts routine . In the 2011 Family Guy episode " New Kidney in Town " , Peter Griffin is seen in the " Ray of Light " video after drinking his first energy drink ( Red Bull ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , songwriting , producer
William Orbit – songwriting , producer
Clive Muldoon – songwriting
Dave Curtis – songwriting
Christine Leach – songwriting
Pat McCarthy – engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from Ray of Light album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= History of the United Kingdom during World War I =
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland — then consisting of England , Scotland , Wales , and the whole of Ireland — was one of the Allied Powers during the First World War of 1914 – 1918 , fighting against the Central Powers ( the German Empire , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria ) . The state 's armed forces were reorganised — the war marked the creation of the Royal Air Force , for example — and increased in size because of the introduction , in January 1916 , of forced conscription for the first time in the kingdom 's history as well as the raising of the largest all @-@ volunteer army in history , known as Kitchener 's Army , of more than two million men . The outbreak of war has generally been regarded as a socially unifying event , although this view has been challenged by more recent scholarship . In any case , responses in the United Kingdom in 1914 were similar to those amongst populations across Europe .
On the eve of war , there was serious domestic unrest in the UK ( amongst the labour and suffrage movements and especially in Ireland ) but much of the population rapidly rallied behind the government . Significant sacrifices were made in the name of defeating the Empire 's enemies and many those who could not fight contributing to philanthropic and humanitarian causes . Fearing food shortages and labour shortfalls , the government passed legislation such as the Defence of the Realm Act 1914 , to give it new powers . The war saw a move away from the idea of " business as usual " under prime minister H. H. Asquith , and towards a state of total war ( complete state intervention in public affairs ) under David Lloyd George , the first time this had been seen in Britain . The war also witnessed the first aerial bombardments of cities in Britain .
Newspapers played an important role in maintaining popular support for the war . Large quantities of propaganda were produced by the government under the guidance of such journalists as Charles Masterman and newspaper owners such as Lord Beaverbrook . By adapting to the changing demographics of the workforce ( or the " dilution of labour " , as it was termed ) , war @-@ related industries grew rapidly , and production increased , as concessions were quickly made to trade unions . In that regard , the war is also credited by some with drawing women into mainstream employment for the first time . Debates continue about the impact the war had on women 's emancipation , given that a large number of women were granted the vote for the first time in 1918 . The experience of individual women during the war varied ; much depended on locality , age , marital status and occupation .
The civilian death rate rose due to food shortages and Spanish Flu , which hit the country in 1918 . Military deaths are estimated to have exceeded 850 @,@ 000 . The Empire reached its zenith at the conclusion of peace negotiations . However , the war heightened not only imperial loyalties but also individual national identities in the dominions ( Canada , Newfoundland , Australia , New Zealand and South Africa ) and India . Irish nationalists after 1916 moved from collaboration with London to demands for immediate independence ( see Easter Rising ) , a move given great impetus by the Conscription Crisis of 1918 .
Military historians continue to debate matters of tactics and strategy . However , in terms of memory of the war , historian Adrian Gregory argues that :
" The verdict of popular culture is more or less unanimous . The First World War was stupid , tragic and futile . The stupidity of the war has been a theme of growing strength since the 1920s . From Robert Graves , through ' Oh ! What a Lovely War ' to ' Blackadder Goes Forth , ' the criminal idiocy of the British High Command has become an article of faith . "
= = Government = =
On 4 August , Britain ( and its Empire ) entered the World War with H. H. Asquith of the Liberal Party as British prime minister . Britain 's reasons for declaring war were complex : the Treaty of London of 1839 had committed it to safeguard Belgium 's neutrality , and the strategic risk posed by German control of the Belgian coast was unacceptable . Asquith 's Liberal government was brought down in May 1915 , due in particular to a crisis in inadequate artillery shell production and the failed Gallipoli Campaign in the Dardanelles . Reluctant to give in to demands for an election , Asquith proceeded to form a new coalition government on 25 May , with the majority of the new cabinet coming from his own Liberal party and the Unionist ( Conservative ) party brought in to shore up the government . By January 1915 , 184 members of parliament were serving with the armed forces .
= = = Lloyd George as Prime Minister = = =
This coalition government lasted until 1916 , when the Unionists became dissatisfied with Asquith and the Liberals ' conduct of affairs , particularly over the Battle of the Somme . What would prove to be the last majority @-@ Liberal government collapsed as a result of the political manoeuvrings of Andrew Bonar Law ( leader of the Conservatives ) , Sir Edward Carson ( leader of the Ulster Unionists ) , and David Lloyd George ( then a minister in the cabinet ) . Law , who had few allies outside his own party , lacked sufficient support to form a new coalition ; the Liberal Lloyd George , on the other hand , enjoyed much wider support and duly formed a majority @-@ Conservative coalition government . Asquith was still the party head but he and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament .
Lloyd George immediately set about transforming the British war effort , taking firm control of both military and domestic policy . In the first 235 days of its existence , the War Cabinet met 200 times . Its creation marked the transition to a state of total war — the idea that every man , woman and child should play his or her part in the war effort . Moreover , it was decided that members of the government should be the men who controlled the war effort , primarily utilising the power they had been given under the Defence of the Realm Act . For the first time , the government could react quickly , without endless bureaucracy to tie it down , and with up @-@ to @-@ date statistics on such matters as the state of the merchant navy and farm production . The policy marked a distinct shift away from Asquith 's initial policy of laissez @-@ faire , which had been characterised by Winston Churchill 's declaration of " business as usual " in November 1914 . The success of Lloyd George 's government can also be attributed to a general lack of desire for an election , and the practical absence of dissent that this brought about .
In rapid succession in spring 1918 came a series of military and political crises . The Germans , having moved troops from the Eastern front and retrained them in new tactics , now had more soldiers on the Western Front than the Allies . On 21 March 1918 Germany launched a full scale Spring Offensive against the British and French lines , hoping for victory on the battlefield before United States troops arrived in numbers . The Allied armies fell back 40 miles in confusion , and facing defeat London realized it needed more troops to fight a mobile war . Lloyd George found half a million soldiers and rushed them to France , asked American President Woodrow Wilson for immediate help , and agreed to the appointment of the French Marshal Foch as commander in chief on the Western Front , so that Allied forces could be coordinated to handle the German offensive .
Despite strong warnings that it was a bad idea , the War Cabinet decided to impose conscription on Ireland in 1918 . The main reason was that labour in Britain demanded it as the price for cutting back on exemptions for certain workers . Labour wanted the principle established that no one was exempt , but it did not demand that conscription should actually take place in Ireland . The proposal was enacted , but never enforced . The Roman Catholic bishops for the first time entered the fray , calling for open resistance to compulsory military service , while the majority of Irish nationalists moved to supporting the intransigent Sinn Féin movement ( away from the constitutional Irish National Party ) . This proved a decisive moment , marking the end of Irish willingness to stay inside the Union .
On 7 May 1918 , a senior army officer on active duty , Major @-@ General Sir Frederick Maurice , prompted a second crisis when he went public with allegations that Lloyd George had lied to Parliament on military matters . Asquith , the Liberal leader in the House , took up the allegations and attacked Lloyd George ( also a Liberal ) . While Asquith 's presentation was poor , Lloyd George vigorously defended his position , treating the debate as a vote of confidence . He won over the House with a powerful refutation of Maurice 's allegations . The main results were to strengthen Lloyd George , weaken Asquith , end public criticism of overall strategy , and strengthen civilian control of the military . Meanwhile , the German offensive stalled and was ultimately reversed . Victory came on November 11 , 1918 .
= = = Collapse of the Liberal Party = = =
In the general election of 1918 , Lloyd George , " the Man Who Won the War " , led his coalition into another khaki election and won a sweeping victory over the Asquithian Liberals and the newly emerging Labour Party . Lloyd George and the Conservative leader Andrew Bonar Law wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates – this " coupon " , as it became known , was issued against many sitting Liberal Members of Parliament to devastating effect . Asquith and most of his Liberal colleagues lost their seats . Lloyd George still claimed to be leading a Liberal government , but he was increasingly under the influence of the rejuvenated Conservative party . The Liberal party never recovered .
= = Monarchy = =
The British Royal House faced a serious problem during the First World War because of its blood ties to the ruling family of Germany , Britain 's prime adversary in the war . Before the war , the British royal family had been known as the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . In 1910 , George V became King of the United Kingdom on the death of his father , King Edward VII , and remained king throughout the war . He was the first cousin of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II , who came to symbolise all the horrors of the war . Queen Mary , although British like her mother , was the daughter of the
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the German High Seas Fleet into an engagement . No decisive victory ever came . The Royal Navy and the German Imperial Navy did come into contact , notably in the battle of Heligoland Bight , and the battle of Jutland . In view of their inferior numbers and firepower , the Germans devised a plan to draw part of the British fleet into a trap and put it into effect at Jutland in May 1916 , but the result was inconclusive . In August 1916 , the High Seas Fleet tried a similar enticement operation and was " lucky to escape annihilation " . The lessons learned by the Royal Navy at Jutland made it a more effective force in the future .
In 1914 , the navy had also formed the 63rd ( Royal Naval ) Division from reservists , and this served extensively in the Mediterranean and on the Western Front . Almost half of the Royal Navy casualties during the War were sustained by this division , fighting on land and not at sea .
= = = British air services = = =
At the start of the war , the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , commanded by David Henderson , was sent to France and was first used for aerial spotting in September 1914 , but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on May 9 1915 . Aerial photography was attempted during 1914 , but again only became effective the next year . In 1915 Hugh Trenchard replaced Henderson and the RFC adopted an aggressive posture . By 1918 , photographic images could be taken from 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , and interpreted by over 3 @,@ 000 personnel . Planes did not carry parachutes until 1918 , though they had been available since before the war . On 17 August 1917 , General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power . Because of its potential for the ' devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale ' , he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the army and navy . The formation of the new service however would make the under utilised men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) available for action across the Western Front , as well as ending the inter @-@ service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement . On 1 April 1918 , the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) .
= = Recruitment and conscription = =
Particularly in the early stages of the war , many men , for a wide variety of reasons , decided to " join up " to the armed forces — by 5 September 1914 , over 225 @,@ 000 had signed up to fight for what became known as Kitchener 's Army . Over the course of the war , a number of factors contributed to recruitment rates , including patriotism , the work of the Parliamentary Recruiting Committee in producing posters , dwindling alternative employment opportunities , and an eagerness for adventure to escape humdrum routine . Pals battalions , where whole battalions were raised from a small geographic area or employer , also proved popular . Higher recruitment rates were seen in Wales and Scotland , though in the case of the Welsh and Irish , political tensions tended to " put something of a blight upon enlistment " .
Recruitment remained fairly steady through 1914 and early 1915 , but fell dramatically during the later years , especially after the Somme campaign , which resulted in 500 @,@ 000 casualties . As a result , conscription was introduced for the first time in January 1916 for single men , and extended in May – June to all men aged 18 to 41 across England , Wales and Scotland , by way of the Military Service Acts .
Urban centres , with their poverty and unemployment were favourite recruiting grounds of the regular British army . Dundee , where the female dominated jute industry limited male employment had one of the highest proportion of reservists and serving soldiers than almost any other British city . Concern for their families ' standard of living made men hesitate to enlist ; voluntary enlistment rates went up after the government guaranteed a weekly stipend for life to the survivors of men who were killed or disabled . After the introduction of conscription from January 1916 every part of the country was affected .
The policy of relying on volunteers had sharply reduced the capacity of heavy industry to produce the munitions needed for the war . Historian R. J. Q. Adams reports that 19 % of the men in the iron and steel industry entered the Army , 22 % of the miners , 20 % in the engineering trades , 24 % in the electrical industries , 16 % among small arms craftsmen , and 24 % of the men who had been engaged in making high explosives . In response critical industries were prioritised over the army ( " reserved occupations " ) , including munitions , food production and merchant shipping .
= = = Conscription Crisis of 1918 = = =
In April 1918 legislation was brought forward which allowed for extension of conscription to Ireland . Though this ultimately never materialised , the effect was " disastrous " . Despite significant numbers volunteering for Irish regiments , the idea of enforced conscription proved unpopular . The reaction was based particularly on the fact that implementation of conscription in Ireland was linked to a pledged " measure of self @-@ government in Ireland " . The linking of conscription and Home Rule in this way outraged the Irish parties at Westminster , who walked out in protest and returned to Ireland to organise opposition . As a result , a general strike was called , and on 23 April 1918 , work was stopped in railways , docks , factories , mills , theatres , cinemas , trams , public services , shipyards , newspapers , shops , and even official munitions factories . The strike was described as " complete and entire , an unprecedented event outside the continental countries " . Ultimately the effect was a total loss of interest in Home Rule and of popular support for the nationalist Irish Party who were defeated outright by the separatist republican Sinn Féin party in the December 1918 Irish general election , one of the precursors of the Anglo @-@ Irish War .
= = = Conscientious objectors = = =
The conscription legislation introduced the right to refuse military service , allowing for conscientious objectors to be absolutely exempted , to perform alternative civilian service , or to serve as a non @-@ combatant in the army , according to the extent to which they could convince a Military Service Tribunal of the quality of their objection . Around 16 @,@ 500 men were recorded as conscientious objectors , with Quakers playing a large role . 4 @,@ 500 objectors were sent to work on farms to undertake " work of national importance " , 7 @,@ 000 were ordered non @-@ combatant duties as stretcher bearers , but 6 @,@ 000 were forced into the army , and when they refused orders , they were sent to prison , as in the case of the Richmond Sixteen . Some 843 conscientious objectors spent more than two years in prison ; ten died while there , seventeen were initially given the death penalty ( but received life imprisonment ) and 142 were imprisoned on life sentences . Conscientious objectors who were deemed not to have made any useful contribution were disenfranchised for five years after the war .
= = Naval and air raids = =
At the start of the First World War , for the first time since the Napoleonic Wars , the population of the British Isles was in danger of attack from naval raids . The country also came under attack from air raids by zeppelins and fixed @-@ wing aircraft , another first .
= = = Naval raids = = =
The Raid on Yarmouth , which took place in November 1914 , was an attack by the German Navy on the British North Sea port and town of Great Yarmouth . Little damage was done to the town itself , since shells only landed on the beach once German ships laying mines offshore were interrupted by British destroyers . One British submarine was sunk by a mine as it attempted to leave harbour and attack the German ships , while one German armoured cruiser was sunk after striking two mines outside its own home port .
In December 1914 , the German navy carried out attacks on the British coastal towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby . The attack resulted in 137 fatalities and 593 casualties , many of which were civilians . The attack made the German navy very unpopular with the British public , as an attack against British civilians in their homes . Likewise , the British Royal Navy was criticised for failing to prevent the raid .
= = = Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft = = =
In April 1916 a German battlecruiser squadron with accompanying cruisers and destroyers bombarded the coastal ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft . Although the ports had some military importance , the main aim of the raid was to entice out defending ships which could then be picked off either by the battlecruiser squadron or by the full High Seas Fleet , which was stationed at sea ready to intervene if an opportunity presented itself . The result was inconclusive : nearby Royal Navy units were too small to intervene so largely kept clear of the German battlecruisers , and the German ships withdrew before the first British fast response battlecruiser squadron or the Grand Fleet could arrive .
= = = Air raids = = =
German zeppelins bombed towns on the east coast , starting on 19 January 1915 with Great Yarmouth . London was also hit later in the same year , on 31 May . Propaganda supporting the British war effort often used these raids to their advantage : one recruitment poster claimed : " It is far better to face the bullets than to be killed at home by a bomb " ( see image ) . The reaction from the public , however , was mixed ; whilst 10 @,@ 000 visited Scarborough to view the damage there , London theatres reported having fewer visitors during periods of " Zeppelin weather " — dark , fine nights .
Throughout 1917 Germany began to deploy increasing numbers of fixed @-@ wing bombers , the Gotha G.IV 's first target being Folkestone on 25 May 1917 , following this attack the number of airship raids decreased rapidly in favour of raids by fixed wing aircraft , before Zeppelin raids were called off entirely . In total , Zeppelins dropped 6 @,@ 000 bombs , resulting in 556 dead and 1 @,@ 357 wounded . Soon after the raid on Folkestone , the bombers began raids on London : one daylight raid on 13 June 1917 by 14 Gothas caused 162 deaths in the East End of London . In response to this new threat , Major General Edward Bailey Ashmore , a RFC pilot who later commanded an artillery division in Belgium , was appointed to devise an improved system of detection , communication and control , The system , called the Metropolitan Observation Service , encompassed the London Air Defence Area and would later extend eastwards towards the Kentish and Essex coasts . The Metropolitan Observation Service was fully operational until the late summer of 1918 ( the last German bombing raid taking place on 19 May 1918 ) . During the war , the Germans carried out 51 airship raids and 52 fixed @-@ wing bomber raids on the United Kingdom , which together dropped 280 tons of bombs . The casualties amounted to 1 @,@ 413 killed , and 3 @,@ 409 wounded . The success of anti @-@ air defence measures was limited ; of the 397 aircraft that had taken part in raids , only 24 Gothas were shot down ( though 37 more were lost in accidents ) , despite an estimated rate of 14 @,@ 540 anti @-@ air rounds per aircraft . Anti @-@ zeppelin defences were more successful , with 17 shot down and 21 lost in accidents .
= = Media = =
= = = Propaganda = = =
Propaganda and censorship were closely linked during the war . The need to maintain morale and counter German propaganda was recognised early in the war and the War Propaganda Bureau was established under the leadership of Charles Masterman in September 1914 . The Bureau enlisted eminent writers such as H G Wells , Arthur Conan Doyle , Rudyard Kipling as well as newspaper editors . By the summer of 1915 , the Bureau had printed over 2 @.@ 5 million books , speeches , official documents and pamphlets . Masterman also commissioned films about the war such as The Battle of the Somme , which appeared in August 1916 , while the battle was still in progress as a morale @-@ booster and in general it met with a favourable reception . The Times reported on 22 August 1916 that " Crowded audiences ... were interested and thrilled to have the realities of war brought so vividly before them , and if women had sometimes to shut their eyes to escape for a moment from the tragedy of the toll of battle which the film presents , opinion seems to be general that it was wise that the people at home should have this glimpse of what our soldiers are doing and daring and suffering in Picardy " .
= = = Newspapers = = =
Newspapers during the war were subject to the Defence of the Realm Act , which eventually had two regulations restricting what they could publish : Regulation 18 , which prohibited the leakage of sensitive military information , troop and shipping movements ; and Regulation 27 , which made it an offence to " spread false reports " , " spread reports that were likely to prejudice recruiting " , " undermine public confidence in banks or currency " or cause " disaffection to His Majesty " . Where the official Press Bureau failed ( it had no statutory powers until April 1916 ) , the newspaper editors and owners operated a ruthless self @-@ censorship . Having worked for government , press barons Viscount Rothermere , Baron Beaverbrook ( in a sea of controversy ) , and Viscount Northcliffe all received titles . For these reasons , it has been concluded that censorship , which at its height suppressed only socialist journals ( and briefly the right wing The Globe ) had less effect on the British press than the reductions in advertising revenues and cost increases which they also faced during the war . One major loophole in the official censorship lay with parliamentary privilege , when anything said in Parliament could be reported freely . The most infamous act of censorship in the early days of the war was the sinking of HMS Audacious in October 1914 , when the press was directed not to report on the loss , despite the sinking being observed by passengers on the liner RMS Olympic and quickly reported in the American press .
The most popular papers of the period included dailies such as The Times , The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post , weekly newspapers such as The Graphic and periodicals like John Bull , which claimed a weekly circulation of 900 @,@ 000 . The public demand for news of the war was reflected in the increased sales of newspapers . After the German Navy raid on Hartlepool and Scarborough , the Daily Mail devoted three full pages to the raid and the Evening News reported that The Times had sold out by a quarter past nine in the morning , even with inflated prices . The Daily Mail itself increased in circulation from 800 @,@ 000 a day in 1914 to 1 @.@ 5 million by 1916 .
= = = News magazines = = =
The public 's thirst for news and information was in part satisfied by news magazines , which were dedicated to reporting the war . They included amongst others The War Illustrated , The Illustrated War News , and The War Pictorial , and were lavishly filled with photographs and illustrations , regardless of their target audience . Magazines were produced for all classes , and ranged both in price and tone . Many otherwise famous writers contributed towards these publications , of which H.G. Wells , Arthur Conan Doyle and Rudyard Kipling were three examples . Editorial guidelines varied ; in cheaper publications especially it was considered more important to create a sense of patriotism than to relay up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minutes news of developments of the front . Stories of German atrocities were commonplace .
= = = Music = = =
On 13 August 1914 , the Irish regiment the Connaught Rangers were witnessed singing " It 's a Long Way to Tipperary " as they marched through Boulogne by the Daily Mail correspondent George Curnock , who reported the event in that newspaper on 18 August 1914 . The song was then picked up by other units of the British Army . In November 1914 , it was sung in a pantomime by the well @-@ known music hall singer Florrie Forde , which helped contribute to its worldwide popularity . Another song from 1916 , which became very popular as a music hall and marching song , boosting British morale despite the horrors of that war , was " Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit @-@ Bag " .
= = = War poets = = =
There was also a notable group of war poets who wrote about their own experiences of war , which caught the public attention . Some died on active service , most famously Rupert Brooke , Isaac Rosenberg , and Wilfred Owen , while some , such as Siegfried Sassoon survived . Themes of the poems included the youth ( or naivety ) of the soldiers , and the dignified manner in which they fought and died . This is evident in lines such as " They fell with their faces to the foe " , from the " Ode of Remembrance " taken from Laurence Binyon 's For the Fallen , which was first published in The Times in September 1914 . Female poets such as Vera Brittain also wrote from the home front , to lament the losses of brothers and lovers fighting on the front .
= = Economy = =
On the whole the British successfully managed the economics of the war . There had been no prewar plan for mobilization of economic resources . Controls were imposed slowly , as one urgent need followed another . With the City of London the world 's financial capital , it was possible to handle finances smoothly ; in all Britain spent 4 million pounds everyday on the war effort .
The economy ( in terms of GDP ) grew about 14 % from 1914 to 1918 despite the absence of so many men in the services ; by contrast the German economy shrank 27 % . The War saw a decline of civilian consumption , with a major reallocation to munitions . The government share of GDP soared from 8 % in 1913 to 38 % in 1918 ( compared to 50 % in 1943 ) . The war forced Britain to use up its financial reserves and borrow large sums from the U.S. Shipments of American raw materials and food allowed Britain to feed itself and its army while maintaining his productivity . The financing was generally successful , as the City 's strong financial position minimized the damaging effects of inflation , as opposed to much worse conditions in Germany . Overall consumer consumption declined 18 % from 1914 to 1919 . Trade unions were encouraged as membership grew from 4 @.@ 1 million in 1914 to 6 @.@ 5 million in 1918 , peaking at 8 @.@ 3 million in 1920 before relapsing to 5 @.@ 4 million in 1923 . In Scotland , the shipbuilding industry expanding by a third . The trade unions enthusiastically supported the war , apart from the coal miners who were much less enthusiastic .
Women were available and many entered munitions factories and took other home front jobs vacated by men .
= = = Rationing = = =
In line with its " business as usual " policy , the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets . It fought off efforts to try to introduce minimum prices in cereal production , though relenting in the area of controlling of essential imports ( sugar , meat and grains ) . When it did introduce changes , they were only limited in their effect . In 1916 , it became illegal to consume more than two courses whilst lunching in a public eating place or more than three for dinner ; fines were introduced for members of the public found feeding the pigeons or stray animals .
In January 1917 , Germany started using U @-@ boats ( submarines ) in order to sink Allied and later neutral ships bringing food to the country in an attempt to starve Britain into surrender under their unrestricted submarine warfare programme . One response to this threat was to introduce voluntary rationing in February 1917 , a scheme said to have been endorsed by the king and queen themselves . Bread was subsidised from September that year ; prompted by local authorities taking matters into their own hands , compulsory rationing was introduced in stages between December 1917 and February 1918 , as Britain 's supply of wheat stores decreased to just six weeks worth . It is said to have in the most part benefited the health of the country , through the ' levelling of consumption of essential foodstuffs ' . To assist with rationing , ration books were introduced on 15 July 1918 for butter , margarine , lard , meat , and sugar . During the war , average calories intake decreased only three percent , but protein intake six percent .
= = = Industry = = =
Total British production fell by ten percent over the course of the war ; there were , however , increases in certain industries such as steel . Although Britain faced a controversial shell shortage , this has been attributed to extraordinary orders placed by the government at the outbreak of war ( without concern for the capacity of its industry ) , rather than inefficient production . In 1915 , the Ministry of Munitions under David Lloyd @-@ George was formed to control munitions production and had considerable success . By April 1915 , just two million rounds of shells had been sent to France ; by the end of the war the figure had reached 187 million , and a year 's worth of pre @-@ war production of light munitions could be completed in just four days by 1918 . Aircraft production in 1914 provided employment for 60 @,@ 000 men and women ; by 1918 British firms employed over 347 @,@ 000 .
= = = Labour = = =
Industrial production of munitions was a central feature of the war , and with a third of the men in the labour force moved into the military , demand was very high for industrial labour . Large numbers of women were employed temporarily . Trade unions gave strong support to the war effort , cutting back on strikes and restrictive practices . Membership doubled from 4 @.@ 1 million in 1914 , 28 @.@ 3 million in 1920 . 65 percent of union members had been associated with the Trades Union Congress ( TUC ) In 1914 , rising to 77 percent in 1920 . Labour 's prestige had never been higher , and it systematically placed its leaders into Parliament .
The Munitions of War Act 1915 followed the Shell Crisis of 1915 when supplies of material to the front became a political issue . The Act forbade strikes and lockouts and replaced them with compulsory arbitration . It set up a system of controlling war industries , and established munitions tribunals that were special courts to enforce good working practices . It suspended , for the duration , restrictive practices by trade unions . It tried to control labour mobility between jobs . The courts ruled the definition of munitions was broad enough to include textile workers and dock workers . 1915 act was repealed in 1919 , but similar legislation took effect during the Second World War .
It was only as late as December 1917 that a War Cabinet Committee on Manpower was established , and the British government refrained from introducing compulsory labour direction ( though 388 men were moved as part of the voluntary National Service Scheme ) . Belgian refugees became workers , though they were often seen as " job stealers " . Likewise , the use of Irish workers , because they were exempt from conscription , was another source of resentment . Worried about the impact of the dilution of labour caused by bringing external groups into the main labour pool , workers in some areas turned to strike action . The efficiency of major industries improved markedly during the war . For example , the Singer Clydebank sewing machine factory received over 5000 government contracts , and made 303 million artillery shells , shell components , fuzes , and airplane parts , as well as grenades , rifle parts , and 361 @,@ 000 horseshoes . Its labour force of 14 @,@ 000 was about 70 percent female at war 's end .
= = = Energy = = =
Energy was a critical factor for the British war effort . Most of the energy supplies came from coal mines in Britain , where the issue was labour supply . Critical however was the flow of oil for ships , lorries and industrial use . There were no oil wells in Britain so everything was imported . The U.S. pumped two @-@ thirds of the world 's oil . In 1917 , total British consumption was 827 million barrels , of which 85 percent was supplied by the United States , and 6 percent by Mexico . The great issue in 1917 was how many tankers would survive the German u @-@ boats . Convoys and the construction of new tankers solved the German threat , while tight government controls guaranteed that all essential needs were covered . An Inter @-@ Allied Petroleum Conference allocated American supplies to Britain , France and Italy .
Fuel oil for the Royal Navy was the highest priority . In 1917 , the Royal Navy consumed 12 @,@ 500 tons a month , but had a supply of 30 @,@ 000 tons a month from British Petroleum , using BPs oil wells in Persia .
= = Social change = =
Variously throughout the war , serious shortage of able @-@ bodied men ( " manpower " ) occurred in the country , and women were required to take on many of the traditional male roles , particularly in the area of arms manufacture ; though this was only significant in the later years of the war , since unemployed men were often prioritised by employers . Women both found work in the munitions factories ( as " munitionettes " ) despite initial trade union opposition , which directly helped the war effort , but also in the Civil Service , where they took men 's jobs , releasing them for the front . The number of women employed by the service increased from 33 @,@ 000 in 1911 to over 102 @,@ 000 by 1921 . The overall increase in female employment is estimated at 1 @.@ 4 million , from 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 3 million , and female trade union membership increased from 357 @,@ 000 in 1914 to over a million by 1918 — an increase of 160 percent . Beckett suggests that most of these were working class women going into work at a younger age than they would otherwise have done , or married women returning to work . This taken together with the fact that only 23 percent of women in the munitions industry were actually doing men 's jobs , would limit substantially the overall impact of the war on the long @-@ term prospects of the working woman .
When the government targeted women early in the war focussed on extending their existing roles – helping with Belgian refugees , for example — but also on improving recruitment rates amongst men . They did this both through the so @-@ called " Order of the White Feather " and through the promise of home comforts for the men while they were at the front . In February 1916 , groups were set up and a campaign started to get women to help in agriculture and in March 1917 , the Women 's Land Army was set up . One goal was to attract middle @-@ class women who would act as models for patriotic engagement in nontraditional duties . However the uniform of the Women 's Land Army included male overalls and trousers , which sparked debate on the propriety of such cross @-@ dressing . The government responded with rhetoric that explicitly feminized the new roles . In 1918 , the Board of Trade estimated that there were 148 @,@ 000 women in agricultural employment , though a figure of nearly 260 @,@ 000 has also been suggested .
The war also caused a split in the British suffragette movement , with the mainstream , represented by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel 's Women 's Social and Political Union , calling a ' ceasefire ' in their campaign for the duration of the war . In contrast , more radical suffragettes , like the Women 's Suffrage Federation run by Emmeline 's other daughter , Sylvia , continued their ( at times violent ) struggle . Women were also allowed to join the armed forces in a non @-@ combatant role and by the end of the War 80 @,@ 000 women had joined the armed forces in auxiliary roles such as nursing and cooking .
Following the war , millions of returning soldiers were still not entitled to vote . This posed another dilemma for politicians since they could be seen to be withholding the vote from the very men who had just fought to preserve the British democratic political system . The Representation of the People Act 1918 attempted to solve the problem , enfranchising all adult males as long as they were over 21 years old and were resident householders . It also gave the vote to women over 30 who met minimum property qualifications . The enfranchisement of this latter group was accepted as recognition of the contribution made by women defence workers , though the actual feelings of members of parliament ( MPs ) at the time is questioned . In the same year the Parliament ( Qualification of Women ) Act 1918 allowed women over 21 to stand as MPs .
The new coalition government of 1918 charged itself with the task of creating a " land fit for heroes " , from a speech given in Wolverhampton by David Lloyd George on 23 November 1918 , where he stated " What is our task ? To make Britain a fit country for heroes to live in . " More generally , the war has been credited , both during and after the conflict , with removing some of the social barriers that had pervaded Victorian and Edwardian Britain .
= = Regional conditions = =
The War had a profound influence upon rural areas , as the U @-@ boat blockade required the government to take full control of the food chain , as well as agricultural labour . Cereal production was a high priority , and the Corn Production Act 1917 guaranteed prices , regulated wage rates , and required farmers to meet efficiency standards . The government campaigned heavily for turning marginal land into cropland . The Women 's Land Army brought in 23 @,@ 000 young women from the towns and cities to milk cows , pick fruit and otherwise replace the men who joined the services . More extensive use of tractors and machinery also replaced farm labourers . However , there was a shortage of both men and horses on the land by late 1915 . County War Agricultural Executive Committees reported that the continued removal of men was undercutting food production because of the farmers ' belief that operating a farm required a set number of men and horses .
Kenneth Morgan argues that , ' the overwhelming mass of the Welsh people cast aside their political and industrial divisions and threw themselves into the war with gusto . " Intellectuals and ministers actively promoted the war spirit . With 280 @,@ 000 men enrolled in the services ( 14 % of the population ) , the proportionate effort in Wales outstripped both England and Scotland . However Adrian Gregory points out that the Welsh coal miners , while officially supporting the war effort , refused the government request to cut short their vacation time . After some debate , the miners agreed to extend the working day .
Scotland 's distinctive characteristics have attracted significant attention from scholars . Unlike England , Scotland specialized in providing manpower , ships , machinery , food ( particularly fish ) and money . Daniel shows it supported the war effort with widespread enthusiasm .
= = Casualties = =
In the post war publication Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914 – 1920 ( The War Office , March 1922 ) , the official report lists 908 @,@ 371 ' soldiers ' as being either killed in action , dying of wounds , dying as prisoners of war or missing in action in the World War . ( This is broken down into the United Kingdom and its colonies 704 @,@ 121 ; British India 64 @,@ 449 ; Canada 56 @,@ 639 ; Australia 59 @,@ 330 ; New Zealand 16 @,@ 711 ; South Africa 7 @,@ 121 . ) Listed separately were the Royal Navy ( including the Royal Naval Air Service until 31 March 1918 ) war dead and missing of 32 @,@ 287 and the Merchant Navy war dead of 14 @,@ 661 . The figures for the Royal Flying Corps and the nascent Royal Air Force were not given in the War Office report .
A second publication , Casualties and Medical Statistics ( 1931 ) , the final volume of the Official Medical History of the War , gives British Empire Army losses by cause of death . The total losses in combat from 1914 to 1918 were 876 @,@ 084 , which included 418 @,@ 361 killed , 167 @,@ 172 died of wounds , 113 @,@ 173 died of disease or injury , 161 @,@ 046 missing presumed dead and 16 @,@ 332 died as a prisoner of war .
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists 888 @,@ 246 war dead from the UK and colonies ( excluding the dominions , which are listed separately ) . This figure includes identified burials and those commemorated by name on memorials ; there are an additional 187 @,@ 644 unidentified burials from the Commonwealth ( then Empire ) as a whole .
The civilian death rate exceeded the prewar level by 292 @,@ 000 , which included 109 @,@ 000 deaths due to food shortages and 183 @,@ 577 from Spanish Flu . The 1922 War Office report detailed the deaths of 1 @,@ 260 civilians and 310 military personnel due to air and sea bombardment of the United Kingdom . Losses at sea were 908 United Kingdom civilians and 63 fisherman killed by U @-@ boat attacks .
With a population of 4 @.@ 8 million in 1911 , Scotland sent 690 @,@ 000 men to the war , of whom 74 @,@ 000 died in combat or from disease , and 150 @,@ 000 were seriously wounded . At times Scottish troops made up large proportions of the active combatants , and suffered corresponding loses , as at the Battle of Loos , where there were three full Scots divisions and other Scottish units . Thus , although Scots were only 10 per cent of the British population , they made up 15 per cent of the national armed forces and eventually accounted for 20 per cent of the dead . Some areas , like the thinly populated Island of Lewis and Harris suffered some of the highest proportional losses of any part of Britain . Clydeside shipyards and the engineering shops of west @-@ central Scotland became the most significant centre of shipbuilding and arms production in the Empire . In the Lowlands , particularly Glasgow , poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest .
= = Legacy and memory = =
The horrors of the Western Front as well as Gallipoli and Mesopotamia were seared into the collective consciousness of the twentieth century . To a large extent the understanding of the war in popular culture focused on the first day of the Battle of the Somme . Historian A.J.P. Taylor argued , " The Somme set the picture by which future generations saw the First World War : brave helpless soldiers ; blundering obstinate generals ; nothing achieved . "
Images of trench warfare became iconic symbols of human suffering and endurance . The post @-@ war world had many veterans who were maimed or damaged by shell shock . In 1921 1 @,@ 187 @,@ 450 men were in receipt of pensions for war disabilities , with a fifth of these having suffered serious loss of limbs or eyesight , paralysis or lunacy .
The war was a major economic catastrophe as Britain went from being the world 's largest overseas investor to being its biggest debtor , with interest payments consuming around 40 percent of the national budget . Inflation more than doubled between 1914 and its peak in 1920 , while the value of the Pound Sterling fell by 61 @.@ 2 percent . Reparations in the form of free German coal depressed the local industry , precipitating the 1926 General Strike . During the war British private investments abroad were sold , raising £ 550 million . However , £ 250 million new investment also took place during the war . The net financial loss was therefore approximately £ 300 million ; less than two years investment compared to the pre @-@ war average rate and more than replaced by 1928 . Material loss was " slight " : the most significant being 40 percent of the British merchant fleet sunk by German U @-@ boats . Most of this was replaced in 1918 and all immediately after the war . The military historian Correlli Barnett has argued that " in objective truth the Great War in no way inflicted crippling economic damage on Britain " but that the war only " crippled the British psychologically " ( emphasis in original ) .
Less concrete changes include the growing assertiveness of the Dominions within the British Empire . Battles such as Gallipoli for Australia and New Zealand , and Vimy Ridge for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to remain subordinate to the United Kingdom . These battles were often portrayed favourably in these nations ' propaganda as symbolic of their power during the war . The war released pent @-@ up indigenous nationalism , as populations tried to take advantage of the precedent set by the introduction of self @-@ determination in eastern Europe . Britain was to face unrest in Ireland ( 1919 – 21 ) , India ( 1919 ) , Egypt ( 1919 – 23 ) , Palestine ( 1920 – 21 ) and Iraq ( 1920 ) at a time when they were supposed to be demilitarising . Nevertheless , Britain 's only territorial loss came in Ireland , where the delay in finding a resolution to the home rule issue , along with the 1916 Easter Rising and a failed attempt to introduce conscription in Ireland , increased support for separatist radicals , and led indirectly to the outbreak of the Irish War of Independence in 1919 .
Further change came in 1919 . With the Treaty of Versailles , London took charge of an additional 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square miles ( 4 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 km2 ) and 13 million new subjects . The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers ( and to Australia , New Zealand and South Africa ) as League of Nations mandates , with the United Kingdom at least gaining control of Palestine and Transjordan , Iraq , parts of Cameroon and Togo , and Tanganyika . Indeed , the British Empire reached its territorial peak after the settlement .
= Siege of Krujë ( 1450 ) =
The first Siege of Krujë occurred in 1450 when an Ottoman army of approximately 100 @,@ 000 men laid siege to the Albanian town of Krujë . The League of Lezhë , led by Skanderbeg , experienced low morale after losing Svetigrad and Berat between 1448 and 1450 . Nevertheless , Skanderbeg 's exhortations and the support of the clergy , who claimed to have had visions of angels and victory , motivated the Albanians to defend the capital of the League , Krujë , at all costs . After leaving a protective garrison of 4 @,@ 000 men under his trusted lieutenant Vrana Konti ( also known as Kont Urani ) , Skanderbeg harassed the Ottoman camps around Krujë and attacked the supply caravans of Sultan Murad II 's army . By September the Ottoman camp was in disarray as morale sank and disease ran rampant . The Ottoman army acknowledged that the castle of Krujë would not fall by strength of arms , lifted the siege , and made its way to Edirne . Soon thereafter , in the winter of 1450 – 51 , Murad died in Edirne and was succeeded by his son , Mehmed II .
= = Campaigns of 1448 and early 1450 = =
After several failed invasions of Albania by Ottoman captains , Murad II laid siege to the fortress of Svetigrad ( which is thought to be today 's Demir Hisar ) on May 14 , 1448 , with a force of 80 @,@ 000 men . Svetigrad was an important strategic point , since it controlled the routes from Macedonia into Albania . The small garrison , composed of Albanians , Bulgarians , and other Europeans , held the fortress while Scanderbeg attacked the Ottoman camp from outside . After the Ottomans poisoned the wells , a group of defenders decided to open the gates and let the Turks in , thus giving control of the fortress to the Ottomans . The Sultan retired from Albania and Skanderbeg laid siege to Svetigrad on September 23 , 1448 . After several failed assaults , Skanderbeg lifted the siege and retreated . In early 1450 , Berat was captured by the pasha of Gjirokastër through a night attack , causing Gjergj Arianit to desert Skandebeg 's cause .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Albanian morale before the siege = = =
The morale of the Albanians sank after the losses in the previous years . When the Turks began marching towards Krujë on April 5 , 1450 , the people claimed to have seen cherubims and angels flying over Albania . Skanderbeg himself claimed that he had received a vision of St. George handing him a flaming sword to " destroy the enemies of true religion ( Christianity ) . " This speech , along with many other visions of the clergy , raised Albanians ' morale , motivating them to fight .
= = = Albanian dispositions and preparations = = =
Before the siege began , Skanderbeg exited Krujë with 8 @,@ 000 men — among whom were many Slavs , Italians , Frenchmen and Germans . 2 @,@ 000 of these were infantry and 6 @,@ 000 were cavalry . Skanderbeg found Mount Tumenishta ( now known as Mount Skënderbeu ) to be a suitable position from which to attack the Ottomans . Krujë was left with a garrison of 4 @,@ 000 men under the command of Vrana Konti . Vrana had under his command several Germans , Italians , and Frenchmen , to whom he emphasized the importance of the siege and also ordered them to their positions . Krujë had enough supplies for a sixteen @-@ month siege . The women and children of Krujë were sent for protection to Venetian possessed cities , whereas the others were ordered to burn their crops and move into the mountains and fortresses .
= = = Ottoman dispositions and preparations = = =
Murad reached Krujë on May 14 with approximately 100 @,@ 000 of his best soldiers ( 60 @,@ 000 of which was cavalry ) . Murad proposed to Vrana that he should hand over the fortress , but Vrana refused . After receiving the refusal , Murad set his army to cast ten cannons , one of which could fire rocks weighing 400 pounds and another 200 pounds . Despite the firepower , the Turkish firing positions were at a disadvantage , since Krujë " was almost part of the mountain which it had been built . " The cannons could fire two or three times a day and were not accurate . Two large and four smaller guns were placed on the Tirana side , and the remainder were aimed at the main gateway .
= = Siege = =
= = = First phase = = =
Murad fired on Krujë for four days until a breach was finally made . The Sultan believed that he had the advantage and ordered his troops through the walls . The garrison managed to push the assault back , thus gaining time to repair the walls . Murad , fearing a counterattack from Skanderbeg , sent a scouting patrol towards the surrounding mountains to watch for an attack . Skanderbeg still managed to lead , at dusk , a raid on the Turkish encampment , killing several hundred men , capturing and destroying Turkish supplies , and almost losing his own life . When Skanderbeg returned to his men , his " shield was so battered that its shape was scarce to be discerned . " The raid cost Skanderbeg ten dead and even more wounded . The assault continued however , with the guns sounding from time to time . The defenders were not facing great difficulty , however . Sixty of them sallied forth to do whatever damage they could , and those at the walls repelled all attempts to enter . The main weight of the attack had come from the Tirana side , where the Turkish losses had been heavy .
= = = Second phase = = =
When the second assault began , the Turks tried to break through the gate with their lances . After heavy casualties , the attackers retreated and Murad held for the next two days a council of all his generals . An immediate precaution was to guard the camp against another surprise attack , which was responded to by placing a force of men , under the command of Prince Mehmed , where the first attack had taken place . Moisi Arianit Golemi feigned an attack with about 500 horsemen : the alarm was given and the Turks prepared for his attack . Meanwhile , Skanderbeg and his forces moved around the camp and broke in where least expected . Before an organized counterattack could be made , Skanderbeg retreated from the camp . The attacks made by Skanderbeg caused the Turks to aim some of their cannons towards the expected guerrilla forces , instead of the fortress . A large force of Turkish cavalry was sent out , which Skanderbeg followed up to the mouth of the Ishëm River , until they turned back to Krujë .
While Skanderbeg had been away , a large Ottoman assault was made on Krujë from the Tirana side , but inadvertent friendly fire from the Turks forced them to call off the assault . The Ottomans then attempted to mine the fortress , but could not succeed , since the fortress had been built on rock . Since the food supplies were beginning to run out , the Turks received provisions from Venice , as did the Albanians . The Turkish attacks had made no headway and the Ottoman army had lost many dead or wounded , whereas Skanderbeg 's force had lost 1 @,@ 000 men thus far . Moisi Golemi and Tanush Thopia raised a couple thousand more and the force was split between the three , making attacks on the Turkish camp easier . Skanderbeg began to move towards the camp as the Turks had assembled 8 @,@ 000 men which began to move towards him . Skanderbeg slowly retired , while Moisi and Tanush broke into the camp . The Turkish force sent against Skanderbeg was lured towards the foothills and the next morning ( July 25 ) they were surrounded and completely destroyed . The next day , Skanderbeg was seen above the rocks of Krujë , in conference with Vrana Konti , surprising Murad .
= = = Final phase = = =
After Vrana had returned to the castle , a pasha was chosen to have a conference with Vrana bringing him many rich presents . The pasha tried to convince the count that Murad would be a more suitable master than Skanderbeg was , and that the siege was almost over , but Vrana refused to surrender . As a result , a fresh Ottoman assault began . Meanwhile , Murad sent an envoy trying to convince Skanderbeg to capitulate by offering 10 @,@ 000 crowns annually . Skanderbeg also refused replying : " Nay if Murad did divide with me and make me co @-@ partner with all his empire , I would never suffer the name of Albania to be stained and blemished with this blot of disgrace and infamy . " The assault continued , and the Albanian positions seemed desperate . On October 14 , Skanderbeg offered Krujë to the Venetians , threatening to capitulate the fortress to the Turks if they did not accept it . After Murad lifted the siege on October 26 , because of the arriving winter , the Venetians replied to Skanderbeg 's offer rejecting it and offered to help Skanderbeg to harmonize his relationship with Ottomans .
= = Aftermath = =
The siege cost 20 @,@ 000 Ottoman casualties and over 1 @,@ 000 Albanian casualties . Marin Barleti claims that Murad died of disease under the fortress of Krujë , but Murad in fact died in Edirne in 1451 . Murad began to retire from Albania out of fear of losing even more men from the Albanian winter , however the retreat itself caused the loss of thousands of Ottoman troops due to attacks from local Albanian militias . Skanderbeg was at the end of his resources . He travelled to Ragusa , urging for assistance , and the Ragusans informed Pope Nicholas V. Through financial assistance , Skanderbeg managed to hold Krujë and regain much of his territory . Skanderbeg 's success brought praise from all over Europe and ambassadors were sent to him from Rome , Naples , Hungary , and Burgundy . Skanderbeg then became a vassal of Alfonso V , on March 26 , 1451 , by the Treaty of Gaeta , gaining much needed men and supplies from the crown of Aragon .
According to legend , one night during the siege Skanderbeg sent out a herd of goats with a candle on each of the goats ' horns . The encamped Turks believed it to be an Albanian attack and made a movement against the herd . When the Turks advanced far enough , Skanderbeg launched an attack against the force , destroying it . After the siege was lifted , Skanderbeg commemorated his victory by designing a helmet with the head of a goat on it , as a reference to his " ingenious tactics " used that night .
= = Popular culture and legacy = =
Naim Frashëri , a prominent Albanian poet , wrote of how the siege of Krujë had saved Europe from Ottoman invasion . Today , Albanians take pride in the actions performed during the siege . The Skanderbeg Museum , in Krujë , has many commemorations to the siege and the film Skënderbeu ( 1953 ) stages the siege . It is the setting of the novel The Siege by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare .
= J. K. Rowling =
Joanne " Jo " Rowling , OBE , FRSL ( / ˈroʊlɪŋ / ; born 31 July 1965 ) , pen names J. K. Rowling and Robert Galbraith , is a British novelist , screenwriter and film producer best known as the author of the Harry Potter fantasy series . The books have gained worldwide attention , won multiple awards , and sold more than 400 million copies . They have become the best @-@ selling book series in history and been the basis for a series of films which is the second highest @-@ grossing film series in history . Rowling had overall approval on the scripts and maintained creative control by serving as a producer on the final instalment .
Born in Yate , Gloucestershire , England , Rowling was working as a researcher and bilingual secretary for Amnesty International when she conceived the idea for the Harry Potter series while on a delayed train from Manchester to London in 1990 . The seven @-@ year period that followed saw the death of her mother , birth of her first child , divorce from her first husband and relative poverty until she finished the first novel in the series , Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , in 1997 . There were six sequels , the last , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , in 2007 . Since then , Rowling has written four books for adult readers , The Casual Vacancy ( 2012 ) and — under the pseudonym Robert Galbraith — the crime fiction novels The Cuckoo 's Calling ( 2013 ) , The Silkworm ( 2014 ) and Career of Evil ( 2015 ) .
Rowling has lived a " rags to riches " life story , in which she progressed from living on state benefits to multi @-@ millionaire status within five years . She is the United Kingdom 's best @-@ selling living author , with sales in excess of £ 238m . The 2008 Sunday Times Rich List estimated Rowling 's fortune at £ 560 million , ranking her as the twelfth richest woman in the United Kingdom . Forbes ranked Rowling as the 48th most powerful celebrity of 2007 , and Time magazine named her as a runner @-@ up for its 2007 Person of the Year , noting the social , moral , and political inspiration she has given her fans . In October 2010 , Rowling was named the " Most Influential Woman in Britain " by leading magazine editors . She has supported charities including Comic Relief , One Parent Families , Multiple Sclerosis Society of Great Britain and Lumos ( formerly the Children 's High Level Group ) .
= = Name = =
Although she writes under the pen name " J. K. Rowling " ( pronounced rolling ) , her name , before her remarriage , was simply " Joanne Rowling " . Anticipating that the target audience of young boys might not want to read a book written by a woman , her publishers asked that she use two initials rather than her full name . As she had no middle name , she chose K ( for " Kathleen " ) as the second initial of her pen name , from her paternal grandmother . She calls herself " Jo " . Following her marriage , she has sometimes used the name Joanne Murray when conducting personal business . During the Leveson Inquiry she gave evidence under the name of Joanne Kathleen Rowling and her entry in Who 's Who lists her name as Joanne Kathleen Rowling .
= = Biography = =
= = = Birth and family = = =
Rowling was born to Peter James Rowling , a Rolls @-@ Royce aircraft engineer , and Anne Rowling ( née Volant ) , a science technician , on 31 July 1965 in Yate , Gloucestershire , England , 10 miles ( 16 km ) northeast of Bristol . Her parents first met on a train departing from King 's Cross Station bound for Arbroath in 1964 . They married on 14 March 1965 . One of her maternal great @-@ grandfathers , Dugald Campbell , was Scottish , born in Lamlash on the Isle of Arran . Her mother 's paternal grandfather , Louis Volant , was French , and was awarded the Croix de Guerre for exceptional bravery in defending the village of Courcelles @-@ le @-@ Comte during the First World War . Rowling originally believed he had won the Légion d 'honneur during the war , as she said when she received it herself in 2009 . She later discovered the truth when featured in an episode of the UK genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are ? , in which she found out it was a different Louis Volant who won the Legion of Honour . When she heard his story of bravery and discovered the croix de guerre was for " ordinary " soldiers like her grandfather , who had been a waiter , she stated the croix de guerre was " better " to her than the Legion of Honour .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Rowling 's sister Dianne was born at their home when Rowling was 23 months old . The family moved to the nearby village Winterbourne when Rowling was four . She attended St Michael 's Primary School , a school founded by abolitionist William Wilberforce and education reformer Hannah More . Her headmaster at St Michael 's , Alfred Dunn , has been suggested as the inspiration for the Harry Potter headmaster Albus Dumbledore .
As a child , Rowling often wrote fantasy stories which she frequently read to her sister . Aged nine , Rowling moved to Church Cottage in the Gloucestershire village of Tutshill , close to Chepstow , Wales . She attended secondary school at Wyedean School and College , where her mother worked in the science department . When she was a young teenager , her great @-@ aunt gave her a copy of Jessica Mitford 's autobiography , Hons and Rebels . Mitford became Rowling 's heroine , and Rowling read all of her books .
Rowling has said that her teenage years were unhappy . Her home life was complicated by her mother 's illness and a strained relationship with her father , with whom she is not on speaking terms . Rowling later said that she based the character of Hermione Granger on herself when she was eleven . Steve Eddy , who taught Rowling English when she first arrived , remembers her as " not exceptional " but " one of a group of girls who were bright , and quite good at English " . Sean Harris , her best friend in the Upper Sixth , owned a turquoise Ford Anglia which she says inspired a flying version that appeared in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets . At this time , she listened to the Smiths and the Clash . Rowling took A @-@ levels in English , French and German , achieving two As and a B and was Head Girl .
In 1982 , Rowling took the entrance exams for Oxford University but was not accepted and read for a B.A. in French and Classics at the University of Exeter . Martin Sorrell , a French professor at Exeter , remembers " a quietly competent student , with a denim jacket and dark hair , who , in academic terms , gave the appearance of doing what was necessary " . Rowling recalls doing little work , preferring to listen to The Smiths and read Dickens and Tolkien . After a year of study in Paris , Rowling graduated from Exeter in 1986 and moved to London to work as a researcher and bilingual secretary for Amnesty International . In 1988 , Rowling wrote a short essay about her time studying Classics entitled " What was the Name of that Nymph Again ? or Greek and Roman Studies Recalled " ; it was published by the University of Exeter 's journal Pegasus .
= = = Inspiration and mother 's death = = =
After working at Amnesty International in London , Rowling and her then boyfriend decided to move to Manchester , where she worked at the Chamber of Commerce . In 1990 , while she was on a four @-@ hour @-@ delayed train trip from Manchester to London , the idea for a story of a young boy attending a school of wizardry " came fully formed " into her mind .
When she had reached her Clapham Junction flat , she began to write immediately . In December , Rowling 's mother Anne died after ten years suffering from multiple sclerosis . Rowling was writing Harry Potter at the time and had never told her mother about it . Her death heavily affected Rowling 's writing and she introduced much more detail about Harry 's loss in the first book , because she knew how it felt .
= = = Marriage , divorce , and single parenthood = = =
An advert in The Guardian led Rowling to move to Porto , Portugal , to teach English as a foreign language . She taught at night and began writing in the day while listening to Tchaikovsky 's Violin Concerto . After 18 months in Porto , she met Portuguese television journalist Jorge Arantes in a bar and found they shared an interest in Jane Austen . They married on 16 October 1992 and their child , Jessica Isabel Rowling Arantes ( named after Jessica Mitford ) , was born on 27 July 1993 in Portugal . Rowling had previously suffered a miscarriage . The couple separated on 17 November 1993 . Biographers have suggested that Rowling suffered domestic abuse during her marriage , although the full extent is unknown . In December 1993 , Rowling and her then @-@ infant daughter moved to Edinburgh , Scotland , to be near Rowling 's sister with three chapters of what would become Harry Potter in her suitcase .
Seven years after graduating from university , Rowling saw herself as a failure . Her marriage had failed , and she was jobless with a dependent child , but she described her failure as liberating and allowing her to focus on writing . During this period , Rowling was diagnosed with clinical depression and contemplated suicide . Her illness inspired the characters known as Dementors , soul @-@ sucking creatures introduced in the third book . Rowling signed up for welfare benefits , describing her economic status as being " poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain , without being homeless . "
Rowling was left in despair after her estranged husband arrived in Scotland , seeking both her and her daughter . She obtained an Order of Restraint , and Arantes returned to Portugal , with Rowling filing for divorce in August 1994 . She began a teacher training course in August 1995 at the Moray House School of Education , at Edinburgh University , after completing her first novel while living on State benefits . She wrote in many cafés , especially Nicolson 's Café ( owned by her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Roger Moore ) , and the Elephant House , wherever she could get Jessica to fall asleep . In a 2001 BBC interview , Rowling denied the rumour that she wrote in local cafés to escape from her unheated flat , pointing out that it had heating . One of the reasons she wrote in cafés was that taking her baby out for a walk was the best way to make her fall asleep .
= = = Harry Potter = = =
In 1995 ,
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Some parties , led by subalterns and non @-@ commissioned officers , managed to breach the wire and attack the German pillboxes beyond , but when their leaders were killed , the survivors began to dig in . It was 8 : 00 am and the front line had been advanced by barely 320 metres ( 350 yd ) .
By mid @-@ morning , it was apparent that the failure of the New Zealanders to advance their section of the front exposed the left flank of the neighbouring 3rd Australian Division , which had secured its first objective and was pushing on to its second . Likewise , on the New Zealand Division 's left , the 9th ( Scottish ) Division had managed to reach its final objective . Godley issued new instructions to the New Zealand Division ; abandoning any hope of getting to the Green Line , it was to push on to the Blue Line in an attack timed for 3 : 00 pm . However , by the early afternoon the flanking Scots had been pushed back while the Australians had failed to make further gains and were withdrawing due to enfilade gunfire on the flanks . Braithwaite , warned by his battalion commanders that capturing the Blue Line was impossible , twice pushed Russell for a cancellation of the attack . Russell 's initial response was to instruct the Rifle Brigade to continue , but shortly before the attack was to begin , it was abandoned .
The 4th Brigade moved up to the line to relieve the 2nd and Rifle Brigades and remained there until the division was withdrawn to a training area in late October , following the relief of II ANZAC Corps by the Canadian Corps . The division suffered heavy losses on 12 October : about 845 men were killed and a further 1 @,@ 900 wounded in the worst defeat in New Zealand military history . Although Russell blamed himself for the outcome of the attack and wrote to politicians in New Zealand stating so , in his private correspondence he made it clear that planning and preparation by Godley and his staff at II ANZAC Corps was inadequate and did not take into account the poor ground conditions at Passchendaele .
= = = Winter 1917 – 18 = = =
On 1 November 1917 , II ANZAC Corps ' 3rd Australian Division was transferred to I ANZAC Corps . As this left the New Zealand Division as the sole representative of the ANZAC divisions in II ANZAC Corps , it was renamed to XXII Corps . The renamed corps returned to the Ypres salient in mid @-@ November 1917 , holding a five @-@ mile front along Broodseinde Ridge from the village of Tiber to the Reutelbeek stream . The New Zealand Division took the right sector of this front which was overlooked by a spur topped by the ruined Polderhoek Chateau , occupied by the Germans . On 3 December , the 1st Canterbury and 1st Otago Battalions of the 2nd Brigade mounted an attack against the chateau . The attack , launched at midday in an attempt to surprise the Germans , proved a relative failure ; although some ground was taken , the chateau remained in enemy hands . During this action , Private Henry James Nicholas dealt with a machine gun post that was holding up the advance of his company , and won the VC . Having advanced its front by 180 metres ( 200 yd ) , the brigade consolidated its positions until it was withdrawn two days later and replaced by units from IX Corps .
At this stage of the war , Braithwaite , a popular commander , was temporarily in charge of the division while Russell was on leave . The last of the brigade commanders who had embarked with the NZEF in 1914 , he was worn out and in January was evacuated to England for treatment . On recovery , Braithwaite rejoined his original British Army regiment rather than returning to the division . There were rumours amongst the soldiers of the division that this was a punishment for his refusal to carry on with the 12 October attack at Passchendaele .
By February 1918 , the losses in the New Zealand Division resulted in the disbandment of the 4th Brigade . When it was originally formed , New Zealand 's prime minister , William Massey , felt that New Zealand was already contributing more than its fair share to the war effort , and he determined that no additional reinforcements would be sent to maintain the brigade ; if needed , it would be broken up to supply divisional replacements . Consequently , the brigade 's personnel were redistributed amongst the remaining formations to bring them up to strength . The surplus troops formed the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Entrenching Battalions , one for each brigade , and this provided a pool of trained reinforcements for the division . In other organisational changes , a divisional machine gun battalion was formed from the companies belonging to each brigade while the New Zealand Pioneer Battalion divested itself of its squadron of Otago Mounted Rifles to leave a unit with solely Māori personnel , apart from its senior officers . This was designated the New Zealand Māori ( Pioneer ) Battalion .
= = = Spring Offensive = = =
On 21 March , the Germans launched their Spring Offensive which involved 60 divisions advancing across a front of 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) . The Allies were quickly pushed back and a gap formed between the Third and Fifth Armies through which the Germans penetrated . The New Zealand Division was out of the line , recuperating following its tour of duty in the trenches over the winter months , and was deployed to cover a gap which had developed between IV and V Corps at the old Somme battlefield . After moving rapidly to the front , it was positioned at Hamel by 26 March and from there linked up with the 4th Australian Division . For the next several days , the New Zealanders dug in while fending off multiple advances by the Germans . They were initially without artillery support ; the infantry had been able to move much more quickly to the front . The artillery began arriving by the evening of 27 March . Supplies took longer to arrive and as rain began to fall on 28 March , many soldiers were without wet weather gear .
The New Zealanders ' defensive positions had been improved despite the weather and the harassment from German artillery , which killed Fulton , the original commander of the Rifle Brigade , when a barrage targeted his headquarters . The division undertook the first offensive action by the British forces during the Spring Offensive when three battalions seized the high ground of La Signy farm on 30 March . This success , although relatively trivial to the New Zealanders , was a morale booster for the rest of the beleaguered Third Army .
The Germans launched a renewed effort to push through to Amiens on 5 April , two armies attacking across the front of the British Third Army . The New Zealanders experienced a heavy bombardment which began at 5 : 00 am which cut off communications and later that day suffered two separate but disorganised attacks by infantry . The first was fended off but the second recaptured La Signy farm . An attempt to push on to the main trenches of the New Zealanders was rebuffed with heavy losses inflicted by the Wellington Company of the Machine Gun Battalion .
By 9 April , the pressure was decreasing on the New Zealand positions as the Germans shifted their offensive north to the area around Armentières . While the bulk of the New Zealand Division remained on the Somme and consolidated its defences , some of its artillery went to reinforce the British forces bearing the brunt of the renewed German attacks . Casualties for this period of the war were high ; nearly 1 @,@ 000 of the division 's personnel were killed through March and April and almost 2 @,@ 700 were wounded .
The New Zealand Division continued to man its trenches along its section of the Somme front and regularly mounted trench raids . To the amusement of the New Zealanders , the German soldiers manning the trenches opposite were warned to avoid being captured because they might be eaten . In June , the division was withdrawn to Authie . The New Zealanders returned to the Somme front in early July , and settled into a sector east of Hébuterne that included Rossignol Wood . As with the division 's previous stint on the Somme , trench raids were often carried out . During a raid mounted on 23 July , Sergeant Richard Travis performed actions that led to a posthumous award of the VC ; he was killed the next day . A prominent soldier and renowned for his scouting skills , his death was mourned across the division .
= = = Hundred Days ' Offensive = = =
On 8 August 1918 , the last major offensive of the Western Front commenced . It began with an attack by the Canadian and Australian Corps at Amiens , which rolled the German lines back 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) that day . The advance petered out after four days after the Germans began to regroup and shore up their defences . Haig recognised that it was time to put pressure elsewhere on the German front and for this , decided to use General Julian Byng 's Third Army . The New Zealand Division would continually be at the forefront of the advance of the Third Army for the remainder of the offensive . At this stage of the war , the New Zealand Division was still one of the strongest infantry divisions of the Dominion serving on the Western Front . It numbered 12 @,@ 243 men and there were 15 @,@ 000 reinforcements in England . Aided by the fact that New Zealand introduced conscription in August 1916 , the continuous supply of reinforcements prevented it from suffering the reduction in the number of battalions that affected the British and Australian divisions as their manpower reserves dried up . As the division advanced , it usually did so along a brigade @-@ sized front , with three battalions forward of a field artillery brigade . This allowed for rapid artillery support as the need arose . The brigades would leapfrog each other as they moved forward .
The New Zealand Division 's initial involvement in the offensive was on 21 August , when it joined four other divisions of the Third Army in an attack across a 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) front from Puiseux towards the Albert @-@ Arras railway . Its role was relatively minor in this action but a few days afterwards , the division played a significant part in what is now known as the Second Battle of Bapaume . The battle began on 24 August with a nighttime advance by the 1st and 2nd Brigades to clear the approaches to Bapaume , including Loupart Wood and Grévillers . Progress was delayed by heavy machine gun fire and artillery took its toll on supporting tanks . On 29 August , Bapaume itself was captured by the New Zealanders when , after a heavy artillery barrage , they attacked into the town at the same time the Germans were withdrawing . The village of Frémicourt fell the following day .
The New Zealand Division continued to advance , with the 2nd Brigade capturing Haplincourt on 3 September following a failed attempt the previous day . It moved onto the outer defences of the Hindenburg Line , including Trescault Spur , which overlooked the German positions . In conjunction with 37th Division and elements of the 38th Division , the New Zealanders attacked the spur on 12 September . The crest of the spur was captured , although not the trench system on the far side . During this action , Sergeant Harry Laurent earned the VC for his exploits in leading a patrol that captured a company of Germans .
After two weeks out of the line , the division attacked the Hindenburg Line itself on 29 September , easily achieving its objectives and capturing 1 @,@ 000 prisoners . With the New Zealanders on the St. Quentin Canal and the adjacent Scheldt River , a platoon had managed to cross it and reach the village of Crèvecœur . However , it became pinned down until the 1st Auckland and 2nd Wellington Battalions of the 1st Brigade managed to cross the next day and capture the village . Private James Crichton , a member of the trapped platoon , earned the VC , the last of the war for the New Zealand Division , for his efforts in relaying messages between his companions and his company commander . He also defused demolition charges on the bridge spanning the Scheldt River .
On 8 October , IV Corps attacked Cambrai , to which the Germans had withdrawn after they abandoned their defences along the St. Quentin Canal . The New Zealand Division 's contribution was from the 2nd and Rifle Brigades , both of which easily achieved their objectives . In advance of their flanking units , they were handily placed to intervene when the Germans mounted a counterattack against the adjacent British 2nd Division . By 12 October , the division had advanced nearly 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) , including a crossing of the Selle River , and had captured 1 @,@ 400 prisoners and 13 field guns . Its own casualties amounted to 536 men . It withdrew from the front line for a brief rest before returning to the front on 20 October .
By the end of October , the New Zealand Division was positioned to the west of the fortified town of Le Quesnoy . On 4 November , the next phase of the Allied advance began with the Battle of the Sambre . The division was tasked with the capture of Le Quesnoy and extending the front line past the town . The Rifle Brigade encircled and , through the achievement of its 4th Battalion in scaling the ramparts that surrounded the town , pushed into Le Quesnoy by the close of the day while the 1st Brigade had established a line to the east . This was the division 's most successful day on the Western Front .
The day after the fall of Le Quesnoy , elements of the division moved through the Mormal Forest with the 1st Canterbury and 2nd Otago Battalions of the 2nd Brigade leading the way . As well as covering over 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) , they attacked and captured two houses occupied by German forces . Twenty men were killed in this last contact with the enemy , which marked the last offensive action of the division ; it was relieved that night . During the Hundred Days ' Offensive , it had advanced 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) in 75 days . It was moving into reserve at Beauvois @-@ en @-@ Cambrésis , in the rear area of IV Corps , when the Armistice was signed on 11 November .
= = Occupation duties and disbandment = =
The New Zealand Division was chosen to form part of the Allied occupation force in Germany , to the displeasure of some personnel who had expected to return home . By mid @-@ December it had begun moving through Belgium towards Cologne where it arrived on 20 December . Billeted in the city 's suburbs , the division remained on active duty when not sightseeing . Educational programs were also implemented . Demobilisation began towards the end of December with the departure of those who had enlisted in 1914 or 1915 . The first unit to leave the division was the Pioneer Battalion , and additional men were sent to England on leave . They remained there until transportation to New Zealand could be arranged . Russell had taken ill in late January and departed for the warmer climate of Southern France , leaving the division 's artillery commander , Brigadier General G. Johnston , in charge of the division . The artillery was demobilised on 18 March 1919 , with the division formally disbanded on 25 March 1919 . Its occupation duties were taken up by the British 2nd Division .
= = Memorials = =
After the war , the New Zealand government instituted four national battlefield memorials to honour the New Zealand soldiers who died on the Western Front . The overwhelming majority of these fatalities , around 12 @,@ 400 , were men from the New Zealand Division . The memorials , designed by Samuel Hurst Seager , are located at Passchendaele , Messines , Le Quesnoy and the Somme . Each memorial includes the words " From the Uttermost Ends of the Earth " . In contrast to other Dominions , the names of New Zealand soldiers with no known grave , of which there are about 4 @,@ 180 , are not listed on the Memorials to the Missing at Menin Gate and Thiepval . Instead , it was the policy of the New Zealand government to establish smaller Memorials to the Missing in cemeteries near where the soldiers went missing , one of which is at the Buttes New British Cemetery .
= Follo Line =
The Follo Line ( Norwegian : Follobanen ) is a planned 22 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) high @-@ speed railway between Oslo and Ski , Norway . Running parallel to the Østfold Line , it will be engineered for 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . Terminal stations will be Oslo Central Station and Ski Station . Most of the line , 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) , will be in a single tunnel , which will be the longest railway tunnel in the country . Construction is estimated to start in 2014 , and may be completed by 2020 / 21 . The Follo Line will increase capacity from twelve to forty trains per hour along the South Corridor , and will allow express and regional trains to decrease travel time from Ski to Oslo from 22 to 11 minutes . The line is prospected to cost over 20 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) .
The project is a continuation of the Norwegian National Rail Administration 's plan to build four tracks along the three main corridors out of Oslo ; the Gardermoen Line was completed in 1998 , and the Asker Line has been completed in 2011 . Between 1989 and 1996 , the Østfold Line south of Ski to Moss was upgraded to double track and higher speeds . To take full advantage of this and allow the rest of the Østfold Line to be upgraded for high speeds , it is necessary to increase capacity through the bottleneck from Oslo to Ski . The first plans for the Follo Line were launched in 1995 , and also included an intermediate station at Vevelstad and Kolbotn . The new line is predicted to increase rush hour rail ridership 63 % , and increased freight on rail would remove 750 trucks daily from European Route E18 .
= = Background = =
The first railway in the Follo district was the Østfold Line of the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) that opened on 2 January 1879 , between Oslo East Station and Halden . Later the same year , the line was extended to the Swedish border , where it connected to the Norway / Vänern Line . The importance of Ski Station increased on 24 November 1882 , when it became the station where the Eastern Østfold Line split , and went via Inner Østfold to Sarpsborg , where the two lines reconnected . Electrification of the section from Oslo to Kolbotn was completed on 18 January 1937 , and the section to Ski finished in 1939 ; the whole Østfold line was completed in 1940 . Between 1924 and 1939 , NSB built double track along the route between Ski and Oslo . From 1989 to 1996 , NSB upgraded the track to double track from Ski to Sandbuka , just north of Moss . This section is capable of speeds of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) , however the maximum is 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) due to short distances between stops and limitations of the rolling stock .
In 1992 , the Norwegian Parliament decided to build the first high @-@ speed railway in Norway , from Oslo via the new Oslo Airport , Gardermoen to Eidsvoll . This line would run parallel to the Hoved Line , increasing the speed and capacity along the route . Fast express and regional trains could run along the new section , while slower commuter trains used the old tracks and could make many stops without disturbing other traffic . Projects were launched during the 1990s to create similar high @-@ speed bypasses from Oslo to Ski , and from Skøyen ( west of Oslo ) to Asker . Construction of the latter — christened the Asker Line — started in 2001 , and the first section from Asker to Sandvika opened in 2005 , while the second section is expected to open in 2011 .
The Østfold Line between Oslo and Ski remains the largest bottle @-@ neck on the Norwegian railway network . The line restrains the track to twelve trains per hour ( six per direction ) and hinders freight trains from using it during rush hour . The bottleneck occurs because there are up to four trains each hour making stops at all stations , and these stops delay all express and regional trains that follow . Travel time is 22 minutes for direct trains to Ski , and 31 minutes for commuter trains with a speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) along most of the line . Capacity on the upgraded double track from Ski to Moss cannot be fully utilized due to the limitations along the section from Ski to Oslo , and further growth in the number of freight trains along the South Corridor to Sweden and Continental Europe is impossible without reducing the number of passenger trains .
Despite the existing double track all the way from Oslo to Moss , a further upgrade southwards will not be able to increase capacity past the current single train per hour to Fredrikstad , Sarpsborg and Halden . The most optimistic plans involve finishing the first upgrades of track south of Moss simultaneously with the Follo Line . The Rail Administration and Ministry of Transport is working on proposals for a high @-@ speed railway between Oslo and Gothenburg in Sweden . This line would most likely use the Follo Line for the initial distance from Oslo .
= = Route = =
The initial plan from 1995 involved two intermediate stations , at Vevelstad and Kolbotn . The plans also suggested building the line in two phases , first between Ski and Kolbotn , and then from Kolbotn to Oslo . In 2008 , the National Rail Administration announced two possible plans for the right @-@ of @-@ way — both predominantly in tunnel . The one proposal included Kolbotn , the other did not . Both excluded Vevelstad as a station on the new line , since the station could not develop as a hub , and would still keep services along the existing commuter line . A report from Det Norske Veritas published in 2008 , and ordered by the Rail Administration , concluded that neither a station at Vevelstad or at Kolbotn could support the extra cost of construction . A direct line with no intermediate stops is estimated to cost NOK 11 billion , while a line via Kolbotn would cost 13 @.@ 5 billion . The report also argued that the intermediate stops would decrease capacity and increase travel time for all passengers departing south of Ski and traveling north . The exclusion of Kolbotn would also increase the importance of Ski as a regional public transport hub . In 2009 , the Rail Administration abandoned the plans to build the line via Kolbotn , stating that it was more important to secure a fast connection to Ski . At the same time , they promised to upgrade the existing station at Kolbotn .
The rail line is planned for at least 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) , although faster speeds are being considered . The earliest possible construction start is 2014 , which could allow completion by 2020 / 21 . Ski Station will also be upgraded as part of the project , and will be expanded to six tracks . Plans to connect the Eastern Østfold Line to the slower line were considered where the Eastern Østfold Line diverges from the Østfold Line at Ski . However this has changed so the local trains from Eastern Østfold can travel to Oslo faster along the new tracks .
Just south of Oslo Central Station , each of the two tracks will diverge , and follow different routes . The inbound track will hook up with the Østfold Line at Sjursøya , while the outbound track will diverge at Loenga . An additional connection to the Østfold Line will be made at Nordstrand . The Østfold Line connects to the Hoved Line and Loenga – Alnabru Line before reaching Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) . If the Kolbotn @-@ alternative for the Follo Line is chosen , the Østfold Line will be rebuilt to follow a similar path to the Kolbotn station , which will require a new station building to accommodate the two lines . For this alternate route the two lines will enter the Kolbotn station at two levels , with the Follo Line running in a tunnel below , and the Østfold Line running at @-@ grade above .
= = Impact = =
The Follo Line will allow the capacity in the South Corridor from Oslo to increase from about twelve to forty trains per hour . Local and freight trains will use the Østfold Line , while regional and express trains will use the Follo Line . Travel time will be reduced from 22 to 11 minutes . With a new line , there will be 11 @,@ 000 more public transport trips through the corridor ; this includes a 67 % increase during rush @-@ hour and 43 % the rest of the day . This allows a reduction of 5 @,@ 800 car trips per day and reduces carbon dioxide emissions of 5 @,@ 474 tonnes . Rush hour capacity would be eight trains per hour to Kolbotn , with four continuing to Ski along the old line . The new line would be served by four trains to Moss , two to Mysen and two to Halden . There would be half the frequency during off @-@ peak hours .
The Østfold Line is the railway that connects Norway to Continental Europe , and 80 % of all land @-@ based , international freight transport goes through Østfold . Until the Follo Line opens , there cannot be a capacity increase on international freight trains to Norway . The Rail Administration has set a goal of tripling the amount of rail freight by 2040 , which for the South Corridor is equal to the removal of 750 trucks per day from European Route E18 . The Follo Line will also allow freight trains to pass during rush hour .
= Vaillancourt Fountain =
Vaillancourt Fountain , sometimes called Quebec libre ! , is a large fountain located in Justin Herman Plaza in San Francisco , designed by the Québécois artist Armand Vaillancourt in 1971 . It is about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and is constructed out of precast concrete square tubes . Long considered controversial because of its stark , modernist appearance , there have been several unsuccessful proposals to demolish the fountain over the years . It was the site of a free concert by U2 in 1987 , when lead singer Bono spray painted graffiti on the fountain and was both praised and criticized for the action .
= = Location = =
The fountain is located in a highly visible spot on the downtown San Francisco waterfront , in Justin Herman Plaza , where Market Street meets The Embarcadero . The Hyatt Regency Hotel is at the edge of the plaza , adjacent to the other four highrise towers of the Embarcadero Center . Across The Embarcadero is the Ferry Building , and the eastern end of the California Street cable car line is on the other side of the Hyatt Regency Hotel .
When Vaillancourt designed the fountain , the Embarcadero Freeway or Interstate 480 , was still in existence along Market Street and the Embarcadero . The fountain was designed with the freeway environment in mind , but it was built to bring people there . At the time the city was expanding and wanted to build a plaza . What is now Justin Herman Plaza , was once an empty dirt lot under the freeway surrounded by piers , warehouses and ship yards .
= = Design and construction = =
Vaillancourt Fountain was a product of the redevelopment of San Francisco that took place in the 1950s and 1960s The Transamerica Pyramid was constructed from 1969 @-@ 1972 and BART was also being constructed , the Embarcadero Station would eventually open in 1976 .
Justin Herman , for whom the plaza was named , was a leading figure in this process and the executive director of the redevelopment agency in charge . Modernist landscape architect Lawrence Halprin was selected for the redesign of Market Street from the Embarcadero to the Civic Center , the most visible two mile thoroughfare in San Francisco . Halprin had designed other spaces in the city such as Ghirardelli Square and the United Nations Plaza . He designed Justin Herman Plaza , but hired Armand Vaillancourt to design the fountain . Vaillancourt , 38 years old at the time , had won the invitational fountain design competition that Halprin had judged . Halprin was quoted as saying that if the fountain didn 't prove to be among the " great works of civic art ... I am going to slit my throat " .
The fountain is about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high , weighs approximately 700 short tons ( 640 t ) , and is constructed out of precast concrete square tubes . The fountain is positioned in a pool shaped like an irregular pentagon , and is designed to pump up to 30 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 110 @,@ 000 L ) of water per minute . Vaillancourt Fountain looks unfinished , like concrete that has not been mixed all the way . Up close it is very rough and textured , painfully sharp . There are several square pillars or cubed tubes that form a semi circle inside a pentagon shaped pool . The natural colored pillars jut out and crisscross from the corner of the plaza “ like the tentacles of some immense geometrical octopus … .breaking open . ” There are two bridges , or walk ways ( with stairs ) , that allow the public to stand in @-@ between the tubes and have a view overlooking the plaza and city . The fountain and plaza are easily accessible to the public at all times and in all conditions , rain or shine . The fountain 's budget was US $ 310 @,@ 000 , and it was dedicated on April 22 , 1971 . The Los Angeles Times reported that its actual cost was US $ 607 @,@ 800 .
Just before the dedication , the slogan " Quebec Libre " ( a reference to the Quebec sovereignty movement ) was painted on the fountain at night , and the graffiti was erased . During the dedication , attended by Thomas Hoving , director of New York 's Metropolitan Museum of Art , a rock band played , and Armand Vaillancourt himself painted " Quebec Libre " on the fountain in as many places as he could reach . A redevelopment agency employee started to paint over the slogans during the ceremony , but Herman stopped him , saying it could be done later . When asked about why he defaced his own fountain with graffiti he responded , “ No , no . It 's a joy to make a free statement . This fountain is dedicated to all freedom . Free Quebec ! Free East Pakistan ! Free Viet Nam ! Free the whole world ! ” Vaillancourt said his actions were " a powerful performance " intended to illustrate the notion of power to the people . " Quebec Libre " has been an alternate name for the fountain since .
= = Critical reaction = =
The fountain has been considered controversial since its construction , and criticism of it has continued over the years . Hoving , in his dedication speech , said of the fountain had some of the daring of Baroque sculpture and that " A work of art must be born in controversy . " Herman himself said it was " one of the greatest artistic achievements in North America . "
At the time of its dedication , the San Francisco chapter of the National Safety Council said that the fountain " may be a safety hazard " . Opponents of the work handed out leaflets at the dedication of the fountain describing it as a " loathsome monstrosity " , a " howling obscenity " , an " obscene practical joke " , " idiotic rubble " , and a " pestiferous eyesore " . Art critic Alfred Frankenstein of the San Francisco Chronicle responded that " its very outrageousness and extravagance are part of its challenge " and therefore , it " can 't be all bad . " He added that the fountain was intended to be participated in rather than just observed . An early comment by architecture critic Allan Temko , often repeated over the years , describes " technological excrescences " that had been " deposited by a giant concrete dog with square intestines " . Another pithy remark that gained press attention , from critic Lloyd Skinner , was that the fountain was " Stonehenge , unhinged , with plumbing troubles " .
Artists have been critical of the work as well . Sculptor Benny Bufano called it " a jumble of nothing " , artist Willard Cox likened it to " dynamited debris " , and sculptor Humphrey Diaquist said it had been created by " a figure of deranged talent " .
The fountain has been called the " least revered modernist work of art " in San Francisco . Due to its size , it has been said that it " dominates the landscape " of the north side of Justin Herman Plaza . It has also been said that the design intent was " to mock and mirror the clumsy , double @-@ decked roadway " , referring to the elevated Embarcadero Freeway which separated the fountain from the waterfront at the time of construction .
= = 1987 U2 free concert = =
On the first leg of The Joshua Tree Tour by the rock band U2 in 1987 , they performed concerts at the Cow Palace just south of San Francisco on April 24 and April 25 , 1987 . On the third leg of the tour , concerts had been announced for November 14 and 15 , 1987 , across the San Francisco Bay , at the Oakland Coliseum .
On the morning of November 11 , 1987 , local radio stations announced that U2 would hold a free concert that day in Justin Herman Plaza , with the stage set up in front of the Vaillancourt Fountain . Within a few hours , a crowd estimated at 20 @,@ 000 people gathered in the plaza . The concert was jokingly called " Save the Yuppies " , in reference to the 1987 stock market crash that had taken place three weeks earlier .
The band closed their nine @-@ song performance with their hit " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " . During the instrumental portion in the middle of the song , Bono , lead singer of the band , climbed onto the sculpture and spray painted graffiti on it , reading " Rock N Roll Stops The Traffic " . Mayor Dianne Feinstein , who had been waging a city @-@ wide campaign against graffiti that had resulted in over 300 citations during the year , was angry and criticized Bono for defacing a San Francisco landmark . She said , " I am disappointed that a rock star who is supposed to be a role model for young people chose to vandalize the work of another artist . The unfortunate incident marred an otherwise wonderful rock concert . " Bono was issued a citation for misdemeanor malicious mischief . U2 manager Paul McGuinness said , " This is clearly not an act of vandalism . This act was clearly in the spirit of the artwork itself . " The numerous callers to Ronn Owens ' radio talk show on KGO @-@ AM were evenly split , with younger listeners defending the singer 's action and older ones not . Bono soon apologized , saying " I really do regret it . It was dumb . " The singer explained that he thought that he was honoring the artist 's work and that the artist had agreed , but later Bono realized that the city owned the fountain . The group covered the cost of removal of the graffiti .
Armand Vaillancourt flew from Quebec to California after the incident , and spoke in favor of Bono 's actions at U2 's Oakland performance several days later . Vaillancourt said , " Good for him . I want to shake his hand . People get excited about such a little thing . " The sculptor spray @-@ painted a slogan of his own on the band 's stage , " Stop the Madness " .
The episode received further attention when it was featured in U2 's 1988 documentary film Rattle and Hum . There , footage of it was shown over , and interspersed with , the band 's opening number , " All Along the Watchtower " , a song by Bob Dylan that had been a big hit for Jimi Hendrix . This has led some people to misidentify the song being played when the spray painting occurred . In any case , the fountain and plaza ended up on one U2 fan site 's list of recommended group @-@ related places in the U.S. to visit .
= = Proposals to demolish = =
On October 17 , 1989 the context of the Bay Area changed because the Bay Bridge collapsed , and so did the Cypress Street structure ( Interstate 880 ) . A section of the bridge collapsed , resulting in 1 death . While in West Oakland , the upper level of the freeway collapsed onto the lower level crushing cars and killing 42 people .
The freeway around Vaillancourt Fountain was damaged by the quake , but the fountain was not . On that day , the twisted concrete design of Vaillancourt Fountain took on an appearance of ill fated irony . The city decided to remove the freeway rather than repair the old infrastructure and proposed an idea of turning the Embarcadero into a wide , palm @-@ lined boulevard .
An architect hired by the city proposed demolition of the fountain , but no decision was made . In 2004 , San Francisco Supervisor Aaron Peskin renewed the call to demolish the fountain . The water supply to the fountain had been turned off for several years , because of California 's energy crisis of those years . Armand Vaillancourt immediately pledged that he would " fight like a devil to preserve that work " . Debra Lahane , a member of the San Francisco Arts Commission , said that " it succeeds as a work of art if it provokes dialogue and discussion . Art that engages the public has had a measure of success . "
It is a reminder of , and a link to , old San Francisco . It was one of the first public artworks in the Embarcadero area . It has not lost its context because the freeway or water has been removed . The removal of the freeway and water has changed the context of the fountain into a monument or memorial .
= No. 78 Wing RAAF =
No. 78 Wing is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) operational training wing , headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . It comprises Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons , operating the BAE Hawk 127 lead @-@ in fighter , and No. 278 Squadron , a technical training unit . No. 79 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , is responsible for converting new pilots to fast jets , while No. 76 Squadron at Williamtown conducts introductory fighter courses ; both units also fly support missions for the Royal Australian Navy and the Australian Army .
Formed as a fighter wing in November 1943 , No. 78 Wing comprised three flying units , Nos. 75 , 78 and 80 Squadrons , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . After the war , it re @-@ equipped with P @-@ 51 Mustangs at Williamtown . During the early 1950s , the wing was based at Malta on garrison duties with the Royal Air Force , operating two squadrons of De Havilland Vampire jet fighters . Re @-@ equipped with CAC Sabres , it deployed with Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons to Malaya in 1958 – 59 , flying sorties against communist insurgents in the final years of the Emergency . In the 1960s , it was tasked with providing regional air defence during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia , and supplied the equipment and personnel for the RAAF contingent operating from Ubon Air Base in Thailand . No. 78 Wing was disbanded in November 1967 , and re @-@ formed for its present role as an operational training wing in February 2000 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
No. 78 Wing was established on 24 November 1943 at Townsville , Queensland , under the command of Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) W.D. Brookes . Along with No. 77 Wing , it came under the control of No. 10 Operational Group , a mobile strike force formed to support the Allied armies as they advanced in the South West Pacific theatre . No. 78 Wing 's flying units were originally to have consisted of No. 80 Squadron , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters , and Nos. 452 and 457 Squadrons , operating Spitfires . However the Spitfire squadrons could not be released from duty in the North @-@ Western Area as planned , and Nos. 75 and 78 Squadrons took their place , making the formation an all @-@ Kittyhawk force . No. 78 Wing flew combat air patrols and ground attack missions during Operation Reckless , the assault on Hollandia and Aitape , New Guinea , in April 1944 . By the middle of the year , the wing 's flying hours in New Guinea were consistently higher than those of its counterparts in the US Fifth Air Force .
When No. 10 Operational Group was re @-@ formed as the Australian First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) in October 1944 , No. 78 Wing constituted its fighter contingent along with the recently arrived No. 81 Wing , which also operated Kittyhawks . The relegation of No. 1 TAF to areas of operations bypassed by the main Allied thrust towards the Philippines and Japan led to poor morale in late 1944 and early 1945 . In April 1945 , the newly appointed Officer Commanding No. 78 Wing , Group Captain Wilfred Arthur , helped bring about the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " in protest at the employment of Australian fighter squadrons for apparently worthless ground attack missions . A subsequent inquiry cleared the pilots involved , finding their motives in tendering their resignations to be sincere . Arthur retained command of No. 78 Wing for the invasion of Tarakan , which commenced on 1 May . Augmented by No. 452 Squadron 's Spitfires , the wing was a last @-@ minute replacement for No. 81 Wing — which had been delayed while moving its aircraft forward from Noemfoor and northern Australia — and had only ten days to prepare for the operation . In addition to its flying squadrons , No. 78 Wing 's complement included No. 114 Mobile Fighter Control Unit ( No. 114 MFCU ) , No. 29 Air Stores Park , No. 28 Medical Clearing Station , and No. 11 Repair and Servicing Unit . On 25 May 1945 , Arthur was succeeded by Wing Commander Alan Rawlinson . In June and July , the wing took part in the assaults on Labuan and Balikpapan , undertaking convoy escort in the former and , joined once more by No. 452 Squadron , ground attack missions and close support of the Australian 7th Division in the latter . During July it flew 858 sorties , dropping over 250 @,@ 000 pounds ( 110 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs and expending almost 350 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , for the loss of six aircraft and four pilots killed or missing .
= = = Cold War and after = = =
Following the end of hostilities , No. 78 Wing , comprising Nos. 75 , 78 and 80 Squadrons , and No. 114 MFCU , departed Tarakan for Australia . Arriving in December 1945 , the formation was based initially at Deniliquin , New South Wales , where its squadrons were reduced to cadre status , and where No. 80 Squadron was disbanded in July 1946 . The wing and its remaining squadrons relocated in May and June to RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , and then in August to RAAF Station Williamtown , where they re @-@ equipped with P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Rawlinson , now a group captain , completed his appointment as officer commanding in December 1946 . No. 378 ( Base ) Squadron was formed under the aegis of No. 78 Wing at Williamtown in June 1947 ; the base squadron was an administrative and logistical unit intended to make its wing self @-@ supporting and mobile , in case of deployment . No. 478 ( Maintenance ) Squadron formed the same month to take responsibility for all aircraft and equipment operated by No. 78 Wing . Nos. 75 and 78 Squadrons disbanded in March and April 1948 , respectively . Nos. 478 and 378 Squadrons also disbanded in April , the latter re @-@ forming as Station Headquarters at Williamtown . For the remainder of the year , No. 78 Wing 's aircraft and staff were gradually transferred to other units ; by December it had been reduced to a strength of four airmen and no officers , and was declared " non @-@ operative " .
The wing was re @-@ established in January 1949 , comprising Nos. 75 , 76 , and 478 Squadrons , and No. 114 MFCU . It became the first wing in the RAAF to equip with jet aircraft , when its flying units took delivery of De Havilland Vampire F.30 fighters between 1949 and 1951 ; it was also allocated Mustangs and CAC Wirraways . The wing subsequently re @-@ equipped with Vampire FB.9s leased from the Royal Air Force , in exchange for Australia 's commitment to support RAF operations in the Middle East . Comprising Nos. 75 and 76 ( Fighter ) Squadrons , No. 378 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 478 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , No. 78 Wing was deployed to Malta on garrisoning duties under Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) Brian Eaton . As the RAAF 's presence was essentially a symbolic gesture to demonstrate the Commonwealth 's solidarity in the midst of the Cold War , the combat squadrons were half @-@ strength only , operating eight aircraft each . In addition to the Vampires , two Gloster Meteor trainers were provided . Personnel departed Australia in July 1952 ; the posting overseas being a minimum of two years , families were permitted to make the journey as well . Although under the operational control of the RAF 's No. 205 Group , the wing was under no circumstances to be used in combat without the express permission of the Australian government . The airmen participated in many NATO exercises while stationed at Malta , and one year took first and second place in the Middle Eastern Gunnery Contest for the " Imshi " Mason Cup . Originally based at the Royal Navy 's Ħal Far airfield , in south @-@ east Malta , the wing moved in June 1953 to the centrally located RAF Station Ta 'Kali , command of which was given to Group Captain Eaton . By this time , with plans afoot to form a Far East Strategic Reserve to contain communist aggression in South East Asia , the British and Australian governments began to discuss withdrawing No. 78 Wing from the Middle East when its planned two @-@ year garrison was complete . Eaton handed over command to Wing Commander Geoff Newstead in September 1954 . The wing flew its last sorties in December , and returned to Australia the following month .
Following its tour in the Mediterranean , No. 78 Wing was reorganised at Williamtown . On 16 March 1955 , the wing headquarters was re @-@ formed , and Nos. 76 and 378 Squadrons were disbanded . No. 75 Squadron remained with the wing , augmented on 21 March by Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons . On 1 April , No. 478 Squadron absorbed the maintenance functions of No. 77 Squadron . Nos. 75 and 77 Squadrons initially operated Meteors from Williamtown and No. 3 Squadron was based at RAAF Station Canberra , where it flew P @-@ 51D Mustangs . By November 1956 the wing had re @-@ equipped with CAC Sabres and all of its units were stationed at Williamtown . Group Captain Glen Cooper took command of the wing in 1957 , deploying it between October 1958 and February 1959 to RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaya , where its flying units consisted of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons . No. 75 Squadron remained at Williamtown , subsequently joining No. 81 Wing with a re @-@ formed No. 76 Squadron . Among the first aircraft to wear the Air Force 's new " leaping kangaroo " roundel , the Butterworth @-@ based Sabres flew ground @-@ attack missions against communist guerrilla forces in the last stages of the Malayan Emergency . Ground support for the aircraft was provided by No. 478 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . Armed with Sidewinder missiles , the Sabres were responsible for regional air defence during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia from 1963 until 1966 , though no combat took place . Between October and December 1965 , a detachment of six Sabres , initially from No. 77 Squadron and later from No. 3 Squadron , was based at Labuan to conduct combat patrols over the Indonesian – Malaysian border on Borneo . In May 1962 , in response to communist insurgency in Laos , No. 79 Squadron was re @-@ formed in Singapore utilising No. 78 Wing aircraft and personnel . For the next six years this squadron operated from Ubon Air Base in Thailand and was manned by personnel from No. 78 Wing serving on six @-@ month to one @-@ year rotations . The RAAF was careful to not acknowledge any connection between the two units , however , as Malaysia had a policy of neutrality towards war in South East Asia . The squadron was disbanded in July 1968 . No. 75 Squadron , equipped with Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighters , relieved No. 3 Squadron at Butterworth in May 1967 .
No. 78 Wing was disbanded in November 1967 , and Nos. 75 , 77 and 478 Squadrons became independent units under the command of Headquarters RAAF Butterworth . No. 77 Squadron returned to Williamtown in 1969 for conversion to Mirages , and was replaced at Butterworth by the Mirage @-@ equipped No. 3 Squadron . In 1986 , No. 79 Squadron was re @-@ formed at Butterworth from No. 3 Squadron , disbanding two years later . No. 75 Squadron redeployed from Butterworth to RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , in October 1983 , and No. 478 Squadron was disbanded the same month . No. 78 Wing re @-@ formed in February 2000 to take charge of all aircrew and technical training on the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and the BAE Hawk 127 . Headquartered at Williamtown , it comprised No. 76 Squadron at Williamtown and No. 79 Squadron at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , both operating Hawks , and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) at Williamtown , operating Hornets . Each of these units had previously been part of No. 81 Wing . No. 79 Squadron 's role was to convert graduates of No. 2 Flying Training School at Pearce to fast jets , No. 76 Squadron 's to conduct lead @-@ in fighter courses , and No. 2 OCU 's to convert pilots to the Hornet fighter . In February 2002 , No. 78 Wing came under the control of the newly established Air Combat Group , formed by merging Tactical Fighter Group and Strike Reconnaissance Group . The merger expanded the wing 's responsibilities , as it took on lead @-@ in training for the General Dynamics F @-@ 111Cs of No. 82 Wing . In July 2003 a technical training and simulator unit , No. 278 Squadron , with detachments at RAAF Bases Amberley , Tindal and Pearce , was added to the wing 's complement . No. 2 OCU subsequently returned to the control of No. 81 Wing . As of 2012 , No. 78 Wing 's strength consisted of Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons , operating Hawks , and No. 278 Squadron . No. 79 Squadron continues to provide fast @-@ jet conversion for recently graduated pilots , as well as refresher courses , while No. 76 Squadron conducts introductory fighter courses preparatory to students undertaking conversion to " classic " Hornets at No. 2 OCU or F / A @-@ 18F Super Hornets with No. 6 Squadron at Amberley . Both squadrons also fly close support missions for the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Navy .
= HMS Defence ( 1907 ) =
HMS Defence was a Minotaur @-@ class armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century , the last armoured cruiser built for the Royal Navy . She was stationed in the Mediterranean when the First World War began and participated in the pursuit of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and light cruiser SMS Breslau . The ship was transferred to the Grand Fleet in January 1915 and remained there for the rest of her career .
Defence was sunk on 31 May 191
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00 , was never built . The current route was conceived in the 1960s as a freeway replacement for Route 164 , which followed Humboldt Avenue , a surface road . It was to be designated Route 76 , but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 76 was created in New Jersey .
It was legislated in 1966 to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from exit 13 until North Avenue , where it would turn northwest and intersect U.S. Route 1 / 9 near the airport . The routing was eventually shifted to begin from a new interchange along the New Jersey Turnpike . A total of $ 50 million in funding was allocated for the road and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road . The state had wanted the port authority to pay for construction ; however it was ruled that they could not build the road . Construction on Route 81 took place between 1979 and 1982 .
= = Route description = =
Route 81 is a freeway for its entire length through Elizabeth in Union County . It southern terminus is at the toll plaza for exit 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) , near the Jersey Gardens outlet mall and Elizabeth Center power center . The route heads north from this interchange as a four @-@ lane a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) freeway maintained by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority . A short distance north of the toll plaza , the route comes to an interchange with County Route 624 ( North Avenue ) , which serves the aforementioned shopping areas as well as the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal .
Route 81 heads northwest , running in between the travel lanes of North Avenue for a distance , with industrial areas located to the southwest and Newark Liberty International Airport to the northeast . Upon splitting from North Avenue , Route 81 features a northbound ramp to Newark Liberty International Airport and has an interchange with Dowd Avenue . From here , the route continues along the airport property with three northbound lanes and two southbound lanes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation before reaching its terminus at U.S. Routes 1 and 9 just south of the Elizabeth – Newark city line . South of the terminus , ramps allow Route 81 traffic to access either the local or express lanes of US 1 / 9 as well as Newark Liberty International Airport .
= = History = =
= = = Predecessors to Route 81 = = =
Route S100 was originally proposed as a freeway on the rough alignment of present @-@ day Route 81 in 1938 , running between the proposed Route 100 freeway ( now the New Jersey Turnpike ) and U.S. Route 1 / 9 and Route 25 . However , Route S100 was not built . The original plan in the early 1960s for what is now Route 81 was to connect Newark International Airport with Elizabeth Seaport , bypassing Humboldt Avenue , which at the time was designated Route 164 ; Humboldt Avenue is no longer a state highway . The planned route was initially numbered Route 76 , but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 80S in the southern part of the state became Interstate 76 . In 1966 , Route 81 was legislated to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from Exit 13 near the Goethals Bridge north to the vicinity of North Avenue , and head west along the southern edge of the airport to U.S. 1 & 9 . By the 1970s , it was decided by the state of New Jersey to have Route 81 start at a new interchange 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike . In 1975 , Governor Brendan Byrne requested $ 882 million in bonds to construct several roads in New Jersey , including Route 81 .
= = = Construction begins and finishes = = =
The state allocated a total of $ 50 million for construction of Route 81 in 1976 , with $ 16 @.@ 6 million to be used within the next year , and the design for the proposed road , which was to provide a direct link to Newark Airport , began . The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road and half of the $ 1 @.@ 6 million cost was to be paid for by the port authority while the state and the New Jersey Turnpike Authority were to split the other half . In 1977 , the state wanted the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to pay the $ 50 million to build Route 81 and filed suit . However , the State Court of Appeals ruled in 1978 that the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey could not help build the road as it needed permission from both the New Jersey and New York legislatures , who wanted the port authority to focus on mass transit construction to airports .
With the construction of the new interchange on the New Jersey Turnpike , a service area along the turnpike named after William Halsey was subsequently closed down . Exit 13A , in turn , revitalized the Port Newark @-@ Elizabeth Marine Terminal area . A retail center has arisen on the east side of the New Jersey Turnpike in an Urban Enterprise Zone , accessible from the North Avenue exit off Route 81 . With the construction of the Jersey Gardens outlet mall , Exit 13A was reconstructed by Schoor DePalma Inc and financed by mall owner Glimcher Realty Trust .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Elizabeth , Union County .
= Antoine Huré =
General Antoine Jules Joseph Huré ( 11 February 1873 - December 1949 ) was a French army officer and engineer noted for his service in Morocco . Huré joined the army as a volunteer in 1893 and after training at the École Polytechnique and École d 'Application de l 'Artillerie et du Génie he was commissioned into the 3rd Regiment of Engineers . He spent a number of years with his regiment and on staff appointments in France before transferring to Algeria first with the 19th Army Corps , and then the 15th Army Corps . In 1912 Huré transferred to the general staff in eastern Morocco and earned the Colonial Medal .
Huré was recalled to France at the start of the First World War and was shot in the chest whilst serving with the 1st Moroccan Infantry Division , being mentioned in dispatches for continuing with his duties despite his wound . He was posted back to Morocco in 1916 to become military commander of the Fes region . In January 1919 he took over command of French operations against the uprising led by Sidi Mhand n 'Ifrutant in the Tafilalt after General Joseph @-@ François Poeymirau was wounded . Huré suppressed the uprising within a month . In April 1919 he led a column to the relief of a French garrison at Aïn Médiouna which had put up a defence against a Moroccan force twenty times their number for four days during another uprising against French rule . Huré then launched further operations that stabilised the military situation in the area within the month . In July he was appointed commander of French troops in Southern Morocco .
Huré eventually reached the rank of général de division and became supreme commander of all French troops in Morocco . Under his supervision the country was finally pacified in 1934 . He returned to France in 1935 to serve on the Supreme Council of War and was later made inspector general of engineers . He wrote two books on military history , including one on the pacification of Morocco that was published after his death . Huré was rewarded for his work by appointment as Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and as Commander of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite .
= = Early career = =
Huré was born in Corbie in the Somme department of France on 11 February 1873 , the son of Eugene Edouard Edmund Huré and Céline Clémence Marie Burgeat Huré . Huré joined the French Army as a volunteer on 20 October 1893 and became an officer candidate at the École Polytechnique in Paris until 1 October 1895 when he transferred to the École d 'Application de l 'Artillerie et du Génie ( school of Applied Artillery and Engineering ) as a sous lieutenant . He received his commission as a second lieutenant on 1 October 1897 and was posted to the 3rd Regiment of Engineers . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 20 November 1898 and captain on 16 March 1901 . Huré was married on 11 April 1899 to Josephe Marie Magdaleine Francine , though the marriage was childless . Between 27 April 1901 and 22 August 1904 he was attached to the staff as an engineer at Valenciennes . He rejoined his regiment for two years before attending the École Supérieur de Guerre from 30 October 1906 . He was promoted to first captain on 23 June 1907 and joined the staff of the 19th Army Corps in Algiers on 24 October 1908 . He transferred to the staff of the 15th Army Corps on 24 December 1910 and on 24 April 1912 to the staff of the military subdivision of Oran .
Huré first arrived in Morocco on 9 October 1912 when he was attached to the general staff in the east of the new French protectorate and received the Colonial Medal for Morocco on 28 April 1914 . On 3 August 1914 he became attached to the staff of the 1st Moroccan Infantry Division , being promoted to commandant ( major ) six days later , and served in the defence of France in the First World War . Huré was wounded in the left breast by a bullet on 28 August 1914 in Faissault and received a mention in dispatches for continuing his duties despite his injury . He was appointed a knight of the Legion of Honour on 28 December 1914 , with precedence backdated to the 1 December . Huré became chef de bataillon on 10 January 1916 when he left France to become military commander of the Fes region of Morocco and on 3 January 1918 was appointed an officer of the Legion of Honour , with precedence of 29 December 1917 . He was honoured for his service to the country by appointment as a commander of the Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite and on 19 April 1918 he was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel .
As a colonel in January 1919 he participated in an operation in the Tafilalt region , under the command of General Joseph @-@ François Poeymirau , to put down an uprising against French rule led by Sidi Mhand n 'Ifrutant as part of the Zaian War . After Poeymirau was wounded by the accidental explosion of an artillery shell Huré assumed command and won victories against bands of Moroccans at Zrigat and Erfoud . Huré engaged n 'Ifrutant at Tizimi on 25 January , comprehensively defeating his entrenched forces in a six @-@ hour battle and inflicting 600 casualties . Huré received reinforcements from a 10 @,@ 000 strong irregular tribal force sent by Thami El Glaoui , Pasha of Marrakesh and a French ally , and with their help was able to defeat the n 'Ifrutant uprising by 31 January .
= = Battle of Aïn Médiouna = =
From 15 February to 5 March 1919 Huré commanded a French column in the area to the north of Boudenib , near the Algerian border , consisting of the 18th battalion of Senegalese Tirailleurs and the 1st battalion Algerian Tirailleurs . Huré 's men demolished some ksars belonging to the Aït Aïssa tribe but were scarcely troubled by attack , only his rear guard being fired upon . On 31 March 1919 a French reconnaissance force fighting Abdelmalek bin Muhyi al Din , grandson of the Algerian resistance leader Abdelkader El Djezairi , were threatening the town of Beni Oulid when they detached a unit under Captain Macouillard to take a forward position on the peak of the Gueznaïa hill . The next day , in heavy fog with visibility of only a few metres , Macouillard 's force was attacked , in close hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting his artillerymen are killed at their guns and despite repeated bayonet charges the French position became untenable . A grievously wounded Macouillard handed command to his second , Lieutenant Biron , with orders to take the surviving men back to the fortified French camp at Aïn Médiouna , around 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) distant . Just fifty men made the journey , Biron and the other officers being killed in an ambush set by local villagers who then besieged the French post , assisted by other tribesmen attracted by the sound of gunfire . Attacks on the camp were repulsed by artillery fire directed by Lieutenant Solomon but the French were unable to break the siege . Solomon and Lieutenant Andrew held out against twenty times their number for the next four days , being resupplied with food and water by air , with total casualties ( including the fight at Gueznaïa ) reaching 4 officers and 292 killed or missing and 67 injured .
Huré led a relief column of 10 infantry companies , seven machine gun sections , 10 cavalry troops , a battery of 75mm artillery and three sections of 65mm mountain guns from Ain Matour to relieve Solomon and Andrew . His men endured forced marches on routes made almost impassable by heavy rain , with one unit covering 62 kilometres ( 39 mi ) in a single day . On the morning of 5 April Huré pushed back the besieging force and made contact with the garrison by 9 @.@ 00 . However the Moroccans counterattacked at 10 @.@ 00 , inflicting casualties of 24 Frenchmen killed and 59 wounded in a close @-@ quarters fight in which they suffered heavy losses .
At 11 @.@ 00 on 6 April Huré sent out patrols to bury the dead at Gueznaïa , whilst he reinforced the defences at Aïn Médiouna and directed 12 aircraft to bomb the tribesmen remaining in the area . Huré left three companies to garrison Aïn Médiouna before withdrawing the remainder of the men . He and his men were commended for their enthusiasm and spirit which enabled the garrison to be relieved earlier than expected . Huré singled out the French Foreign Legion machine gunners for praise , noting that they had held the enemy off for four hours to cover the retreat of other units . He said " despite your small number ... I knew at once that you would save the situation " .
Despite Huré 's victory at Aïn Médiouna attacks on loyal villages increased through April 1919 and on the 26th of that month Huré launched another column to defend them . He was attacked at Had Recifa but his hastily fortified camp held and the next morning Huré successfully defeated the tribesmen in battle , at the cost of 12 men killed and 4 officers and 63 men wounded . By the time General Hubert Lyautey and former prime @-@ minister Louis Barthou arrived on an inspection tour on 3 May the military situation had been stabilised thanks to Huré 's actions . On 31 July 1919 Huré was appointed to replace Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mayade in command of French troops in Southern Morocco fighting an uprising led by self @-@ proclaimed Sultan Sembali . Huré later became a général de brigade ( brigadier ) and commander of the Marrakesh region and was commander of the Legion of Honour on 21 February 1928 .
= = Pacification of Morocco = =
Huré became supreme commander of all troops in Morocco in 1931 . Upon his appointment the War Minister , André Maginot , warned him that " if you have one unfortunate engagement , I will hide your losses and I will lie against the evidence ; but I can only do that once . If you have a second reverse I will be obliged to tell the truth , and then all those - like me - who wish for the pacification of Morocco will be swept away , like Ferry after Lang Son " . Referring to the fall of Prime Minister Jules Ferry after the disastrous retreat from Lang Son in Vietnam in 1885 . On 16 March 1932 he was promoted to grand @-@ officer of the Legion , having also received promotion to général de division ( major @-@ general ) .
The years of 1933 and 1934 were spent in hard mountain warfare in the last bastions of Moroccan resistance in the High Atlas and Anti @-@ Atlas mountain ranges . Huré himself took personal command of the siege of the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) high mountain fortress of Bu Gafer in February and March 1933 , where he fought alongside General Henri Giraud , in a costly battle that caused the deaths of hundreds of French troops and up to 2 @,@ 300 Moroccans . In July Huré led another campaign in the Dadès Gorges , laying a new road as he went and utilising his engineering knowledge to procure dozens of truck @-@ powered pneumatic drills for his sappers . By the end of the month this region too was pacified leaving the last pocket of resistance at Mount Baddou , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) high peak home to 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 3 @,@ 000 Berber tribesmen . Huré again led directly , commanding a two @-@ week complete siege that successfully forced the tribesmen and their families to surrender , they were treated well and given food and supplies and allowed to return to their homes . There were further minor skirmishes in the Anti @-@ Atlas in the winter of 1933 / 4 but by March 1934 Huré had pacified the remainder of the country and brought to an end almost 30 years of continuous French military involvement in Morocco .
= = Return to France = =
Huré returned to France to serve on the Supreme Council of War in 1935 and also sat on Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey 's African Friendship Committee , an organisation established to encourage the loyalty of North Africa to France in case of war . By 1936 he was inspector general of French North African troops and in 1938 was appointed inspector general of engineers . He was appointed grand cross of the Legion of Honour on 8 July 1938 and in the same year co @-@ wrote Lyautey du Tonkin au Maroc par Madagascar et le Sud @-@ Oranais ( Lyautey in Tonkin and Morocco by way of Madagascar and South Oran [ Algeria ] ) with British historian Sonia E. Howe . Huré was president of the Islam study group of the Politique étrangère journal for 1939 . After the outbreak of the Second World War Huré became Inspector General of the Military Regions of France on 5 June 1940 , holding that position until 1 July by which point France had surrendered to the Germans .
Huré died in December 1949 at Saint @-@ Valéry @-@ sur @-@ Somme in France . In 1952 a book he had written , La Pacification du Maroc . Dernière étape : 1931 – 1934 ( The Pacification of Morocco . The Last Step : 1931 – 1934 ) , was published with a preface written by Marshal Alphonse Juin .
= Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf =
Friedrich Joseph of Nauendorf , a general in Habsburg service during the French Revolutionary Wars , was noted for his intrepid and daring raids .
Like most Austrian generals of the French Revolutionary Wars , he joined the military as a young man , and served in the War of Bavarian Succession , in which he took part in its first action by successfully repelling a Prussian border raid , which earned him the admiration of the Empress Maria Theresa 's son , Joseph . His continued success in the Habsburg border wars with the Ottoman Empire added to his reputation as a commander .
In the Wars of the First and Second Coalitions , his forces were vital to the successful relief of Mainz , and his commands captured the French siege train and most of the supplies during the French evacuation . In the campaigns in Swabia ( 1799 ) , he commanded the advanced guard , and later the center of the main column at the Battle of Stockach on 25 March 1799 . At the First Battle of Zürich in 1799 , he commanded the right wing in the Austrian victory of André Masséna 's force . After the Swabian and Swiss campaigns , he retired in poor health , and died in 1801 .
= = Early career = =
Born in the village of Heilsdorf , in the Saxon Vogtland , 3 August 1749 , Nauendorf came from a family of minor Saxon aristocracy and Prussian state administrators . His grandfather was a states ’ attorney in Jena . His father , Freiherr ( Baron ) Carl Georg Christian Nauendorf , was a cavalry officer in Habsburg military service in the Seven Years ' War , and was present at the Battle of Kolín . He was also part of Baron Ernst Gideon von Laudon 's army on 30 September – 1 October 1761 , when Laudon led the force in the storming of Schweidnitz .
Nauendorf joined the 8th Hussar Regiment in 1763 . In 1766 , his father became Colonel and Proprietor ( Inhaber ) of the regiment ; upon his father 's death in 1775 , Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser became Colonel and Inhaber , and the Regiment became known as 8th Hussar Wurmser , or Wurmser 's Hussars .
= = = War in Bohemia and Silesia = = =
In 1778 , Nauendorf was a Rittmeister ( captain of cavalry ) of the Wurmser Hussar Regiment , and stationed near the border of Bohemia and Prussia , by Pressburg , the regiment 's peace @-@ time garrison . At the end of the year , the Duke of Bavaria , Maximilian III Joseph , Elector of Bavaria , died unexpectedly of smallpox . As the last of the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty , descended from 13th century Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Bavarian , Maximilian was related to most of the German houses , and Bavaria was strategically located to entice the Habsburgs , chiefly Archduke and co @-@ Regent Joseph , to covet the duchy . Tensions rose between and among the princes of the German states , principally Elector of Saxony , King of Prussia , and Joseph ; their diplomats shuttled between courts to resolve problems raised by the Bavarian Succession crisis , while Frederick II of Prussia , Frederick August of Saxony and Joseph of Austria moved their extensive armies into position in Bohemia .
In early July 1778 , the Prussian General Johann Jakob von Wunsch ( 1717 – 1788 ) crossed into Bohemia near the fortified town of Náchod , in the opening action of the War of the Bavarian Succession . Nauendorf had only 50 Hussars , but they sallied from their garrison to engage the larger Prussian force . Encountering Wunsch , Nauendorf greeted the old Prussian general and his men as friends ; by the time the Prussians realized the allegiance of the Hussars , Nauendorf and his small force had acquired the strategic advantage . Following a brief skirmish , Wunsch withdrew . The next day Nauendorf was promoted to major . ) . In a letter to her son , Joseph , the Empress Maria Theresa wrote : " They say you are so pleased with the rookie Nauendorf , the Carlstätter or Hungarian who killed seven men , that you gave him 12 ducats . " Enamored with the possibility of acquiring Bavaria , Joseph encouraged successful raids against the Prussian troops . On 7 August 1778 , with two squadrons of his regiment , Nauendorf led a raid against a Prussian convoy at Biebersdorf in the County of Kladsko . The surprised convoy surrendered , and Nauendorf captured its officers , 110 men , 476 horses , 240 wagons of flour , and 13 transport wagons .
In another raid , on 17 – 18 January 1779 , Nauendorf 's commander , Dagobert von Wurmser advanced into the County of Glatz in five columns , surrounded Habelschwerdt , stormed the village . In a subsequent assault on the so @-@ called Swedish blockhouse in Oberschwedeldorf ( now Szalejów Górny ) , it and the village of Habelschwerdt were set on fire by howitzers . In total , the raid resulted in the capture of Prince Adolf of Hesse @-@ Philippsthal and over 1 @,@ 000 men , three cannon and ten colors . Wurmser 's forward patrols reached the outskirts of Glatz , and patrolled much of Silesia 's border with Prussia , near Schweidnitz . Halberschwerdt and Oberschedeldorf were both destroyed .
On 3 March 1779 , Nauendorf raided the Berbersdorf again , this time with a larger force of infantry and hussars , and took the entire Prussian garrison as prisoner . Following this action , Joseph , now Emperor , awarded him the Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa ( 19 May 1779 ) . This kind of action characterized the entire war ; there were no major battles . The armies of the opposing sides conducted series of raids and counter @-@ raids from which they lived off the country @-@ side and tried to deny each other access to supplies and fodder .
= = = Action in the border war = = =
Nauendorf served with the Habsburg forces during the Ottoman wars from 1787 to 1791 . On 19 – 20 October 1788 , near Tomaševac ( present day Serbia ) , Nauendorf routed 1 @,@ 200 of the elite Sipahis with two squadrons of hussars . On 23 October 1788 , with only six squadrons of hussars , he attacked the Turkish rearguard in the village of Pančevo , in the Banat , during which the Turkish commander was mortally wounded . On 16 September 1789 , he led the successful raid on the island of Borecs in the Danube , which garnered greatly needed supplies from the Turkish forces . On 9 November of that year , he led four squadrons of his regiment to capture Gladova , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the so @-@ called Iron Gate of the Danube . Nauendorf was awarded command of 30th Hussar Regiment Wurmser , as the so @-@ called second colonel , who functioned as an executive officer . On 12 March 1779 , Joseph elevated Nauendorf to the rank of Count , or Graf .
= = Austrian action on the Rhine = =
In 1792 , Nauendorf 's regiment served on the lower ( northern ) Rhine river and at Trier on the Moselle river in the French Revolutionary Wars . In December of that year , his regiment successfully defended Pellingen , Merzkirchen and Oberleuken from the attacks of General of Division La Baroliére 's Army of the Moselle .
In 1795 , Nauendorf served in Field Marshal Charles Joseph de Croix , Count of Clerfayt ’ s Army of the Lower Rhine , which relieved Mainz . On 13 October , he commanded part of Count Clerfayt 's Corps of Observation , totaling close to 8 @,@ 000 men . On 10 October , a portion of the Corps of Observation had surprised the French at Hochst ; Jourdan was withdrawing his force from the blockade of Mainz . Nauendorf 's cavalry swam across the Main River and the infantry followed in boats ; they surprised and overwhelmed Jourdan 's rear guard at Niederhausen , capturing five guns , 30 + wagons and 80 ammunition caissons . On 29 October , Nauendorf captured most of the French siege train and supply wagons evacuated from Mainz . Finally , in that year on 6 November , his victory at Rochenhausen prevented the unification of the French armies of the Rhin @-@ et @-@ Moselle and the Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse .
During the maneuvers leading to the Battle of Amberg on 24 August 1796 , Nauendorf 's cavalry reconnaissance discovered crucial intelligence , after which he sent Archduke Charles the message : " If your Royal Highness will or can advance 12 @,@ 000 men against Jourdan 's rear , he is lost . " After the Austrian victory at Amberg , Nauendorf prevented General Jean @-@ Victor Moreau 's attempted Danube crossing at Neuburg and thwarted Moreau 's next attempt to flank the Austrians by passing through Ulm .
= = = Action in Switzerland and Swabia = = =
When the War of the Second Coalition began in early 1799 , Nauendorf fought in the Austrian victories at Ostrach ( 21 March ) and then at Stockach ( 25 March ) . In early March he led the Advanced Guard of 17 @,@ 000 across the Lech River by Augsburg , to deploy at Ostrach , a village about 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) of the Danube River , and less than 2 kilometres ( 1 mi ) from the Free Imperial City of Pfullendorf . Jourdan 's Army of the Danube had crossed the Rhine on 1 March , and moved east to cut communication between the main Austrian force , quartered near Augsburg , and the Austrian troops in northern Italy . At Ostrach , his Advanced Guard sustained the immediate shock of contact , but the main force of the army was less than a day behind him , and Archduke Charles , the commander of the Austrian force , divided his army into three assault columns to make a simultaneous attack at three points on the French line ; after a day of nasty fighting , the Austrians flanked the French at the north and south , and threatened to break through the line in the middle . The French withdrew to Mösskirch , and then to Engen and Stockach , where , on 25 March , the fighting renewed . At Stockach , Nauendorf again commanded the Austrian advanced guard , which was composed of troops seasoned , as he had been , in the Habsburg border wars . The advanced guard , or Vorhut , was redeployed before the battle as the center of the main Austrian line , and took the brunt of the initial fighting .
After the French retreat from the Hegau into the Black Forest , Nauendorf took his force across the Rhine between Constance and Stein am Rhein on 22 May , and positioned himself at Steinegg . After Friedrich , Freiherr von Hotze 's column successfully pushed the French out of Winterthur on 26 May , Archduke Charles instructed Nauendorf to secure the village of Neftenbach , which effectively closed a semicircle around the French force at Zürich . Once the Austrian main army united with its left wing , under Nauendorf , and its far left , under Hotze , Charles ordered the assault on Zürich . On 4 June , Nauendorf helped to rout the French force at Battle of Zürich , commanding the Coalition 's right wing ; with sustained pressure on Andre Massena 's force , Massena pulled his army across the Limmat river , and dug into positions on the low ring of hills there , biding his time until the propitious moment to retake the city , which he did in September , 1799 , at the Second Battle of Zürich ; Nauendorf was not present for this action , being with Archduke Charles on a march north , toward Mainz . In 1800 , Nauendorf fought in the Austrian losses at Stockach and Engen on 3 May , Mösskirch on 5 May , and Biberach on 9 May .
Nauendorf retired in poor health at the end of the 1800 campaign . He died in Troppau , Austrian Silesia ( today Opava , in the Czech Republic ) , 30 December 1801 .
= Capture of Afulah and Beisan =
The Capture of Afulah and Beisan occurred on 20 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Nablus , formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon , the 4th Cavalry Division of the Desert Mounted Corps attacked and captured the main communications hub at Afulah , located in the centre of the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) , and Beisan on the plain 's eastern edge near the Jordan River , some 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills .
Infantry attacks by the British Empires XXI Corps had begun the Battle of Sharon on 19 September , along an almost continuous trench line from the Mediterranean across the Plain of Sharon and into the foothills of the Judean Hills . These attacks captured the Ottoman front line at Tulkarm , Tabsor , and Arara , in the process outflanking and decimating the Ottoman Eighth Army on the coast . During the attack on Tulkarm , the infantry created a gap in the Ottoman front line defences , through which cavalry from General Edmund Allenby 's Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) rode north . The three cavalry divisions in the Desert Mounted Corps successfully captured the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies ' lines of communication across the Esdraelon Plain from their headquarters in the Judean Hills .
The Desert Mounted Corps began the advance riding up the Plain of Sharon to Liktera , on 19 September where they attacked and captured an entrenched line barring their advance . Subsequently , the Corps crossed the Mount Carmel Range by the Musmus Pass and the northern Shushu Pass , during the night of 19 / 20 September . As the 4th Cavalry Division rode out across the Esdraelon Plain on the morning of 20 September , towards their primary objective ; the main communications hub at Afulah , they attacked and captured a force sent from Yildirim Army Group headquarters at Nazareth , to hold and bar the Musmus Pass , which had failed to get into position . Afulah was captured by units from both the 5th and the 4th Cavalry Divisions shortly after . Leaving the 5th Cavalry Division and one regiments at Afulah , the 4th Cavalry Division advanced to capture Beisan and later in the day , the regiment advanced directly from Afulah to occupy the railway bridges at Jisr el Mejamie , across the Jordan and Yarmuk Rivers . The capture of Jenin on the southern edge of the Esdraelon Plain , also blocked the main line of retreat to Damascus from the Judean Hills . The General Headquarters of the Yildirim Army Group commanded by General Otto Liman von Sanders at Nazareth was captured the next day , and Haifa two days later .
Several days later while garrisoning Beisan , the 4th Cavalry Division advanced southwards down the Jordan River to close a 20 miles ( 32 km ) long gap , through which the retreating remnants of the Seventh and Eighth Armies had been escaping . They successfully attacked and captured several fords during 23 and 24 September , to completely cut off all remaining Ottoman soldiers in the Judean Hills . By the end of the month , one Ottoman army had been destroyed , while the remnants of two others were in retreat to Damascus after the German rearguard at Samakh was captured by Australian Light Horsemen on 25 September . Damascus was captured on 1 October , and by the time the Armistice of Mudros between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire was signed at the end of October , fighting for Aleppo was underway .
= = Background = =
= = = Esdraelon Plain = = =
The Esdraelon Plain stretches from Lejjun in the west to Nazareth 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north , in the foothills of the Galilean Hills , through Afulah in the centre of the plain , to Beisan on its eastern edge and close to the Jordan River , and then to Jenin on the southern edge of the plain , at the foot of the Judean Hills .
Near Lejjun , the remains of the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim dominate the entry to the plain from the Musmus Pass . Here a relatively small garrison could control the routes across the Esdraelon Plain where the armies of Egyptians , Romans , Mongols , Arabs , and Crusaders who had fought Saladin near Afulah during the Battle of Al @-@ Fule , as well as of Napoleon , had marched and fought towards Nazareth , the Galilean Hills , and Damascus .
Aerial reconnaissance reported that no defensive works of any kind had been identified on the plain or covering the approaches to it , apart from German troops , garrisoned at the Yildirim Army Group headquarters of Otto Liman von Sanders at Nazareth . At 12 : 30 on 19 September Liman von Sanders ordered the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and the military police , a total of six companies and 12 machine guns , to occupy Lejjun and defend the Musmus Pass .
= = = Deployment = = =
The Desert Mounted Corps , commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Sir Harry Chauvel , was made up of the 4th , and the 5th Cavalry Divisions , and the Australian Mounted Division .
Each division consisted of three cavalry brigades , with three regiments to each brigade and support troops . The regiments consisted of a headquarters and three squadrons ; 522 men and horses in each regiment . Five of the six brigades in the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments one of which was usually lancers , the sixth brigade being the lancers of the 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade . Some of the yeomanry regiments were also armed with the lance in addition to their swords , rifles , and bayonets , while the Australian Mounted Division was armed with swords , .303 rifles and bayonets .
The 4th Cavalry Division consisted of the 10th , 11th and 12th Cavalry Brigades , the 5th Cavalry Division was made up of the 13th , 14th and 15th Cavalry Brigades and the Australian Mounted Division was made up of the 3rd , 4th and 5th Light Horse Brigades . The 5th Light Horse Brigade , was temporarily attached to the 60th Division for the Battle of Tulkarm . These mounted units were supported by machine gun squadrons , three artillery batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or Honourable Artillery Company , and light armoured car units ; two Light Armoured Motor Batteries , and two Light Car Patrols .
The Desert Mounted Corps concentrated near Ramleh , Ludd ( Lydda ) , and Jaffa , where they dumped surplus equipment in preparation for their advance before moving up behind the XXI Corps ' infantry divisions , assembled near the Mediterranean coast . By 17 September , the 5th Cavalry Division , which would lead the Desert Mounted Corps ' advance , was deployed north @-@ west of Sarona 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the front line , with the 4th Cavalry Division in orange groves east of Sarona , 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the front , and the Australian Mounted Division in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line .
All movement had been restricted to night time , culminating in a general move forwards on the eve of battle . On the night of 18 / 19 September , the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions moved forward behind the infantry , while the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona . Here the three divisions concentrated , with their supplies carried in massed horse @-@ drawn transport and on long camel trains , clogging the roads . The divisions carried one iron ration and two days ' special emergency rations per man , and 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) of grain per horse , all carried on the horse , with an additional day 's grain per horse carried on the first line transport limbered wagons .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps objectives = = =
The three lowlands of the Plain of Sharon , the Esdraelon Plain 40 miles ( 64 km ) behind the Ottoman front line , and the Jordan River Valley formed a semicircle to the north and around the Ottoman positions in the Judean Hills , held by the Seventh and Eighth Armies . After the successful infantry breakthrough , the three cavalry divisions were to ride through the gap northwards up the coastal Plain of Sharon , then eastwards across the Esdraelon Plain to the Jordan River , to cut off the Ottoman forces in the Judean Hills .
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir , the Desert Mounted Corps were to advance while " strictly disregarding any enemy forces that did not directly bar its path . " They were to turn north @-@ east across the Mount Carmel Range through two passes onto the Plain of Esdraelon . The 5th Cavalry Division was to travel by the northern and more difficult track , from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ east of Haifa and on to attack Nazareth . Meanwhile , the 4th Cavalry Division was to take the southern pass to Lejjun via the Musmus Pass and on to capture Afulah . In reserve , the Australian Mounted Division was to follow the 4th Cavalry Division via the Musmus Pass to Lejjun .
If they could quickly capture the Esdraelon Plain while the two Ottoman armies were fighting in the Judean Hills against the XXI Corps infantry in the Battle of Sharon , and the XX Corps infantry in the Battle of Nablus , the railways could be cut , the roads controlled , and the lines of retreat across the plain for these two Ottoman armies west of the Jordan would be virtually cut . Success depended on the rapid capture of the communications hub at Afulah and the Yildirim Army Group 's general headquarters at Nazareth which would disrupt communication and simultaneously almost surround the Eighth Army and cut the communications and supply lines to both the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills . ( See Falls Map 21 below which shows these cavalry advances . ) Success required that the cavalry not only capture but hold Afulah , Nazareth , and the Esdraelon Plain for some time . The men and horses of three cavalry divisions would be dependent on rations being quickly and efficiently transported forward many miles from their base .
The 5th Cavalry Division 's objectives were to capture Nazareth , Liman von Sanders , and the Yildirim Army Group 's headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) from Asurf , before clearing the plain to Afulah . The 4th Cavalry Division 's objectives were to capture the town of Afulah and then advance eastwards across the Esdraelon Plain to capture Beisan and occupy the railway and / or road bridges over the Jordan River . In particular , they were to hold or destroy the Jisr el Mejamie bridge , 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan , a distance of 97 miles ( 156 km ) from their starting point . The Australian Mounted Division , in reserve , was to enter the Esdraelon Plain and occupy Lejjun while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin , 68 miles ( 109 km ) from their starting point .
= = Prelude = =
According to David Woodward , " concentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " Victory at Megiddo depended on controlling the skies by destroying or dominating German aircraft activities and reconnaissances , through constant bombing raids by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , on Afulah to disrupt communications between the Yildirim Army Headquarters at Nazareth and the Seventh and Eighth Armies ' headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus . Victory also depended on artillery barrages of sufficient intensity and effectiveness , to enable the infantry to quickly outflank the Ottoman defenders on the coast , and drive a gap in the Ottoman front line , for the Desert Mounted Corps to ride through on their way to the Esdraelon Plain , on the first day of battle .
= = = 4th Cavalry Division breakthrough = = =
With the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery and 1st Light Car Patrol attached , the 4th Cavalry Division watered at the ' Auja River before moving to the south @-@ east of Jlil , close behind the infantry and the front line . From here , a divisional pioneer party reached the front line at 07 : 00 on 19 September to cut a gap and flag a path through the Ottoman wire . By 08 : 40 permission was given by the 7th ( Meerut ) Division , which had attacked the western sector of the Tabsor defences , for the 4th Cavalry Division , accompanied by three horse artillery batteries which had rejoined the division after taking part in the bombardment and creeping barrage at the beginning of the Battle of Sharon , to pass through the gap in the Ottoman front line defences created by their attacks . ( See Falls Map 20 ) The vanguard 11th Cavalry Brigade was led by the 36th Jacob 's Horse as advance guard .
The 4th Cavalry Division advance began at 09 : 00 , riding through the Ramadan and Zerkiyeh marches , and northwards towards Liktera and the southern end of the Musmus Pass 25 miles ( 40 km ) away . By 10 : 00 the 11th and 12th Cavalry Brigades had crossed the Nahr el Falik and were moving along both sides of the Tabsor to El Mugheir road , followed by the 10th Cavalry Brigade .
By 11 : 15 the division had passed the Zerqiye crossing , and after an hour 's halt on the Burj el ' Atot to Maghaiyir line , they moved in three brigade columns in echelon . The 12th Cavalry Brigade proceeded straight on to Jelame , while the 10th and 11th Cavalry Brigades crossed the edge of the Iskanderune marches at Shellalif . By 13 : 00 the division was approaching El Mugheir before crossing the Iskanderune River , where they rested before advancing to Liktera .
= = = Capture of Liktera = = =
An entrenched Ottoman line of defence garrisoned by the Eighth Army Depot Regiment , stretched through Jelameh , El Mejdel , and Liktera to the sea near the mouth of the Nahr Mefjir .
Although the 4th Cavalry Division had started later , riding north on the left and to the rear of 5th Cavalry Division in echelon , both divisions approached Liktera on the Nahr el Mefjir . Faced with the " whole plain alive with cavalry twelve miles behind the Turkish line " , Liktera was quickly captured , along with 50 prisoners . The remainder of the Liktera garrison retreated towards Qaqun , closely followed by the Jacob 's Horse ( 11th Cavalry Brigade , 4th Cavalry Division ) , which took 126 prisoners . This regiment went forward to Tell edh Dhrur , where another 80 prisoners were captured .
= = = Musmus Pass = = =
At 18 : 30 on 19 September , the 4th Cavalry Division halted for three hours to water , feed , and rest . The 11th Cavalry Brigade concentrated and watered at Tell edh Dhrur ; the 12th Cavalry Brigade reached Jelame on the railway north of Qaqun and also watered , while the 10th Cavalry Brigade rode on to Kerkur at the entrance to the Musmus Pass , 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) north of Tell edh Dhrur . After watering , the 2nd Lancers ( Gardner 's Horse ) ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) pushed forward with the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery to occupy Kh . ' Ara , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north @-@ east of Kerkur and about one @-@ third of the way through the Musmus Pass , at 23 : 00 .
The 14 miles ( 23 km ) long Musmus Pass across the Mount Carmel Range had been in use since before the 15th century BC when the army of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III travelled through it , and during the 1st century AD by the Roman Emperor Vespasian and his army . The pass rises to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level , as it follows the Wadi Ara up the southern side of the Samarian Hills , at the time only about 300 yards ( 270 m ) wide . Beyond Kh . ' Ara and ' Arara ( not to be confused with Arara in the Judean Hills , which was captured during the Battle of Arara on 19 September 1918 ) , both high up on either side of the Musmus Pass , the pass narrows for several miles as it approaches Musmus on the watershed . From here the route becomes very narrow , descending to a steep ridge and a rough section before reaching Lejjun at the mouth of the pass on the Esdraelon Plain with the whole of the Esdraelon Plain stretching out 300 – 400 feet ( 91 – 122 m ) below .
Major General George Barrow , commanding the 4th Cavalry Division , ordered the 10th Cavalry Brigade to march on Lejjun by 23 : 00 " at the latest " , whether or not watering was finished . He then motored forward to the 2nd Lancers , the advance guard , and at 11 : 45 ordered them " to push right through the pass to El Lejjun " to avoid being held up beyond Kh . ' Ara . They arrived at Lejjun at 03 : 30 on 20 September without meeting any opposition . Here they captured about 100 Ottoman soldiers , possibly the advance guard of the Ottoman battalion Liman von Sanders had ordered to occupy the pass .
Meanwhile , Barrow returned along the Musmus Pass to meet the 10th Cavalry Brigade , which had missed the entrance to the pass and gone 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north on a wrong road , followed by the 11th Cavalry Brigade . Barrow , now on horseback , rode back to the 12th Cavalry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier General Wigan , which was to have been the rearguard , and ordered it forward to support the 2nd Lancers , which regiment came under Wigan 's orders . At 01 : 10 on 20 September , more than two hours after the 10th Cavalry Brigade should have started into the Musmus Pass , the 12th Cavalry Brigade 's advance guard , the 6th King Edward 's Own Cavalry , moved out from Kerkuk . They trotted for 20 minutes , walked for 20 minutes , and halted for five minutes to arrive at Lejjun at 04 : 05 , with the rest of the 12th Cavalry Brigade arriving , without incident , soon after . They moved by half @-@ sections of horse through the pass , without sending out flank guards to piquet " the heights . " As they negotiated the pass , they overtook and stopped a long column of Ottoman transport , capturing about 200 prisoners . Barrow later commented that a " couple of machine guns would have sufficed to hold us up for hours . "
Although the entrance to the pass had been secured by a regiment , the remainder of the 10th Cavalry Brigade did not reinforce the regiment . The brigade commander , Brigadier General Richard Howard @-@ Vyse had disobeyed divisional orders to do so and when the brigade finally advanced , twice got lost . In consequence , Barrow , the commander of the 4th Cavalry Division , relieved Howard @-@ Vyse of his command on the spot . Lieutenant Colonel W. G. K. Green of the Jacob 's Horse took command of the brigade .
= = Battle = =
= = = Lancers charge Musmus defenders = = =
After arriving at Lejjun at 03 : 30 , the 2nd Lancers watered , fed , and breakfasted before setting out at 05 : 30 for Afulah on a " three @-@ squadrons front followed by the 11th Light Armoured Car Battery and a subsection of the 17th Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . " Ten minutes later , the centre squadron was fired on by six companies of the 13th Depot Regiment and military police , supported by 12 machine guns , which Liman von Sanders had ordered to occupy the Musmus Pass at Lejjun at 12 : 30 on 19 September . They had had to march from Nazareth to Lejjun , a distance of 15 miles ( 24 km ) .
Having failed to reach Lejjun , Liman von Sanders ' force had taken up a position across the Lejjun to Afulah road in the Esdraelon Plain . One squadron of the 2nd Lancers , supported by machine guns and armoured cars , attacked frontally , while the reserve squadron moved to the right along a slight depression to charge from the flank . A second line of Ottoman defences was encountered by the third squadron on the right ; the two squadrons eventually cooperating in a simultaneous charge which " was driven home . " The lancers speared 46 and captured 470 prisoners , suffering one man wounded and 12 horses killed .
British Empire reconnaissance aircraft reported three British armoured cars halfway across the Esdraelon Plain , on their way to Afulah . One cavalry brigade was seen at Lejjun , while two were just entering the plain , advancing on a broad front .
... bullets were coming unpleasantly close ... [ as I ] edged towards the right with the intention of locating the enemy 's left flank ... Just then the squadron ran into a wire fence hidden in the jowar [ millet ] which covered that part of the plain . I went on ahead and left it to my second in command ( Ressaidar Jang Bahadur Sing ) to reform the squadron ... Bullets were coming thick and fast now , and I imagined that the squadron had had pretty heavy casualties ; added to this I was in a blue funk of striking an uncrossable nullah ... the map showing a tributary of the Kishon between me and the enemy ... I galloped back to lead the squadron off more to the right . There seemed to be plenty of the men left , and the formation was still tolerably good . We were moving at a good 15 miles ( 24 km ) an hour by now ... but I was still in mortal terror that the Turks ' determined stand might be fortified by the knowledge that a deep nullah lay between themselves and us ... However , I need not have worried , for we were in for it now ... Before I realized it we were right on top of the enemy , and it was only when I saw a young Turk deliberately aiming at me that I realized that I was still holding my map in my right hand , and had forgotten to draw my sword .
= = = Afulah = = =
The 2nd Lancers continued their advance to Afulah forty minutes after their successful charge , and were fired on at 07 : 45 on 20 September , when they were 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the town . By the time they circled around to gallop in from the north , two regiments of the 14th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) , the 29th Lancers ( Deccan Horse ) and the 34th Prince Albert Victor 's Own Poona Horse , had captured the railway station and the road to Nazareth , respectively .
The 5th Cavalry Division 's leading ' D ' Squadron , 34th Poona Horse ( 14th Cavalry Brigade ) , had skirted the town of Birket El Fuleh to ride directly towards Afulah . At 06 : 30 they encountered seven lorries carrying German and Ottoman soldiers on the Afulah road , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the town . Led by a German officer , the enemy soldiers quickly jumped out of the lorries and opened machine gun fire , killing a British Indian Army cavalry trooper and wounding a non @-@ commissioned officer . ' D ' squadron returned fire with Hotchkiss guns . Shortly afterwards , they were reinforced by the remainder of the 14th Cavalry Brigade ; the brigade 's machine gun squadron winning the engagement .
At about 08 : 00 , the 4th Cavalry Division 's 2nd Lancers ( 10th Cavalry Brigade ) and the 5th Cavalry Division 's 29th Lancers ( Deccan Horse ) ( 14th Cavalry Brigade ) entered Afulah . Here about 75 German and 200 Ottoman prisoners were captured at the railway station , along with ten locomotives and 50 railway trucks or wagons in the sidings . A hospital , an aerodrome with three undamaged aircraft , a large quantity of petrol , and large stocks of champagne and hock were also captured . Armoured cars continued the pursuit , capturing 12 German lorries on the road to Beisan , while the railway running south and east from Afulah was cut ; the line to the west had already been cut by the 13th Cavalry Brigade ( 5
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= = =
The Jisr ed Damieh bridge , which carried the Wadi Fara road from Nablus across the Jordan River , was captured on 22 September by Meldrum 's Force , comprising the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade and 1st and 2nd Battalions , British West Indies Regiment , supported by artillery . All fords south of this bridge were also denied to the enemy .
Between 21 and 23 September the Ottoman III Corps ( Ottoman Seventh Army ) fought a rearguard action from Tubas to the Jordan River , which delayed the British cavalry encirclement and enable what remained of the Ottoman Eighth Army and the Ottoman Seventh Army to retreat to the eastern side of the Jordan River .
Late in the evening of 22 September , Chauvel ordered Barrow 's 4th Cavalry Division to advance south from Beisan along the Jordan River to close a 20 miles ( 32 km ) gap north from the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , which Chaytor 's Force had captured .
= = = = 23 September = = = =
During the day , strong patrols by the 4th Cavalry Division had moved southwards down the Beisan to Nablus road , on the west bank of the Jordan , and down the Merka to Jisr ed Damieh road , on the east bank .
The 11th Cavalry Brigade advance southwards ; the 36th Jacob 's Horse on the east bank was fired on , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) south of Beisan to the south @-@ east of Kh. es Samriye . A long column of retiring Ottoman soldiers was attempting to cross the Jordan River at Makhadet Abu Naji under cover of a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong rearguard with 30 machine guns . As the 29th Lancers , advanced down on the west bank , they were fired on from the rearguard at Makhadat abu Naji which was attacked in the rear and the flank by the 36th Jacob 's Horse ; they broke the rearguard into a " hopeless rout " . The commander of the 16th Division , Rushdi Bey , and 18 machine guns were captured , along with 800 prisoners , which were later identified to have been the rearguard of von Oppen 's Asia Corps .
Meanwhile , another stronger rearguard on the east bank protecting the retreating columns was attacked by the 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry , 11th Cavalry Brigade 4th Cavalry Division . Further attacks by the 36th Jacob 's Horse were repulsed by a second much larger body of Ottoman soldiers moving towards the Jordan River 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the south . The support of the Hampshire Battery RHA and the cooperation of the 36th Jacob 's Horse from the east bank was requested in a third attack .
At 11 : 00 the Hampshire Battery RHA came into action , but they drew accurate fire from two batteries of field guns south @-@ east of the ford , which hit all their guns . About 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) south , a squadron of 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry found a ford across the Jordan River . They quickly deployed and put the enemy guns " out of action . " The 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry began their attack from both sides of the river and eventually captured the ford , along with 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , leaving many dead . At 15 : 00 the defenders withdrew from the Makhadat Abu Naji ford , " suffering very heavily indeed from machine @-@ gun and automatic @-@ rifle fire , and abandoning an enormous amount of material . "
= = = = 24 – 25 September = = = =
Units of the 4th Cavalry Division continued the advance southwards from Beisan on 24 September , after rations had been distributed . At 10 : 35 an observation post sighted a column of Ottoman soldiers making for a ford across the Jordan River at Makhadet el Mas 'udi , where the Ottoman advanced guard arrived and deployed its machine guns to cover the escape of a larger body of Ottoman troops across another ford 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further south . ( See Falls Sketch Map 36 Detail ' A ' Situation at 11 : 00 ) The 1 / 1st County of London ( Middlesex ) Yeomanry attack at Makhadet el Mas 'udi ford succeeded at 12 : 30 , while the 29th Lancers reinforced the Yeomanry attack on the main column , capturing a total of 5 @,@ 000 prisoners , including an Ottoman divisional commander , with many dead .
Troops captured by the 11th Cavalry Brigade on 24 September were the rear of the Seventh Ottoman Army , the majority of which had crossed during the previous night and early morning , continuing their retreat towards Irbid , while von Oppen 's Asia Corps and the Fourth Ottoman Army were retreating towards Deraa .
The 11th Cavalry Brigade continued their advance 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south to Ras Umm Zoka without encountering any further Ottoman columns , while the XX Corps Cavalry Regiment , which made contact with the 29th Lancers , reached ' Ain Male 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of Tubas , capturing several thousand prisoners . The 11th Cavalry Brigade subsequently returned to Beisan on 25 September .
= Spice ( Perfume song ) =
" Spice " ( スパイス , Supaisu ) is a song recorded by Japanese girl group Perfume for their third studio album , JPN ( 2011 ) . It premiered on November 2 , 2011 as the fifth and final single from the album in Japan . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Glitter " , which appeared on the parent album . It was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . Musically , " Spice " is a house song .
Upon its release , the track garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Some critics highlighted the song as one of Perfume 's best singles from their album , whilst some felt the composition was uninteresting . It was also successful in Japan , peaking at number two both on the Oricon Singles Chart and Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . An accompanying music video was shot by Shimada Daisuke ; it features the girls performing the song in a dining room . It was performed on the groups 2011 JPN concert tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Spice " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . It was recorded , mixed , and mastered by him . The song was recorded in 2010 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . Together with the album ’ s remaining material , " Spice " has partial rights by Nakata through Yahama Music Communications . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Glitter " ; another version , re @-@ composed by Nakata , appeared on JPN instead . It premiered on November 2 , 2011 as the fifth and final single from the album . It was also released digitally on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America .
The maxi CD of the single contains both " Spice " and " Glitter " , plus their instrumental versions . The cover artwork was photographed by Japanese photographer Hiroshi Nomura and features the girls sitting on a circle window . Musically , " Spice " was described as an house song with elements of pop music and synthpop . Paul Browne from J @-@ Pop Go noted that the song " sees Perfume step down gear a bit for a more mid @-@ tempo effort . " A staff editor from Selective Hearing noted that the song incorporated elements of 80s synthpop music . Ian Martin from The Japan Times said the song incorporated elements of Westernised pop music .
= = Critical response = =
Upon its release , " Spice " received mixed reviews from most music critics . Asian Junkie editor Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog , and highlighted it as one of the best tracks on the album . Similarly , Paul Browne from J @-@ Pop Go also selected it as one of the album 's best tracks . A staff editor from CD Journal was positive in his / her review , complimenting Nakata 's composition . A staff editor from Selective Hearing was mixed in his / her review of the song ; the reviewer said that it , " isn ’ t the greatest thing the group has done for an a @-@ side but there ’ s enough to make it worth listening to . The layered vocals will probably hook most before they realize that they ’ ve heard all this before . " As a result , the reviewer concluded that they would recommended the B @-@ side " Glitter " over " Spice " . Ian Martin from The Japan Times was particularly negative in his review , labelling the song an " otherwise unremarkable closing number ... "
= = Commercial performance = =
In Japan , " Spice " was successful on several record charts . It debuted at number two on the Oricon Singles Chart ; it sold 75 @,@ 688 units in its first week of sales . It was the group 's fifth consecutive charting single to reach number two on that chart . The following week , the single fell outside the top ten to number 13 , selling 7 @,@ 136 units . It lasted for 10 weeks on the chart , totaling 90 @,@ 471 units by the end of 2011 . The song peaked at number two on Billboard 's Japan Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for physical shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Shimada Daisuke . The group 's outfits from the single cover sleeve was used again for the video shoot . The music video was released on October 27 , 2011 , through Tokuma Japan 's official YouTube channel . The music video appeared on the DVD single . The music video also appeared on Perfume 's DVD compilation sets for JPN and Perfume Clips ( 2014 ) .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video opens with several shots of a dining table ; it includes uneaten sweets , foods , and small pink bird ornaments . The first verse features close @-@ ups of the girls singing and dancing to the song , in front of a beige backdrop . The chorus section has three scenes of each member ; Kashiyuka is seen laying down with an electronics cable in her hand ; Nocchi is seen at the dining table ; and A @-@ Chan is seen under a table with a cable telephone . During the instrumental break , close @-@ up shots ( yet very blurry ) features a fish bowl that have small fishing swimming around . The second verse repeats the first verses video shoots .
The second chorus has the girls dancing on the table , knocking several pieces of food and tuppleware onto the ground . A @-@ Chan is seen lying down on a pillow , whilst Kashiyuka balances a book and an apple on her head . Both of these scenes have them throwing several pieces of food onto the table . Nocchi is seen at the dining table , holding a fork and listen to music through her headphones . She witnesses a small door underneath a stool , opens it , and sees a small green room . In the room , a blurred image of a cup starts to become clear , and holds small candy . As the girls eat the pieces of candy , their cream @-@ coloured dresses turn into the outfits from the cover sleeve from the single . The girls start dancing in the fish bowl , surrounded by glittery lights . The final scene has the girls looking through the small door again , only to witness the dining room table empty ; the small cup with candy appears in beige colouring rather than full @-@ on vibrancy .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
The song and its B @-@ side track has been used in commercials and television series within Japan . " Spice " was used as the theme song for the Japanese Tokyo Broadcasting System television series , Sengyoshufu Tantei . The B @-@ side song , " Glitter " , was first used in the commercial for Japanese company Kirin . The group 's producer , Yasutaka Nakata , was heavily influenced by the image of the drama when he wrote " Spice " ; it ’ s also the first time that he produced a soundtrack for them . The single was performed on their 2011 JPN concert tour , where it was included during the second segment . It was included on the live DVD , released in mid 2012 . The song was included on the group 's 180 Gram vinyl compilation box set , Perfume : Complete LP Box ( 2016 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the parent album .
Ayano Ōmoto ( Nocchi ) – vocals
Yuka Kashino ( Kashiyuka ) – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki ( A @-@ Chan ) – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
Shimada Daisuke – video director
Tokuma Japan Communications – record label
= = Chart and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= 10 Story Fantasy =
10 Story Fantasy ( occasionally referred to as Ten Story Fantasy ) was a science fiction and fantasy pulp magazine which was launched in 1951 . The market for pulp magazines was already declining by that time , and the magazine only lasted a single issue . The stories were of generally good quality , and included work by many well @-@ known writers , such as John Wyndham , A.E. van Vogt and Fritz Leiber . The most famous story it published was Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sentinel from Eternity " , which later became part of the basis of the movie 2001 : A Space Odyssey .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction ( sf ) publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years . In 1950 , Avon Publications experimented with a format that included several pages of comics , trying new pulp magazines in three genres : romance , westerns , and science fiction . The sf pulp , titled Out of This World Adventures , lasted for two issues ; the others for only one .
Despite these failures , Joseph Meyers , Avon 's owner , decided to try another pulp magazine the following year when his printer , J.W. Clements offered Meyers a low price for printing a pulp magazine . Donald A. Wollheim , Avon 's executive editor , titled the new magazine 10 Story Fantasy , although it actually contained thirteen stories . The layout bore a strong resemblance to that of Out of This World Adventures : both magazines had unusually elaborate artwork for the table of contents , and in both magazines the first letter of each story was decorated with black and white art . As in Out of This World Adventures , the interior art was mostly supplied by William McWilliam and " Martin " , both of whom worked in Avon 's comics department .
The cover art , selected by Meyers , not Wollheim , illustrates John Wyndham 's story " Tyrant & Slave @-@ Girl on Planet Venus " ( published under the pseudonym " John Beynon " ) . This story had been sold first to the British magazine New Worlds , under the title " No Place Like Earth " ; Wyndham subsequently sold the American rights to Wollheim , and it appeared on both sides of the Atlantic at the same time . Myers picked the new , more lurid title ; all subsequent reprint appearances used the title " No Place Like Earth " .
10 Story Fantasy 's most famous story is Arthur C. Clarke 's " Sentinel from Eternity " , which Clarke submitted to a BBC writing competition in 1948 ; it did not receive a prize or honorable mention . The story later became part of the basis of the movie 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The stories were generally of good quality , with several well @-@ known contributors such as A.E. van Vogt , L. Sprague de Camp , August Derleth , and Lester del Rey . Among the better @-@ received stories were " Friend to Man " , by C.M. Kornbluth ; " Private Worlds " , by Wollheim , under the pseudonym " Martin Pearson " ; " Cry Witch " , by Fritz Leiber ; and " Seeds of Futurity " , by Kris Neville .
Although the quality of the stories was high , the publisher was unwilling to commit to future issues , and the Spring 1951 issue was the only one that appeared .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The magazine was announced as a quarterly but only one issue was published . Donald Wollheim was editor for the only issue , which was numbered volume 1 number 1 . It was published in pulp format , priced at 25 cents and was 128 pages . The publisher was Avon Periodicals of New York .
= Washington State Route 3 =
State Route 3 ( SR 3 ) is a 59 @.@ 81 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 96 @.@ 25 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving the Kitsap Peninsula in Mason and Kitsap counties . The highway begins at U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) south of Shelton and travels northeast onto the Kitsap Peninsula through Belfair to Gorst , where it intersects SR 16 and begins its freeway . SR 3 travels west of Bremerton , Silverdale and Poulsbo before it terminates at the eastern end of the Hood Canal Bridge , signed as SR 104 . The highway is designated as a Strategic Highway Network ( STRAHNET ) corridor under the National Highway System as the main thoroughfare connecting both parts of Naval Base Kitsap and is also part of the Highways of Statewide Significance program .
SR 3 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to Secondary State Highway 14 ( SSH 14 ) from Shelton to Belfair , Primary State Highway 14 ( PSH 14 ) from Belfair to Gorst , and PSH 21 from Gorst to the Hood Canal Bridge . PSH 21 was previously part of State Road 21 from 1915 to 1937 , while PSH 14 was part of State Road 14 and the Navy Yard Highway from 1919 to 1937 . The present SR 3 freeway was opened in 1968 in the Bremerton area and was extended north to Poulsbo in 1973 and to Bangor in 1977 .
= = Route description = =
SR 3 begins at a diamond interchange with US 101 south of Shelton in unincorporated Mason County on the Olympic Peninsula . The highway travels north into Shelton at the end of Oakland Bay on 1st Street and crosses over a Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad line and Goldsborough Creek . SR 3 turns east on Pine Street and leaves Shelton , traveling northeast along Oakland Bay and a US Navy rail line . The highway continues north along Oakland Bay and Case Inlet past heavily forested areas to Allyn @-@ Grapeview , where it serves as the western terminus of SR 302 at North Mason High School . SR 3 travels towards the southern end of the Hood Canal and intersects the eastern termini of SR 106 and SR 300 in Belfair . The highway continues northeast past Bremerton National Airport towards the community of Gorst in Kitsap County , where it forms the western terminus of SR 16 .
SR 3 becomes a four @-@ lane divided freeway and travels northeast along the Sinclair Inlet to an interchange with SR 304 in Navy Yard City , serving the city of Bremerton and Naval Station Bremerton . The freeway continues through western Bremerton past the diamond interchange with SR 310 and the community of Chico along Dyes Inlet . SR 3 travels west of Silverdale past the western terminus of SR 303 at the Kitsap Mall and east of Naval Submarine Base Bangor in Bangor . The freeway continues north towards Poulsbo past the termini of SR 308 and SR 305 , which serve Keyport and Bainbridge Island respectively . SR 3 travels north from Poulsbo as a two @-@ lane road towards Port Gamble and ends at the eastern approach of the Hood Canal Bridge at an intersection with SR 104 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 3 was between SR 16 in Gorst and SR 304 in Navy Yard City , serving 69 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section was southwest of Allyn @-@ Grapeview at an intersection with Grapeview Loop Road , serving 6 @,@ 600 vehicles . SR 3 is designated as a STRAHNET corridor within National Highway System , connecting Naval Base Kitsap to the state highway system between Gorst and Bangor , while the rest of the highway is part of the system , which includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . WSDOT designates the entire route of SR 3 as a Highway of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 3 follows the route of a paved section of State Road 21 between Belfair and Port Gamble on the Kitsap Peninsula that was added to the state highway system in 1915 . The highway was later split between the Navy Yard Highway from Belfair to Bremerton and State Road 21 from Bremerton to Port Gamble in 1919 . In 1923 , the state highway system was restructured and the Navy Yard Highway was numbered as State Road 14 , while State Road 21 kept its designation . The Navy Yard Highway was paved on a 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 77 km ) section connecting Union to Charleston and was dedicated by Naval Station Bremerton on June 13 , 1923 , while the rest of the highway remained a gravel road into the 1930s .
During the creation of the primary and secondary state highway system in 1937 , the paved State Roads 14 and 21 kept their numerical designations and became PSH 14 and PSH 21 , respectively . PSH 21 was extended southwest from Bremerton on the former Navy Yard Highway to Gorst , while PSH 14 turned south at Gorst and headed towards Tacoma . A branch of PSH 14 , named SSH 14A , was designated on a gravel road that connected the main highway at Belfair to US 101 in Shelton . In 1955 , PSH 21 was extended southwest along PSH 14 from Gorst to Union , shortening PSH 14 to its current route as SR 16 .
During the 1964 highway renumbering , a new state route system replaced the existing primary and secondary state highways and SR 3 was designated along SSH 14A , PSH 14 , and PSH 21 on its present route when it was codified in 1970 . Construction of the freeway section of SR 3 began in 1963 between SR 304 in Navy Yard City and Silverdale west of Bremerton and was opened in February 1968 . The freeway was extended north to Poulsbo in late 1973 , and further north to Naval Submarine Base Bangor in 1977 after the arrival of Ohio @-@ class submarines at Bangor . WSDOT re @-@ built the interchange between SR 3 and SR 303 in Silverdale at a cost of $ 26 million , paid for by a 2003 gas tax . The new interchange , opened in November 2007 , split the western terminus of SR 303 between two exits , signed as 45A and 45B , and removed a loop ramp that created turning conflicts . WSDOT began study of a Belfair bypass in 1966 and completed a provisional report in 2010 that did not recommend constructing a bypass of the community , instead opting for a project to widen the highway and add safety improvements that began work in fall 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Michael Phelps =
Michael Fred Phelps II ( born June 30 , 1985 ) is an American competition swimmer and the most decorated Olympian of all time , with a total of 22 medals in three Olympiads . Phelps also holds the all @-@ time records for Olympic gold medals ( 18 , double the second highest record holders ) , Olympic gold medals in individual events ( 11 ) , and Olympic medals in individual events for a male ( 13 ) . In winning eight gold medals at the 2008 Beijing Games , Phelps took the record away from fellow American swimmer Mark Spitz ( 7 ) for the most first @-@ place finishes at any single Olympic Games . Five of those victories were in individual events , tying the single Games record . In the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Phelps won four golds and two silver medals , making him the most successful athlete of the Games for the third Olympics in a row .
Phelps is the long course world record holder in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , 200 @-@ meter butterfly and 400 @-@ meter individual medley as well as the former long course world record holder in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle and 200 @-@ meter individual medley . He has won a total of 77 medals in major international long @-@ course competition , totalling 61 gold , 13 silver , and 3 bronze spanning the Olympics , the World , and the Pan Pacific Championships . Phelps 's international titles and record @-@ breaking performances have earned him the World Swimmer of the Year Award seven times and American Swimmer of the Year Award nine times as well as the FINA Swimmer of the Year Award in 2012 . His unprecedented Olympic success in 2008 earned Phelps Sports Illustrated magazine 's Sportsman of the Year award .
After the 2008 Summer Olympics , Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation , which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles . He continues to work with his foundation after the 2012 Olympics , which he had said would be his last . In April 2014 , Phelps came out of retirement , and he qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil .
= = Early life = =
Phelps was born in Baltimore , Maryland , and raised in the Rodgers Forge neighborhood of nearby Towson , Maryland . He attended Rodgers Forge Elementary , Dumbarton Middle School , and Towson High School . Michael is the youngest of three children . His mother , Deborah Sue " Debbie " ( née Davisson ) , is a middle school principal . His father , Michael Fred Phelps , is a retired Maryland state trooper who played football in high school and college and tried out for the Washington Redskins in the 1970s . Phelps 's parents divorced in 1994 , when he was nine years old , and his father remarried in 2000 . His ancestry includes English , Irish , Scottish , Welsh , and German . Phelps graduated from Towson High School in 2003 .
Phelps began swimming at the age of seven , partly because of the influence of his sisters and partly to provide him with an outlet for his energy . When Phelps was in the sixth grade , he was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . By the age of 10 , he held a national record for his age group , and Phelps began to train at the North Baltimore Aquatic Club under coach Bob Bowman . More age group records followed , and as of 2016 Phelps still holds 12 age group records ( nine in long course and three in short course ) .
= = 2000 Summer Olympics = =
Phelps 's rapid improvement culminated in his qualifying for the 2000 Summer Olympics at the age of 15 and becoming the youngest male to make a U.S. Olympic swim team in 68 years . While he did not win a medal , he did make the finals and finished fifth in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly .
= = 2001 World championships = =
At the World Championship Trials for the 2001 World Aquatics Championships , on March 30 , Phelps broke the world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly to become , at 15 years and 9 months , the youngest male ever to set a swimming world record . Previously this was Ian Thorpe , who lowered the 400 @-@ meter freestyle world record at 16 years , 10 months . At the World Championships in Fukuoka , Japan , Phelps broke his own world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly en route to becoming a world champion for the first time .
= = 2002 Pan Pacific championships = =
At Nationals , the selection meet for the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships , in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , Phelps set an American record in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley and was just off the world record in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . In the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps bettered the world record held by Tom Dolan with a time of 4 : 11 @.@ 09 , just ahead of Erik Vendt , who finished second with a time of 4 : 11 @.@ 27 , also below the old world record . In the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps was barely beaten by Klete Keller and in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps beat Ian Crocker .
At the 2002 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Yokohama , Japan , Phelps won three gold medals and two silvers . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won gold ahead of Erik Vendt with a time of 4 : 12 @.@ 48 . In the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps lost to Tom Malchow , finishing behind him 1 : 55 @.@ 41 to 1 : 55 @.@ 21 . Phelps said he lost because he did not take butterfly training seriously after he broke the world record . In the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 59 @.@ 70 . In the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Nate Dusing , Klete Keller , and Chad Carvin , won the silver medal with a time 7 : 11 @.@ 81 finishing behind Australia . The U.S. 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay team consisted of Aaron Peirsol , Brendan Hansen , Phelps , and Ian Crocker . In the final for the medley relay , Phelps swam a 51 @.@ 1 split , at the time the fastest split in history . The final time of 3 : 33 @.@ 48 was a world record .
= = 2003 World championships = =
At Nationals , Phelps won the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , 200 @-@ meter backstroke , and the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . He became the first American swimmer to win three different races in three different strokes at a national championship . At the 2003 Duel in the Pool , a meet that pits swimming stars from Australia and the United States , Phelps broke the world record in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley with a time of 4 : 10 @.@ 73 and almost broke the world record in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , just missing the record by 0 @.@ 03 seconds . At a meet in Santa Clara County , California , Phelps broke the world record in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 94 . Phelps said he broke the 200 @-@ meter individual medley world record after Don Talbot said Phelps was unproven , using his words as motivation .
At the 2003 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won four gold medals , two silver medals , and broke five world records . Phelps broke his first world record on July 22 in the semi @-@ finals for the 200 @-@ meter butterfly . Phelps swam a 1 : 53 @.@ 93 to break his own world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 58 set in 2001 and became the first man to swim under 1 : 54 @.@ 00 . In the final of the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , on July 23 , Phelps easily won the gold medal , but did not come close to his world record with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 35 . Less than an hour later , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg for the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay . Phelps put up a solid time of 1 : 46 @.@ 60 ( an American record ) but the Americans could not match the depth of the Australians and ultimately finished second 7 : 10 @.@ 26 to 7 : 08 @.@ 58 . In the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps dominated . On July 24 , in the semifinals of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , he broke his own world record with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 52 . On July 25 , in the final of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps smashed his own record with a time of 1 : 56 @.@ 04 to win the gold medal and finished almost 3 seconds ahead of Ian Thorpe . About an hour before the final of the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps swam in the semifinals of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . Phelps dominated again , finishing in the top seed position with a world record time of 51 @.@ 47 . However , in the final of the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , on July 26 , Ian Crocker erased Phelps 's world record with a time of 50 @.@ 98 , to become the first man under 51 seconds . Phelps swam a 51 @.@ 10 ( also under his former world record ) , but had to settle for silver . In the final of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , on July 27 , Phelps broke his own world record with a time of 4 : 09 @.@ 09 to easily claim the gold medal . About half an hour later , Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Phelps did not swim in the finals , but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats .
= = 2004 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
At the 2004 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Phelps competed in six events ; the 200- and 400 @-@ meter individual medley , the 100- and 200 @-@ meter butterfly , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , and the 200 @-@ meter backstroke . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps easily won with a world record time of 4 : 08 @.@ 41 . Two days later , in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 46 @.@ 27 , finishing sixth @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Klete Keller . Phelps , however , was not pleased with the result and wanted to be in the 1 : 45s and was uncertain if he would swim the event in Athens . The following day , Phelps won in the 200 @-@ meter butterfly with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 31 , three seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Tom Malchow . After two days off , Phelps was back in the pool and finished second to Aaron Peirsol in the 200 @-@ meter backstroke . Less than half an hour later , Phelps won the 200 @-@ meter individual medley title ahead of Ryan Lochte by 2 @.@ 70 seconds . The following day , Phelps finished second to Ian Crocker in the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . Crocker won in a time of 50 @.@ 76 , a world record and 0 @.@ 39 seconds ahead of Phelps . When the Trials were over , Phelps became the first person to qualify in six individual events for a U.S. Olympic team . However , Phelps dropped the 200 @-@ meter backstroke to focus on the 200 @-@ meter freestyle because he wanted to race Ian Thorpe . Even though Phelps didn 't compete in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle at the Trials , he was still selected for the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . Gary Hall , Jr. thought this was unfair and said Phelps did not deserve a spot on the relay . Phelps argued his program was too crowded to compete in 100 @-@ meter freestyle and was at least among the top four swimmers because he had beaten the top @-@ seeded Jason Lezak the last time he had swum against him .
= = = Athens = = =
In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a world record time of 4 : 08 @.@ 26 to win his first Olympic gold medal . The following day , in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ian Crocker , Neil Walker , and Jason Lezak , finished in third place with a time of 3 : 14 @.@ 62 . Crocker 's lead @-@ off time of 50 @.@ 05 was the worst among the field and was blamed on sickness . In the event many were calling The Race of the Century , held the following day , Phelps finished in third place behind Ian Thorpe and Pieter van den Hoogenband in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle . Although this race ended the chance to match Spitz 's record , Phelps had savored the challenge even though it was not his strongest event , saying " How can I be disappointed ? I swam in a field with the two fastest freestylers of all time " . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , held the following day , Phelps finished first with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 04 , breaking Tom Malchow 's Olympic record . About an hour later , in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay , and Klete Keller , finished in first place with a time of 7 : 07 @.@ 33 . Two days later , in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps finished first with a time of 1 : 57 @.@ 14 , an Olympic record . In the 100 @-@ meter butterfly final , held the following day , Phelps defeated American teammate Ian Crocker ( who held the world record in the event at the time ) by just 0 @.@ 04 seconds with a time of 51 @.@ 25 . Traditionally , the American who places highest in an individual event will be automatically given the corresponding leg in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay final . This gave Phelps an automatic entry into the medley relay , but he deferred and Crocker swam instead . Phelps 's gesture gave Crocker a chance to make amends as well getting his final shot at a gold medal . The American medley team went on to win the event in world @-@ record time , and , since Phelps had raced in a preliminary heat of the medley relay , he was also awarded a gold medal along with the team members who competed in the final . In winning six gold and two bronze medals , Phelps , still a teenager , had the second @-@ best performance ever at a single Olympics , behind Mark Spitz 's seven gold medals at the 1972 Summer Olympics . Also , he became the second male swimmer ever to win more than two individual titles at a single Games with four , tying Spitz 's four from 1972 .
= = 2005 World championships = =
At the 2005 World Championship Trials , Phelps decided to drop his specialty events , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley and the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , and experiment with the 400 @-@ meter freestyle and the 100 @-@ meter freestyle . Phelps went on to win the 400 @-@ meter freestyle , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , and the 200 @-@ meter individual medley at the Trials .
At the 2005 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won a total of six medals , 5 golds and one silver . In the 400 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps did not make it past the preliminary heats and finished 18th overall with a time of 3 : 50 @.@ 53 . Later that day , in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps won his first gold in the Championships . Two days later , on July 26 , Phelps won his second gold in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle with a new American record time of 1 : 45 @.@ 20 , finishing ahead of Grant Hackett . Two days later , on July 28 , Phelps finished seventh in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle final . Later that day , Phelps won his third gold in the 200 @-@ meter individual medley . On July 29 , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay and Klete Keller , won the gold in the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay with a time of 7 : 06 @.@ 58 . This was the fourth gold medal for Phelps . On July 30 , Phelps swam in his last individual event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly . In the final , Phelps could not match the speed of Ian Crocker and had to settle for silver , finishing 51 @.@ 65 to 50 @.@ 40 . On July 31 , Phelps earned his final gold medal when the United States team won the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Phelps did not swim in the finals but still earned a medal because he swam in the heats .
= = 2006 Pan Pacific championships = =
At the 2006 National Championships , Phelps won a total of three events . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 32 . In his second event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps just edged out Ian Crocker 51 @.@ 51 to 51 @.@ 73 . In his third event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 56 @.@ 50 , just ahead of Ryan Lochte 's time of 1 : 56 @.@ 78 .
At the 2006 Pan Pacific Swimming Championships in Victoria , British Columbia , Phelps won five gold medals and one silver . In his first event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won in a world record time of 1 : 53 @.@ 80 , his first world record in two years . In his second event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps easily won with a time of 4 : 10 @.@ 47 , 3 @.@ 38 seconds ahead of second @-@ place finisher Robert Margalis . In his third event , the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Ryan Lochte , Peter Vanderkaay , and Klete Keller , won the gold medal with a time of 7 : 05 @.@ 28 . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter backstroke , Phelps won the silver medal , finishing behind Aaron Peirsol 1 : 56 @.@ 81 to 1 : 54 @.@ 44 . In his fifth event , the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps , along with Neil Walker , Cullen Jones , and Jason Lezak , won the gold medal with a world @-@ record time 3 : 12 @.@ 46 . In his sixth event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won with a world record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 84 , breaking his record of 1 : 55 @.@ 94 set in 2003 .
= = 2007 World championships = =
At the 2007 World Aquatics Championships , Phelps won seven gold medals , tying the record , and broke five world records . Phelps first gold medal came in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle . Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 48 @.@ 42 seconds and Neil Walker , Cullen Jones and Jason Lezak each expanded the lead to win in a Championship record of 3 : 12 @.@ 72 , just missing the world record of 3 : 12 @.@ 46 set the previous year . His lead @-@ off time was faster than the winning time in the individual 100 @-@ meter freestyle final later in the meet . Phelps set his first world record in the Championships in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , his second race . Phelps won the gold ahead of Pieter van den Hoogenband and broke Ian Thorpe 's six @-@ year @-@ old world record with a time of 1 : 43 @.@ 86 . For his third race , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won the gold and bettered his own world record of 1 : 53 @.@ 71 with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 09 . For his fourth race , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps set his third world record with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 98 , bettering his own world @-@ record time of 1 : 55 @.@ 84 For his fifth race , the 4 × 200 @-@ meter freestyle relay , Phelps swam the lead @-@ off leg in 1 : 45 @.@ 36 as the American team of Ryan Lochte , Klete Keller , and Peter Vanderkaay went on to win the gold medal and beat the previous world record set by Australia in 2001 with a time 7 : 03 @.@ 24 . For his sixth race , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps edged out Ian Crocker 50 @.@ 77 to 50 @.@ 82 to win his sixth gold medal . For his seventh event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps won the gold medal in a world @-@ record time of 4 : 06 @.@ 22 , more than 3 @.@ 5 seconds ahead of Ryan Lochte . By winning seven gold medals , Phelps broke the record of six set by Ian Thorpe at the 2001 World Championships . The 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay team would have competed in the final , but received a disqualification for a false start during a changeover in the heats , ending Phelps 's chance of eight gold medals .
Even though Phelps competed in the backstroke in international competition only once ( at the 2006 Pan Pacific Championships ) , he was among the best backstroke swimmers in the world . This is illustrated by his personal best times set in 2007 , four months after the World Championships . At the US Nationals in Indianapolis on August 1 , 2007 , Phelps swam a 1 : 54 @.@ 65 in the 200 @-@ meter backstroke , which was the third fastest of all time in the event , 0 @.@ 33 of a second off the world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 32 held by Ryan Lochte . Two days later Phelps swam a time of 53 @.@ 01 sec in the 100 @-@ meter backstroke , 0 @.@ 03 of a second short of the world record of 52 @.@ 98 held by Aaron Peirsol and the second @-@ fastest performance of all time . In 2007 Phelps swam into the all @-@ time top 3 performances in seven individual events , four of these being world records .
= = 2008 Summer Olympics = =
= = = Trials = = =
At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Team Trials , Phelps competed in six individual events . In his first event , the 400 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps broke his own world record of 4 : 06 @.@ 22 with a time of 4 : 05 @.@ 25 . In his second event , the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 44 @.@ 10 , ahead of Peter Vanderkaay 's time 1 : 45 @.@ 85 . In his third event , the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , Phelps placed second in his heat with a time of 47 @.@ 92 , ensuring him a spot on the relay . In his fourth event , the 200 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 1 : 52 @.@ 20 . In his fifth event , the 200 @-@ meter individual medley , Phelps broke his own world record of 1 : 54 @.@ 98 with a time of 1 : 54 @.@ 80 . In his sixth and final event , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly , Phelps won with a time of 50 @.@ 89 . When asked about his chances of winning eight gold medals in Beijing , Phelps said , " I am going to prepare for that meet just like I do every other meet ... There is only so much I can do in a month and then I am going to prepare myself the best that I can . "
= = = Beijing = = =
Phelps set an Olympic record in the preliminary heats of the 400 @-@ meter individual medley . He followed that up in the final by winning the gold medal , as well as breaking his previous world record by nearly two seconds .
Phelps swam the first leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay in a time of 47 @.@ 51 seconds ( an American record for the 100 @-@ meter freestyle ) , and won his second gold medal of the 2008 Olympics , as well as setting his second world record of the Olympics ( 3 : 08 @.@ 24 ) . Teammate Jason Lezak , after beginning the anchor leg more than half a body length behind Alain Bernard , managed to finish ahead of the favored French swimmer by eight hundredths of a second . The top five teams in the final finished ahead of the world record of 3 : 12 @.@ 23 set the previous day by the American B team in a preliminary heat .
For his third race , Phelps broke his previous world record in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle by nearly a second and won his third gold medal . He also set his third world record at the Olympics , 1 : 42 @.@ 96 ,
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this programme of work . It was positioned on the high ground of Castle Down to protect New Grimsby harbour , overlooking the narrow , northern entrance to the harbour . It would have held a battery of guns and an accompanying garrison , designed to prevent enemy vessels from entering the harbour .
Edward Seymour fell from power in 1549 , and after his removal a new survey was carried out by Captain William Tyrell , in part to confirm that the new fortifications were suitably located across the islands . Building work across the Scilly Isles continued , expanding to include the neighbouring island of St Mary 's . At least 540 oak trees from South Wales were dispatched to the islands in early 1550 , as the islands lacked suitable sources of timber of their own . Orders were given in 1551 to send bows , arrows and the ingredients required to make gunpowder to the islands , where construction teams were kept at work throughout 1552 .
The Old Blockhouse appears to have been completed , but the Crown 's resources had become badly stretched and it was decided at the end of 1552 to curtail further expenditure on the Scilly Isles . Between 1548 and 1552 , a total of £ 3 @,@ 123 had been spent on improving the fortifications on the islands ; a 1579 survey suggested that , with the cost of the garrisons , the project had come to a total of £ 6 @,@ 000 . Edward 's successor , Queen Mary I , intended to establish a garrison of 150 soldiers on the islands , but it is uncertain if these numbers were ever achieved . By 1558 , Killigrew held the title of the " captain in the Castell of Tresco " , referring to King Charles 's Castle .
= = = = Weaknesses = = = =
It soon became evident that King Charles 's Castle had been built in a poor location . It was 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above sea level and its guns could only fire at enemy ships in the harbour by being angled downwards . Artillery pieces in the 16th century could not fire in this position as the cannonballs would fall out of their muzzles , making the castle much less effective in defending Tresco . By 1554 , a small blockhouse had been built beneath the castle on the future site of Cromwell 's Castle , overlooking the harbour just above the sea level to compensate for this weakness .
The concerns over the castle were significant . Francis Godolphin , who at the time was renting Tresco from the Crown , commented at the end of the century that the castle could not defend the island as " it neither discovereth the whole harbour so through the iminent height thereof can make no good shot so steep downwards " , and also complained about its fortification , " which is worst , is of so weak form as it cannot be defended " . Partially in response to these problems , the new Star Castle was constructed on St Mary 's island between 1593 to 1594 ; a more modern , well @-@ positioned design , Star Castle rapidly became the key defensive site in the Scilly Isles .
= = = 17th century = = =
The Scilly Isles supported Charles I during the English Civil War , and after a short period in Parliamentary control rebelled in favour of Charles in 1648 . The Royalists on Tresco appeared to have believed that King Charles 's Castle was a critical defensive point on the island and probably built new earthwork defences around the castle to defend it against an attack from the land . It is possible , however , that these defences instead date from around 1627 , and were built by the King 's engineer , Bernard Johnson . During this period the castle was given its current name .
Tresco formed a base for Royalist privateers , and Parliament became concerned that the Dutch , then hostile to England , might counter the piracy by occupying the islands , gaining a foothold they could then use against England . In 1651 Parliament sent Sir Robert Blake in charge of a naval task force to retake the islands .
Blake arrived at St Helen 's Pool in April 1651 , and set about invading the island of Tresco . Taking the harbour of Old Grimsby in an amphibious assault on 18 April , he then simply bypassed King Charles ' Castle and marched south , using Tresco as a basis for then taking the neighbouring island of St Mary 's .
The Royalist commander of the castle , William Edgecumbe , retreated from the castle on 19 April and the defenders blew up part of the site as they left , leaving the remains to the Parliamentary commander Colonel George Fleetwood . Some of the castle 's stonework appears to have been reused in the construction of the new Cromwell 's Castle by the Parliamentarians , just beneath King Charles 's Castle , the new fortification being sited in a much better position to defend the harbour .
In 1660 , Charles II was restored to the throne and Edward Sherburne was sent to the Scilly Isles to inspect the defences . He recommended that repairs be carried out to King Charles 's Castle , which was then being used to house soldiers .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
The Crown , in the form of the Duchy of Cornwall , leased the islands in 1687 to the Godolphin family , followed by Augustus Smith in 1834 . The antiquary William Borlase was critical of the castle — by then in ruins — during his 1752 visit , describing it as a " work of labour and expense , rather than of skill " , and attributing its abandonment to its poor military utility . The writer John Troutbeck , commenting at the end of the century , took a similar perspective , praising the thickness of the walls , but noting that it was ill @-@ positioned to fire into the harbour , unlike its replacement below .
In 1922 , the lease passed to Arthur Dorrien @-@ Smith , who agreed to pass several properties on Tresco , including the castle , into the guardianship of the Ministry of Works . The castle was partially excavated in 1954 , uncovering coins , pottery and a buckle . Parts of the first floor of the battery were reconstructed from the fallen stonework uncovered during the dig .
In the 21st century , the blockhouse is controlled by English Heritage , the successor to the Ministry , and open to tourists . It is protected as a scheduled monument and a Grade II * listed building under UK law .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Buildings = = =
King Charles 's Castle is a polygonal stone building , composed of a gun battery on one side and living quarters on the other . On the west side , overlooking the sea , is a large room which originally contained the battery , with embrasures for five guns . At some point after its initial construction , the north @-@ east gun embrasure was blocked by the construction of an internal chamber within the gun battery , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) by 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 ft 7 in ) , with the embrasure being opened up to form a window .
Behind the battery is a large room , 8 @.@ 8 metres ( 29 ft ) by 6 metres ( 20 ft ) , forming a hall and kitchen , originally for the use of the garrison and containing a fireplace and oven . The room has two bedrooms leading off it , each 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 ft 6 in ) square . The north bedroom may have been heated by a small brazier . A guardroom , 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) square , forms the entrance to the building , leading into the hall .
The castle is made from dressed and rubble granite , incorporating an underling rocky outcrop into the design in the north @-@ west and south @-@ west corners . In places the walls survive up to 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 11 ft ) high and 1 @.@ 65 metres ( 5 ft 5 in ) thick , but are on average only 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) tall and 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 ft 7 in ) thick . Opinions vary as to how tall the castle was when first built ; it may have been two storeys high throughout , or may only have been that height in the gun battery , with the living accommodation being a single storey construction . The upper storey of the gun battery would have held additional guns .
Architecturally , the castle is unusual for this period . Its design appears somewhat backward , particularly in comparison to the nearby fortification of Harry 's Walls , built at the same time as the castle , but which adopted a more contemporary design that employed bastions . Its closest equivalents are the blockhouses built by Henry VIII on the River Thames .
= = = Earthworks = = =
The castle is surrounded by a rectangular earthwork , probably built in 1627 , and similar to that at Sandsfoot and Pendennis Castles . It stretches away north @-@ east from the castle , with an earth and rubble bank up to 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high and 8 metres ( 26 ft ) wide , with a bastion and demi @-@ bastion at its corners and a ditch , up to 0 @.@ 4 metres ( 1 ft 4 in ) deep and 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) wide along the north and east sides .
Another line of earthworks survives around 40 metres ( 130 ft ) south @-@ east of these earthworks ; its bank is 0 @.@ 3 metres ( 1 ft 0 in ) high , with a ditch up to 0 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) deep . It lies just behind the crest of the hill , possibly for concealment , and is defended with bastions and orillons although it appears not to have been finished . It probably dates from the mid @-@ 16th century , possibly having been built at around the same time as the castle .
= Anton Meyer =
Anton Meyer is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , played by actor George Irving . He appeared in the series from its first episode , broadcast on 12 January 1999 , until series four , episode 46 , broadcast on 20 August 2002 . His role in the show is that of consultant cardiothoracic surgeon and head of the cardiothoracic surgery department at Holby General . Irving had considerable input in creating the character , who was initially envisioned by the series producers as an Iranian surgeon named Hussein . At Irving 's suggestion , Meyer became Hungarian , an emigrant to Britain following the 1956 Hungarian Revolution . Little of the backstory created for Meyer was ever revealed on @-@ screen , as part of a deliberate bid to present the character as enigmatic , allowing viewers to project their own imagination onto him .
Meyer is a driven , arrogant surgeon , with high expectations of his colleagues . His major storylines see him operate on his own sister , fear that he may have Motor Neurone Disease , lose his spleen after being shot in a road rage incident , and ultimately depart from Holby for Michigan when the hospital Board make impositions on his autonomy . Irving made the decision to leave the series as he struggled to set the character aside outside of work , which had a negative impact on his personal life . He ruled out the possibility of returning to Holby City in future , preferring his memory of Meyer to remain untarnished .
Meyer proved popular with viewers and critics . Following the series launch , he was described by Jaci Steph of the Daily Mail as the series ' " only distinctive character " . Peter Paterson , also of the Daily Mail , deemed Meyer an asset to the show , which he finds " feeble " in Meyer 's absence . Jim Shelley of The Mirror described Meyer as " one of the best characters on television in recent years " . Meyer was particularly well received by female fans , attaining sex @-@ symbol status , described by journalist Lynda Lee @-@ Potter as " the kind of domineering , unsmiling hero who made Mills & Boon heroines swoon . "
= = Storylines = =
Meyer 's major storylines include operating on his own sister when she falls ill , despite a long @-@ term enmity with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Greg . He seeks help from his friend , neurologist Professor Charles Merrick ( Simon Williams ) , when he fears he may have Motor Neurone Disease , but Merrick deduces he has an easily treatable thyroid problem instead . Merrick 's daughter Victoria ( Lisa Faulkner ) works on Meyer 's firm for a period as a Senior house officer ( SHO ) . When she is murdered by the irate father of one of her patients , Meyer becomes involved when he is trapped in a lift with her killer , James Campbell . Campbell overdoses on pills and dies in the lift before Meyer can revive him to face justice .
At the beginning of series four , Meyer is shot in a road @-@ rage incident on his way to work . The culprit is later admitted to the hospital as a patient , when he crashes his car after trying to flee following the shooting . He tries to escape from the hospital in fear that the police will discover him , and after three attempts at leaving the hospital , he finally achieves his goal but collapses in the hospital car park and dies .
When the parents of Rufus Wooding , a young patient of Meyer 's , suddenly withdraw their consent for a complicated operation , total cavo @-@ pulmonary connection ( TCPC ) , Meyer discovers that his SHO , Sam Kennedy ( Collette Brown ) , has intervened and persuaded the parents not to go ahead with surgery . Believing that his authority has been undermined , Meyer promptly fires her . Kennedy threatens to go to the press if Meyer is not investigated , so the hospital Board begin an enquiry , during which Meyer is suspended . The investigation is headed by Meyer 's old friend and rival , Tom Campbell @-@ Gore ( Denis Lawson ) . It concluded that Meyer 's clinical skills were exemplary and unquestionable , although the Board , aware that Meyer 's penchant for taking extremely difficult cases has made hospital death rates appear bad , remove Meyer 's discretion to decide when to operate in such cases . This decision angers Meyer , who argues that he performs operations that are in the interests of the patients not league tables . The Board also relieve Meyer of his registrar Alex Adams ( Jeremy Sheffield ) . Meyer resigns to work in Michigan to develop an artificial heart , while Campbell @-@ Gore takes his post at Holby .
= = Creation = =
Irving was heavily involved in the creation of his character , writing Meyer 's biography before assuming the role . He felt that it was important for him to understand Meyer 's motivation and the reason he is so driven , as the character is presented as a " peacock ogre " who throws scalpels at one of his colleagues in an early episode , and unless Irving could fathom why , his portrayal would be " one step removed " . Meyer was loosely based on the cardiothoracic surgeon Sir Magdi Yacoub . He was originally intended to be of Iranian descent and had the surname Hussein , before the series producers changed their minds and made him central European instead . Irving had developed a Hungarian accent for a film role prior to his involvement with Holby City , and decided that " Meyer was temperamentally Hungarian – gloomy with a bit of Mediterranean liveliness . " It was decided that Meyer had left Hungary following the 1956 uprising , with his parents , who were intellectuals .
Although it was decided he has a sister , a wife and a daughter , Meyer 's personal life is rarely mentioned on screen , enabling viewers to perceive him as a strong man onto whom they can " project whatever they want from their own imagination . " Irving believes that modern television drama is populated by characters prone to disclosing everything about themselves , and so feels that having an enigmatic character like Meyer , who behaves in the reserved vein of Humphrey Bogart and Spencer Tracy , makes for a " refreshing change " . He commented that revealing more of Meyer 's personal life would be anticlimatic compared to viewers ' expectations . As preparation for the role , Irving observed coronary artery bypass surgery performed at Papworth and Middlesex Hospital , deeming the experience an " enormous privilege " . He had a " real fascination " with medicine and the human body prior to assuming the role , and considered studying biology at university . Upon receiving the script for the first episode of Holby City , Irving felt immediately connected to Meyer , commenting : " I knew instinctively how he moved , how he spoke , what he felt . I could feel his heartbeat . "
= = Development = =
Irving concentrated on his own ideas of Meyer 's characterisation when playing him , believing it was important to ignore outside input , as Meyer in turn is unperturbed by others ' opinions of him . Irving describes Meyer as a driven man , determined to only work with colleagues who meet his exacting standards . He feels that Meyer 's " dry sense of humour " and bullying manner are both tools he uses to ensure colleagues meet his standards . Irving believes that Meyer 's manipulative nature actually serves the greater good of the hospital , and despite his perfectionist and purist tendencies , Meyer is actually a great humanist , who holds his staff in the highest regard .
Graham Keal of the Birmingham Post observed that Meyer begins the series as a " hate figure " – ferocious , unbending and unsmiling , but is actually more complex a character than that , with " much to admire too . " Peter Paterson of the Daily Mail described Meyer as " an arrogant , sarcastic , demanding tyrant " , a surgeon who " insults his subordinates , terrifies the nurses , and unashamedly puts his social life at least on a level with his hospital duties . " Paterson called Meyer " saturnine and sinister in appearance " , likening him to James Robertson Justice 's Doctor in the House consultant Lancelot Spratt . Shane Donaghey of The People compared Meyer to Hannibal Lecter , describing him as " Part panto villain , part grim reaper , with a bedside manner of a cruel vet " and commenting that he manages his department " with an iron fist veiled in a concrete glove . " The Daily Mail 's Christopher Matthew called Meyer " wonderfully supercilious " , and " one of the great television monsters of our age " , likening Irving 's portrayal to that of a foreign spy in a 1950s British war film .
Meyer has a penchant for listening to classical music whilst in theatre , and has a " right @-@ hand @-@ man " in his registrar , Nick Jordan ( Michael French ) , who is presented as Meyer 's " more humane " counterpart . Meyer 's catchphrase is " Walk with me " , an instruction he issues to his staff while , according to The Mirror 's Jim Shelley , " sneer [ ing ] imperiously " and " saunter [ ing ] around the wards like a Roman emperor , suavely saving lives and damning other doctors with their own inadequacies . "
Irving was dismayed by the storyline which saw Meyer shot in a road rage incident , describing filming the scenes as an " unpleasant experiences " , the worst aspect being that Meyer loses his spleen as a result of his injuries . Of the later storyline which sees Meyer investigated by Tom Campbell @-@ Gore on behalf of the hospital Board , Denis Lawson explained : " [ Campbell @-@ Gore ] actually rather fancies Meyer 's job but if he finds against him in the investigation he cannot get the job because it 's a conflict of interest . So he has to play a rather clever game , which he does . " On taking over as head of the cardiothoracic surgery department , he commented : " George is fantastic in the show , but obviously I 'm going to do something very , very different , so I don 't feel that I 'm stepping into his shoes . "
After four years in the role , Irving decided to leave Holby City and return to performing in theatre . He stated : " I 've had four great years but I felt the time had come to leave . The show has gone from strength to strength so now seems a good time to go . " Of his decision to leave , Irving explained that , while he enjoyed Meyer 's sureness and confidence , he found it difficult to " switch off " the character outside of work , and had been forced to " put the rest of his life on hold " whilst part of the series , deeming it to be an " intense experience . " He felt that , had he stayed in the series , Meyer could not have remained enigmatic much longer , and believed : " you have to stop when a character 's time is through . " Following Irving 's departure from Holby City , Benji Wilson of the Radio Times questioned whether he would ever consider returning . Irving responded : " I don 't know – my feeling is that Meyer was of his time . He 's the kind of character that belongs at the launch of series like Holby and I think that 's where he should remain . The memory of Meyer is important to me and I want it to stay as it is . "
= = Reception = =
The broadcast of the first episode brought positive comments for Irving and Meyer from television critics . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail described Meyer as the series ' " only distinctive character " , while Peter Paterson , also of the Daily Mail , deemed Meyer a welcome change to the caring , politically correct and compassionate characters seen in Casualty . In the Birmingham Post , Graham Keal called Irving 's portrayal " a charismatic combination of autocratic arrogance and dry wit " , and noted that the character 's interactions with Nick Jordan " form the programme 's primary double act " . Andrew Billen in the New Statesman called Meyer the most compelling character of the series , while Kathleen Morgan of the Daily Record similarly deemed Meyer the star of the show , writing that Irving : " gave a chilling performance as a man who saves lives simply to boost his ego . " Following the broadcast of the second episode , Daily Mirror critic Charlie Catchpole wrote that Irving gave the best performance in a hospital drama as " a rude , eccentric , conceited , arrogant bully " since Tom Baker in Medics .
John Russell of The People disliked the storyline which saw Meyer operate on his own sister , describing it as " something between a carve up and a cock up " , and commenting that he was " so disturbed " he " switched the tripe off " , however fellow People critic Shane Donaghey lauded Meyer as the only reason to watch Holby City . Tony Purnell of The Mirror gave a poor review when Meyer did not appear for several episodes , commenting that the show was in " very poor health " in his absence , and " the sooner he returns , the better . " Purnell praised Meyer 's return two episodes later , however was concerned by his Motor Neurone Disease scare , deeming Meyer " the lifeblood of the series " and writing that Holby City could " ill afford to lose him " .
In April 2001 , Paterson again reviewed the character positively , writing that the series is " feeble " in his absence , and that : " when surgeon Meyer is not strutting arrogantly around the hospital , Holby City loses much of its zing and bite . " He deemed Meyer one of the series ' two major assets , alongside Siobhan Redmond as paediatrician Janice Taylor , and criticised the opening episode of series four , in which Meyer is shot in a road rage incident , believing that Meyer was " wasted " in spending " most of a wearisome hour @-@ long show under the knife " . Jim Shelley of The Mirror similarly hoped for Meyer to " get well soon and resuscitate the series . " Shelley selected the character as a runner @-@ up for his 2001 " Man of the Year " award , and upon the character 's exit from Holby City , described him as " a study in arrogance and laconic authority [ ... ] one of the best characters on television in recent years . "
Meyer has been particularly well received by female Holby City fans , elevating Irving to sex @-@ symbol status . The Dail Mail 's Lynda Lee @-@ Potter described him as " devastatingly attractive , brusque and autocratic " and " the kind of domineering , unsmiling hero who made Mills & Boon heroines swoon . " Irving felt that this was " fairly predictable in terms of the nature of Meyer – tough and masterful – combined with the aphrodisiac of power , and the life and death aspects of his job . " He commented that he was surprised by the positive reaction to his character , explaining : " He seems to have captured people 's imaginations , but it 's difficult to put your finger on what he has . I think it 's got something to do with being a character who says exactly what he means all the time . He 's got integrity , which I admire anyway , and I expect the audience responds to that . Surgeons seem to like him too . I find that particularly gratifying . He 's got the courage to do what 's right for his work and his patients and not worry about popularity or being liked . " Conversely , Irving noted that after assuming the role , members of the public would sometimes " give a kind of shudder " upon encountering him , associating him with his character .
= George Armstrong ( ice hockey ) =
George Edward " Chief " Armstrong ( born July 6 , 1930 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played 21 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Toronto Maple Leafs . He played 1 @,@ 188 NHL games between 1950 and 1971 , all with Toronto and a franchise record , and was the team 's captain for 13 seasons . Armstrong was a member of four Stanley Cup championship teams and played in seven NHL All @-@ Star Games . He scored the final goal of the NHL 's " Original Six " era as Toronto won the 1967 Stanley Cup .
Armstrong played both junior and senior hockey in the Toronto Marlboros organization and was a member of the 1950 Allan Cup winning team as senior champions of Canada . He returned to the Marlboros following his playing career and coached the junior team to two Memorial Cup championships . He served as a scout for the Quebec Nordiques , as an assistant general manager of the Maple Leafs and for part of the 1988 – 89 NHL season as Toronto 's head coach . Armstrong was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 and the Maple Leafs honoured his uniform number 10 in 1998 .
= = Early life = =
Armstrong was born in 1930 in Skead , Ontario , to a Scottish Canadian father and part Ojibway mother . He grew up in Falconbridge , Ontario where his father was a nickel miner . Sport was an important part of Armstrong 's family as his father played soccer and his mother was a canoeist . The younger Armstrong developed a passion for hockey but was a poor skater , which his father believed was a consequence of a case of spinal meningitis George suffered at the age of six .
While attending Sudbury High School , Armstrong played on the hockey team with Red McCarthy and Tim Horton . Inspired by a newspaper advertisement offering tryouts with the Copper Cliff Redmen of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey Association ( NOJHA ) , Armstrong convinced Horton and McCarthy to join him in trying out . They made the team and Armstrong began his junior hockey career at age 16 in the 1946 – 47 season . He recorded six goals and five assists in nine games and caught the attention of scouts for the National Hockey League ( NHL ) ' s Toronto Maple Leafs who added him to their protected list . He also played with the Prince Albert Blackhawks for part of that season . Armstrong quit school in grade 11 to focus on his hockey career .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and senior = = =
The Maple Leafs placed Armstrong on the Stratford Kroehlers in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) junior division for the 1947 – 48 season . He led the league in both assists ( 43 ) and points ( 73 ) , and was named recipient of the Red Tilson Trophy as the OHA 's most valuable player . Promoted to the Toronto Marlboros for the 1948 – 49 season , Armstrong recorded 62 points in 39 games with the junior squad and played in three regular season and ten post @-@ season matches for the senior team . Armstrong remained with the senior Marlboros in 1949 – 50 where he served as captain . He led the OHA senior division with 64 goals , at the time an OHA record , and recorded 115 points in 39 games . He was again named the winner of the Red Tilson Trophy .
The Maple Leafs briefly recalled Armstrong during the 1949 – 50 season and he made his NHL debut on December 3 , 1949 . He appeared in two games before returning to the Marlboros . In the 1950 Allan Cup playdowns , he recorded 19 goals and 19 assists in 14 games as the Marlboros won the national senior championship . It was also during the season that he earned his nickname . While visiting the Stoney Reserve in Alberta with the Marlboros , the locals presented Armstrong with a ceremonial headdress and called him " Big Chief Shoot the Puck " owing to his own Native heritage . The nickname was often shortened to " Chief " .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
Upon turning professional in 1950 – 51 , Armstrong was assigned to Toronto 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Pittsburgh Hornets . In 71 games for Pittsburgh , he recorded 15 goals and 48 points . Despite being hampered by hand and wrist injuries suffered in fights , Armstrong was the AHL 's leading goal scorer and stood second in points by mid @-@ season in 1951 – 52 . He was recalled to Toronto during the season and scored his first NHL goal , against goaltender Gerry McNeil of the Montreal Canadiens . It was the first goal ever scored by a player with Native heritage . He finished the season with three goals and three assists in 20 games with Toronto .
Though he missed the start of the 1952 – 53 season due to a separated shoulder , Armstrong earned a permanent spot on the Maple Leafs ' roster . He quietly established himself as an important contributor for Toronto by recording 25 points that season , then scoring 32 points the following season and 28 in 1954 – 55 . A 48 @-@ point season in 1955 – 56 was second on the team to Tod Sloan 's 66 . Armstrong then led the Maple Leafs in scoring with 44 points in 1956 – 57 despite missing 14 of his team 's games . He was named to play in the NHL All @-@ Star Game in both seasons . They were the first two of seven he would ultimately play .
The Maple Leafs named Armstrong the team 's captain in 1957 – 58 as he succeeded Ted Kennedy and Jim Thomson who served as co @-@ captains the season before . He finished fourth in team scoring with 42 points , then played his third All @-@ Star Game during the 1958 – 59 season . He recorded four assists in the playoffs as the Maple Leafs reached the 1959 Stanley Cup Final , but lost to the Montreal Canadiens . With 51 points in 1959 – 60 , Armstrong finished one behind Bob Pulford for the team lead . Toronto again reached the Stanley Cup Final where they were again eliminated by Montreal .
The Maple Leafs finally reached the NHL 's peak two seasons later . Armstrong set a career high with 53 points in the 1961 – 62 regular season , then added 12 points in 12 playoff games for Toronto . He started the play that resulted in the Stanley Cup clinching goal , rushing the puck up ice before passing to Tim Horton , who then passed to goal @-@ scorer Dick Duff that capped off a 2 – 1 victory in the sixth and deciding game of the series against the Chicago Black Hawks . As Maple Leafs captain , Armstrong was presented the trophy by league president Clarence Campbell . It was the first of three consecutive championships for Toronto as the Maple Leafs of 1962 – 1964 became the fourth dynasty in NHL history . Individually , Armstrong scored 21 , 19 and 20 goals over the three seasons and by virtue of the NHL 's All @-@ Star Game format of the time that had the defending champion play the all @-@ stars of the remaining teams , appeared in his fourth , fifth and sixth All @-@ Star Games . Early in the 1963 – 64 season , on December 1 , 1963 , Armstrong scored his 200th career NHL goal .
A 37 @-@ point season followed in 1964 – 65 , then 51 points the 1965 – 66 season . By 1966 – 67 , Armstrong led an aging Maple Leafs team that entered the playoffs as an underdog against a dominant Chicago team . The Maple leafs nonetheless eliminated the Black Hawks in six games to set up the 1967 Stanley Cup Final against Montreal . The Canadiens were so confident of victory that a display area for the Stanley Cup had been set up at the Quebec pavilion at Expo 67 prior to the series ' start . The Maple Leafs dashed Montreal 's hopes by winning the championship in six games . Armstrong scored the final goal of the series in a 3 – 1 victory in the deciding contest . It was also the last goal scored in the NHL 's " Original Six " era as the league was set to double in size to 12 teams for the 1967 – 68 season .
Armstrong announced his intention to retire as a player following the championship but changed his mind and returned for another season . The Maple Leafs placed him on their protected list for the 1967 Expansion Draft , and he remained with Toronto . He played in his seventh All @-@ Star Game in 1968 and finished the season with 34 points . Retiring following the season before changing his mind became an annual event for Armstrong as he announced his intention to leave the game in five straight years . He remained a consistent scorer for Toronto , recording 27 , 28 and 25 points in his following three seasons . He finally ended his playing career after the 1970 – 71 season to take an office position in the Maple Leafs .
= = Coaching and scouting career = =
Armstrong was announced as the head coach of his former junior team , the Toronto Marlboros , in July 1972 . Though he had preferred his previous role as a scout to coaching , Armstrong led the Marlboros to Memorial Cup victories on two occasions : in 1973 and 1975 . In 1977 , Armstrong 's name circulated as a possible successor to Maple Leafs coach Red Kelly when the latter was fired by the team . When approached by the organization with the prospect of assuming head coaching duties however , Armstrong rejected the possibility . His decision resulted in animosity from within the organization and subsequently led to his resignation as coach of the Marlboros that season to accept a scouting post with the Quebec Nordiques .
Some 10 years later , Armstrong returned to the Maple Leafs organization in the dual capacities of assistant general manager and scout . During the 1988 – 89 season , and after management had fired head coach John Brophy , team owner Harold Ballard was adamant that Armstrong be named Brophy 's replacement . Armstrong agreed to take the position , but increasingly delegated majority of his duties to assistant coach Garry Lariviere . The Maple Leafs finished with 17 wins in 47 Armstrong 's games coached . He was replaced by Doug Carpenter the following season and returned to his scouting capacities with the team . Armstrong remains a scout with the Maple Leafs to this day .
= = Playing style = =
The Toronto Maple Leafs described Armstrong as being a " consistent , durable and hardworking " player throughout his 21 @-@ season career that spanned parts of four decades . A consummate leader , Armstrong was lauded by owner Conn Smythe as " the best captain , as a captain , the Leafs have ever had " . His 713 career points were the second most all @-@ time in Toronto franchise history at the time of his retirement , and As of 2014 remains fifth @-@ best . His 1 @,@ 187 NHL games are the most by any player in Toronto history , and he remains the franchise leader with 417 career assists and 713 points by a right wing . The Maple Leafs named him the co @-@ recipient , with Bob Pulford , of the J. P. Bickell Memorial Award in 1959 . The award is presented to members of the organization who perform with a high standard of excellence . In 1998 , the franchise honoured his uniform number 10 . In 2013 , he ranked was number 14 on Sportsnet 's list of the greatest Maple Leafs . Armstrong was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1975 and the Ontario Sports Hall of Fame in 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
Armstrong resides in Toronto with his wife Betty . The couple have four children : Fred , Betty @-@ Ann , Brian and Lorne . He is the uncle of Dale McCourt , a former first overall draft pick by the Detroit Red Wings in the 1977 NHL Amateur Draft . When given a day with the Stanley Cup in 2005 , Armstrong elected to have a family gathering with it at his son 's home in Vaughan , Ontario . Armstrong was recognized by the NHL for his charitable efforts in 1969 when he was named the inaugural recipient of the Charlie Conacher Humanitarian Award . Proud of his Native heritage , Armstrong often supported programs organized by both Indian and Northern Affairs and non @-@ governmental agencies that aimed to promote positive role models for Native children .
Armstrong had a brief film career , appearing as himself in the 1971 film Face @-@ Off , a.k.a. " Winter Comes Early " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Playing career = = =
* Stanley Cup champion
= = = Coaching career = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Punch @-@ up in Piestany =
The Punch @-@ up in Piestany was a bench @-@ clearing brawl between Canada and the Soviet Union , during the final game of the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Piešťany , Czechoslovakia ( now Slovakia ) , on January 4 , 1987 . The incident resulted in the ejection of both nations , and while the Soviets had already been eliminated from medal contention , the disqualification cost Canada a certain medal – potentially the gold . The brawl is famous for officials having turned off the arena lights in a desperate attempt at ending the 20 @-@ minute melee . Much of the blame was placed on Norwegian referee Hans Rønning , who had been selected for the game based on his perceived neutrality rather than experience .
Following the brawl , the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) suspended the players involved for 18 months and the coaches for three years . The players ' suspensions were later reduced to six months on appeal , allowing several players from both teams to return for the 1988 tournament in Moscow . Both nations won medals in 1988 ; Canada won the gold medal while the Soviets won silver .
The brawl dramatically raised the profile of the World Junior Hockey Championships in Canada , where it is now one of the top events on the annual sports calendar . The fervent patriotism displayed by Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analyst Don Cherry in the aftermath led to a sharp rise in his own popularity with Canadian fans . Several players in that game went on to play in the National Hockey League , including Brendan Shanahan , Theoren Fleury , Sergei Fedorov , Alexander Mogilny and Vladimir Konstantinov .
= = Hockey 's " Cold War " = =
Canada and the Soviet Union had engaged in an increasingly intense rivalry since the Soviets first emerged on the international scene by winning the 1954 World Ice Hockey Championships . From 1963 until 1983 , the Soviets captured 17 World Championship titles amidst repeated accusations from Canada that their teams were made up of professionals masquerading as amateurs . The accusations eventually led to Canada boycotting all World Championships and Olympic hockey tournaments between 1970 and 1976 . Finally , the 1972 Summit Series was organized , pitting the Soviet all @-@ stars against Canada 's NHL all @-@ stars . The eight @-@ game series was won by Canada 4 – 3 – 1 as Paul Henderson scored the winning goal late in the deciding contest . The Soviets handily won a second Summit Series against World Hockey Association all @-@ stars in 1974 . The series led to the creation of the Canada Cup , a tournament held five times between 1976 and 1991 . Canada won four titles , losing to the Soviet Union in 1981 . Also from 1976 until 1991 , top Soviet club teams toured the NHL in what became known as the Super Series .
The World Junior Championships were formally created in 1977 , and to that point had been dominated by the Soviet Union with seven championships . Until 1982 , Canada sent either their Memorial Cup champion or an all @-@ star team . 1982 was the first time Canada sent a national junior team , under the auspices of Hockey Canada 's Program of Excellence . The Canadians won that tournament , and again in 1985 .
The " Cold War " culminated in 1987 with Rendez @-@ vous ' 87 , as the Soviet national team played a two @-@ game series against the NHL all @-@ stars in place of the NHL All @-@ Star Game . The series was split , with the NHL winning the first game 4 – 3 , and the Soviets the second , 5 – 3 . The 1987 Canada Cup followed , and was won by Canada two games to one , with the third game being described as the greatest in hockey history . The winning goal was scored by Mario Lemieux on a pass from Wayne Gretzky .
= = Game summary = =
In 1987 , the World Junior Hockey Championship was a round robin tournament . The teams with the top three records won the gold , silver and bronze medals . Finland had finished their schedule with a 5 – 1 – 1 record to lead the tournament . Canada entered the game with a 4 – 1 – 1 record , and had already been assured the bronze medal . A victory against the Soviets would have guaranteed Canada the silver , and a victory by more than four goals would have won the gold medal . The Soviet Union , entering the game with a 2 – 3 – 1 record , had already been eliminated from medal contention . The match @-@ up between the two squads was deliberately scheduled to be the final game of the tournament as organizers expected at least one of the teams would be playing for the gold medal .
The IIHF assigned Norway 's Hans Rønning as the referee for this game . The assignment was made based on his neutrality despite his inexperience officiating at the international level . Upon hearing of Rønning 's assignment , Canadian representative Dennis McDonald sought out IIHF supervisor of officials , René Fasel , hoping to convince him to select a different referee . Aside from the question of his competence to call a game of this magnitude , the Canadians were concerned about Rønning following an earlier game in the tournament he officiated between Canada and the United States . A wild brawl had broken out during the pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups against the Americans three days earlier . The officials were not on the ice when the melee occurred ; however , Rønning ejected one player from each team at random for starting the brawl . Canadian captain Steve Chiasson was thus barred from the game against the Americans , as well as the following game after being assessed a match penalty . Unable to convince IIHF officials to change the assignment , McDonald was concerned about how the game would be played . Rønning 's inexperience at that level was later identified as a significant cause of the brawl , as several stick infractions by both sides had gone uncalled , causing anger to rise between both teams .
Off the opening faceoff , Sergei Shesterikov elbowed Canadian Dave McLlwain , who responded by cross @-@ checking the Soviet player . Neither player was assessed a penalty . Five minutes in , Theoren Fleury scored the opening goal for Canada . In celebrating the goal , Fleury slid across centre ice on his knees acting as if his stick was a machine gun and pretended to " open fire " on the Soviet bench . Canadian Amateur Hockey Association president Murray Costello later called it an " inflammatory act , completely unnecessary , lacking any sort of respect . " The first period continued in similar fashion with both teams repeatedly slashing their opponents and Canada emerging with a 3 – 1 lead . Interviewed by the CBC during the intermission , Fleury described the atmosphere on the ice : " The boys are up for the gold medal . Everybody is so tense . Tempers are flying . It 's really tough out there ... I can 't believe it . It 's so tense . It 's so tense . "
Early in the second period , the game was paused for a moment of silence in memory of four Swift Current Broncos players who were killed when their team bus crashed in Saskatchewan five days previous . There was a drop in intensity in the five minutes of play that followed . However , just after the six @-@ minute mark , following a minor scuffle that sent two players from each team to the penalty box , the teams resumed shoving and slashing at each other . Each team also scored a goal , giving Canada a 4 – 2 lead halfway through the game .
= = = The brawl = = =
The brawl began after a face @-@ off as Shesterikov collided with Everett Sanipass with 6 : 07 left in the second period , resulting in a fight between the two . Soviet player Pavel Kostichkin also leveled a two @-@ handed slash at Fleury , leading to another fight . The battle quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice for both teams . Returning from a commercial break , Canadian commentator Don Wittman understated the severity of the fighting by saying " well , we had a real skirmish just moments ago following a face @-@ off . " Evgeny Davydov was the first player from either team to leave his bench to join the melee , prompting all players from both teams to leave their benches .
Mike Keane paired off against Valeri Zelepukin , with the Canadian " fighting like it was for the world title " according to Fleury . In another fight , Vladimir Konstantinov leveled a head @-@ butt that broke Greg Hawgood 's nose ; Brendan Shanahan later described it as " the greatest head @-@ butt I 've ever seen " . Stéphane Roy was pummeled by two Soviet players . The remaining players paired off as the officials attempted to break up the fighting . There were at least a dozen separate fights over the entire ice surface . Unable to control the situation , Rønning and his linesmen eventually left the ice under the orders of Czechoslovakian officials . In a desperate attempt at ending the brawl , tournament officials had the arena lights turned off , leaving the players to fight in the dark as the fans whistled loudly in disapproval of the entire situation . The whole stadium shouted " My chceme hokej , my chceme hokej " , which translates to " We want hockey , we want hockey " . By the time the fights had finally broken up , the IIHF declared the game null and void .
= = Aftermath = =
The IIHF
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2013 , Grabner was suspended for two games for an illegal check to the head of Carolina Hurricanes forward Nathan Gerbe .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On 17 September 2015 , after five seasons with the Islanders , he was traded to Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Taylor Beck , Carter Verhaeghe , Matt Finn , Tom Nilsson , and goaltender Christopher Gibson and made assistant captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
With his freedom from the Maple Leafs obtained , on July 1 , 2016 , Grabner signed as a free agent to a two @-@ year deal with the New York Rangers .
= = International play = =
Grabner made his international debut with Austria in Division I play of the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships in Minsk , Belarus . Underaged for the tournament at sixteen @-@ years @-@ old , he scored three goals and an assist in five games . The following year , he competed for Austria in Division I of the 2005 World Junior Championships , held in Great Britain . He recorded three points in four games as Austria finished third in Group A. Several months later , he was named to his second under @-@ 18 team for the 2005 IIHF World U18 Championships , where Austria again competed in Division I play . Grabner tied for second in team @-@ scoring with four goals and an assists over five games . Austria finished in fifth place out of six teams in Group A , coming within a loss of being relegated to Division II for the next year . He joined Austria in their qualifying tournament for the 2010 Winter Olympics in early 2009 and led the four team tournament in scoring with five goals ; Austria finished second to Germany and failed to qualify for the Olympics .
It was during the 2012 World Championships that Grabner first played for the Austrian national team . Austria participated in Division IA , the second tier of the World Championships , and earned a promotion to the elite level for 2013 .
He also represented Austria in the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi , where he scored five goals and made one assist . He scored a hat @-@ trick against Finland . He finished tied for first in goal @-@ scoring and tied for fifth in points . He led Austria in scoring .
= = Personal life = =
On 31 March 2011 , Grabner and wife Heather , whom he met while playing in Spokane , welcomed a son .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
NHL Rookie of the Month - February 2011
NHL All @-@ Star Game Skills Fastest Skater 2011
Named as a 2011 finalist for the Calder Trophy as NHL rookie of the year .
NHL All @-@ Rookie Team – 2011
2014 Winter Olympics – Goal Scoring Leader ( 5 ) ( tied )
= The Frighteners =
The Frighteners is a 1996 New Zealand @-@ American horror comedy film directed by Peter Jackson and co @-@ written with his wife , Fran Walsh . The film stars Michael J. Fox , Trini Alvarado , Peter Dobson , John Astin , Dee Wallace Stone , Jeffrey Combs , and Jake Busey . The Frighteners tells the story of Frank Bannister ( Fox ) , an architect who develops psychic abilities allowing him to see , hear , and communicate with ghosts after his wife 's murder . He initially uses his new abilities to befriend ghosts , whom he sends to haunt people so that he can charge them handsome fees for " exorcising " the ghosts . However , the spirit of a mass murderer appears able to attack the living and the dead , posing as the ghost of the Grim Reaper , prompting Frank to investigate the supernatural presence .
Jackson and Walsh conceived the idea for The Frighteners during the script @-@ writing phase of Heavenly Creatures . Executive producer Robert Zemeckis hired the duo to write the script , with the original intention of Zemeckis directing The Frighteners as a spin @-@ off film of the television series , Tales from the Crypt . With Jackson and Walsh 's first draft submitted in January 1994 , Zemeckis believed the film would be better off directed by Jackson , produced by Zemeckis and funded / distributed by Universal Studios . The visual effects were created by Jackson 's Weta Digital , which had only been in existence for three years . This , plus the fact that The Frighteners required more digital effects shots than almost any movie made until that time , resulted in the eighteen @-@ month period for effects work by Weta Digital being largely stressed .
Despite a rushed post @-@ production schedule , Universal was so impressed with Jackson 's rough cut on The Frighteners , the studio moved the theatrical release date closer by four months . The film was not a box office success , but received generally positive reviews from critics . Despite its lackluster performance at the box office , the film has gained a cult following in more recent years .
The Frighteners is also Fox 's last leading role in a live @-@ action feature film ; Fox then went on to a four @-@ year run on the television series Spin City before semi @-@ retiring in 2000 due to the effects of Parkinson 's disease .
= = Plot = =
In 1990 , architect Frank Bannister 's ( Michael J. Fox ) wife , Debra , dies in a car accident . He abandons his profession , and his unfinished " dream house " sits incomplete . Following the accident , Frank gained the power to see ghosts and befriends three : 1970s street gangster Cyrus ( Chi McBride ) , 1950s nerd Stuart ( Jim Fyfe ) , and The Judge ( John Astin ) , a gunslinger from the Old West . The ghosts haunt houses so Frank can then " exorcise " them for a fee . Most locals consider him a con man .
Soon after Frank cons local health nut Ray Lynskey ( Peter Dobson ) and his wife Lucy ( Trini Alvarado ) , a physician , Ray dies of a heart attack . Frank discovers there is an entity , appearing as the Grim Reaper , killing people , first marking numbers on their foreheads that only Frank sees . Frank 's late wife Debra had a similar number when she was found .
Frank 's ability to foretell the murders puts him under suspicion with the police and FBI agent Milton Dammers ( Jeffrey Combs ) , who is convinced Frank is responsible . Frank is arrested for killing newspaper editor Magda Rees @-@ Jones ( Elizabeth Hawthorne ) , who had attacked him in the press .
Lucy investigates the murders and becomes a target of the Grim Reaper . She is attacked while visiting Frank in jail ; but they escape with the help of Cyrus and Stuart , who are both dissolved in the process . Frank wants to commit suicide to stop the Grim Reaper . Lucy helps Frank have a near @-@ death experience by putting him into hypothermia and using barbiturates to stop his heart . Dammers abducts Lucy , revealing that he had been a victim of Charles Manson and his " Family " in 1969 .
In his ghostly form , Frank confronts the Grim Reaper and discovers that he is the ghost of Johnny Bartlett ( Jake Busey ) , a psychiatric hospital orderly who killed twelve people 32 years earlier , before being captured , convicted , and executed . Newspaper reports reveal that his greatest desire was to become the most prolific serial killer ever , showing pride at killing more than contemporaries like Charles Starkweather . Patricia Bradley ( Dee Wallace @-@ Stone ) , then a teenager , was accused as his accomplice , although she escaped the death penalty due to her underage status . Lucy resuscitates Frank and they visit Patricia . Unknown to them , Patricia is still in love with Bartlett and on friendly , homicidal terms with Bartlett 's ghost , and eventually kills her own mother , who had been trying to monitor her daughter 's behavior . Lucy and Frank trap Bartlett 's spirit in his urn , which Patricia has kept . The pair make for the chapel of the now @-@ abandoned psychiatric hospital hoping to send Bartlett 's ghost to Hell .
Patricia and Dammers chase them through the ruins . Dammers throws the ashes away , releasing Bartlett 's ghost again before Patricia kills him . Bartlett 's ghost and Patricia hunt down Frank and Lucy . Frank realizes that Bartlett 's ghost , with Patricia 's help , was responsible for his wife 's death and the number on her brow , and that he is still trying to add to his body count ( and infamy ) even after his death .
Out of bullets , Patricia strangles Frank to death , but Frank in spirit form rips Patricia 's spirit from her body , forcing Bartlett to follow them . Bartlett grabs Patricia 's ghost , while Frank makes it to Heaven , where he is reunited with Cyrus and Stuart along with his wife Debra . Bartlett and Patricia 's spirits claim they will now go back to claim more lives , but the portal to Heaven quickly changes to a demonic looking appearance , and they are both dragged to Hell by a giant worm @-@ like creature . Frank learns it is not yet his time and is sent back to his body , as Debra 's spirit tells him to " be happy . "
Frank and Lucy fall in love . Lucy is now able to see ghosts as well . Frank later begins demolishing the unfinished dream house and building a life with Lucy while the morose @-@ looking ghost of Dammers is riding around in the sheriff 's car . Frank and Lucy then enjoy their picnic .
= = Cast = =
Michael J. Fox as Frank Bannister : Although Jackson and Walsh envisioned The Frighteners as a low @-@ budget film with unknown actors , Zemeckis suggested casting his Back to the Future star Fox in the lead role . Fox became enthusiastic about working with Jackson when he saw Heavenly Creatures at the Toronto International Film Festival .
Trini Alvarado as Dr. Lucy Lynskey : The character is named after Heavenly Creatures star Melanie Lynskey ( who also cameos in The Frighteners ) .
Peter Dobson as Ray Lynskey , Lucy 's health @-@ obsessed and comically hot @-@ headed husband who dislikes Frank 's tactics
John Astin as The Judge , a decaying gunslinger ghost from the Old West with a penchant for mummies and firing guns at random .
Dee Wallace Stone as Patricia Ann Bradley , Bartlett 's mentally ill lover ( escaping execution at the time of the original murders as she was underage ) who is under strict observation by her mother .
Jeffrey Combs as Special Agent Milton Dammers , an eccentric FBI agent who has a vendetta against Bannister . A former undercover agent known for his work with cultists , which caused him to sustain multiple massive mutilations and driven to the brink of insanity . He has a problem with women screaming at him . Jackson opted to cast Combs as Dammers because he was a fan of the actor 's work in Re @-@ Animator .
Jake Busey as John Charles " Johnny " Bartlett , a mass murderer who continues his work in the afterlife , focusing on increasing his body count as a form of competition with other famous murderers . He returns from Hell , able to attack the living and the dead as the ghost of the Grim Reaper .
R. Lee Ermey as the ghost of Sergeant Hiles .
Chi McBride as Cyrus , a gangster who is one of Frank 's deceased associates for his ghost @-@ hunting business .
Jim Fyfe as Stuart , a nerd who is one of Frank 's deceased associates for his ghost @-@ hunting business .
Angela Bloomfield as Debra Bannister , Frank 's deceased wife .
Troy Evans as Sheriff Walt Perry , a local law enforcement officer and ally to Frank .
Julianna McCarthy as Mrs. Bradley , Patricia 's mother and former director of the psychiatric hospital , who is constantly monitoring her daughter .
Elizabeth Hawthorne as Magda Rees @-@ Jones , the snooty British editor of the local newspaper .
Peter Jackson ( cameo ) as a man with piercings .
Melanie Lynskey ( cameo ) as a deputy , who is briefly seen standing next to Trini Alvarado 's " Lucy Lynskey " .
= = Development = =
Peter Jackson and wife / co @-@ writer Fran Walsh conceived the idea for The Frighteners in 1992 , during the script @-@ writing phase of Heavenly Creatures . Together , they wrote a three @-@ page film treatment and sent it to their talent agent in Hollywood . Robert Zemeckis viewed their treatment with the intention of directing The Frighteners as a spin @-@ off film of the television series , Tales from the Crypt ( which he helped produce ) . Zemeckis hired Jackson and Walsh to turn their treatment into a full @-@ length screenplay in January 1993 . The husband and wife duo completed their first draft for The Frighteners in early @-@ January 1994 . Zemeckis was so impressed with their script , he decided The Frighteners would work better directed by Jackson , executive produced by Zemeckis and funded / distributed by Universal Pictures . Universal greenlighted the film to commence pre @-@ production on a $ 26 million budget in April 1994 . The studio also granted Jackson and Zemeckis total artistic control and the right of final cut privilege .
= = = Production = = =
Jackson decided to film The Frighteners entirely in New Zealand . Zemeckis and Universal agreed on the condition that Jackson made New Zealand look similar to the Midwestern United States . Principal photography began on May 14 , 1995 and lasted until November 16 , which is one of the longest shooting schedules ever approved by Universal Pictures . Six weeks into the shoot , cinematographer Alun Bollinger had a serious car accident . His replacement , John Blick , later alternated duties with Bollinger for much of the rest of the shoot . Location shooting primarily included Wellington and three weeks spent in Lyttelton . Interior scenes were compiled at Camperdown Studios in Miramar .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Jackson 's Weta Digital created the visual effects , which included computer @-@ generated imagery , as well as scale models ( which were necessary to make Wellington look American ) , prosthetic makeup and practical effects with help from Weta Workshop . Visual effects supervisor Richard Taylor explained that effects work on The Frighteners was complex due to Weta 's inexperience with computer technology in the mid @-@ 1990s . Prior to this film , Weta worked largely with physical effects . With so many ghosts among its main cast , The Frighteners required more digital effects shots than almost any movie made up till that time . For a special effects company that had been in existence less than three years , the eighteen @-@ month period for completing The Frighteners was largely stressful . Some shots were handled by a small New Zealand company called Pixel Perfect , many of whose employees would eventually join Weta Digital . Rick Baker was hired to design the prosthetic makeup for The Judge , portrayed by John Astin ( the detachable jawbone was later added digitally ) . However , Baker was not able to apply Astin 's five hours of makeup himself due to his commitment on The Nutty Professor . Makeup artist Brian Penikas ( Pirates of the Caribbean trilogy , Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull ) fulfilled Baker 's duties .
The extended shooting schedule owed much to the fact that scenes where ghosts and human characters interacted had to be filmed twice ; once with human characters acting on set , and then with the ghost characters acting against a blue screen . The two elements would later be digitally composited into one shot with the use of split screen photography . Such sequences required precise timing from the cast as they traded dialogue with characters who were merely blank air . The hardest challenge for the digital animators at Weta was creating the Grim Reaper , which went through many transformations before finding physical form . " We set out with the intention of doing the Reaper as a rod puppet , maybe shooting it in a water tank , " Jackson commented . " We even thought of filming someone , dressed in costume , at different camera speeds . " Test footage was shot with puppets and a man in a Reaper suit , but in the end , it was decided that using computer animation would be the easiest task . Another entirely computerized character called " the Gatekeeper " , a winged cherub who helps guard the cemetery , was deleted from the final cut .
With digital effects work running behind schedule , Zemeckis convinced Wes Takahashi , an animation supervisor from visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic , to help work on The Frighteners . " The shots Zemeckis showed me were pretty remarkable , " Takahashi reflected , " but there were still about 400 shots to do , and everyone was kind of worried . " Takahashi was quickly drafted as a visual effects supervisor , and began looking at the schedule , trying to work out whether The Frighteners could be finished in time . " There was no way we 'd make the deadline . I figured out a concerted plan involving Jackson and Zemeckis to convince Universal it was worthy of asking for more money . " The executives at Universal proposed splitting some of the shots to visual effects companies in the United States , but Jackson , for whom the film was a chance to show New Zealand filmmaking could stand alongside Hollywood , convinced Universal otherwise . Instead , The Frighteners received an accelerated release date , four months earlier than planned , and an additional $ 6 million in financing , with fifteen digital animators and computer workstations ( some were borrowed from Universal and other effects companies in the US ) . Andrew Adamson was hired as a digital effects supervisor .
= = Soundtrack = =
The film score was written and composed by Danny Elfman . It was released in 1996 on cassette and compact disc by Universal Records . The closing credits play a cover of Blue Öyster Cult 's " ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " performed by New Zealand alternative rock band The Mutton Birds . The Mutton Birds version of the song had been previously released as a B @-@ side to their single " She 's Been Talking " released in 1996 . It plays also " Superstar " , written by Bonnie Bramlett + Leon Russell and performed by Sonic Youth
Critical reception was average ; Jason Ankeny of album database Allmusic described the soundtrack as " imaginative " giving it three stars out of five . This was a lower rating on the site than Elfman 's other scores of the era , such as Mission : Impossible , Mars Attacks ! and Flubber . The soundtrack review website Filmtracks referred to the album as " lacking much cohesion or singular creativity " .
= = Release = =
The original release date was October 31 , 1996 , but after Universal studio executives viewed a rough cut of The Frighteners , they were impressed enough to move the release date to their " summer blockbuster slot " on July 19 , 1996 . In addition , Universal offered the filmmaker the opportunity to make King Kong , which was not released until 2005 . Jackson often disputed over the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) over the film 's rating . Aware that he was meant to be delivering Universal a PG @-@ 13 rating , Jackson tried his best to omit the amount of graphic violence as much as possible , but the MPAA still believed The Frighteners deserved an R rating .
= = = Box office = = =
The Frighteners was released in the United States in 1 @,@ 675 theaters , and opened at # 5 , earning $ 5 @,@ 565 @,@ 495 during its opening weekend , averaging $ 3 @,@ 335 per theater . The film eventually grossed a worldwide total of $ 29 @,@ 359 @,@ 216 . The Frighteners ended up being a box office disappointment , mostly due to competition from Independence Day ; in interviews conducted years after The Frighteners ' release , Jackson commented he was disappointed by Universal 's ubiquitous marketing campaign , including a poster which " didn 't tell you anything about the picture " , which he believed was the primary reason the film was not a financial success . Additionally , the film opened on the same day the Atlanta Summer Olympics began ; when Jackson realized this and told the studio , they answered " ' We don 't think so ; our research indicates that 's not the case ... ' And I just thought how the hell do they know ? There had only ever been three Olympic Games held in the United States in one hundred years ! " Jackson acknowledged The Frighteners ' tone made it hard to pigeon @-@ hole and sell , and his experience on the film made him understand the importance of marketing .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Frighteners received generally positive reviews from film critics . As of June 2014 , 64 % of the 36 reviewers selected by review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a positive review , certifying it " Fresh " with an average score of 6 @.@ 2 / 10 ; the consensus states : " Boasting top @-@ notch special effects and exuberant direction from Peter Jackson , The Frighteners is visually striking but tonally uneven . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times stated " Director Peter Jackson , at home with all kinds of excess in New Zealand , keeps everything spinning nicely , not even losing a step when the mood turns increasingly disturbing . " Janet Maslin from The New York Times enjoyed The Frighteners , but " walked out the theater with mixed emotions , " she commented that " Peter Jackson deserves more enthusiasm for expert , imaginative effects than for his live actors anyhow . These lively touches would leave The Frighteners looking more like a more frantic Beetlejuice if Jackson 's film weren 't so wearyingly overcrowded . The Frighteners is not immune to overkill , even though most of its characters are already dead . " Jeff Vice of the Deseret News praised the acting in the film , with the performances of Fox and Alvarado in particular , but said that there were also " bits that push the taste barrier too far and which grind things to a screeching halt " , and that if " Jackson had used the restraint he showed in Heavenly Creatures , the movie could have " been the best of its kind " . Critic Christopher Null praised the film , as he described it as a mixture between Ghostbusters and Twin Peaks . Michael Drucker of IGN said that although the film wouldn 't make Jackson 's top five of movies , it " is a harmless and fun dark comedy that you 'll enjoy casually watching from time to time " . The Frighteners received mixed reviews from critics from Jackson 's native country , New Zealand .
Conversely , Todd McCarthy of Variety thought that the film should have remained an episode of Tales from the Crypt . Critic James Berardinelli believed that although The Frighteners wasn 't " a bad film " , it was " a disappointment , following Jackson 's powerful , true @-@ life matricide tale , Heavenly Creatures " , and because of that " The Frighteners fell short of expectations by being just one of many in the long line of 1996 summer movies . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Roger Ebert , felt that Jackson was more interested in prosthetic makeup designs , computer animation , and special effects than writing a cohesive storyline . Ebert and critic Gene Siskel gave it a " two thumbs down " rating on their TV show At the Movies with Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert . Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum , described the film 's special effects as " ugly , aggressive " and " proliferating " , saying that " trying to keep interested in [ the special effects ] was like trying to remain interested in a loudmouth shouting in [ his ] ear " . Edward Guthmann of the San Francisco Chronicle stated that " instead of moving the horror genre in new directions , The Frighteners simply falls apart from its barrage of visual effects and the overmixed onslaught of Danny Elfman 's music score " . The Austin Chronicle 's Joey O 'Brien , said that although the screenplay was " practically loaded with wild ideas , knowingly campy dialogue and offbeat characterizations " , it " switched gears " too fast and too frequently that " the audience is left struggling to catch up as [ The Frighteners ] twists and turns its way unmercifully towards a literally out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ world finale " .
At the 23rd Saturn Awards , the Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films honored Jackson with nominations for Best Direction and Best Writing , the latter he shared with wife Fran Walsh . The Frighteners also was nominated the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film , and for its Special Effects , Make @-@ up ( Rick Baker ) and Music ( Danny Elfman ) . Michael J. Fox and Jeffrey Combs were also nominated for their work .
= = Home media = =
The Frighteners was first released on DVD in August 1998 , but included no special features .
To coincide with the release of Jackson 's King Kong , Universal Studios Home Entertainment issued a double @-@ sided director 's cut DVD of the film in November 2005 , which featured a version of The Frighteners that was 12 minutes longer . The other side includes a documentary prepared by Jackson and WingNut Films originally for the Laserdisc release . The director 's cut was also made available in HD DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
= Dragonfly =
A dragonfly is an insect belonging to the order Odonata , suborder Anisoptera ( from Greek ἄνισος anisos " uneven " and πτερόν pteron , " wing " , because the hindwing is broader than the forewing ) . Adult dragonflies are characterized by large multifaceted eyes , two pairs of strong transparent wings , sometimes with coloured patches and an elongated body . Dragonflies can be mistaken for the related group , damselflies ( Zygoptera ) , which are similar in structure , though usually lighter in build ; however , the wings of most dragonflies are held flat and away from the body , while damselflies hold the wings folded at rest , along or above the abdomen . Dragonflies are agile fliers , while damselflies have a weaker , fluttery flight . Many dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration , making them conspicuous in flight . An adult dragonfly eye has nearly 24 @,@ 000 ommatidia .
Fossils of very large dragonfly ancestors in the Protodonata are found from 325 million years ago ( Mya ) in Upper Carboniferous rocks ; these had wingspans up to about 750 mm ( 30 in ) . About 3000 species of Anisoptera are in the world today . Most are tropical , with fewer species in temperate regions .
Dragonflies are predators , both in their aquatic larval stage , when they are known as nymphs or naiads , and as adults . Several years of their lives are spent as nymphs living in fresh water ; the adults may be on the wing for just a few days or weeks . They are fast , agile fliers , sometimes migrating across oceans , and are often found near water . They have a uniquely complex mode of reproduction involving indirect insemination , delayed fertilization , and sperm competition . During mating , the male grasps the female at the back of the head or on the prothorax , and the female curls her abdomen under her body to pick up sperm from the male 's secondary genitalia at the front of his abdomen , forming the " heart " or " wheel " posture .
Loss of wetland habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world . Dragonflies are represented in human culture on artifacts such as pottery , rock paintings , and Art Nouveau jewellery . They are used in traditional medicine in Japan and China , and caught for food in Indonesia . They are symbols of courage , strength , and happiness in Japan , but seen as sinister in European folklore . Their bright colours and agile flight are admired in the poetry of Alfred , Lord Tennyson and the prose of H. E. Bates .
= = Phylogeny = =
Dragonflies and their relatives are an ancient group . The oldest fossils are of the Protodonata from the 325 Mya Upper Carboniferous of Europe , a group that included the largest insect that ever lived , Meganeuropsis permiana from the early Permian , with a wingspan around 750 mm ( 30 in ) ; their fossil record ends with the Permian – Triassic extinction event ( about 247 Mya ) . The Protoanisoptera , another ancestral group which lacks certain wing vein characters found in modern Odonata , lived from the Early to Late Permian age until the end Permian event , and are known from fossil wings from current day United States , Russia , and Australia , suggesting they might have been cosmopolitan in distribution . The forerunners of modern Odonata are included in a clade called the Panodonata , which include the basal Zygoptera ( damselflies ) and the Anisoptera ( true dragonflies ) Today there are some 3000 species extant around the world .
The relationships of anisopteran families are not fully resolved as of 2013 , but all the families are monophyletic except the Corduliidae ; the Gomphidae are a sister taxon to all other Anisoptera , the Austropetaliidae are a sister to the Aeshnoidea , and the Chlorogomphidae are a sister to a clade that includes the Synthemistidae and Libellulidae . On the cladogram , dashed lines indicate unresolved relationships ; English names are given ( in parentheses ) :
= = Distribution and diversity = =
About 3012 species of dragonflies were known in 2010 ; these are classified into 348 genera in 11 families . The distribution of diversity within the biogeographical regions are summarised below ( the world numbers are not ordinary totals , as overlaps in species occur ) .
Dragonflies are found on every continent except Antarctica . In contrast to the damselflies ( Zygoptera ) , which tend to have restricted distributions , some genera and species are found across continents . For example , the blue @-@ eyed darner Rhionaeschna multicolor is found all across North America , and in Central America ; emperors Anax are found throughout the Americas from as far north as Newfoundland to as far south as Bahia Blanca in Argentina , across Europe to central Asia , North Africa , and the Middle East . The globe skimmer Pantala flavescens is probably the most widespread dragonfly species in the world ; it is cosmopolitan , occurring on all continents in the warmer regions . Most Anisoptera species are tropical , with far fewer species in temperate regions .
Dragonflies including libellulids and aeshnids are found in desert pools , for example in the Mojave Desert , where they are active in shade temperatures between 18 and 45 ° C ( 64 @.@ 4 to 113 ° F ) ; these insects were able to survive body temperatures above the thermal death point of insects of the same species found in cooler places .
Dragonflies can be found from sea level up to the mountains , decreasing in species diversity with altitude . Their altitudinal limit is about 3700 m , represented by a species of Aeshna in the Pamirs .
Dragonflies become scarce at higher latitudes . They are not native to Iceland , but individuals are occasionally swept in by strong winds , including a Hemianax ephippiger native to North Africa , and an unidentified darter species . In Kamchatka , only a few species of dragonfly including the treeline emerald Somatochlora arctica and some aeshnids such as Aeshna subarctica are found , possibly because of the low temperature of the lakes there . The treeline emerald is also found in northern Alaska , within the Arctic Circle , making it the most northerly of all dragonflies .
= = General description = =
Dragonflies ( suborder Anisoptera ) are heavy @-@ bodied , strong @-@ flying insects that hold their wings horizontally both in flight and at rest . By contrast , damselflies ( suborder Zygoptera ) have slender bodies and fly more weakly ; most species fold their wings over the abdomen when stationary , and the eyes are well separated on the sides of the head .
An adult dragonfly has three distinct segments , the head , thorax , and abdomen as in all insects . It has a chitinous exoskeleton of hard plates held together with flexible membranes . The head is large with very short antennae . It is dominated by the two compound eyes , which cover most of its surface . The compound eyes are made up of ommatidia , the numbers being greater in the larger species . Aeshna interrupta has 22650 ommatidia of two varying sizes , 4500 being large . The facets facing downward tend to be smaller . Petalura gigantea has 23890 ommatidia of just one size . These facets provide complete vision in the frontal hemisphere of the dragonfly . The compound eyes meet at the top of the head ( except in the Gomphidae , as also in the genus Epiophlebia ) . Also , they have three simple eyes or ocelli . The mouthparts are adapted for biting with a toothed jaw ; the flap @-@ like labrum , at the front of the mouth , can be shot rapidly forward to catch prey . The head has a system for locking it in place that consists of muscles and small hairs on the back of the head that grip structures on the front of the first thoracic segment . This arrester system is unique to the Odonata and is activated when feeding and during tandem flight .
The thorax consists of three segments as in all insects . The prothorax is small and is flattened dorsally into a shield @-@ like disc which has two transverse ridges . The mesothorax and metathorax are fused into a rigid , box @-@ like structure with internal bracing , and provides a robust attachment for the powerful wing muscles inside it . The thorax bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs . The wings are long , veined , and membranous , narrower at the tip and wider at the base . The hindwings are broader than the forewings and the venation is different at the base . The veins carry haemolymph which is pumped in at the time of emergence from the nymphal stage to expand the wings . The leading edge of each wing has a node where other veins join the marginal vein , and the wing is able to flex at this point . In most large species of dragonflies , the wings of females are shorter and broader than those of males . The legs are not used for walking , but are used to catch and hold prey , for perching , and for climbing on plants . Each has two short basal joints , two long joints , and a three @-@ jointed foot , armed with a pair of claws . The long leg joints bear rows of spines , and in males , one row of spines on each front leg is modified to form an " eyebrush " , for cleaning the surface of the compound eye .
The abdomen is long and slender and consists of 10 segments and a terminal appendage @-@ bearing segment . The second and third segments are enlarged , and in males , a cleft on the underside of the second segment contains a pair of claspers and the penis . The spermaries open on the 9th segment . In females , the genital opening is on the underside of the eighth segment and is covered by a simple flap or an ovipositor , depending on species and the method of egg @-@ laying .
Dragonfly nymphs vary in form with species and are loosely classed into claspers , sprawlers , hiders , and burrowers . The first instar is known as a prolarva , a relatively inactive stage from which it quickly moults into the more active nymphal form . The general body plan is similar to that of an adult , but the nymph lacks wings and reproductive organs . The lower jaw has a huge , extensible labium , armed with hooks and spines , which is used for catching prey . This labium is folded under the body at rest and struck out at great speed by hydraulic pressure created by the abdominal muscles . Whereas damselfly nymphs have three feathery external gills , dragonfly nymphs have internal gills , located around the fourth and fifth abdominal segments . Water is pumped in and out of the abdomen through an opening at the tip . The naiads of some clubtails ( Gomphidae ) that burrow into the sediment , have a snorkel @-@ like tube at the end of the abdomen enabling them to draw in clean water while they are buried in mud . Naiads can forcefully expel a jet of water to propel themselves with great rapidity .
= = = Coloration = = =
Many adult dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration , making them conspicuous in flight . Their overall coloration is often a combination of yellow , red , brown , and black pigments , with structural colours . Blues are typically created by microstructures in the cuticle that reflect blue light . Greens often combine a structural blue with a yellow pigment . Freshly emerged adults , known as tenerals , are often pale @-@ coloured and obtain their typical colours after a few days , some have their bodies covered with a pale blue , waxy powderiness called pruinosity ; it wears off when scraped during mating , leaving darker areas .
Some dragonflies , such as the green darner , Anax junius , have a noniridescent blue which is produced structurally by scatter from arrays of tiny spheres in the endoplasmic reticulum of epidermal cells underneath the cuticle .
The wings of dragonflies are generally clear , apart from the dark veins and pterostigmata . In the chasers ( Libellulidae ) , however , many genera have areas of colour on the wings : for example , groundlings ( Brachythemis ) have brown bands on all four wings , while some scarlets ( Crocothemis ) and dropwings ( Trithemis ) have bright orange patches at the wing bases . Some aeshnids such as the brown hawker ( Aeshna grandis ) have translucent , pale yellow wings .
Dragonfly nymphs are usually a well @-@ camouflaged blend of dull brown , green , and grey .
= = Biology = =
= = = Ecology = = =
Dragonflies and damselflies are predatory both in the aquatic nymphal and adult stages . Nymphs feed on a range of freshwater invertebrates and larger ones can prey on tadpoles and small fish . Adults capture insect prey in the air , making use of their acute vision and highly controlled flight . The mating system of dragonflies is complex and they are among the few insect groups that have a system of indirect sperm transfer along with sperm storage , delayed fertilization , and sperm competition .
Adult males vigorously defend territories near water ; these areas provide suitable habitat for the larvae to develop , and for females to lay their eggs . Swarms of feeding adults aggregate to prey on swarming prey such as emerging flying ants or termites .
Dragonflies as a group occupy a considerable variety of habitats , but many species , and some families , have their own specific environmental requirements . Some species prefer flowing waters , while others prefer standing water . For example , the Gomphidae ( clubtails ) live in running water , and the Libellulidae ( skimmers ) live in still water . Some species are found in temporary water pools and are capable of tolerating changes in water level , desiccation , and the resulting variations in temperature , but some genera such as Sympetrum ( darters ) have eggs and larvae that can resist drought and are stimulated to grow rapidly in warm , shallow pools , also often benefiting from the absence of predators there . Vegetation and its characteristics including submerged , floating , emergent , or waterside are also important . Adults may require emergent or waterside plants to use as perches ; others may need specific submerged or floating plants on which to lay eggs . Requirements may be highly specific , as in Aeshna viridis ( green hawker ) , which lives in swamps with the water @-@ soldier , Stratiotes aloides . The chemistry of the water , including its trophic status ( degree of enrichment with nutrients ) and pH can also affect its use by dragonflies . Most species need moderate conditions , not too eutrophic , not too acid ; a few species such as Sympetrum danae ( black darter ) and Libellula quadrimaculata ( four @-@ spotted chaser ) prefer acidic waters such as peat bogs , while others such as Libellula fulva ( scarce chaser ) need slow @-@ moving , eutrophic waters with reeds or similar waterside plants .
= = = Behaviour = = =
Many dragonflies , particularly males , are territorial . Some defend a territory against others of their own species , some against other species of dragonfly and a few against insects in unrelated groups . A particular perch may give a dragonfly a good view over an insect @-@ rich feeding ground , and the blue dasher ( Pachydiplax longipennis ) jostles other dragonflies to maintain the right to alight there .
Defending a breeding territory is fairly common among male dragonflies , especially among species that congregate around ponds in large numbers . The territory contains desirable features such as a sunlit stretch of shallow water , a special plant species , or a particular substrate necessary for egg @-@ laying . The territory may be small or large , depending on its quality , the time of day , and the
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The company went on to say that it offers other healthier items such as salads and that customers are free to choose their own foods and modify them as they desire .
= = Naming and trademarks = =
The name Big King was originally a registered trademark of Burger King Brands , Inc . , and displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in its home market ; however , the federal trademark registration was cancelled in 2005 due to failure to file the required 5 @-@ year declaration of use . It was reassigned in 2014 to a California @-@ based ice cream manufacturer . [ Notes 1 ] As of February 2015 , the name is displayed with the lesser raised " TM " symbol . In most other markets in which the sandwich is sold , it is designated as a registered mark . [ Notes 2 ] The names King Supreme and Double Supreme were formerly registered trademarks in the US , [ Notes 3 ] [ Notes 4 ] while the King Supreme is still registered in Canada in both English and French spellings . [ Notes 5 ] [ Notes 6 ]
= 2002 Gator Bowl =
The 2002 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Florida State Seminoles at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 2002 . The game was the final contest of the 2001 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , and ended in a 30 @-@ 17 victory for Florida State .
Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 2002 Gator Bowl with an 8 – 3 regular @-@ season record despite having just played in Jacksonville at the end of the previous year . The selection of Virginia Tech over the Syracuse Orangemen ( now just the " Orange " ) despite losing head @-@ to @-@ head and Syracuse having better conference and overall records was controversial . Florida State , who had failed to win at least a share of the Atlantic Coast Conference title for the first time since joining the league in 1992 , and who had played in all three BCS National Championship games held to that point , was selected as the opponent .
The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off on January 1 , 2002 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , exactly one year since the Hokies had last played in the game . The game 's early going seemed promising for the defense @-@ minded Hokies . In the first quarter , Tech held Florida State scoreless despite only managing a single field goal on offense . In the second quarter , however , Florida State began to find gaps in the Hokie defense and scored 10 points . At halftime , Florida State held a 10 – 3 lead .
In the third quarter , Tech struck back . The Hokies scored 14 points in the quarter , while Florida State managed just a field goal . The Hokies ' All @-@ American tailback Lee Suggs had suffered a season @-@ ending injury in the first game of the season , but freshman Kevin Jones had carried the offense for the season , and continued to perform well in the post @-@ season Gator Bowl game . With a 5 @-@ yard run from Jones and a 55 @-@ yard pass from Grant Noel to André Davis , Tech took a 17 – 13 lead going into the fourth quarter . But the lead quickly evaporated on a 77 @-@ yard catch and run from Chris Rix to Javon Walker .
Florida State added ten more points after the long touchdown pass , and the Seminoles went on to win the game , 30 – 17 .
= = Team selection = =
At the start of the 2001 college football season , the Gator Bowl Committee held contracts with the Atlantic Coast Conference , Big East Conference , and Notre Dame , allowing the committee to select either Notre Dame or a team from each of the conferences to fill the two available slots . According to contract , the committee had the first selection of teams from each of the two conferences after the conferences ' champions were given automatic bids to a Bowl Championship Series game .
According to contract , the Gator Bowl was allowed to select any bowl @-@ eligible Big East team as long as it was within two wins of the second @-@ place team in the conference . This clause generated controversy when Virginia Tech ( 8 – 3 record ) received the Big East 's Gator Bowl spot instead of Syracuse ( 9 – 2 record ) . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players protested the selection of the third @-@ place Hokies ahead of second @-@ place Syracuse . Representing the Atlantic Coast conference was Florida State , which finished second in its conference with a record of 7 – 4 .
= = = Florida State = = =
Florida State entered the 2001 college football season after a 13 – 2 loss to Oklahoma in the national championship game . The loss was just the second for the Seminoles that season , and they finished with an 11 – 2 record . Despite their appearance in the previous year 's national championship game , the Seminoles were ranked as the No. 5 team in the country in the USA Today college football preseason poll . Florida State , which had a 70 – 2 record in Atlantic Coast Conference games since joining the conference , was again favored to win the ACC , but the Seminoles faced challenges replacing Heisman Trophy @-@ winning quarterback Chris Weinke and 14 other starters from the previous year 's team . Adding to the Seminoles ' challenges in the 2001 season was the loss of two starting wide receivers : Robert Morgan and Anquan Boldin , both of whom suffered season @-@ ending injuries before the first game of the season .
The bad omens of the preseason were discarded in the Seminoles ' first two games of the season : a 55 – 13 win against Duke and a 29 – 7 victory over Alabama @-@ Birmingham . In their third game of the season , however , Florida State suffered what was then the worst defeat in its history of play as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference , a 41 – 9 loss to North Carolina . Florida State recovered from the loss by beating Wake Forest , 48 – 24 , but lost to No. 2 Miami in the following week , 49 – 27 .
Three wins followed the loss to Miami , but two losses followed the brief winning streak : to Atlantic Coast Conference rival NC State , 34 – 28 , and in @-@ state rival Florida , 37 – 13 . The loss to NC State was the Seminoles ' first home defeat at the hands of an ACC opponent and dropped the Seminoles out of contention for the ACC championship . Following the loss to Florida , the Seminoles accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl . Florida State 's final game , a win against ACC opponent Georgia Tech , had no effect other than to improve Florida State 's regular @-@ season record , and the Seminoles began to prepare for the Gator Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies began the 2001 season having gone 11 – 1 the previous season , ending with a 41 – 20 victory in the 2001 Gator Bowl against Clemson . Fans ' hopes for the new season were not as high as the previous year , however . Star quarterback Michael Vick was selected with the first pick in the 2001 NFL Draft , and there were questions about how well the team would cope with the loss of Vick and several other important players . Despite those fears , the Hokies began the 2001 season ranked No. 9 in the coaches ' poll and were picked in the annual poll of media covering the Big East to finish second in that conference .
In the opening game of the season , Virginia Tech defeated Connecticut , 52 – 10 , but lost starting running back Lee Suggs , who tore his anterior cruciate ligament during the game . Suggs ' absence did not affect the Hokies in their next game , as they defeated Western Michigan , 31 – 0 . The Hokies continued their winning streak through the first Virginia Tech games of the season , heading into a conference contest against Syracuse with a 6 – 0 record and ranked No. 5 in the country . On October 27 , however , Syracuse ended Tech 's 16 @-@ game home winning streak by defeating the Hokies , 22 – 14 , in Lane Stadium .
The loss to Syracuse was followed by another to Pittsburgh in the following week . The twin losses effectively knocked Tech out of contention for the Big East championship , as the Hokies were then two games behind first @-@ place Miami . Tech won its next two games of the season , but because Miami remained undefeated , the matchup between No. 1 Miami and No. 14 Virginia Tech was played without conference title implications . Before the Miami game , Virginia Tech accepted a bid to the Gator Bowl , which had the first pick of Big East teams after the Bowl Championship Series gave an automatic bid to the Big East champion . Miami defeated Tech in the final regular @-@ season game for both teams , 26 – 24 , and the Hokies began preparations for the Gator Bowl .
= = = Controversy = = =
Virginia Tech 's selection for the Gator Bowl was not without controversy . The Hokies ' three Big East losses pushed them to third place in the conference , behind Miami ( which earned an automatic bid to the national championship game ) and Syracuse , which lost only one Big East Conference game . Instead of attending the Gator Bowl , Syracuse earned a bid to the 2002 Insight Bowl , considered to be a less prestigious game due to its lesser payout and shorter history . Syracuse fans , coaches , and players were offended that Virginia Tech was awarded a bid to the Gator Bowl despite Syracuse 's better record due to Tech 's reputation for bringing large numbers of fans to bowl games . In the wake of Tech 's selection , Syracuse athletic director Jake Crouthamel vowed to lobby for changes in the way the Gator Bowl 's Big East selection was made .
= = Pregame buildup = =
The Florida State / Virginia Tech matchup was the 31st game between the two teams since they first met in 1955 . At the time , Florida State held the advantage in wins , with a 19 – 10 – 1 record against Virginia Tech . Heading into the 2002 Gator Bowl , however , spread bettors predicted a reversal of that trend as Virginia Tech was favored to win by two points on Dec. 10 . This was reflective of an overall feeling of pessimism toward the Seminoles , who hadn 't finished out of first place in the ACC since joining the league in 1992 , and would not participate in the national championship game for the first time in four years . Because of this decline in stature , the fact that the game was a rematch of the 2000 national championship game received less coverage than it would have otherwise .
Ticket sales for the game were relatively rapid . By Dec. 7 , Virginia Tech had sold almost its entire initial allotment of 12 @,@ 500 tickets , Florida State fans had purchased approximately 6 @,@ 800 tickets , and total ticket sales neared the 50 @,@ 000 mark . Tech 's sales increased to more than 13 @,@ 000 by Dec. 14 , and Virginia Tech officials requested an initial allotment from the Gator Bowl . Four days later , more than 60 @,@ 000 tickets had been sold , and there were expectations that the game would be a sellout . The growing demand for tickets was demonstrated by an incident in which nearly 200 all @-@ access passes to the game were stolen in transit from the printer and resold , causing a police search for the culprits .
= = = Florida State offense = = =
At the conclusion of the regular season , Florida State was ranked No. 26 in total offense , averaging 426 @.@ 09 yards per game . The Seminoles ' rushing offense was ranked No. 55 ( 159 @.@ 64 yards per game ) , but their passing offense was No. 26 ( 266 @.@ 45 ypg ) and their scoring offense was No. 21 , averaging 33 @.@ 91 points per game on average .
On the field , the Seminoles ' offense was led by quarterback Chris Rix , whose passer rating of 150 @.@ 76 was the seventh @-@ highest in the country . Rix completed 165 of his 286 pass attempts for 2 @,@ 734 yards and 24 touchdowns , setting an Atlantic Coast Conference record for total offense by a freshman . In recognition of the achievement , he was named the ACC Freshman of the Year . Rix 's preferred passing target was wide receiver Javon Walker , who led the team by catching 45 passes for 944 yards and seven touchdowns . Fellow wide receiver Talman Gardner outpaced Walker in touchdowns , catching 11 during the season , enough for No. 5 in Florida State history to that point .
The Seminoles ' ground offense was led by running back Greg Jones , who finished the regular season with 713 yards and six rushing touchdowns . Florida State 's rushing game also was assisted by the mobility of Chris Rix , who gained 389 yards during the regular season , enough for No. 3 on the team in rushing yards . The Seminoles ' kicking game was run by placekicker Xavier Beitia , who successfully kicked 13 of 14 field goals and 44 of 48 extra points during the season for a total of 83 points .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
Virginia Tech 's offense was slightly worse than the national average during the regular season . The Hokies were ranked No. 64 in total offense , averaging 374 @.@ 09 yards per game . In particular , Tech 's passing offense was lacking . That segment of the offense was ranked No. 86 , averaging 179 @.@ 36 yards . This figure was somewhat balanced by the Hokies ' rushing attack , which was ranked No. 55 ( 194 @.@ 73 ypg ) . Despite the worse @-@ than @-@ average yardage totals , Tech was ranked No. 25 in scoring offense , or 32 @.@ 64 points per game . Prior to the Gator Bowl , it was announced that Virginia Tech offensive coordinator Rickey Bustle would be leaving the team to take the same position at the Louisiana @-@ Lafayette . Despite the move , he confirmed he would coach the Hokies during the bowl game in his last act as a Virginia Tech coach .
On the field , the Hokies were led by quarterback Grant Noel , who completed 146 of his 254 pass attempts for 1 @,@ 826 passing yards , 16 touchdowns , and 11 interceptions . Noel 's favorite passing target was André Davis , who caught 39 passes for 623 yards and seven touchdowns . In recognition of his success , Davis was named a first @-@ team all @-@ Big East selection . Fullback Jarrett Ferguson also set three single @-@ season receiving records by catching 25 passes for 256 yards and three touchdowns , all of which were school records for a fullback . Despite those numbers , most of Virginia Tech 's offense was gained on the ground . At the beginning of the season , running back Lee Suggs was the leader of the Hokies ' rushing offense . He set Virginia Tech records for career rushing touchdowns and career touchdowns before suffering a season @-@ ending injury in the Hokies ' game against Connecticut . Following Suggs ' injury , his role was taken up by freshman running back Kevin Jones , who set a Tech freshman running record by accumulating 957 yards . That figure also was the fifth most in Division I @-@ A , and he was named Big East rookie of the year and an All @-@ American by The Sporting News .
= = = Florida State defense = = =
Florida State 's defense was ranked No. 43 in the country at the conclusion of the regular season . The Seminoles allowed 356 @.@ 36 yards per game , on average . State 's rushing defense was ranked No. 32 ( 126 ypg ) , while its passing defense was ranked No. 76 ( 230 @.@ 36 ypg ) . The Seminoles ' defensive squad was led by middle linebacker Bradley Jennings , who had 121 tackles during the regular season — the most on the team . Defensive tackle Darnell Dockett also was a standout performer statistically for the Seminoles , leading the team in tackles for loss and setting the single @-@ season and single @-@ game Florida State records in that category .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
During the 2001 regular season , the Hokies ' defense was the second @-@ best in the country , allowing 237 @.@ 91 yards per game . In no defensive statistical category were the Hokies worse than No. 10 , and that ranking came in punt return defense , where Tech allowed 13 @.@ 33 yards per return . The Hokies were No. 2 in rushing defense ( 71 @.@ 64 ypg ) and No. 8 in passing defense ( 166 @.@ 27 ypg ) . Defensively , the Hokies were led by linebacker Ben Taylor , who had 121 tackles ( the most on the team ) and was named a semifinalist for the Butkus Award , given annually to the best linebacker in the country . Free safety Willie Pile was the team 's No. 2 tackler , accumulating 94 tackles , four interceptions , and two fumble recoveries . Unexpectedly , linebacker Chad Cooper was diagnosed with Guillain @-@ Barré syndrome and had to be hospitalized prior to the game .
= = Game summary = =
The 2002 Gator Bowl kicked off at 12 : 30 p.m. EST on January 1 , 2002 , at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . The in @-@ person attendance was announced as 72 @,@ 202 , and the television broadcast earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 9 . The Gator Bowl was the only New Year 's Day bowl game in 2002 to see a ratings increase over the previous year . The broadcast was provided by NBC , and Tom Hammond , Pat Haden , and Chris Wragge were the sportscasters . Country music artist Lee Greenwood performed his song " God Bless the USA " prior to the game , and sang the traditional pre @-@ game national anthem .
At kickoff , the weather was sunny with variable winds at 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) . The temperature was 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) , and the humidity was 42 percent . David Witvoet was the referee . In exchange for playing in the game , the two teams split a payout of $ 3 @,@ 212 @,@ 364 . Virginia Tech won the traditional pre @-@ game coin toss to determine first possession and elected to kick off to Florida State to begin the state .
= = = First quarter = = =
The kickoff was fielded near the Florida State six @-@ yard line and returned 16 yards to the State 22 @-@ yard line . The first play of the game was a long pass by quarterback Chris Rix , but the throw was not caught . On the second play , Rix was sacked for a loss of nine yards . A third @-@ down pass was incomplete , and Florida State punted . Virginia Tech returned the kick into Florida State territory , and the Hokies ' offense began Tech 's first possession of the game at the State 48 @-@ yard line . The Hokies ' first play was an 18 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Grant Noel to tight end Bob Slowikowski , long enough for a first down at the Florida State 29 @-@ yard line . From there , running back Kevin Jones gained 12 yards and a first down on a run up the middle of the field . Jones gained three yards on the next play , then Noel was sacked by the Seminoles for a loss of nine yards . On third down , Jones regained some of the lost yardage but was unable to pick up a first down . Facing fourth down , Tech sent in kicker Carter Warley to attempt a 36 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 10 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , Virginia Tech took a 3 – 0 lead .
Virginia Tech 's post @-@ score kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and Florida State 's second possession of the game began at its 20 @-@ yard line . On first down , running back Greg Jones gained four yards . A second @-@ down pass from Rix to Gardner gained 11 yards and the Seminoles ' first first down of the game . They were unable to gain another first down , however , and punted for the second time in the game . During the return , Florida State was penalized five yards for violating the halo rule that required two yards between the player catching the ball and the nearest defender . The rule has since been rescinded .
Virginia Tech 's second drive of the game started at its 28 @-@ yard line after the penalty . Jones was stopped for little or no gain on the first two plays of the drive , then Noel completed a long pass to wide receiver Andre Davis , who dodged defenders and advanced the ball to the Florida State 17 @-@ yard line , a gain of 55 yards and a first down . Two running plays after the long play gained little yardage , then Tech appeared to gain a touchdown on a passing play from Noel to wide receiver Ernst Wilford . During the play , however , a Tech offensive lineman committed a holding penalty that negated the score . After a 10 @-@ yard penalty , Noel fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Florida State at the State 45 @-@ yard line , and Tech was denied a chance to score .
On State 's first play after the turnover , Rix was sacked for a four @-@ yard loss . On the next play , Virginia Tech defender Eric Green jumped in front of an errant Rix pass and intercepted it . Green returned the ball to the State 44 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense started a drive inside Florida State territory . On the first play of the drive , Tech attempted a reverse pass , but the ball fell incomplete . Two subsequent plays were stopped for no gain , and Tech punted for the first time in the game .
The kick was stopped at the State five @-@ yard line , and with 3 : 56 remaining in the first quarter , State was pinned deep in its half of the field . After a running play gained four yards , State earned a first down at the 11 @-@ yard line with a seven @-@ yard pass . After the first down , Rix fumbled the ball , recovered it , and was sacked by the Tech defense at the State nine @-@ yard line . Two long rushing plays made up the lost yardage , and State earned a first down at their 27 @-@ yard line . From there , Rix completed a 44 @-@ yard pass to Javon Walker for a first down at the Tech 29 @-@ yard line . In the final seconds of the quarter , Rix attempted a touchdown pass , but the ball fell incomplete . With one quarter elapsed , Virginia Tech led , 3 – 0 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter of the Gator Bowl began with the Seminoles facing third down and 12 from the Virginia Tech 30 @-@ yard line . The first play of the quarter resulted in the third Virginia Tech sack of the game as Nathaniel Adibi tackled Rix for a long loss . The sack pushed Florida State out of field goal range , and the Seminoles punted . The ball bounced out of bounds at the Tech 11 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first possession of the second quarter . After a running play that was stopped for no gain , Noel completed a 20 @-@ yard pass to Slowikowski for a first down at their 31 @-@ yard line . Tech fumbled on the first play after the first down , Noel threw an incomplete pass , were pushed back five yards by a false start penalty , then had a first @-@ down run negated by a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty . Tech was unable to gain a first down after the penalties , and punted .
With 11 : 23 remaining in the first half , Florida State returned the kick to its 18 @-@ yard line and began its first full possession of the second quarter . After a running play was stopped for no gain , Florida State gained a first down on a short pass and a short run . After a 10 @-@ yard holding penalty against the Seminoles , Rix scrambled for eight yards and completed a 19 @-@ yard pass for a first down at the 50 @-@ yard line . After Rix gained five yards on another scramble , he threw two incomplete passes and the Seminoles punted . The ball rolled into the end zone , and Tech 's offense began a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line with 7 : 43 remaining in the first quarter .
Two incomplete passes and a one @-@ yard run later , Tech prepared to punt the ball away . During the kick , Florida State 's defense broke through the Virginia Tech offensive line and blocked the kick . The ball rolled inside the one @-@ yard line , where Florida State 's offense took over . On the first play after the block , Rix leaped across the goal line for the game 's first touchdown . The extra point attempt was a success , and with 6 : 32 remaining in the first half , Florida State took a 7 – 3 lead .
The post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began another drive . Two rushing plays resulted in a first down for the Hokies at their 49 @-@ yard line . The Hokies were unable to enter Florida State 's half of the field , however , as two incomplete passes and a running play resulted in a loss of yardage . Florida State 's offense returned to the game at their 30 @-@ yard line following the kick with 4 : 17 remaining in the first half .
On the first play of the drive , Rix completed a 42 @-@ yard pass to Craphonso Thorpe . On the next play , the Seminoles advanced the ball 11 more yards on a running play . From the Tech 18 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles were stopped for no gain , endured a sack of Rix , then committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty . After being pushed back to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles were unable to get a first down and elected to try a long field goal kick . Florida State placekicker Xavier Beitia entered the game to attempt a 50 @-@ yard kick . The kick was successful , and with 1 : 27 remaining in the first half , Florida State extended its lead to 10 – 3 .
After Virginia Tech went three @-@ and @-@ out , the Hokies punted to Florida State , who proceeded to run out the remaining seconds on the clock . The first half ended with Florida State leading , 10 – 3 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Florida State received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Florida State 's kickoff was returned to their 29 @-@ yard line , and Virginia Tech 's offense had the first possession of the second half . Jones rushed for six yards , then Noel completed a first @-@ down pass to Andre Davis at the Florida State 45 @-@ yard line . The Seminoles sacked Noel , but Noel regained the lost yardage and earned a first down with a completed pass to the 20 @-@ yard line . Three Tech rushes advanced the ball to the nine @-@ yard line and earned a first down . Two plays later , Jones dashed across the goal line for the first Tech touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Tech tied the score , 10 – 10 , with 10 : 02 remaining in the third quarter .
Florida State received the Tech kickoff and returned it to their 23 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass from Rix , Virginia Tech 's defense was caught offsides , resulting in a five @-@ yard gain for Florida State . A short run after the penalty gained a first down , but on the first play after the first down , the Seminoles fumbled the ball . The loose ball was recovered by Virginia Tech 's defense , and the Hokies began their second possession of the second half at the State 31 @-@ yard line . Tech was unable to capitalize on the field position , however . Noel threw an incomplete pass , was sacked , then threw a pass for a loss of yardage . Tech punted the ball , which was downed at the Florida State 12 @-@ yard line .
The Seminoles ' second possession of the second half began with more success than their first possession . State gained a first down on two running plays , then Rix completed a 14 @-@ yard pass for another first down . Now at their 36 @-@ yard line , the Seminoles advanced the ball for short ground gains on the next two plays , then Rix completed a 30 @-@ yard pass to Bell . Following the pass and first down , the Seminoles were at the Tech 34 @-@ yard line . Two short gains and an incomplete pass failed to gain another first down , so State head coach Bobby Bowden ordered kicker Beitia into the game to attempt a 47 @-@ yard field goal . The kick attempt was successful , and Beitia gave Florida State a 13 – 10 lead with 1 : 42 remaining in the quarter .
Following Florida State 's kickoff and a 38 @-@ yard return , Virginia Tech 's offense began work at its 45 @-@ yard line . On the second play of the drive , Noel completed a 55 @-@ yard pass to Andre Davis , who ran into the end zone for Virginia Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The extra point kick was good , and Virginia Tech regained the lead , 17 – 13 , with 40 seconds remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech kicked the ball off , and Florida State returned the kick 12 yards to its 18 @-@ yard line . The Seminoles gained five yards on two rushing plays before time ran out on the quarter , which ended with Virginia Tech leading , 17 – 13 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Florida State in possession of the ball and facing a third down and five yards . On the first play of the quarter , Rix was hit by a Virginia Tech defender , but not before he released a 77 @-@ yard pass to Walker , who ran into the end zone for a touchdown . The extra point try was good , and Florida State regained the lead , 20 – 17 , with 14 : 48 remaining in the game .
Florida State 's post @-@ score kickoff sailed through the end zone for a touchback , and Tech 's offense began its first drive of the quarter from its 20 @-@ yard line . Tech 's first play of the quarter was a 15 @-@ yard completed pass by Noel for a first down . That was followed by an 11 @-@ yard run by Jones for another first down . After an incomplete pass , Noel ran for a first down at the State 41 @-@ yard line . Inside Florida State territory , gaining ground became much more difficult . The next three plays netted Tech only nine yards , setting up a critical fourth @-@ and @-@ one play . With Virginia Tech outside field goal range and trailing , the Hokies needed another first down to move within potential scoring range . But on fourth down , Jones was stopped for no gain on a running play , and the Hokies turned the ball over on downs . The play later was cited as the game 's turning point .
After the turnover , Florida State received the ball at its 32 @-@ yard line with a 20 – 17 lead and 12 : 08 remaining in the game . On the first play after the turnover , Rix completed a 51 @-@ yard pass to Walker for a first down at the Tech 18 @-@ yard line . The three plays that followed netted only three yards , and Beitia was sent into the game to attempt a 35 @-@ yard field goal . The kick ricocheted off one of the uprights but through the goal posts , extending the Seminoles ' lead to 23 – 17 with 10 : 13 remaining in the game .
Florida State 's kickoff was fielded inside the Virginia Tech five @-@ yard line and returned to the Tech eight @-@ yard line . Tech gained five yards on two running plays , then Noel completed a 15 @-@ yard pass to Davis for a first down at the Tech 28 @-@ yard line . Noel and Jones each carried the ball , together gaining enough for a first down at the Tech 39 @-@ yard line . A completed pass and a short run by Jones resulted in another first down , this time at the 50 @-@ yard line . Florida State committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , but the Hokies were unable to gain a first down on the Seminoles ' side of the field . Rather than attempt to convert another fourth down , the Hokies punted the ball .
The kick was downed by Virginia Tech at the State 22 @-@ yard line with 5 : 22 remaining in the game . On the first play of the drive , Jones gained 13 yards and a first down at the 45 @-@ yard line of Florida State . This was followed by a 22 @-@ yard run and a first down by Jones at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . Three more runs by Jones gained another nine yards , but rather than attempt a field goal , Bowden ordered his offense to attempt to convert the first down . A quarterback sneak resulted in just enough of a gain for a first down , and State 's drive continued . On the first play after the conversion , Rix completed a 23 @-@ yard pass to Walker for a touchdown . The score and subsequent extra point gave State a 30 – 17 lead with 2 : 14 remaining in the game .
Virginia Tech returned Florida State 's kickoff to their 23 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass , the Hokies gained a first down at their 33 @-@ yard line with a short pass . After the first down , Noel was sacked on successive plays . During the second sack , Florida State lineman Darnell Dockett collided with Noel 's helmet , twisting Dockett 's knee . Following the injury , Tech sent in backup quarterback Bryan Randall to attempt a long pass . The pass was intercepted by Florida State with 19 seconds remaining in the game . Following the interception , the Seminoles ran out the clock and secured a 30 – 17 win .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , Florida Statewide receiver Javon Walker was named the most valuable player of the winning team , and Virginia Tech wide receiver André Davis was named the most valuable player of the losing team . Walker finished the game with 195 receiving yards on just four receptions , an average of almost 50 yards — half the field — per reception . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis caught five passes for 158 yards , an average of more than 31 yards per catch .
The two teams ' quarterbacks benefited from their receivers ' success in eluding the opposing defenses . Florida State quarterback Chris Rix completed 12 of his 25 pass attempts for two touchdowns , 269 yards , and one interception . Rix also ran the ball 12 times during the game . Although he lost a total of 19 yards , one of his positive rushes resulted in a rushing touchdown . Despite that score , the game marked the first time all season that Rix had been held to negative rushing yardage . For Virginia Tech , quarterback Grant Noel completed 15 of 27 pass attempts for 269 yards and a touchdown . Backup quarterback Bryan Randall threw an interception on his only pass attempt of the game , and wide receiver Richard Johnson 's trick pass attempt fell incomplete .
On the ground , Florida State running back Greg Jones led all players with 23 carries for 120 yards . Virginia Tech running back Kevin Jones was second in overall rushing , having carried the ball 23 times for 55 yards and a touchdown . Defensively , Florida State had 12 tackles for loss , causing the Hokies negating 66 yards of offense . Virginia Tech had eight tackles for loss , encompassing 48 yards of loss . Five of Virginia Tech 's tackles for loss were sacks , while four of Florida State 's tackles for loss were sacks .
Beitia 's three successful field goals tied a Gator Bowl record . Rix 's 326 passing yards were the sixth @-@ most recorded in Gator Bowl history to that point , and Javon Walker 's 195 receiving yards were the second @-@ most ever recorded in a Gator Bowl . The 77 @-@ yard pass from Rix to Walker was the third @-@ longest in Gator Bowl history . On the opposite side of the ball , Davis ' 158 receiving yards were the ninth @-@ most recorded in Gator Bowl history , and his 55 @-@ yard reception from Noel was the ninth @-@ longest in Gator Bowl history . The two receivers ' totals also were Virginia Tech bowl @-@ game records : in one case , for receiving yards gained by a single player , in the other , for receiving yards allowed by a single player .
= = Postgame effects = =
Florida State 's victory raised it to a final record of 8 – 4 , and Virginia Tech 's loss brought it also to a final record of 8 – 4 . Following the loss , the Hokies had a 5 – 10 record in bowl games , including 1 – 3 in the Gator Bowl and 4 – 5 in bowl games under head coach Frank Beamer . Florida State 's victory gave Seminoles head coach Bobby Bowden the 322nd win of his career , tying him for second in the overall Division I career wins list with Bear Bryant .
= = = 2002 NFL Draft = = =
Because of their strong performance in college and during the 2002 Gator Bowl , several players from each team were selected to play in the National Football League during the 2002 NFL Draft . Florida State had three players selected , led by wide receiver Javon Walker , who was picked in the first round ( 20th overall ) by the Green Bay Packers . Following Walker were defensive back Chris Hope ( 94th ) and Milford Brown , who was taken in the supplemental draft by the expansion Houston Texans . In addition to the Seminoles who were drafted , Florida State running back Eric Shelton transferred from the team because of a lack of playing time . Virginia Tech had eight players selected in the 2002 draft . The first of these was wide receiver Andre Davis , who was selected in the second round ( 47th overall ) , by the Cleveland Browns . Following Davis were linebacker Ben Taylor ( 111th ) , defensive back Kevin McAdam ( 148th ) , David Pugh ( 182nd ) , Bob Slowikowski ( 211th ) , Chad Beasley ( 218th ) , Derrius Monroe ( 224th ) , and Jarrett Ferguson ( 251st ) .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Following the Gator Bowl loss , Virginia Tech offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach Rickey Bustle became the head coach at Louisiana @-@ Lafayette as had been announced prior to the game . His position offensive coordinator was filled by then @-@ offensive line coach Bryan Stinespring . To fill the quarterbacks coach position vacated by Bustle , Tech hired former Notre Dame offensive coordinator Kevin Rogers .
= Ian Gillan =
Ian Gillan ( born 19 August 1945 ) is an English singer and songwriter . He originally found commercial success as the lead singer and lyricist for Deep Purple .
Initially influenced by Elvis Presley , Gillan started and fronted several local bands in the mid @-@ sixties , and eventually joined Episode Six when their original singer left . He first found widespread commercial success after joining Deep Purple in 1969 . After an almost non @-@ stop workload , during which time he recorded six albums in four years , and problematic relationships with other band members , particularly guitarist Ritchie Blackmore , Gillan resigned from the band in June 1973 , having given a lengthy notice period to their managers .
After a short time away from the music business , he resumed his music career with solo bands the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan , before a year @-@ long stint as the vocalist for Black Sabbath . He rejoined a reformed Deep Purple in 1984 , but was fired in 1989 . He rejoined the band for a second time in 1992 for their twenty @-@ fifth anniversary , and following the recruitment of guitarist Steve Morse in 1994 , has helped transform the group into a regular touring outfit , which he has fronted ever since .
In addition to his main work — performing with Deep Purple and other bands during the 1970s and 1980s — he sang the role of Jesus in the original recording of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar , performed in the charity supergroup Rock Aid Armenia , and engaged in a number of business investments and ventures , including a hotel , a motorcycle manufacturer , and music recording facilities at Kingsway Studios . More recently , he has performed solo concerts concurrently with his latter career in Deep Purple , and his work and affinity with Armenia , combined with his continued friendship with Tony Iommi since his brief time in Black Sabbath , has led him to form the supergroup WhoCares with Iommi . His solo career outside of Deep Purple was given a comprehensive overview with the Gillan 's Inn box set in 2006 .
= = Early life = =
Gillan was born on 19 August 1945 at Chiswick Maternity Hospital . His father , Bill , was a storekeeper at a factory in London , who came from Govan , Glasgow and left school at 13 , while his mother , Audrey , came from a family where she was the eldest of four children , who all enjoyed music and singing , and whose father ( Gillan 's grandfather ) had been an opera singer and amateur pianist . His sister , Pauline , was born in 1948 . One of Gillan 's earliest musical memories was of his mother playing " Blue Rondo a la Turk " on the piano .
He grew up moving between council flats before settling in a three @-@ bedroom semi @-@ detached on a council estate in Cranford , Hounslow , he was fond of animals in his early life , and enjoyed reading the comic strips of Dan Dare . His parents separated after Audrey discovered Bill had had an affair that started while he was stationed in the army during World War II . He began attending Hounslow College and stayed there through his early teenage years . He was influenced by Elvis Presley by hearing his records at home and at the local youth club . He switched to go to Acton County Grammar School ( now Acton High School ) to take his O Levels , where he was in the same class as Pete Townshend , but became distracted from studies after leaving the local cinema having watched a Presley film , deciding that he wanted to be a rock 'n'roll singer . He subsequently took a job manufacturing ice machines in Hounslow .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Gillan 's first attempt at a band was called Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners , and consisted of himself on vocals and drums , alongside guitarist Chris Aylmer , who later went on to work with Bruce Dickinson . The band covered songs such as Tommy Roe 's Sweet Little Sheila and the Shadows ' Apache . He discovered he couldn 't sing and play drums at the same time , so settled on the role of lead vocalist , performing regularly at St Dunstan 's Hall , the local youth club . He soon switched to another local band who also played at Dunstan 's Hall , Ronnie and the Hightones , who renamed themselves as the Javelins after he joined . The band played covers of Sonny Boy Williamson , Chuck Berry , Jerry Lee Lewis and Little Richard , and were early customers of then @-@ local music shop owner Jim Marshall . The Javelins disbanded in March 1964 , with guitarist Gordon Fairminer leaving to join what eventually became the Sweet .
After the Javelins , Gillan joined a soul band , Wainwright 's Gentlemen , which included another future Sweet member , drummer Mick Tucker . The band recorded a number of tracks including a cover of The Hollies hit " Ain 't That Just Like Me " . Although the band played several local popular music venues , they did not find success , so in April 1965 , he decided to join Hatch End based Episode Six .
= = = Episode Six = = =
Gillan had been contacted by Episode Six 's manager Gloria Bristow , who worked for Helmut Gordon , original manager of The Detours , later to become the Who . He replaced original lead singer Andy Ross , who left to get married , and joined keyboardist and singer Sheila Carter , guitarists Graham Carter and Tony Lander , bassist Roger Glover and drummer Harvey Shields . Gillan considers Episode Six to be his first truly professional band , and in their early days were sponsored and championed by Tony Blackburn , who occasionally accompanied Gillan on stage . Later , as well as performing concerts in the UK , Episode Six also toured Germany and Beirut . , and had regular appearances on the BBC Light Programme . During his time with Episode Six , Gillan began writing songs together with Glover , forming an ultimately long lasting partnership . After a strained tour of Beirut , Shields left the band and was replaced first by John Kerrison , then by Mick Underwood . Underwood had previously played in The Outlaws with Ritchie Blackmore , and it was via him that Ian was put in touch with to form Deep Purple in 1968 . Gillan originally declined the position of lead singer in the band , though by 1969 , after having released nine singles , none of which charted in the UK , and finding their style of music too restrictive for him , he decided to leave Episode Six .
= = = Deep Purple , 1969 – 73 = = =
By spring 1969 , Deep Purple had had a top 5 US hit with " Hush " , but the band , particularly Ritchie Blackmore , Jon Lord and Ian Paice , decided their future lay in hard rock , rather than the psychedelic pop sound of the early band . On 4 June 1969 , Blackmore , Lord and Paice went to see Episode Six perform at the Ivy Lodge Club in Woodford , and subsequently offered Gillan the job as new lead singer , asking him if he also knew any good bassists . Since Glover was by this point a reasonably experienced songwriter , having penned several Episode Six B sides , he was also recruited . They were both accepted into the band on 16 June 1969 , replacing singer Rod Evans and bassist Nic Simper respectively . The old line up of Deep Purple continued to do several concerts until the end of the month , whereupon Evans and Simper were both fired by managers Tony Edwards and John Colletta after their last show on 4 July .
Gillan made his first onstage appearance with Deep Purple at the Speakeasy in London 's West End on 10 July . As the band had only been rehearsing for a few weeks , they relied on older instrumentals such as " Wring That Neck " and " Mandrake Root " to fill in a set . Unsure of what to do , Gillan found a pair of congas onstage , and decided to play them during these instrumental sections . The congas would subsequently become a trademark of his live performances with the band .
Deep Purple Mk.II continued rehearsing at Hanwell Community Centre . One of Gillan 's first notable contributions to the band during these rehearsals was the vocal melody and lyrics to " Child in Time " . At Hanwell , the band wrote what would eventually become most of In Rock during 1969 , though were interrupted in September to perform Lord 's Concerto for Group and Orchestra , a one off performance in September at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . Gillan , along with Blackmore , was initially unhappy at having to perform the concerto , and wrote the lyrics to the second movement on the afternoon of the performance on a napkin in an Italian restaurant .
In 1970 , Gillan received a call from Tim Rice , asking him to perform the part of Jesus on the original 1970 album recording of Jesus Christ Superstar , having been impressed with his performance on " Child in Time " . After rehearsing a few times with Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber , he recorded his entire vocal contributions in three hours . He was subsequently offered the lead role in the 1973 film adaptation . Gillan demanded to not only be paid £ 250 @,@ 000 for his role in the movie , but also insisted , without the consent of his manager , that the entire band be paid because filming would conflict with a scheduled tour . The producers declined , instead casting Ted Neeley in the Jesus role , and Gillan continued on in the band .
After 1971 , particularly after the release of Fireball , Gillan started to become disillusioned with the workload of the band , who had not had any holiday since their initial rehearsals at Hanwell . He started drinking , and relationships between him and the rest of the band became strained , particularly with Blackmore . On 6 November 1971 , he collapsed with hepatitis while waiting to board a plane in Chicago , cancelling the remainder of a US tour .
By December 1972 , having recorded Machine Head , Made in Japan and the yet to be released Who Do We Think We Are with Deep Purple , Gillan finally decided the workload had driven him to exhaustion . Unlike some band members , he was unhappy about Made in Japan , and disliked live albums in general . He tended to go into the studio after the rest of the band had recorded and finished the backing tracks , particularly for Who Do We Think We Are , to lay down his vocals separately . He had been continually at loggerheads with Blackmore , disagreeing about music regularly , which culminated in Gillan writing " Smooth Dancer " about him . While on tour in Dayton , Ohio , he sat down and wrote a resignation letter to the band 's managers , stating he intended to leave the band , effective from 30 June 1973 . He was replaced by David Coverdale .
= = = Post @-@ Purple = = =
After his departure from Deep Purple , Gillan retired from performing to pursue various unsuccessful business ventures . These included a £ 300 @,@ 000 investment in a hotel near Oxford . A second was the Mantis Motor Cycles project , which suffered from the collapse of the British motorcycle industry in the mid @-@ 1970s , culminating in Gillan being forced to file for liquidation . A more successful opportunity , however , came with his investment in Kingsway Studios in 1974 , This led to a live performance at the Butterfly Ball on 16 October 1975 , replacing Ronnie James Dio at the last minute . Encouraged by his reception there , he decided to resume his musical career .
= = = Ian Gillan Band = = =
In 1975 , Gillan formed the Ian Gillan Band with guitarist Ray Fenwick , keyboardist Mike Moran , quickly replaced with Mickey Lee Soule and then Colin Towns on keyboards , Mark Nauseef on drums and John Gustafson on bass . Their first album , Child in Time was released in July 1976 , followed by Clear Air Turbulence in April 1977 and Scarabus in October . The sound of the band had a distinct jazz @-@ rock aspect which , although interesting to Gillan , proved unpopular , particularly since punk rock was in vogue at that time .
= = = Gillan = = =
Gillan then formed a new band , simply called Gillan , retaining Towns ( who would co @-@ write most of the material ) , and adding guitarist Steve Byrd , bassist John McCoy and drummer Pete Barnacle . Byrd and Barnacle were quickly replaced by Bernie Torme and by former Episode Six bandmate Mick Underwood , after Gillan saw Torme playing with his punk trio . This band had a more high powered hard rock sound , and the release of Mr. Universe in October 1979 saw Ian Gillan back in the UK charts , although the independent record company the album came out on – Acrobat Records – folded soon after the album was released , prompting a contract with Richard Branson 's Virgin Records .
In Christmas 1979 , Gillan was visited by Blackmore , who offered him the position of lead vocalist in Rainbow . Gillan declined due to the smaller workload the band had compared to his own . However , the pair did jam together for three nights at Marquee Club – the first time the two men had shared a stage since 1973 .
Gillan continued , releasing Glory Road in 1980 , which contained the hit single " Trouble " , and resulted in the band making the first of several appearances on Top of the Pops . He considered the album to be his best work since Machine Head nearly a decade earlier . Following subsequent album Future Shock , Torme was fired after missing an appearance on Top of the Pops , and was replaced by Janick Gers . Gers appeared on the band 's next two albums , Double Trouble and Magic .
In 1982 Ian Gillan announced the band would fold , as he needed to rest his damaged vocal cords . The tone and style of his singing changed considerably when he eventually returned . His voice had a more nasal tone and this can be heard on albums he has made from 1983 to the present day . His use of multi @-@ tracked backing vocals also became highly prominent . The rest of the band Gillan , particularly McCoy and Towns , were not happy at the sudden disbanding of the group so soon after the success of Magic , and sued Gillan for royalties .
= = = Black Sabbath = = =
In 1983 , manager Don Arden invited Gillan to join Tony Iommi , Geezer Butler and Bill Ward , all founding members of Black Sabbath , to form a supergroup . Although the band had reservations , on 6 April 1983 , it was formally announced that Gillan had replaced Ronnie James Dio in Black Sabbath . The group recorded the album Born Again at the Manor Studios in Oxfordshire . Citing health problems , Ward decided not to accompany the others during the subsequent tour , and was replaced by Bev Bevan .
As a member of Black Sabbath , Gillan was required to learn their old repertoire , but had difficulty remembering the words . He eventually came up with a solution of writing the lyrics out on a perspex folder , and balancing it on a wedge monitor , turning the pages with his feet . Unfortunately , the dry ice on stage made it impossible to read the words , resulting the audience witnessing glimpses of him peering over the microphone to sing a few lines , then disappearing below the dry ice to read the next set . As well as material from Born Again , and older Sabbath numbers , the band regularly played Deep Purple 's " Smoke on the Water " as an encore .
Gillan was largely dissatisfied with his brief stint in Sabbath , notably the final mix of Born Again ( though he liked the songs and their original mixes ) , and its cover , which featured a demonic @-@ looking baby . He was quoted in Kerrang ! in 1984 as saying , " I looked at the cover and puked . " In an interview supporting Deep Purple 's reformation in 1984 , he stated of Born Again , " They had sent me a box of records . And , when I saw the cover , and heard the mix , I smashed every single one of them to pieces . " Born Again also received mostly negative reviews from the critics upon its release but was appreciated by several fans and other musicians who covered some songs from the album .
= = = Reunion of Deep Purple , 1984 – 89 and 1992 – present = = =
After the disappointment of Black Sabbath , Gillan joined a reunited Deep Purple in April 1984 , announcing their comeback on Tommy Vance 's radio show . The reformed band rehearsed in Stowe , Vermont , and recorded the album Perfect Strangers , followed by a world tour . Another studio album with this formation , The House of Blue Light followed in 1987 , but Gillan was concerned with the final results , stating " There 's something missing in the overall album . I can 't feel the spirit of the band . "
This was followed by the live album Nobody 's Perfect in 1988 . The live album also featured a studio re @-@ recording of the 1968 hit " Hush " with Gillan on vocals , to commemorate Deep Purple 's 20th anniversary . ( The original 1968 release had been sung by Rod Evans ) . Gillan later remarked that the album was " the embodiment of all the things wrong with Purple . "
In contrast to his experiences with Deep Purple in the 1970s , Gillan felt frustrated that the band were no longer working enough . To fulfil his contract with Virgin , he formed a side project with Glover , writing and recording songs which didn 't fit Purple 's established hard rock style , which resulted in the album Accidentally on Purpose . By 1989 , tensions between Gillan and Blackmore had resurfaced , due to the former 's greater enthusiasm for touring and differences over the music – the song " Mitzi Dupree " on The House of Blue Light is the original demo as Blackmore refused to re @-@ record it . This culminated in Blackmore calling a rehearsal session without Gillan . After an acrimonious argument , Glover told Gillan , " Ian , you 've gone too far this time , " and he was fired , to be replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Joe Lynn Turner for one Deep Purple studio album .
Gillan , meanwhile formed a new version of Garth Rockett and the Moonshiners with keyboardist Mark Buckle , bassist Keith Mulholland , drummer Louis Rosenthal and guitarists Harry Shaw and Steve Morris . The band toured regularly through 1989 , and recorded the album Naked Thunder . Gillan later expressed dissatisfaction with the album , calling it " rather hum @-@ de @-@ dum " . During this time , Gillan also made an appearance on a re @-@ recording of " Smoke on the Water " with Rock Aid Armenia , consisting of himself , Bryan Adams , Tony Iommi , David Gilmour , Roger Taylor , Brian May , Bruce Dickinson and Paul Rodgers as a charity record for aid relief in Armenia following the then @-@ recent earthquake . He continued to tour with his solo band , albeit with several line up changes throughout Europe , the US and Russia .
At the urging of Glover , Lord and Paice , who wanted him in the fold for the band 's 25th anniversary tour , Gillan rejoined Deep Purple in 1992 to record the album The Battle Rages On . Gillan was unhappy with working on the album , as it had already been partially completed with Joe Lynn Turner , and he was only required to write replacement lyrics and vocal melodies , which , unsurprisingly , drew criticism from Blackmore . Part @-@ way through the tour for this album , Ritchie Blackmore left the band for good in November 1993 .
Gillan was especially enthusiastic about carrying on after Blackmore 's departure , and after a brief stint with Joe Satriani , Deep Purple recruited Dixie Dregs / Kansas guitarist Steve Morse . He was keen to make changes to the live set immediately , adding the then @-@ seldom played " Maybe I 'm a Leo " ( named after Gillan 's birth sign ) and " When a Blind Man Cries " – the latter becoming a mainstay in the band 's setlist ever since . He said that their first album with Morse , Purpendicular , " was a such important record for Deep Purple that without that [ other records ] couldn 't have been possible . " . Although the band has found more success touring than with producing records , Gillan remains the band 's singer to this day .
Gillan pays particular interest to the lyrics in Deep Purple , and considers it his prime composing role within the band . Discussing the importance of lyrics , he said " Words have to sound good . They have to sound like an instrument , they have to have the right percussive value . " He described the words of 2003 's Bananas as " politics mostly . " Since 2005 's Rapture of the Deep , Deep Purple has been touring continually . Gillan is particularly motivated to keeping the band touring , as he feels that regular live performance is required to keep his voice in shape , and enjoys the band 's improvisational skills , feeling that it keeps the performance " fresh " for fans .
" I haven 't ever had any ambition in my life . I just drift from day to day with a stupid grin on my face . "
= = = Later Solo Activity = = =
Though Gillan has kept touring with Deep Purple regularly since 1994 , he has found time to commit to other projects .
On 31 March 2006 Gillan appeared at the Tommy Vance tribute concert in London . He was accompanied by Roger Glover , Steve Morris , Dean Howard , Michael Lee Jackson , Harry James , Sim Jones and Richard Cottle .
In April 2006 Gillan released a CD / multimedia project to document his 44 @-@ year career called Gillan 's Inn . Tony Iommi , Jeff Healey , Joe Satriani , Dean Howard , as well as current and former members of Deep Purple such as Jon Lord , Roger Glover , Ian Paice , Don Airey and Steve Morse are featured on this 2006 CD and DVD . The project , produced by Nick Blagona , includes a re @-@ recorded selection of his Deep Purple , Black Sabbath and solo tracks . At the same time as Gillan 's Inn , Gillan announced that his solo albums with the Ian Gillan Band and Gillan from the 1970s and 1980s would be re @-@ issued late in 2006 and early 2007 through Demon Records .
Ian Gillan sang on two songs off the Jon Lord & Hoochie Coochie Men studio album , Danger . White Men Dancing , released in late 2007 .
On 2 April 2007 Gillan released a DVD Highway Star - A Journey in Rock . The DVD has 6 hours of footage including documentaries and music clips . This was followed in February 2008 by a double live album on Edel Records , Live in Anaheim that features Gillan and Deep Purple classic songs and several rarities . A companion DVD was released in May 2008 .
On 3 May 2008 Ian Gillan performed at the Jeff Healey memorial concert in Toronto , Canada . He had previously played live with Healey in Toronto in February 2005 .
He released a studio album entitled One Eye to Morocco in March 2009 .
In recent years Ian Gillan has been performing occasionally with orchestras in Europe singing mainly Deep Purple hits ( 2007 : Greece , 2008 : Italy , 2009 : Germany ,
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Santos of E ! " loved every minute " and admitted that " this was one of [ her ] all @-@ time favorite episodes , what with the undying love business and this indisputable fact : Henry Ian Cusick can frakking act " . " The Constant " received high praise from IGN reviewer Chris Carabott calling it " a brilliantly executed hour of television " and " one of the finest episodes in the series " . He gave it 10 / 10 , tying it with " Pilot – Part One " and " Through the Looking Glass " as the best reviewed episode of Lost . LTG of Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A + " — the highest grade for any Lost episode . Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad loved the episode and its unique flashback structure . " The Constant " strengthened her love for Desmond and Penny 's story , saying " my heart won 't break if none of [ Jack , Kate , Sawyer and Juliet ] end up together [ but ] if Desmond and Penny don 't reunite , I will be devastated . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV gave " The Constant " an excellent review , saying that " my mind has never spun this fast after a Lost episode " and the writers have " really outdone themselves " and " do not get enough credit for constantly tinkering with their story structure " . Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post said that this " episode of Lost not only continued this season 's thrilling momentum ; it proved to fans that even in its fourth season , it still leaves us with our jaws hanging open … this was the make of possibly one of my favorite Lost episodes ever . " Glatfelter also praised the characters , Daniel " more and more becoming one of [ his ] favorite characters " and calling Desmond " the most intriguing character on Lost [ with ] the best love story on the show and dare I say on television today " . Daniel of TMZ graded the episode as an " A + " , considering it to be one of the best Lost episodes . In his review , he compared television to film — specifically " The Constant " to No Country for Old Men , the 2007 Academy Award winner for Best Picture — and decided that television is far superior . Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune wrote that " [ I was ] almost as touched and relieved by the reunion as Desmond and Penny are " ; however , she did not review " The Constant " as favorably as other critics , giving it an " A – " . Dan Compora of SyFy Portal gave " The Constant " a mixed review . He described it as " an entertaining episode [ with ] a fine acting performance by Henry Ian Cusick " , but criticized Desmond 's repetitive story arc , criticized Frank 's character , said that " Jeff Fahey is a fine actor , but so far , his character just hasn 't really evolved enough for me to care yet " and concluded , " this episode didn 't seem to really raise or answer anything of major importance , so I can 't help but feel that it was nothing more than mid @-@ season filler . " Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy graded it with four out of five stars , and wrote that " a refreshing shift in Lost 's tone enabled loyal viewers to have their hearts warmed by the long distance smoochfest between Desmond and his beloved Penny " .
= = = Awards = = =
" The Constant " was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a One @-@ Hour Series and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Original Dramatic Score ) at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards . Academy of Television Arts & Sciences , ( July 17 , 2008 ) It was Lost 's representative episode for Outstanding Drama Series and was indeed nominated , losing to Mad Men . Henry Ian Cusick and Jeremy Davies each submitted this episode for consideration on their own behalf for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . This episode was also considered for Outstanding Directing and Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . The episode was nominated for the 2009 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form . Jack Bender was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .
= Multiple sequence alignment =
A multiple sequence alignment ( MSA ) is a sequence alignment of three or more biological sequences , generally protein , DNA , or RNA . In many cases , the input set of query sequences are assumed to have an evolutionary relationship by which they share a lineage and are descended from a common ancestor . From the resulting MSA , sequence homology can be inferred and phylogenetic analysis can be conducted to assess the sequences ' shared evolutionary origins . Visual depictions of the alignment as in the image at right illustrate mutation events such as point mutations ( single amino acid or nucleotide changes ) that appear as differing characters in a single alignment column , and insertion or deletion mutations ( indels or gaps ) that appear as hyphens in one or more of the sequences in the alignment . Multiple sequence alignment is often used to assess sequence conservation of protein domains , tertiary and secondary structures , and even individual amino acids or nucleotides .
Multiple sequence alignment also refers to the process of aligning such a sequence set . Because three or more sequences of biologically relevant length can be difficult and are almost always time @-@ consuming to align by hand , computational algorithms are used to produce and analyze the alignments . MSAs require more sophisticated methodologies than pairwise alignment because they are more computationally complex . Most multiple sequence alignment programs use heuristic methods rather than global optimization because identifying the optimal alignment between more than a few sequences of moderate length is prohibitively computationally expensive .
= = Dynamic programming and computational complexity = =
A direct method for producing an MSA uses the dynamic programming technique to identify the globally optimal alignment solution . For proteins , this method usually involves two sets of parameters : a gap penalty and a substitution matrix assigning scores or probabilities to the alignment of each possible pair of amino acids based on the similarity of the amino acids ' chemical properties and the evolutionary probability of the mutation . For nucleotide sequences a similar gap penalty is used , but a much simpler substitution matrix , wherein only identical matches and mismatches are considered , is typical . The scores in the substitution matrix may be either all positive or a mix of positive and negative in the case of a global alignment , but must be both positive and negative , in the case of a local alignment .
For n individual sequences , the naive method requires constructing the n @-@ dimensional equivalent of the matrix formed in standard pairwise sequence alignment . The search space thus increases exponentially with increasing n and is also strongly dependent on sequence length . Expressed with the big O notation commonly used to measure computational complexity , a naïve MSA takes O ( LengthNseqs ) time to produce . To find the global optimum for n sequences this way has been shown to be an NP @-@ complete problem . In 1989 , based on Carrillo @-@ Lipman Algorithm , Altschul introduced a practical method that uses pairwise alignments to constrain the n @-@ dimensional search space . In this approach pairwise dynamic programming alignments are performed on each pair of sequences in the query set , and only the space near the n @-@ dimensional intersection of these alignments is searched for the n @-@ way alignment . The MSA program optimizes the sum of all of the pairs of characters at each position in the alignment ( the so @-@ called sum of pair score ) and has been implemented in a software program for constructing multiple sequence alignments .
= = Progressive alignment construction = =
The most widely used approach to multiple sequence alignments uses a heuristic search known as progressive technique ( also known as the hierarchical or tree method ) developed by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1984 . Progressive alignment builds up a final MSA by combining pairwise alignments beginning with the most similar pair and progressing to the most distantly related . All progressive alignment methods require two stages : a first stage in which the relationships between the sequences are represented as a tree , called a guide tree , and a second step in which the MSA is built by adding the sequences sequentially to the growing MSA according to the guide tree . The initial guide tree is determined by an efficient clustering method such as neighbor @-@ joining or UPGMA , and may use distances based on the number of identical two letter sub @-@ sequences ( as in FASTA rather than a dynamic programming alignment ) .
Progressive alignments are not guaranteed to be globally optimal . The primary problem is that when errors are made at any stage in growing the MSA , these errors are then propagated through to the final result . Performance is also particularly bad when all of the sequences in the set are rather distantly related . Most modern progressive methods modify their scoring function with a secondary weighting function that assigns scaling factors to individual members of the query set in a nonlinear fashion based on their phylogenetic distance from their nearest neighbors . This corrects for non @-@ random selection of the sequences given to the alignment program .
Progressive alignment methods are efficient enough to implement on a large scale for many ( 100s to 1000s ) sequences . Progressive alignment services are commonly available on publicly accessible web servers so users need not locally install the applications of interest . The most popular progressive alignment method has been the Clustal family , especially the weighted variant ClustalW to which access is provided by a large number of web portals including GenomeNet , EBI , and EMBNet . Different portals or implementations can vary in user interface and make different parameters accessible to the user . ClustalW is used extensively for phylogenetic tree construction , in spite of the author 's explicit warnings that unedited alignments should not be used in such studies and as input for protein structure prediction by homology modeling . Current version of Clustal family is ClustalW2 . EMBL @-@ EBI announced that CLustalW2 will be expired in August 2015 . They recommend Clustal Omega which performs based on seeded guide trees and HMM profile @-@ profile techniques for protein alignments . They offer different MSA tools for progressive DNA alignments . One of them is MAFFT ( Multiple Alignment using Fast Fourier Transform ) .
Another common progressive alignment method called T @-@ Coffee is slower than Clustal and its derivatives but generally produces more accurate alignments for distantly related sequence sets . T @-@ Coffee calculates pairwise alignments by combining the direct alignment of the pair with indirect alignments that aligns each sequence of the pair to a third sequence . It uses the output from Clustal as well as another local alignment program LALIGN , which finds multiple regions of local alignment between two sequences . The resulting alignment and phylogenetic tree are used as a guide to produce new and more accurate weighting factors .
Because progressive methods are heuristics that are not guaranteed to converge to a global optimum , alignment quality can be difficult to evaluate and their true biological significance can be obscure . A semi @-@ progressive method that improves alignment quality and does not use a lossy heuristic while still running in polynomial time has been implemented in the program PSAlign .
= = Iterative methods = =
A set of methods to produce MSAs while reducing the errors inherent in progressive methods are classified as " iterative " because they work similarly to progressive methods but repeatedly realign the initial sequences as well as adding new sequences to the growing MSA . One reason progressive methods are so strongly dependent on a high @-@ quality initial alignment is the fact that these alignments are always incorporated into the final result — that is , once a sequence has been aligned into the MSA , its alignment is not considered further . This approximation improves efficiency at the cost of accuracy . By contrast , iterative methods can return to previously calculated pairwise alignments or sub @-@ MSAs incorporating subsets of the query sequence as a means of optimizing a general objective function such as finding a high @-@ quality alignment score .
A variety of subtly different iteration methods have been implemented and made available in software packages ; reviews and comparisons have been useful but generally refrain from choosing a " best " technique . The software package PRRN / PRRP uses a hill @-@ climbing algorithm to optimize its MSA alignment score and iteratively corrects both alignment weights and locally divergent or " gappy " regions of the growing MSA . PRRP performs best when refining an alignment previously constructed by a faster method .
Another iterative program , DIALIGN , takes an unusual approach of focusing narrowly on local alignments between sub @-@ segments or sequence motifs without introducing a gap penalty . The alignment of individual motifs is then achieved with a matrix representation similar to a dot @-@ matrix plot in a pairwise alignment . An alternative method that uses fast local alignments as anchor points or " seeds " for a slower global @-@ alignment procedure is implemented in the CHAOS / DIALIGN suite .
A third popular iteration @-@ based method called MUSCLE ( multiple sequence alignment by log @-@ expectation ) improves on progressive methods with a more accurate distance measure to assess the relatedness of two sequences . The distance measure is updated between iteration stages ( although , in its original form , MUSCLE contained only 2 @-@ 3 iterations depending on whether refinement was enabled ) .
= = Consensus methods = =
Consensus methods attempt to find the optimal multiple sequence alignment given multiple different alignments of the same set of sequences . There are two commonly used consensus methods , M @-@ COFFEE and MergeAlign . M @-@ COFFEE uses multiple sequence alignments generated by seven different methods to generate consensus alignments . MergeAlign is capable of generating consensus alignments from any number of input alignments generated using different models of sequence evolution or different methods of multiple sequence alignment . The default option for MergeAlign is to infer a consensus alignment using alignments generated using 91 different models of protein sequence evolution .
= = Hidden Markov models = =
Hidden Markov models are probabilistic models that can assign likelihoods to all possible combinations of gaps , matches , and mismatches to determine the most likely MSA or set of possible MSAs . HMMs can produce a single highest @-@ scoring output but can also generate a family of possible alignments that can then be evaluated for biological significance . HMMs can produce both global and local alignments . Although HMM @-@ based methods have been developed relatively recently , they offer significant improvements in computational speed , especially for sequences that contain overlapping regions .
Typical HMM @-@ based methods work by representing an MSA as a form of directed acyclic graph known as a partial @-@ order graph , which consists of a series of nodes representing possible entries in the columns of an MSA . In this representation a column that is absolutely conserved ( that is , that all the sequences in the MSA share a particular character at a particular position ) is coded as a single node with as many outgoing connections as there are possible characters in the next column of the alignment . In the terms of a typical hidden Markov model , the observed states are the individual alignment columns and the " hidden " states represent the presumed ancestral sequence from which the sequences in the query set are hypothesized to have descended . An efficient search variant of the dynamic programming method , known as the Viterbi algorithm , is generally used to successively align the growing MSA to the next sequence in the query set to produce a new MSA . This is distinct from progressive alignment methods because the alignment of prior sequences is updated at each new sequence addition . However , like progressive methods , this technique can be influenced by the order in which the sequences in the query set are integrated into the alignment , especially when the sequences are distantly related .
Several software programs are available in which variants of HMM @-@ based methods have been implemented and which are noted for their scalability and efficiency , although properly using an HMM method is more complex than using more common progressive methods . The simplest is POA ( Partial @-@ Order Alignment ) ; a similar but more generalized method is implemented in the packages SAM ( Sequence Alignment and Modeling System ) . and HMMER . SAM has been used as a source of alignments for protein structure prediction to participate in the CASP structure prediction experiment and to develop a database of predicted proteins in the yeast species S. cerevisiae . HHsearch is a software package for the detection of remotely related protein sequences based on the pairwise comparison of HMMs . A server running HHsearch ( HHpred ) was by far the fastest of the 10 best automatic structure prediction servers in the CASP7 and CASP8 structure prediction competitions .
= = Genetic algorithms and simulated annealing = =
Standard optimization techniques in computer science — both of which were inspired by , but do not directly reproduce , physical processes — have also been used in an attempt to more efficiently produce quality MSAs . One such technique , genetic algorithms , has been used for MSA production in an attempt to broadly simulate the hypothesized evolutionary process that gave rise to the divergence in the query set . The method works by breaking a series of possible MSAs into fragments and repeatedly rearranging those fragments with the introduction of gaps at varying positions . A general objective function is optimized during the simulation , most generally the " sum of pairs " maximization function introduced in dynamic programming @-@ based MSA methods . A technique for protein sequences has been implemented in the software program SAGA ( Sequence Alignment by Genetic Algorithm ) and its equivalent in RNA is called RAGA .
The technique of simulated annealing , by which an existing MSA produced by another method is refined by a series of rearrangements designed to find better regions of alignment space than the one the input alignment already occupies . Like the genetic algorithm method , simulated annealing maximizes an objective function like the sum @-@ of @-@ pairs function . Simulated annealing uses a metaphorical " temperature factor " that determines the rate at which rearrangements proceed and the likelihood of each rearrangement ; typical usage alternates periods of high rearrangement rates with relatively low likelihood ( to explore more distant regions of alignment space ) with periods of lower rates and higher likelihoods to more thoroughly explore local minima near the newly " colonized " regions . This approach has been implemented in the program MSASA ( Multiple Sequence Alignment by Simulated Annealing ) .
= = Phylogeny @-@ aware methods = =
Most multiple sequence alignment methods try to minimize the number of insertions / deletions ( gaps ) and , as a consequence , produce compact alignments . This causes several problems if the sequences to be aligned contain non @-@ homologous regions , if gaps are informative in a phylogeny analysis . These problems are common in newly produced sequences that are poorly annotated and may contain frame @-@ shifts , wrong domains or non @-@ homologous spliced exons .
The first such method was developed in 2005 by Löytynoja and Goldman . The same authors released a software package called PRANK in 2008 . PRANK improves alignments when insertions are present . Nevertheless , it runs slowly compared to progressive and / or iterative methods which have been developed for several years .
In 2012 , two new phylogeny @-@ aware tools appeared . One is called PAGAN that was developed by the same team as PRANK . The other is ProGraphMSA developed by Szalkowski . Both software packages were developed independently but share common features , notably the use of graph algorithms to improve the recognition of non @-@ homologous regions , and an improvement in code making these software faster than PRANK .
= = Motif finding = =
Motif finding , also known as profile analysis , is a method of locating sequence motifs in global MSAs that is both a means of producing a better MSA and a means of producing a scoring matrix for use in searching other sequences for similar motifs . A variety of methods for isolating the motifs have been developed , but all are based on identifying short highly conserved patterns within the larger alignment and constructing a matrix similar to a substitution matrix that reflects the amino acid or nucleotide composition of each position in the putative motif . The alignment can then be refined using these matrices . In standard profile analysis , the matrix includes entries for each possible character as well as entries for gaps . Alternatively , statistical pattern @-@ finding algorithms can identify motifs as a precursor to an MSA rather than as a derivation . In many cases when the query set contains only a small number of sequences or contains only highly related sequences , pseudocounts are added to normalize the distribution reflected in the scoring matrix . In particular , this corrects zero @-@ probability entries in the matrix to values that are small but nonzero .
Blocks analysis is a method of motif finding that restricts motifs to ungapped regions in the alignment . Blocks can be generated from an MSA or they can be extracted from unaligned sequences using a precalculated set of common motifs previously generated from known gene families . Block scoring generally relies on the spacing of high @-@ frequency characters rather than on the calculation of an explicit substitution matrix . The BLOCKS server provides an interactive method to locate such motifs in unaligned sequences .
Statistical pattern @-@ matching has been implemented using both the expectation @-@ maximization algorithm and the Gibbs sampler . One of the most common motif @-@ finding tools , known as MEME , uses expectation maximization and hidden Markov methods to generate motifs that are then used as search tools by its companion MAST in the combined suite MEME / MAST .
= = Non @-@ Coding Multiple Sequence Alignment = =
Non @-@ coding DNA regions , especially TFBSs , are rather more conserved and not necessarily evolutionarily related , and may have converged from non @-@ common ancestors . Thus , the assumptions used to align protein sequences and DNA coding regions are inherently different from those that hold for TFBS sequences . Although it is meaningful to align DNA coding regions for homologous sequences using mutation operators , alignment of binding site sequences for the same transcription factor cannot rely on evolutionary related mutation operations . Similarly , the evolutionary operator of point mutations can be used to define an edit distance for coding sequences , but this has little meaning for TFBS sequences because any sequence variation has to maintain a certain level of specificity for the binding site to function . This becomes specifically important when trying to align known TFBS sequences to build supervised models to predict unknown locations of the same TFBS . Hence , Multiple Sequence Alignment methods need to adjust the underlying evolutionary hypothesis and the operators used as in the work published incorporating neighbouring base thermodynamic information to align the binding sites searching for the lowest thermodynamic alignment conserving specificity of the binding site , EDNA .
= = Alignment visualization and quality control = =
The necessary use of heuristics for multiple alignment means that for an arbitrary set of proteins , there is always a good chance that an alignment will contain errors . For example , an evaluation of several leading alignment programs using the BAliBase benchmark found that at least 24 % of all pairs of aligned amino acids were incorrectly aligned . These errors can arise because of unique insertions into one or more regions of sequences , or through some more complex evolutionary process leading to proteins that do not align easily by sequence alone . As the number of sequence and their divergence increases many more errors will be made simply because of the heuristic nature of MSA algorithms . Multiple sequence alignment viewers enable alignments to be visually reviewed , often by inspecting the quality of alignment for annotated functional sites on two or more sequences . Many also enable the alignment to be edited to correct these ( usually minor ) errors , in order to obtain an optimal ' curated ' alignment suitable for use in phylogenetic analysis or comparative modeling .
However , as the number of sequences increases and especially in genome @-@ wide studies that involve many MSAs it is impossible to manually curate all alignments . Furthermore , manual curation is subjective . And finally , even the best expert cannot confidently align the more ambiguous cases of highly diverged sequences . In such cases it is common practice to use automatic procedures to exclude unreliably aligned regions from the MSA . For the purpose of phylogeny reconstruction ( see below ) the Gblocks program is widely used to remove alignment blocks suspect of low quality , according to various cutoffs on the number of gapped sequences in alignment columns . However , these criteria may excessively filter out regions with insertion / deletion events that may still be aligned reliably , and these regions might be desirable for other purposes such as detection of positive selection . A few alignment algorithms output site @-@ specific scores that allow the selection of high @-@ confidence regions . Such a service was first offered by the SOAP program , which tests the robustness of each column to perturbation in the parameters of the popular alignment program CLUSTALW . The T @-@ Coffee program uses a library of alignments in the construction of the final MSA , and its output MSA is colored according to confidence scores that reflect the agreement between different alignments in the library regarding each aligned residue . Its extension , TCS : ( Transitive Consistency Score ) , uses T @-@ Coffee libraries of pairwise alignments to evaluate any third party MSA . Pairwise projections can be produced using fast or slow methods , thus allowing a trade @-@ off between speed and accuracy . Another alignment program that can output an MSA with confidence scores is FSA , which uses a statistical model that allows calculation of the uncertainty in the alignment . The HoT ( Heads @-@ Or @-@ Tails ) score can be used as a measure of site @-@ specific alignment uncertainty due to the existence of multiple co @-@ optimal solutions . The GUIDANCE program calculates a similar site @-@ specific confidence measure based on the robustness of the alignment to uncertainty in the guide tree that is used in progressive alignment programs . An alternative , more statistically justified approach to assess alignment uncertainty is the use of probabilistic evolutionary models for joint estimation of phylogeny and alignment . A Bayesian approach allows calculation of posterior probabilities of estimated phylogeny and alignment , which is a measure of the confidence in these estimates . In this case , a posterior probability can be calculated for each site in the alignment . Such an approach was implemented in the program BAli @-@ Phy .
There free available programs for visualization of multiple sequence alignments : JalView , UGENE .
= = Use in phylogenetics = =
Multiple sequence alignments can be used to create a phylogenetic tree . This is made possible by two reasons . The first is because functional domains that are known in annotated sequences can be used for alignment in non @-@ annotated sequences . The other is that conserved regions known to be functionally important can be found . This makes it possible for multiple sequence alignments to be used to analyze and find evolutionary relationships through homology between sequences . Point mutations and insertion or deletion events ( called indels ) can be detected .
Multiple sequence alignments can also be used to identify functionally important sites , such as binding sites , active sites , or sites corresponding to other key functions , by locating conserved domains . When looking at multiple sequence alignments , it is useful to consider different aspects of the sequences when comparing sequences . These aspects include identity , similarity , and homology . Identity means that the sequences have identical residues at their respective positions . On the other hand , similarity has to do with the sequences being compared having similar residues quantitatively . For example , in terms of nucleotide sequences , pyrimidines are considered similar to each other , as are purines . Similarity ultimately leads to homology , in that the more similar sequences are , the closer they are to being homologous . This similarity in sequences can then go on to help find common ancestry .
= = = Survey articles = = =
Duret , L. ; S. Abdeddaim ( 2000 ) . " Multiple alignment for structural functional or phylogenetic analyses of homologous sequences " . In D. Higgins and W. Taylor . Bioinformatics sequence structure and databanks . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
Notredame , C. ( 2002 ) . " Recent progresses in multiple sequence alignment : a survey " . Pharmacogenomics 31 ( 1 ) : 131 – 144 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1517 / 14622416 @.@ 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 131 . PMID 11966409 .
Thompson , J. D. ; Plewniak , F. ; Poch , O. ( 1999 ) . " A comprehensive comparison of multiple sequence alignment programs " . Nucleic Acids Research 27 ( 13 ) : 12682 – 2690 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / nar / 27 @.@ 13 @.@ 2682 . PMC 148477 . PMID 10373585 .
Wallace , I.M. ; Blackshields , G. ; Higgins , D.G. ( 2005 ) . " Multiple sequence alignments " . Curr Opin Struct Biol 15 ( 3 ) : 261 – 266 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.sbi.2005.04.002. PMID 15963889 .
Notredame , C ( 2007 ) . " Recent Evolutions of Multiple Sequence Alignment Algorithms " . PLOS Computational Biology 8 ( 3 ) : e123. doi : 10 @.@ 1371 / journal.pcbi.0030123. PMC 1963500 . PMID 17784778 .
= = = Lecture notes , tutorials , and courses = = =
Multiple sequence alignment lectures — from the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics
Lecture Notes and practical exercises on multiple sequence alignments at the EMBL
Molecular Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
Molecular Evolution and Bioinformatics Lecture Notes
= The Naturalist on the River Amazons =
The Naturalist on the River Amazons , subtitled A Record of the Adventures , Habits of Animals , Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life , and Aspects of Nature under the Equator , during Eleven Years of Travel , is an 1863 book by the British naturalist Henry Walter Bates about his expedition to the Amazon basin . Bates and his friend Alfred Russel Wallace set out to obtain new species and new evidence for evolution by natural selection , as well as exotic specimens to sell . He explored thousands of miles of the Amazon and its tributaries , and collected over 14 @,@ 000 species , of which 8 @,@ 000 were new to science . His observations of the coloration of butterflies led him to discover Batesian mimicry .
The book contains an evenly distributed mixture of natural history , travel , and observation of human societies , including the towns with their Catholic processions . Only the most remarkable discoveries of animals and plants are described , and theories such as evolution and mimicry are barely mentioned . Bates remarks that finding a new species is only the start ; he also describes animal behaviour , sometimes in detail , as for the army ants . He constantly relates the wildlife to the people , explaining how the people hunt , what they eat and what they use as medicines . The book is illustrated with drawings by leading artists including E. W. Robinson , Josiah Wood Whymper , Joseph Wolf and Johann Baptist Zwecker .
On Bates 's return to England , he was encouraged by Charles Darwin to write up his eleven @-@ year stay in the Amazon as a book . The result was widely admired , not least by Darwin ; other reviewers sometimes disagreed with the book 's support for evolution , but generally enjoyed his account of the journey , scenery , people , and natural history . The book has been reprinted many times , mostly in Bates 's own effective abridgement for the second edition , which omitted the more technical descriptions .
= = Publication history = =
The first edition , in 1863 , was long and full of technical description . The second edition , in 1864 , was abridged , with most of the technical description removed , making for a shorter and more readable book which has been reprinted many times . Bates prefaced the 1864 edition by writing
Having been urged to prepare a new edition of this work for a wider circle than that contemplated in the former one , I have thought it advisable to condense those portions which , treating of abstruse scientific questions , presuppose a larger amount of Natural History knowledge than an author has a right to expect of the general reader .
An unabridged edition was reissued only after 30 years , in 1892 ; it appeared together with a ' memoir ' of Bates by Edward Clodd .
= = = Major versions = = =
Bates H.W. 1863 . The naturalist on the river Amazons . 2 volumes , Murray , London .
Bates H.W. 1864 . The naturalist on the river Amazons . 2nd edition as one volume , Murray , London . [ abridged by removing natural history descriptions ; much reprinted ]
Bates H.W. 1892 . The naturalist on the river Amazons , with a memoir of the author by Edward Clodd . [ only full edition since 1863 , with good short biography by Clodd ]
= = Approach = =
In 1847 , Bates and his friend Alfred Russel Wallace , both in their early twenties , agreed that they would jointly make a collecting trip to the Amazon " towards solving the problem of origin of species " . They had been inspired by reading the American entomologist William Henry Edwards 's pioneering 1847 book A Voyage Up the River Amazon , with a residency at Pará .
Neither had much money , so they determined to fund themselves by collecting and selling fine specimens of birds and insects . Both made extensive travels — in different parts of the Amazon basin — creating large natural history collections , especially of insects . Wallace sailed back to England in 1852 after four years ; on the voyage , his ship caught fire , and his collection was destroyed ; undeterred , he set out again , leading eventually ( 1869 ) to a comparable book , The Malay Archipelago . By the time he came home in November 1859 , Bates had collected over 14 @,@ 000 species , of which 8 @,@ 000 were new to science . His observations of the coloration of butterflies led him to describe what is now called Batesian mimicry , where an edible species protects itself by appearing like a distasteful species . Bates 's account of his stay , including observations of nature and the people around him , occupies his book .
In the abridged version , there is a balance between descriptions of places and adventures , and the wildlife seen there . The style is accurate , but vivid and direct :
The house lizards belong to a peculiar family , the Geckos , and are found even in the best @-@ kept chambers , most frequently on the walls and ceilings , to which they cling motionless by day , being active only at night . They are of speckled grey or ashy colours . The structure of their feet is beautifully adapted for clinging to and running over smooth surfaces ; the underside of their toes being expanded into cushions , beneath which folds of skin form a series of flexible plates . By means of this apparatus they can walk or run across a smooth ceiling with their backs downwards ; the plated soles , by quick muscular action , exhausting and admitting air alternately . The Geckos are very repulsive in appearance .
The book begins and ends suddenly . The journey out , as reviewer Joseph James observes , is dismissed in a few words . The last few lines of the book run :
On the 6th of June , when in 7 ° 55 ' N. lat. and 52 ° 30 ' W. long . , and therefore about 400 miles from the mouth of the main Amazons , we passed numerous patches of floating grass mingled with tree @-@ trunks and withered foliage . Amongst these masses I espied many fruits of that peculiarly Amazonian tree the Ubussu palm ; this was the last I saw of the Great River .
= = Illustrations = =
There are 39 illustrations , some of animals and plants , some of human topics such as the " Masked @-@ dance and wedding @-@ feast of Tucuna Indians " , which is signed by Josiah Wood Whymper . Some illustrations including " Turtle Fishing and Adventure with Alligator " are by the German illustrator Johann Baptist Zwecker ; some , such as " Bird @-@ Killing Spider ( Mygale Avicularia ) Attacking Finches " are by E.W. Robinson ; others by the zoological artist Joseph Wolf .
= = Chapters = =
The structure of the readable , cut @-@ down second edition of 1864 is as follows :
1 Pará — arrival , aspect of the country , etc . ( now the city of Belém )
Bates arrives , and at once starts learning about the country 's peoples and natural history .
The impressions received during this first walk can never wholly fade from my mind ... Amongst them were several handsome women , dressed in a slovenly manner , barefoot or shod in loose slippers ; but wearning richly @-@ decorated ear @-@ rings , and around their necks strings of very large gold beads . They had dark expressive eyes , and remarkably rich heads of hair . It was a mere fancy , but I thought the mingled squalor , luxuriance and beauty of these women were pointedly in harmony with the rest of the scene ; so striking , in the view , was the mixture of natural riches and human poverty .
He soon notices and describes the leafcutter ants . He stays in Pará for 18 months , making short trips into the interior ; the city is clean and safe compared to others in Brazil .
2 Pará — the swampy forests , etc .
Bates takes a house a few miles outside town on the edge of the forest , and soon starts to notice butterflies and climbing palms . He settles in to a routine of collecting during the day , and making notes and preparing specimens in the evening . At first he is disappointed by how few signs there are of larger animals such as monkeys , tapir or jaguar . Later he realizes these do exist , but are widely scattered and very shy . He meets a landowner who complains of the high price of slaves . There are colossal trees with buttressed trunks .
3 Pará — religious holidays , marmoset monkeys , serpents , insects
He witnesses Catholic processions , notably the festival for Our Lady of Nazareth at Pará . He describes the few monkeys that can be seen in the area , and the strange Amphisbaena , a legless lizard . There are beautiful Morpho butterflies of different species , and assorted spiders , including " monstrous " hairy ones .
4 The Tocantins and Cametá
Bates and Wallace travel up the Tocantins river , hiring a two @-@ masted boat , a crew of three , and taking provisions for three months . At Baiao he is astonished to be shown a young man 's books including Virgil , Terence , Cicero and Livy : " an unexpected sight , a classical library in a mud @-@ plastered and palm @-@ thatched hut on the banks of the Tocantins " . Their host kills an ox in their honour , but Bates is kept awake by swarms of rats and cockroaches . They see the hyacinthine macaw which can crush hard palm nuts with its beak , and two species of freshwater dolphin , one new to science . Bates visits Cameta ; Wallace goes to explore the Guama and Capim rivers . The large bird @-@ eating spider ( Mygalomorphae ) has urticating hairs : Bates handles the first specimen " incautiously , and I suffered terribly for three days " . He sees some children leading one with a cord around its waist like a dog . On the return journey , the boat with his baggage leaves before him ; when he catches up with it , he finds it " leaking at all points " .
5 Caripí and the Bay of Marajó
Bates stays three months in an old mansion on the coast , going insect @-@ hunting with a German who lives in the woods . His room is full of four species of bat : one leaf @-@ nosed bat , Phyllostoma , bites him on the hip : " This was rather unpleasant " . He finds stewed giant anteater delicious , like goose . Several times he shoots hummingbird hawkmoths , mistaking them for hummingbirds . He catches a pale brown tree snake 4 ft 8 in ( 140 cm ) long , but only 1 / 4 in ( 6mm ) thick , and a pale green one 6 ft ( 180 cm ) long " undistinguishable amidst the foliage " . When he has shot all the game around his house , he goes hunting with a neighbour by canoe , getting some agouti and paca rodents .
6 The Lower Amazons — Pará to Obydos ( now the city of Óbidos )
He describes how travellers went upriver before the steamboats arrived , and gives a history of earlier explorations of the Amazons . His preparations for the voyage to Obydos include household goods , provisions , ammunition , boxes , books and " a hundredweight ( 50 kg ) of copper money " . There are many species of palms along a river channel . A rare species of alligator and the armoured Loricaria fish are caught . Obydos is a pleasant town of 1200 people , on cliffs of pink and yellow clays , surrounded by cocoa plantations with four kinds of monkey and the huge Morpho hecuba butterfly up to 8 in ( 20 cm ) across , as well as slow @-@ flying Heliconius butterflies in great numbers . He obtains a musical cricket , Chlorocoelus tanana .
7 The Lower Amazons — Obydos to Manaos , or the Barra of the Rio Negro
Bates leaves Obydos ; he finds the people lazy , as otherwise they could easily become comfortable with mixed farming . They sail through a tremendous storm . He finds a Pterochroza grasshopper whose forewings perfectly resemble leaves , the Victoria waterlily , masses of ticks , the howler monkey and large Morpho butterflies . He meets Wallace again at Barra . Back in Para , he catches yellow fever .
8 Santarem
He describes Santarem and the customs of its people . He goes on short " excursions " around the little town . The pure " Indians " choose to build light open shelters , resting inside in hammocks , whereas those of mixed or African origin build more substantial mud huts . He enjoys watching small pale green Bembex and other kinds of sand wasps . He regrets that the people cut down the Oenocarpus distichus palm to harvest its fruits , which yield a milky , nutty beverage . He describes some potter wasps and mason bees . He meets a " feiticeira " or witch who knows the uses of many plants , but remarks that " the Indian men all become sceptics after a little intercourse with the whites " and that her witchcraft " was of a very weak quality " though others have more dangerous tricks .
9 Voyage up the Tapajos
Bates hires a boat made of stonewood for a three month trip up the Tapajos river . He prepares for the trip by salting meat , grinding coffee , and placing all the food in tin boxes to keep insects and damp out . He buys trade @-@ goods such as fishhooks , axes , knives and beads . He witnesses poison @-@ fishing using lianas of Paullinia pinnata . At Point Cajetuba he finds a line of dead fire @-@ ants , " an inch or two in height and breadth " , washed up on the shore " without interruption for miles " . Terrible wounds are inflicted by the stingray and the piranha . His men make a canoe from a trunk of the stonewood tree , and an anaconda steals two chickens from a cage on his boat ; the snake is " only 18 feet nine inches ( 6 metres ) in length " . Becoming weak from a diet of fish , he eats a spider monkey , finding it delicious . They notice the river is gently tidal , 530 miles ( 850 km ) from its mouth , " a proof of the extreme flatness of the land " . Bates is unimpressed by a homeopathy @-@ crazed priest , especially when his pills prove useless against fever .
10 The Upper Amazons — Voyage to Ega ( now the city of Tefé )
He sails from Barra ( continuing the story from Chapter 7 ) to Ega . In Solimões ( the Upper Amazons ) the soil is clay , alluvium or deep humus , with rich vegetation . They catch a manatee ( sea cow ) which tastes like coarse pork with greenish , fish @-@ flavoured fat , and he is badly bitten by small " Pium " bloodsucking flies . Pieces of pumice have floated 1200 miles ( 1900 km ) from the Andes volcanoes . Bates observes a large landslip on which masses of giant forest trees rock to and fro . He notes there are discomforts but " scarcely any danger from wild animals " . He becomes desperate for intellectual society , running out of reading matter , even the advertisements in the Athenaeum journal . He describes the food and fruits at Ega , and the curious seasons , with two wet and two dry seasons each year , the river thus rising and falling twice . The people regularly eat turtles .
11 Excursions in the Neighbourhood of Ega
Bates goes hunting with a native , who brings down a crested oropendola with a blowpipe at a range of 30 yards ( 27 metres ) ; he notes that the usefully silent weapon can kill at twice that range , but that he and Wallace " found it very difficult to hold steady the long tubes " . Around a campfire , he listens to tales ; the Bouto or river dolphin used to take " the shape of a beautiful woman , with hair hanging loose to her heels , and walking ashore at night in the streets of Ega , to entice the young men down to the water " where the Bouto would grab them and " plunge beneath the waves with a triumphant cry " . They go turtle @-@ hunting ; and Bates kills an alligator with a heavy stick . He finds many footprints of the jaguar , and " the great pleasure " of seeing the " rare and curious umbrella bird " . Arrived in Catua , he admires a woman of 17 : " her figure was almost faultless " , and her blue mouth " gave quite a captivating finish to her appearance " , but she was " extremely bashful " . He is amazed at how much alcohol the " shy Indian and Mameluco maidens " can drink , never giving way to their suitors without it .
12 Animals of the Neighbourhood of Ega
Having discovered over 3000 new species at Ega , Bates agrees that discovery " forms but a small item in the interest belonging to the study of the living creation . " He describes the scarlet @-@ faced and other monkeys , " a curious animal " , the kinkajou , bats , and toucans . He found 18 species " of true Papilio ( swallowtail ) butterflies and about 550 butterfly species in all at Ega , among over 7000 species of insect . He describes some unusual insects and their behaviour , including a moth which suspends its cocoon on a long strong silk thread , which while conspicuous is hard for birds to attack . He describes at length various species of Eciton or army ants , noting that confused accounts of these have appeared in travel books , then copied into natural histories .
13 Excursions beyond Ega
In November 1856 Bates travels on a steamboat from Ega upriver to Tunantins ; it travels all night despite the thick darkness , and makes the 240 miles ( 380 km ) in four days , with the captain at the wheel almost the whole time . He is delighted to discover a new butterfly , Catagramma excelsior , the largest of its genus . He finds the forest at St Paulo glorious , writing that five years would not be enough " to exhaust the treasures of its neighbourhood in Zoology and Botany " :
At mid @-@ day the vertical sun penetrates into the gloomy depths of this romantic spot , lighting up the leafy banks of the rivulet and its clean sandy margins , where numbers of scarlet , green , and black tanagers and brightly @-@ coloured butterflies sport about in the stray beams . Sparkling brooks , large and small , traverse the glorious forest ...
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
= = = = Charles Darwin = = = =
Charles Darwin , having encouraged Bates to publish an account of his travels , read The Naturalist on the River Amazons with great pleasure , writing to Bates on 18 April 1863 that
My criticisms may be condensed into a single sentence , namely that it is the best book of Natural History Travels ever published in England . Your style seems to me admirable . Nothing can be better than the discussion on the struggle for existence & nothing better than the descriptions on the Forest scenery . It is a grand book , & whether or not it sells quickly it will last . You have spoken out boldly on Species ; & boldness on this subject seems to get rarer & rarer . — How beautifully illustrated it is . The cut on the back is most tasteful . I heartily congratulate you on its publication .
Darwin noted in his letter that Athenaeum magazine reviewed the book coldly and insolently , while the Reader received it warmly . Darwin published An Appreciation of the book in the Natural History Review in 1863 , in which he notes that Bates sent back " a mass of specimens " of " no less than 14 @,@ 712 species " ( mostly of insects ) , of which 8000 were new to science . Darwin at once observes that although Bates is " no mean authority " on insects , the book is not limited to them , but ranges over natural history and more widely to describe his " adventures during his journeyings up and down the mighty river " . Darwin clearly enjoyed Bates 's account of the hyacinthine macaw , calling it a " splendid bird " with its " enormous beak " able to feed on mucuja palm nuts , and quoting Bates : " which are so hard as to be difficult to break with a heavy hammer , are crushed to a pulp by the powerful beak of this Macaw . " Darwin took the opportunity to hit back at the Athenaeum magazine which had criticised Bates 's book , at the same time painting a picture of Bates 's lonely life in the rainforest :
Mr. Bates must indeed have been driven to great straits as regards his mental food , when , as he tells us , he took to reading the Athenaeum three times over , " the first time devouring the more interesting articles — the second , the whole of the remainder — and the third , reading all the advertisements from beginning to end .
Darwin notes that " We need hardly say that Mr. Bates ... is a zealous advocate of the hypothesis of the origin of species by derivation from a common stock " , in other words that Bates was a staunch Darwinian . Darwin was happy to have the Naturalist on his side , and to use the book in the Origin of Species debate which was still heated in 1863 . In particular , Darwin was struck by Bates 's robust evidence of mimicry in " the Butterflies of the genus Heliconius " . Here Darwin quotes nearly a whole page from Bates 's conclusions , including Bates 's view of his own findings that hint at speciation actually in progress :
The facts just given are therefore of some scientific importance , for they tend to show that a physiological species can be and is produced in nature out of the varieties of a pre @-@ existing closely allied one . This is not an isolated case ... But in very few has it happened that the species which clearly appears to be the parent , co @-@ exists with one that has been evidently derived from it .
= = = = London Quarterly Review = = = =
The London Quarterly Review began with the observation that " When an intelligent man tells us that he has spent eleven of the best years of his life in any district , we may be pretty sure he has something to say about it which will interest even those who generally find travels dull reading " . The reviewer finds Bates among the most readable , and free of the usual " personal twaddle " of travel and adventure books . The reviewer also remarks on Bates 's subtitle " ... of the origin of species " , that Wallace had taken up that theme more fully . In the reviewer 's opinion , Bates says little about " the Darwinian hypothesis " , focusing instead steadily on natural history , while making " very shrewd remarks " about human society and giving " most glowing " descriptions of tropical scenery . The reviewer notes that most of the people Bates meets " had a tinge of colour " but made the " lonely Englishman " comfortable with their " winning cordiality " , and is amused that in a feast in Ega an Indian dressed up as an entomologist , complete with insect @-@ net , hunting @-@ bag , pincushion , and an old pair of spectacles . As for nature , the reviewer considers that " in Brazil man is oppressed , crushed , by the immensity of nature " .
Bates 's occasional hints at Darwinian evolution are unwelcome or misunderstood by the reviewer , as when Bates writes that if a kind of seed is found in two places , we have to " come to the strange conclusion " it has been created twice unless we can show it can be carried that far ; but the reviewer finds Bates in " too great a hurry to come to conclusions " ( sic ) . The reviewer , too , objects to Bates 's illustration of " transition forms between Heliconius Melpomene and H. Thelxiope , which he thinks are no more different than " a couple of Dorking hens " . Bates 's assumption that all forest animals are adapted to forest life is rejected by the reviewer , who sees the same features as signs of a beneficent Creator ; while his mention of " slow adaptation of the fauna of a forest @-@ clad country throughout an immense lapse of geological time " is criticised for being " haunted " by this " spectre of time " . However the reviewer is fascinated by the variety of life described in the book , and by Bates 's " rapturous manner " of speaking about how delicious monkey flesh is , which " almost puts a premium on cannibalism " . The review concludes " not without regret " ( at such an enjoyable book ) , and assures readers " that they will not find him heavy reading " ; supposes that 11 years was " perhaps a little too much " of tropical life ; and recommends intending museum curators to try it for " a year or two " .
= = = = Joseph F. James = = = =
An unabridged edition was reviewed by botanist and geologist Joseph F. James ( 1857 @-@ 1897 ) in Science in 1893 . James was reviewing a book which was at that time already a 30 @-@ year @-@ old classic that had been reprinted at least four times . He compared it to Gilbert White 's 1789 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , Darwin 's Voyage of the Beagle , and Alfred Russel Wallace 's The Malay Archipelago , writing that
No one can err , we believe , in placing Bates 's " Naturalist on the River Amazons " among the foremost books of travel of this age ; and no one who has read it , but recalls its graphic pages with delight .
James notes that " on the appearance of the book in 1868 it met with cordial praise from all quarters " . Despite his professed liking for Bates 's " direct and concise " style , he quotes at length Bates ' description of the tropics , with the
whirring of cicadas , the shrill stridulation of a vast number and variety of field @-@ crickets and grasshoppers , each species sounding its peculiar note ; the plaintive hootings of tree @-@ frogs , - all blended together in one continuous ringing sound , - the audible expression of the teeming profusion of nature . "
James spends much space in his review quoting Bates 's account of the strangling fig , called the " Murderer Liana or Sipo " , which he uses to emphasize the " struggle for existence " between plants , as much as for animals . Bates explains how the fig grows rings around the " victim " tree , which eventually dies , leaving the " selfish parasite clasping in its arms the lifeless and decaying body of its victim " , so that the fig itself must quickly flower , fruit and die when its support fails . James observes that " It is as much in the reflections that the varied phenomena under observation give rise to as in the descriptive portions that the value and charm of the book lie . " Unable to resist a final quotation , even after admitting he has " overstepped our space " , he cites Bates 's description of his last night in the " country of perpetual summer " , regretting he will have to live again in England with its " gloomy winters " and " factory chimneys " ; but after Bates has returned , he rediscovers " how incomparably superior is civilized life " which can nourish " feelings , tastes and intellect " .
= = = Modern assessment = = =
= = = = New Yorker = = = =
In 1988 , Alex Shoumatoff , writing in The New Yorker , makes Bates 's Naturalist his choice if he were allowed only one book for a tropical journey . In his view , it is " the basic text " and a monument of scientific travel writing . Shoumatoff had in fact spent eight months in Bates 's " glorious forest " ( he quotes ) with a copy in his backpack ; he thus admires Bates 's acceptance of the inevitable discomfort and homesickness from personal knowledge , noting that Bates only complained when all the following had occurred together : he had been robbed , he had gone barefoot having worn out his shoes , he had received no parcels from England , and worst of all he had nothing left to read . But otherwise Bates was " lost in wonder " at the astonishing diversity of the natural history of the Amazons . He was , writes Shoumatoff , one of the four largely self @-@ educated geniuses who pioneered tropical biology , and who all knew each other : Darwin , Wallace , Bates , and the botanist Richard Spruce .
Shoumatoff observes that " Reading Bates is an emotional experience for someone who has travelled in Amazonia , because much of what he describes so poignantly is no longer there " ; that the " charm and the genius " of the book is that Bates covers both natural history and everything else that is going on — as the subtitle so accurately says , " A Record of Adventures , Habits of Animals , Sketches of Brazilian and Indian Life , and Aspects of Nature Under the Equator , During Eleven Years of Travel . "
He feels a dreamy quality in the best of Bates 's writing , as when he meets a boa constrictor : " On seeing me the reptile suddenly turned , and glided at an accelerated rate down the path . ... The rapidly moving and shining body looked like a stream of brown liquid flowing over the thick bed of fallen leaves . " However he is less impressed with Bates 's remarks about the " intellectual inferiority " of the natives , and observes that Bates was wrong about the fertility of tropical soils , which are often poor : the luxuriant growth results from rapid recycling of nutrients . He celebrates the " famous closing passage " of the book , where Bates expresses his " deep misgivings " about returning to England , and writes that recent " progress " in the Amazon is just as shocking .
= = = = John G.T. Anderson = = = =
In 2011 John G.T. Anderson chose to " recommend the reader ’ s attention " to Bates ' Naturalist in the Journal of Natural History Education and Experience , writing that
As much as I love Wallace , I feel that Bates is far and away the better storyteller of the pair , with a keen eye for landscapes , species , and peoples .
Anderson writes that Bates threw himself eagerly into the local culture , writing warmly about the people as well as delighting in everything from the odd to the mundane " in a modest yet engaging style that leaves this reader itching to go and see for himself . " Noting that Bates collected over 8 @,@ 000 species on the trip , the book shows , writes Anderson , how this was achieved :
the discomfort of narrow canoes , the encounters with alligators and giant spiders , drinking burning rum around a campfire while waiting for jaguars , and above all else the sheer fun and intense joy of seeing new things in new places through eyes of a keen observer and master storyteller ..
= = = = Zoological Society of London = = = =
The Zoological Society of London writes that " This fascinating , lucidly written book is widely regarded as one of the greatest reports of natural history travels . " It describes the book as " an eloquently written compendium of curious natural facts and observations on Amazon life before the rubber boom , revealing the amazing zoological and botanical richness of the region " and calls his specimens " a hugely significant contribution to zoological discovery . "
= = = = In science , education , and literature = = = =
Bates 's book is cited in papers for its accurate early observations , such as of the urticating hairs of tarantulas , the puddle drinking habits of butterflies , or of the rich insect fauna in the tropics . The book and Bates ' Amazon trip are covered in lecture courses on evolution . The warm reception of Bates 's Naturalist was not confined to scientists . The novelists D.H. Lawrence and George Orwell both wrote admiringly of the book . Lawrence wrote to his friend S. S. Koteliansky " I should like , from the Everyman Library Bates ' – Naturalist on the Amazon ... because I intend some day to go to South America – to Peru or Ecuador , not the Amazon . But I know Bates is good . "
= = = Primary = = =
This list identifies the places in the book where quotations come from .
= = = Secondary = = =
= 2009 Palma Nova bombing =
The 2009 Palma Nova bombing occurred on July 30 , 2009 when a limpet bomb went off outside a Civil Guard barracks in the town of Palma Nova , Majorca , Spain . The bomb was placed under a patrol car and two Civil Guard officers died as a result of the explosion . A second device was found under another Civil Guard vehicle at nearby barracks and safely exploded by police . On August 9 , the Basque nationalist and separatist organisation ETA claimed responsibility for the attack , while four other bombs exploded around restaurants and shopping centres in Palma , Majorca , causing no injuries .
The bombing was ETA 's first attack in Majorca since it tried to kill King Juan Carlos I in the summer of 1995 , and its deadliest attack since it killed two Civil Guard officers in Capbreton , France in 2007 . The attack came on the eve of the 50th anniversary of ETA 's founding , and days before the King 's yearly visit to Majorca .
= = Background = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , the organisation declared a ceasefire , and conversations between Batasuna , ETA and the Basque and Spanish governments started . Peace talks ended in December , when ETA broke the truce with a massive car bomb at the Madrid @-@ Barajas Airport . ETA officially ended the ceasefire in 2007 and resumed its attacks around Spain . At the same time , dozens of members were arrested by Spanish and French police . Despite that , the organisation did not lose the capacity of carrying out attacks .
In 2009 , Patxi López became the first non @-@ nationalist lendakari since the 1979 Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country . On June 19 , ETA killed inspector Eduardo Puelles García in Arrigorriaga near Bilbao , Biscay , when a bomb attached to his car exploded , and on July 9 , a powerful bomb exploded in a Socialist Workers ' Party local office in Durango , Biscay , causing no injuries . In late July , it was reported that ETA was preparing its " summer campaign " , with Spanish police looking for several vans the organisation had ready to explode . On July 29 , a van loaded with 300 kilograms ( 660 lb ) of explosives went off in front of a Civil Guard barracks in Burgos , injuring 70 , including women and children .
The bombing was the first time since 2007 in which ETA killed more than one person in one of its attacks . On December 2 , 2007 two undercover Civil Guards were shot dead in the French town of Capbreton , Aquitaine . It was also the deadliest attack in Spanish soil since the Madrid @-@ Barajas Airport .
The attack was the first time ETA had killed in Majorca , one of the Spanish regions less targeted by ETA . On August 18 , 1977 a bomb was deactivated next to a seafront walk . On July 31 , 1991 two people were injured after two bombs went off in Palma . Two months later , a car bomb was defused in Palma 's main beach . In the summer of 1995 , Spanish authorities dismantled a cell of ETA ready to shoot king Juan Carlos I. In 2005 , the organisation attempted the magnicide once more in Majorca .
= = Attack = =
At 1 : 50 pm , a 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) bomb placed under a Civil Guard Nissan Patrol went off , killing officers Carlos Saénz de Tejada García and Diego Salva Lezaun . One of the officers died instantly , while paramedics failed to resuscitate the other officer . Both officers were inside the car when the bomb exploded . The vehicle had been parked in the Na Boira street , in front of a government @-@ owned building used as a post office and Civil Guard barracks , among other functions . Many hotels are located in the area , something which caused many foreign tourists ,
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after which Songs by George Harrison became a highly priced collector 's item . It was followed by a second volume , published in 1992 . AllMusic describes the EP as " remarkable " and " classic Harrison " .
= = Background = =
George Harrison first worked with Genesis Publications on his 1980 autobiography , I Me Mine , for which his friend Derek Taylor served as editor and narrator . Harrison subsequently edited Taylor 's memoir , Fifty Years Adrift , which Genesis published in its customary , limited @-@ edition , deluxe format in 1984 . That year , Brian Roylance , the owner of Genesis Publications , met a New Zealand @-@ born botanical artist named Keith West , whose work Roylance considered might be suitable for a proposed illustrated book of Harrison 's songs .
Since 1982 , when he released the little @-@ promoted Gone Troppo album , Harrison had minimised his musical activities in favour of a role as a film producer , with the success of his company HandMade Films . The content of his previous album , Somewhere in England , had been the subject of scrutiny by Warner Bros. Records , the distributor of Harrison 's Dark Horse record label ; as a result , Harrison was obliged to replace four of the songs intended for that album with more commercial @-@ sounding recordings for its eventual release , in mid 1981 . On the musical disc accompanying the Songs by George Harrison book , Harrison decided to include three of the tracks that Warner Bros. had rejected . The fourth of those 1980 recordings , " Tears of the World " , would appear on the EP accompanying Harrison and West 's 1992 illustrated book , Songs by George Harrison 2 .
= = Production = =
Having relocated to north Wales by 1985 , West met with Harrison regularly over a period of two years at the latter 's Oxfordshire estate , Friar Park . The pair discussed the images required for all of Harrison 's songs , in order to ensure empathy between the illustrations and the message behind the lyrics . West worked up pencil sketches , which he would submit to Harrison , before completing the final watercolour illustrations .
Songs by George Harrison contains the lyrics to 60 of Harrison 's compositions , for each of which West hand @-@ lettered the words . Harrison provided text commenting on the story behind some of the songs , along with facsimiles of his original lyric sheets . The book was bound inside a black leather cover , and ran to 176 pages , measuring 175 by 250 millimetres .
During the two @-@ year period of production , Harrison resumed a more active musical career , which included working with producer Jeff Lynne on the soundtrack to HandMade Films ' Shanghai Surprise in 1986 before recording his first album in five years , Cloud Nine . The book includes a foreword by Lynne , a " middleword " by Elton John , and a " backword " by Harrison . The accompanying EP was offered in either vinyl or CD format , with the disc housed beside the book in a handmade Solander box .
= = Musical content = =
= = = " Sat Singing " = = =
The opening track on the EP , the 1979 @-@ copyright " Sat Singing " , was recorded at Harrison 's Friar Park studio , FPSHOT , in March 1980 . Among Harrison biographers , Simon Leng views the song as a " pivotal composition " in the artist 's career , while Dale Allison considers it to be " a crucial song for interpreting George 's religiosity " . The lyrics document an afternoon spent immersed in meditation , during which the singer surrenders the distractions of the physical world for a communion with his deity . The title references the Sanskrit term sat @-@ sang , which means time spent in the company of " the highest truth " , such as with one 's guru . Leng describes the song as " a companion piece " to the Beatles ' " Tomorrow Never Knows " , in that " Sat Singing " represents the " attainment " of John Lennon 's earlier exhortation to " Turn off your mind , relax and float downstream " .
= = = " Lay His Head " = = =
Like " Sat Singing " , " Lay His Head " was recorded during the sessions for Somewhere in England , in April 1980 . The title refers to a phrase from the gospels of St Matthew and St Luke that Harrison had taken to quoting when referring to the lack of privacy afforded him and his Beatles bandmates during the 1960s . In his adaptation , the phrase became : " Foxes have holes and birds have nests , but Beatles have nowhere to lay their heads . " Leng views the song as a reflection on " what a man loses when he becomes a media entity : a connection with other people that everyone else takes for granted " .
Harrison carried out further work on the recording in August 1987 . In October that year , " Lay His Head " was released as the B @-@ side to " Got My Mind Set on You " , the lead single from Cloud Nine . The version on Songs by George Harrison used the same mix as that issued on the single , which differed from the 1980 recording through the increased presence of percussion and drums . Percussionist Ray Cooper was credited as co @-@ producer with Harrison .
= = = " For You Blue " = = =
Originally recorded by the Beatles and released on their 1970 album Let It Be , " For You Blue " was one of the relatively few Beatles songs that Harrison chose to perform on his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar . The live version issued on Songs by George Harrison was the first recording from these 1974 concerts to receive an official release , despite Harrison 's statements post @-@ tour that a full live album would be made available .
Although the EP credits read " Live in Washington DC " , the song was recorded in nearby Largo , Maryland , on 13 December 1974 . The performance features solos from Robben Ford ( on electric guitar ) , Emil Richards ( marimba ) and Willie Weeks ( bass ) . During the tour , many reviewers had criticised Harrison for , variously , giving over stage @-@ time to his fellow musicians , being scornful of his audience 's nostalgia for the Beatles , and performing with a voice ravaged by the effects of laryngitis . In response , Leng writes that this live version of " For You Blue " contradicts the " ' given ' view " espoused by Rolling Stone magazine that Harrison 's 1974 concerts were a " calamity " . In 2001 , Record Collector editor Peter Doggett similarly commented on the track , with regard to the singer 's vocal issues : " Thankfully , the solitary official evidence of the tour ... showed little evidence of the strain . "
= = = " Flying Hour " = = =
Although Harrison had intended the song for inclusion on Somewhere in England , " Flying Hour " dated from the sessions for his previous album , George Harrison ( 1979 ) , and was recorded in March 1978 . He wrote the song with Bad Company guitarist Mick Ralphs , who was among a coterie of local rock musicians , known informally as " the Henley Music Mafia " , with whom Harrison played and socialised from the late 1970s onwards . Among the changes carried out when he revisited " Flying Hour " in 1987 , the track has a longer running time than the 1980 version , partly through the reinstating of a 20 @-@ second guitar solo late in the song , and Harrison 's slide guitar features less prominently in the mix . The track is driven by Weeks ' bassline and includes Polymoog synthesizer soloing from Steve Winwood .
= = Publication = =
Songs by George Harrison was published on 15 February 1988 , with the Genesis Publications catalogue number SGH 777 . The print run was limited to 2500 , with each copy signed by Harrison and West . The book was priced at £ 235 and available via mail order only . Genesis also offered the book as a limited @-@ edition series of enlarged prints .
The release coincided with Harrison 's uncharacteristically high @-@ profile publicity for Cloud Nine , which was a critical and commercial success when issued in November 1987 . In an interview published in Musician magazine that same month , Harrison spoke of a planned second volume with West , and he defended the exclusivity of Songs by George Harrison by saying , " in a world of crass , disposable junk , it 's meant to be a lovely thing . "
Harrison and his wife Olivia returned to England from California for the book 's publication . He subsequently promoted Songs by George Harrison during his Cloud Nine publicity activities in Europe .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Despite its high price , Songs by George Harrison sold well . Typically for a Genesis title , however , the publication 's availability was confined to its initial print run .
In a four @-@ star rating for the EP , J.T. Griffith of AllMusic describes it as " one of the essential additions to any serious Beatles or George Harrison collection " and he concludes : " Songs By George Harrison is remarkable ... the songs are classic Harrison . " Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot highlighted " Sat Singing " and " Lay His Head " among the " gems " offered on the disc . That same year , Dave Thompson of Goldmine similarly admired the 1980 @-@ recorded tracks ; he said that their rejection had been " a criminal decision on the label 's part " since otherwise Somewhere in England " could easily have taken its place among the elite of solo Beatledom " .
While lamenting that Songs by George Harrison was " an heirloom @-@ quality item ( with a price to match ) " , and so prohibitive to the majority of Harrison 's audience , author Robert Rodriguez considers that Warner Bros. " displayed appalling judgment " in overlooking " Sat Singing " and particularly " Flying Hour " , which he describes as " a breezy tune filled to the brim with hooks " . Simon Leng admires the reinterpretation of " For You Blue " as a rhythm and blues " jam track " and praises " Sat Singing " for its " melody of some beauty , colored by warm , golden slide guitar " . Leng adds that " As a musical essay on serenity and joy , [ ' Sat Singing ' ] is one of Harrison 's best " , yet he also identifies an isolationist perspective on the three 1980 recordings that reflected the singer 's failure to appreciate the market forces with which Warner 's had to contend .
The 1988 Genesis publication remains the only formal release for " Sat Singing " , " Flying Hour " and the live " For You Blue " , although all four tracks from the EP became available in 1995 on the bootleg compilation Pirate Songs . While a live version of the instrumental " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " from Harrison 's 1974 tour appeared on the Songs by George Harrison 2 EP , " For You Blue " remains the only vocal track from that tour to receive an official release .
In December 2006 , Record Collector magazine ranked Songs by George Harrison 122nd in its list of " The 250 Most Valuable Records of Our Time " , with an estimated value of £ 800 for the book and disc set . Dale Allison describes it as " obscure , hard @-@ to @-@ get , and very expensive " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by George Harrison , except where noted . All track @-@ list information per CD label .
" Sat Singing " – 4 : 30
" Lay His Head " – 3 : 50
" For You Blue " [ live ] – 4 : 08
" Flying Hour " ( Harrison , Mick Ralphs ) – 4 : 32
= Paul Tibbets =
Paul Warfield Tibbets Jr . ( 23 February 1915 – 1 November 2007 ) was a brigadier general in the United States Air Force . He is best known as the pilot who flew the Enola Gay ( named after his mother ) when it dropped Little Boy , the first of two atomic bombs used in warfare , on the Japanese city of Hiroshima .
Tibbets enlisted in the United States Army in 1937 and qualified as a pilot in 1938 . After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , he flew anti @-@ submarine patrols over the Atlantic . In February 1942 , he became the commanding officer of the 340th Bombardment Squadron of the 97th Bombardment Group , which was equipped with the Boeing B @-@ 17 . In July 1942 the 97th became the first heavy bombardment group to be deployed as part of the Eighth Air Force , and Tibbets became deputy group commander . He flew the lead plane in the first American daylight heavy bomber mission against Occupied Europe on 17 August 1942 , and the first American raid of more than 100 bombers in Europe on 9 October 1942 . Tibbets was chosen to fly Major General Mark W. Clark and Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower to Gibraltar . After flying 43 combat missions , he became the assistant for bomber operations on the staff of the Twelfth Air Force .
Tibbets returned to the United States in February 1943 to help with the development of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . In September 1944 , he was appointed the commander of the 509th Composite Group , which would conduct the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . After the war , he participated in the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapon tests at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 , and was involved in the development of the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet in the early 1950s . He commanded the 308th Bombardment Wing and 6th Air Division in the late 1950s , and was military attaché in India from 1964 to 1966 . After leaving the Air Force in 1966 , he worked for Executive Jet Aviation , serving as its president from 1976 until his retirement in 1987 .
= = Early life = =
Paul Warfield Tibbets Jr. was born in Quincy , Illinois , on 23 February 1915 , the son of Paul Warfield Tibbets Sr. and his wife , Enola Gay Tibbets . When he was five years old the family moved to Davenport , Iowa , and then to Iowa 's capital , Des Moines , where he was raised , and where his father became a confections wholesaler . When he was eight , his family moved to Miami , Florida , to escape from harsh midwestern winters . As a boy he was very interested in flying . One day his mother agreed to pay one dollar to get him into an airplane at the local carnival . In 1927 , when he was 12 years old , he flew in a plane piloted by barnstormer Doug Davis , dropping candy bars with tiny parachutes to the crowd of people attending the races at the Hialeah Park Race Track .
In the late 1920s , business issues forced Tibbets 's family to return to Alton , Illinois , where he graduated from Western Military Academy in 1933 . He then attended the University of Florida in Gainesville , and became an initiated member of the Epsilon Zeta Chapter of Sigma Nu fraternity in 1934 . During that time , Tibbets took private flying lessons at Miami 's Opa @-@ locka Airport with Rusty Heard , who later became a captain at Eastern Airlines . After his undergraduate work , Tibbets had planned on becoming an abdominal surgeon . He transferred to the University of Cincinnati after his second year to complete his pre @-@ med studies there , because the University of Florida had no medical school at the time . However , he only attended for a year and a half as he changed his mind about wanting to become a doctor . Instead , he decided to enlist in the United States Army and become a pilot in the United States Army Air Corps .
= = Early military career = =
Because he went to a military school , attended some college , and had some flight experience , Tibbets qualified for the Aviation Cadet Training Program . On 25 February 1937 , he enlisted in the army at Fort Thomas , Kentucky , and was sent to Randolph Field in San Antonio , Texas , for primary and basic flight instruction . During his training , he showed himself to be an above @-@ average pilot . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant and received his pilot rating in 1938 at Kelly Field , Texas .
After graduation , Tibbets was assigned to the 16th Observation Squadron , which was based at Lawson Field , Georgia , with a flight supporting the Infantry School at nearby Fort Benning . It was here that he met Lucy Wingate , a clerk at a department store in Columbus , Georgia . The two quietly married in a Catholic seminary in Holy Trinity , Alabama , on 19 June 1938 . Tibbets did not inform his family or his commanding officer , and the couple arranged for the notice to be kept out of the local paper . They had two sons , Paul III and Gene . While stationed at Fort Benning , Tibbets was promoted to first lieutenant , and served as a personal pilot for Brigadier General George S. Patton Jr. in 1940 and 1941 .
In June 1941 , Tibbets transferred to the 9th Bombardment Squadron of the 3d Bombardment Group at Hunter Field , Savannah , Georgia , as the engineering officer , and flew the A @-@ 20 Havoc . While there he was promoted to captain . In December 1941 , he received orders to join the 29th Bombardment Group at MacDill Field , Florida , for training on the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress . On 7 December 1941 , Tibbets heard about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor while listening to the radio during a routine flight . Due to fears that German U @-@ Boats might enter Tampa Bay and bombard MacDill Field , the 29th Bombardment Group moved to Savannah . Tibbets remained on temporary duty with the 3d Bombardment Group , forming an anti @-@ submarine patrol at Pope Army Airfield , North Carolina , with 21 B @-@ 18 Bolo medium bombers . The B @-@ 18s were used as an intermediate trainer , which pilots flew after basic flight training in a Cessna UC @-@ 78 and before qualifying in the B @-@ 17 . Listen to Paul Tibbets own story of the development of the bomb
= = War against Germany = =
In February 1942 , Tibbets reported for duty with the 29th Bombardment Group as its engineering officer . Three weeks later he was named the commanding officer of the 340th Bombardment Squadron of the 97th Bombardment Group , equipped with the B @-@ 17D . It was initially based at MacDill , and then Sarasota Army Airfield , Florida , before moving to Godfrey Army Airfield in Bangor , Maine .
In July 1942 the 97th became the first heavy bombardment group of the Eighth Air Force to be deployed to England , where it was based at RAF Polebrook . It had been hastily assembled to meet demands for an early deployment , and arrived without any training in the basics of high altitude daylight bombing . In the first weeks of August 1942 , under the tutelage of Royal Air Force veterans , the group received intensive training for its first mission . The group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Cornelius W. Cousland , was replaced by Colonel Frank A. Armstrong Jr . , who appointed Tibbets as his deputy .
Tibbets flew the lead bomber Butcher Shop for the first American daylight heavy bomber mission on 17 August 1942 , a shallow penetration raid against a marshalling yard in Rouen in Occupied France , with Armstrong as his co @-@ pilot . This was not Tibbets 's regular aircraft , Red Gremlin , nor his regular crew , which included bombardier Thomas Ferebee and navigator Theodore Van Kirk , who later flew with him in Enola Gay . On October 9 , Tibbets led the first American raid of more than 100 bombers in Europe , attacking industrial targets in the French city of Lille . Poor bombing accuracy resulted in numerous civilian casualties and less damage to the rail installations than hoped , but the mission was hailed an overall success because it reached its target against heavy and constant fighter attack . Of the 108 aircraft in the raid , 33 were shot down or had to turn back due to mechanical problems .
In the leadup to Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , the commander of the Eighth Air Force , Major General Carl Spaatz was ordered to provide his best two pilots for a secret mission . He chose Tibbets and Major Wayne Connors . Tibbets flew Major General Mark W. Clark from Polebook to Gibraltar while Connors flew Clark 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Lyman Lemnitzer . A few weeks later Tibbets flew the Supreme Allied Commander , Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower , there . " By reputation " , historian Stephen Ambrose wrote , Tibbets was " the best flier in the Army Air Force [ sic ] . "
After Tibbets had flown 25 combat missions against targets in France , the 97th Bomb Group was transferred to North Africa as part of Major General Jimmy Doolittle 's Twelfth Air Force . For Tibbets , the war in North Africa introduced him to the realities of aerial warfare . He claimed that he saw the real effects of bombing civilians and the trauma of losing his brothers in arms . In January 1943 , Tibbets , who had now flown 43 combat missions , was assigned as the assistant for bomber operations to Colonel Lauris Norstad , Assistant Chief of Staff of Operations ( A @-@ 3 ) of the Twelfth Air Force . Tibbets had recently been given a battlefield promotion to colonel , but did not receive it , as such promotions had to be confirmed by a panel of officers . He was told that Norstad had vetoed the promotion , saying " there 's only going to be one colonel in operations . "
Tibbets did not get along well with Norstad , or with Doolittle 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Hoyt Vandenberg . In one planning meeting , Norstad wanted an all @-@ out raid on Bizerte to be flown at 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Tibbets protested that flak would be most effective at that altitude . When challenged by Norstad , Tibbets said he would lead the mission himself at 6 @,@ 000 feet if Norstad would fly as his co @-@ pilot . Norstad backed down , and the mission was successfully flown at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) .
= = War against Japan = =
When General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of United States Army Air Forces , requested an experienced bombardment pilot to help with the development of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bomber , Doolittle recommended Tibbets . Tibbets returned to the United States in February 1943 . At the time , the B @-@ 29 program was beset by a host of technical problems , and the chief test pilot , Edmund T. Allen , had been killed in a crash of the prototype aircraft .
Working with the Boeing plant in Wichita , Kansas , Tibbets test flew the B @-@ 29 , and soon accumulated more flight time in it than any other pilot . He found that without defensive armament and armor plating , the aircraft was 7 @,@ 000 pounds ( 3 @,@ 200 kg ) lighter , and its performance was much improved . In simulated combat engagements against a P @-@ 47 fighter at the B @-@ 29 's cruising altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , he discovered that the B @-@ 29 had a smaller turning radius than the P @-@ 47 , and could avoid it by turning away .
After a year of developmental testing of the B @-@ 29 , Tibbets was assigned in March 1944 as director of operations of the 17th Bombardment Operational Training Wing ( Very Heavy ) , a B @-@ 29 training unit based at Grand Island Army Air Field , Nebraska , and commanded by Armstrong . Its role was to transition pilots to the B @-@ 29 . Tibbets taught two Women Airforce Service Pilots , Dora Dougherty and Dorothea ( Didi ) Moorman , to fly the B @-@ 29 as demonstration pilots .
On 1 September 1944 , Tibbets reported to Colorado Springs Army Airfield , the headquarters of the Second Air Force , where he met with its commander , Major General Uzal Ent , and three representatives of the Manhattan Project , Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale Jr . , Captain William S. Parsons , and Norman F. Ramsey Jr . , who briefed him on the project . Tibbets was told that he would be in charge of the 509th Composite Group , a fully self @-@ contained organization of about 1 @,@ 800 men , which would have 15 B @-@ 29s and a high priority for all kinds of military stores . Ent gave Tibbets a choice of three possible bases : Great Bend Army Airfield , Kansas ; Mountain Home Army Airfield , Idaho ; or Wendover Army Air Field , Utah . Tibbets selected Wendover for its remoteness .
When the operation was still in the development stage the leading candidates to command the group designated to drop the atomic bomb had been Armstrong and Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson , the Army Air Force project officer providing liaison support to the Manhattan Project . Although an experienced combat veteran against German targets , Armstrong was in his forties and had been severely injured in a fire in the summer of 1943 , while Wilson had no combat experience and was qualified primarily by his engineering background and association with the project . Tibbets was considerably younger than both and had experience in both staff and command duties in heavy bomber combat operations , and was already an experienced B @-@ 29 pilot , thus making him an ideal candidate .
Tibbets , who received promotion to colonel in January 1945 , brought his wife and family along with him to Wendover . He felt that allowing married men in the group to bring their families would improve morale , although it put a strain on his own marriage . To explain all the civilian engineers on base who were working on the Manhattan Project , he had to lie to his wife , telling her that the engineers were " sanitary workers . " At one point Tibbets found that Lucy had co @-@ opted a scientist to unplug a drain .
On 6 March 1945 , concurrent with the activation of Project Alberta , the 1st Ordnance Squadron , Special ( Aviation ) was activated at Wendover , again using Army Air Forces personnel on hand or already at Los Alamos . Its purpose was to provide " skilled machinists , welders and munitions workers " and special equipment to the group to enable it to assemble atomic weapons at its operating base , thereby allowing the weapons to be transported more safely in their component parts . A rigorous candidate selection process was used to recruit personnel , reportedly with an 80 % rejection rate . The 509th Composite Group reached full strength in May 1945 .
With the addition of the 1st Ordnance Squadron to its roster in March 1945 , the 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1 @,@ 542 enlisted men , almost all of whom deployed to Tinian , an island in the northern Marianas within striking distance of Japan , in May and June 1945 . The 320th Troop Carrier Squadron kept its base of operations at Wendover . In addition to its authorized strength , the 509th had attached to it on Tinian all 51 civilian and military personnel of Project Alberta . Furthermore , two representatives from Washington , D.C. were present on the island : the deputy director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell , and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee .
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group received movement orders and moved by rail on 26 April 1945 , to its port of embarkation at Seattle , Washington . On May 6 the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas , while the group 's materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner . An advance party of the air echelon flew by C @-@ 54 to North Field , Tinian , between May 15 and 22 , where it was joined by the ground echelon on 29 May 1945 . Project Alberta 's " Destination Team " also sent most of its members to Tinian to supervise the assembly , loading , and dropping of the bombs under the administrative title of 1st Technical Services Detachment , Miscellaneous War Department Group .
On 5 August 1945 , Tibbets formally named his B @-@ 29 Enola Gay after his mother . Enola Gay had been personally selected by him while it was still on the assembly line at the Glenn L. Martin Company plant in Bellevue , Nebraska . The regularly assigned aircraft commander , Robert A. Lewis , was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission , and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of August 6 to see the aircraft he considered his painted with the now @-@ famous nose art . Lewis would fly the mission as Tibbets 's co @-@ pilot .
At 02 : 45 the next day — in accordance with the terms of Operations Order No. 35 — the Enola Gay departed North Field for Hiroshima , Japan , with Tibbets at the controls . Tinian was approximately 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) away from Japan , so it took six hours to reach Hiroshima . The atomic bomb , code @-@ named " Little Boy " , was dropped over Hiroshima at 08 : 15 local time . Tibbets recalled that the city was covered with a tall mushroom cloud after the bomb was dropped .
Tibbets was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by Spaatz immediately after landing on Tinian . He became a celebrity , with pictures and interviews of his wife and children in the major American newspapers . He was seen as a national hero who had ended the war with Japan . Tibbets later received an invitation from President Harry S. Truman to visit the White House . The 509th Composite Group was awarded an Air Force Outstanding Unit Award in 1999 .
Tibbets was interviewed extensively by Mike Harden of the Columbus Dispatch , and profiles appeared in the newspaper on anniversaries of the first dropping of an atomic bomb . In a 1975 interview he said : " I 'm proud that I was able to start with nothing , plan it and have it work as perfectly as it did ... I sleep clearly every night . " " I knew when I got the assignment , " he told a reporter in 2005 , " it was going to be an emotional thing . We had feelings , but we had to put them in the background . We knew it was going to kill people right and left . But my one driving interest was to do the best job I could so that we could end the killing as quickly as possible . "
= = Post @-@ war military career = =
The 509th Composite Group returned to the United States on 6 November 1945 , and was stationed at Roswell Army Airfield , New Mexico . Colonel William H. Blanchard replaced Tibbets as group commander on 22 January 1946 , and also became the first commander of the 509th Bombardment Wing , the successor to the 509th Composite Group . Tibbets was a technical advisor to the 1946 Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific , but he and his Enola Gay crew were not chosen to drop another atomic bomb .
Tibbets then attended the Air Command and Staff School at Maxwell Air Force Base , Alabama . On graduating in 1947 he was posted to the Directorate of Requirements at Air Force Headquarters at the Pentagon . When the head of the directorate , Brigadier General Thomas S. Power , was posted to London as air attaché , he was replaced by Brigadier General Carl Brandt . Brandt appointed Tibbets as director of Directorate of Requirements 's Strategic Air Division , which was responsible for drawing up requirements for future bombers . Tibbets was convinced that the bombers of the future would be jet aircraft and thus became involved in the Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet program . He subsequently served as B @-@ 47 project officer at Boeing in Wichita from July 1950 until February 1952 . He then became commander of the Proof Test Division at Eglin Air Force Base in Valparaiso , Florida , where flight testing of the B @-@ 47 was conducted .
Tibbets returned to Maxwell Air Force Base , where he attended the Air War College . After he graduated in June 1955 , he became Director of War Plans at the Allied Air Forces in Central Europe Headquarters at Fontainebleau , France . He left Lucy and his sons behind in Alabama , and he and Lucy divorced that year . During his posting to France , he met a French divorcee named Andrea Quattrehomme , who became his second wife . He returned to the United States in February 1956 to command the 308th Bombardment Wing at Hunter Air Force Base , Georgia , and married her in the base chapel on 4 May 1956 . They had a son , James Tibbets .
In January 1958 , Tibbets became commander of the 6th Air Division at MacDill Air Force Base , Florida. and was promoted to brigadier general in 1959 . This was followed by another tour of duty at the Pentagon as director of Management Analysis . In July 1962 , he was assigned to the Joint Chiefs of Staff as deputy director for operations , and then , in June 1963 , as deputy director for the National Military Command System . In 1964 , Tibbets was named military attaché in India . He spent 22 months there on this posting , which ended in June 1966 . He retired from the United States Air Force ( USAF ) on 31 August 1966 .
= = Later life and death = =
After his retirement from the Air Force , Tibbets worked for Executive Jet Aviation ( EJA ) , an air taxi company based in Columbus , Ohio , and now called NetJets . He attempted to extend the company 's operations to Europe , but was unsuccessful . He retired from the company in 1968 , and returned to Miami , Florida , where he had spent part of his childhood . The banks foreclosed on EJA in 1970 , and Bruce Sundlun became president . Sundlun lured Tibbets back to EJA that year . Tibbets succeeded Sundlun as president on 21 April 1976 , and remained in the role until 1986 . He served for a year as a consultant before his second and final retirement from EJA in 1987 .
Barry Nelson played Tibbets in the film The Beginning or the End ( 1947 ) . Above and Beyond ( 1952 ) depicted the World War II events involving Tibbets , with Robert Taylor starring as Tibbets and Eleanor Parker as his first wife Lucy . Tibbets was also the model for screenwriter Sy Bartlett 's fictional character " Major Joe Cobb " in the film Twelve O 'Clock High , and for a brief period in February 1949 was slated to be the film 's technical advisor until his replacement at the last minute by Colonel John H. deRussy . Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb , a 1980 made @-@ for @-@ television movie , somewhat fictionalized , told the story of Tibbets crew . Patrick Duffy played Tibbets and Kim Darby played Lucy .
In other fictional portrayals , Nicholas Kilbertus was Tibbets in the film Day One , David Gow played him in the 1995 TV movie Hiroshima , and Ian Shaw played the part in the BBC 's 2005 TV docudrama Hiroshima , for which Tibbets was also interviewed on camera . An interview with Tibbets also appeared in the 1982 movie Atomic Cafe , as well as was in the 1970s British documentary series The World at War , and the " Men Who Brought the Dawn " episode of the Smithsonian Networks ' War Stories ( 1995 ) . Tibbets figured largely in the 2000 book Duty : A Father , His Son and the Man Who Won the War by Bob Greene of the Chicago Tribune .
The United States government apologized to Japan in 1976 after Tibbets re @-@ enacted the bombing in a restored B @-@ 29 at an air show in Texas , complete with a mushroom cloud . He said that he had not meant for the re @-@ enactment to have been an insult to the Japanese . In 1995 , he denounced the 50th anniversary exhibition of the Enola Gay at the Smithsonian Institution , which attempted to present the bombing in context with the destruction it caused , as a " damn big insult " , due to its focus on the Japanese casualties rather than the brutality of the Japanese government . He was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1996 .
Tibbets 's grandson Paul W. Tibbets IV graduated from the United States Air Force Academy in 1989 , and in April 2006 became commander of the 393d Bomb Squadron , flying the B @-@ 2 Spirit at Whiteman AFB , Missouri . The squadron was one of the two operational squadrons that had formed part of the 509th Composite Group when Tibbets commanded it . Paul Tibbets IV was promoted to brigadier general in 2014 , and became Deputy Director for Nuclear Operations at the Global Operations Directorate of the United States Strategic Command at Offutt Air Force Base in Nebraska . As such , he was responsible for America 's strategic nuclear forces . On 5 June 2015 , he assumed command of the 509th Bomb Wing .
Tibbets died in his Columbus , Ohio , home on 1 November 2007 , at the age of 92 . He had suffered small strokes and heart failure during his final years and had been in hospice care . He was survived by his French @-@ born wife , Andrea , and two sons from his first marriage , Paul III and Gene as well as his son , James , from his second marriage . Tibbets had asked for no funeral nor headstone as he feared opponents of the bombing might use it as a place of protest . In accordance with his wishes , his body was cremated , and his ashes were scattered over the English Channel , which he had flown over many times during the war .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Command pilot
Source : Ohio History Central .
= Barrington Court =
Barrington Court is a Tudor manor house begun around 1538 and completed in the late 1550s , with a vernacular stable court ( 1675 ) , situated in Barrington , near Ilminster , Somerset , England .
The house was owned by several families by 1745 after which it fell into disrepair and was used as a tenant farm . After repair by architect Alfred Hoare Powell ( 1865 – 1960 ) , it was the first house acquired by the National Trust , in 1907 , on the recommendation of the antiquarian Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley ( 1851 – 1920 ) . In the 1920s the house was renovated , the stable block turned into a residence and several outbuildings , gardens and gateways constructed .
The house was originally surrounded by a medieval deer park and in the 17th century a formal garden was constructed . This had largely disappeared until a new garden was laid out by garden designer Gertrude Jekyll ( 1843 — 1932 ) in an Arts and Crafts @-@ style . It now contains walled kitchen gardens , fruit orchards and ornamental gardens .
= = History = =
The estate had been occupied since the 11th century and by the 14th century included a substantial house to the north east of the present building , where traces of a moat can still be seen . In 1446 the owner , Giles Daubeney , 6th Baron Daubeney , died at Barrington and left it to his son , another Giles Daubeney , who was a courtier , diplomat and military commander under Edward IV and Henry VII .
The manor was inherited in 1514 by Henry Daubeney , created Earl of Bridgewater for his services to Henry VIII . He spent much of his time in France and little time in Somerset . He may have begun the new house , but he went bankrupt and was involved in the disgrace of Catherine Howard , Henry VIII 's fifth wife . It is unlikely that much , if any , of the current building was his work . The house was forfeit to the crown and then had various owners including Henry Grey , 1st Duke of Suffolk , who in 1552 sold it to William Clifton , a London merchant who had been assembling a Somerset estate . Clifton or his son John Clifton are thought to be responsible for most of the building at Barrington , possibly modeled on earlier work at Kirby Hall or East Anglian manors close to their roots at Kentwell Hall , Hengrave Hall or Channons Hall at Tibenham .
It passed down in the Clifton family including Gervase Clifton , who in 1605 sold it to his brother @-@ in @-@ law Sir Thomas Phelips of Montacute House . The house was then mortgaged and , in 1625 , sold to Colonel William Strode , Jr . The house and estate were owned by the Strode family from 1625 until 1745 after which it was bought by several different owners but poorly maintained , becoming known as Court Farm .
The interior of the house suffered from its demotion to a tenant farm and from a fire in the early 19th century ; after being almost derelict it was repaired under the supervision of Alfred Hoare Powell . Barrington Court was acquired by the Trust in 1907 and was leased to Col. A. A. Lyle of Tate & Lyle in the 1920s . He and his wife turned the house around and refurbished the court house and renovated Strode House ( built by Colonel Strode 's son , William III , in 1674 ) which was originally a stable and coach block . It was at this time that the Lyles contracted Gertrude Jekyll to design the three formal gardens on the property that are maintained by the head gardener .
The house was one of the first large properties acquired by the National Trust ; it was not anticipated just how expensive repairs and maintenance would be , and even thirty years later it was still used as an example of why the Trust should be wary of taking on other country houses .
Barrington Court was occupied by a tenant , Stuart Interiors , that took the lease in 1986 from Andrew Lyle , grandson of Col. Lyle . The company sold reproduction furniture . Stuart Interiors left Barrington Court in December 2008 , and although the building has no furniture , it is open to visitors .
In 2014 it was the site of filming for the BBC 's Tudor @-@ era historical TV serial Wolf Hall . In May 2015 the house was the venue for the BBC programme Antiques Roadshow .
= = Architecture = =
Like many Elizabethan mansions , Barrington is built in an ' E ' shape with large projecting wings with square projections that contain staircases . The house is not truly symmetrical as the hall has two lights and the buttery one . The south front has seven gables supported by octagonal buttresses and decorated with twisted finials with ogee scale @-@ work caps and English Crockets .
Its central entry porch leads into a screens passage with the hall on the left and , an innovation , a service passage leading to the kitchen wing that occupies the right wing . A long gallery stretches the entire length of the house on the upper floor .
= = = Strode House = = =
The stables — built in 1674 by William Strode III — were converted into a separate house around 1920 , under plans drawn up by the architect J.E. Forbes , when the building was given a new west front . The two @-@ storey brick building has Hamstone dressings and a hipped tile roof . Immediately in front of the building is the " fountain court " .
= = = Outbuildings = = =
In the 1920s a " motorhouse " was constructed in a Tudor style to match the other buildings . It is a single @-@ storey building with an attic . The front of the building is decorate with heraldic lions .
The two @-@ storey agent 's house , known as Beechams , was also built in the 1920s . There are also row of six thatched cottages in Tudor style , a farmhouse and a barn dating from the same period .
= = = Gateways and walls = = =
There are multiple gateways around the estate and entrances to the house . The gateway to the west of the forecourt was rebuilt in the 1920s with tall piers and moulded stepped caps , permitting a full view of the symmetrical facade of the house . The gateways to the east of the forecourt and to the east of the south lawn have wrought iron gates . The wall around the forecourt is of the same vintage and has rectangular lily ponds at the base .
= = Gardens = =
In the 16th century the house was surrounded by a deer park . In the 1550s William Clifton took action , in the Star Chamber court , against local poachers who hunted deer in the park while he was away .
The remains of the original gardens include a rectangular raised area or parterre 70 metres ( 230 ft ) by 50 metres ( 160 ft ) near a liner pond or canal which is 12 metres ( 39 ft ) by 110 metres ( 360 ft ) . There is also geophysical evidence of a further 17th @-@ century formal garden .
Barrington Court is noted for its Arts and Crafts @-@ style gardens for which garden designer Gertrude Jekyll provided planting plans . The gardens were laid out in 1917 by J. E. Forbes , of the partnership Forbes & Tate , for Lieut @-@ Col. A. Arthur Lyle . There are a series of walled areas that include a white garden , a rose and iris garden and a lily garden . The original plans are being used to restore the gardens ; however , the planting scheme has been changed from that designed by Jekyll to that designed by Mrs Lyle in the 1960s .
The walls of the kitchen garden were built in the 1920s and include two gateways with neoclassical architraves . The gravel paths are laid out in a square with a cross at the centre enhanced by a fountain surrounded by fruit trees , vegetable plots and soft fruits . There are carriage openings with wrought @-@ iron gates .
The kitchen garden provides produce for the property 's restaurant located in the adjacent Strode House ; this includes many types of fruit and vegetables . The local St Mary & St Peter 's CE VC Primary School , which has bases at Barrington and Ilton , has a vegetable plot where the children plant , tend and cook the produce ; the walls are also strewn with apple , pear and plum trees . Attached to the garden is a squash court .
About 20 metres ( 66 ft ) south west of the house is an unusual multi @-@ faced sundial . It was built of stone and bronze , on a stone column . It is a dodecahedron surmounted by a heraldic lion . It was imported from California by Colonel Lyle in 1920 .
The gardens are Grade II * listed on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
= Joshua King ( footballer ) =
Joshua Christian Kojo " Josh " King ( born 15 January 1992 ) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays as a striker or a winger for Premier League club Bournemouth and the Norway national team .
King was signed by Manchester United from Vålerenga in 2008 . After loan spells with Preston North End , Borussia Mönchengladbach , Hull City and Blackburn Rovers , he signed permanently with Blackburn in January 2013 . He switched to Bournemouth in May 2015 .
After representing Norway at under @-@ 15 , under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 18 , under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 levels , King made his senior international debut against Iceland in 2012 , and scored his first international goal against Cyprus later that year .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Born in Oslo , to a Gambian father and a Norwegian mother , King grew up in the suburb of Romsås . He began his career with the local club , Romsås IL , before switching to Vålerenga when he was 15 . While at Vålerenga , King trained with English side Manchester United on multiple occasions , but UEFA rules prevented him from signing a contract with the club until he was 16 . He also had trial offers from Chelsea , Sunderland and Ipswich Town , but rejected those in favour of Manchester United .
= = = Manchester United = = =
= = = = Youth teams = = = =
King signed for Manchester United when he turned 16 in January 2008 , and made his debut for the under @-@ 18 side in a 5 – 1 home defeat to Sunderland on 29 March 2008 . He played just once more in the league that season , as well as making five substitute appearances in the Blue Stars Youth Cup in May 2008 . He began the following season by scoring four goals in four matches as the Manchester United Under @-@ 17s won the 2008 Milk Cup . He then played in two matches at the start of the 2008 – 09 Premier Academy League season before an injury in October 2008 kept him out until January 2009 .
Two games after his comeback , King scored twice in a 5 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 31 January 2009 . The following week , he was named as an unused substitute for the reserves in a Manchester Senior Cup match against Stockport County , before making his reserve debut as a substitute for Robbie Brady in a Premier Reserve League match against Bolton Wanderers three days later . He then made his first start of the season for the Under @-@ 18s against Manchester City on 14 February , only to miss the next two months of the season . He returned at the start of April 2009 , just in time to play in the run @-@ in to the end of the Under @-@ 18 league season , as United finished in second place , 19 points behind winners Manchester City .
At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , King came on as a substitute for Zoran Tošić in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup , a 1 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers . He then started the reserves ' first three league games of the season , and was rewarded for his performances by being given a place on the bench for the first team 's League Cup third round match against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 23 September 2009 . He was given the number 41 jersey and came on as an 81st @-@ minute substitute for goalscorer Danny Welbeck . Although King had two opportunities to add to United 's lead , the match finished 1 – 0 and United progressed to the fourth round of the competition . He was again named as a substitute for the fourth round match against Barnsley , but he did not take to the field . King was an integral part of the under @-@ 18s side for the remainder of the season , scoring six goals in 14 appearances as the team won Group C of the 2009 – 10 Premier Academy League ; they were drawn against Arsenal in the play @-@ off semi @-@ finals , and although King scored his penalty in the shoot @-@ out after the match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , Arsenal ultimately won 5 – 3 .
= = = = Preston North End loan = = = =
After impressing for Manchester United in the 2010 – 11 pre @-@ season , King joined Football League Championship side Preston North End – managed by Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson 's son , Darren – on a three @-@ month loan deal on 7 August 2010 , becoming Preston 's 1,000th player and linking up with fellow United loanee Matty James . He made his debut the next day , coming on as a 70th @-@ minute substitute for Paul Hayes in Preston 's 2 – 0 defeat by Doncaster Rovers on the opening day of the 2010 – 11 season .
King 's first goal for Preston came in his second match , a League Cup first round tie against Stockport County on 10 August ; after coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute for Chris Brown , he intercepted a goal kick from Andy Lonergan and curled the ball past the Stockport goalkeeper , making the final score 5 – 0 . He had earlier added an assist after running 60 yards down the right wing and crossing for Paul Hayes ' second goal – the fourth of the match . King made his first start for Preston on 21 August , playing the full 90 minutes of the team 's 1 – 0 home win over Portsmouth ; King was named man of the match for his performance , in which he repeatedly threatened the Portsmouth goal .
King played in seven of Preston 's first 12 league games , but suffered an ankle injury at the end of October 2010 that ruled him out for the rest of the loan , and he returned to Manchester United . After his recovery towards the end of November , King returned to Preston on another loan until 4 January 2011 ; however , he made just one more appearance for the club before being recalled by Manchester United a few days early . Some sources suggested that Alex Ferguson recalled King and fellow loanees Matty James and Ritchie De Laet in retaliation for Preston sacking his son , Darren , but Ferguson later indicated that King and De Laet had not enjoyed their time at Preston and did not want to return to the club .
= = = = Return to Manchester United = = = =
After his return to Manchester United , King was a regular in the reserve team , playing in 17 of the last 18 games of the season ; his only absence came against Arsenal on 28 April 2011 . He was also regularly on the scoresheet , particularly in the Manchester Senior Cup , in which he scored twice in an 8 – 0 win over Bury and three times in a 6 – 1 win over Rochdale . He also hit two against Oldham Athletic in the quarter @-@ finals of the Lancashire Senior Cup and against Chelsea in the Premier Reserve League to finish the season with 11 goals as the team won the Manchester Senior Cup and the Premier Reserve League North .
In among these performances , King was also named on the bench for three first @-@ team matches , including Manchester United 's 4 – 0 away league win over Wigan Athletic and their FA Cup wins over Crawley Town and Arsenal , as well as travelling with the team for the first leg of their Champions League round of 16 tie with Marseille . In recognition of his performances in the second half of the season , King was rewarded with a new two @-@ year contract with Manchester United , keeping him at the club until the summer of 2013 .
= = = = Borussia Mönchengladbach loan = = = =
In August 2011 , King joined German club Borussia Mönchengladbach on loan for the duration of the 2011 – 12 season . The loan agreement between Borussia and Manchester United was first announced by Borussia 's director of sport , Max Eberl , at the club 's general meeting on 29 May 2011 , but the move was held up when King suffered a groin injury requiring surgery while on international duty with the Norway Under @-@ 21 side . Borussia confirmed the loan transfer on 22 July 2011 , the terms of which were undisclosed by either club , although it was still subject to King passing a medical examination on 1 August . He began individual training with Borussia on 2 August , before linking up with the rest of the squad shortly afterwards . King made his first appearance for Borussia Mönchengladbach as a substitute on 19 August 2011 , in Borussia 's 4 – 1 win against VfL Wolfsburg . After just one more substitute appearance and a total of 19 minutes on the field , a recurrence of King 's groin injury resulted in his loan spell being terminated early .
= = = = Hull City loan = = = =
Having returned to England , King joined Hull City on loan for the rest of the 2011 – 12 season on 16 January 2012 . He made his debut as an 86th @-@ minute substitute for Liam Rosenior in a 1 – 0 away win at Reading on 21 January . King played in four consecutive matches at the start of his spell at Hull , but on 9 February 2012 , he appeared for the Manchester United reserves in their 4 – 2 Manchester Senior Cup defeat at home to Manchester City ; he played for 61 minutes of the match before being replaced by Reece Brown . It took until 9 April for King to score his first goal for Hull , scoring the equaliser as Hull came from behind to beat Middlesbrough 2 – 1 ; King also provided the assist for Matty Fryatt 's winning goal .
King returned to Manchester United on 1 May and went straight back into the reserve team for their Lancashire Senior Cup semi @-@ final against Blackpool ; Manchester United won 5 – 4 on penalties after neither side could produce a goal in normal time , with King scoring United 's first penalty . Another penalty shoot @-@ out followed in King 's next match for the reserves , the Premier Reserve League play @-@ off match against the winners of the south section , Aston Villa ; after coming on as a substitute for captain Davide Petrucci , King was one of three scorers for Manchester United in the shoot @-@ out as they won 3 – 1 to take the title .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
At the start of the 2012 – 13 season , King found himself a regular in the Manchester United reserve team , and scored the team 's last goal in the 90th minute of their 4 – 0 win over Accrington Stanley in the final of the Lancashire Senior Cup on 8 August 2012 . However , despite playing in seven of the reserves ' first nine games of the season , he was unable to make the step up to the first team – he was an unused substitute in the League Cup third round match against Newcastle United on 26 September , and came on as a substitute for Danny Welbeck in the 85th minute of the dead rubber Champions League group match against Galatasaray on 20 November .
In search of first @-@ team football , King was allowed to join Blackburn Rovers on loan until 31 December 2012 , with a view to eventually making the move permanent . Despite competition up front from Jordan Rhodes , Colin Kazim @-@ Richards , Ruben Rochina and Nuno Gomes , he made his debut two days later , coming on as a 55th @-@ minute substitute for Marcus Olsson in a 2 – 0 defeat at home to Millwall . He scored his first goal for the club at home to Cardiff City on 7 December , an equaliser after Mark Hudson had put Cardiff in front ; however , Cardiff scored a further three goals and won 4 – 1 . After scoring two goals in eight appearances , King 's transfer to Blackburn was made permanent as he signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 2 January 2013 , with the option of extending the deal by a further year . In an FA Cup match against Derby County on 26 January , he was forced to come off with a hamstring injury ; he had also missed the three games prior to that with the same injury . He went on to make a total of 20 appearances for Blackburn that season .
His first goal of the 2013 – 14 season came on 24 August in Blackburn 's 5 – 2 victory over Barnsley , where he converted a Todd Kane pass into a goal from six yards out . On 14 February 2015 , King scored his first Rovers hat trick in a 4 – 1 win against Stoke City in the FA Cup 5th round . He did not net any other goals that season .
= = = Bournemouth = = =
On 28 May 2015 , after turning down a new contract at Blackburn , King switched to Bournemouth ahead of their first @-@ ever season in the Premier League . He credited the ethos of manager Eddie Howe and the opportunity to be a top @-@ flight regular as his reasons to sign . He made his debut for Bournemouth on 8 August as they began the season with a 0 – 1 home defeat against Aston Villa . King 's first goal for the Cherries came on 21 November , when he opened a 2 – 2 draw at Swansea City ; on 12 December he scored the winning goal from a corner kick routine as Bournemouth beat his former club United 2 – 1 at Dean Court . Contrary to the common courtesy , he enthusiastically celebrated his goal against his former employers , and later told the Daily Mail that manager Alex Ferguson refused to speak to him or any of the other young players at the time .
= = International career = =
After representing Norway at youth international level , Egil Olsen called up King to Norway 's squad for two World Cup qualifiers in September 2012 . He made his debut against Iceland on 7 September 2012 , when he replaced Mohammed Abdellaoue after 65 minutes . King had the ball in the back of the net eight minutes later , but the goal was disallowed . Four days later in Norway 's next match , he replaced Abdellaoue at half time against Slovenia . King replaced Alexander Søderlund as a substitute at half time against Cyprus in Larnaca on 16 October 2012 , then won a penalty and scored the last goal in Norway 's 3 – 1 victory .
He was included in the Norwegian squad for the 2013 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship , but as he was a regular member of the senior squad he had to play the World Cup qualifying match against Albania , along with his under @-@ 21 teammates Valon Berisha , Håvard Nordtveit and Markus Henriksen before they traveled to the championship in Israel . King appeared in the under @-@ 21 team 's matches against Italy U @-@ 21 and Spain U @-@ 21 during the championship .
He scored his second full international goal in his next appearance , scoring the second goal in a 2 – 0 victory over Cyprus on 6 September 2013 . On 10 October 2014 , he scored two goals against Malta in a 3 – 0 away win in UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying , but was dropped by manager Per @-@ Mathias Høgmo from their play @-@ off against Hungary in place of Veton Berisha , Marcus Pedersen and Alexander Søderlund .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 16 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played on 5 June 2016
= Friends with Benefits ( film ) =
Friends with Benefits is a 2011 American romantic comedy film directed by Will Gluck , and starring Justin Timberlake and Mila Kunis in the lead roles . The film features Patricia Clarkson , Jenna Elfman , Bryan Greenberg , Nolan Gould , Richard Jenkins , and Woody Harrelson in supporting roles . The plot revolves around Dylan Harper ( Timberlake ) and Jamie Rellis ( Kunis ) , who meet in New York City , and naively believe adding sex to their friendship will not lead to complications . Over time , they begin to develop deep mutual feelings for each other , only to deny it each time they are together .
Principal casting for Friends with Benefits took place over a three @-@ month period from April to July 2010 . Gluck reworked the original script and plot shortly after casting Timberlake and Kunis . Filming began in New York City on July 20 , 2010 , and concluded in Los Angeles in September 2010 . The film was distributed by Screen Gems and was released in North America on July 22 , 2011 . Friends with Benefits was generally well received by film critics , most of whom praised the chemistry between the lead actors . The film became a commercial success at the box office , grossing over $ 149 @.@ 5 million worldwide , against a budget of $ 35 million . It was nominated for two People 's Choice Awards — Favorite Comedy Movie , and Favorite Comedic Movie Actress ( Kunis ) — and two Teen Choice Awards for Timberlake and Kunis .
= = Plot = =
Jamie Rellis ( Mila Kunis ) is an executive recruiter for a leading job agency in New York City , and Dylan Harper ( Justin Timberlake ) works as an art director for a small internet company in Los Angeles . Jamie has the task of trying to recruit Dylan to interview for a job with GQ and begin working in New York City . Dylan comes to New York and after interviewing for the position learns from Jamie that he has been given an offer to work for GQ . At first Dylan is hesitant to accept the job and move from Los Angeles to New York . But after a fun night exploring the city with Jamie , Dylan agrees to accept the position .
The following day , Jamie presents Dylan with the contract to sign so she can land her commission for recruiting him . Not knowing anyone else in the city , he and Jamie quickly develop a strong platonic friendship . One night , they get on the topic of sex and relationships . They come to the conclusion that sex should not come with so many emotional attachments . As they both feel the need for a physical connection , they agree to have sex without emotion or commitment . After several trysts together , Jamie comes to the realization that this is not really what she wants and she would like to start dating again . She tells Dylan that they need to stop .
Jamie meets Parker ( Bryan Greenberg ) , an oncologist , and they begin dating . After five dates , they consummate their relationship , only to break up the next morning . Trying to be sympathetic and to console her , Dylan suggests she travels with him to California over the Fourth of July weekend , while he visits his family . Initially hesitant , Jamie agrees after much persistence from Dylan . They fly to Los Angeles , where Jamie meets his sister Annie ( Jenna Elfman ) , nephew Sammy ( Nolan Gould ) , and father ( Richard Jenkins ) , who suffers from the early stages of Alzheimer 's disease . While in California , they begin to develop strong emotional romantic feelings for each other , and share a passionate kiss , which leads to a night of close intimacy unlike any other they had shared before . However , the next day , Jamie overhears a conversation between Annie and Dylan , where Dylan admits to having no real feelings for Jamie . Hurt , she flies back to New York . A few days later , Dylan returns to New York , trying to reconcile his friendship with Jamie and find out why she has been ignoring him . He finally finds Jamie , and she informs him she overheard everything he said and has no interest in maintaining any kind of a friendship with him .
Soon after this , Jamie discovers that Dylan may be leaving the GQ position for another job before the year elapses on his contract , which would affect her commission . She confronts Dylan about this , which leads to another argument . Both begin to do some soul searching trying to come to terms with their feelings about their relationship . Jamie spends time with her mother , Lorna ( Patricia Clarkson ) , while Dylan discusses it with Annie over the phone . His sister informs him that their father will be flying to Newark and he needs to be picked up at the airport . While at the airport , his father , in a moment of Alzheimer 's @-@ induced confusion , incorrectly recognizes a passer @-@ by as a woman from his past . Dylan asks him about the woman , and his father , upon regaining his lucidity , says that she was a woman he met in the Navy , that she was the love of his life , and he regrets decisions he made in his youth to let her go . He tells Dylan not to do the same thing , and to go after the woman he loves , if there is any chance of saving the relationship .
Dylan realizes how he really feels about Jamie after talking with his father , and decides to go after her . He calls Jamie ’ s mother to set up an excuse to get Jamie to go to Grand Central Station thinking she will be picking up her mother . He arranges to have a flash mob dance to " Closing Time " set
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the opening scenes as if she 's channeling Juno , and Timberlake easily keeps up . At some fundamental level , I simply enjoyed watching them . " Peter Debruge of Variety found the plot to be predictable and benign ; however , he complimented the cast , calling Kunis " a natural with comedy " , while Timberlake " exudes the kind of star wattage that put Will Smith on top . " Likewise , Salon 's Andrew O 'Hehir asserted that despite a disappointing conclusion to the film , it was nonetheless a " rewarding summer diversion . " The Guardian writer Peter Bradshaw reacted negatively to the film , expressing that there " was no benefit to watching it . " Bradshaw gave the film a one @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ star rating .
The Daily Telegraph 's Sukhdev Sandhu felt that Timberlake held his own when working with Mila Kunis . Concluding his review , Sandhu presented Friends with Benefits a three out of five stars . Betsey Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times praised the acting in the film , opining that " it [ brought ] a lot of natural life to the party . " Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review , stating that there was " palpable chemistry " between Timberlake and Kunis . Entertainment Weekly writer Owen Gleiberman gave Friends with Benefits a ' B- ' grade , exclaiming that while he enjoyed much of the film , he felt that it was inconsistent .
Mary Pols of Time applauded the film , and wrote that despite the plot being predictable , the film was " elevated by energetic dialogue , the sexual chemistry between the leads and the fact that the miscommunication that keeps bliss at bay [ ... ] is plausible . " Giving Friends with Benefits a three @-@ star rating , The Boston Globe journalist Ty Burr opined that the film " works like a charm . " He added that it mostly keeps its manic energy in check , and that it plays to chick @-@ flick formulas without ever groveling – which is due almost entirely to the leads . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Peter Paras of E ! . Giving it a ' B ' grade , Paras asserted that the film was the best romantic comedy film in a long time . Melissa Leong of the National Post wrote , " While the film takes jabs at the Hollywood fairy tale , [ ... ] Gluck adheres to the formula . "
= = = Themes = = =
According to The New York Times , Friends with Benefits , a film " about love and sex in the age of social networking , gets some of its juice and tang partly by trash @-@ talking its own genre . The setup is familiar , as are the essential elements : a single man and a single woman , two battered hearts yet a pair of resilient , eager , pretty bodies [ ... ] Friends with Benefits starts from the premise that its characters , and you , are sick of the romantic comedy clichés they may secretly , or not so secretly , adore . " Drew Pinsky , an addiction medicine specialist felt that the film 's central characters , both of whom were raised by a single parent in the film , " start looking for ways to solve that problem because they were never given the opportunity to grow an emotional landscape from a nurturing , available parent . They were just quickly parentalized and became a caretaker . And the caretaking is all part of the ' going for a broken person ' and trying to fix them . " He further added that " love addiction ending in ' happily ever after ' is not a great message . "
Timberlake added that Friends with Benefits is a film for " our generation ; people that are between 25 and 30 years of age that are moving into a different part of their life . They are not sure what type of commitment they are comfortable with or what they 're gonna do for the rest of their life " .
= = = Box office = = =
Friends with Benefits was released in North America on July 22 , 2011 , in 2 @,@ 926 theaters . It collected $ 6 @,@ 801 @,@ 594 on its opening day and then grossed a total of $ 18 @,@ 622 @,@ 150 in its opening weekend , finishing third at the box office , behind Captain America : The First Avenger and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . The film grossed $ 55 @.@ 8 million in the United States and Canada .
The film had similar success internationally . In Australia , it premiered on August 18 , 2011 and earned $ 2 @.@ 4 million during its opening weekend , charting above Green Lantern to finish first at the box office . The film expanded into Europe in September 2011 . It grossed $ 10 @.@ 6 million from over 20 territories in its first weekend . Friends with Benefits topped first place in France , where it opened with $ 1 @.@ 8 million . The film performed highest in the United Kingdom and Germany , where it grossed $ 3 @.@ 1 million and $ 2 @.@ 6 million in its first weekend upon release , respectively . By mid @-@ September , the film had grossed over $ 29 @.@ 6 million overseas . It went on to gross over $ 149 @.@ 5 million worldwide , with international grosses standing at $ 93 @.@ 7 million .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Seymour H. Knox I =
Seymour Horace Knox I ( April 1861 – May 17 , 1915 ) , was a Buffalo , New York businessman who made his fortune in five @-@ and @-@ dime stores . He merged his more than 100 stores with those of his first cousins , Frank Winfield Woolworth and Charles Woolworth , to form the F. W. Woolworth Company . He went on to hold prominent positions in the merged company as well as Marine Trust Co . He was the father of Seymour H. Knox II and grandfather of Seymour H. Knox III and Northrup Knox , the co @-@ founders of the Buffalo Sabres in the National Hockey League .
= = Biography = =
He was born in April 1861 in Russell , Saint Lawrence County , New York . His father was James Horace Knox , a farmer married to Jane E. McBrier . James ' grandfather had fought in the American Revolution . William Knox , was the first of this line of Knoxes to come to Massachusetts from Belfast , Ireland , in 1737 .
Seymour attended the Russell district school and at fifteen , though he had never gone to high school , began to teach in school himself .
= = Career = =
At seventeen he moved to Hart , Michigan , where for a few years he worked as a salesclerk . Then he left for Reading , Pennsylvania , where he entered into a partnership with his first cousins . He later donated the Knox Memorial Central School Building ( dedicated on July 30 , 1913 ) that served the town until the Knox Memorial School and Edwards Central School merged . He initially became a partner with the Woolworths by jointly opening a Reading , Pennsylvania , Woolworth & Knox store with them on September 20 , 1884 , using his entire life savings . The Reading store 's first several hours had no sales . However , after the partners took a lunchtime walk , they returned at 1 : 30 to find the local factory workers had been let out at 1 : 00 — with their paychecks . Sales were brisk , and the partners never looked back . His second store , in Newark , New Jersey , was short lived , but his partnership thrived nonetheless . The third venture , in Erie , Pennsylvania , enabled them to buy out the Newark lease . He partnered with Frank to open the first Buffalo store , at 409 Main Street , on October 13 , 1888 .
By 1889 , he was able to buy out his cousins . He maintained a collegial business relationship with his cousins after the buyout . In fact , he bought Woolworth merchandise at wholesale and sometimes traded in competition . He formed another brief partnership with another friendly rival , Earle Perry Charlton , from 1889 – 1895 , opening his Buffalo " S.H. Knox Co . " 5 and 10 Cent Store in 1890 . In 1890 , he made established headquarters in the Buffalo store . Sources disagree on the chronology of later stores . One source says that the second Buffalo store was opened at 549 William Street on June 20 , 1891 . Another says Knox opened his second store on December 18 , 1893 , at 519 Main Street four days after the first store at 409 Main Street was destroyed in the Wonderland Building Fire . The 519 Main Street store replaced the 409 Main Street after the December 14 , 1893 fire and moved to 395 Main Street in 1895 . He continued to build his S.H. Knox Co . 5 and 10 Cent Store empire . By the time of the 1911 incorporation of F. W. Woolworth Company , Knox was the second largest of six store operators with 98 U.S. and 13 Canadian locations . In 1912 , he received $ 12 million of the $ 65 million merger proceeds and was appointed Director and Senior Vice @-@ Principal of the Corporation . Knox is remembered as the pioneering city center store operator . His Detroit , Michigan store was the first outside of the agricultural and small @-@ market towns . Many of the Woolworth friendly rivals emulated his plan .
In 1913 , he purchased Stephen Clement 's interests in Marine National . At his death , Seymour was Vice President of the Woolworth Co. and Chairman of the Board of the Marine Trust Co . He was the first of three generations of the family to serve as Chairman .
= = Personal life = =
Seymour married Grace Millard Knox ( 1862 – 1936 ) , in 1890 , and they raised three children :
Seymour H. Knox II ( Seymour , Jr . )
Marjorie Knox
Dorothy Knox
Among his grandchildren were Seymour H. Knox III and Northrup R. Knox , the original principal owners of the Buffalo Sabres . Grace established The University at Buffalo 's first endowment fund in 1916 when she donated $ 250 @,@ 000 . Knox bred champion trotters and pacers and was a polo enthusiast .
Knox died on May 17 , 1915 in Buffalo , New York .
= Oregon Theatre =
The Oregon Theatre , or Oregon Theater , is an adult movie theater in the Richmond neighborhood of southeast Portland , Oregon . The theater was completed in 1925 and originally housed a Wurlitzer pipe organ and vaudeville stage . It would later screen Hollywood , art @-@ house , and Spanish @-@ language films . The building was acquired by the Maizels family in 1967 and became an adult cinema in the 1970s . It continues to operate as the city 's longest running pornographic cinema and remains owned by a member of the Maizels family .
The cinema has been described as " less creepy than most of its kind " and " out of place " along the newly developed Southeast Division Street . It has also been called " the last holdout of an era " , referring to both the prominence of adult film screenings in the city during the 1970s and its status as the last property owned by the Maizels family . In 2004 , the building was identified as an " Investment and Identity Site " and commended for having attributes valued by the community , such as quality architecture , local ownership , and orientation to the street .
= = Description and history = =
The two @-@ story , roughly 8 @,@ 700 square foot ( 810 m2 ) Oregon Theatre was designed by Hubert A. Williams . It exhibits Italianate and " Streetcar Era Commercial " architecture , with plans drafted by Universal Plan Service . The brick exterior includes a glass @-@ filled retail base , beltcourses , double @-@ hung windows on the second story , ornamental brickwork on its parapet , and a flat roof . Upon its completion , the interior featured a $ 16 @,@ 000 Wurlitzer pipe organ , ornate lighting fixtures attached to a high @-@ domed ceiling , 750 high @-@ backed chairs , a vaudeville stage , and a screen which measured 16 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The theater cost $ 35 @,@ 000 to construct and began operating on September 4 , 1925 , possibly for a showing of Steele of the Royal Mounted .
J. W. McFadden Inc. was the building 's original owner . Subsequent owners have included C. C. and Leedy Maude , J. S. Middleton , Oregon Theatre Co . , Mary Watt , and Ernest Bass . The theater 's front doors and ticket office were altered by J. W. McFadden Inc. in 1930 , along with the construction of a new ticket booth . In 1949 , when the Waverly Heights Congregational United Church of Christ was reconstructing a new church building on its property at Southeast 33rd and Woodward , church services were held at the Oregon Theatre . According to the Puget Sound Theatre Organ Society , the organ was repossessed by the William Wood Organ Co. and re @-@ installed at radio station KXL 's studios in Portland . The theater 's front entrance , including its doors and 1930s ticket booth , were remodeled by Ferguson Cassady Co. in 1954 .
In 1967 , an immigrant family acquired ownership of the theater . The Maizels family also owned other cinemas , including Aladdin Theater , the defunct and demolished Walnut Park , and the Encore , now known as Clinton Street Theater . In addition to Hollywood films , the cinemas screened art @-@ house and Spanish @-@ language movies . Multi @-@ light Broadway Sign Co. installed corrugated aluminum on the bottom of the marquee in 1975 .
= = = Adult cinema = = =
The venue became an adult cinema in the 1970s . The success of Deep Throat in 1972 was a turning point , leading to an increase in the number of adult film screenings at more than a dozen cinemas in Portland . However , the rise of video cassettes and cable television led to a decline in cinema attendance , and by the 2000s , the Maizels family had sold all of their properties except for the Oregon Theatre . Gayne Maizels still owns the theater , which continues to operate as the city 's longest running pornographic cinema .
Since becoming an adult cinema , the theater has featured a single movie screen and sofas . In 2005 , The Portland Mercury said the theater showed heterosexual pornographic films daily except for Wednesdays and Saturdays , when it featured bisexual content . In 2013 , Portland Monthly described the venue 's green entryway , leading to a ramp lined with adult DVDs and an " indifferent doorman who demands $ 8 . Inside , a few dozen men , mostly seniors , occupy a hodgepodge of old couches in near @-@ total darkness . "
= = Reception = =
According to local film archivist and author Gary Lacher , the Oregon Theatre 's record as the longest continuously operating adult cinema in Portland is " not often acknowledged publicly " and represents " the last holdout of an era " , referring to the prominence of adult film screenings in Portland . In an interview , Lacher expressed his wish that the theater would return to a more traditional cinema , but was thankful that the venue has been spared from closure and demolition to date .
In 2004 , GNT Planning included the theater as an " Investment and Identity Site " in their report , which was commissioned by the Division Vision Coalition ( DVC ) , a coalition of community members from the nearby business and neighborhood associations . DVC is invested in the " economy of locally @-@ owned businesses , an attractive streetscape that invites neighbors to linger , and sustainable features that are ecologically sensitive " . The building was identified as having attributes valued by the community , including quality architecture , local ownership , and orientation to the street .
In its 2005 review of the theater , The Portland Mercury said the " glut of cozy sofas make an outing comfortable " , but criticized the venue for having only one screen and for showing predominantly heterosexual films . The publication said that the venue was " [ m ] ore like an actual cinema than a circle jerk ( though chicken @-@ choking is not unheard of ) .... The [ theater ] is much less creepy than most of its kind — there 's even bicycle parking indoors . " In its 2012 Portlandia @-@ related list of " Portland 's Most Ill @-@ Advised Valentine 's Date Spots " , IFC quipped , " Of course , considering the dwindling number of adult theaters across the country , you could make an argument that it 's a piece of Portland history , and that visiting wouldn 't be much different than going to a museum ... on second thought , play it safe and stay away . " In 2013 , Portland Monthly said the venue " seems out of place " , a " dingy brick building " surrounded by the newly developed Southeast Division Street .
After multiple restaurants on Southeast Division were featured in Willamette Week 's annual restaurant guide in 2013 , the newspaper made humorous " predictions " about what might become of some of the street 's existing spaces . It predicted that the Oregon Theatre could become " McMenamins Mophouse & Brewery " , referring to the McMenamins regional chain of breweries , historic hotels , music venues and pubs . Willamette Week wrote , " When one of the nation 's last adult theaters finally succumbs to market pressure , McMenamins rehabs the space while keeping its historic character alive with ' voyeur ' dining booths , a sticky dance floor and VIP dining in the bored projectionist 's perch . " In 2014 , Willamette Week called the theater " seedy " .
= Triton ( moon ) =
Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune . It was discovered on October 10 , 1846 , by English astronomer William Lassell . It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet 's rotation . At 2 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ) in diameter , it is the seventh @-@ largest moon in the Solar System . Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto 's , Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt . Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen , a mostly water @-@ ice crust , an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal . The core makes up two @-@ thirds of its total mass . Triton has a mean density of 2 @.@ 061 grams per cubic centimetre ( 0 @.@ 0745 lb / cu in ) and is composed of approximately 15 – 35 % water ice .
Triton is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to be geologically active . As a consequence , its surface is relatively young with sparse impact craters , with a complex geological history revealed in intricate cryovolcanic and tectonic terrains . Part of its surface has geysers erupting sublimated nitrogen gas , contributing to a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere less than 1 / 70 @,@ 000 the pressure of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Triton was discovered by British astronomer William Lassell on October 10 , 1846 , just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune .
A brewer by trade , Lassell began making mirrors for his amateur telescope in 1820 . When John Herschel received news of Neptune 's discovery , he wrote to Lassell suggesting he search for possible moons . Lassell did so and discovered Triton eight days later . Lassell also claimed to have discovered rings . Although Neptune was later confirmed to have rings , they are so faint and dark that it is doubtful that he actually saw them .
Triton is named after the Greek sea god Triton ( Τρίτων ) , the son of Poseidon ( the Greek god comparable to the Roman Neptune ) . The name was first proposed by Camille Flammarion in his 1880 book Astronomie Populaire , and was officially adopted many decades later . Until the discovery of the second moon Nereid in 1949 , Triton was commonly referred to as " the satellite of Neptune " . Lassell did not name his own discovery ; he later successfully suggested the name Hyperion , previously chosen by John Herschel , for the eighth moon of Saturn when he discovered it .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Triton is unique among all large moons in the Solar System for its retrograde orbit around its planet ( i.e. it orbits in a direction opposite to the planet 's rotation ) . Most of the outer irregular moons of Jupiter and Saturn also have retrograde orbits , as do some of Uranus 's outer moons . However , these moons are all much more distant from their primaries , and are small in comparison ; the largest of them ( Phoebe ) has only 8 % of the diameter ( and 0 @.@ 03 % of the mass ) of Triton .
Triton 's orbit is associated with two tilts , the inclination of Neptune 's spin to Neptune 's orbit , 30 ° , and the inclination of Triton 's orbit to Neptune 's spin , 157 ° ( an inclination over 90 ° indicates retrograde motion ) . Triton 's orbit precesses forward relative to Neptune 's spin with a period of about 678 Earth years ( 4 @.@ 1 Neptunian years ) , making its Neptune @-@ orbit @-@ relative inclination vary between 127 ° and 180 ° and in the past , to 173 ° . That inclination is currently 130 ° ; Triton 's orbit is now near its maximum departure from coplanarity with Neptune 's .
Triton 's rotation is tidally locked to be synchronous with its orbit around Neptune : it keeps one face oriented toward the planet at all times . Its equator is almost exactly aligned with its orbital plane . At the present time , Triton 's rotational axis is about 40 ° from Neptune 's orbital plane , and hence at some point during Neptune 's year each pole points fairly close to the Sun , almost like the poles of Uranus . As Neptune orbits the Sun , Triton 's polar regions take turns facing the Sun , resulting in seasonal changes as one pole , then the other , moves into the sunlight . Such changes have recently been observed .
Triton 's revolution around Neptune has become a nearly perfect circle with an eccentricity of almost zero . Viscoelastic damping from tides alone is not thought to be capable of circularizing Triton 's orbit in the time since the origin of the system , and gas drag from a prograde debris disc is likely to have played a substantial role . Tidal interactions also cause Triton 's orbit , which is already closer to Neptune than the Moon 's is to Earth , to gradually decay further ; predictions are that 3 @.@ 6 billion years from now , Triton will pass within Neptune 's Roche limit . This will result in either a collision with Neptune 's atmosphere or the breakup of Triton , forming a ring system similar to that found around Saturn .
= = Capture = =
Moons in retrograde orbits cannot form in the same region of the solar nebula as the planets they orbit , so Triton must have been captured from elsewhere . It might therefore have originated in the Kuiper belt , a ring of small icy objects extending outwards from just inside the orbit of Neptune to about 50 AU from the Sun . Thought to be the point of origin for the majority of short @-@ period comets observed from Earth , the belt is also home to several large , planet @-@ like bodies including Pluto , which is now recognized as the largest in a population of Kuiper belt objects ( the plutinos ) locked in orbital step with Neptune . Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto and nearly identical in composition , which has led to the hypothesis that the two share a common origin .
The proposed capture of Triton may explain several features of the Neptunian system , including the extremely eccentric orbit of Neptune 's moon Nereid and the scarcity of moons as compared to the other giant planets . Triton 's initially eccentric orbit would have intersected orbits of irregular moons and disrupted those of smaller regular moons , dispersing them through gravitational interactions .
Triton 's eccentric post @-@ capture orbit would have also resulted in tidal heating of its interior , which could have kept Triton fluid for a billion years ; this inference is supported by evidence of differentiation in Triton 's interior . This source of internal heat disappeared following tidal locking and circularization of the orbit .
Two types of mechanisms have been proposed for Triton 's capture . To be gravitationally captured by a planet , a passing body must lose sufficient energy to be slowed down to a speed less than that required to escape . An early theory of how Triton may have been slowed was by collision with another object , either one that happened to be passing by Neptune ( which is unlikely ) , or a moon or proto @-@ moon in orbit around Neptune ( which is more likely ) . A more recent hypothesis suggests that , before its capture , Triton was part of a binary system . When this binary encountered Neptune , it interacted in such a way that the binary dissociated , with one portion of the binary expelled , and the other , Triton , becoming bound to Neptune . This event is more likely for more massive companions . Similar mechanisms have been proposed for the capture of Mars 's moons . This hypothesis is supported by several lines of evidence , including binaries being very common among the large Kuiper belt objects . The event was brief but gentle , saving Triton from collisional disruption . Events like this may have been common during the formation of Neptune , or later when it migrated outward .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Triton is the seventh @-@ largest moon and sixteenth @-@ largest object in the Solar System , and is modestly larger than the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris . It comprises more than 99 @.@ 5 % of all the mass known to orbit Neptune , including the planet 's rings and thirteen other known moons , and is also more massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself combined . It has a radius , density ( 2 @.@ 061 g / cm3 ) , temperature and chemical composition similar to those of Pluto .
Triton 's surface is covered with a transparent layer of annealed frozen nitrogen . Only 40 % of Triton 's surface has been observed and studied , but it is possible that it is entirely covered in such a thin sheet of nitrogen ice . Like Pluto 's , Triton 's crust consists of 55 % nitrogen ice with other ices mixed in . Water ice comprises 15 – 35 % and frozen carbon dioxide ( dry ice ) the remaining 10 – 20 % . Trace ices include 0 @.@ 1 % methane and 0 @.@ 05 % carbon monoxide . There could also be ammonia ice on the surface , as there are indications of ammonia dihydrate in the lithosphere . Triton 's mean density implies that it probably consists of about 30 – 45 % water ice ( including relatively small amounts of volatile ices ) , with the remainder being rocky material . Triton 's surface area is 23 million km2 , which is 4 @.@ 5 % of Earth , or 15 @.@ 5 % of Earth 's land area . Triton has a considerably and unusually high albedo , reflecting 60 – 95 % of the sunlight that reaches it , and it has changed slightly since the first observations . By comparison , the Moon reflects only 11 % . Triton 's reddish colour is thought to be the result of methane ice , which is converted to tholins under bombardment from ultraviolet radiation .
Because Triton 's surface indicates a long history of melting , models of its interior posit that Triton is differentiated , like Earth , into a solid core , a mantle and a crust . Water , the most abundant volatile in the Solar System , comprises Triton 's mantle , enveloping a core of rock and metal . There is enough rock in Triton 's interior for radioactive decay to power convection in the mantle to this day . The heat may even be sufficient to maintain a global subsurface ocean similar to what is hypothesized to exist beneath the surface of Europa . If liquid water is present in Triton , it has been speculated that this could make it habitable for some form of life .
= = Atmosphere = =
Triton has a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere , with trace amounts of carbon monoxide and small amounts of methane near its surface . Like Pluto 's atmosphere , the atmosphere of Triton is thought to have resulted from evaporation of nitrogen from its surface . Its surface temperature is at least 35 @.@ 6 K ( − 237 @.@ 6 ° C ) because Triton 's nitrogen ice is in the warmer , hexagonal crystalline state , and the phase transition between hexagonal and cubic nitrogen ice occurs at that temperature . An upper limit in the low 40s ( K ) can be set from vapor pressure equilibrium with nitrogen gas in Triton 's atmosphere . This is colder than Pluto 's average equilibrium temperature of 44 K ( − 229 ° C ) . Triton 's surface atmospheric pressure is only about 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 9 Pa ( 0 @.@ 014 – 0 @.@ 019 mbar ) .
Turbulence at Triton 's surface creates a troposphere ( a " weather region " ) rising to an altitude of 8 km . Streaks on Triton 's surface left by geyser plumes suggest that the troposphere is driven by seasonal winds capable of moving material of over a micrometre in size . Unlike other atmospheres , Triton 's lacks a stratosphere , and instead has a thermosphere from altitudes of 8 to 950 km , and an exosphere above that . The temperature of Triton 's upper atmosphere , at 95 ± 5 K , is higher than that at its surface , due to heat absorbed from solar radiation and Neptune 's magnetosphere . A haze permeates most of Triton 's troposphere , thought to be composed largely of hydrocarbons and nitriles created by the action of sunlight on methane . Triton 's atmosphere also has clouds of condensed nitrogen that lie between 1 and 3 km from its surface .
In 1997 , observations from Earth were made of Triton 's limb as it passed in front of stars . These observations indicated the presence of a denser atmosphere than was deduced from Voyager 2 data . Other observations have shown an increase in temperature by 5 % from 1989 to 1998 . These observations indicate Triton is approaching an unusually warm summer season that happens only once every few hundred years . Theories for this warming include a change of frost patterns on Triton 's surface and a change in ice albedo , which would allow more heat to be absorbed . Another theory argues the changes in temperature are a result of deposition of dark , red material from geological processes . Because Triton 's Bond albedo is among the highest within the Solar System , it is sensitive to small variations in spectral albedo .
= = Surface features = =
All detailed knowledge of the surface of Triton was acquired from a distance of 40 @,@ 000 km by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during a single encounter in 1989 . The 40 % of Triton 's surface imaged by Voyager 2 revealed blocky outcrops , ridges , troughs , furrows , hollows , plateaus , icy plains and few craters . Triton is relatively flat ; its observed topography never varies beyond a kilometer . There are relatively few impact craters on Triton . Recent analysis of crater density and distribution has suggested that in geological terms , Triton 's surface is extremely young , with regions varying from an estimated 50 million years old to just an estimated 6 million years old .
= = = Cryovolcanism = = =
Triton is geologically active ; its surface is young and has relatively few impact craters . Although Triton 's crust is made of various ices , its subsurface processes are similar to those that produce volcanoes and rift valleys on Earth , but with water and ammonia as opposed to liquid rock . Triton 's entire surface is cut by complex valleys and ridges , probably the result of tectonics and icy volcanism . The vast majority of surface features on Triton are endogenic — the result of internal geological processes rather than external processes such as impacts . Most are volcanic and extrusive in nature , rather than tectonic .
The Voyager 2 probe observed a handful of geyser @-@ like eruptions of invisible nitrogen gas and entrained dust from beneath the surface of Triton in plumes up to 8 km high . Triton is thus , along with Earth , Io , and Enceladus , one of the few bodies in the Solar System on which active eruptions of some sort have been observed . The best @-@ observed examples were named Hili and Mahilani ( after a Zulu water sprite and a Tongan sea spirit , respectively ) .
All the geysers observed were located between 50 ° and 57 ° S , the part of Triton 's surface close to the subsolar point . This indicates that solar heating , although very weak at Triton 's great distance from the Sun , plays a crucial role . It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a translucent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate , which creates a kind of " solid greenhouse effect " . Solar radiation passes through the thin surface ice sheet , slowly heating and vaporizing subsurface nitrogen until enough gas pressure accumulates for it to erupt through the crust . A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed . Although commonly termed " cryovolcanic " , this nitrogen plume activity is distinct from Triton 's larger scale cryovolcanic eruptions , as well as volcanic processes on other worlds , which are powered by the internal heat of the body in question . Analogous CO2 geysers on Mars are thought to erupt from its south polar cap each spring .
Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year , driven by the sublimation of about 100 million cubic metres ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 ^ 9 cu ft ) of nitrogen ice over this interval ; dust entrained may be deposited up to 150 km downwind in visible streaks , and perhaps much farther in more diffuse deposits . Voyager 2 's images of Triton 's southern hemisphere show many such streaks of dark material . Between 1977 and the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989 , Triton shifted from a reddish colour , similar to Pluto , to a far paler hue , suggesting that lighter nitrogen frosts had covered older reddish material . The eruption of volatiles from Triton 's equator and their deposition at the poles may redistribute enough mass over the course of 10 @,@ 000 years to cause polar wander .
= = = Polar cap , plains and ridges = = =
Triton 's south polar region is covered by a highly reflective cap of frozen nitrogen and methane sprinkled by impact craters and openings of geysers . Little is known about the north pole because it was on the night side during the Voyager 2 encounter , but it is thought that Triton must also have a north polar ice cap .
The high plains found on Triton 's eastern hemisphere , such as Cipango Planum , cover over and blot out older features , and are therefore almost certainly the result of icy lava washing over the previous landscape . The plains are dotted with pits , such as Leviathan Patera , which are probably the vents from which this lava emerged . The composition of the lava is unknown , although a mixture of ammonia and water is suspected .
Four roughly circular " walled plains " have been identified on Triton . They are the flattest regions so far discovered , with a variance in altitude of less than 200 m . They are thought to have formed from eruption of icy lava . The plains near Triton 's eastern limb are dotted with black spots , the maculae . Some maculae are simple dark spots with diffuse boundaries , and other comprise a dark central patch surrounded by a white halo with sharp boundaries . Typical diameter of maculae is about 100 km and width of halo is between 20 and 30 km . Some speculate the maculae are outliers of the south polar cap , which retreats in summer .
There are extensive ridges and valleys in complex patterns across Triton 's surface , probably the result of freeze – thaw cycles . Many also appear to be tectonic in nature and may result from extension or strike @-@ slip faulting . There are long double ridges of ice with central troughs bearing a strong resemblance to Europan lineae ( although they have a larger scale ) , and which may have a similar origin , possibly shear heating from strike @-@ slip motion along faults caused by diurnal tidal stresses experienced before Triton 's orbit was fully circularized . These faults with parallel ridges expelled from the interior cross complex terrain with valleys in the equatorial region . The ridges and furrows , or sulci , such as Yasu Sulci , Ho Sulci , and Lo Sulci , are thought to be of intermediate age in Triton 's geological history , and in many cases to have formed concurrently . They tend to be clustered in groups or " packets " .
= = = Cantaloupe terrain = = =
Triton 's western hemisphere consists of a strange series of fissures and depressions known as " cantaloupe terrain " because of its resemblance to the skin of a cantaloupe melon . Although it has few craters , it is thought that this is the oldest terrain on Triton . It probably covers much of Triton 's western half .
Cantaloupe terrain , which is mostly dirty water ice , is known to exist only on Triton . It contains depressions 30 – 40 km in diameter . The depressions ( cavi ) are probably not impact craters because they are all of similar size and have smooth curves . The leading hypothesis for their formation is diapirism , the rising of " lumps " of less dense material through a stratum of denser material . Alternative hypotheses include formation by collapses , or by flooding caused by cryovolcanism .
= = = Impact craters = = =
Due to constant erasure and modification by ongoing geological activity , impact craters on Triton 's surface are relatively rare . A census of Triton 's craters imaged by Voyager 2 found only 179 that were incontestably of impact origin , compared with 835 observed for Uranus 's moon Miranda , which has only three percent of Triton 's surface area . The largest crater observed on Triton thought to have been created by an impact is a 27 km @-@ diameter feature called Mazomba . Although larger craters have been observed , they are generally thought to be volcanic in nature .
The few impact craters on Triton are almost all concentrated in the leading hemisphere — that facing the direction of the orbital motion — with the majority concentrated around the equator between 30 ° and 70 ° longitude , resulting from material swept up from orbit around Neptune . Because it orbits with one side permanently facing the planet , astronomers expect that Triton should have fewer impacts on its trailing hemisphere , due to impacts on the leading hemisphere being more frequent and more violent . Voyager 2 imaged only 40 % of Triton 's surface , so this remains uncertain .
= = Observation and exploration = =
The orbital properties of Triton were already determined with high accuracy in the 19th century . It was found to have a retrograde orbit , at a very high angle of inclination to the plane of Neptune 's orbit . The first detailed observations of Triton were not made until 1930 . Little was known about the satellite until Voyager 2 arrived at the end of the 20th century .
Before the arrival of Voyager 2 , astronomers suspected that Triton might have liquid nitrogen seas and a nitrogen / methane atmosphere with a density as much as 30 % that of Earth . Like the famous overestimates of the atmospheric density of Mars , this proved completely false . As with Mars , a denser atmosphere is postulated for its early history .
The first attempt to measure the diameter of Triton was made by Gerard Kuiper in 1954 . He obtained a value of 3 @,@ 800 km . Subsequent measurement attempts arrived at values ranging from 2 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 000 km , or from slightly smaller than the Moon ( 3474 @.@ 2 km ) to nearly half the diameter of Earth . Data from the approach of Voyager 2 to Neptune on August 25 , 1989 , led to a more accurate estimate of Triton 's diameter ( 2 @,@ 706 km ) .
In the 1990s , various observations from Earth were made of the limb of Triton using the occultation of nearby stars , which indicated the presence of an atmosphere and an exotic surface . The observations suggest that the atmosphere is denser than the Voyager 2 measurements had indicated .
New concepts for missions to the Neptune system to be conducted in the 2010s have been brought forward by NASA scientists on numerous occasions over the last decades . All of them identified Triton as being a prime target and a separate Triton lander comparable to the Huygens probe for Titan was frequently included in those plans . No efforts aimed at Neptune and Triton went beyond the proposal phase and NASA 's funding on missions to the outer Solar System is currently focused on the Jupiter and Saturn systems .
A lander mission to Triton has been proposed in which in @-@ situ propellant is used to " hop " across the surface .
= = Maps = =
= Malvern water =
Malvern water is a natural spring water from the Malvern Hills on the border of the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire in England . The Hills consist of very hard granite and limestone rock . Fissures in the rock retain rain water , which slowly permeates through , escaping at the springs . The springs release an average of about 60 litres a minute and the flow has never been known to cease .
Beneficial properties of the water have been reported for over four hundred years , and the reason for such benefits was a topic of scholarly discussion by 1817 . In the 19th century Malvern became famous for the water cure , resulting in its rapid development from a village to a busy town with many large Victorian and Edwardian hotels . The writings of the hydrotherapists James Gully and James Wilson , and well known patients who included Lord Lytton contributed to Malvern 's renown at that time . The water has been bottled on an industrial scale under the Schweppes brand from 1850 until 2010 , and is still bottled by a family @-@ owned company since 2009 as Holywell Malvern Spring Water . In 2012 the Holywell Water Co Ltd was granted permission to use the world famous " Malvern " name in its branding , thus becoming Holywell Malvern Spring Water . It has been drunk by several British monarchs . Elizabeth I drank it in public in the 16th century ; Queen Victoria refused to travel without it .
= = Purity = =
Malvern water has long been acclaimed for its purity . In 1756 Dr John Wall tested the water , found that it contained very few minerals , and said : " The Malvern water is famous for containing just nothing at all ... ! " William Heberden also noted the purity of Malvern water , stating " the Malvern water is purer than that of any other springs in England , which I ever examined or heard of " .
The natural untreated water is generally devoid of all minerals , bacteria , and suspended matter , approaching the purity of distilled water . In 1987 Malvern gained official EU status as a natural mineral water , a mark of purity and quality . However , in spite of regular quality analysis , drought in 2006 dried out the rock that filters the water , allowing the water to flow through it too quickly for the natural filtering process . Due to the slight impurities , the Coca @-@ Cola Company , manufacturer of the Schweppes brand , had to install filtration equipment , which reclassifies the water as spring water under EU law .
= = Springs = =
There are sources in about 70 locations around the Hills , where residents regularly fill containers free of charge , including the St Ann 's Well , which is housed in a building dating from 1815 , in the town of Great Malvern . Major popular water sources are :
Beauchamp Fountain – Cowleigh Road
Enigma Fountain plus Malvhina water feature , Belle Vue Terrace – town centre
Evendine Spring – Jubilee Drive ( west flank of the Hills )
Hayslad Spring – West Malvern Road
Holy Well – Malvern Wells
Jubilee Fountain – Malvern Wells
Morris Well , Wells Common – Lower Wyche
St Ann 's Well – Great Malvern
The Walms Well dating from around 250 BC is one of the earliest to be documented .
= = Medicinal use = =
Local legend has it that the curative benefit of the spring water was known in mediaeval times . The medicinal value and the bottling of Malvern water are praised in verses 15 and 16 of " a poem attributed to the Reverend Edmund Rea , who became Vicar of Great Malvern in 1612 " . These are part of " an old song in praise of Malvern " , that was published with comments on a different and uncertain provenance by Chambers in his history of the town .
In 1622 , Richard Banister , the pioneering oculist , wrote the following verse about the Eye Well , close to the Holy Well in his Breviary of the Eyes .
In 1756 , Dr. John Wall published a 14 @-@ page pamphlet on the benefits of Malvern water , that reached a 158 @-@ page 3rd edition in 1763 . Further praise came from the botanist Benjamin Stillingfleet in 1757 , the poet Thomas Warton in 1790 , quoted in a review by the medical historian W.H. McMenemy . Cure tourism in Malvern got press mention . In a letter dated 18 July 1759 to Mrs Montague , Benjamin Stillingfleet wrote : " I have been at Malvern about twelve days , where , with difficulty , I have got a lodging , the place is so full , nor do I wonder at it , there being some instances of very extraordinary cures , in cases looked on as desperate , even by Dr. Wall , who first brought these waters into vogue ... The road is very fine , and made on purpose for the convenience of the drinkers " . Chambers , in a footnote to the " song " quoted above , wrote " Though modern visitors do not now lie in bushes , yet so crowded was Malvern one season that a lady of rank and fashion , with her equipage and servants were actually obliged to be sent to the Workhouse . It is now the custom , during the season , to let out this house to visitors , and the money gained this way is applied to the funds for maintaining the poor . " Nicholas Vansittart brought his wife Catherine to Malvern for a rest cure in 1809 . In 1828 , William Addison , the physician of The Duchess of Kent ( mother of Queen Victoria ) lectured about Malvern at the Royal Institution commending " its pure and invigorating air , the excellence of its water , and the romantic beauty of its scenery " .
In 1842 Drs James Manby Gully and James Wilson opened water cure clinics at Malvern , thus beginning the town 's prosperity . Based on the therapy offered at Vincent Priessnitz 's clinic in Gräfenberg , Silesia , then part of the Austrian Empire ( now in the Czech Republic ) , the centre was Britain 's first purpose built water cure establishment . As the fame of the establishment grew , Gully and Wilson became well @-@ known national figures . Two more clinics were opened at Malvern . Famous patients included Charles Darwin 's daughter ( who died and is buried in Malvern ) , Thomas Carlyle , Florence Nightingale , Lord Tennyson , Samuel Wilberforce , and Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton , whose writing contributed to the popularity of Malvern water . The fame of Gully and Wilson was not without detractors ; Sir Charles Hastings , the founder of the British Medical Association , was extremely critical of hydropathy , and of Dr Gully in particular . The cure was satirized by " Dr. Oddfish " .
= = Commercialisation = =
Malvern water has been bottled and distributed in the UK and abroad from as early as the reign of James I , with water bottling at the Holy Well being recorded in 1622 . Various local grocers have bottled and distributed Malvern water during the 19th and early 20th centuries , but it was first bottled on a large commercial scale by Schweppes , who opened a bottling plant at Holywell in Malvern Wells in 1850 . As official caterers to the Great Exhibition of 1851 , Schweppes introduced the water as Malvern Soda , later renaming it Malvern Seltzer Water in 1856 . In 1890 Schweppes moved away from Holywell , entered into a contract with a Colwall family , and built a bottling plant in the village in 1892 . The Holywell was subsequently leased to John and Henry Cuff , who bottled there until the 1960s . The Holywell became derelict until 2009 when with the aid of a Lottery Heritage grant , production of 1200 bottles per day of Holywell Spring Water was recommenced by an independent family @-@ owned company . The well is believed to be the oldest bottling plant in the world .
In the 1850s Malvern Water was bottled by John and William Burrow at the Bottling Works Spring in Robson Ward 's yard on Belle Vue Terrace in Great Malvern . Bottling ceased here in the 1950s and the former bottling works are now furniture showrooms . Water for the Bottling Works Spring is piped from St Ann 's Well .
In 1927 , Schweppes acquired from the Burrows family Pewtress Spring , in Colwall , on the western side of the Herefordshire Beacon , approximately two miles from Colwall village . The source here emerges at the fault line between the Silurian thrust and the Precambrian diorite and granite above it . The spring was renamed Primeswell Spring , and in 1929 Schweppes commenced bottling . The factory employed 25 people who filled 26 million bottles annually . It was operated by Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises Ltd . , and the water was sold under the Schweppes brand name . On 20 October 2010 Coca @-@ Cola Enterprises , who owned the Malvern brand , announced that production would be ceasing as of 3 November 2010 . This decision , which was widely criticised both in the town and beyond , was due to the declining market share Malvern has on the overall water market . On 28 October 2011 , it was reported that the bottling plant is being sold to a property company .
= = Interest groups = =
Among the interest groups promoting the legacy of Malvern water , the two primary ones are The Malvern Spa Association , and The Friends of Malvern Springs and Wells .
The Malvern Spa Association ( MSA ) is a non @-@ profit organisation , founded in September 1998 , with two primary aims . " To conserve , protect and restore the Springs , Wells , Spouts and Fountains of the Malvern Hills " , and " to promote the study , conservation , development and awareness " of them , and of " Great Malvern as a Spa Town " . Apart from various fundraising activities and membership fees , the MSA receives funding through the Heritage Lottery Fund , which is managed by the Malvern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Unit ( Malvern Hills AONB ) , under the umbrella of the National Association for Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( NAAONB ) . The Malvern Hills AONB also provides grants via such mechanisms as the Sustainable Development Fund . The MSA was originally founded by the Spa Water Strategy Working Group , comprising Malvern town councillors and artist Rose Garrard . Its patrons are Lord and Lady Sandys , after whose family a spout located in Spring Lane , Malvern Link is named , and which was restored in 2005 as part of the Malvern heritage Project . In 2004 , in order to finance improvements and restoration to 20 historical sites , a grant of £ 270 @,@ 000 was awarded by the Heritage Lottery Fund . The MSA produces a free newsletter available at the Tourist Information Centre in Great Malvern , at St Ann 's Well and for download .
The Friends of Malvern Springs and Wells is an informal group that publishes a newsletter and promotes interest in the wells , including an award scheme for conservation or renovation of springs and wells and their immediate environment . The award scheme is the St Werstan Award for the Enhancement of Water Heritage , given in honour of St. Werstan , one of the earliest saints associated with Malvern . In August 2008 , the group 's St Werstan award for conservation or renovation of the springs and wells and their surroundings was presented to Coca @-@ Cola Great Britain . At the behest of the Friends , the company is also sponsoring a project to transfer an iconic mulberry tree sapling from Melbourne , Australia . The sappling derives from a cutting taken from a mulberry tree originally planted in 1936 by George Bernard Shaw at the Malvern Festival . The tree was destroyed in a storm in 2000 , but research by members of the Friends group revealed that in 1956 , a cutting from the tree was sent to Malvern in Victoria , Australia . The Friends group also assists in the general maintenance of wells and spouts , and in organising events and well dressing ceremonies . According to research made by local historians , a tradition of well dressing in the Malverns dates from the 12th and 13th centuries when around 5 August each year , tribute was paid to St Oswald for water cures . The tradition of well dressing continues , fostered by interest groups and activities such as arts projects .
= = Art projects = =
In 1996 the Malvern Hills District Council appointed a Malvern Spa Water Strategy Working Group . Independently , in June 1996 , sculptor Rose Garrard proposed to the MHDC the creation of a sculpture trail by nationally known sculptors , placed at forgotten springs around the town centre . The council began with the installation of new water features as part of its plan to beautify the town centre . In 1997 the District Council implemented a Spring Water Arts Project to map water sources around the hills . Garrard undertook a two @-@ month artist 's residency and collaborated with the public , who provided locations of over two hundred water sources . Garrard was commissioned to create the drinking spout , Malvhina , which was unveiled on 4 September 1998 .
On 26 May 2000 , the Enigma Fountain , also by Garrard , was unveiled by The Duke of York . Its cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 was funded by the Malvern Hills District Council , public subscription , and support from by Severn Trent Water , West Midlands Arts , and local businesses . Located on the Bellevue Terrace island in the very centre of the town , together with the statue of Edward Elgar , the group of sculptures embodies both music and water , the two major aspects of Malvern 's cultural history .
Art projects continue in various ways . Each year in April a well dressing competition is organised around a theme set by the Malvern Spa Association , with Gold , Silver and Bronze awards presented to adult 's and children 's groups . The well dressing initiative usually takes place over a period of four or five days with the Malvern spouts starting the annual season of well dressing around the country in the Derbyshire tradition . In 2003 , photographer Bob Bilsland gave permission to the BBC to publish 21 of his special panaoramic views of the decorated wells and spouts .
For the 2010 competition based on ' Celebrations ' , a group of pupils of a local primary school decorated the Great Malvern Railway Station Trough with paper figures representing famous people who have visited Malvern , such as Shaw and Elgar , celebrating 150 years of the railway in the town . Also in 2010 , the connection of Florence Nightingale with Malvern water is being celebrated with the help of the Malvern Museum 's school poster competition .
Other art projects encapsulate different connections with Malvern water . In 2002 the Elmley Foundation donated an 8 @-@ foot water clock designed by French sculptor , and horologist Bernard Gitton to the Malvern theatre and the people of Malvern . The clock which is on permanent exhibition in the foyer area of the theatre represents the three main industries of the town : its science , theatre , and water .
= Estate houses in Scotland =
Estate houses in Scotland or Scottish country houses , are large houses usually on landed estates in Scotland . They were built from the sixteenth century , after defensive castles began to be replaced by more comfortable residences for royalty , nobility and local lairds . The origins of Scottish estate houses are in aristocratic emulation of the extensive building and rebuilding of royal residences , beginning with Linlithgow , under the influence of Renaissance architecture . In the 1560s the unique Scottish style of the Scots baronial emerged , which combined features from medieval castles , tower houses , and peel towers with Renaissance plans , in houses designed primarily for residence rather than defence .
After the Restoration ( 1660 ) the work of architect Sir William Bruce introduced to Scotland a new phase of classicising architecture , in the shape of royal palaces and estate houses incorporating elements of the Palladian style . In the eighteenth century Scotland produced some of the most important British architects , including the neo @-@ Palladian William Adam and his innovative son Robert Adam , who rejected the Palladian style and was one of the European initiators of neoclassical architecture , embodied in a series of estate houses in Scotland and England
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setting and engine at 2000 rpm , and within 10 seconds at the maximum allowable engine speed of 3000 rpm . The direction and speed of traverse were controlled by the gunner through pedals , or a control lever near his left arm . If power was lost , such as when the tank ran out of fuel , the turret could be slowly traversed by hand , assisted by the loader who had an additional wheel . Two full turns of the wheel were necessary for a one degree turn of the turret , with a total of 720 turns for a full circle . The hydraulic system was not precise and gunners preferred to use the manual system to aim .
Like all German tanks , it had a petrol engine ; in this case the same 700 PS ( 690 hp , 515 kW ) V @-@ 12 Maybach HL 230 P30 which powered the much lighter Panther and Tiger I tanks . The Tiger II was under @-@ powered , like many other heavy tanks of World War II , and consumed a lot of fuel , which was in short supply for the Germans . The transmission was the Maybach OLVAR EG 40 12 16 Model B , giving eight forward gears and four reverse , which drove the steering gear . This was the Henschel L 801 , a double radius design which proved susceptible to failure . Transverse torsion bar suspension supported the hull on nine axles per side . Overlapped 800 mm ( 31 in ) diameter road wheels with rubber cushions and steel tyres rode inside the tracks .
Like the Tiger I , each tank was issued with two sets of tracks : a normal " battle track " and a narrower " transport " version used during rail movement . The transport tracks reduced the overall width of the load and could be used to drive the tank short distances on firm ground . The crew were expected to change to normal battle tracks as soon as the tank was unloaded . Ground pressure was 0 @.@ 76 kg / cm2 ( 10 @.@ 8 psi ) .
= = = Command variant = = =
The command variant of the Tiger II was designated Panzerbefehlswagen Tiger Ausf . B. It had two versions , Sd.Kfz. 267 and Sd.Kfz. 268 . These carried only 63 rounds of 8 @.@ 8 cm ammunition to provide room to accommodate the extra radios and equipment , and had additional armour on the engine compartment . The Sd.Kfz. 267 was to have used FuG 8 and FuG 5 radio sets , with the most notable external changes being a two metre long rod antenna mounted on the turret roof and a Sternantenne D ( " Star antenna D " ) , mounted on an insulated base ( the 105mm Antennenfuß Nr. 1 ) , which was protected by a large armoured cylinder . This equipment was located on the rear decking in a position originally used for deep @-@ wading equipment . The Sd.Kfz. 268 used FuG 7 and FuG 5 radios with a two @-@ metre rod antenna mounted on the turret roof and a 1 @.@ 4 metre rod antenna mounted on the rear deck .
= = Production = =
The Tiger II was developed late in the war and built in relatively small numbers . Orders were placed for 1 @,@ 500 Tiger IIs — slightly more than the 1 @,@ 347 Tiger I tanks produced — but Tiger II production was severely disrupted by Allied bombing . Among others , five raids between 22 September and 7 October 1944 destroyed 95 percent of the floor area of the Henschel plant . It is estimated that this caused the loss in production of some 657 Tiger IIs . Only 492 units were produced : one in 1943 , 379 in 1944 , and 112 in 1945 . Full production ran from mid @-@ 1944 to the end of the war .
The Tiger II served as the basis for one production variant , the Jagdtiger casemated tank destroyer , and a proposed Grille 17 / 21 / 30 / 42 self @-@ propelled mount for heavy guns that never reached production .
= = Proposed upgrades = =
The HL234 , an engine born from the developments initiated by attempting to convert the Maybach HL230 to fuel injection , would have increased the power to about 800 to 900 PS ( hp ) . The Entwicklungskommission Panzer unanimously decided that HL234 be immediately included in the engine design and procurement program . The AK @-@ 7 @-@ 200 was also explored as an alternative to the Olvar @-@ B drive train , but Waffenamt research and development department Wa Prüf 6 found that it offered inferior driving characteristics and so the Olvar @-@ B was retained . Krupp proposed mounting a new main weapon , the 10 @.@ 5 cm KwK L / 68 . Wa Prüf 6 was not supportive of this as the Heer had not accepted the cannon itself . Other suggested improvements included stabilised sights , a stabilised main gun , an automatic ammunition feed , a Zeiss stereoscopic range finder , heated crew compartment , stowage for an additional 12 rounds , and an overpressure and air filtration system to protect against poison gas , but these also never got beyond the proposal stage or did not enter production before the war ended .
= = Specifications = =
Gearbox : Maybach OLVAR EG 40 12 16 B ( eight forward and four reverse )
Radio : FuG 5 , Befehlswagen ( command tank ) version : FuG 8 ( Sd.Kfz. 267 ) , FuG 7 ( Sd.Kfz. 268 )
Ammunition :
8 @.@ 8 cm – 80 rounds ( Porsche turret ) , 86 rounds ( Henschel turret ) , usually 50 % PzGr 39 / 43 and 50 % SprGr 43 , sometimes with a limited number of PzGr 40 / 43 , or with the SprGr replaced by HlGrPzGr 39 / 43 ( Armour @-@ piercing , tungsten core ) ( longer range , lower penetration , explosive filler )
PzGr 40 / 43 ( Armour @-@ piercing , tungsten core ) ( shorter range , higher penetration , inert )
SprGr 43 ( High Explosive )
HlGr 39 ( Hollow charge )
7.92mm – up to 5 @,@ 850 rounds
Gun Sight : Turmzielfernrohr 9b / 1 ( TZF 9b / 1 ) binocular to May 1944 , then the 9d ( TZF 9d ) monocular .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Organisation = = =
Apart from research , training , and a five @-@ tank attachment to the Panzer Lehr , the Tiger II was only issued to heavy tank battalions ( schwere Panzer Abteilung ) of the German Army ( Heer ) , or Waffen @-@ SS .
A standard battalion ( Abteilung ) comprised 45 tanks :
Units that used the Tiger II were as follows :
Heer : ( s.H.Pz.Abt ) 501 , 502 , 503 , 504 , 505 , 506 , 507 , 508 , 509 , 510 , 511
SS : ( s.SS.Pz.Abt ) 501 , 502 , 503
= = = Reliability and mobility = = =
Early Tiger IIs proved unreliable , owing principally to leaking seals and gaskets , and an overburdened drive train originally intended for a lighter vehicle . The double radius steering gear was initially particularly prone to failure . Lack of crew training could amplify this problem ; drivers originally given only limited training on other tanks were often sent directly to operational units already on their way to the front .
The Schwere Heeres Panzer Abteilung 501 ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 501 ) arrived on the Eastern Front with only eight out of 45 tanks operational ; these faults were mostly due to drive @-@ train failures . The first five Tiger IIs delivered to the Panzer Lehr Division broke down before they could be used in combat , and were destroyed to prevent capture .
The introduction of modified seals , gaskets and drive train components , as well as improved driver training and sufficient maintenance improved the tank 's mechanical reliability . Statistics from 15 March 1945 show reliability rates of 59 percent for the Tiger , almost equal to the 62 percent of the Panzer IV and better than the 48 percent of the Panther were operational by this period .
Not withstanding its initial reliability problems , the Tiger II was remarkably agile for such a heavy vehicle . Contemporary German records and testing results indicate that its tactical mobility was as good as or better than most German or Allied tanks .
= = = Combat history = = =
The first combat use of the Tiger II was by the 1st Company of the 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 503 ) during the Battle of Normandy , opposing Operation Atlantic between Troarn and Demouville on 18 July 1944 . Losses were : two from combat , plus the company commander 's tank , which became irrecoverably trapped after falling into a bomb crater created during Operation Goodwood .
On the Eastern Front , it was first used on 12 August 1944 by the 501st Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.H.Pz.Abt. 501 ) resisting the Lvov – Sandomierz Offensive . It attacked the Soviet bridgehead over the Vistula River near Baranów Sandomierski . On the road to Oględów , three Tiger IIs were destroyed in an ambush by a few T @-@ 34 @-@ 85s . Because these German tanks suffered ammunition explosions , which caused many crew fatalities , main gun rounds were no longer allowed to be stowed within the turret , reducing capacity to 68 . Up to fourteen Tiger IIs of the 501st were lost in the area between 12 and 13 August to ambushes and flank attacks by Soviet T @-@ 34 @-@ 85 and IS @-@ 2 tanks , and ISU @-@ 122 assault guns in inconvenient sandy terrain .
On 15 October 1944 , Tiger IIs of 503rd Heavy Panzer Battalion played a crucial role during Operation Panzerfaust , supporting Otto Skorzeny 's troops in taking the Hungarian capital of Budapest , which ensured that the country remained with the Axis until the end of the war . The 503rd then took part in the Battle of Debrecen . The 503rd remained in the Hungarian theater of operations for 166 days , during which it accounted for at least 121 Soviet tanks , 244 anti @-@ tank guns and artillery pieces , five aircraft and a train . This was set against the loss of 25 Tiger IIs ; ten were knocked out by Soviet troops and burned out , two were sent back to Vienna for a factory overhaul , while thirteen were blown up by their crews for various reasons , usually to prevent them from falling into enemy hands . Kurt Knispel , the highest scoring tank ace of all time ( 162 enemy AFVs destroyed ) , also served with the 503rd , and was killed in action on 29 April 1945 in his Tiger II .
The Tiger II was also present in the four heavy panzer battalions during the Ardennes Offensive of December 1944 , the Soviet Vistula – Oder and East Prussian Offensives in January 1945 , the German Lake Balaton Offensive in Hungary in March 1945 , the Battle of the Seelow Heights in April 1945 , and the Battle of Berlin at the end of the war .
The 103rd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion ( s.SS Pz.Abt. 503 ) claimed approximately 500 kills in the period from January to April 1945 on the Eastern Front for the loss of 45 Tiger IIs ( most of which were abandoned and destroyed by their own crews after mechanical breakdowns or for lack of fuel ) .
= = = Gun and armour performance = = =
The heavy armour and powerful long @-@ range gun gave the Tiger II an advantage against all opposing Western Allied and Soviet tanks attempting to engage it from head on . This was especially true on the Western Front where , until the arrival of the few M26 Pershings in 1945 , neither the British nor US forces brought heavy tanks into service . A Wa Prüf 1 report estimated that the Tiger II 's frontal aspect was impervious to the 122 mm D @-@ 25T , the heaviest although not the best penetrating tank gun on the Allied side . On the other hand , an R.A.C 3.d. document of February 1945 estimated that the British QF 17 @-@ pounder ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) gun , using armour @-@ piercing discarding sabot shot was theoretically capable of penetrating the front of the Tiger II 's turret and nose ( lower front hull ) at 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 200 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 100 m ) respectively although , given the lack of a stated angle , this is presumably at the ideal 90 degrees angle . As a result of its thick frontal armour , flanking manoeuvres were most often used against the Tiger II to attempt a shot at the thinner side and rear armour , giving a tactical advantage to the Tiger II in most engagements . Moreover , the main armament of the Tiger II was capable of knocking out any Allied tank frontally at ranges exceeding 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) , well beyond the effective range of Allied tank guns .
= = = Soviet wartime testing = = =
During August 1944 , two Tiger Ausf B tanks were captured by the Soviets near Sandomierz , and were soon moved to the testing grounds at Kubinka . During the transfer , the two tanks suffered from various mechanical break downs ; the cooling system was insufficient for the excessively hot climatic conditions , where the engine tended to overheat and cause a consequential failure of the gearbox . The right suspension of one of the tanks had to be completely replaced , and its full functionality could not be re @-@ established . The tank broke down again every 10 – 15 km . The 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 gave positive results in penetration and accuracy , which were on par with the 122 mm D @-@ 25T . It proved capable of passing completely through its " colleague " , a Tiger Ausf B 's turret at a range of 400 m . The armour of one vehicle was tested by firing at it with shells between 100 and 152 mm calibre . The welding was , despite careful workmanship , significantly worse than on similar designs . As a result , even when shells did not penetrate the armour , there was often a large amount of spalling from the inside of the plates , which damaged the transmission and rendered the tank inoperable . Further testing showed that the armour plate itself exhibited deficiencies in quality compared to earlier German tanks , such as the Tiger I and Panther . Analysis of the Tiger Ausf B armour plate showed an absence of molybdenum ( ascribed to a loss of supply , being replaced by vanadium ) , giving the armour low malleability .
The expanded firing test states that the АР projectiles from the 100 mm BS @-@ 3 and 122 mm A @-@ 19 gun penetrated a Tiger Ausf B 's turret at ranges of 1000 – 1500 metres , which suggests a quality factor of 0 @.@ 86 for the Tiger Ausf B 's turret . The firing test against the Tiger B turret front , however , was conducted after removal of the gun and mantlet , and resulted in penetrations close to armour openings , such as vision slits and gun location . The penetrations to the right gun opening were influenced by previous 100 mm projectile penetration hits or armour damage . The tank 's hull and turret side plates were penetrated by АР shot from domestic 85 mm and American 76 mm guns at ranges of 800 – 2 @,@ 000 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The 100 mm BS @-@ 3 and 122 mm A @-@ 19 could also penetrate the weld joints of the front hull at ranges of 500 – 600 metres after 3 – 4 shots .
Despite the wartime testing , there is no reliable evidence that the front armour of the King Tiger had ever been penetrated in combat .
= = Surviving vehicles = =
The only working example is displayed at the Musée des Blindés , Saumur , France . It has the production turret and is accessible to the public . Other survivors include :
Bovington Tank Museum , Dorset , UK . Tiger II with early production turret is on display . This vehicle was the second soft steel prototype made and did not see active service . This Tiger II 's engine was removed for use in the restoration of Tiger 131 , the only working example of a Tiger I. A production turret Tiger II is on loan from the Defence Academy , Shrivenham , UK . See below .
Defence Academy of the United Kingdom , Shrivenham , UK . Tiger II ( production turret ) . This vehicle was from s.SS Pz.Abt. 501 , with hull number 280093 , turret number 104 , and has a comprehensive coating of Zimmerit . It was claimed by Sergeant Roberts of A Squadron , 23rd Hussars , 11th Armoured Division in a Sherman tank near Beauvais , although it had already been disabled and abandoned by its crew following damage to its tracks and final drive . There is a photograph showing this vehicle after its final action in a beet field with its turret turned 90 ° . This vehicle is currently on display at Bovington Tank Museum , in Dorset , UK .
The Wheatcroft Collection , Leicestershire , UK . A private collector , Kevin Wheatcroft , is about to start a restoration / rebuild of a complete Tiger II . The project will include parts from many individual Tiger IIs , but many parts will be of new manufacture . Wheatcroft has stated that he has 70 – 80 % of the original parts needed for a reconstruction and more parts are sourced continuously . Known and shown parts are a complete front glacis plate , 8 @.@ 8 cm KwK 43 main armament , engine deck plates , approx . 1 / 3 hull ( rear ) in one part , a set of tracks , and approx . 2 / 3 of the left @-@ side hull plate in two parts . The aim of the project is a complete Tiger II in running order .
Mantes @-@ la @-@ Jolie , France . A more or less complete , but wrecked , Tiger II ( production turret ) is buried under regional road 913 . Parts of the turret were recovered in a limited exploratory excavation in 2001 . Further excavation is currently halted for financial reasons . There are plans to fully excavate and restore this Tiger II for a Vexin battle memorial .
Kubinka Tank Museum , Russia . Tiger II ( production turret ) with turret number 002 ( 502 ) captured at Oględów by the Red Army . The museum is open to the public .
December 44 Museum , La Gleize , Belgium . A cosmetically restored Tiger II ( production turret ) Hull number 280273 , built in October 1944 . Turret number 213 from s.SS Pz.Abt 501 . Displayed at the entrance to DECEMBER 44 MUSEUM Collections , a museum devoted entirely to the Battle of the Bulge . This tank was abandoned in La Gleize on 24 December 1944 , where the advance of Kampfgruppe Peiper was halted . The front part , about 1 / 3 , of the gun barrel is restored with a Panther gun barrel and muzzle brake . It also has restored mudguards . It is stripped of exterior and internal fittings and most of the torsion bars are broken , but it still has its gearbox and engine in place .
Deutsches Panzermuseum , Munster , Germany . Tiger II ( production turret ) displayed in interior location accessible to public on payment of entrance fee . Hull number 280101 . Turret number 121 from s.SS.Pz.Abt 501 .
Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor , Fort Knox , United States . Tiger II ( production turret ) . Hull number 280243 , built in September 1944 . Turret number 332 from s.SS Pz.Abt. 501 . Abandoned near Trois @-@ Ponts , it was captured by the US Army on 24 December 1944 . The left side was cut open for educational purposes at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in the late 1940s . This tank left Fort Knox on 14 December 2010 , en route to the proposed US Army armour museum at Fort Benning , United States .
Schweizerisches Militärmuseum Full , Switzerland . This Tiger II ( production turret ) was previously displayed in the Thun Tank Museum , and is now on loan to the Schweizerisches Militärmuseum Full ( September 2006 ) . It will be completely restored to running condition in a long @-@ term project . This tank was given to Switzerland by France after the war . Hull number 280215 from s.H.Pz.Abt 506 .
= = = Tanks of comparable role , performance and era = = =
= Ambrose Dudley , 3rd Earl of Warwick =
Ambrose Dudley , 3rd Earl of Warwick , KG ( c . 1530 – 21 February 1590 ) was an English nobleman and general , and an elder brother of Queen Elizabeth I 's favourite , Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester . Their father was John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland , who led the English government from 1550 – 1553 under Edward VI and unsuccessfully tried to establish Lady Jane Grey on the English throne after the King 's death in July 1553 . For his participation in this venture Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London and condemned to death . Reprieved , his rehabilitation came after he fought for Philip II of Spain ( then England 's co @-@ monarch ) in the Battle of St. Quentin .
On Queen Elizabeth 's accession in November 1558 Dudley was appointed Master of the Ordnance , in which capacity he was to unofficially assist William the Silent in his struggle against Spain by delivering English weaponry . As the senior member of his family , Dudley was created Earl of Warwick in December 1561 . In 1562 – 1563 he commanded the army Elizabeth sent to Le Havre to garrison the town and assist the Huguenots in the First French War of Religion . This campaign ended in failure when the French belligerents agreed on a peace and the English surrendered because of the plague which was decimating their ranks . Dudley , who had acted honorably throughout , returned with a severe leg wound which was to hinder his further career and ultimately led to his death 27 years later . His last military engagement was against the Northern rebels in 1569 . From 1573 he served as a privy councillor .
Despite three marriages , Ambrose Dudley remained childless after the death of an infant daughter in 1552 . This had serious repercussions for the survival of his dynasty , since his only surviving brother Robert equally died without legitimate issue . With him , Ambrose Dudley had a very close relationship , and in business and personal life they did many things together . Like Robert Dudley , Ambrose was a major patron of the Elizabethan Puritan movement and supported non @-@ conforming preachers in their struggle with the Church authorities . Due to his homely way of life — and in contrast to the colourful Earl of Leicester — Ambrose Dudley became known to posterity as the " Good Earl of Warwick " .
= = Youth = =
Ambrose Dudley was the fourth son of Sir John Dudley , later Viscount Lisle , Earl of Warwick and Duke of Northumberland , and his wife Jane Guildford . The Dudleys had 13 children in all and were known for their Protestant leanings as well as for their happy family life . Ambrose Dudley and his brothers were trained by , among others , the mathematician John Dee and the rhetorician Thomas Wilson . In August 1549 Dudley went to Norfolk with his father and his younger brother Robert to fight against the rebel peasant army of Robert Kett . Back in London , Dudley was knighted and married Anne Whorwood , daughter of William Whorwood , deceased Attorney @-@ General . In 1552 they had a daughter who died soon . Anne also died in 1552 of the sweating sickness . Dudley soon married for the second time : Elizabeth Lady Tailboys ( or Talboys , 1520 – 1563 ) , who was a baroness in her own right with large possessions in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire .
After the death of King Edward VI on 6 July 1553 , John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland , who had led the young King 's government for the last three and a half years , tried to install his daughter @-@ in @-@ law Lady Jane Grey on the English throne ; she was the King 's Protestant cousin to whom Edward had willed the Crown , bypassing his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . When Mary Tudor asserted her right to the throne , an expedition against her base in East Anglia became inevitable . Northumberland marched on 14 July , accompanied by his eldest sons , John and Ambrose . Five days later the Privy Council changed sides ; on hearing this on 20 July , Northumberland , who had been staying at Cambridge , gave up and was arrested with his party the next day .
Ambrose Dudley was imprisoned in the Tower of London with his father and his four brothers . All were attainted and condemned to death , but only the Duke and Guildford Dudley , the second youngest brother , were executed . After the natural death of John , the eldest brother , in October 1554 , Ambrose Dudley was the family 's heir ; he remained longest in the Tower , being released late in 1554 after a plea by his wife , Lady Tailboys . On the whole , the brothers ' release was brought about by their mother and their brother @-@ in @-@ law Henry Sidney , who successfully lobbied the Spanish nobles around England 's new co @-@ ruler and king consort , Philip of Spain . Out of prison , in December 1554 or January 1555 , Ambrose and Robert Dudley took part in one of several tournaments held by Philip to celebrate Anglo @-@ Spanish friendship .
Also in January 1555 , Dudley 's mother died , leaving him her lands , which Queen Mary allowed him to inherit despite his attainder . However , the Dudley brothers were only welcome at court as long as King Philip was there ; later in 1555 they were even ordered out of London and the next year , in the wake of a conspiracy by their distant cousin Henry Sutton Dudley , the French ambassador Antoine de Noailles reported that the government was seeking to apprehend " the children of the Duke of Northumberland " , who were said to be on the run . By January 1557 , the brothers were raising personal contingents in order to fight for Philip II , now also King of Spain . Ambrose , Robert , and Henry Dudley joined the Spanish forces in France and took part in the Battle of St. Quentin , where Henry Dudley was killed . For these services the two surviving brothers were restored in blood by Act of Parliament in 1558 . The cost of the campaign almost bankrupted Ambrose Dudley and his wife , however , so that they had to reduce their household significantly .
= = Serving Elizabeth I = =
With the accession of Elizabeth I in November 1558 , Robert Dudley came into great favour and was made Master of the Horse . Ambrose Dudley received the post of Master of the Ordnance , though he pressed his influential brother to delay the appointment somewhat , so that he could not be held accountable for his predecessor 's embezzlement of funds . When their attainder had been lifted in 1558 , the Dudley brothers had renounced any rights to their father 's possessions or titles . Yet on 25 and 26 December 1561 Ambrose Dudley was created Baron Lisle and Earl of Warwick , and the next year received a large portion of the lands confiscated from the Duke of Northumberland . Warwick Castle — which the Queen visited on her 1572 summer progress — became his seat , while the neighbouring Kenilworth Castle became that of Robert Dudley . Like their father , Ambrose and Robert Dudley adopted the bear and ragged staff , the heraldic device of the medieval Earls of Warwick .
In 1562 the First War of Religion started in France , and Elizabeth was under pressure from her Protestant councillors to help the Huguenots . These were in possession of Le Havre , which was besieged by the Catholic Duke of Guise , and offered it to the English in return for military help — later , they promised , they would exchange it for Calais , which England had lost to France only in 1558 . Elizabeth agreed to send 6 @,@ 000 men to garrison Le Havre . Ambrose Dudley was chosen to lead the expedition in place of Robert Dudley , whom Elizabeth would not let go despite his strong desire to do so .
Warwick arrived at Le Havre in late October 1562 . He was sceptical from the start as to the chances to hold Le Havre , writing : " I fear [ you ] are too much abused in the good opinion you have in the strength of this town " . Elizabeth soon made it clear that she did not wish his army to engage in any active support for the Huguenot side , the purpose of the English contribution remaining somewhat obscure . In March 1563 the warring French agreed to a peace , while Elizabeth decided to hold on to Le Havre until Calais was returned to the English , as had been agreed with the Huguenot party . The reconciled French , however , turned jointly against the English garrison . Le Havre 's fortifications would have needed major expansion and repair to withstand a prolonged siege . Still , Dudley tried his best until the town 's walls were crumbling under French bombardment and the Queen permitted him to surrender honourably in July 1563 on account of the plague that was decimating his troops . Ambrose Dudley himself had been shot in the leg when parleying with the French and returned to England seriously ill . He wrote to his brother that he was happy " rather to end my life upon the breach than in any sickness . ... Farewell my dear and loving brother , a thousand times . " Robert Dudley went to welcome him at Portsmouth despite the plague and much to Elizabeth 's annoyance .
Politically the expedition had been a disaster , yet Warwick gained recognition for his leadership since morale had been high and the civilian population had been treated with unusual respect . The Earl 's rewards were the Welsh lordship of Ruthin and the Order of the Garter , which was awarded to him while still in France in April 1563 . His war injury — which never properly healed — made him ineligible for posts like Lord President of the Council of the North or Lord Deputy of Ireland when they were suggested for him in the future . Elizabeth Lady Tailboys had also died while her husband was in France , and on 11 November 1565 Ambrose Dudley married for the third time . His bride was the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Anne Russell , daughter of Francis Russell , 2nd Earl of Bedford . Robert Dudley , meanwhile Earl of Leicester , had arranged the match . It was an extraordinary court event . In between tournaments and banquets , the bride was given away by the Earl of Leicester in the presence of the Queen ; she later became one of Elizabeth 's closest friends .
In November 1569 the Northern Rebellion broke out with the aim to install Mary , Queen of Scots ( who was in English captivity ) on the English throne . The Earl of Warwick was one of the commanders appointed to march against the revolt , which was disintegrating rapidly , though . Due to his bad health Warwick was soon allowed to return to his Midlands estates . In January 1570 Robert , Earl of Leicester saw his reconvalescent brother at Kenilworth and reported to Elizabeth : " all this hard weather [ he ] hath every day travelled on horse , Your Majesty 's service hath made him forget his pain ... assuredly he is marvellous weary , though in my judgment it hath done his body much good " .
As Master of the Ordnance Warwick presided over an increasingly important government department , which centrally managed the storage and commissioning of the state 's artillery , munitions , and small arms . Prince William of Orange valued English cannons , and Warwick — who fervently believed in the international Protestant cause — seems willingly to have supplied him with what he wanted . The Spanish ambassador officially protested against this practice in 1576 , since the weapons would have been used against Spanish rule in the Netherlands . In 1573 Warwick was admitted to the Privy Council . His attendance to business was quite regular until it declined sharply due to his deteriorating health in the 1580s . At the 1587 trial of Mary Stuart he acted as a commissioner and was asked by the Scottish Queen to plead for her with his brother , the absent Earl of Leicester . The day sentence was pronounced on her , Warwick did not attend .
= = Private nobleman = =
Ambrose Dudley became one of the leading patrons of moderate Puritanism , the principal concern of which was the furtherance of preaching . Discouraged by the official Church , this was largely dependent on private initiatives by influential noblemen . In 1567 the two Dudley earls , together with local gentry , founded a consortium which provided for " the preachers of the Gospel in the county of Warwick . " Ambrose Dudley also helped the preacher John Field when he got into trouble over a subversive book he had published in 1565 ; and when he was imprisoned in 1572 , Leicester and Warwick worked his transfer into comfortable confinement in a London alderman 's house before he was released altogether by his patrons ' means . Like his brother , Ambrose Dudley invested in exploration and privateering voyages ; in Martin Frobisher 's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage he was the principal patron , although he contributed only the relatively modest sum of £ 50 .
The two Dudley brothers were on the closest personal terms and Ambrose said of Robert : " there is no man [ that ] knoweth his doings better than I myself " , while Robert 's recurrent phrase about Ambrose was : " him I love as myself " . Elizabeth , who liked Warwick , loved to joke that he was neither as graceful nor as handsome as his brother — and stouter as well . Lacking a grand London residence of his own , Warwick had his suite of rooms in the palatial Leicester House : " the Lord of Warwick 's bedchamber , the Lord of Warwick 's closet , the Lord of Warwick 's dining parlour " . In the administration of their lands the brothers shared their estate managers and lawyers , while their local affinities consisted of the same gentry families . Privately , they were " almost inseparable " , passing time together whenever possible . When Robert Dudley had incurred the Queen 's wrath while serving in the Netherlands as Governor @-@ General in 1586 , Ambrose wrote to him : " if I were you ... I would go to the furthest part of Christendom rather than ever come into England again . ... Let me have your best advice what is best for me to do , for that I mean to take such part as you do . "
After his first marriage Ambrose Dudley remained childless . His second wife , Elizabeth Tailboys , suffered a phantom pregnancy in 1555 . Anne Russell , though nearly 20 years her husband 's junior , turned out to be a congenial partner . Through their paternal grandmother the Dudley brothers descended from the famous 15th century earls , John Talbot , 1st Earl of Shrewsbury , and Richard Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick . The Beauchamp descent especially — which was represented by the earldom of Warwick — filled them with pride . Ambrose 's childlessness deeply concerned the widowed Robert Dudley , who for many years dared not to remarry for fear of the Queen 's displeasure , and eventually died without direct heirs himself in September 1588 . Most of Leicester 's estate — and debts — passed on to Warwick and encumbered his remaining lifetime . He also took care of his deceased brother 's illegitimate teenage son Robert , who was his godson and whom Leicester had willed to inherit after Warwick 's death .
From the 1570s the Earl of Warwick often resided at North Hall , his house in Northaw , Hertfordshire . He travelled little as he was often unable to move about , having " no use of his legs " . At the end of January 1590 he finally had his gangrenous leg amputated ; as a consequence he died at Bedford House in the Strand , London , on 21 February . Two days before , the diplomat Sir Edward Stafford visited him and described his spasms and pain " which lasted him unto his death " . He also saw the Countess sitting " by the fire so full of tears that she could not speak " . The Earl of Warwick was buried in the Beauchamp Chapel of Collegiate Church of St Mary , Warwick , in the vicinity of his ancestor Richard Beauchamp , his brother Robert , and his little nephew Robert Dudley , Lord Denbigh , Leicester 's son who during his short life had been heir to both Dudley earldoms . Ambrose Dudley 's widow commissioned his monument , but on her request was buried with her ancestors in Chenies , Buckinghamshire , when she died in 1604 . Ambrose Dudley entered tradition as the " Good Earl of Warwick " ; this probably came about through his quiet life style , which contrasted with the colourful persona of his brother , the Queen 's favourite .
= = Ancestry = =
= 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was destructive and deadly to southern India , although most storms were weak . The basin covers the Indian Ocean north of the equator as well as inland areas , sub @-@ divided by the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Although the season began early with two systems in January , the bulk of activity was confined from September to December . The official India Meteorological Department tracked 12 depressions in the basin , and the unofficial Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) monitored two additional storms . Three systems intensified into a cyclonic storm , which have sustained winds of at least 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) , at which point the IMD named them .
The first official storm of the season was Cyclonic Storm Hibaru , which formed southeast of Sri Lanka in January . After nearly five months of inactivity , two depressions formed toward the end of June on opposite sides of India . The depression in the Arabian Sea was one of only two in that body of water during the year , the other of which formed in September and killed 13 people . The other was a depression that formed over land and killed 26 people in Madhya Pradesh , followed by another depression in July that killed one person . A series of deadly storms affected southeastern India beginning in September ; a depression killed six people in Madhya Pradesh , Cyclonic Storm Pyarr killed 80 people , an unclassified tropical storm killed 16 people in nearby Bangladesh , and a deep depression in October killed 100 people in Andhra Pradesh . December was active , with cyclonic storms Baaz and Fanoos hitting southern India , resulting in 11 fatalities , and a deep depression remaining over waters in the middle of the month .
= = Season summary = =
During the season , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) tracked cyclonic disturbances in the region , as part of them being the designated Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , covering the waters north of the Indian Ocean north of the equator from 45 ° E to 100 ° E. The activity was separated between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea , although there were no cyclonic storms in the latter region . The tropical systems were tracked using satellite imagery and the Dvorak technique , while forecasts were based on cyclone models . There were a total of 12 depressions during the year , three less than normal , although the highest since 1992 . The IMD named four cyclonic storms , a process they initiated in 2004 , which was also below normal . No systems strengthened beyond cyclonic storm status .
The season was the sixth in a row with below normal activity , based on the seasonal accumulated cyclone energy . Storms generally develop when the monsoon trough is located over tropical waters , with a peak from May to June and another peak in November . The monsoon developed 11 distinct low pressure areas by the end of September , including five monsoon depressions , and the monsoon season was more active than usual .
= = Storms = =
= = = Cyclonic Storm Hibaru = = =
An area of convection formed at a low latitude to the southeast of Sri Lanka on January 10 , located within a broad trough and in an area of low wind shear . Over the next few days , the convection consolidated as an elongated circulation became evident . On January 13 , the IMD designated the system as a depression . The system organized further and developed rainbands . A ridge to the north caused the depression to move erratically and remain generally stationary . The IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression on January 14 , the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 02B . On the next day , the IMD upgraded it further to Cyclonic Storm Hibaru , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , marking an unusual occasion for such a low @-@ latitude storm in January . Drifting southward , the circulation gradually became exposed from the convection , indicative of the weakening . Hibaru degenerated into a remnant low on January 17 .
= = = Land Depression 01 = = =
Early on June 27 , a low pressure area formed over the extreme northwestern portion of the Bay of Bengal . Soon after it moved ashore near Kolkata , and the system organized into a depression over West Bengal with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . For several days the system maintained its intensity while moving northwestward , stalling on July 1 for three days over Madhya Pradesh . It later turned to the northeast and dissipated over Uttar Pradesh on July 6 .
The depression produced widespread rainfall across eastern India . Sagar , Madhya Pradesh recorded 480 mm ( 19 in ) in 24 hours , the highest daily total . The rains helped cut India 's rainfall deficit by enhancing the monsoon . Rains first affected Odisha , where rivers overflowed and inundated adjacent crop fields . As the storm stalled over Madhya Pradesh , it produced widespread flooding that isolated 129 villages , killing 26 people . Over a four @-@ day period , nearly 900 mm ( 35 in ) of rain fell across parts of the Katni district . The floods cut off communications , washed away a bridge , and damaged many roads .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Pyarr = = =
A tropical depression developed in the South China Sea on September 12 and moved westward into central Vietnam on the next day . Continuing through Laos and Thailand , the system emerged into the northern Andaman Sea on September 15 . Tracked continuously as a depression by the Thai Meteorological Department , it was classified as a depression by the IMD on September 17 west of Myanmar . On the next day , the system intensified into a deep depression and later cyclonic storm , whereupon the IMD named it Pyarr . It was the first cyclonic storm in the month in seven years . Attaining peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , the storm took an unusual track to the southwest . On September 19 , Pyarr made landfall just northeast of Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh . It turned westward and weakened over land , deteriorating into a remnant low on September 22 over Madhya Pradesh .
As a depression , the system produced damaging swells along coastal Bangladesh , forcing 12 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Offshore , an estimated 9 @,@ 000 fishermen in roughly 600 vessels were caught in the storm ; 15 – 20 of these ships capsized with 85 people collectively aboard . At least 16 were known to have died . Torrential rainfall affected eastern coastal India , with a daily peak of 490 mm ( 19 in ) in Kunavaram . The rains caused rivers to rise , forcing 36 @,@ 000 people to evacuate after 315 villages were affected . The floods killed 10 @,@ 000 cattle and killed four people in Khammam . Pyarr also wrecked 482 @,@ 188 ha ( 1 @,@ 191 @,@ 510 acres ) of crop fields . In Andhra Pradesh , the storm damaged or destroyed 12 @,@ 041 houses , with overall damage estimated at ₹ 503 million ( 2005 Indian rupees , $ 11 @.@ 4 million United States dollars ) . More than 140 @,@ 000 people were forced to relocate after the Godavari and Krishna rivers burst their banks and caused tremendous flooding . At least 64 people died across Andhra and Odisha Pradeshes .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 04 = = =
A low pressure area formed in the western Bay of Bengal on October 25 . It had a well @-@ defined circulation , helped by low wind shear and good outflow . The IMD classified it as a depression on October 26 , and later that day upgraded it to a deep depression . Moving northwestward , the system moved ashore near Ongole , Andhra Pradesh early on October 28 . The depression rapidly weakened over land , degenerating into a remnant low the next day .
Heavy rainfall affected coastal Andhra Pradesh , with a daily peak of 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Kavali . In Tamil Nadu to the south , Chennai recorded 420 mm ( 17 in ) of rainfall . The storm brought several days of heavy rainfall to southern India , forcing 50 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Low @-@ lying areas of Chennai were inundated , disrupting travel by road , rail , and air , and causing schools to close . A car was washed away , killing three people in the city . Two people in Chennai were electrocuted , and the provincial electric board shut off power in heavily flooded areas . The rains flooded 194 @,@ 423 ha ( 480 @,@ 430 acres ) of crop fields and inundated many rail lines . Across Andhra Pradesh , 1 @,@ 045 houses collapsed , and the rains killed at least 100 people .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Baaz = = =
An area of convection formed on November 26 in the eastern Bay of Bengal within an area of moderate wind shear . As the shear decreased , the convection organized about a developing circulation . On November 27 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 07B , and the next day , the IMD classified it as a depression . That day , the agency quickly upgraded it to Cyclonic Storm Baaz . By that time , the storm was moving steadily westward due to a ridge to the north . On November 29 , the IMD estimated peak 3 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Increasing wind shear weakened Baaz on December 1 , in conjunction with the storm turning to the west @-@ northwest . The storm quickly deteriorated , and the IMD downgraded it to a remnant low on December 2 , the same day that the JTWC issued their final advisory . The remnants continued to the west , eventually crossing the Indian coast north of Pondicherry on December 3 .
The precursor to the storm brought heavy rainfall to southern Thailand , reaching 417 mm ( 16 @.@ 4 in ) in Ko Samui . The rains killed 11 people in the country and caused ฿ 400 million ( Thai baht , $ 10 million USD ) in damage . The remnants also dropped heavy rainfall in southern India , with a daily peak of 310 mm ( 12 in ) in Tambaram . The rains flooded several villages in Tamil Nadu , killing 11 people .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Fanoos = = =
A low pressure area developed on December 4 in the south Andaman Sea . It consisted of a circulation with increasingly organized convection . The system moved west @-@ southwestward through the Bay of Bengal due to a ridge to the north , organizing into a depression two days later . That day , the JTWC also classified it as Tropical Cyclone 06B . Moderate wind shear allowed the system to strengthen further , and the IMD classified it as Cyclonic Storm Fanoos early on December 7 . Later that day , the agency estimated peak 3 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Two days later , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) as the storm bypassed northern Sri Lanka . Wind shear and proximity to land weakened Fanoos into a deep depression on December 10 , and shortly after it made landfall on eastern Tamil Nadu near Vedaranyam . The IMD downgraded the storm to a remnant low pressure area later that day , although the JTWC tracked the storm across southern India into the Arabian Sea ; the agency stopped following Fanoos on December 12 .
The threat of the storm necessitated fishermen to remain at port , while 25 @,@ 000 people evacuated to shelters . The final landfalling storm of the season , Fanoos brought heavy rainfall to Tamil Nadu , with a daily peak of 350 mm ( 14 in ) in Ramanathapuram . The rains heavily damaged crops across Tamil Nadu , although damage was less than expected . It was the fifth storm to affect southern India in six weeks .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 08 = = =
An area of convection formed on December 14 over the Bay of Bengal with a broad circulation . It was in an area of low wind shear , which allowed for slow development , and it became a depression on December 15 . A ridge to the north steered the system to the northwest and later to the west . On December 17 , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 07B , the same day that the IMD upgraded it to a deep depression with peak 3 minute winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . On the next day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Increasing wind shear prevented further development as the storm turned to the north , keeping it east of Sri Lanka . An approaching trough turned the weakening system to the northeast on December 21 , and the next day the IMD downgraded it to a remnant low in the central Bay of Bengal . The outskirts of the system brushed Chennai , with the city receiving 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of rainfall , although there was no reported damage .
= = = Other storms = = =
The JTWC tracked a short @-@ lived depression in early January . The system formed southeast of Sri Lanka on January 7 , days before Hibaru formed . It remained weak as it drifted northward with peak winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . The depression dissipated on January 10 . In the middle of June , an area of convection formed along the monsoon offshore the Saurashtra region of western India . On June 21 , a depression developed with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , it dissipated on June 22 , bringing light rainfall up to 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in Gujarat . In late July , a low pressure area formed in the northwest Bay of Bengal , organizing into a depression on July 29 . The system remained nearly stationary just offshore West Bengal . On July 30 , the depression intensified into a deep depression . Shortly thereafter , the system moved ashore near Balasore , Odisha . It moved west @-@ northwestward over land , dissipating on July 31 . The depression dropped widespread rainfall , peaking at 490 mm ( 19 in ) in Chandabali . The rains swelled rivers and flooded fields , affecting many roadways . One person died after a wall collapsed .
On September 10 , a low pressure area formed in the northwestern Bay of Bengal . Moving to the northwest , it organized into a depression on September 12 , and soon after made landfall near Paradip , Odisha with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . It continued through northeastern India , weakening into a remnant low over Uttar Pradesh on September 17 . The depression brought heavy rainfall to eastern India , with a daily peak of 300 mm ( 12 in ) in Nabarangpur . Across Odisha , the rains inundated 75 @,@ 943 ha ( 187 @,@ 660 acres ) of crop fields , and later killed six people after flooding villages in Madhya Pradesh . Another low pressure area formed south of Gujarat on September 13 , developing into a depression the next day . It moved slowly to the northwest at first before turning to the east , never attaining wind speeds higher than 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Late on September 16 , the depression struck Gujarat just north of Porbandar and rapidly weakened over land . The system brought rainfall and gusty winds that killed 13 people .
An area of convection formed on October 1 southeast of India . It was located in an area of moderate wind shear . The system moved to the northeast , developing more convection over the circulation . On October 2 , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 03B , although the IMD never issued warnings on the system . The JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Early on October 3 , the storm moved ashore just south of Kolkata , and dissipated soon after . Heavy rains swamped portions of northern Bangladesh causing tremendous flooding that destroyed more than 100 @,@ 000 mud @-@ built homes . Government officials estimated that 1 @.@ 5 million people were rendered homeless . Floods also damaged 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops and 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) of roads . At least 16 people were killed while waterborne diseases in the aftermath threatened to kill dozens more .
A low pressure area formed in the western Bay of Bengal on November 19 . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , it concentrated into a depression on the next day . On November 22 , it crossed over Sri Lanka and later degenerated into a remnant low over the Gulf of Mannar , never reaching winds beyond 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . The remnants brought heavy rainfall to Tamil Nadu , with Panruti reporting 540 mm ( 21 in ) of precipitation over 72 hours .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed during the 2005 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . It includes their names , duration , peak strength , areas affected , damage , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2005 USD .
= Murder of Huang Na =
Huang Na ( Chinese : 黄娜 ; pinyin : Huáng Nà , 26 September 1996 – 10 October 2004 ) was an eight @-@ year @-@ old Chinese national living at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre in Singapore , who disappeared on 10 October 2004 . Her mother , the police and the community conducted a three @-@ week @-@ long nationwide search for her . After her body was found , many Singaporeans attended her wake and funeral , giving bai jin ( contributions towards funeral expenses ) and gifts . In a high @-@ profile 14 @-@ day trial , Malaysian @-@ born Took Leng How ( 卓良豪 ; Zhuó Liángháo ) , a vegetable packer at the wholesale centre , was found guilty of murdering her and hanged after an appeal and a request for presidential clemency failed .
= = Background = =
Huang Na 's father , Huang Qinrong , and mother , Huang Shuying ( 黄淑英 ) , were both born in 1973 to farming families in Putian city in Fujian , China . They met in 1995 and married soon after , as Shuying was pregnant with Huang Na . In 1996 , Qinrong left China to seek his fortune in Singapore and worked illegally as a vegetable packer at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre . When Shuying found out that he was having affairs in Singapore , she divorced him and was given custody of Huang Na . She later married Zheng Wenhai ( 郑文海 ) , a Fujian businessman with whom she had lived for four years , and became pregnant with his child in early 2003 .
In May 2003 , Shuying immigrated to Singapore as a peidu mama accompanying Huang Na , who was enrolled in Jin Tai Primary School . They lived at the Pasir Panjang Wholesale Centre , where Shuying worked . People from the wholesale centre and Jin Tai Primary School described Huang Na as an intelligent , independent , sociable and active child . Huang Na became friends with Took Leng How , a vegetable packer at the wholesale centre . Born in Malaysia in 1981 as the second child of a close @-@ knit family of four , Took came to Singapore when he was 18 , seeking better @-@ paying jobs . At the wholesale centre , he often played with Huang Na , bought her food and gave her rides on his motorcycle .
= = Disappearance and reaction = =
Huang Na went missing on 10 October 2004 ; she was last seen at a food court near the wholesale centre , barefoot and wearing a blue denim jacket and bermuda shorts . From 7 a.m. to past midnight every day for three weeks , Shuying looked across the island for her daughter . The police , including a Criminal Investigation Department team , conducted an intensive search for the girl , and police officers carried photographs of her while on their daily rounds . Volunteers formed search parties and Crime Library , a voluntary group dedicated to finding missing persons , distributed over 70 @,@ 000 leaflets appealing for information . Two Singaporeans offered rewards of S $ 10 @,@ 000 and S $ 5 @,@ 000 for finding Huang Na , while the manager of an online design company set up a website to raise awareness and gather tip @-@ offs . The search even extended to Malaysia , with volunteers putting up posters in the nearby cities of Johor Bahru and Kuala Lumpur .
On 19 and 20 October , Singaporean police questioned Took as part of their investigations ; he said that three Chinese men kidnapped the girl . After questioning Took , police accompanied him home and to the police station again for a polygraph test . On the way , they stopped at a restaurant along Pasir Panjang Road for a meal . While eating , Took said he needed to go to the toilet , escaped , took a taxi to Woodlands and sneaked across the Causeway to Malaysia . Singaporean police searched for him until he turned himself in on 30 October , confessing that he had accidentally strangled Huang Na during a game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek in a storeroom . The following day , Huang Na 's body was found at Telok Blangah Hill Park , and Took was charged with her murder . Direct Singapore Funeral Services oversaw her funeral for free . Thousands attended Huang Na 's wake and funeral ; some gave bai jin and gifts , such as sweets , flowers and her favourite Hello Kitty merchandise . However , some Singaporeans tried to make money from the girl 's death by buying 4D numbers associated with her . Others spread rumours that Shuying was having affairs and was greedy for donations .
= = Trial of Took = =
The 14 @-@ day trial of Took began on 11 July 2005 before Justice Lai Kew Chai in the High Court . The prosecution relied on 76 witnesses , a video in which Took re @-@ enacted the murder , forensic evidence and an autopsy that found several bruises on Huang Na 's head . Based on the evidence , the prosecution alleged that Took lured Huang Na to the storeroom , then stripped and sexually assaulted her . After smothering and stomping on her to ensure her death , he stored her body in nine layers of plastic bags stuffed into a sealed cardboard box . The defence relied on the claim of diminished responsibility . Psychiatrist R. Nagulendran argued that Took was schizophrenic , as some of his behaviour , such as frequently smiling to himself and talking of spirits , was inappropriate and he had no motive for the murder – Nagulendran also called Took 's story about the three Chinese men a delusion .
On 27 August 2005 , Justice Lai ruled that Took was guilty of murder and sentenced him to death . In his judgement , Justice Lai noted that Took had no history of mental abnormality , the behaviour the defence cited was " not necessarily abnormal " and the murder was " clearly the product of a cold and calculating mind " . Justice Lai also said it was unnecessary to determine the motive for the murder or whether a sexual assault had taken place . Took appealed the death sentence , but the Court of Appeal of Singapore upheld the decision in January 2006 . His relatives gathered 35 @,@ 000 signatures and submitted a clemency
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bergi , and named a third subgenus / species combination for P. longiceps , as Pteranodon ( Longicepia ) longiceps . Most prominent pterosaur researchers of the late 20th century however , including S. Christopher Bennett and Peter Wellnhofer , did not adopt these subgeneric names , and continued to place all pteranodont species into the single genus Pteranodon .
In 2010 , pterosaur researcher Alexander Kellner revisited H.W. Miller 's classification . Kellner followed Miller 's opinion that the differences between the Pteranodon species were great enough to place them into different genera . He placed P. sternbergi into the genus named by Miller , Geosternbergia , along with the Pierre Shale skull specimen which Bennett had previously considered to be a large male P. longiceps . Kellner argued that this specimen 's crest , though incompletely preserved , was most similar to Geosternbergia . Because the specimen was millions of years younger than any known Geosternbergia , he assigned it to the new species Geosternbergia maysei . Numerous other pteranodont specimens are known from the same formation and time period , and Kellner suggested they may belong to the same species as G. maysei , but because they lack skulls , he could not confidently identify them .
= = = Disused species = = =
A number of additional species of Pteranodon have been named since the 1870s , although most now are considered to be junior synonyms of two or three valid species . The best @-@ supported is the type species , P. longiceps , based on the well @-@ preserved specimen including the first @-@ known skull found by S. W. Williston . This individual had a wingspan of 7 m ( 23 ft ) . Other valid species include the possibly larger P. sternbergi , with a wingspan originally estimated at 9 m ( 30 ft ) . P. occidentalis , P. velox , P. umbrosus , P. harpyia , and P. comptus are considered to be nomina dubia by Bennett ( 1994 ) and others who question their validity . All probably are synonymous with the more well @-@ known species .
Because the key distinguishing characteristic Marsh noted for Pteranodon was its lack of teeth , any toothless pterosaur jaw fragment , wherever it was found in the world , tended to be attributed to Pteranodon during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . This resulted in a plethora of species and a great deal of confusion . The name became a wastebasket taxon , rather like the dinosaur Megalosaurus , to label any pterosaur remains that could not be distinguished other than by the absence of teeth . Species ( often dubious ones now known to be based on sexual variation or juvenile characters ) have been reclassified a number of times , and several subgenera have in the 1970s been erected by Halsey Wilkinson Miller to hold them in various combinations , further confusing the taxonomy ( subgenera include Longicepia , Occidentalia , and Geosternbergia ) . Notable authors who have discussed the various aspects of Pteranodon include Bennett , Padian , Unwin , Kellner , and Wellnhofer . Two species , P. orogensis and P. orientalis , are not pteranodontids and have been renamed Bennettazhia oregonensis and Bogolubovia orientalis respectively .
= = = List of species and synonyms = = =
Status of names listed below follow a survey by Bennett , 1994 unless otherwise noted .
= Black Sabbath =
Black Sabbath are an English rock band , formed in Birmingham in 1968 , by guitarist and main songwriter Tony Iommi , bassist and main lyricist Geezer Butler , singer Ozzy Osbourne , and drummer Bill Ward . The band have since experienced multiple line @-@ up changes , with guitarist Iommi being the only constant presence in the band through the years . Originally formed as a blues rock band , the group soon adopted the Black Sabbath moniker and began incorporating occult themes with horror @-@ inspired lyrics and tuned @-@ down guitars . Despite an association with these two themes , Black Sabbath also composed songs dealing with social instability , political corruption , the dangers of drug abuse and apocalyptic prophecies of the horrors of war .
Osbourne 's regular abuse of alcohol and other drugs led to his dismissal from the band in 1979 . He was replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio . Following two albums with Dio , Black Sabbath endured countless personnel changes in the 1980s and 1990s that included vocalists Ian Gillan , Glenn Hughes , Ray Gillen and Tony Martin , as well as several drummers and bassists . In 1992 , Iommi and Butler rejoined Dio and drummer Vinny Appice to record Dehumanizer . The original line @-@ up reunited with Osbourne in 1997 and released a live album Reunion . Black Sabbath 's 19th studio album , 13 , which features all of the original members but Ward , was released in June 2013 .
Black Sabbath are often cited as pioneers of heavy metal music . The band helped define the genre with releases such as Black Sabbath ( 1970 ) , Paranoid ( 1970 ) and Master of Reality ( 1971 ) . They were ranked by MTV as the " Greatest Metal Band " of all time , and placed second in VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " list . Rolling Stone magazine ranked them number 85 in their " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . They have sold over 70 million records worldwide . Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006 . They have also won two Grammy Awards for Best Metal Performance .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early days ( 1968 – 69 ) = = =
Following the break @-@ up of their previous band Mythology in 1968 , guitarist Tony Iommi and drummer Bill Ward sought to form a heavy blues rock band in Aston , Birmingham . They enlisted bassist Geezer Butler and vocalist Ozzy Osbourne , who had played together in a band called Rare Breed , Osbourne having placed an advertisement in a local music shop : " Ozzy Zig Needs Gig – has own PA " . The new group was initially named the Polka Tulk Blues Band , the name taken either from a brand of talcum powder or an Indian / Pakistani clothing shop ; the exact origin is confused . The Polka Tulk Blues Band featured slide guitarist Jimmy Phillips , a childhood friend of Osbourne 's , and saxophonist Alan " Aker " Clarke . After shortening the name to Polka Tulk , the band again changed their name to Earth ( which Osbourne hated ) and continued as a four @-@ piece without Phillips and Clarke . Iommi became concerned that Phillips and Clarke lacked the necessary dedication and were not taking the band seriously . Rather than asking them to leave , they instead decided to break up and then quietly reformed the band as a four @-@ piece . While the band was performing under the Earth title , they recorded several demos written by Norman Haines such as " The Rebel " , " Song for Jim " , and " When I Came Down " . The demo titled " Song for Jim " was in reference to Jim Simpson . Jim Simpson was a manager for the bands Bakerloo Blues Line and Tea & Symphony . Simpson was also a trumpet player for the group Locomotive . Simpson had recently opened a new pub named Henry 's Blues House and offered to let Earth play some gigs in his club . The audience response was positive and Simpson agreed to manage Earth .
In December 1968 , Iommi abruptly left Earth to join Jethro Tull . Although his stint with the band would be short @-@ lived , Iommi made an appearance with Jethro Tull on The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus TV show . Unsatisfied with the direction of Jethro Tull , Iommi returned to Earth in January 1969 . " It just wasn 't right , so I left " , Iommi said . " At first I thought Tull were great , but I didn 't much go for having a leader in the band , which was Ian Anderson 's way . When I came back from Tull , I came back with a new attitude altogether . They taught me that to get on , you got to work for it . "
While playing shows in England in 1969 , the band discovered they were being mistaken for another English group named Earth . They decided to change their name again . A cinema across the street from the band 's rehearsal room was showing the 1963 horror film Black Sabbath starring Boris Karloff and directed by Mario Bava . While watching people line up to see the film , Butler noted that it was " strange that people spend so much money to see scary movies . " Following that , Osbourne and Butler wrote the lyrics for a song called " Black Sabbath " , which was inspired by the work of horror and adventure @-@ story writer Dennis Wheatley , along with a vision that Butler had of a black silhouetted figure standing at the foot of his bed . Making use of the musical tritone , also known as " the Devil 's Interval " , the song 's ominous sound and dark lyrics pushed the band in a darker direction , a stark contrast to the popular music of the late 1960s , which was dominated by flower power , folk music , and hippie culture . Judas Priest frontman Rob Halford has called the track " probably the most evil song ever written " . Inspired by the new sound , the band changed their name to Black Sabbath in August 1969 , and made the decision to focus on writing similar material , in an attempt to create the musical equivalent of horror films .
= = = Black Sabbath and Paranoid ( 1970 – 71 ) = = =
The band 's first show as Black Sabbath took place on 30 August 1969 , in Workington . They were signed to Philips Records in November 1969 , and released their first single , " Evil Woman " ( a cover of a song by the band Crow ) , recorded at Trident Studios , through Philips subsidiary Fontana Records in January 1970 . Later releases were handled by Philips ' newly formed progressive rock label , Vertigo Records .
Black Sabbath 's first major exposure came when the band appeared on John Peel 's Top Gear radio show in 1969 , performing " Black Sabbath " , " N.I.B. " , " Behind the Wall of Sleep " , and " Sleeping Village " to a national audience in Great Britain shortly before recording of their first album commenced . Although the " Evil Woman " single failed to chart , the band were afforded two days of studio time in November to record their debut album with producer Rodger Bain . Iommi recalls recording live : " We thought ' We have two days to do it and one of the days is mixing . ' So we played live . Ozzy was singing at the same time , we just put him in a separate booth and off we went . We never had a second run of most of the stuff . "
Black Sabbath was released on Friday the 13th , February 1970 , and reached number 8 in the UK Albums Chart . Following its US and Canadian release in May 1970 by Warner Bros. Records , the album reached number 23 on the Billboard 200 , where it remained for over a year . The album was a commercial success but was widely panned by some critics . Lester Bangs dismissed it in a Rolling Stone review as " discordant jams with bass and guitar reeling like velocitised speedfreaks all over each other 's musical perimeters , yet never quite finding synch " . It sold in substantial numbers despite being panned , giving the band their first mainstream exposure . It has since been certified platinum in both US by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and in the UK by British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) .
To capitalise on their chart success in the US , the band returned to the studio in June 1970 , just four months after Black Sabbath was released . The new album was initially set to be named War Pigs after the song " War Pigs " , which was critical of the Vietnam War ; however , Warner changed the title of the album to Paranoid . The album 's lead @-@ off single , " Paranoid " , was written in the studio at the last minute . Ward explains : " We didn 't have enough songs for the album , and Tony just played the [ Paranoid ] guitar lick and that was it . It took twenty , twenty @-@ five minutes from top to bottom . " The single was released in September 1970 and reached number four on the UK charts , remaining Black Sabbath 's only top ten hit . The album followed in the UK in October 1970 , where , pushed by the success of the " Paranoid " single , it made number one in the charts .
The US release was held off until January 1971 , as the Black Sabbath album was still on the charts at the time of Paranoid 's UK release . Black Sabbath subsequently toured America for the first time and played their first US show at a club called Ungano 's at 210 West 70th Street in New York City . The album reached No. 12 in the US in March 1971 , and would go on to sell four million copies in the US , with virtually no radio airplay . Like Black Sabbath , the album was panned by rock critics of the era , but modern @-@ day reviewers such as AllMusic 's Steve Huey cite Paranoid as " one of the greatest and most influential heavy metal albums of all time " , which " defined the sound and style of heavy metal more than any other record in rock history " . The album was ranked at No. 131 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Paranoid 's chart success allowed the band to tour the US for the first time in October 1970 , which spawned the release of the album 's second single " Iron Man " . Although the single failed to reach the top 40 , " Iron Man " remains one of Black Sabbath 's most popular songs , as well as the band 's highest charting US single until 1998 's " Psycho Man " .
= = = Master of Reality and Volume 4 ( 1971 – 73 ) = = =
In February 1971 , after a one off performance at the Myponga Pop Festival in Australia , Black Sabbath returned to the studio to begin work on their third album . Following the chart success of Paranoid , the band were afforded more studio time , along with a " briefcase full of cash " to buy drugs . " We were getting into coke , big time " , Ward explained . " Uppers , downers , Quaaludes , whatever you like . It got to the stage where you come up with ideas and forget them , because you were just so out of it . "
Production completed in April 1971 , in July the band released Master of Reality , just six months after the US release of Paranoid . The album reached the top ten in both the US and UK , and was certified gold in less than two months , eventually receiving platinum certification in the 1980s and Double Platinum in the early 21st century . Master of Reality contained Black Sabbath 's first acoustic songs , alongside fan favourites such as " Children of the Grave " and " Sweet Leaf " . Critical response of the era was generally unfavourable , with Lester Bangs delivering an ambivalent review of Master of Reality in Rolling Stone , describing the closing song " Children of the Grave " as " naïve , simplistic , repetitive , absolute doggerel – but in the tradition [ of rock 'n'roll ] ... The only criterion is excitement , and Black Sabbath 's got it " . In 2003 , Rolling Stone would place the album at number 300 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list .
Following the Master of Reality world tour in 1972 , Black Sabbath took its first break in three years . As Ward explained : " The band started to become very fatigued and very tired . We 'd been on the road non @-@ stop , year in and year out , constantly touring and recording . I think Master of Reality was kind of like the end of an era , the first three albums , and we decided to take our time with the next album . "
In June 1972 , the band reconvened in Los Angeles to begin work on their next album at the Record Plant . The recording process was plagued with problems , many as a result of substance abuse issues . While struggling to record the song " Cornucopia " after " sitting in the middle of the room , just doing drugs " , Ward was nearly fired from the band . " I hated the song , there were some patterns that were just ... horrible " Ward said . " I nailed it in the end , but the reaction I got was the cold shoulder from everybody . It was like ' Well , just go home , you 're not being of any use right now . ' I felt like I 'd blown it , I was about to get fired " . The album was originally titled Snowblind after the song of the same name , which deals with cocaine abuse . The record company changed the title at the last minute to Black Sabbath Vol . 4 , with Ward stating " There was no Volume 1 , 2 or 3 , so it 's a pretty stupid title really " .
Black Sabbath Vol . 4 was released in September 1972 , and while critics were dismissive of the album upon release , it achieved gold status in less than a month , and was the band 's fourth consecutive release to sell a million copies in the US . With more time in the studio , the album saw the band starting to experiment with new textures , such as strings , piano , orchestration and multi @-@ part songs . The song " Tomorrow 's Dream " was released as a single – the band 's first since " Paranoid " – but failed to chart . Following an extensive tour of the US , in 1973 the band travelled again to Australia , followed by a tour for the first time to New Zealand , before moving onto mainland Europe .
= = = Sabbath Bloody Sabbath and Sabotage ( 1973 – 76 ) = = =
Following the Volume 4 world tour , Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles to begin work on their next release . Pleased with the Volume 4 album , the band sought to recreate the recording atmosphere , and returned to the Record Plant studio in Los Angeles . With new musical innovations of the era , the band were surprised to find that the room they had used previously at the Record Plant was replaced by a " giant synthesiser " . The band rented a house in Bel Air and began writing in the summer of 1973 , but in part because of substance issues and fatigue , they were unable to complete any songs . " Ideas weren 't coming out the way they were on Volume 4 and we really got discontent " Iommi said . " Everybody was sitting there waiting for me to come up with something . I just couldn 't think of anything . And if I didn 't come up with anything , nobody would do anything . "
After a month in Los Angeles with no results , the band opted to return to England . They rented Clearwell Castle in The Forest of Dean . " We rehearsed in the dungeons and it was really creepy but it had some atmosphere , it conjured up things , and stuff started coming out again . " While working in the dungeon , Iommi stumbled onto the main riff of " Sabbath Bloody Sabbath " , which set the tone for the new material . Recorded at Morgan Studios in London by Mike Butcher and building off the stylistic changes introduced on Volume 4 , new songs incorporated synthesisers , strings , and complex arrangements . Yes keyboardist Rick Wakeman was brought in as a session player , appearing on " Sabbra Cadabra " .
In November 1973 , Black Sabbath began to receive positive reviews in the mainstream press after the release of Sabbath Bloody Sabbath , with Gordon Fletcher of Rolling Stone calling the album " an extraordinarily gripping affair " , and " nothing less than a complete success . " Later reviewers such as Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia cite the album as a " masterpiece , essential to any heavy metal collection " , while also displaying " a newfound sense of finesse and maturity . " The album marked the band 's fifth consecutive platinum selling album in the US , reaching number four on the UK charts , and number eleven in the US .
The band began a world tour in January 1974 , which culminated at the California Jam festival in Ontario , California on 6 April 1974 . Attracting over 200 @,@ 000 fans , Black Sabbath appeared alongside popular 1970s rock and pop bands Deep Purple , Eagles , Emerson , Lake & Palmer , Rare Earth , Seals & Crofts , Black Oak Arkansas , and Earth , Wind & Fire . Portions of the show were telecast on ABC Television in the US , exposing the band to a wider American audience . In the same year , the band shifted management , signing with notorious English manager Don Arden . The move caused a contractual dispute with Black Sabbath 's former management , and while on stage in the US , Osbourne was handed a subpoena that led to two years of litigation .
Black Sabbath began work on their sixth album in February 1975 , again in England at Morgan Studios in Willesden , this time with a decisive vision to differ the sound from Sabbath , Bloody Sabbath . " We could 've continued and gone on and on , getting more technical , using orchestras and everything else which we didn 't particularly want to . We took a look at ourselves , and we wanted to do a rock album – Sabbath , Bloody Sabbath wasn 't a rock album , really . " Produced by Black Sabbath and Mike Butcher , Sabotage was released in July 1975 . As with its precursor , the album initially saw favourable reviews , with Rolling Stone stating " Sabotage is not only Black Sabbath 's best record since Paranoid , it might be their best ever " , although later reviewers such as AllMusic noted that " the magical chemistry that made such albums as Paranoid and Volume 4 so special was beginning to disintegrate " .
Sabotage reached the top 20 in both the US and the UK , but was the band 's first release not to achieve Platinum status in the US , only achieving Gold certification . Although the album 's only single " Am I Going Insane ( Radio ) " failed to chart , Sabotage features fan favourites such as " Hole in the Sky " , and " Symptom of the Universe " . Black Sabbath toured in support of Sabotage with openers Kiss , but were forced to cut the tour short in November 1975 , following a motorcycle accident in which Osbourne ruptured a muscle in his back . In December 1975 , the band 's record companies released a greatest hits album without input from the band , titled We Sold Our Soul for Rock ' n ' Roll . The album charted throughout 1976 , eventually selling two million copies in the US .
= = = Technical Ecstasy and Never Say Die ! ( 1976 – 79 ) = = =
Black Sabbath began work for their next album at Criteria Studios in Miami , Florida , in June 1976 . To expand their sound , the band added keyboard player Gerry Woodruffe , who also had appeared to a lesser extent on Sabotage . During the recording of Technical Ecstasy , Osbourne admits that he began losing interest in Black Sabbath and began to consider the possibility of working with other musicians . Recording of Technical Ecstasy was difficult ; by the time the album was completed Osbourne was admitted to Stafford County Asylum in Britain . It was released on 25 September 1976 to mixed reviews , and ( for the first time ) later music critics gave the album less favourable retrospective reviews ; two decades after its release AllMusic gave the album two stars , and noted that the band was " unravelling at an alarming rate " . The album featured less of the doomy , ominous sound of previous efforts , and incorporated more synthesisers and uptempo rock songs . Technical Ecstasy failed to reach the top 50 in the US , and was the band 's second consecutive release not to achieve platinum status , although it was later certified gold in 1997 . The album included " Dirty Women " , which remains a live staple , as well as Ward 's first lead vocal on the song " It 's Alright " . Touring in support of Technical Ecstasy began in November 1976 , with openers Boston and Ted Nugent in the US , and completed in Europe with AC / DC in April 1977 .
In late 1977 , while in rehearsal for their next album , and just days before the band was set to enter the studio , Osbourne abruptly quit the band . Iommi called vocalist Dave Walker , a longtime friend of the band , who had previously been a member of Fleetwood Mac and Savoy Brown , and informed him that Osbourne had left the band . Walker , who was at that time fronting a band called Mistress , flew to Birmingham from California in late 1977 to write material and rehearse with Black Sabbath . On 8 January 1978 , Black Sabbath made their only live performance with Walker on vocals , playing an early version of the song " Junior 's Eyes " on the BBC Television program " Look ! Hear ! " . Walker later recalled that while in Birmingham he had bumped into Osbourne in a pub and came to the conclusion that Osbourne wasn 't fully committed to leaving Black Sabbath . " The last Sabbath albums were just very depressing for me " , Osbourne said . " I was doing it for the sake of what we could get out of the record company , just to get fat on beer and put a record out . " Walker has said that he wrote a lot of lyrics during his brief time in the band but none of them were ever used . If any recordings of this version of the band other than the " Look ! Hear ! " footage still exist , Walker says that he is not aware of them .
Osbourne initially set out to form a solo project featuring former Dirty Tricks members John Frazer @-@ Binnie , Terry Horbury , and Andy Bierne . As the new band were in rehearsals in January 1978 , Osbourne had a change of heart and rejoined Black Sabbath . " Three days before we were due to go into the studio , Ozzy wanted to come back to the band " , Iommi explained . " He wouldn 't sing any of the stuff we 'd written with the other guy ( Walker ) , so it made it very difficult . We went into the studio with basically no songs . We 'd write in the morning so we could rehearse and record at night . It was so difficult , like a conveyor belt , because you couldn 't get time to reflect on stuff . ' Is this right ? Is this working properly ? ' It was very difficult for me to come up with the ideas and putting them together that quick . "
The band spent five months at Sounds Interchange Studios in Toronto , Canada , writing and recording what would become Never Say Die ! . " It took quite a long time " , Iommi said . " We were getting really drugged out , doing a lot of dope . We 'd go down to the sessions , and have to pack up because we were too stoned , we 'd have to stop . Nobody could get anything right , we were all over the place , everybody 's playing a different thing . We 'd go back and sleep it off , and try again the next day . " The album was released in September 1978 , reaching number twelve in the UK , and number 69 in the US . Press response was unfavourable and did not improve over time with Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic stating two decades after its release that the album 's " unfocused songs perfectly reflected the band 's tense personnel problems and drug abuse . " The album featured the singles " Never Say Die " and " Hard Road " , both of which cracked the top 40 in the UK . The band also made their second appearance on Top of the Pops , performing " Never Say Die " . It took nearly 20 years for the album to be certified Gold in the US .
Touring in support of Never Say Die ! began in May 1978 with openers Van Halen . Reviewers called Black Sabbath 's performance " tired and uninspired " , a stark contrast to the " youthful " performance of Van Halen , who were touring the world for the first time . The band filmed a performance at the Hammersmith Odeon in June 1978 , which was later released on DVD as Never Say Die . The final show of the tour , and Osbourne 's last appearance with the band ( until later reunions ) was in Albuquerque , New Mexico on 11 December .
Following the tour , Black Sabbath returned to Los Angeles and again rented a house in Bel Air , where they spent nearly a year working on new material for the next album . The entire band were abusing both alcohol and other drugs , but Iommi says Osbourne " was on a totally different level altogether " . The band would come up with new song ideas but Osbourne showed little interest and would refuse to sing them . Pressure from the record label and frustrations with Osbourne 's lack of input coming to a head , Iommi made the decision to fire Osbourne in 1979 . Iommi believed the only options available were to fire Osbourne or break the band up completely . " At that time , Ozzy had come to an end " , Iommi said . " We were all doing a lot of drugs , a lot of coke , a lot of everything , and Ozzy was getting drunk so much at the time . We were supposed to be rehearsing and nothing was happening . It was like ' Rehearse today ? No , we 'll do it tomorrow . ' It really got so bad that we didn 't do anything . It just fizzled out . " Drummer Ward , who was close with Osbourne , was chosen by Tony to break the news to the singer on 27 April 1979 . " I hope I was professional , I might not have been , actually . When I 'm drunk I am horrible , I am horrid " , Ward said . " Alcohol was definitely one of the most damaging things to Black Sabbath . We were destined to destroy each other . The band were toxic , very toxic . "
= = = Heaven and Hell and Mob Rules ( 1979 – 82 ) = = =
Sharon Arden ( later Sharon Osbourne ) , daughter of Black Sabbath manager Don Arden , suggested former Rainbow vocalist Ronnie James Dio to replace Ozzy Osbourne in 1979 . Don Arden was at this point still trying to convince Osbourne to rejoin the band , as he viewed the original line @-@ up as the most profitable . Dio officially joined in June , and the band began writing their next album . With a notably different vocal style from Osbourne 's , Dio 's addition to the band marked a change in Black Sabbath 's sound . " They were totally different altogether " , Iommi explains . " Not only voice @-@ wise , but attitude @-@ wise . Ozzy was a great showman , but when Dio came in , it was a different attitude , a different voice and a different musical approach , as far as vocals . Dio would sing across the riff , whereas Ozzy would follow the riff , like in " Iron Man " . Ronnie came in and gave us another angle on writing . "
Geezer Butler temporarily left the band in September 1979 for personal reasons . According to Dio , the band initially hired Craig Gruber ( with whom Dio had previously played while in Elf ) on bass to assist with writing the new album . Gruber was soon replaced by Geoff Nicholls of Quartz . The new line @-@ up returned to Criteria Studios in November to begin recording work , with Butler returning to the band in January 1980 , and Nicholls moving to keyboards . Produced by Martin Birch , Heaven and Hell was released on 25 April 1980 , to critical acclaim . Over a decade after its release Allmusic said the album was " one of Sabbath 's finest records , the band sounds reborn and re @-@ energised throughout " . Heaven and Hell peaked at number 9 in the UK , and number 28 in the US , the band 's highest charting album since Sabotage . The album eventually sold a million copies in the US , and the band embarked on an extensive world tour , making their first live appearance with Dio in Germany on 17 April 1980 .
Black Sabbath toured the US throughout 1980 with Blue Öyster Cult on the " Black and Blue " tour , with a show at Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale , New York filmed and released theatrically in 1981 as Black and Blue . On 26 July 1980 , the band played to 75 @,@ 000 fans at a sold @-@ out Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum with Journey , Cheap Trick , and Molly Hatchet . The next day , the band appeared at the 1980 Day on the Green at Oakland Coliseum . While on tour , Black Sabbath 's former label in England issued a live album culled from a seven @-@ year @-@ old performance , titled Live at Last without any input from the band . The album reached number five on the British charts , and saw the re @-@ release of " Paranoid " as a single , which reached the top 20 .
On 18 August 1980 , after a show in Minneapolis , Ward quit the band . " It was intolerable for me to get on the stage without Ozzy . And I drank 24 hours a day , my alcoholism accelerated " . Geezer Butler stated that after the show , Ward came in drunk , talking about the things where " He might as well be a Martian " . Ward then got angry , and decided to pack his things , and get on a bus to leave . The group then brought in drummer Vinny Appice to replace Ward .
The band completed the Heaven and Hell world tour in February 1981 , and returned to the studio to begin work on their next album . Black Sabbath 's second studio album produced by Martin Birch and featuring Ronnie James Dio as vocalist Mob Rules was released in October 1981 , to be well received by fans , but less so by the critics . Rolling Stone reviewer J. D. Considine gave the album one star , claiming " Mob Rules finds the band as dull @-@ witted and flatulent as ever " . Like most of the band 's earlier work , time helped to improve the opinions of the music press , a decade after its release , Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia called Mob Rules " a magnificent record " . The album was certified gold , and reached the top 20 on the UK charts . The album 's title track " The Mob Rules " , which was recorded at John Lennon 's old house in England , also featured in the 1981 animated film Heavy Metal , although the film version is an alternate take , and differs from the album version .
Unhappy with the quality of 1980 's Live at Last , the band recorded another live album — titled Live Evil — during the Mob Rules world tour , across the United States in Dallas , San Antonio , and Seattle , in 1982 . During the mixing process for the album , Iommi and Butler had a falling out with Dio . Misinformed by their then @-@ current mixing engineer , Iommi and Butler accused Dio of sneaking into the studio at night to raise the volume of his vocals . In addition , Dio was not satisfied with the pictures of him in the artwork . Butler also accused Dio and Appice of working on a solo album during the album 's mixing without telling the other members of Black Sabbath . " Ronnie wanted more say in things , " Iommi said . " And Geezer would get upset with him and that is where the rot set in . Live Evil is when it all fell apart . Ronnie wanted to do more of his own thing , and the engineer we were using at the time in the studio didn 't know what to do , because Ronnie was telling him one thing and we were telling him another . At the end of the day , we just said , ' That 's it , the band is over ' " . " When it comes time for the vocal , nobody tells me what to do . Nobody ! Because they 're not as good as me , so I do what I want to do , " Dio later said . " I refuse to listen to Live Evil , because there are too many problems . If you look at the credits , the vocals and drums are listed off to the side . Open up the album and see how many pictures there are of Tony , and how many there are of me and Vinny " .
Ronnie James Dio left Black Sabbath in November 1982 to start his own band , and took drummer Vinny Appice with him . Live Evil was released in January 1983 , but was overshadowed by Ozzy Osbourne 's platinum selling album Speak of the Devil .
= = = Born Again ( 1983 – 84 ) = = =
The remaining two original members , Tony Iommi and Geezer Butler , began auditioning new singers for the band 's next release . Samson 's Nicky Moore , and Lone Star 's John Sloman were considered . The band settled on former Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan to replace Ronnie James Dio in December 1982 . While the project was not initially set to be called Black Sabbath , pressures from the record label forced the group to retain the name . The band entered The Manor Studios in Shipton @-@ on @-@ Cherwell , Oxfordshire , in June 1983 with a returned and newly sober Bill Ward on drums . Born Again was panned upon release by critics . Despite the negative reception of the album , it reached number four on the UK charts , and number 39 in the US . Even a decade after its release Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia called the album " dreadful " , noting that " Gillan 's bluesy style and humorous lyrics were completely incompatible with the lords of doom and gloom " .
Although he performed on the album , drummer Ward was unable to tour because of the pressures of the road , and quit the band after the commencement of the Born Again album . " I fell apart with the idea of touring " , Ward later said . " I got so much fear behind touring , I didn 't talk about the fear , I drank behind the fear instead and that was a big mistake . " Ward was replaced by former Electric Light Orchestra drummer Bev Bevan for the Born Again ' 83 - ' 84 world tour , ( often unofficially referred to as the ' Feigh Death Sabbath ' 83 – ' 84 ' World Tour ) which began in Europe with Diamond Head , and later in the US with Quiet Riot and Night Ranger . The band headlined the 1983 Reading Festival in England , adding the Deep Purple song " Smoke on the Water " to their set list .
The tour in support of Born Again included a giant set of the Stonehenge monument . In a move that would be later parodied in the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap , the band made a mistake in ordering the set piece . As Geezer Butler later explained :
We had Sharon Osbourne 's dad , Don Arden , managing us . He came up with the idea of having the stage set be Stonehenge . He wrote the dimensions down and gave it to our tour manager . He wrote it down in metres but he meant to write it down in feet . The people who made it saw fifteen metres instead of fifteen feet . It was 45 feet high and it wouldn 't fit on any stage anywhere so we just had to leave it in the storage area . It cost a fortune to make but there was not a building on earth that you could fit it into .
= = = Hiatus and Seventh Star ( 1984 – 86 ) = = =
Following the completion of the Born Again tour in March 1984 , vocalist Ian Gillan left Black Sabbath to re @-@ join Deep Purple , which was reforming after a long hiatus . Bevan left at the same time , and Gillan remarked that he and Bevan were made to feel like " hired help " by Iommi . The band then recruited an unknown Los Angeles vocalist named David Donato . The new line @-@ up wrote and rehearsed throughout 1984 , and eventually recorded a demo with producer Bob Ezrin in October . Unhappy with the results , the band parted ways with Donato shortly after . Disillusioned with the band 's revolving line @-@ up , bassist Geezer Butler quit Black Sabbath in November 1984 to form a solo band . " When Ian Gillan took over that was the end of it for me " , Butler later said . " I thought it was just a joke and I just totally left . When we got together with Gillan it was not supposed to be a Black Sabbath album . After we had done the album we gave it to Warner Bros. and they said they were going to put it out as a Black Sabbath album and we didn 't have a leg to stand on . I got really disillusioned with it and Gillan was really pissed off about it . That lasted one album and one tour and then that was it . "
Following Butler 's exit , sole remaining original member Tony Iommi put Black Sabbath on hiatus , and began work on a solo album with long @-@ time Sabbath keyboardist Geoff Nicholls . While working on new material , the original Black Sabbath line @-@ up were offered a spot at Bob Geldof 's Live Aid benefit concert ; the band agreed , performing at the Philadelphia show , on 13 July 1985 . The event marked the first time the original line @-@ up appeared on stage since 1978 , and also featured reunions of the Who and Led Zeppelin . Returning to his solo work , Iommi enlisted bassist Dave Spitz , drummer Eric Singer and initially intended to use multiple singers , including Rob Halford of Judas Priest , former Deep Purple and Trapeze vocalist Glenn Hughes , and former Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio . This plan didn 't work as he forecasted . " We were going to use different vocalists on the album , guest vocalists , but it was so difficult getting it together and getting releases from their record companies . Glenn Hughes came along to sing on one track and we decided to use him on the whole album . "
The band spent the remainder of the year in the studio , recording what would become Seventh Star . Warner Bros. refused to release the album as a Tony Iommi solo release , instead insisting on using the name Black Sabbath . Pressured by the band 's manager , Don Arden , the two compromised and released the album as " Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi " in January 1986 . " It opened up a whole can of worms really " , Iommi explained , " because I think if we could have done it as a solo album , it would have been accepted a lot more . " Seventh Star , which sounded little like a Black Sabbath album , incorporated more hard rock elements popularised by the 1980s Sunset Strip hard rock scene , and was panned by the critics of the era , although later reviewers such as Allmusic gave the album favourable reviews , calling the album " often misunderstood and underrated " .
The new line @-@ up rehearsed for six weeks preparing for a full world tour , although the band were eventually forced to use the Black Sabbath name . " I was into the ' Tony Iommi project ' , but I wasn 't into the Black Sabbath moniker " , Hughes said . " The idea of being in Black Sabbath didn 't appeal to me whatsoever . Glenn Hughes singing in Black Sabbath is like James Brown singing in Metallica . It wasn 't gonna work " . Just four days before the start of the tour , vocalist Glenn Hughes got into a bar fight with the band 's production manager John Downing which splintered the singer 's orbital bone . The injury interfered with Hughes ' ability to sing , and the band brought in vocalist Ray Gillen to continue the tour with W.A.S.P. and Anthrax , although nearly half of the US dates would eventually be cancelled because of poor ticket sales .
One vocalist whose status is disputed , both inside and outside Black Sabbath , is Christian evangelist and former Joshua frontman , Jeff Fenholt . Fenholt has insisted that he was a singer in Black Sabbath between January and May 1985 . Tony Iommi has never confirmed this . Fenholt gives a detailed account of his time with Iommi and Sabbath in Garry Sharpe @-@ Young 's book Sabbath Bloody Sabbath : The Battle for Black Sabbath .
= = = The Eternal Idol , Headless Cross and Tyr ( 1986 – 90 ) = = =
Black Sabbath began work on new material in October 1986 at Air Studios in Montserrat with producer Jeff Glixman . The recording was fraught with problems from the beginning , as Glixman left after the initial sessions to be replaced by producer Vic Coppersmith @-@ Heaven . Bassist Dave Spitz quit over " personal issues " , and former Rainbow and Ozzy Osbourne bassist Bob Daisley was brought in . Daisley re @-@ recorded all of the bass tracks , and wrote the album 's lyrics , but before the album was complete , he left to join Gary Moore 's backing band , taking drummer Eric Singer with him . After problems with second producer Coppersmith @-@ Heaven , the band returned to Morgan Studios in England in January 1987 to work with new producer Chris Tsangarides . While working in the UK , new vocalist Ray Gillen abruptly left Black Sabbath to form Blue Murder with John Sykes . The band enlisted former Alliance vocalist Tony Martin to re @-@ record Gillen 's tracks , and former Electric Light Orchestra drummer Bev Bevan to complete a few percussion overdubs . Before the release of the new album Black Sabbath accepted an offer to play six shows at Sun City , South Africa during the apartheid era . The band drew criticism from activists and artists involved with Artists United Against Apartheid , who had been boycotting South Africa since 1985 . Drummer Bev Bevan refused to play the shows , and was replaced by Terry Chimes , formerly of the Clash .
After nearly a year in production , The Eternal Idol was released on 8 December 1987 and ignored by contemporary reviewers . On @-@ line internet era reviews were mixed . AllMusic said that " Martin 's powerful voice added new fire " to the band , and the album contained " some of Iommi 's heaviest riffs in years . " Blender gave the album two stars , claiming the album was " Black Sabbath in name only " . The album would stall at No. 66 in the UK , while peaking at 168 in the US . The band toured in support of Eternal Idol in Germany , Italy and for the first time , Greece . Unfortunately , in part because of a backlash from promoters over the South Africa incident , other European shows were cancelled . Bassist Dave Spitz left the band shortly before the tour , and was replaced by Jo Burt , formerly of Virginia Wolf .
Following the poor commercial performance of The Eternal Idol , Black Sabbath were dropped by both Vertigo Records and Warner Bros. Records , and signed with I.R.S. Records . The band took time off in 1988 , returning in August to begin work on their next album . As a result of the recording troubles with Eternal Idol , Tony Iommi opted to produce the band 's next album himself . " It was a completely new start " , Iommi said . " I had to rethink the whole thing , and decided that we needed to build up some credibility again " . Iommi enlisted former Rainbow drummer Cozy Powell , long @-@ time keyboardist Nicholls and session bassist Laurence Cottle , and rented a " very cheap studio in England " .
Black Sabbath released Headless Cross in April 1989 , and it was also ignored by contemporary reviewers , although Allmusic contributor Eduardo Rivadavia gave the album four stars and called it " the finest non @-@ Ozzy or Dio Black Sabbath album " . Anchored by the number 62 charting single " Headless Cross " , the album reached number 31 on the UK charts , and number 115 in the US . Queen guitarist Brian May , a good friend of Iommi 's , played a guest solo on the song " When Death Calls " . Following the album 's release the band added touring bassist Neil Murray , formerly of Whitesnake , Gary Moore 's backing band , and Vow Wow .
The unsuccessful Headless Cross US tour began in May 1989 with openers Kingdom Come and Silent Rage , but because of poor ticket sales , the tour was cancelled after just eight shows . The European leg of the tour began in September , where the band were enjoying chart success . After a string of Japanese shows the band embarked on a 23 date Russian tour with Girlschool . Black Sabbath was one of the first bands to tour Russia , after Mikhail Gorbachev opened the country to western acts for the first time in 1989 .
The band returned to the studio in February 1990 to record Tyr , the follow @-@ up to Headless Cross . While not technically a concept album , some of the album 's lyrical themes are loosely based on Norse mythology . Tyr was released on 6 August 1990 , reaching number 24 on the UK albums chart , but was the first Black Sabbath release not to break the Billboard 200 in the US . The album would receive mixed internet @-@ era reviews , with Allmusic noting that the band " mix myth with metal in a crushing display of musical synthesis " , while Blender gave the album just one star , claiming that " Iommi continues to besmirch the Sabbath name with this unremarkable collection " . The band toured in support of Tyr with Circus of Power in Europe , but the final seven UK dates were cancelled because of poor ticket sales . For the first time in their career , the band 's touring cycle did not include US dates .
= = = Dehumanizer ( 1990 – 92 ) = = =
While on his own Lock Up the Wolves US tour in August 1990 , former Black Sabbath vocalist Ronnie James Dio was joined on stage at the Roy Wilkins Auditorium by former Black Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler to perform " Neon Knights " . Following the show , the two expressed interest in rejoining Black Sabbath . Butler convinced Iommi , who in turn broke up the current line @-@ up , dismissing vocalist Tony Martin and bassist Neil Murray . " I do regret that in a lot of ways " , Iommi said . " We were at a good point then . We decided to [ reunite with Dio ] and I don 't even know why , really . There 's the financial aspect , but that wasn 't it . I seemed to think maybe we could recapture something we had " .
Ronnie James Dio and Geezer Butler joined Tony Iommi and Cozy Powell in autumn of 1990 to begin working on the next Black Sabbath release . While rehearsing in November , Powell suffered a broken hip when his horse died , falling on the drummer 's legs . Unable to complete work on the album , Powell was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice , reuniting the Mob Rules era line @-@ up , and the band entered the studio with producer Reinhold Mack . The year @-@ long recording process was plagued with problems , primarily stemming from writing tension between Iommi and Dio . Some songs were re @-@ written multiple times . " Dehumanizer took a long time , it was just hard work " , Iommi said . " We took too long on it , that album cost us a million dollars , which is bloody ridiculous " . Dio later recalled the album as difficult , but worth the effort . " It was something we had to really wring out of ourselves , but I think that 's why it works " , he said . " Sometimes you need that kind of tension , or else you end up making the Christmas album " .
The resulting album , Dehumanizer was released on 22 June 1992 . In the US , the album was released on 30 June 1992 by Reprise Records , as Ronnie James Dio and his namesake band were still under contract with the label at the time . While the album received mixed reviews , it was the band 's biggest commercial success in a decade . Anchored by the top 40 rock radio single " TV Crimes " , the album peaked at number 44 on the Billboard 200 . The album also featured the song " Time Machine " , a
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version of which had been recorded for the 1992 film Wayne 's World . Additionally , the perception by many fans of a return of some semblance of the " real " Black Sabbath provided the band with some much needed momentum .
Black Sabbath began touring in support of Dehumanizer in July 1992 with Testament , Danzig , Prong , and Exodus . While on tour , former vocalist Ozzy Osbourne announced his first retirement , and invited Black Sabbath to open for his solo band at the final two shows of his No More Tours tour in Costa Mesa , California . The band agreed , aside from vocalist Ronnie James Dio , who told Iommi in no uncertain terms " I 'm not doing that . I 'm not supporting a clown . " Dio spoke of the situation in an interview years later :
I was told in the middle of the tour that we would be opening for Ozzy in Los Angeles . And I said , " No . Sorry , I have more pride than that . " A lot of bad things were being said from camp to camp , and it created this horrible schism . So by [ the band ] agreeing to play the shows in L.A. with Ozzy , that , to me , spelled out reunion . And that obviously meant the doom of that particular project .
Dio quit Black Sabbath following a show in Oakland , California on 13 November 1992 , one night before the band were set to appear at Osbourne 's retirement show . Judas Priest vocalist Rob Halford stepped in at the last minute , performing two nights with the band . Iommi and Butler also joined Osbourne and former drummer Ward on stage for the first time since 1985 's Live Aid concert , performing a brief set of Black Sabbath songs .
= = = Cross Purposes and Forbidden ( 1993 – 96 ) = = =
Drummer Vinny Appice left the band following the reunion show to join Ronnie James Dio 's solo band , later appearing on Dio 's Strange Highways and Angry Machines . Iommi and Butler enlisted former Rainbow drummer Bobby Rondinelli , and reinstated former vocalist Tony Martin . The band returned to the studio to work on new material , although the project was not originally intended to be released under the Black Sabbath name . As Geezer Butler explains :
It wasn 't even supposed to be a Sabbath album ; I wouldn 't have even done it under the pretence of Sabbath . That was the time when the original band were talking about getting back together for a reunion tour . Tony and myself just went in with a couple of people , did an album just to have , while the reunion tour was ( supposedly ) going on . It was like an Iommi / Butler project album .
Under pressure from their record label , the band released their seventeenth studio album , Cross Purposes , on 8 February 1994 , under the Black Sabbath name . The album received mixed reviews , with Blender giving the album two stars , calling Soundgarden 's 1994 album Superunknown " a far better Sabbath album than this by @-@ the @-@ numbers potboiler " . Allmusic 's Bradley Torreano called Cross Purposes " the first album since Born Again that actually sounds like a real Sabbath record " . The album just missed the Top 40 in the UK reaching number 41 , and also reached 122 on the Billboard 200 in the US . Cross Purposes contained the song " Evil Eye " , which was co @-@ written by Van Halen guitarist Eddie Van Halen , although uncredited because of record label restrictions . Touring in support of Cross Purposes began in February with Morbid Angel and Motörhead in the US . The band filmed a live performance at the Hammersmith Apollo on 13 April 1994 , which was released on VHS accompanied by a CD , titled Cross Purposes Live . After the European tour with Cathedral and Godspeed in June 1994 , drummer Bobby Rondinelli quit the band and was replaced by original Black Sabbath drummer Ward for five shows in South America .
Following the touring cycle for Cross Purposes , bassist Geezer Butler quit the band for the second time . " I finally got totally disillusioned with the last Sabbath album , and I much preferred the stuff I was writing to the stuff Sabbath were doing " . Butler formed a solo project called GZR , and released Plastic Planet in 1995 . The album contained the song " Giving Up the Ghost " , which was critical of Tony Iommi for carrying on with the Black Sabbath name , with the lyrics : You plagiarised and parodied / the magic of our meaning / a legend in your own mind / left all your friends behind / you can 't admit that you 're wrong / the spirit is dead and gone ( " I heard it 's something about me ... " said Iommi . " I had the album given to me a while back . I played it once , then somebody else had it , so I haven 't really paid any attention to the lyrics ... It 's nice to see him doing his own thing – getting things off his chest . I don 't want to get into a rift with Geezer . He 's still a friend . "
Following Butler 's departure , newly returned drummer Ward once again left the band . Iommi reinstated former members Neil Murray on bass and Cozy Powell on drums , effectively reuniting the Tyr line @-@ up . The band enlisted Body Count guitarist Ernie C to produce the new album , which was recorded in London in autumn of 1994 . The album featured a guest vocal on " Illusion of Power " by Body Count vocalist Ice @-@ T. The resulting Forbidden was released on 8 June 1995 , but failed to chart in the US or the UK . The album was widely panned by critics ; Allmusic 's Bradley Torreano said " with boring songs , awful production , and uninspired performances , this is easily avoidable for all but the most enthusiastic fan " ; while Blender magazine called Forbidden " an embarrassment ... the band 's worst album " .
Black Sabbath embarked on a world tour in July 1995 with openers Motörhead and Tiamat , but two months into the tour , drummer Cozy Powell left the band , citing health issues , and was replaced by former drummer Bobby Rondinelli . " The members I had in the last lineup – Bobby Rondinelli , Neil Murray – they 're great , great characters ... " Iommi told Sabbath fanzine Southern Cross . " That , for me , was an ideal lineup . I wasn 't sure vocally what we should do , but Neil Murray and Bobby Rondinelli I really got on well with . "
After completing Asian dates in December 1995 , Tony Iommi put the band on hiatus , and began work on a solo album with former Black Sabbath vocalist Glenn Hughes , and former Judas Priest drummer Dave Holland . The album was not officially released following its completion , although a widely traded bootleg called Eighth Star surfaced soon after . The album was officially released in 2004 as The 1996 DEP Sessions , with Holland 's drums re @-@ recorded by session drummer Jimmy Copley .
In 1997 , Tony Iommi disbanded the current line @-@ up to officially reunite with Ozzy Osbourne and the original Black Sabbath line @-@ up . Vocalist Tony Martin claimed that an original line @-@ up reunion had been in the works since the band 's brief reunion at Ozzy Osbourne 's 1992 Costa Mesa show , and that the band released subsequent albums to fulfill their record contract with I.R.S. Records . Martin later recalled Forbidden as a " filler album that got the band out of the label deal , rid of the singer , and into the reunion . However I wasn 't privy to that information at the time " . I.R.S. Records released a compilation album in 1996 to fulfill the band 's contract , titled The Sabbath Stones , which featured songs from Born Again to Forbidden .
= = = Reunion ( 1997 – 2006 ) = = =
In the summer of 1997 , Tony Iommi , Geezer Butler , and Ozzy Osbourne officially reunited to co @-@ headline the Ozzfest festival tour alongside Osbourne 's solo band . The line @-@ up featured Osbourne 's drummer Mike Bordin filling in for Ward , who was unable to participate because of previous commitments with his solo project , the Bill Ward Band . In December 1997 , the group was joined by Ward , marking the first reunion of the original four members since Osbourne 's 1992 " retirement show " . The original line @-@ up recorded two shows at the Birmingham NEC , which were released as the double live album Reunion on 20 October 1998 . Reunion reached number eleven on the Billboard 200 , and went platinum in the US . The album spawned the single " Iron Man " , which won Black Sabbath their first Grammy Award in 2000 for Best Metal Performance , 30 years after the song was originally released . Reunion also featured two new studio tracks , " Psycho Man " and " Selling My Soul " , both of which cracked the top 20 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
Shortly before the band embarked on a European tour in the summer of 1998 , Ward suffered a heart attack and was temporarily replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice . Ward returned in time for the US tour with openers Pantera , which began in January 1999 and continued through the summer , headlining the annual Ozzfest tour . Following the Ozzfest appearances , the band was put on hiatus while members worked on solo material . Tony Iommi released his first official solo album , Iommi , in 2000 , while Osbourne continued work on his next solo release , Down to Earth .
Black Sabbath returned to the studio to work on new material with all four original members and producer Rick Rubin in the spring of 2001 , but the sessions were halted when Osbourne was called away to finish tracks for his solo album in the summer of 2001 . " It just came to an end " , Iommi said . " We didn 't go any further , and it 's a shame because [ the songs ] were really good " . Iommi commented on the difficulty getting all of the band members together to work on material :
It 's quite different recording now . We 've all done so much in between . In [ the early ] days there was no mobile phone ringing every five seconds . When we first started , we had nothing . We all worked for the same thing . Now everybody has done so many other things . It 's great fun and we all have a good chat , but it 's just different , trying to put an album together .
In March 2002 , Ozzy Osbourne 's Emmy winning reality TV show The Osbournes debuted on MTV , and quickly became a worldwide hit . The show introduced Osbourne to a broader audience and to capitalise , the band 's back catalogue label , Sanctuary Records released a double live album Past Lives , which featured concert material recorded in the 1970s , including the previously unofficial Live at Last album . The band remained on hiatus until the summer of 2004 when they returned to headline Ozzfest 2004 and 2005 . In November 2005 , Black Sabbath were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame , and in March 2006 , after eleven years of eligibility , the band were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . At the awards ceremony Metallica played two Black Sabbath songs , " Hole in the Sky " and " Iron Man " in tribute to the band .
= = = The Dio Years and Heaven and Hell ( 2006 – 10 ) = = =
While Ozzy Osbourne was working on new solo album material in 2006 , Rhino Records released Black Sabbath : The Dio Years , a compilation of songs culled from the four Black Sabbath releases featuring Ronnie James Dio . For the release , Iommi , Butler , Dio and Appice reunited to write and record three new songs as Black Sabbath . The Dio Years was released on 3 April 2007 , reaching number 54 on the Billboard 200 , while the single " The Devil Cried " reached number 37 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . Pleased with the results , Iommi and Dio decided to reunite the Heaven and Hell era line @-@ up for a world tour . While the line @-@ up of Osbourne , Butler , Iommi and Ward were still officially called Black Sabbath , the new line @-@ up opted to call themselves Heaven & Hell , after the album of the same name , to avoid confusion . When asked about the name of the group , Iommi stated " it really is Black Sabbath , whatever we do ... so everyone knows what they 're getting [ and ] so people won 't expect to hear ' Iron Man ' and all those songs . We 've done them for so many years , it 's nice to do just all the stuff we did with Ronnie again . " Ward was initially set to participate , but dropped out before the tour began due to musical differences with " a couple of the band members " . He was replaced by former drummer Vinny Appice , effectively reuniting the line @-@ up that had featured on the Mob Rules and Dehumanizer albums .
Heaven & Hell toured the US with openers Megadeth and Machine Head , and recorded a live album and DVD in New York on 30 March 2007 , titled Live from Radio City Music Hall . In November 2007 , Dio confirmed that the band had plans to record a new studio album , which was recorded in the following year . In April 2008 the band announced the upcoming release of a new box set and their participation in the Metal Masters Tour , alongside Judas Priest , Motörhead and Testament . The box set , The Rules of Hell , featuring remastered versions of all the Dio fronted Black Sabbath albums , was supported by the Metal Masters Tour . In 2009 , the band announced the name of their debut studio album , The Devil You Know , released on 28 April .
On 26 May 2009 Osbourne filed suit in a federal court in New York against Iommi alleging that he illegally claimed the band name . Iommi noted that he has been the only constant band member for its full 41 @-@ year career , and that his bandmates relinquished their rights to the name in the 1980s , therefore claiming more rights to the name of the band . Although , in the suit , Osbourne was seeking 50 % ownership of the trademark , he said that he hoped the proceedings would lead to equal ownership among the four original members .
In March 2010 , Black Sabbath announced that along with Metallica they would be releasing a limited edition single together to celebrate Record Store Day . It was released on 17 April 2010 .
Ronnie James Dio died on 16 May 2010 from stomach cancer . In June 2010 , the legal battle between Ozzy Osbourne and Tony Iommi over the trademarking of the Black Sabbath name ended , but the terms of the settlement have not been disclosed .
= = = Reunion and 13 ( 2010 – 14 ) = = =
In a January 2010 interview while promoting his biography I Am Ozzy , Osbourne stated that although he would not rule it out , he was doubtful there would be a reunion with all four original members of the band . Osbourne stated : " I 'm not gonna say I 've written it out forever , but right now I don 't think there 's any chance . But who knows what the future holds for me ? If it 's my destiny , fine . " In July , Butler said that there would be no reunion in 2011 , as Osbourne was already committed to touring with his solo band . However , by that August they had already met up to rehearse together , and continued to do so through the autumn .
On 11 November 2011 , Iommi , Butler , Osbourne , and Ward announced that they were reuniting to record a new album with a full tour in support beginning in 2012 . Guitarist Iommi was diagnosed with lymphoma on 9 January 2012 , which forced the band to cancel all but two shows ( Download Festival , and Lollapalooza Festival ) of a previously booked European tour . It was later announced that an intimate show would be played in their hometown Birmingham . It was the first concert since the reunion and the only indoors concerts that year . In February 2012 , drummer Ward announced that he would not participate further in the band 's reunion until he was offered a " signable contract " .
On 21 May 2012 , at the O2 Academy in Birmingham , Black Sabbath played their first concert since 2005 , with Tommy Clufetos playing the drums . In June , they performed at Download Festival , followed by the last concert of the short tour at Lollapalooza Festival in Chicago . Later that month , the band started recording an album .
On 13 January 2013 , the band announced that the album would be released in June under the title 13 . Brad Wilk of Rage Against the Machine was chosen as the drummer , and Rick Rubin was chosen as the producer . Mixing of the album commenced in February . On 12 April 2013 , the band released the album 's track listing . The standard version of the album features eight new tracks , and the deluxe version features three bonus tracks .
The band 's first single from 13 , " God Is Dead ? " , was released on 19 April 2013 . On 20 April 2013 , Black Sabbath commenced their first Australia / New Zealand tour in 40 years , to be followed by a major North American Tour in Summer 2013 . The second single of the album , " End of the Beginning " , debuted on 15 May in a CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode , where all three members appeared . In June 2013 , 13 topped both the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200 . " God Is Dead ? " earned Black Sabbath their first Grammy Award in 14 years for Best Metal Performance in 2014 .
In July 2013 , Black Sabbath embarked on a North American Tour ( for the first time since July 2001 ) , followed by a Latin American tour in October 2013 . In November 2013 , the band started their European tour which lasted until December 2013 . In March and April 2014 , they made 12 stops in North America ( mostly in Canada ) as the second leg of their North American Tour before embarking in June 2014 on the second leg of their European tour , which ended with a concert at London 's Hyde Park .
= = = Final tour ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On 29 September 2014 , vocalist Ozzy Osbourne told Metal Hammer that Black Sabbath would begin work on their twentieth studio album in early 2015 with producer Rick Rubin , followed by a final tour in 2016 . In an April 2015 interview , however , Osbourne said that these plans " could change " , and added , " We all live in different countries and some of them want to work and some of them don 't want to , I believe . But we are going to do another tour together . "
On 3 September 2015 , it was announced that Black Sabbath would embark on their final tour , titled The End , from January 2016 to February 2017 . Numerous dates and locations across the US , Canada , Europe , Australia and New Zealand were announced . The final shows of The End tour will take place at the Genting Arena in Birmingham on February 2 and February 4 , 2017 .
On 26 October 2015 , it was announced the band consisting of Osbourne , Iommi and Butler would be returning to the Download Festival on 11 June 2016 . Despite earlier reports that they would enter the studio before their farewell tour , Osbourne stated that there will not be another Black Sabbath studio album . However , an 8 @-@ track CD entitled The End was sold at dates on the tour . Along with some live recordings , the CD includes four unused tracks from the 13 sessions .
On 4 March 2016 , Iommi discussed future re @-@ releases of the Tony Martin @-@ era catalogue . He explained : " We 've held back on the reissues of those albums because of the current Sabbath thing with Ozzy Osbourne , but they will certainly be happening ... I 'd like to do a couple of new tracks for those releases with Tony Martin ... I 'll also be looking at working on Cross Purposes and Forbidden . " Martin has suggested that this could coincide with the 30th anniversary of The Eternal Idol , in 2017 .
= = Musical style = =
Black Sabbath are a heavy metal band , whose music has also been described as psychedelic rock , blues rock , hard rock , progressive rock , proto @-@ progressive metal , and acid rock . The band have also been cited as a key influence on genres including stoner rock , doom metal , and sludge metal .
Early on Black Sabbath were influenced by Cream , the Beatles , Fleetwood Mac , Jimi Hendrix , John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , Led Zeppelin and Jethro Tull .
Although Black Sabbath have gone through many line @-@ ups and stylistic changes , their core sound focuses on ominous lyrics and doomy music , often making use of the musical tritone , also called the " devil 's interval " . While their Ozzy @-@ era albums such as Sabbath Bloody Sabbath had slight compositional similarities to the progressive rock genre that was growing in popularity at the time , standing in stark contrast to popular music of the early 1970s Black Sabbath 's dark sound was dismissed by rock critics of the era . Much like many of their early heavy metal contemporaries , the band received virtually no airplay on rock radio .
As the band 's primary songwriter , Tony Iommi wrote the majority of Black Sabbath 's music , while Osbourne would write vocal melodies , and bassist Geezer Butler would write lyrics . The process was sometimes frustrating for Iommi , who often felt pressured to come up with new material . " If I didn 't come up with anything , nobody would do anything . " On Iommi 's influence , Osbourne later said :
Black Sabbath never used to write a structured song . There 'd be a long intro that would go into a jazz piece , then go all folky ... and it worked . Tony Iommi — and I have said this a zillion times — should be up there with the greats . He can pick up a guitar , play a riff , and you say , ' He 's gotta be out now , he can 't top that . ' Then you come back , and I bet you a billion dollars , he 'd come up with a riff that 'd knock your fucking socks off .
Beginning with their third album , Master of Reality , Black Sabbath began to feature tuned @-@ down guitars . In 1965 , before forming Black Sabbath , guitarist Tony Iommi suffered an accident while working in a sheet metal factory , losing the tips of two fingers on his right hand . Iommi almost gave up music , but was urged by the factory manager to listen to Django Reinhardt , a jazz guitarist who lost the use of two fingers . Inspired by Reinhardt , Iommi created two thimbles made of plastic and leather to cap off his missing fingertips . The guitarist began using lighter strings , and detuning his guitar , to better grip the strings with his prosthesis . Early in the band 's history Iommi experimented with different dropped tunings , including C ♯ tuning , or 3 semitones down , before settling on E ♭ / D ♯ tuning , or a half @-@ step down from standard tuning .
= = Legacy = =
Black Sabbath has sold over 70 million records worldwide , including a RIAA @-@ certified 15 million in the US . They are one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time . The band helped to create the genre with ground @-@ breaking releases such as Paranoid , an album that Rolling Stone magazine said " changed music forever " , and called the band " the Beatles of heavy metal " . Time Magazine called Paranoid " the birthplace of heavy metal " , placing it in their Top 100 Albums of All Time . Rolling Stone magazine ranked Black Sabbath number 85 in their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . MTV placed Black Sabbath at number one on their Top Ten Heavy Metal Bands and VH1 placed them at number two on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock . VH1 ranked Black Sabbath 's " Iron Man " the number one song on their 40 Greatest Metal Songs countdown . Allmusic 's William Ruhlmann said :
Black Sabbath has been so influential in the development of heavy metal rock music as to be a defining force in the style . The group took the blues @-@ rock sound of late ' 60s acts like Cream , Blue Cheer , and Vanilla Fudge to its logical conclusion , slowing the tempo , accentuating the bass , and emphasising screaming guitar solos and howled vocals full of lyrics expressing mental anguish and macabre fantasies . If their predecessors clearly came out of an electrified blues tradition , Black Sabbath took that tradition in a new direction , and in so doing helped give birth to a musical style that continued to attract millions of fans decades later .
According to Rolling Stone 's Holly George @-@ Warren , " Black Sabbath was the heavy metal king of the 70s . " Although initially " despised by rock critics and ignored by radio programmers " , the group sold more than 8 million albums by the end of that decade .
= = = Influence and innovation = = =
Black Sabbath have influenced many acts including Iron Maiden , Slayer , Metallica , Nirvana , Korn , Mayhem , Venom , Judas Priest , Guns N ' Roses , Soundgarden , Body Count , Alice in Chains , Anthrax , Disturbed , Death , Opeth , Pantera , Megadeth , the Smashing Pumpkins , Slipknot , Foo Fighters , Fear Factory , Candlemass , Godsmack , and Van Halen . Two gold selling tribute albums have been released , Nativity in Black Volume 1 & 2 , including covers by Sepultura , White Zombie , Type O Negative , Faith No More , Machine Head , Primus , System of a Down , and Monster Magnet .
Metallica 's Lars Ulrich , who , along with bandmate James Hetfield inducted Black Sabbath into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2006 , said " Black Sabbath is and always will be synonymous with heavy metal " , while Hetfield said " Sabbath got me started on all that evil @-@ sounding shit , and it 's stuck with me . Tony Iommi is the king of the heavy riff . " former Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash said of the Paranoid album : " There 's just something about that whole record that , when you 're a kid and you 're turned onto it , it 's like a whole different world . It just opens up your mind to another dimension ... Paranoid is the whole Sabbath experience ; very indicative of what Sabbath meant at the time . Tony 's playing style — doesn 't matter whether it 's off Paranoid or if it 's off Heaven and Hell — it 's very distinctive . " Anthrax guitarist Scott Ian said " I always get the question in every interview I do , ' What are your top five metal albums ? ' I make it easy for myself and always say the first five Sabbath albums . "
Lamb of God 's Chris Adler said : " If anybody who plays heavy metal says that they weren 't influenced by Black Sabbath 's music , then I think that they 're lying to you . I think all heavy metal music was , in some way , influenced by what Black Sabbath did . " Judas Priest vocalist Rob Halford commented : " They were and still are a groundbreaking band .. you can put on the first Black Sabbath album and it still sounds as fresh today as it did 30 @-@ odd years ago . And that 's because great music has a timeless ability : To me , Sabbath are in the same league as the Beatles or Mozart . They 're on the leading edge of something extraordinary . " On Black Sabbath 's standing , Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello states : " The heaviest , scariest , coolest riffs and the apocalyptic Ozzy wail are without peer . You can hear the despair and menace of the working @-@ class Birmingham streets they came from in every kick @-@ ass , evil groove . Their arrival ground hippy , flower @-@ power psychedelia to a pulp and set the standard for all heavy bands to come . " Phil Anselmo of Pantera and Down stated that " Only a fool would leave out what Black Sabbath brought to the heavy metal genre " .
According to Tracii Guns of L.A. Guns and former member of Guns N ' Roses , the main riff of " Paradise City " by Guns N ' Roses , from Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) , was influenced by the song " Zero the Hero " from the Born Again album . King Diamond guitarist Andy LaRocque affirmed that the clean guitar part of " Sleepless Nights " from Conspiracy ( 1989 ) is inspired by Tony Iommi 's playing on Never Say Die ! .
In addition to being pioneers of heavy metal , they also have been credited for laying the foundations for heavy metal subgenres stoner rock , sludge metal , thrash metal , black metal and doom metal as well as for alternative rock subgenre grunge . According to the critic Bob Gulla , the band 's sound " shows up in virtually all of grunge 's most popular bands , including Nirvana , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains " .
Tony Iommi has been credited as the pioneer of lighter gauge guitar strings . The tips of his fingers were severed in a steel factory , and while using thimbles ( artificial finger tips ) he found that standard guitar strings were too difficult to bend and play . He found that there was only one size of strings available , so after years with Sabbath he had strings custom made .
Culturally , Black Sabbath have exerted a huge influence in both television and literature and have in many cases become synonymous with heavy metal . In the film Almost Famous , Lester Bangs gives the protagonist an assignment to cover the band ( plot point one ) with the immortal line : ' Give me 500 words on Black Sabbath ' . Contemporary music and arts publication Trebuchet Magazine has put this to practice by asking all new writers to write a short piece ( 500 words ) on Black Sabbath as a means of proving their creativity and voice on a well documented subject .
= = Members = =
Current line @-@ up
Tony Iommi – lead guitar ( 1968 – present )
Geezer Butler – bass guitar ( 1968 – 1979 , 1980 – 1985 , 1987 , 1990 – 1994 , 1997 – present )
Ozzy Osbourne – lead vocals ( 1968 – 1977 , 1978 – 1979 , 1985 , 1997 – present )
Touring members
Adam Wakeman – keyboards , back @-@ up guitar ( 2004 – 2006 , 2012 – present )
Tommy Clufetos – drums ( 2012 – present )
= = Tours = =
Black Sabbath Tour 1970
Paranoid Tour 1970 – 1971
Master of Reality Tour 1971 – 1972
Vol . 4 Tour 1972 – 1973
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath Tour 1973 – 1974
Sabotage Tour 1974 – 1976
Technical Ecstacy Tour 1976 – 1977
Never Say Die ! Tour 1978
Heaven & Hell Tour 1980 – 1981
Mob Rules Tour 1981 – 1982
Born Again Tour 1983
Seventh Star Tour 1986
Eternal Idol Tour 1987
Headless Cross Tour 1989
Tyr Tour 1990
Dehumanizer Tour 1992
Cross Purposes Tour 1994
Forbidden Tour 1995
Ozzfest Tour 1997
European Tour 1998
Reunion Tour 1999
Ozzfest Tour 1999
US Tour 1999
European Tour 1999
Ozzfest Tour 2001
Ozzfest Tour 2004
European Tour 2005
Ozzfest Tour 2005
Black Sabbath Reunion Tour , 2012 – 2014
The End Tour 2016
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Black Sabbath ( 1970 )
Paranoid ( 1970 )
Master of Reality ( 1971 )
Vol . 4 ( 1972 )
Sabbath Bloody Sabbath ( 1973 )
Sabotage ( 1975 )
Technical Ecstasy ( 1976 )
Never Say Die ! ( 1978 )
Heaven and Hell ( 1980 )
Mob Rules ( 1981 )
Born Again ( 1983 )
Seventh Star ( 1986 )
The Eternal Idol ( 1987 )
Headless Cross ( 1989 )
Tyr ( 1990 )
Dehumanizer ( 1992 )
Cross Purposes ( 1994 )
Forbidden ( 1995 )
13 ( 2013 )
= Kevin Martin ( curler ) =
Kevin Martin ( born July 31 , 1966 ) , nicknamed " The Old Bear " and " K @-@ Mart " , is a retired Canadian curler from Edmonton . He is considered by many commentators and former and current curlers to be the greatest curler of all time .
Over his 30 @-@ year curling career , he has won four Briers , a gold medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics , and one world championship . He has been to a total of three Winter Olympics and four World Championships , and has won a total of two Olympic medals and three World Championship medals . He has won 15 Grand Slam titles on the World Curling Tour ( the media count 18 , including three Players ' Championships won prior to its inclusion as a Grand Slam event ) , which includes a record eight Players ' Championship titles . Over the course of his career , his teams have won around $ 2 million . He was the first skip to win a " career Grand Slam , " winning a title in each Grand Slam event , after he won the Players ' Championship Grand Slam event in April 2005 . Martin also holds the record for the most Olympic victories , with 20 total wins at the Olympics .
During his career , Martin has also served as a major influence in the development of the sport of curling , establishing the competitive tier in the sport and setting the groundwork for the management of curling teams and the creation of high @-@ level competitive curling events . He is also known for contributing to the growth of curling , long known as a recreational and participant @-@ based sport , as a spectator sport . Martin retired from competitive curling in 2014 .
= = Career = =
= = = Junior career = = =
Martin began curling when he was six years old . He took up the sport because his father was the vice president of his local curling club . Martin first came on the curling scene in 1985 when his Alberta team of Richard Feeney , Dan Petryk and Michael Berger won the Canadian Junior Championships in their first year together as a team . The rink ( a group of players ) finished the round robin in second place , with a win @-@ loss record of 7 – 4 , behind Prince Edward Island 's Kent Scales . This forced them into a semifinal against the third place Quebec rink , skipped by Steve Gagnon . They beat Quebec 5 – 4 , earning a spot in the final against Prince Edward Island which they won with a score of 6 – 3 . After winning the championship , he accompanied the Canadian team as an alternate at the 1985 World Junior Curling Championships .
By winning the 1985 Canadian junior championship , the team qualified for the following season 's ( 1986 ) World Juniors . The team went undefeated through the round robin and won their semifinal match against Sweden . However , in the final , they came up short , losing 7 – 6 to the Scottish team skipped by David Aitken .
= = = Early career = = =
Five years out of the World Junior Championships , Martin had formed a new team and won his first provincial championship . This qualified him and his team of Kevin Park , Dan Petryk and Don Bartlett for the 1991 Labatt Brier . At the 1991 Brier , Martin finished the round robin with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record , tying Saskatchewan for first place . Martin knocked off British Columbia in the semifinal , and then beat Saskatchewan ( skipped by Randy Woytowich ) with a score of 8 – 4 in the final . The rink was then off to the 1991 Canada Safeway World Curling Championships in Winnipeg . Martin turned the tables , going undefeated through the round robin . After beating Norway 's Eigil Ramsfjell in the semifinal , Martin 's team lost in the final , losing to Scotland 's David Smith with a score of 2 – 7 .
His 1991 Brier victory also earned him a spot at the 1992 Winter Olympics , where curling was just a demonstration sport at the time . Martin won all three of his round robin games before losing the semifinal to Switzerland with a score of 4 – 8 and losing to the United States with a score of 2 – 9 in the bronze medal match .
In 1992 , Martin won his second provincial championship . His team went 8 – 3 once again at the 1992 Labatt Brier , tying them in second place with Ontario . However , in the semifinal , the Ontario rink , skipped by Russ Howard , defeated Martin 's team by 7 – 4 .
Martin 's first World Curling Tour event was the 1993 Players ' Championship , then known as the " Seagrams VO Cup " . His first WCT event win came the following season at the 1993 Kelowna Cashspiel . Later that season he won the 1994 Players ' Championship , which has been retroactively considered his first Slam win , even through the event occurred long before the Grand Slam series began .
= = = 1995 – 1999 = = =
After his two Brier seasons , Martin did not win the provincial title again until 1995 . In the meantime , he had made some line @-@ up changes in his team , and by the 1995 Labatt Brier , he had settled on James Pahl as his second , retaining Park and Bartlett as his third and lead , respectively . At the 1995 Brier , he placed in third after the round robin with a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record , tied with Ontario and Prince Edward Island . Martin knocked off Ontario 's Ed Werenich in the page playoffs 3 vs. 4 match , but lost to Kerry Burtnyk 's Manitoba rink in the semifinal with a score of 9 – 3 .
In 1995 , Martin replaced Park and Pahl with Don Walchuk and Shawn Broda , respectively . Martin won his fourth provincial title , sending him to the 1996 Labatt Brier . The team placed first after the round robin , finishing with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record . However , in the page playoff 1 vs. 2 game , he lost to Manitoba 's Jeff Stoughton . In the semifinal , Martin rebounded with a win over Quebec , but the rematch against Stoughton in the final resulted in a loss in an extra end , which Stoughton stole after a light draw by Martin to win the game 8 – 7 .
In 1996 , Broda was replaced by Rudy Ramcharan on the team . With his new team , Martin won another provincial title , and at the 1997 Labatt Brier , he once again finished the round robin with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record . His only loss came to the undefeated Vic Peters rink of Manitoba . However , Martin met and defeated Peters twice in the playoffs , including winning the final with a score of 10 – 8 . With this win , Martin won his second Brier and the right to go to the 1997 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship . Martin topped the round robin at the Worlds , with a 7 – 2 win @-@ loss record , but lost to Sweden in the semifinal with a score of 6 – 4 and then to Scotland in the bronze medal match with a score of 8 – 4 .
In 1997 , Martin looked to represent Canada at the Olympics once again . The 1998 Winter Olympics would mark the first time curling would be an official medal sport at the games . At the 1997 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials , Martin 's rink finished with a 6 – 3 win @-@ loss record , tied in second place with Ed Werenich . Martin knocked off Werenich in the semifinal but lost to the then little known Mike Harris in the final with a score of 6 – 5 . For the next few years , Martin would fail to make it back to the Brier . In 1998 , Martin won his second Players ' Championship of his career , then known as the " Apolla World Curling Tour Championship " .
= = = 1999 – 2006 = = =
In 1999 , Martin dropped Ramcharan , who was embroiled by a scandal where he botched organizing a bonspiel , and replaced him with Carter Rycroft , an upstart junior curler . In 2000 , Martin won his sixth provincial title . However , the 2000 Labatt Brier would be a flop for the team , which finished with a 6 – 5 win @-@ loss record out of the playoffs . That season , Martin won his third Players ' Championship .
Following a failed bid to win the 2001 Alberta championship , the team then boycotted the Brier , as prominent curling teams of the day wanted to focus more on the World Curling Tour , while the Canadian Curling Association scheduled events conflicting with major WCT events . In the meantime , however , Martin still had his sights set on an Olympic championship . The team went to the 2001 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials and finished first after the round robin with a 7 – 2 win @-@ loss record . That gave the team a bye to the finals , which Martin won by defeating Kerry Burtnyk with a score of 8 – 7 .
At the 2002 Winter Olympics , Martin lost just one round robin matchup and qualified for the playoffs . In the semifinal , Martin knocked off Sweden by a score of 6 – 4 . In the final , Martin faced Norway , skipped by Pål Trulsen . The two teams kept the game fairly even , but in the final end , Martin had a simple draw against one Norway rock to win , which he missed , giving Trulsen the win with a score of 6 – 5 . As a result , Norway clinched the gold medal , and Martin , representing Canada , won his third international silver .
Due to the boycott , Martin 's rink would not win another provincial title until 2006 . In the meantime , the team had amassed five Grand Slam titles and won the 2005 Canada Cup of Curling .
Martin played in his third Canadian Olympic Trials in 2005 . The event was a disappointment for the team , which finished with a 4 – 5 record . However , later in the season , they made it to the 2006 Tim Hortons Brier , Martin 's first Brier appearance in six years . The team finished the round robin tied in second place with an 8 – 3 record . However , in the page playoff 3 vs. 4 game , Martin 's rink was edged by Nova Scotia 's Mark Dacey 8 – 7 . The team would later win the 2006 Canada Cup of Curling .
= = = 2006 – 2013 = = =
On April 26 , 2006 Martin announced the breakup of his long @-@ time , Olympic silver medalist team of lead Don Bartlett , second Carter Rycroft and third Don Walchuk . The team had disappointed at the 2005 Trials , had not won a single Grand Slam title in the 2005 – 06 season , and topped it off by finishing fourth at the Brier . Martin replaced Walchuk , Rycroft and Bartlett with World Junior Champion skip John Morris at third , Marc Kennedy at second and Ben Hebert at lead . His new team won the 2007 Alberta provincials , and at their first Brier , the team finished the round robin with an 8 – 3 win @-@ loss record in second place , tied with Manitoba and Newfoundland and Labrador . The new team struggled at the 2007 Brier in Hamilton , and lost in the 3 vs. 4 game to Jeff Stoughton , 6 – 3 . Despite their Brier failure , however , the season was a success on the World Curling Tour , where they won three of the four Grand Slams . During the 2006 – 07 and 2007 – 08 curling seasons , Martin and his team won an unprecedented five consecutive Grand Slams , three in the 2006 – 07 season and two in the 2007 – 08 season .
The team won their second straight provincials in 2008 , sending them to the 2008 Tim Hortons Brier . On March 13 , 2008 , Martin 's team from Alberta became the first team since 2003 to go through the round robin at the Tim Hortons Brier undefeated . They finished the round robin with a perfect 11 – 0 win @-@ loss record . They knocked off Saskatchewan 8 – 7 in the 1 vs. 2 game , and then beat rival and defending champion Glenn Howard of Ontario 5 – 4 in the final . With that perfect finish , Martin won his third Brier title . Martin finally won his first World Championship at the 2008 World Men 's Curling Championship in Grand Forks , North Dakota . After finishing the round robin with a 10 – 1 win @-@ loss record , he lost to Scotland , skipped by David Murdoch , in the 1 vs. 2 game , only to beat them in a rematch in the final 6 – 3 . This was the first time Kevin Martin won a gold medal at an international curling event . The Martin rink finished the 2007 – 08 season with two more Grand Slam titles . Due to his Brier and World Championship successes in 2008 , the Canadian Curling Association selected Kevin Martin 's team ( along with Jennifer Jones , Kevin Koe and Stefanie Lawton ) to be Canada 's representatives on " Team North America " at the 2008 Continental Cup of Curling .
The 2008 – 09 season would be almost as successful for Martin . He once again qualified for the Brier , winning the Alberta provincial championship , and then once again went 13 – 0 in the 2009 Tim Hortons Brier . He knocked off Glenn Howard 7 – 6 followed by Jeff Stoughton in the final by a 7 – 4 result . A week later , at the 2009 Canada Cup of Curling , Martin won his third title , defeating fellow Edmonton rink Randy Ferbey in the final . At the 2009 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , Martin won 10 straight games until he met Scotland in the final round robin game . Martin lost to Scotland and then lost to them again in the 1 – 2 page playoff game . Martin rebounded with a tight semifinal victory over Switzerland , but had to face Scotland in a third matchup in the final . The game was tied going into the last end with Martin having the last rock advantage . Before his first rock , Martin was lying one in a complicated setup . After spending about six minutes trying to decide which shot to try , he went against the wishes of his teammates and threw away his shot , forcing Scotland 's David Murdoch to make a double @-@ tap to sit shot . Murdoch made his shot , leaving Martin with a short @-@ raise double , which he missed , losing the championship to Scotland , 7 – 6 .
Martin 's team directly qualified for the 2009 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials in his hometown of Edmonton . In his fourth Trials , Martin lost just one round robin game . After defeating the previously undefeated Glenn Howard rink in his final round robin game , Martin got a bye to the final , which was against Howard , whom he defeated 7 – 3 . With the win , Martin earned the right to represent Canada for the second time at the Olympics . After the Olympic Trials , Martin 's rink failed to qualify for the playoffs at the 2010 Swiss Chalet National . This would mark the first time Martin failed to make the playoffs at a Grand Slam since 2003 . However , they proved they were worthy to represent Canada at the Olympics by winning the 2010 BDO Classic Canadian Open two weeks later .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Martin 's team went undefeated ( 9 – 0 ) during the round @-@ robin phase , becoming the first team to achieve this feat since the British curling team at the 1924 Chamonix Olympics . After winning the semifinal against Sweden 's Niklas Edin , Martin went on to win the gold medal , defeating Norway 's Thomas Ulsrud 6 – 3 , in a rematch of Martin 's only previous Olympic final . Martin wrapped up his Olympic season by winning the 2010 Players ' Championships , his second Grand Slam win of the year . He beat Brad Gushue in the final in an extra end .
It took the Martin rink until December 2010 to win another major bonspiel . Martin claimed another Slam by winning the National again over Jeff Stoughton . However , he was defeated by Stoughton in the quarterfinal of the Canadian Open .
Martin made his eleventh appearance at the Brier playing for Alberta , after defeating Kevin Koe in the final of the provincials . He went through the round robin with a 9 – 2 win @-@ loss record , and had some trouble during the round robin after losing crucial games to Manitoba and Newfoundland / Labrador in less than 10 ends . After a close win over Glenn Howard in the round robin , Martin dropped a 4 – 5 decision to Howard after he missed a crucial shot in the 3 vs. 4 game of the playoffs , and he lost the bronze medal game to Brad Gushue 10 – 5 , playing without second Marc Kennedy , because Kennedy and his wife were expecting a child . Martin finished the 2010 – 11 season by winning his record 7th Players ' Championship .
Martin 's first event of the 2011 – 12 World Curling Tour was the Point Optical Curling Classic , where he finished as a runner @-@ up to Mike McEwen . He then won his first event of the season , the Westcoast Curling Classic , against McEwen . He next participated in the Cactus Pheasant Classic as the defending champion , but lost to Randy Ferbey in the semifinals . At the World Cup of Curling , Martin finished the round robin with a 4 – 1 win @-@ loss record , but missed a chance to win another Grand Slam title after he was edged past by John Epping , 3 – 4 . He failed to make it into the playoffs at his next event , the Sun Life Classic . He and his team then competed in the Canada Cup of Curling , securing close wins over Glenn Howard and Jeff Stoughton in the round robin and finishing the round robin undefeated . He then played Howard in the final , and managed to defeat him with a score of 7 – 4 , winning his record 4th Canada Cup title as skip . He and his team also earned berths into the 2012 Canada Cup , Continental Cup , and , most importantly , the 2013 Olympic Trials .
Martin then went to Dawson Creek , British Columbia for a shot at an eighteenth Grand Slam title at the National . He went undefeated through the round robin and made it to the final , where he lost a close game 6 – 5 to Glenn Howard . In February , Martin and team went to Camrose , Alberta for the 2012 Boston Pizza Cup to play for a chance to represent Alberta at the 2012 Brier . They barely qualified for the playoffs after Martin broke his 22 @-@ game win streak at the provincials in losing their first qualifier game to Kevin Koe and then lost another qualifier game to Brock Virtue . They then defeated Robert Schlender in the bottom page playoff game and advanced to the semifinal against Virtue , where they lost a tight game in the tenth end . Martin 's loss meant that he will not be able to represent Alberta at the Brier for the first time since 2010 . It also marked the first time since 2005 that he has not won a provincial championship in which he participated . Martin then won the 2012 Pomeroy Inn & Suites Prairie Showdown final against Liu Rui , and then won the 2012 Victoria Curling Classic Invitational final against Mike McEwen . Martin wrapped up the season by participating in the 2012 Players ' Championship , finishing the round robin with a 5 – 2 win @-@ loss record . However , he was upset in the semifinals by John Epping , who went on to win the title .
Martin began his 2012 – 13 season with the Point Optical Curling Classic , where he was the runner @-@ up the previous year . He lost a close match in the semifinals to provincial rival Kevin Koe . He next played at the Westcoast Curling Classic , and won his third straight title and his seventh title overall with a win in the final over Andrew Bilesky . Martin participated at the Whites Drug Store Classic , but lost to Randy Bryden in the quarterfinals in an extra end . Martin then competed in the Masters Grand Slam of Curling , where he lost in the semifinals after a close loss to Koe in an extra end . Martin then participated in the Canada Cup of Curling , but was unable to match strong play from his opponents , and finished the event with a 1 – 5 win @-@ loss record , out of the playoffs . Martin was scheduled to play at the Canadian Open of Curling , but had to withdraw due to a hernia . He was replaced by Joe Frans , and the team finished outside of the playoffs . After recovering , Martin participated in the Continental Cup , where he assisted in leading Team North America to a fifth win over Team World . Martin also participated in the All @-@ Star Curling Skins Game , where his all @-@ star team lost in the semifinal against Glenn Howard 's all @-@ star team . Martin then competed in the Alberta provincials , where he clinched the first seed in the playoffs after edging provincial rival Kevin Koe . He defeated Aaron Sluchinski in the page playoff , and edged Koe in an extra end in the final to claim his twelfth provincial title .
At the 2013 Brier , Martin and team began the round @-@ robin with one win and four losses , including losses to Jeff Stoughton , Jean @-@ Michel Ménard , and eventual champion Brad Jacobs , before winning their final six matches . Despite a 7 – 4 win @-@ loss record , they did not qualify for the playoffs , placing fifth and becoming the first Alberta team since Martin 's squad in 2000 to miss the playoffs . At the Players ' Championship , Martin and team finished with a 2 – 2 win @-@ loss record , and they advanced to a tiebreaker , where they lost to John Epping . A few days after the conclusion of the Players ' Championship , Martin 's longtime third , John Morris , announced that he and Martin were parting ways .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
A few weeks after Morris announced his departure from the team , Martin announced that David Nedohin , the fourth player on his former provincial rival Randy Ferbey 's team , would join Martin 's team . Martin and team won their first event of the season at the Shoot @-@ Out . They made the semifinals in their next event at the Point Optical Curling Classic , but Martin injured his back during the semifinal game . Jeff Sharp subbed in at lead , and Martin 's team finished the event as runners @-@ up to Jeff Stoughton . After winning the final of the Direct Horizontal Drilling Fall Classic over Brock Virtue and posting a semifinals finish at the Cactus Pheasant Classic , Martin played in the Masters Grand Slam , finishing the round robin with a 3 – 1 win @-@ loss record . He proceeded to win his games over Kevin Koe and Liu Rui before reaching the final , where he played a close game with Glenn Howard until Howard pulled away with the win .
Martin attempted to qualify for his fourth Olympics appearance through the 2013 Canadian Olympic Curling Trials . In the round robin , he and his team played consistently and posted a 6 – 1 win @-@ loss record , with their only loss coming to eventual champion Brad Jacobs . Their record qualified for the semifinal , where they lost a close game to John Morris 's team . Martin was hired by NBC Sports to work as a curling analyst during the 2014 Winter Olympics .
After starting off the Canadian Open of Curling with a 4 – 1 win @-@ loss record , Martin dropped his quarterfinals game against Brad Gushue in the final end of the game . Martin also posted a strong start at the next Grand Slam , The National , but lost to Glenn Howard in the quarterfinals . On April 18 , 2014 , amidst rumours of his front end , Marc Kennedy and Ben Hebert , joining provincial rival Kevin Koe in the next season , Martin announced his retirement from curling following the conclusion of the 2014 Players ' Championship . At the last tournament of his career , Martin posted a 3 – 2 win @-@ loss record in the round robin , and advanced to the playoffs . He edged John Epping and Mike McEwen en route to the final , where he recorded a 4 – 3 win over Brad Jacobs while curling at 98 % . He capped his career with an eighteenth Grand Slam title , his eighth at the Players ' Championship .
Martin will become a curling analyst for Sportsnet . Following the end of the season , it was announced that Martin had been inducted into the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame .
= = = Legacy = = =
During his playing career , Martin greatly influenced the evolution of the sport of curling into a competitive sport . He was an instrumental part of the group that brought about the Grand Slam of Curling . In the early 2000s , he became the spokesperson for the promotion of the financial growth of curling , represented largely by the World Curling Tour , which was growing in popularity due to the benefits afforded by corporate sponsorship opportunities and cash prizes at tournaments . The Martin @-@ led boycott of the Canadian Curling Association for its refusal to allow the developments in the World Curling Tour to be mirrored in the Brier catalyzed not only the transformation of the Brier , but also the growth of the Grand Slam , and in doing so , ultimately allowed the sport of curling to become a legitimate spectator sport . The development of the competitive tier of the sport also marked a change in both the players of the sport and the sport itself , as evidenced by improvements in the development and training of curlers as athletes and improvements in the quality of curling games due to better ice conditions and precision @-@ based gameplay .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Grand Slam record = = =
= = = Teams = = =
= = = Awards = = =
World Junior Curling Championships All @-@ Star skip : 1986
Hec Gervais Award ( Brier MVP ) : 1997 , 2009
Brier Shot of the Week Award : 1997
Brier first all @-@ star team skip : 1996 , 2008 , 2009
Brier second all @-@ star team skip : 2006 , 2007
World Curling Tour ( WCT ) MVP : 2008 – 09
WCT Team of the Year : 2008 – 09
WCT MVP : 2009 – 10
= = Personal life = =
Martin is married to Shauna Martin and has three children , Karrick , Kalycia , and Mykaela . Karrick has curled competitively , most recently as the lead for Brendan Bottcher and as the alternate for his father at the 2013 Tim Hortons Brier .
Martin is the owner and operator of Kevin 's Rocks @-@ n @-@ Racquets , a curling supply shop located at the Saville Sports Centre . He has owned his own business since 1991 . Prior to that , he was an ice maker .
Martin has a degree in petroleum engineering technology from the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology ( NAIT ) , which he earned upon graduating in 1987 . He also curled at NAIT under the tutelage of coach Jules Owchar , who has coached Martin since they met at NAIT . Martin also received an honorary bachelor 's degree in technology management in 2010 , and received the Alumni Award of Distinction in 2011 for his achievements in curling .
Martin is very invested in building the future of the game of curling . He regularly runs curling academies at the Saville Sports Centre . Each summer he organizes a curling camp for junior players called the " Kevin Martin Summer Curling Academy " . The Academy is targeted at elite junior players looking to take their game to a higher level . Martin has also created a mobile app with purchasable content , which includes drills and tips aimed at helping curlers improve their game .
= Asian house martin =
The Asian house martin ( Delichon dasypus ) is a migratory passerine bird of the swallow family Hirundinidae . It has mainly blue @-@ black upperparts , other than its white rump , and has pale grey underparts . Its three subspecies breed in the Himalayas and in central and eastern Asia , and spend the winter lower in the mountains or in Southeast Asia . This species is locally abundant and is expanding northward in Siberia , so there are no concerns about its conservation status .
This martin breeds in colonies , building mud nests under an overhang on a vertical cliff or the wall of a building . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the three or four white eggs and feed the chicks . The Asian house martin feeds on small insects taken in flight , usually caught high in the air . The presence of terrestrial springtails and Lepidoptera larvae in its diet indicates that food is sometime picked from the ground .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Asian house martin was first formally described from a bird collected in Borneo by French naturalist and ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1850 as Chelidon dasypus , shortly before it was moved to the new genus Delichon by British entomologist Frederic Moore and American naturalist Thomas Horsfield in 1854 . Delichon is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδών ( chelīdōn ) , meaning " swallow " , and dasypus is
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It measured 1 @.@ 8 by 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft × 2 @.@ 6 ft ) and may once have been roofed with an ornamental awning or canvas , perhaps made of cloth draped over timber posts . Traces of mineralised cloth and either grass or reed were found still attached to some of the nails , indicating the possible nature of the mattress . Two pieces of ironwork showed signs of repair and reuse , suggesting that the bed had been in use some time before the burial and was not specially made for the interment . This raises the possibility that the bed was either that of the deceased woman or a significant bed of some other person . It may have been dismantled elsewhere , brought to the cemetery and reassembled and repaired so that it could be used for the burial .
The jewellery consists of three gold pendants , two glass beads , one gold wire bead , and a fragment of a jet hair pin . The pendants and beads all seem to have been strung together , probably forming a necklace that was in place around the neck of the body . Two of the pieces consist of gold cabochon pendants inset with jewels , while the third is a very elaborate shield @-@ shaped jewel inlaid with 57 red garnets and a larger scallop @-@ shaped gem in the centre . The garnets rest on a thin layer of gold leaf to reflect the light and increase their luminosity . It may have been created from recycled older pieces of jewellery , as the size , shape and thickness of the individuals garnet are all different .
The quality of the piece is outstanding and comparable to that of the artefacts found at the famous Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk . Its design is unique and has no known parallels elsewhere in Anglo @-@ Saxon jewelcrafting ; its creator must have been one of the best craftworkers in the country at the time . Its shape is a significant link with early Christianity . The scallop had long been associated with love , fertility and birth and was a symbol of the classical goddesses Aphrodite and her Roman counterpart Venus , who was said to have floated ashore on a scallop shell ( as in Sandro Botticelli 's famous depiction of The Birth of Venus ) . By the 4th century , however , Christians had adopted the scallop as a symbol of rebirth through baptism and life as a journey towards a heavenly reunion with God . It came to be particularly associated with pilgrimages and was later adopted as a pilgrim 's badge .
An analysis conducted using X @-@ ray fluorescence has found that the pendant was made from a highly debased gold alloy , with only 37 % of the alloy consisting of gold and the remainder consisting of silver with some copper . It is likely that the gold came from melted @-@ down coins of the Merovingian dynasty of Francia . The Frankish currency underwent a similar debasing at around this time . The link with Francia is illustrative of the trading and cultural links that existed between Anglo @-@ Saxon England and continental Europe at the time .
A grave found a short distance away also contained jewellery , including a gold pendant , silver brooch , and glass beads . It is thought that the occupant may have had a close connection with the woman in the bed burial – perhaps a relative or a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting who was buried with her mistress .
= = Interpretations and historical context = =
At the time of the cemetery 's use in the latter part of the 7th century , Britain was divided into a number of kingdoms ruled by different ethnic groups – the native Picts in the north ( in what is now Scotland ) , the native Britons in the west of what is now England , Wales and south @-@ western Scotland , and the immigrant Angles , Saxons , and Jutes in the east and south of modern England and south @-@ eastern Scotland . Until the early 7th century , the north @-@ east of England and parts of Scotland were ruled by two Saxon kingdoms : Deira in modern Yorkshire , and Bernicia from north of the River Tees to the Firth of Forth . By the time of the burials the two kingdoms had merged to form the powerful kingdom of Northumbria .
There were considerable connections – political , trading , and cultural – between the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms and this is demonstrated in the burial ground found at Street House . The practice of burying people in beds seems to have been very uncommon in the north ; most of the bed burials found so far have been in southern England , in Cambridgeshire , Essex , Suffolk , and Wiltshire . Several of the brooches and beads found in the graves are thought to have come from Kent and some of the jewellery and beadwork has strong parallels with finds from East Anglia . The Iron Age gold coins found in one grave came from a tribe that lived in the East Midlands , which suggests that their owner , likewise , was not local .
The identity of the woman in the bed is not known , but the archaeologists who excavated the site have suggested that she was " a female member of the local aristocracy , probably a princess and an outsider , whose personal status was strong enough to act as a catalyst for the site " and that her companions were similarly " a group of people of high status from outside the region . " Average life expectancy at the time was short – only 32 years for men and 28 years for women – so it is possible that the cemetery was used exclusively by members of the " princess 's " community and ceased to be used when the last member died . This would fit with its short period of usage , perhaps only 30 years or so , judging from the age of the artefacts found during the excavations . Steve Sherlock , the site 's discoverer , believes that she was buried first and that the other graves were dug around hers afterward . Next to her grave is a probable male grave , to which it may be linked . The close proximity of the graves and their offset from the rest of the graves in the cemetery raises questions about whether the occupants were related .
The cemetery provides some hints to the woman 's local connections and religious affiliations . She was buried around or soon after the time when St. Hilda of Whitby was active in the region , first at Hartlepool Abbey , then at Whitby Abbey , which was founded in 657 . The woman may well have known St. Hilda , who came from a similar aristocratic background and had lived for a while in East Anglia , where bed burials were more common . It is unclear , however , whether the woman was also a Christian . Features such as the typically Christian east @-@ west orientation of the graves have been cited in support of a Christian affiliation , but on the other hand the cemetery was built on an ancient pagan site and there is no obvious reason why a Christian princess would not have been buried at Whitby alongside fellow Christians . As Christianity was spreading across the region at this time , the possible Christian features of the cemetery could be due simply to local social convention favouring some Christian styles in burial rituals , even for non @-@ Christians . Steve Sherlock considers the bed burial to be " stridently pagan , a sort of rare , female equivalent of ship burials , as she is laid out on a vehicle to deliver her to the afterworld , " however , and he suggests that she may have been the centre of a pagan cult that was active alongside local Christians .
Others have argued that the cemetery represents a fusion of Christian and pagan Saxon customs . It was not until the end of the 7th century that the practice of burying people in consecrated ground around a church became the norm . There are examples of known Christians being buried in an ostensibly pagan fashion , as was the case for the late 7th century Kentish princess Eormengyth , sister of the abbess of Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet . She was buried in a traditional tumulus a mile east of her sister 's minster . John Blair argues that the Church in early Saxon England may have tolerated Christians being given pagan burial rites due to the ' Christianising ' effect this would have had on a pagan site . This would have been consistent with the advice given by Pope Gregory the Great in 601 that Saxon shrines should be converted to Christian use , rather than being destroyed , and that pagan festivals and rites should be converted into Christian ones . On this interpretation , the cemetery may symbolise the continuity between the pagan past and the increasingly Christianised present .
= = Conservation , acquisition and display = =
The discovery was announced on 20 November 2007 and several of the finds were displayed to the press at Kirkleatham Museum near Redcar . Ashok Kumar , the local Member of Parliament at the time , lent his support to a campaign to keep the artefacts in Redcar and Cleveland , saying : " It 's essential they are kept in this area at Kirkleatham Museum and not merely deposited at a museum in London where there would be no guarantee of permanent display . I ... want to see these treasures kept here so local people and schoolchildren can view them as part of their local heritage and as an aid to their understanding of the past . " The Culture Minister , Margaret Hodge , confirmed in a House of Commons debate that the British Museum would not object to Kirkleatham acquiring the finds .
The Teesside coroner held an inquest on 12 October 2008 that found that the finds were treasure trove under the terms of the Treasure Act 1996 . The rules of treasure trove require that a panel of experts determine the market value of a find , half of which is paid to the finder and the other half to the landowner . However , the landowner at Street House waived his share because he wanted to ensure that a local museum would be able to purchase the artefacts . The Heritage Lottery Fund provided Kirkleatham Museum with a grant of £ 274 @,@ 000 to fund the purchase and create a new Anglo @-@ Saxon gallery to display the artefacts .
The finds were purchased by the museum in April 2009 and underwent conservation by specialists at Durham University and York Archaeological Trust . Using tools of the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , a replica of the bed was created for the exhibition by Richard Darrah , an expert in early woodwork , and blacksmith Hector Cole , a crafter of medieval @-@ style ironwork . A short film about the princess was made at the Anglo @-@ Saxon museum at Bede 's World in Jarrow with a narration by Stephen Tompkinson . Prior to the opening of the exhibition at Kirkleatham , the finds were put on display for five days in May 2011 at Loftus Town Hall , where they attracted nearly 1 @,@ 700 visitors .
The exhibition at Kirkleatham has proved extremely popular ; by October 2011 it had already attracted more than 28 @,@ 000 visitors in only four months . In April 2012 the exhibition attracted further praise when the museum won the prestigious Renaissance Museum title at the annual Journal and Arts Council Awards .
= Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden is a 2011 concert special which documents the February 21 and 22 , 2011 shows of American pop singer Lady Gaga 's worldwide concert , The Monster Ball Tour . Filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO . It was first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The special was released on November 21 , 2011 , on DVD and Blu @-@ ray by Media Blasters .
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden features concert footage as well as pre @-@ concert and backstage content . The special received critical acclaim ; critics praised Gaga 's performance and the onstage theatrics while expressing doubt in Gaga 's sincerity during her monologues and in pre @-@ concert scenes . When aired , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and was nominated for five awards at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , winning one for Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) .
The video album released for the special includes extra footage like a capella performances and photo gallery . The 5 @.@ 1 surround sound of the release utilized DTS @-@ HD Master Audio and new technology to provide the viewer an optimum experience of watching the live concert . Emphasis was given on the main music and the vocals sung during the concert , while adjusting them against the screaming and the cheering of the crowd . The release was a commercial success , reaching the top of the DVD charts in the United States , France and Italy and the top @-@ ten in other nations . It received double platinum certifications in Australia and France , while in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold .
= = Background = =
The Monster Ball Tour was the second worldwide concert tour by Lady Gaga . Staged in support of her EP The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) and comprising a set list of songs from the EP and her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 2009 through 2011 . Described as " the first @-@ ever pop electro opera " by Gaga , the tour was announced in October 2009 after an intended joint concert tour with hip @-@ hop artist Kanye West was suddenly canceled . The tour commenced four days after the release of The Fame Monster in November 2009 . A revision of the tour occurred after only a few months of performances , due to Gaga 's concern that the original version was constructed within a very short span of time . The stage of the original show looked like a frame , comparable to that of a hollowed @-@ out television set . Since The Fame Monster dealt with the paranoias Gaga had faced , the main theme of the original shows became human evolution , while elements of the canceled tour with West were still included in some parts . From 2010 onward , the revamped shows had a New York theme and portrayed a story set in the city , where Gaga and her friends got lost and had to find their way to " the Monster Ball " . Both versions of the show were divided into five segments , with the last being the encore . Each of them featured Gaga in new outfits , singing songs related to the concept of the segment , as they were followed by a video interlude .
The tour received general critical acclaim , with critics praising Gaga 's singing abilities , the theatricality of the show , and her sense of style and fashion . The Monster Ball was a commercial success , with sold @-@ out shows and demand for tickets prompting organizers to add more dates to the itinerary . It ultimately grossed an estimated $ 227 @.@ 4 million ( $ 239 million in 2016 dollars ) from 200 reported shows and an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing tours of all time . At the 2010 Billboard Touring Awards , Gaga won the Breakthrough Performer Award , as well as the Concert Marketing and Promotion Award , the latter being an acknowledgment of her partnership with sponsor Virgin Mobile .
= = Content = =
The special opens with a black @-@ and @-@ white introduction that sees Gaga ordering a cup of coffee from a New York convenience store before being escorted by security into a black SUV , where she reminisces about the many times she had been at the arena to watch other acts perform , and realizes that she will now be performing there herself . After being escorted backstage , she removes her makeup and cries as she discusses feeling like a " loser " . She then sings the opening lines of " Marry the Night " while preparing to take the stage . Full @-@ color footage of the concert ( shot on February 21 and 22 , 2011 ) is then seen , interspersed with black @-@ and @-@ white backstage footage . The special ends with another black @-@ and @-@ white backstage scene where Gaga and her backup singers perform " Born This Way " a capella .
= = Release and reception = =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was filmed at Madison Square Garden in Gaga 's hometown of New York City , the two @-@ hour special was directed by the singer 's choreographer Laurieann Gibson and produced by HBO , with the first broadcast on the channel on May 7 , 2011 , a day after Gaga 's last date of The Monster Ball Tour . The channel had released a trailer for the special in YouTube and a poster in their website , which showed Gaga with her characteristic pyrotechnic bra emitting sparks . According to Billboard , the special was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers . The special received critical acclaim . On review aggregate website Metacritic , the special holds a rating of 81 out of 100 based on four critic reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald wrote , " [ B ] etween the orgy of visuals — stripper strobes , androgynous dancers and a very loose , X @-@ rated ' Wizard of Oz ' theme — we get some great song and dance numbers : ' Poker Face ' , ' Paparazzi ' and ' Bad Romance ' . These are amazing hits , club @-@ thumping tracks that define joy and sadness for a generation of suburban teens and the urban disenfranchised . " However , he felt that the show 's non @-@ concert content was not genuine , and found the special to be similar to Madonna 's 1991 documentary Madonna : Truth or Dare . The A.V. Club 's Genevieve Koski gave the special a B + rating , claiming that Gaga " proves that she is a performer " and that " she puts on a show " , though she felt that the concert was overly emotional and artistically ambitious , and that Gaga 's on @-@ stage banter was slightly annoying . Koski also compared the special to the Madonna documentary . Linda Stassi from New York Post was also positive in her assessment of the concert special . She complimented the behind the scenes footage , the costumes and the dancing and the pyrotechnics of the show , describing it as " a concert that would make Madonna ’ s shows look like run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill dinner theater . " A review in website Idolator described Gaga as " ringleader of her own circus — in complete control of her little monsters " . It went on to appreciate Gaga 's vocals and the fact that she did not lip @-@ synch , as well as the hurried costume changes , while commending the " raw " nature of the show .
Paul Schrodt of Slant Magazine was more critical in his review , though he gave it a 2 @.@ 5 star ( out of 4 ) rating . While he positively called Gaga 's performances outrageous and " occasionally fierce " , he questioned Gaga 's authenticity , both on stage and in the pre @-@ concert scenes . Ultimately , he wrote , " Unsurprisingly , HBO 's Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden raises more questions about Stefani Germanotta ( Gaga 's birth name ) than it answers , which is probably as it should be . " Radio host Howard Stern also compared the black @-@ and @-@ white scenes of the special to Madonna : Truth or Dare , adding that when he darts a glance at Lady Gaga , she is occasionally registered in his brain as Madonna . On his show , Stern was also critical of inappropriateness and unreasonability of the numerous speeches Gaga gave between the songs in the special , calling them " prattle " , " drivel " , and " condescending " . Dedicating over half an hour of his show on May 9 and 10 , 2011 , to express his criticism of the concert , Stern compared the manner of Gaga 's speaking to professional wrestling due to echoing , Gaga 's gasping between the words , and the audience 's arguable inability to hear the words enough to understand them . In particular , Gaga claimed in the concert that her incentive to work is to " set [ her audience ] free " , not money . Stern attempted to debunk that claim by arguing that Gaga takes potentially psychiatric problems of her audience lightly by urging her fans to " forget all of [ their ] insecurities " overnight .
The special received five nominations at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . It was nominated for Outstanding Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Directing for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special ; Outstanding Technical Direction , Camerawork , Video Control for a Miniseries , Movie or a Special ; Outstanding Picture Editing for a Special ( Single or Multi @-@ Camera ) ; and Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety , Music or Comedy Special . It won the picture editing award and lost all of its other bids . The five nominations were among the 104 HBO received for 2011 ; it made up over one @-@ fifth of the total nominations . The special also received a nomination at the 2012 Dorian Awards in the category of " TV Musical Program of the Year " .
= = Video album = =
= = = Development = = =
Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on November 21 , 2011 , and was also released as a digital download to iTunes Store . In addition to the content of the original HBO broadcast , it includes new , previously @-@ unseen footage . The video is also a part of a bundled package — along with the 17 @-@ track special edition of Born This Way and a remix album , Born This Way : The Remix — titled Born This Way , The Collection , which was released the same day . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was captured with a 14 @-@ camera High Definition shoot . The Blu @-@ ray edition of the video album is presented in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 78 : 1 , encoded with MPEG @-@ 4 AVC and grants a 1080i transfer . It contains two audio tracks DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 and LPCM 2 @.@ 0 . According to Jim Belcher , Vice President for Advanced Technology and Production of Universal Music Group , the advanced technologies associated with Dolby DTS @-@ HD would allow the audience the best experience while viewing the DVD .
Brian Riordan , one of the engineers who worked on mastering the audio for the DVD described in a video interview with Rolling Stone how the mix was achieved . He recalled getting a call from one of the show 's producers who were looking for specialized sound arrangements to acquire an authentic live concert feeling for the release . Riordan remembered that the main difficulty was trying to preserve the " craziness " of the audience and Gaga 's fans , and their screaming during the concert , nevertheless make the music of the show primary . His team used Lossy which did not use compression , instead one @-@ to @-@ one audio mixing giving the whole sound system " much more of an impactful experience " . Riordan decided to engineer the concert sound as " center @-@ channeled " since Gaga did not use backing audio , resulting in the listener getting the whole impact of her vocals , when listened with a headphone . Other difficulty faced by team included converting the heavy production of Gaga 's songs to a live format and utilizing the singer 's bands . " You also have the crowd , the house going nuts and all the reverberations at Madison Square Garden , so it was really difficult for me to figure out globally how real , how dry , how punchy can we get this thing to sound " , he added . Initially Riordan had featured more of the live instrumentation and mixed the songs a number of times , however felt that they needed a dry reverb hence he pondered on the mix along with co @-@ producer coming to a consensus regarding the sound . According to Riordan , the mixing process was approved by Gaga who watched the cuts while travelling on the tour however , she did not ask Riordan to change anything , unlike previous projects the engineer had undertaken . The 5 @.@ 1 mix was further orchestrated by using the sound recordings from the microphones placed around the audience members in Madison Square Garden , giving a new dimension to the surround sound in the Blu @-@ ray .
It has a length of over 114 minutes and contains five subtitles : English , French , Spanish , Portuguese and German . Extra features added to the release included another a cappella version of " Born This Way " which was performed on stage unlike the one in the closing credits . A photo gallery was also included as well as backstage footage showing Gaga meeting with actress Liza Minnelli . According to Jeffrey Kauffman of Blu @-@ ray.com , the audio tracks were commendable for their crisp sound . He stated that " One of the best things about this concert is despite its artifice , even its artificiality , there 's absolutely no question that Lady Gaga is actually singing . What a novel idea for a live concert , and one that seemed especially refreshing after having just sat through the Britney Spears Live : The Femme Fatale Tour concert Blu @-@ ray , where Brit 's live voice was all but buried in the pre @-@ records . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , it entered Billboard 's Top Music Video chart at the top , selling 26 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD — the greatest total for a music video since Beyoncé Knowles ' I Am ... World Tour live CD / DVD sold 37 @,@ 000 and 31 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks in November and December 2010 , and held this title until the release of Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall . Its final appearance on the chart was for the issue dated November 30 , 2013 , where upon it tallied a total of 64 weeks in side the chart . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden became the fourth best @-@ selling music video of 2011 in the United States .
In Australia , the DVD debuted at number two on the ARIA DVD Chart . The next week , it remained in the same position , while being certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the DVD . Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden was certified double platinum in January 2012 , denoting shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies . It was the fifth and eleventh best selling DVD of 2011 and 2012 in Australia , respectively . The DVD charted on the UK Music Video chart at number four , for the issue dated December 3 , 2011 . It was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for selling more than 25 @,@ 000 copies . Across Europe , the DVD reached the top of the charts in France and Italy , the former region it was also certified double platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 30 @,@ 000 copies of the release . It reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in other nations .
= = = Track listing = = =
Bonus content
" Born This Way " ( a cappella ) – 3 : 16
" Backstage at the Monster Ball " – 12 : 50
Photo gallery
Track listing adapted from Amazon.com.
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden DVD booklet .
Main personnel
Production crew
Costumes and makeup
Sound Department
Special Effects
Lighting crew
Principal photography
= Stargazy pie =
Stargazy pie ( sometimes called starrey gazey pie or other variants ) is a Cornish dish made of baked pilchards , along with eggs and potatoes , covered with a pastry crust . Although there are a few variations with different fish being used , the unique feature of stargazy pie is fish heads ( and sometimes tails ) protruding through the crust , so that they appear to be gazing skyward . This allows the oils released during cooking to flow back into the pie .
The dish is traditionally held to have originated from the village of Mousehole in Cornwall and is traditionally eaten during the festival of Tom Bawcock 's Eve to celebrate his heroic catch during a very stormy winter . According to the modern festival , which is combined with the Mousehole village illuminations , the entire catch was baked into a huge stargazy pie , encompassing seven types of fish and saving the village from starvation . The story of Bawcock was popularised by Antonia Barber 's children 's book The Mousehole Cat , which featured the star @-@ gazy pie . In 2007 contestant Mark Hix won the BBC 's Great British Menu with a variant of the dish .
= = Description = =
Stargazy pie is a pastry @-@ based fish pie which , by tradition , is filled with whole pilchards . Critically , the pilchards must retain their heads , which then poke through the pastry top , appearing to gaze at the stars . The position of the fish allows the oil that is released during cooking to drain into the pie , adding a fuller flavour and ensuring the pie is moist . The celebrity chef Rick Stein suggested also poking the pilchards ' tails through the pie crust to give the effect of leaping through water .
In spite of the fact that the British Food Trust describes the dish as being fun as well as amusing to children , it has been listed in " Yuck ! Disgusting things people eat " , a lifestyle feature by the New York Daily News based upon the book by an American author , Neil Setchfield . On Tom Bawcock 's Eve it is served in The Ship Inn , the only pub in Mousehole , sometimes after a re @-@ enactment of the legend .
= = Origins = =
The pie originates from the fishing village of Mousehole in Cornwall . As with many parts of Cornish heritage , a legend has appeared about its origins . In this case , the pie is served to celebrate the bravery of Tom Bawcock , a local fisherman in the 16th century . The legend explains that one winter had been particularly stormy , meaning that none of the fishing boats had been able to leave the harbour . As Christmas approached , the villagers , who relied on fish as their primary source of food , were facing starvation .
On 23 December , Tom Bawcock decided to brave the storms and went out in his fishing boat . Despite the stormy weather and the difficult seas , he managed to catch enough fish to feed the entire village . The entire catch ( including seven types of fish ) was baked into a pie , which had the fish heads poking through to prove that there were fish inside . Ever since then , the Tom Bawcock 's Eve festival is held on 23 December in Mousehole . The celebration and memorial to the efforts of Tom Bawcock sees the villagers parading a huge stargazy pie during the evening with a procession of handmade lanterns , before eating the pie itself .
An older feast , held by the fishermen towards the end of December , included a pie cooked with different fish to represent the variety of catches the men hoped to achieve in the coming year . There is a possibility that Tom Bawcock 's Eve is an evolution of this festival . Since 1963 , the festival has been run against the backdrop of the Mousehole village illuminations , where the entire harbour is lit up , along with many other displays . One set of lights even represents the pie itself , showing fish heads and tails protruding from a pie dish underneath six stars .
There was a rumour that the entire festival was a fabrication by the landlord of The Ship Inn in the 1950s . However , festivities had been recorded by Morton Nance , an author on the Cornish language , in 1927 in the magazine Old Cornwall . His description was regarding the festivities prior to 1900 , though he doubted the reality of Tom Bawcock , suggesting it was in fact " Beau Coc " . He also went on to confirm that the origins of the festival dated back to pre @-@ Christian times , though it is unclear at what time the stargazy pie became part of the festivities . Morton Nance went on to restore the traditional song sung on Tom Bawcock 's Eve , played to the local tune " wedding March " .
A legend surrounding stargazy pie , along with the other unusual pies of Cornwall , is that they were the reason that the Devil never came to Cornwall . In his book Popular romances of the west of England ; or , The drolls , traditions , and superstitions of old Cornwall , a collection of Cornish traditions , Robert Hunt explains that the Devil crossed the River Tamar to Torpoint . The chapter , entitled " The Devil 's Coits , etc " , reasons that the Devil discovered the Cornish would put anything in a pie and decided to leave before they took a fancy to a " devilly " pie , returning to Devon .
= = Recipes = =
The original pie in the legend included sand eels , horse mackerel , pilchards , herring , dogfish and ling along with a seventh fish . In a traditional pie , the primary ingredient is the pilchard ( sardine ) , although mackerel or herring is used as a substitute . Richard Stevenson , chef at The Ship Inn in Mousehole , suggests that any white fish will work for the filling , with pilchards or herring just added for the presentation . Prior to putting it in the pie the fish should be skinned and boned ( except the head and tail ) , to allow for ease of eating . Along with the fish , the other traditional ingredients are thickened milk , eggs and boiled potatoes .
Many recipe variations around the traditional ingredients exist , some of which include hard @-@ boiled eggs , bacon , onion , mustard or white wine . Other alternatives to the main fish can be crayfish and rabbit or mutton . The recipes for the stargazy pie are all topped with a pastry lid , generally shortcrust but sometimes puff pastry , through which the fish heads and sometimes tails protrude .
For presentation , one suggestion is that the pilchards are arranged with their tails toward the centre of the pie and their heads poking up through the crust around the edge . As it includes potatoes and pastry , the pie can be served on its own or with crusty bread , sometimes with vegetables . Other suggested accompaniments are Cornish Yarg , Rhubarb chutney , poached eggs or a slice of lemon .
= = In popular culture = =
The children 's book The Mousehole Cat by Antonia Barber is inspired by Tom Bawcock 's Eve . It is the story of Tom Bawcock and his loyal black and white cat , Mowzer , setting sail to catch the fish . When the boat hits the storm , it is represented by a giant " Storm @-@ Cat " , allowing Mowzer to eventually save the day by soothing the storm with her purring . This purring becomes a song and while the Storm @-@ Cat is resting Tom is able to haul in his catch and return to the village . When they arrive back at the village , the entire catch is baked into a " Star @-@ Gazy " pie , on which the villagers feast . Notably , Antonia Barber points out that stargazy pie was a staple of Mousehole diet before Tom 's heroic fishing expedition , however , whereas according to tradition it dates from his return and legendary catch .
The main course of the second series of the Great British Menu was won by Mark Hix , head chef at The Ivy in London , with a variation on stargazy pie , which combined rabbit and crayfish for the filling , poking some crayfish through the pie crust . Hix had previously created a mutton and crayfish for a festival aimed at increasing the use of the meat , and it was served at his London restaurants for a time .
In the children 's book , The Lighthouse Keeper 's Cat by Ronda and David Armitage , the protagonist 's favourite dish is stargazy pie , and he is rewarded with one at the end .
The name is used as the title of a 1975 albums by Cornish folk singer Brenda Wootton . American rock band The Silver Seas ( under their previous name The Bees U.S. ) also released an album entitled Starry Gazey Pie in 2004 . The album and title track were based upon a recipe in a cookbook which band member Daniel Tashian remembered from his childhood .
The dish was featured in the 2004 film Ladies in Lavender , which is set in 1930s Cornwall . Characters from the film discuss the recipe used and the option of using coley fish in lieu of pilchards .
The dish has been presented in a parody programme on Chinese English @-@ language radio as a dish that " has come to epitomise British cuisine in Chinese eyes " .
= Vietnamese Cambodians =
Vietnamese Cambodians ( Khmer : ខ ្ មែរវៀត , KhmerViet ) refer to ethnic Vietnamese living in Cambodia . They mostly reside in southeastern parts Cambodia bordering Vietnam or on boathouses in the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong rivers . The first Vietnamese came to settle modern @-@ day Cambodia from the early 19th century during the era of the Nguyễn lords , and most of the Vietnamese came to Cambodia during the periods of French colonial administration and the People 's Republic of Kampuchea administration . During the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge governments in the 1970s , the Vietnamese were targets of mass genocides thousands of Vietnamese were killed and many more sought refuge in Vietnam . Ethnic relations between the Khmers and Vietnamese are poor , and the Vietnamese have been the main target of xenophobic attacks by political parties since the 1990s . Most of the Vietnamese are stateless residents of Cambodia , and as a result they face difficulties in getting access to education , employment and housing .
= = History = =
Vietnamese settlers began to settle in modern @-@ day Cochinchina and Ho Chi Minh City from the 1620s onwards . To the Cambodians , these lands were known as Kampuchea Krom and traditionally under the control of the Khmer Empire . From the era of Chey Chettha II onwards , they came under the control of the Nguyễn lords . In 1813 , Emperor Gia Long sent 10 @,@ 000 Vietnamese troops into Phnom Penh and some members of the Cambodian royal family came under the control of the Vietnamese court . The Nguyen court imposed Vietnamese customs upon the Cambodian populace , and names of towns and provinces were changed to Vietnamese ones . Vietnamese settlers were encouraged to settle in Cambodia and official documents from the Vietnamese court recorded an average of 5 @,@ 000 Vietnamese settlers coming into Cambodia in the 1830s . The policies imposed by the Nguyen court stirred resentment among the Cambodian populace and provoked occasional rebellions .
In 1880 , the French colonial administration to provide subject status to Vietnamese residents in Cambodia . Over the next fifty years , large numbers of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia . Population censuses conducted by the French recorded an increase in the Vietnamese population from about 4 @,@ 500 in the 1860s to almost 200 @,@ 000 at the end of the 1930s . When the Japanese invaded Indochina in 1940 , Vietnamese nationalists in Cambodia launched a brief but unsuccessful attempt to attack the French colonial administrators . In 1954 , a citizenship law was passed on the basis of knowledge in the Khmer language and national origin , and effectively excluded most Vietnamese and Chinese Cambodians . At the grassroots level , Vietnamese also faced occasional cases of violent intimidation from the Cambodians . During a Sangkum congress in 1962 , politicians debated on the issue of citizenship on Cambodia 's ethnic minorities and a resolution was passed not to grant naturalization of Vietnamese residents .
When Lon Nol assumed power in 1970 , the Khmer Republic government launched a propaganda campaign to portray the ethnic Vietnamese as agents of the Vietcong . About 30 @,@ 000 Vietnamese were arrested and killed in prison , while an additional 200 @,@ 000 were repatriated to Vietnam . Five years later in 1975 , some 200 @,@ 000 to 250 @,@ 000 Vietnamese remained in Cambodia when the Khmer Rouge seized power . About three quarters of them were expelled to Vietnam , and the remaining 20 @,@ 000 who remained are those who are of mixed @-@ Vietnamese and Khmer descent . Those who remained were either killed or massacred by the regime . By the time Vietnamese troops entered Cambodia in 1979 , virtually all of Cambodia 's Vietnamese population were either displaced or killed . Vietnam established a new regime known as the People 's Republic of Kampuchea ( PRK ) , and Vietnamese advisers were appointed in the new government administration . In 1983 , the PRK government formulated an official policy to encourage former Vietnamese residents of Cambodia to return and settle down . Vietnamese immigrants who had no family ties to Cambodia also came to settle in the country , as there was little border control to limit Vietnamese migrants from entering the country . The Vietnamese were recognised as an official minority under the PRK regime , and Overseas Vietnamese Associations were established in parts of Cambodia with sizeable Vietnamese populations . The PRK government also identity cards were issued to them until the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops in 1990 .
Vietnamese migrant workers started to arrive from 1992 onwards due to the creation of new job opportunities by the UNTAC administration . At the same time , the UNTAC administration allowed the opening of political offices and political parties such as FUNCINPEC and the BLDP began to propagate anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments among the populace to shore up electorate support in the 1993 general elections . In November 1992 , the Khmer Rouge which controlled northwestern parts of Cambodia , passed a resolution to target systematic killings of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians . The first guerrilla @-@ style attacks by the Khmer Rouge on Vietnamese civilians started in December 1992 , and Khmer Rouge soldiers justified the killings by claiming that some of the civilians were Vietnamese soldiers in disguise . The spate of killings by Khmer Rouge prompted some 21 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese to flee to Vietnam in March 1993 .
In August 1994 , the National Assembly of Cambodia introduced an immigration law which authorises the deportation of illegal immigrants . The UNHCR perceived the law as targeting Vietnamese migrants in Cambodia , and the Cambodian government later stepped in to assure that no mass deportations of Vietnamese refugees would be implemented . The Khmer Rouge continued to carry out sporadic attacks on Vietnamese civilians until they surrendered in 1999 . Ethnic Vietnamese continue to face discrimination from Cambodian society , and encountered physical intimidation from society and government authorities especially during the general elections or when disputes between Cambodia and Vietnam arise .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
The Vietnamese are generally concentrated along the river banks of the Tonlé Sap lake and Mekong river which encompass the provinces of Siem Reap , Kampong Chhnang and Pursat . Smaller populations may be found in Phnom Penh as well as southeastern provinces bordering Vietnam , namely Prey Veng , Svay Rieng , Kampot , Kandal , Kratié and Takeo . The Vietnamese population was at its largest in 1962 when the government census showed that they were the country 's largest minority and reflected 3 @.@ 8 % of the country 's population . Demographic researchers returned higher estimated numbers of Vietnamese than government censuses reflect . For example , in the 1960s , the number of resident Vietnamese may be as high as 400 @,@ 000 , while another Cambodian @-@ based researcher , Michael Vickery had estimated the Vietnamese resident population to be between 200 @,@ 000 and 300 @,@ 000 in 1986 . On the other hand , government censuses conducted during the 1980s put the figures to be no more than 60 @,@ 000 . The following population figures shows population figures of ethnic Vietnamese based on figures derived from government censuses :
= = = Religion = = =
The Vietnamese identify themselves as adherents of Mahayana Buddhism , Cao Đài or Roman Catholicism . Vietnamese Buddhists are mainly found among impoverished communities living in the Tonle Sap or the rural parts of Cambodia . As Vietnamese Buddhists derive their religious doctrines and beliefs from Chinese folk religion , they participate in religious rituals organised by Chinese Cambodians during festive seasons . Vietnamese communities that have settled down in Cambodia have adopted Khmer Theravada Buddhist practices to some extent . Vietnamese adherents of Roman Catholicism consist of descendants of refugees that fled the religious persecution during the reign of Tự Đức . They are split between city dwellers based in Phnom Penh and fishing communities that are based in Tonle Sap . Vietnamese Catholics make up about 90 % of Cambodia 's Roman Catholic community , and in the 1960s they had about 65 @,@ 000 adherents in the country . Most of the Vietnamese Catholics were either deported to Vietnam or killed in March 1970 , and it was only in 1990 that the Catholic church was allowed to re @-@ establish itself in Cambodia . In 2005 , there were about 25 @,@ 000 Catholics in the country .
A minority of Vietnamese are also followers of the Cao Đài faith which was introduced in 1927 . The Cao Đài faith attracted both Vietnamese and Cambodian adherents within the first few years of its founding , but a royal decree which outlawed the religion and efforts by Cambodian nationalists to prosecute Khmer adherents led to Cao Dai being observed solely by Vietnamese from the 1930s onwards . A Cao Đài temple was built in Mao Tse Tung Boulevard in 1937 , and in the 1960s there were about 70 @,@ 000 adherents in Cambodia . Cao Đài was outlawed during the Khmer Republic and Khmer Rouge regimes , but regained official recognition in 1985 and has about 2 @,@ 000 adherents in 2000 .
= = = Language = = =
The Vietnamese as a whole exhibit varying levels of fluency in the Khmer and Vietnamese languages . Vietnamese that live in self @-@ contained fishing communities along the Tonle Sap use Vietnamese in their day @-@ to @-@ day conversations and have individuals that have limited Khmer language skills and those that are bilingual in both languages . On the other hand , Vietnamese that live in predominantly Khmer @-@ speaking neighbourhoods send their children to public schools , and as a result the children are able to speak Khmer fluently but show very limited understanding of Vietnamese .
= = = Education = = =
Field research carried out by ethnologists such as Stefan Ehrentraut shows that only a minority of Vietnamese children attend public schools , with figures varying across different provinces . In Kampong Chhnang and Siem Reap where the Vietnamese live along the river banks , enrolment into public schools fare below 10 % , whereas in other provinces such as Kampot and Kratie the proportion are higher . As the majority of Vietnamese do not carry citizenship papers , they were unable to enrol their children into public schools . For those who send their children to schools , most of them only attend school for a few years and seldom complete Grade 12 as Vietnamese parents were unable to afford school fees . Vietnamese students also faced difficulties in academic work , as classes are taught exclusively in the Khmer language , and Vietnamese children that grew up speaking Vietnamese at home have limited competency in Khmer . In some Vietnamese communities based in the Tonle Sap and Mekong rivers , there are private schools that are run by Vietnamese community associations and Christian organisations . The private schools cater the teaching of the Vietnamese language , and are mostly attended by children of impoverished families .
= = Economy = =
During the French colonial administration , educated Vietnamese were employed in the civil service administration as secretaries , clerks and bureaucrats . When Cambodia gained independence in 1953 , the Sihanouk @-@ led government phased out most of the Vietnamese civil servants with Cambodians , and they sought employment in banks and commercial enterprises as secretaries and other office @-@ based positions . In the 1960s , urban @-@ dwelling Vietnamese with lower education backgrounds also worked as mechanics in car repair and machine shops owned by Chinese businessmen . Vietnamese immigrants that settled in the countryside worked as fishermen along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong river , and also as rubber plantation workers in Kampong Cham and Kratie provinces .
As most Vietnamese are stateless residents , they seek a living through ad @-@ hoc various industries such as the construction , recycling and prostitution industries or as street pedlars . Vietnamese that live along the Tonle Sap lake and Mekong rivers are subsistence fishermen . A sizeable number of these stateless Vietnamese consisted of migrants that came to Cambodia between 1992 and 1993 during the UNTAC administration . The majority of Vietnamese still live below the poverty line , although a very small number of Vietnamese are represented in the Cambodian business sector . One example is Sok Kong , the head of the business conglomerate Sokimex which owns state concessionaires in the country 's petroleum , tourism and entrepot industries .
= = Relations with community and society = =
= = = Government = = =
Almost 90 % of ethnic Vietnamese are stateless residents of Cambodia , and do not carry citizenship papers such as identity cards or birth certificates . The 1996 Cambodian law on nationality technically permits Vietnamese residents born in Cambodia to take up citizenship , but faced resistance from mid @-@ ranking interior ministry officials who generally refrain from registering Vietnamese residents due to concerns of political implications from opposition parties if citizenship were to be granted . A minority of Vietnamese residents were able to obtain citizenship only after paying bribes to interior ministry officials , or were married to Khmer spouses . The minority of Vietnamese residents who hold citizenship reported of interior ministry officials confiscating their citizenship papers . As a result , the Vietnamese faced legal restrictions from getting access to public healthcare , education , employment and buying land for housing as the majority do not carry Cambodian citizenship . Stateless Vietnamese built floating settlements in @-@ lieu of buying land @-@ based dwellings which require citizenship papers . According to field research carried out by Cambodia 's Minority Rights Organisation , interior ministry officials would confront Vietnamese fishermen in the Tonle Sap and demand bribes in order to allow them to carry out fishing .
= = = Inter @-@ ethnic relations = = =
Ethnic Khmers have a poor perception of the Vietnamese community , due to persistent feelings of communal animosity from the past history of Vietnamese rule over Cambodia . In 1958 , a survey conducted by Donald Willmott upon high school students in Phnom Penh showed that relations with Chinese were generally rated as friendly , whereas Khmer students viewed their Vietnamese classmates with suspicion . Relations between the Vietnamese and Chinese are considerably better , as both ethnic groups share a close cultural affinity . Chinese males sometimes take Vietnamese wives , particularly in Phnom Penh and eastern parts of the country where there are large Chinese and Vietnamese communities . In recent years , field research carried out by Ehrentraut in 2013 suggested that ethnic relations between Vietnamese have deteriorated not only with the ethnic Khmer , but also with the Cham and Chinese Cambodians .
Most Vietnamese are unrepresented in the Cambodian commune councils as they lack Cambodian citizenship . According to respondents from Ehrentraut 's field research , the majority of Cambodian commune chiefs and officials express support in excluding Vietnamese representatives from getting citizenship and participating commune elections and meetings due to contempt . The Vietnamese appoint their own village heads , and convey community concerns Vietnamese community associations ( Vietnamese : Tổng hội người Campuchia gốc Việt ) that was first established in 2003 . The community associations own limited assets and obtains funding from membership fees , donations from the Vietnamese embassy in Cambodia and sale of cemetery land from the Vietnamese communities . The funds are subsequently used to address Vietnamese communal concerns which includes supporting religious places of worship and teaching of the Vietnamese language , as well as providing assistance to disadvantaged families . While the community associations have the tacit support of the Vietnamese community , the majority do not accept membership for fear of getting social stigma from mainstream Cambodian society . As of 2013 , branches of these associations are established in 19 out of 23 provinces across Cambodia .
= = = Politics = = =
The issue of Vietnamese presence in Cambodia has been used as a topic by political parties to shore up electorate support since the 1993 general elections . Mainstream political parties that participated in the 1993 election included FUNCINPEC , BLDP and MOLINAKA , and they broached on topics concerning the presence of Cambodia 's Vietnamese population and perceived Vietnamese interference in the government during campaign trails . These political parties also charged that the presence of Vietnamese in the country were the cause of economic failures , and promises were made to expel the Vietnamese in the situation that they win the elections . During this same period of time , the Khmer Rouge which has earlier refused to participate in the elections also espoused similar anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments with mainstream political parties albeit on a more extreme form . The Khmer Rouge would issue statements and radio broadcasts accusing UNTAC of collaborating with Vietnam , and called for expulsion of the Vietnamese population through force . They would follow up with attacks upon Vietnamese civilians , which continued even after the end of the 1993 elections .
When the 1998 general elections were held , FUNCINPEC and the then @-@ newly formed Sam Rainsy Party repeated the use of anti @-@ Vietnamese rhetoric in their campaigns . The leaders of these two parties , Norodom Ranariddh and Sam Rainsy charged that some stateless Vietnamese had bribed state officials to obtain citizenship and the Vietnamese government still maintained political influence over the ruling party , the Cambodian People 's Party . At the same time , number of incidences of violent attacks against Vietnamese civilians rose , which are carried out by both the Khmer Rouge remnants and Cambodian civilians alike . The number of politically motivated acts of violence against Vietnamese civilians reduced after 2000 , and in the subsequent 2003 and 2008 general elections opposition political parties the use of anti @-@ Vietnamese rhetoric was also reduced . In October 2009 , Sam Rainsy charged Vietnam of encroaching into Cambodian territory in their border demarcation exercise , and led a group of activists to uproot Cambodian @-@ Vietnamese border posts in Svay Rieng . Although Sam Rainsy was sentenced to imprisonment in absentia over this incident , the incident became a major focus in electoral campaigns by the Cambodia National Rescue Party ( CNRP ) for the 2013 general elections . CNRP leaders also stoked claims on historical ties of Kampuchea Krom , and led to more anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments among CNRP supporters . When the CNRP narrowly lost the 2013 elections , they launched a series of anti @-@ government protests between 2013 @-@ 2014 which resulted in incidents of Vietnamese shops in Phnom Penh being ransacked .
The vast majority of the Vietnamese support the CPP , and those who carry Cambodian citizenship would vote for the party . Vietnamese support for the CPP has mostly driven by strong anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments from other political parties . Although many members within the rank and file of the CPP share anti @-@ Vietnamese sentiments with other political parties , the CPP maintained an openly neutral stance towards the Vietnamese community . According to Ehrentraut , the CPP 's neutral stance was a balance between not providing open support for the Vietnamese community , which would have the potential effect of losing electoral votes to other political parties , while at the same time maintaining close ties with the Vietnamese government which the CPP had historical ties dating back to 1979 . Vietnamese who hold Cambodian citizenship have also expressed fear over physical insecurity during election periods , which is most apparent during the 1993 and 2013 elections when Vietnamese civilians faced physical intimidation from the Khmer Rouge and CNRP supporters respectively and have abstained from participating in elections .
= = = Books = = =
Corfield , Justin ( 2009 ) . The History of Cambodia . ABC @-@ CLIO . ISBN 0313357234 .
Heder , Stepher R. ; et al . ( 1995 ) . Propaganda , Politics and Violence in Cambodia : Democratic Transition Under United Nations Peace @-@ Keeping . M.E. Sharpe . ISBN 0765631741 .
Harris , Ian ( 2008 ) . Cambodian Buddhism : History and Practice . University of Hawaii Press . ISBN 0824832981 .
Kuhnt @-@ Saptodewo , Sri ( 1997 ) . Nationalism and Cultural Revival in Southeast Asia : Perspectives from the Centre and the Region . Otto Harrassowitz Verlag . ISBN 3447039582 .
Schliesinger , Joachim ( 2015 ) . Ethnic Groups of Cambodia Vol 2 : Profile of Austro @-@ Asiatic @-@ Speaking Peoples . Booksmango . ISBN 1633232379 .
Willmott , William E. ( 1967 ) . The Chinese in Cambodia . Publications Centre : University of British Columbia . ISBN 0774844418 .
= = = Reports and journals = = =
Amer , Ramses ( 2013 ) . " Domestic Political Change and Ethnic Minorities - A Case Study of the Ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Asia @-@ Pacific Social Science Review ( Institute for security and development policy , Sweden ) 3 ( 2 ) : 87 – 101 . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Ang , Chanrith ( March 2014 ) . " LIMBO ON EARTH : An Investigative Report On the Current Living Conditions and Legal Status of Ethnic Vietnamese in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Minority Rights Organisation . Retrieved 2 March 2015 .
Ehrentraut , Stefan ( 2013 ) . " Challenging Khmer Citizenship : Minorities , the State , and the International Community in Cambodia " ( PDF ) . Asia @-@ Pacific Social Science Review ( Universität Potsdam ) . doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 01419870 @.@ 2010 @.@ 537359 . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Goscha , Christopher E. ( 2008 ) . " Widening the Colonial Encounter : Asian Connections Inside French Indochina During the Interwar Period " ( PDF ) . Modern Asian Studies ( Cambridge University Press ) : 1 – 40 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0026749X0800351X . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
Pen Socheat and Heng Phally ( July 2014 ) . " Cambodia Socio @-@ Economic Survey 2013 " ( PDF ) . National Institute of Statistics , Ministry of Planning , Government of Cambodia . Retrieved 2015 @-@ 01 @-@ 16 .
Tabeau , Ewa ( 30 September 2009 ) . " Demographic Expert Report - Khmer Rouge Victims in Cambodia , April 1975 - January 1979 - A critical Assessment of Major Estimates " ( PDF ) . Extraordinary Chamber in the Courts of Cambodia . Retrieved 1 March 2015 .
= Jack Hinton =
John Daniel " Jack " Hinton , VC ( 17 September 1909 – 28 June 1997 ) was a New Zealand soldier who served during the Second World War . He was awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces , for his actions at Kalamata on 29 April 1941 during the Battle of Greece .
Born in 1909 , Hinton was a foreman at the Public Works Department when the Second World War began . He volunteered for service abroad with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force and was posted to the 20th Battalion . Wounded during the fighting at Kalamata , he was made a prisoner of war and made several escape attempts from camps in Germany . He was freed in April 1945 by advancing American forces . After the war , he managed several hotels and was also involved in horse racing industry until his retirement in 1980 . He died in 1997 at the age of 87 .
= = Early life = =
John Hinton , known as Jack , was born in Colac Bay in Southland , New Zealand , on 17 September 1909 , one of seven children of Harry Hinton , a railway man , and Elizabeth Mary . He was educated at local schools and on most days , before starting lessons , would milk a herd of 40 cows . When he was 12 , he ran away from home after an argument with his father . He found a job at a grocer 's in a nearby town but after a year signed on as a galleyhand aboard a Norwegian whaling ship , which spent the 1921 / 1922 whaling season in the Southern Ocean . On his return , and after reconciling with his parents , he started working as a shepherd . He soon tired of this and began the life of a swagman , working from town to town as he travelled around the South Island .
Hinton spent most of the next several years on the West Coast working in railroad construction , mining for gold , picking fruit , hauling coal , and saw milling . Sport was a passion ; he boxed as a lightweight and also ran foot races and played rugby for Hokitika .
In the 1930s , Hinton found regular employment in the Public Works Department , which was building bridges and roads throughout the West Coast . He gained respect for his honesty and hard @-@ working nature and became a foreman in the department . In 1937 , he invested his earnings into a pub for which his future wife , Eunice Henriksen , had the lease .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of war , Hinton enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) , which was being raised for service abroad . He was posted to the 20th Battalion , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Howard Kippenberger , and based at Burnham Military Camp . One of the older volunteers of the battalion , he was soon promoted to the rank of corporal , and not long after was made a sergeant . The battalion embarked for the Middle East as part of the 4th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division , in January 1940 .
Hinton was not always respectful of military authority . Shortly after the New Zealanders arrived in Egypt , he was commanding a squad practising on a rifle range when visited by the division 's commander , Major General Bernard Freyberg , who asked him how the men were shooting . " How would you expect them to bloody well shoot ? " , replied Hinton , " not enough bloody rations , stinking heat and sand " . Freyberg asked him to repeat the comment , which he did word for word . Freyberg took note of Hinton 's name and instructed him to carry on . There was a subsequent increase in rations , while Hinton was advised by his company commander on how best to speak to senior officers .
= = = Battle of Greece = = =
In March 1941 , the 2nd New Zealand Division was one of several Allied units deployed to Greece to help prepare for an expected invasion by Italian and German troops . When the invasion began on 6 April 1941 , the 20th Battalion briefly saw action at Thermopylae before being withdrawn , but Hinton missed this fighting as he was with the division 's reinforcement battalion , which was initially based in Athens before it moved to the port of Kalamata . It had been decided that the Allied forces would abandon Greece ; at Kalamata , the reinforcement battalion , along with several thousand other , mainly Australian , troops , was awaiting evacuation . On 28 April , the New Zealanders were waiting for transport when advance units of the German 5th Panzer Division began to attack the town with machine @-@ gun fire and self @-@ propelled 6 @-@ inch guns .
Hearing gunfire in the distance , Hinton , wanting to assist in the defence of the Allied positions , went to the headquarters of Brigadier Leonard Parrington , the officer in command of the evacuation . Hinton vehemently protested , in strong language , an order from Parrington to surrender . On being threatened with a court @-@ martial for speaking to a senior officer in such a manner , he issued his own threat of proceedings against Parrington for defeatist talk and then left to determine for himself the situation . Other men of the reinforcement battalion were making preparations to move into the town and face the Germans . In the meantime , Hinton had collected his own party of 12 soldiers and led them into the town but came under fire . Ignoring an order from a nearby officer to retreat , he rushed forward to the nearest enemy gun and , hurling two grenades , killed the crew . He continued towards the town 's waterfront , clearing out two light machine @-@ gun nests and a mortar with grenades , then dealt with the garrison of a house where some of the enemy were sheltering . He then assisted in the capture of an artillery piece , but shortly after was shot in the stomach , immobilised and captured , one of about 6 @,@ 000 Allied soldiers made a prisoner of war ( POW ) .
Officially listed as missing in action until August 1941 , Hinton spent several weeks in a hospital near Athens until he was well enough to be transferred to a POW camp in Germany . In the meantime , a recommendation for the Victoria Cross ( VC ) for Hinton was dispatched by Major George Thomson , a medical officer who had witnessed his actions in Kalamata . After an investigation , a decision was made to award Hinton the VC , which was duly gazetted on 14 October 1941 . The citation read as follows :
On the night of 28th – 29th April , 1941 , during the fighting in Greece , a column of German armoured forces entered Kalamata ; this column , which contained several armoured cars , 2 " guns , and 3 " mortars , and two 6 " guns , rapidly converged on a large force of British and New Zealand troops awaiting embarkation on the beach . When the order to retreat to cover was given , Serjeant Hinton , shouting " to Hell with this , who 'll come with me , " ran to within several yards of the nearest gun ; the gun fired , missing him , and he hurled two grenades which completely wiped out the crew . He then came on with the bayonet followed by a crowd of New Zealanders . German troops abandoned the first 6 " gun and retreated into two houses . Serjeant Hinton smashed the window and then the door of the first house and dealt with the garrison with the bayonet . He repeated the performance in the second house and as a result , until overwhelming German forces arrived , the New Zealanders held the guns . Serjeant Hinton then fell with a bullet wound through the lower abdomen and was taken prisoner .
= = = Prisoner of war = = =
The announcement of Hinton 's VC was made within a week of Lieutenant Charles Upham , another member of the 20th Battalion , being awarded a VC for his actions during the fighting in the Battle of Crete . This prompted a joke that circulated within the battalion : " Join the 20th and get a VC . " While a prisoner of war at Stalag IX @-@ C , Hinton made several escape attempts . He was being punished with solitary confinement for one such attempt when his VC was gazetted . He was paraded before his fellow prisoners and presented with a VC ribbon by the camp 's commandant before being returned to his cell to complete his punishment .
By April 1945 , the Allied advance into Germany threatened Hinton 's POW camp . The Germans evacuated the camp but Hinton , feigning sickness , remained behind . Once the guards had left , he was able to find keys to the gates and let himself out . He soon made contact with soldiers of the United States 6th Armoured Division . Dressed in civilian clothes , he was initially treated with suspicion but soon convinced the Americans of his identity . He borrowed an American uniform and went forward to the frontline with the 44th Infantry Division and assisted in the capture of three villages and rounding up of German POWs . Senior American officers soon found out about Hinton 's presence with their troops and sent him to England , where he arrived on 12 April 1945 .
Hinton remained in England for over three months , awaiting repatriation to New Zealand . During this time , on 11 May 1945 , he received his VC from King George VI at an investiture held at Buckingham Palace . Charles Upham , his comrade from the 20th Battalion , received a bar to his VC at the same ceremony . Transport finally available , Hinton departed for New Zealand in early July and arrived on 4 August 1945 .
= = Later life = =
After returning home , Hinton initially was indecisive about what to do with his life . Like many of his fellow soldiers who had returned home , he struggled to adapt to civilian life . He was also extremely uncomfortable with the public attention he received because of his status as a VC recipient . He eventually found work managing hotels on behalf of Dominion Breweries . He was initially based at the Thistle Hotel , a notorious drinking establishment in Auckland , for three years , during which he received a belated mention in despatches for his escape attempts while a POW . In December 1949 he moved to Hamilton to manage the Hamilton East Hotel . This was the first of many moves up and down the country to manage hotels .
During his time as a hotelier , Hinton made several overseas trips , the first of which was to attend the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . He also regularly attended VC and George Cross celebrations , including the VC centenary in 1956 . In 1963 , Eunice , who Jack had married following the death of her first husband in the 1950s , died from a heart attack . In 1968 , he was married again , to Molly Schumacher , a barmaid at the Onehunga Hotel in Auckland , which Hinton was running at the time . While
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of the Recovered Territories to Poland " after the end of Second World War , was opened on 21 July 1948 by Bolesław Bierut and lasted for 100 days . About 2 million people visited the exhibition and the Iglica monument was built in front of the Centennial Hall in Wrocław .
= = = Consolidation of communist power = = =
Even before the Red Army entered Poland , the Soviet Union was pursuing a deliberate strategy to eliminate anti @-@ communist resistance forces to ensure that Poland would fall under its sphere of influence . In 1943 , following the revelation of the Katyn massacre , Stalin severed relations with the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile in London . However , to appease the United States and the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union agreed at the February 1945 Yalta Conference to allow the formation of a coalition government composed of the communists , including the Polish Workers ' Party ( Polska Partia Robotnicza ; PPR ) , as well as pro @-@ Western elements in exile and in Poland , and subsequently to arrange for free elections to be held .
After the prewar Communist Party of Poland was eliminated in Stalin 's purges in 1938 ( some five thousand Polish communists were brought to Russia and killed ) , a group of survivors , led by Marceli Nowotko , Bolesław Mołojec and Paweł Finder , convinced in 1941 the Soviets in Moscow of the need to reestablish a Polish party . The conspiratorial core of the new Polish Workers ' Party was assembled in Warsaw in January 1942 , and after the deaths or arrests of the above leaders there , Władysław Gomułka emerged as the PPR 's First Secretary by the end of 1943 . Gomułka was a dedicated communist in the national tradition of the Polish leftist movement , who loathed the Soviet practices he experienced while being trained in Russia and Ukraine in the 1930s , but was convinced of the historic necessity of alliance with the Soviet Union . He may have survived the purges because of being imprisoned in Poland for illegal labor @-@ organizing activities in 1938 – 39 . Throughout the German occupation , Gomułka remained in Poland and was not a part of the Moscow @-@ reared Stalin 's Polish circle . In Polish society of 1945 , Gomułka 's party was marginally small in comparison to other political groups .
With the beginning of the liberation of Polish territories and the failure of the Armia Krajowa 's Operation Tempest in 1944 , control over Polish territories passed from the occupying forces of Nazi Germany to the Red Army , and from the Red Army to the Polish communists , formally led by their Polish Committee of National Liberation ( Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego ; PKWN ) , an early government , from late July 1944 in existence in Lublin . The Polish communists became the most influential Polish factor in the politics of emerging Poland , despite having minuscule popular support . PKWN recognized the legal continuity of the March Constitution of Poland , as opposed to the April Constitution . On September 6 , PKWN issued its momentous land reform decree , the consequences of which would fundamentally alter the antiquated social and economic structure of the country . Over one million peasant families benefited from the parceling of the larger estates .
Thus from its outset , the Yalta decision favored the communists , who enjoyed the advantages of Soviet support within the Soviet plan of bringing Eastern Europe securely under the influence of the Soviet Union , as well as control over crucial government departments such as the security services ( this activity was initially dominated by Lavrentiy Beria 's Soviet NKVD ) . Beginning in the later part of 1944 , following the defeat of the Warsaw Uprising and the promotion of the populist program of the PKWN , the London exiled government 's delegation was increasingly seen by the majority of Poles as a failed enterprise , its political @-@ military organizations became isolated , and the resistance against the new communist political and administrative forces decisively weakened . The population was tired of the years of oppression and conflict and the ideas expressed in the PKWN Manifesto and their progressive implementation attracted widening social support . From 1944 in liberated areas , responding to promulgated slogans , workers spontaneously took over existing factory installations , established workers ' councils , undertook reconstruction , activation and production . A considerable labor struggle and compulsion were necessary for the PPR to claim the factories and enforce its own rules .
The PKWN was reshaped into the Provisional Government ( Rząd Tymczasowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej ; RTRP ) , which functioned from January 1945 . This government was headed by Edward Osóbka @-@ Morawski , a socialist , but the communists , mostly non @-@ PPR Soviet employees , such as Michał Rola @-@ Żymierski , held a majority of key posts . In April 1945 , a Polish @-@ Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation was signed ; it severely limited the possibilities of future Western or émigré impact or internal cooperation with non @-@ communist political forces in Poland . The consecutive early Soviet @-@ influenced governments were subordinate to the unelected , communist @-@ controlled parliament , the State National Council ( Krajowa Rada Narodowa ; KRN ) , formed by Gomułka and his PPR in occupied Warsaw in January 1944 . The communist governmental structures were not recognized by the increasingly isolated Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , which had formed its own quasi @-@ parliament , the Council of National Unity ( Rada Jedności Narodowej ; RJN ) .
The Yalta agreement stipulated a governmental union in Poland of " all democratic and anti @-@ Nazi elements " . The prime minister of the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , Stanisław Mikołajczyk , resigned his post in 1944 , and having accepted the Yalta terms went to Moscow , where he negotiated with Bierut the shape of a " national unity " government " . Mikołajczyk , along with several other exiled Polish leaders , returned to Poland in July 1945 .
The new Polish Provisional Government of National Unity ( Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej ; TRJN ) — as the Polish government was called until the elections of 1947 — was established on 28 June 1945 . Osóbka @-@ Morawski was kept as prime minister , Gomułka became first deputy prime minister and Mikołajczyk second deputy and minister of agriculture . The government was " provisional " and the Potsdam Conference soon declared that before a regular government is created , free elections must be held and a permanent constitutional system established .
The communists ' principal rivals were the veterans of the Armia Krajowa movement , Mikołajczyk 's Polish People 's ( Peasant ) Party ( Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe ; PSL ) , and the veterans of the Polish armies which had fought in the West . Of particular practical importance was Mikołajczyk 's People 's Party , because it was legally recognized by the communists and thus able to function within the political arena . The People 's Party wanted to prevent the communists from monopolizing power and eventually establish a parliamentary polity with a market economy by winning the promised elections . Mikołajczyk hoped that an independent Polish state , friendly with the Soviet Union , would be allowed to act as a bridge between the east and the west .
Soviet @-@ oriented parties , backed by the Soviet Red Army and in control of the security forces , held most of the power , concentrated especially in the Polish Workers ' Party under Władysław Gomułka and Bolesław Bierut . Bierut represented the influx of appointees to the Polish party coming ( during and after the war ) from the Soviet Union and imposed by the Soviets , a process accelerated at the time of the PPR Congress of December 1945 . The Party 's membership dramatically increased from perhaps a few thousand in early 1945 to over one million in 1948 .
As a show of communist rule and Soviet domination , sixteen prominent leaders of the Polish anti @-@ Nazi underground were brought to trial in Moscow in June 1945 . Their removal from the political scene precluded the possibility of a democratic transition called for by the Yalta agreements . The trial of the defendants , falsely and absurdly accused of collaboration with the Nazis , was watched by British and American diplomats without protest . The absence of the expected death sentences was their relief . The exiled government in London , after Mikołajczyk 's resignation led by Tomasz Arciszewski , ceased to be officially recognized by Great Britain and the United States on 5 July 1945 .
In the years 1945 – 47 , about 500 @,@ 000 Soviet soldiers were stationed in Poland . Between 1945 and 1948 , some 150 @,@ 000 Poles were imprisoned by the Soviet authorities . Many former Home Army members were apprehended and executed . During the PPR Central Committee Plenum of May 1945 , Gomułka complained that the Polish masses regard the Polish communists as the " NKVD 's worst agency " and Edward Ochab declared the withdrawal of the Soviet Army from Poland a high priority . But in the meantime tens of thousands of Poles died in the postwar struggle and persecution and tens of thousands were sentenced by courts on fabricated and arbitrary charges or deported to the Soviet Union . The status of Soviet troops in Poland was not legalized until late 1956 , when the Polish @-@ Soviet declaration " On the legal status of Soviet forces temporarily stationed in Poland " was signed . The Soviet Northern Group of Forces would be permanently stationed in Poland .
= = = Rigged elections , defeat of Mikołajczyk = = =
Stalin had promised at the Yalta Conference that free elections would be held in Poland . However , the Polish communists , led by Gomułka and Bierut , while having no intention of giving up power , were also aware of the limited support they enjoyed among the general population . To circumvent this difficulty , in 1946 a national plebiscite , known as the " 3 times YES " referendum ( 3 razy TAK ; 3 × TAK ) , was held first , before the parliamentary elections . The referendum comprised three fairly general , but politically charged questions about the Senate , national industries and western borders . It was meant to check and promote the popularity of communist initiatives in Poland . Since most of the important parties at the time were leftist or centrist – and could have easily approved all three options – Mikołajczyk 's Polish People 's Party ( PSL ) decided , not to be seen as merging into the " Government Bloc " , to ask its supporters to oppose one of them : the abolition of the Senate . The communists voted " 3 times YES " . The partial results , reconstructed by the PSL , showed that the communist side was met with little support ; in Kraków where the actual ballots were counted , only 16 % of the population voted in favor of their proposed Option One . However , the large @-@ scale electoral fraud and intimidation won the communists a claimed majority of 68 % in the carefully controlled poll , which led to the nationalization of industry and state control of economic activity in general , land reform , and a unicameral national parliament ( Sejm ) .
The communists consolidated power by gradually whittling away the rights of their non @-@ communist foes , particularly by suppressing the leading opposition party – Mikołajczyk 's PSL . In some widely publicized cases , the perceived enemies were being sentenced to death on trumped up charges — among them Witold Pilecki , the organizer of the Auschwitz resistance , and numerous leaders of Armia Krajowa and the Council of National Unity . Many resistance fighters were murdered extrajudicially , or forced to exile . The opposition members were also persecuted by administrative means . Although the ongoing persecution of the former anti @-@ Nazi and right @-@ wing organizations by state security kept some partisans in the forests , the actions of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland ( UB , Polish secret police ) , NKVD and the Red Army steadily diminished their numbers . The right @-@ wing insurgency radically decreased after the amnesty of July 1945 and faded after the amnesty of February 1947 .
By 1946 , all rightist parties had been outlawed , and a new pro @-@ government Democratic Bloc was formed in 1947 which included only the Polish Workers ' Party and its leftist allies . On 19 January 1947 , the first parliamentary elections took place featuring primarily PPR and allied candidates and a potentially politically potent opposition from the Polish People 's Party , whose strength and role had already been seriously compromised due to government control and persecution . Results were adjusted by Stalin himself to suit the communists , whose bloc claimed 80 % of the votes . The British and American governments protested the poll for its blatant violations of the Yalta and Potsdam accords . The rigged elections effectively ended the multiparty system in Poland 's politics . After the referendum dress rehearsal , the vote fraud was much better concealed and spread into various forms and stages and its actual scale is not known . With all the pressure and manipulations , a NKVD colonel charged with the election supervision reported to Stalin that about 50 % of the vote was cast for the regime 's Democratic Bloc nationwide . In the new Sejm , out of 444 seats , 27 were given to Mikołajczyk 's party . Stanisław Mikołajczyk , who declared the results to be falsified and was threatened with arrest or worse , fled the country and other opposition leaders also left . Western governments did not act further and the Poles felt abandoned again . In the same year , the new Sejm created the Small Constitution of 1947 . Over the next two years , the communists monopolized their political power in Poland .
= = = Polish United Workers ' Party and its rule = = =
Additional force in Polish politics , the long @-@ established Polish Socialist Party ( Polska Partia Socjalistyczna , PPS ) , suffered a fatal split at this time , as the ruling Stalinists applied the salami tactics to dismember the opposition . Communist politicians cooperated with the left @-@ wing PPS faction led by Józef Cyrankiewicz , prime minister under new president Bierut from February 1947 . The socialists ' originally tactical decision to collaborate with the communists resulted in their institutional demise . Cyrankiewicz visited Stalin in Moscow in March 1948 to discuss the idea of a party merger . The Kremlin , increasingly uncomfortable with Gomułka 's communist party leadership , concurred , and Cyrankiewicz secured his own political place for the future ( until 1972 ) . In December 1948 , after the removal of Gomułka and imposition of Bierut as the communist Polish Workers ' Party chief , the PPR and Cyrankiewicz 's rump PPS joined ranks to form the Polish United Workers ' Party ( Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza ; PZPR ) , in power for the next four decades . Poland became a de facto one @-@ party state and a satellite state of the Soviet Union . Only two other parties were allowed to exist legally : United People 's Party , a small farmers ' party , and the Democratic Party , a token intelligentsia party ( see also : political organization in Poland 1945 – 1989 ) .
As the period of Sovietization and Stalinism began , the PZPR was anything but united . The most important split among the communists occurred before the union with PPS , when the Stalinists forced Gomułka out of the PPR 's top office and suppressed his native communist faction . The PZPR had become divided into several factions , which espoused different views and methods and sought different degrees of the Polish state 's distinction and independence from the Soviet Union . While the official ideology , the Russian version of Marxism , was new to Poland , the communist regime continued , in many psychologically and practically important ways , the precepts , methods and manners of past Polish ruling circles , including those of the Sanation , the National Democracy , and the 19th century traditions of cooperation with the partitioning powers .
With Poland being a member of the Soviet Bloc , the Party 's pursuits of power and reform were permanently hindered by the restrictions and limits imposed by the rulers of the Soviet Union , by the resentful attitude of Polish society , acutely conscious of its lack of national independence and freedoms , and by the understanding of the Party managers that their positions would terminate once they stop conforming to the requirements of the Soviet alliance ( because of both the lack of public support and Soviet reaction ) . Poland 's political history was governed by the mutual dependence of the Soviets and the Polish communists .
The nomenklatura political elite developed . It comprised leaders , administrators and managers within the ruling party structure , in all branches of central and local government and in institutions of all kinds . The nomenklatura members were appointed by the Party and exercised political control in all spheres of public life , for example economic development , industry management or education . For the Party , the privileged nomenklatura layer was maintained to assure the proper placement of people who were ideologically reliable and otherwise qualified , but the revisionist dissidents Jacek Kuroń and Karol Modzelewski later described this system as a class dictatorship of central political bureaucracy for its own sake . The Polish public widely approved the many social undertakings of the communist government , including family apartment construction , child care , worker vacation and resorts , health care and full employment policies , but the special privileges granted nomenklatura and the security services were resented .
= = Stalinist era ( 1948 – 56 ) = =
= = = Removal of Gomułka , Stalinist repressions = = =
As in other Eastern Bloc countries , there was a Soviet @-@ style political purge of communist officials in Poland after 1948 , accused of " nationalist " or other " deviationist " tendencies . In September , Władysław Gomułka who opposed Stalin 's direct control of the Polish PPR party , was charged , together with a group of communist leaders who like Gomułka spent the war in Poland , with ideological departure from Leninism , and dismissed from the post of the Party 's first secretary . Gomułka , accused of " right @-@ wing nationalist deviations " , had indeed emphasized the Polish socialist traditions and severely criticized Rosa Luxemburg 's SDKPiL party for belittling Polish national aspirations . More insidiously , the Soviets claimed Gomułka 's participation in an anti @-@ Soviet international conspiracy . Following Bolesław Bierut 's order , he was arrested by the Ministry of Public Security ( MBP ) in early August 1951 and interrogated by Romkowski and Fejgin , as demanded by the Soviets . Gomułka was not subjected to physical torture unlike other communists persecuted under the regime of Bierut , Jakub Berman and other Stalin 's associates . Under interrogation he defiantly conducted his defense , threatened to reveal " the whole truth " if put on a trial , and remained unbroken . Gomułka was thus placed in prison without a typical show trial until released in December 1954 . Bierut , heading the victorious PPR faction whose members spent the war in the Soviet Union , replaced Gomułka as the PPR ( and then the PZPR ) leader . Gomułka remained protected by his Polish comrades to the best of their ability and the record of his sometime defiance came in handy when in 1956 there was an opportunity for the Polish party to reassert itself .
The Stalinist government was controlled by Polish communists originating from wartime factions and organizations operating in the Soviet Union under Stalin , such as the Union of Polish Patriots . Their leaders at that time included Wanda Wasilewska and Zygmunt Berling . Now in Poland , those who remained politically active and in favor ruled the country , aided by the MBP and Soviet " advisers " , who were placed in every arm of the government and state security as a guarantee of the pro @-@ Soviet policy of the state . The most important of them was Konstantin Rokossovsky ( Konstanty Rokossowski in Polish ) , defense minister of Poland from 1949 to 1956 , former marshal and war hero in the Soviet Armed Forces . Military conscription was introduced following a postwar hiatus and , under the careful tutelage of the Soviet advisers , the army soon reached its permanent size of 400 @,@ 000 men .
The Soviet @-@ style secret police and the central security office Urząd Bezpieczeństwa ( UB ) grew to around 32 @,@ 000 agents as of 1953 . At its Stalinist peak , there was one UB agent for every 800 Polish citizens . The MBP was also in charge of the Internal Security Corps , the Civil Militia ( MO ) , border guard , prison staff and paramilitary police ORMO used for special actions ( with over 100 @,@ 000 members ) . The ORMO originated from popular self @-@ defense efforts , a spontaneous reaction to the explosion of crime in the power vacuum of 1944 – 45 . In February 1946 the PPR channeled and formalized this citizen militia movement , creating its ostensibly crime control voluntary ORMO structure .
Primarily in Stalin 's lifetime , the public prosecutors and judges as well as functionaries of the MBP , Służba Bezpieczeństwa and the GZI WP military police engaged in acts recognized by international law as crimes against humanity and crimes against peace . One example was the torture and execution of seven members of the 4th Headquarters of the combatant post @-@ Home Army Freedom and Independence ( WiN ) organization in the Mokotów Prison in Warsaw , after the official amnesty and their voluntary disclosure . All executed members of the WiN took active part in anti @-@ Nazi resistance during World War II . The postwar Polish Army , intelligence and police were full of Soviet NKVD officers who stationed in Poland with the Northern Group of Forces until 1956 .
Mass arrests continued during the early 1950s . In October 1950 , 5 @,@ 000 people were arrested in one night , in the so @-@ called " Operation K " . It was during these suppressions that the new constitution of July 1952 was promulgated and the state officially became the Polish People 's Republic . In 1952 over 21 @,@ 000 people were arrested , and according to official data , by the second half of 1952 there were 49 @,@ 500 political prisoners being held . In one very shocking case , the former Home Army commander Emil Fieldorf was subjected to several years of brutal persecution in the Soviet Union and Poland before being executed in February 1953 , just before Stalin 's death .
Resistance to the Soviet and native Stalinists was widespread among not only the general population but also the PZPR ranks , which limited the oppressive system 's damage in Poland to well below that of other European communist @-@ ruled countries . Political violence after 1947 was not widespread . The Church , subjected to partial property confiscations , remained largely intact , the marginalized to a considerable degree intelligentsia retained its potential to affect future reforms , the peasantry avoided wholesale collectivization and remnants of private enterprise survived . Gradual liberalizing changes took place between Stalin 's death in 1953 and the Polish October of 1956 .
= = = Nationalization and centrally planned economy = = =
In February 1948 , Minister of Industry Hilary Minc attacked the Central Planning Office of Poland as a " bourgeois " remnant , the Office was abolished and the Polish Stalinist economy was born . The government , headed by President Bierut , Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz and Marxist economist Minc , embarked on a sweeping program of economic reform and national reconstruction . Poland was brought into line with the Soviet model of a " people 's republic " and centrally planned socialist economy , in place of the façade of democracy and partial market economy which the regime had maintained until 1948 .
The relationships of ownership of the industry , the banking sector and rural property after the nationalization and the land reform were fundamentally altered . The changes , implemented in the name of egalitarianism , enjoyed broad societal approval and support .
The structure of the Polish economy was established in the late 1940s and the early 1950s . Soviet @-@ style planning begun in 1950 with the Six @-@ Year Plan . The plan focused on rapid development of heavy industry ( " accelerated industrialization " driven by Soviet military demands ) and ( eventually futile ) collectivization of agriculture . Among the main projects was the Lenin Steelworks and its supporting " socialist city " of Nowa Huta ( New Steel Mill ) , both built from the scratch in the early 1950s near Kraków , of which Nowa Huta soon became a part . The land seized from prewar large landowners was redistributed to the poorer peasants , but subsequent attempts at taking the land from farmers for collectivization met wide resentment . In what became known as the battle for trade , the private trade and industry were nationalized . Within few years most private shops disappeared from Poland . The regime embarked on the campaign of collectivization ( State Agricultural Farms were created ) , although the pace of this change was slower than in other Soviet satellites . Poland remained the only Eastern Bloc country where individual peasants would continue to dominate agriculture . A Soviet @-@ Polish trade treaty , initiated in January 1948 , dictated the dominant direction of Poland 's future foreign trade and economic cooperation .
In 1948 the United States announced the Marshall Plan initiative to help rebuild postwar Europe and thus gain more political power there . After initially welcoming the idea of Poland 's participation in the plan , the Polish government declined the American offer under pressure from Moscow . Also , following the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany , Poland was forced by the Soviet Union to give up its claims to compensation from Germany , which as a result paid no significant compensation for war damages , either to the Polish state or to Polish citizens . Poland received compensation in the form of land and property left behind by the German population of the annexed western territories .
Despite the lack of American aid , the East European " command economies " , including Poland , made some progress in bridging the historically existing wealth gap with the market economy driven Western Europe . Because of the capital accumulation the Polish national income grew in real terms by over 76 % and the agricultural and industrial production more than doubled between 1947 and 1950 . The economic transition and industrialization were accompanied and made possible by massive social transformations , as peasants migrated and were converted into city dwelling working class ( 1 @.@ 8 million between 1946 and 1955 ) and the country went through a period of rapid urbanization . The influx of cheap labor and the availability of the Soviet market facilitated an accumulation of resources , despite low productivity and insufficient investment in new technologies . The centrally planned socialist economies of Eastern Europe did relatively better than the West in terms of the post @-@ war years growth , only to sustain economic damage later , especially after the 1973 oil crisis . However , the rise in living standards caused by the earlier industrial dynamics was not comparable to that in the West .
= = = Reforms , resistance and beginning of de @-@ Stalinization = = =
The last Polish – Soviet territorial exchange took place in 1951 . Some 480 km2 ( 185 sq mi ) of land along the border were swapped between Poland and the Soviet Union . The adjustment was made to the decisive economic benefit of the Soviet side due to rich deposits of coal given up by Poland . Within eight years following the exchange , the Soviets built four large coal mines there , producing 15 million tons of coal annually . Poland increased its area of scenic wooded ecosystems in the western part of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains and its territory became even more compact .
The constitution of 1952 guaranteed universal free health care . The large state @-@ owned enterprises provided to employees an extensive range of welfare and leisure activities , including housing , sports facilities and hospitals , which started to diminish in the 1970s . In the early 1950s , the Stalinist regime also carried out major changes to the education system . The communist program of free and compulsory school education for all , and the establishment of new free universities , received much support . The communists screened out what facts and interpretations were to be taught ; history and other sciences had to follow Marxist views approved by ideological censorship . During 1951 – 53 , a large number of prewar professors who were perceived as " reactionary " by the new regime was dismissed from universities . The government control over art and artists deepened . The Soviet @-@ style socialist realism became the only formula accepted by the authorities after 1949 . Most works of art and literature presented to the public had to be in line with the views of the Party and thus present its propaganda ( see also : Socialist realism in Poland ) .
The reforms often brought relief for a significant part of the population . After the Second World War many people were willing to accept communist rule in exchange for the restoration of relatively normal life ; hundreds of thousands joined the communist party and actively supported the regime . Nonetheless , a latent popular discontent remained present . Many Poles adopted an attitude that might be called " resigned cooperation " . Others , like some of the remnants of the Home Army , the Freedom and Independence organization that originated from it and especially the National Armed Forces , actively opposed the communists , hoping for a World War III that would liberate Poland . Those who took up arms against the communist regime are collectively known as the cursed soldiers . Most had surrendered during the amnesty of 1947 , but brutal repressions by the secret police continued and some fought well into the 1950s .
The communists further alienated many Poles by persecuting the Catholic Church . The PAX Association created in 1947 and led by the former prewar far @-@ right activist Bolesław Piasecki , attempted to divide the Catholic movement and promote a communist rule @-@ friendly , collaborationist church . The PAX did not get very far in molding the Catholic public opinion , but published numerous books and officially approved daily Catholic press . In 1953 the Primate of Poland , Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński was placed under house arrest , even though before he had been willing to make compromises with the government . In the early 1950s , the war against religion by the secret police led to the arrest and torture of hundreds of Polish religious personalities , culminating in the Stalinist show trial of the Kraków Curia . The Office of the Council of Ministers ( government ) produced a list of regime @-@ approved bishops . See also : Polish anti @-@ religious campaign .
The constitution of 1952 on paper guaranteed all sorts of democratic rights and freedoms . In reality , the country was controlled extra @-@ constitutionally by the Polish United Workers ' Party , which used its own rules and practices to supervise all governmental institutions specified in the constitution . The post of President of Poland was replaced with the collective Council of State , but Bierut , the Party 's first secretary , remained the effective leader of Poland . In the future , the existence of a constitution with democratic provisions would give the opposition a legal tool and a way to pressure the regime .
Stalin died in 1953 , which was followed by a partial thaw in Poland . Nikita Khrushchev became first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . The PZPR 's Second Congress deliberated in March 1954 . Cyrankiewicz , previously replaced by Bierut , was returned to the post of prime minister ( to remain in this capacity until December 1970 ) . The Six @-@ Year Plan was adjusted to increase production of items for popular consumption . Khrushchev , present at the Congress , asked Bierut for the reasons of the continuing detention of Gomułka , " a good communist " ; Bierut denied having specific knowledge of Gomułka 's imprisonment .
Following the defection to the West and revelations of its official Józef Światło , the Ministry of Public Security was abolished in December 1954 . Gomułka and his associates were freed from confinement and censorship was slightly relaxed . The two notable periodicals braving the prohibitions were Po prostu [ Simply ] and Nowa Kultura [ The New Culture ] ( Po prostu was closed down and its defenders brutally pacified in October 1957 , just one year after Gomułka 's rise to power ) . From early 1955 , the Polish press engaged in criticizing the Stalinist recent past and praising the older Polish socialist traditions ( social democratic Marxism and national independence ) . Political discussion clubs were on the rise throughout the country . The Party itself appeared to be moving in the social democratic direction . Leftist intellectuals , who had joined the Party because of their commitment to social justice , were heading in that direction more decisively and they soon gave rise to the Polish revisionism movement .
In February 1956 Khrushchev denounced Stalin 's cult of personality at the 20th Congress of the Soviet Communist Party and embarked on a reform course . The de @-@ Stalinization of official Soviet ideology left Poland 's Stalinist hardliners in a difficult position . While unrest and desire for reform and change among both intellectuals and workers was beginning to surface throughout the Eastern Bloc , the death of Stalin 's ally Bierut in March 1956 in Moscow ( the veteran hardliner chief was attending the Soviet party 's congress ) exacerbated an existing split in the Polish party . In March Bierut was succeeded by Edward Ochab as first secretary . As the 20th Congress launched also a process of partial democratisation of Polish political and economic life , Ochab engaged in reforms intended to promote industrial decentralization and improve living standards .
The number of security agents was cut by 22 % and , by a widespread amnesty , 35 @,@ 000 detainees across the entire country were released . 9 @,@ 000 imprisoned for political reasons were freed in all . Hardline Stalinists , such as Jakub Berman , Roman Romkowski and Anatol Fejgin , were removed from power , some arrested . Berman , dismissed in May , by Gomułka 's decision was never prosecuted . Under Gomułka , a few perpetrators of Stalinist crimes were prosecuted and sentenced to prison terms . A much broader plan to charge the responsible and verify all of the security apparatus was formally presented by the prosecutors , but the action was not approved by Gomułka , who counted among the Stalinist persecution victims , as did his wife . Gomułka conducted some purges and reforms but did not want to destabilize the security system , now under his control , by wide @-@ ranging formal prosecutions .
= = Gomułka 's road to socialism ( 1956 – 70 ) = =
= = = Polish October = = =
Beginning on 28 June 1956 , workers in the industrial city of Poznań , who had repeatedly , but in vain petitioned the authorities to intervene and improve their deteriorating situation , went on strike and rioted in response to a cut in wages and changed working conditions . Demonstrations by factory workers turned into a huge city @-@ wide protest . 16 tanks , 2 armoured personnel carriers and 30 vehicles were brought to bear by a local military commander . Some of them were seized by the protesters , who also broke into the local government buildings . 57 people were killed and several hundred injured in two days of fighting . Several major military formations entered the scene , but the army 's role was mainly that of support of the police and the security forces action . At the Poznań radio station , Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz in his widely publicized speech warned and threatened the rioters : he " … who will dare raise his hand against the people 's rule may be sure that … the authorities will chop off his hand " . Of the 746 people officially detained during and in the aftermath of the disturbances , almost 80 % were workers . The authorities launched an investigation , attempting to uncover a claimed premeditated instigation and involvement by Western or anticommunist underground centers . Such efforts were unsuccessful and the events were found to have been spontaneous and locally supported . The Poznań revolt 's lasting impact was that it caused a deeper and more liberal realignment within the Polish communist party and its relationship to Moscow .
Deeply shaken by the protests and violence , the 7th Plenum of the Central Committee , held in July 1956 , split into two groups , the " ethno @-@ nationalist " Natolin and the " reformist " Puławy factions , named after the locations where they held their meetings . Natolin consisted largely of communist officials from the army and state security , including Mieczysław Moczar , Zenon Kliszko and Zenon Nowak , who advocated the removal of " Stalin 's Jewish protégés " , but were themselves of Stalinist sympathies . Puławy faction included communists of Jewish origin from the security apparatus , many of whom spent the war in the Soviet Union , disillusioned opportunists , and members of the old communist intelligentsia . Many were former Stalinist fanatics , past Gomułka 's enemies , now turned liberal reformers , supporters of Gomułka 's return to power . Both factions supported the Sovietization of Poland with somewhat different aims , but the staunch Stalinists lacked the support of Khrushchev . The regime turned to conciliation : wage rises and other reforms for the Poznań workers were announced . In the Party and among the intellectuals demands calling for wider reforms of the Stalinist system were becoming more widespread and intense .
Realizing the need for new leadership , in what became known as the Polish October , the Politburo chose Gomułka , who had been released from prison and reinstated in the Party , and the Central Committee 's 8th Plenum elected him without a Soviet approval the new first secretary of the PZPR . Subsequently Gomułka convinced the Soviet leaders that he would preserve the Soviet influence in Poland . Gomułka 's elevation was preceded by ominous Soviet military moves and an arrival of Soviet high @-@ level delegation led by Khrushchev , which flew into Warsaw to witness and influence the upheaval in the Polish party . After the sometimes confrontational encounters and negotiations , they soon returned to Moscow , where the Soviet leader announced on 21 October that the idea of an armed intervention in Poland should be abandoned . This position was soon reinforced by the pressure from communist China , which expressed its great power aspirations and demanded that the Soviets leave the new Polish leadership alone . On 21 October in Warsaw Gomułka 's return to power was accomplished , giving rise to the era of national communism in Poland . Gomułka pledged to dismantle Stalinism and in his acceptance speech raised numerous social democratic @-@ sounding reformist ideas , giving hope to the left @-@ wing revisionists and others in Polish society that the communist state was , after all , reformable . The revisionists replaced and claimed to represent the worker movement , recently defeated in Poznań . The main goals in pursuit of which they engaged were political freedom and self @-@ management in state enterprises . However , the end of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe was nowhere in sight . On 14 May 1955 , the Warsaw Pact was signed in the Polish capital , to counteract the earlier establishment of NATO .
Many Soviet officers serving in the Polish Armed Forces were dismissed , but very few Stalinist officials were put on trial for the repressions of the Bierut period . The Puławy faction argued that mass trials of Stalinist officials , many of them Jewish , would incite animosity toward the Jews . Konstantin Rokossovsky and other Soviet advisers were sent home , and the Polish communist establishment and system took on a more independent orientation . Gomułka realized that the Soviets would never allow Poland to leave the Warsaw Pact because of Poland 's strategic position between the Soviet Union and Germany . He agreed that Soviet troops could remain in Poland and that no overt anti @-@ Soviet outbursts would be allowed . However , Gomułka formalized the Polish @-@ Soviet relations and the unprecedented , in the Soviet @-@ allied state relations , military cooperation treaty signed in December 1956 stated that the stationing of the Soviet forces in Poland " can in no way violate the sovereignty of the Polish state and cannot lead to their interference in internal matters of the Polish People 's Republic " . Poland avoided the risk of a Soviet armed intervention of the kind that crushed the 1956 Hungarian Revolution in October . Gomułka had a pragmatic awareness of political realities and for the duration of his career he rewarded the Soviets for his internal leeway with loyal support . In one act of defiance , the Polish delegation at the United Nations abstained in November 1956 from the vote condemning the Soviet intervention in Hungary .
There were repeated attempts by some Polish academics and philosophers , many related to the prewar Lwów – Warsaw school – such as Leszek Kołakowski , Stanisław Ossowski and Adam Schaff – to develop a specific form of Polish Marxism . Their attempts to create a bridge between Poland 's history and Marxist ideology were mildly successful , although stifled due to the regime 's unwillingness to risk the wrath of the Soviet Union for deviating too far from the Soviet party line . Kołakowski , a leading revisionist , was verbally attacked by Gomułka in 1957 , expelled from the Party in 1966 and in 1968 had to emigrate .
= = = Scaling back of campaign promises = = =
Poland welcomed Gomułka 's rise to power with relief . Many Poles still rejected communism , but the realities of Soviet dominance dictated that Poland could not shake @-@ off communist rule . Gomułka promised an end to police terror , greater intellectual and religious freedom , higher wages , and the reversal of collectivization ; and to some degree he fulfilled these promises . Although little changed socioeconomically , the intelligentsia experienced significant gains felt as " a certain diversity and revitalization of elite public life " . The dissident Club of the Crooked Circle , a discussion group considered a precursor of the KOR , survived until 1962 . Other forms of collective community expression and a legally guaranteed academic autonomy lasted until the 1968 Polish political crisis . The academic discourse was in marked contrast to the treatment afforded to workers , whose self @-@ management councils that had spontaneously formed in 1956 were neutralized and brought under control of the Party by 1958 . In the communist era , because of their class role in the official ideology and leadership 's sensibilities , workers enjoyed some clout and a degree of protection of their economic interests , on the condition that they refrained from engaging in independent politics or publicly exerting pressure .
In October 1957 , Poland 's foreign minister Adam Rapacki proposed a European nuclear @-@ free zone that would include the territories of Poland , West Germany , East Germany and Czechoslovakia . In August 1961 the new Berlin Wall cemented the division of Europe .
After the first wave of reform , Gomułka 's regime started to move back on their promises . The communist control over the mass media and universities was gradually tightened , and many of the younger and more reformist members of the Party were forced out . The reform @-@ promising Gomułka of 1956 turned into the authoritarian Gomułka of the 1960s . Although Poland enjoyed a period of relative stability in that decade , the idealism of the " Polish October " faded away . The decisions made at the XIII Plenum of the Central Committee ( 1963 ) meant a definite end of the post @-@ October liberalization period . The demise of Gomułka 's tactical allies , the Puławy faction , gradually replaced by Gomułka 's own people , was marked by the removal from the Politburo of Roman Zambrowski , the leading Jewish politician .
Poland under Gomułka 's rule was generally described as one of the more " liberal " communist regimes . However , Poles could still go to prison for writing political satire about the Party leader , as Janusz Szpotański did , or for publishing a book abroad . A March 1964 " Letter of the 34 " , signed by leading intellectuals and delivered to the office of Prime Minister Cyrankiewicz , criticized the worsening censorship and demanded a more open cultural policy , as guaranteed by the Constitution . Jacek Kuroń and Karol Modzelewski were expelled from the Party and from 1965 imprisoned for written criticism ( the Open Letter to the Party ) of the Party rule and pointing out the contradictory nature of the supposedly workers ' state . Kuroń and Modzelewski accused the regime of betraying the revolutionary cause ; like many younger Polish reformers , they spoke from leftist positions and were ideologically closely aligned with Western radicals of the 1960s .
In the following years , the regime became steadily less liberal and more repressive . Gomułka 's popularity declined as his initial vision lost its impetus . He reacted to increasing criticism by refusing to budge and insulating himself with the help of cronies , of whom Zenon Kliszko was the most influential . Kliszko 's advice in the long run turned out not to be constructive . Intellectuals , students and other Poles became disillusioned and frustrated with Gomułka regime 's record and his own self @-@ righteous style . Within the Party , the Minister of the Interior Mieczysław Moczar and his nationalist @-@ communist faction , " the Partisans " ( and the much broader system of political clientele known as Moczarowcy ) , were looking for an opportunity to assert their dominance .
By the mid @-@ 1960s , Poland was starting to experience also economic difficulties and the appreciable thus far standard of living improvements were showing signs of stagnation ( during 1960 – 70 real wages for workers grew only by an average of 1 @.@ 8 % per year ) . The postwar economic boom was ending and the increasingly globalized and integrated world economy was becoming inhospitable to national development operating behind trade barriers . Similar to other communist regimes , Poland was spending too much on heavy industry , armaments and prestige projects , and too little on consumer production . The failure of Soviet @-@ style collectivization returned the collectivized land to the peasants , but most of their farms were too small to be prosperous and productivity in agriculture remained low . Economic relations with West Germany were frozen due to East German interference and resistance to economic integration . Gomułka attributed the signs of economic decline to the faulty implementation of the fundamentally correct directions issued by the central organs of the Party . He failed to appreciate the corrective role of the market , whose feedback could not be replaced by theoretical computations , planning and administrative decisions . On the other hand , pursuing conservative investment rather than consumption oriented economic policies , his regime generated no foreign debt .
From 1960 , the regime increasingly implemented anti @-@ Catholic policies , including harassment , atheistic propaganda , and measures that made carrying out religious practices more difficult . In 1965 , the Conference of Polish Bishops issued the Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops . In 1966 , the celebrations of the 1,000th anniversary of the Baptism of Poland led by the Primate , Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński and other bishops , who toured the country , turned into a huge demonstration of the power and popularity of the Catholic Church in Poland . In fierce competition , the state authorities conducted their own national celebrations , stressing the origin of the Polish statehood , but the display of the Polish Church hierarchy 's command of enormous crowds in a land ruled by the communists must have impressed the Catholic prelates in the Vatican and elsewhere . The state @-@ church dialogue , symbolized by the presence of the few Znak independent Catholic deputies in parliament , was rapidly deteriorating .
= = = 1968 events = = =
By the 1960s , rival regime officials and their followers , generally people of a younger generation , had begun to plot against the rule of Gomułka and his associates . Poland 's security chief Mieczysław Moczar , a wartime communist partisan commander , based his appeal on nationalistic rhetoric combined with anti @-@ intelligentsia and anti @-@ Jewish sentiments and became the chief challenger . The party leader in Upper Silesia , Edward Gierek , who had become involved with the communist movement as a teenage mining industry laborer in France , also emerged as a possible alternative leader . Gierek was favored by the more pragmatic and technocratic members of the nomenklatura . From January 1968 , Polish revisionist opposition and other circles were strongly influenced by the developing movement of the Prague Spring .
In March 1968 , student demonstrations at Warsaw University broke out in the wake of the government 's banning of the performance of a play by Adam Mickiewicz ( Dziady , written in 1824 ) at the National Theatre in Warsaw earlier that year , because of its alleged " anti @-@ Soviet references " . Subsequently state security and ORMO units attacked protesting university students in several major cities .
In what became known as the March 1968 events , Moczar used the spontaneous and informal celebrations of the outcome of the 1967 Arab – Israeli war and the Warsaw theatre affair as pretexts to launch an anti @-@ intellectual and anti @-@ Semitic ( officially designated as " anti @-@ Zionist " ) press campaign , whose real goal was to weaken the pro @-@ reform liberal party faction and attack other circles . Thousands of generally secular and integrated people of Jewish origin lost their employment and some 15 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated between 1967 and 1971 . Of prewar Europe 's largest Jewish community , only several thousand people remained in Poland .
Other victims were college students , many of whom were expelled from their institutions and had their careers destroyed , academic teachers who tried to defend the students and the academic institutions themselves : Warsaw University had several departments administratively dissolved . Liberal intelligentsia members , Jewish or not , were removed from the government and other places of employment . Leftist intellectuals and student leaders lost what was left of their faith in the ostensibly socialist government . Finally the Party itself was purged of many thousand suspect members , people who somehow did not fit the new environment of intolerance and hatred . The 1968 purges meant also the beginning of a large scale generational replacement of the Party executive membership , a process that continued into the early 1970s , after Gomułka 's departure . The prewar communist cadres were removed and people whose careers were formed in People 's Poland took their place , which , early in his term , gave Gomułka 's successor Edward Gierek one of the youngest in Europe elites of power .
The revisionist dissident prominence in the 1968 events overshadowed the equally significant awakening taking place among the working class of Poland . Gdańsk , where thousands of students and workers fought the police on March 15 , had the highest in the country rate of administrative detentions and court cases . The greatest proportion of people arrested and imprisoned in March and April 1968 in Poland were classified by the authorities as " workers " .
An internal attempt was made to discredit Gomułka 's leadership , but there were aspects of the ongoing witch hunt which he found to be to his advantage and he tolerated it until the societal damage wrecked by the Moczar movement had become irreversible . Gomułka 's regime reasserted itself and was saved by a combination of international and domestic factors , including the Moczar faction 's inability to take over the party and state apparatus . The Soviet Union , now led by Leonid Brezhnev , was preoccupied with the crisis in Czechoslovakia and not inclined to support personal changes in the Polish leadership .
In August 1968 , the Polish People 's Army took part in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Some Polish intellectuals protested , and Ryszard Siwiec burned himself alive during the official national holiday celebrations . The Polish participation in the crushing of the Czech liberal communism ( called socialism with a human face , and , according to David Ost , constituting the crowning achievement of Marxist revisionism ) further alienated Gomułka from his former liberal supporters . But within the Party , the opposition to Gomułka faded and the 5th Congress of the PZPR in November reconfirmed his rule . Brezhnev , who attended the gathering , used the occasion to expound his Brezhnev Doctrine , a self @-@ granted Soviet right to forcefully intervene if an allied state strays too far from the fraternal course .
= = = Treaty with West Germany , food riots and the ousting of Gomułka = = =
In December 1970 Gomułka scored a major political victory when Poland obtained a West German recognition of the post @-@ World War II borders . The German side secured the right to emigrate to West Germany for the residents of Poland of German identity and to help financially those who stayed by granting pensions : hundreds of thousands eventually became affected . German Chancellor Willy Brandt , who signed the agreement , also asked on his knees for forgiveness for the crimes of the Nazis ( Warschauer Kniefall ) . His gesture was understood in Poland as being addressed to all Poles , although it was actually made at the site of the Warsaw Ghetto and was thus directed primarily toward the Jews . The notable reconciliation process between the Polish and German nations was initiated five years earlier , when the Polish Church issued its famous Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops , criticized then by the Polish government .
Gomułka felt proud and secure after the new treaty with West Germany , his milestone political achievement . It signified a lasting trend in Poland 's international policy : extricating the country from the disproportional dependence on Russia , and compensating the security vulnerability by building good relations with Germany .
But the event could not mask the economic crisis into which Poland was drifting , exacerbated by Soviet demands for more military spending . Although the system of fixed , artificially low food prices kept urban discontent under control , it caused further economic strain . In the long run the situation was unsustainable , and on 12 December 1970 ( just before Christmas ) , the regime suddenly announced massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs , the government 's main source of hard currency when exported . The new measures were incomprehensible to many urban workers , and their provocative timing ( the most intense food purchase period for most Polish families ) led to strong social reaction and ultimately Gomułka 's fall from power .
On 14 – 19 December 1970 mass demonstrations against the price rises broke out in the northern coastal cities of Gdańsk , Gdynia , Elbląg and Szczecin . In violent confrontations at those and other locations 19 public buildings were destroyed or damaged , including the Party headquarters in Gdańsk and Szczecin . The PZPR Central Committee was deliberating in Warsaw , but a smaller conference , led by Gomułka , issued an authorization for a limited use of lethal force to defend lives and property . Nevertheless , Gomułka remained determined to impose a forceful resolution of the conflict . Among the leaders of the Party who arrived on the coast and directed the local enforcement actions , initially in Gdańsk , were Zenon Kliszko and Stanisław Kociołek . In Gdynia , the soldiers were instructed to prevent protesters from returning to factory buildings ; they fired into a crowd of workers emerging from commuter trains . Fatal confrontations took place also in Szczecin . The exact number of people killed in the region in December is not known , but is believed to be higher than the officially given figure of 44 .
The protest movement spread to other cities , leading to more strikes and causing angry workers to occupy many factories . The general strike across Poland was scheduled for December 21 , 1970 .
The Party leadership meeting in Warsaw on 20 December recognized the danger that the working class revolt presented to their system , and , in consultations with the disturbed Soviet leaders , proceeded with arranging the resignation of Gomułka , who was by then stressed out and ill . Several of his collaborators were also removed . Edward Gierek was drafted as the new first secretary . Mieczysław Moczar , another strong contender , was not trusted ( or was even blamed for the current debacle ) by the Soviets .
Another strike in Szczecin broke out on 22 January 1971 . In a risky move , Gierek went to Szczecin on 24 January and to Gdańsk the next day . He met the workers personally , apologizing for the mistakes of the past and saying that as a former worker himself he understood their plight and would now govern Poland for the people . Workers striking in Szczecin formulated demands in the area of freely elected worker councils and union representatives . Gierek agreed , but the authorities soon marginalized and eliminated the worker leaders from the legally existing structures and their places of employment . The February 1971 Łódź strikes followed and concentrated on economic demands . Afterwards prices were lowered , wage increases were announced , and sweeping economic and political changes were promised .
The Polish opposition movement , traditionally led by the intelligentsia , after the two heavy blows of 1968 and 1970 was in disarray and silent . Its tenuous connection with the " communist " party was permanently broken , but a new strategy had yet to emerge . However , already in 1971 Leszek Kołakowski published in the émigré Kultura journal a seminal article entitled Theses on Hope and Hopelessness . It attempted to theoretically necessitate and practically justify a civil democratizing resistance movement , valid even in the repressed and seemingly deadlocked society of state socialism .
= = Gierek decade ( 1970 – 80 ) = =
= = = Catching up with the West = = =
Gierek , like Gomułka in 1956 , came to power on a raft of promises that everything would be different from now on : wages would rise , prices would remain stable , there would be freedom of speech , and those responsible for the violence at Gdynia and elsewhere would be punished . Although Poles were much more skeptical than they had been in 1956 , Gierek was believed to be an honest and well @-@ intentioned man , and his promises bought him some time . He used this time to create a new economic program , one based on large @-@ scale borrowing from banks in the West — mainly from the United States and West Germany — to buy technology that would upgrade Poland 's production of export goods . This massive borrowing , estimated to have totaled over 24 billion US ( 1970s ) dollars during Gierek 's years , was used to re @-@ equip and modernize Polish industry , and to import consumer goods to give the workers more incentive to work .
For the next few years , the new regime optimistically engaged in reform and experimentation and for the first time many Poles could afford to buy cars , televisions and other consumer goods . The authorities made sure that the workers received proper wages . The peasants had their compulsory deliveries abolished , were paid higher prices for their products and free health service was finally extended to rural , self @-@ employed Poland . The intellectuals had censorship eased and Poles were able to travel to the West and maintain foreign contacts with little difficulty . Relations with the Polish emigrant communities were strengthened . There was some cultural and political relaxation and an improved freedom of speech environment , exercised for example by the respected weekly Polityka of the Polish Party . Massive investments were made , expected to both improve the standard of living of the various segments of society and establish an internationally competitive Polish industry and agriculture , based on purchases of Western technology . The modernized manufacturing would result in a vastly expanded export of Polish @-@ made products to the West , which in turn would generate hard currency to pay @-@ off the debts .
This " New Development Strategy " , based on import @-@ led growth , depended on the present global economic conditions and the program faltered suddenly because of worldwide recession and increased oil prices . The effects of the 1973 – 74 oil crisis produced an inflationary surge followed by a recession in the West , which resulted in a sharp increase in the price of imported consumer goods in Poland , coupled with a decline in demand for Polish exports , particularly coal . Poland 's foreign debt , absent at the time of Gomułka 's departure , rose rapidly under Gierek to reach a multibillion @-@ dollar figure . Continuing borrowing from the West had become increasingly difficult . Consumer goods began to disappear from Polish shops . The new factories built by Gierek 's regime also proved to be largely ineffective and mismanaged , as the basics of market demand and cost effectiveness were often ignored . The significant internal economic reform , promised by the Gierek team , had not materialized .
The Western credits thus helped spur industrial growth and helped Gierek 's policy of consumerism , but just for a few years . The industrial production grew by an average of 10 % per year between 1971 and 1975 ( the years remembered later by many older Poles as most prosperous , considering not only the communist period in Poland ) , only to dwindle to less than 2 % in 1979 . Debt servicing that took 12 % of export earnings in 1971 , rose to 75 % in 1979 .
In 1975 , Poland and almost all other European countries became signatories of the Helsinki Accords and a member of Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , the creation of which marked the high point of the period of " détente " between the Soviet Union and the United States . Despite the regime 's promises that the freedoms listed in the agreement would be implemented in Poland , there was little change . However , the Poles were gradually becoming more aware of the rights they were being denied and emboldened by the knowledge of their government 's treaty obligations .
Gierek government 's growing difficulties led also to increased dependence on the Soviet Union , including tight economic cooperation and displays of submissiveness not seen under Gomułka 's rule . The constitution , amended in February 1976 , formalized the alliance with the Soviet Union and the leading role of the communist party . The language of the proposed changes was softened after protests by intellectuals and the Church , but the regime felt it needed additional authority given the indebtedness to the West and the deepening economic crisis . The divisive issues raised helped to coalesce the emerging circles of active political opposition .
Nevertheless , the regime of Gierek deemphasized the Marxist ideology and from his time the " communist " governments of Poland concentrated on pragmatic issues and current concerns . In Polish economic politics new lasting trends were initiated , such as the emphasis on individual initiative , personal aspirations and competition , which some interpreted as an attack on egalitarianism ( social inequalities were indeed increasing ) . Sections of the intelligentsia , nomenklatura and small business gave rise to the emerging middle class . The new " socialist " ways were less totalitarian , stressed innovation , modern management methods and engaged workers , all seen as necessary to push the outdated economy past the constant crisis stage . Poland of the 1970s became more open to the world and entered the global economy , which permanently changed society , creating at the same time a new type of crisis vulnerability . The opposition thinking , its promotion of society formed by active individuals , developed along complementary concepts .
= = = Renewal of social unrest and the rise of organized opposition = = =
As a result of the 1970 worker rebellion food prices remained frozen and were artificially low . The demand for food products exceeded the supply also because of the higher real wages , which already in the first two years of Gierek 's government increased more than during the entire decade of the 1960s . In June 1976 , in an attempt to reduce consumption , the government introduced a long @-@ announced and several times delayed , but radical price increase : basic foodstuffs had their prices raised by an average of 60 % , three times the rate of Gomułka 'a increases from six years before . The associated wage rises were skewed toward the better @-@ off part of the population . The result was an immediate nationwide wave of strikes , with violent demonstrations , looting and labor unrest at the Ursus Factory near Warsaw , in Radom , Płock and other places . The government quickly backed down and repealed the price rises , but the strike leaders were arrested and put on trial . A series of " spontaneous " large scale public gatherings , intended to convey the " anger of the people " at the " trouble @-@ makers " was staged by the Party leadership in a number of cities , but the Soviet pressure prevented further attempts at raising prices . Gierek 's cordial in the past relations with Leonid Brezhnev were now seriously damaged . Food ration cards , introduced because of the destabilized market in August 1976 , were to remain a feature of life in Poland for the duration of the People 's Republic . The regime 's retreat , having occurred for the second time in several years , amounted to an unprecedented defeat . Within the rigid political system , the government was neither able to reform ( it would lose control and power ) , nor to satisfy society 's staple needs , because it had to sell abroad all it could to make foreign debt and interests payments . This quandary , combined with the daily reality of the lack of necessities , facilitated the consolidation of organized opposition .
Because of the 1976 disturbances and the subsequent arrests , mistreatment and dismissals of worker militants , a group of intellectuals led by Jacek Kuroń , Antoni Macierewicz , Jan Józef Lipski and Adam Michnik founded and operated the Workers ' Defence Committee ( Komitet Obrony Robotników ; KOR ) . The aim of the KOR was to assist the worker victims of the 1976 repression . Working to support the spontaneous workers ' movements , the dissidents recognized the necessarily predominant role of the working class in resisting the abuses of the regime and the newly formed opposition increasingly became characterized by an alliance of intelligentsia with workers . The KOR , according to Modzelewski , constituted the core of organized opposition and a seed of political alternative ; clearing the way for other opposition formations , it engendered political pluralism . More opposition groups indeed soon followed , including the Movement for Defense of Human and Civic Rights ( ROPCiO ) , Free Trade Unions of the Coast ( WZW ) and the Confederation of Independent Poland ( KPN ) . The periodical Robotnik ( " The Worker " ) was distributed in factories from September 1977 . The idea of independent trade unions was first raised by the Gdańsk and Szczecin workers striking in 1970 – 71 , but was later developed and promoted by the KOR and its leftist collaborators , which led to the establishment in 1978 of Free Trade Unions , the precursor of Solidarity . The KPN represented the minority at that time right @-@ wing of the Polish opposition scene . The opposition members tried to resist the regime by denouncing it for violating the Polish constitution , Polish laws and Poland 's international obligations . They fit within the post @-@ Helsinki Soviet Bloc human rights movements and for the most part had not yet developed more radical , anti @-@ system orientations .
For the rest of the 1970s , resistance to the regime grew , assuming also the forms of student groups , clandestine newspapers and publishers , importing books and newspapers , and even a " Flying University " . The regime practiced various forms of repression against the budding reform movements .
= = = Polish Pope John Paul II = = =
On 16 October 1978 , Poland experienced what many Poles literally believed to be a miracle . Cardinal Karol Wojtyła , the archbishop of Kraków , was elected pope at the Vatican , taking the name John Paul II . The election of a Polish pope had an electrifying effect on what was at that time one of the last idiosyncratically Catholic countries in Europe . When John Paul toured Poland in June 1979 , half a million people came to welcome him in Warsaw , and in the next eight days , about ten million Poles attended at least one of his numerous outdoor masses . Overnight , John Paul became the most important person in Poland , leaving the regime not so much opposed as ignored . However , John Paul did not call for rebellion ; instead , he encouraged the creation of an " alternative Poland " of social institutions independent of the government , so that when the next crisis came , the nation would present a united front .
= = = Polish emigration = = =
The government in exile in London , unrecognized since the end of World War II , ridiculed by the communists , to many Poles was of great symbolic importance . Under President Edward Raczyński it overcame years of internal squabbles , and , after the election of the Polish pope and at the time of the increasingly assertive Polish opposition , improved its image and standing .
The large Polish emigrant communities in North America , Western Europe , and elsewhere , were politically active and lent significant support to those struggling in the country . The staunchly anti @-@ communist American Polonia and other Poles felt grateful for the leadership of President Ronald Reagan . Of the Polish institutions in the West the most important were the Radio Free Europe , whose Polish section was run by Jan Nowak @-@ Jeziorański , and the monthly literary Kultura magazine in Paris , led by Jerzy Giedroyc and Juliusz Mieroszewski .
= = Final decade of the Polish People 's Republic ( 1980 – 90 ) = =
= = = Failing economy and labor unrest of 1980 = = =
By 1980 , the authorities had no choice but to make another attempt to raise consumer prices to realistic levels , but they knew that doing so would likely spark another worker rebellion . Western bankers providing loans to the Polish government at a meeting at the Bank Handlowy in Warsaw on 1 July 1980 made it clear that low prices of consumer goods could no longer be subsidized by the state . The government gave in and on 1 July announced a system of gradual but continuous price rises , particularly for meat . A wave of strikes and factory occupations began at once , with the biggest ones taking place in Lublin in July 1980 .
The strikes reached the politically sensitive Baltic Sea coast , with a sit @-@ down strike at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdańsk beginning on 14 August . Among the leaders of this strike were Anna Walentynowicz and Lech Wałęsa , a long @-@ fired shipyard electrician who headed the strike committee . A list of 21 demands was formulated by the Inter @-@ Enterprise Strike Committee on 17 August . The strike wave spread along the coast , closing the ports and bringing the economy to a halt . With the assistance of the activists from the KOR , and the support of many intellectuals ( an Expert Commission was established to aid with the negotiations ) , the workers occupying the various factories , mines and shipyards across Poland organized as a united front . They were not limiting their efforts to seeking economic improvements , but made and stuck to the crucial demand , an establishment of trade unions independent of government control . Among other issues raised were rights for the Church , the freeing of political prisoners and an improved health service .
The Party leadership was faced with a choice between repressions on a massive scale and an amicable agreement that would give the workers what they wanted , and thus quieten the aroused population . They chose the latter . On 31 August Wałęsa signed the Gdańsk Agreement with Mieczysław Jagielski , a member of the Party Politburo . The Agreement acknowledged the right of employees to associate in free trade unions , obliged the government to take steps to eliminate censorship , abolished weekend work , increased the minimum wage , improved and extended welfare and pensions , and increased autonomy of industrial enterprises , where a meaningful role was to be played by workers ' self @-@ management councils . The rule of the Party was significantly weakened ( to a " leading role in the state " , not society ) but nonetheless explicitly recognized , together with Poland 's international alliances . It was seen as necessary to prevent Soviet intervention by more moderate forces , including leading intelligentsia advisers and the Catholic hierarchy . The fact that all these economic concessions were completely unaffordable escaped attention in the wave of national euphoria that swept the country . In addition to the Gdańsk Agreement , similar documents were signed at other centers of strike activity , in Szczecin ( Szczecin Agreement ) , Jastrzębie @-@ Zdrój , and at Katowice Steelworks . The period that started afterwards is often called the first part of the " Polish carnival " – with the second one taking place in the late 1980s .
= = = Solidarity = = =
The Gdańsk Agreement , an aftermath of the August 1980 labor strike , was an important milestone . It led to a national gathering of independent union representatives ( Interfactory Organizing Committees , MKZ ) on 17 September 1980 in Gdańsk and the formation of the trade union " Solidarity " ( Polish Solidarność ) , founded on that day and led by Lech Wałęsa . The ideas of the independent union movement spread rapidly throughout Poland ; Solidarity structures were formed in most places of employment and in all regions . Having been able to overcome the regime 's efforts to thwart or derail its activities and status , Solidarity was finally registered in court as a national labor union in November 1980 . Early in 1981 , a network of union organizations at the enterprise @-@ level was established ; it included the country 's main industrial complexes such as the Lenin Steelworks in Kraków and the Silesian mines .
Initially , in the KOR 's tradition , Solidarity was an ostensibly non @-@ political movement aiming at reconstruction of civil society . Suddenly thrust into legal existence and prominence in 1980 , Solidarity and the Polish opposition in general lacked a constructive program or consensus regarding further developments . In 1981 , Solidarity accepted the necessity of a political role and helped form a broad anti @-@ ruling system social movement , dominated by the working class and with members ranging from people associated with the Catholic Church to non @-@ communist leftists . The union was backed by intellectual dissidents , including the KOR , and adhered to a policy of nonviolent resistance . According to Karol Modzelewski , the Solidarity of 1980 – 81 was permeated by the idea of brotherhood between intelligentsia and workers . In the areas
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instability . Rationing and queuing became a way of life , with ration cards ( kartki ) necessary to buy basic consumer staples such as milk and sugar . As Western institutions were no longer willing to extend credit policies to the de facto bankrupt Polish government , access to goods the Poles needed became even more restricted . Most of the available scarce resources of Western currency had to be used to pay the crushing rates on Poland 's foreign debt , which reached US $ 23 billion by 1980 and increased to US $ 40 billion under General Jaruzelski . The government , which controlled all official foreign trade , responded by continuing to maintain a highly artificial exchange rate with Western currencies . The exchange rate worsened distortions in the economy at all levels , resulting in a growing black market and the development of a shortage economy . The omnipresent and destructive underground economy was characterized by phenomena such as bribery , waiting lists , speculation , direct exchanges between enterprises and large percentages of personal incomes deriving from secondary activities . Societal degradation was accompanied by unprecedented deterioration in the areas of biological environment and physical and mental health , which included steadily increasing mortality rates . In the late 1980s , the PZPR feared another social explosion because of high inflation , depressed living standards and deepening public anger and frustration . The authorities themselves , facing an increasingly disorderly and unmanageable system , felt perplexed and powerless .
= = = Politics of the People 's Republic 's last years and the transition period = = =
= = = = Toward Round Table and semi @-@ free elections = = = =
In September 1986 , the government declared a general amnesty and began work on a number of meaningful reforms . Given the liberalized political environment , Wałęsa was urged to reconvene the National Commission from the time of First Solidarity , but he refused , preferring to deal with the circle of Solidarity 's Expert Commission advisers . A National Executive Commission , led by Wałęsa , was openly established in October 1987 . Other opposition structures such as the Fighting Solidarity , the Federation of Fighting Youth , the Freedom and Peace Movement ( Ruch Wolność i Pokój ) and the Orange Alternative " dwarf " movement founded by " Major " Waldemar Fydrych began organizing street protests in form of colorful happenings that assembled thousands of participants . The liberal periodical Res Publica negotiated with the authorities its officially published release . In a political and economic referendum held in November 1987 , 67 % of the eligible voters participated and most of them approved the government @-@ proposed reforms , but a popular mandate was formally missed because of the unrealistically stringent passage requirements self @-@ imposed by the regime .
The ruling communist / military establishment slowly and gradually came to realize that a deal of some sort with the opposition would eventually be necessary and would have to include the leading Solidarity figures . Solidarity as such , a labor union representing workers ' interests , was unable to reassert itself after the martial law and later in the 1980s was practically destroyed , but preserved in the national consciousness as a myth that facilitated social acceptance of systemic changes previously deemed unthinkable . The Solidarity organization as a mass movement , and with it its dominant social democratic element ( supporters of democratic socialism ) , had been defeated . Solidarity 's name had continuously been used , but the opposition movement split to form rival groups of different political orientations . According to a new intellectual consensus , " democracy was grounded not in an active citizenry , as had been argued from the mid @-@ 1970s through 1981 , but in private property and a free market " . The current view no longer entailed broad political participation , emphasizing instead elite leadership and a capitalist economy . Solidarity became a symbolic entity , its activists openly assumed ideological " anti @-@ communist " positions and its leadership moved to the right . Solidarity was now represented by a small number of individuals , of whom Lech Wałęsa , Tadeusz Mazowiecki and Leszek Balcerowicz were about to assume particularly decisive roles . They were proponents of unfettered free market , strongly influenced by the American and West European financial and other interests .
Jaruzelski 's Poland depended on low @-@ cost deliveries of industrial staple commodities from the Soviet Union and meaningful Polish reforms , economic or political , were not feasible during the rule of the last three conservative Soviet general secretaries . The perestroika and glasnost policies of the Soviet Union 's new leader , Mikhail Gorbachev , were therefore a crucial factor in stimulating reform in Poland . Gorbachev essentially repudiated the Brezhnev Doctrine , which had stipulated that attempts by its Eastern European satellite states to abandon the communist bloc would be countered by the Soviet Union with force . The developments in the Soviet Union altered the international situation and provided a historical opportunity for independent reforms in Poland . The hardline stance of US President Ronald Reagan was also helpful . David Ost stressed the constructive influence of Gorbachev . With his support for Polish and Hungarian membership in the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund and for the East European pluralistic evolution in general , the Soviet leader effectively pushed East Europe toward the West .
Nationwide strikes broke out in the spring and summer of 1988 . They were much weaker than the strikes of 1980 and were discontinued after the intervention by Wałęsa , who secured the regime 's commitment to begin negotiations with the opposition . The strikes were the last act of active political involvement of the working class in the history of People 's Poland and were led by young workers , not connected to Solidarity veterans and opposed to socially harmful consequences of the economic restructuring in progress at that time . According to the researcher Maciej Gdula , the political activity that followed was conducted exclusively by the elites . It was neither inspired by nor consulted with any mass social organization or movement , as the opposition leading circles freed themselves from their strong in the past commitment to the welfare of working people . No longer secure as undisputed leaders , Polish dissidents of the KOR @-@ Solidarity generations were eager to bargain with the weakened regime whose economic goals they now shared .
Both sides having been prompted by the new international situation and the recent strike wave in Poland , in September 1988 preliminary talks between government representatives and Solidarity leaders ensued in Magdalenka . Numerous meetings took place involving Wałęsa and the minister of internal affairs , General Czesław Kiszczak among others , at that time and in the following year , behind the scenes of the official negotiations conducted then . In November , Wałęsa debated on national TV Alfred Miodowicz , chief of the official trade unions . The encounter enhanced Wałęsa 's image .
During the PZPR 's plenary session of 16 – 18 January 1989 , General Jaruzelski and his ruling formation overcame the Central Committee 's resistance by threatening to resign and the communist party decided to allow re @-@ legalization of Solidarity and to approach its leaders for formal talks . From 6 February to 4 April , 94 sessions of talks between 13 working groups , which became known as the " Round Table Talks " ( Polish : Rozmowy Okrągłego Stołu ) , resulted in political and economic compromise reforms . Jaruzelski , Prime Minister Mieczysław Rakowski and Wałęsa did not directly participate in the negotiations . The government side was represented by Czesław Kiszczak , Aleksander Kwaśniewski , Janusz Reykowski and Stanisław Ciosek , the Solidarity opposition by Tadeusz Mazowiecki , Bronisław Geremek , Jacek Kuroń , Zbigniew Bujak , Władysław Frasyniuk and Jarosław Kaczyński , among others . The talks resulted in the Round Table Agreement , by which political power was to be vested in a newly created bicameral legislature , and in a president who would be the chief executive .
By 4 April 1989 , numerous reforms and freedoms for the opposition were agreed . Solidarity , now in existence as the Solidarity Citizens ' Committee , was again to be legalized as a trade union and allowed to participate in semi @-@ free elections . This election had restrictions imposed , designed to keep the communists in power , since only 35 % of the seats in the Sejm , the key lower chamber of parliament , would be open to Solidarity candidates . The remaining 65 % were to be reserved for candidates from the PZPR and its allies ( the United People 's Party , the Alliance of Democrats and the PAX Association ) . Since the Round Table Agreement mandated only reform ( not replacement ) of " real socialism " in Poland , the communist party thought of the election as a way of neutralizing political conflict and staying in power , while gaining some legitimacy to carry out economic reforms . However , the negotiated social policy determinations , arrived at by economists and trade unionists during the Round Table talks , were quickly tossed out by both the Party and the opposition .
A systemic transformation happening sooner rather than later was made possible by the Polish legislative elections of 4 June 1989 , which coincided with the bloody crackdown on the Tiananmen Square protesters in China . When the results of the voting were released , a political earthquake followed . The victory of Solidarity surpassed all predictions . Solidarity candidates captured all the seats they were allowed to compete for in the Sejm , while in the newly established Senate they captured 99 out of the 100 available seats ( the other seat went to an independent , who later switched to Solidarity ) . At the same time , many prominent PZPR candidates failed to gain even the minimum number of votes required to capture the seats that were reserved for them . The communists suffered a catastrophic blow to their legitimacy .
= = = = Political transformation = = = =
The next few months were spent on political maneuvering . The increasingly insecure communists , who still had military and administrative control over the country , were appeased by a compromise in which Solidarity allowed General Jaruzelski to remain head of state . Jaruzelski barely won the vote in the National Assembly presidential election of 19 July 1989 , even though his name was the only one on the ballot . He won through an informally arranged abstention by a sufficient number of Solidarity MPs and his position was not strong . Jaruzelski resigned as first secretary of the PZPR on 29 July .
The Round Table deal basically allowed the PZPR to remain in power regardless of the election results , and the Party 's reshuffled leadership continued to rule . On 1 August , prices were freed because of the ongoing market reforms and hyperinflation resulted . The instantly increased economic hardship caused a new wave of strikes . The strikes were spontaneous , but the Solidarity leaders , no longer in agreement with the strikers ' economic demands , were able to emphasize the secondary political aspect of the strikes ( anger at the Party 's obstinacy ) and use them to pressure the regime for an expedited transfer of power . The new prime minister , General Kiszczak , who was appointed on 2 August 1989 , failed to gain enough support in the Sejm to form a government and resigned on 19 August . He was the last communist head of government in Poland . Although Jaruzelski tried to persuade Solidarity to join the PZPR in a " grand coalition " , Wałęsa refused . The two formerly subservient parties allied with the PZPR , prompted by the current strike pressure , were moving toward adopting independent courses and their added votes would give the opposition control of parliament . Under the circumstances , Jaruzelski had to come to terms with the prospect of new government being formed by political opposition . Solidarity elected representative Tadeusz Mazowiecki was appointed prime minister and confirmed by the Assembly on 24 August 1989 . The new government led by a non @-@ communist , the first of its kind in the Soviet Bloc , was sworn into office on 13 September . The communist party did not immediately relinquish all power , remaining in the coalition and retaining control of the ministries of foreign trade , defense , interior and transport .
Mazowiecki 's government , forced to deal quickly with galloping hyperinflation , soon adopted radical economic policies , proposed by Leszek Balcerowicz , which transformed Poland into a functioning market economy under an accelerated schedule . Many Polish state owned enterprises , undergoing privatization , turned out to be woefully unprepared for capitalist competition and the pace of their accommodation ( or attrition ) was rapid . The economic reform , a shock therapy accompanied by comprehensive neoliberal restructuring , was in reality an extension of the previous incremental " communist " policies of the 1970s and 1980s , which were now followed by a leap to greatly expanded integration with the global economy with little protection . Among the reform 's negative immediate effects were the economic recession and near @-@ paralysis of foreign trade . On longer @-@ term bases , the country experienced quickly rising unemployment and social inequities , as enterprises were liquidated and income was redistributed away from workers and farmers , in favor of the establishment and the entrepreneurial class . A collapse of Polish industry was among the detrimental consequences of fundamental and lasting importance . Labor unions underwent further marginalization ; Solidarity activity as a labor union , prioritized in the past , was now suppressed . On the positive side , inflation was brought under control , the currency stabilized , shortages were eliminated and significant foreign investment began . The shock therapy solutions were often dictated by Western consultants , of whom Jeffrey Sachs was best known but also most criticized .
The striking electoral victory of Solidarity candidates in the limited elections , and the subsequent formation of the first non @-@ communist government in the region in decades , encouraged many similar peaceful transitions from communist party rule in Central and Eastern Europe in the second half of 1989 .
In December 1989 , changes to the Polish constitution were made , officially eliminating the " socialist " order : Marxist references were removed and the name of the country was changed back to the Polish Republic .
Wałęsa , president of the Solidarity trade union , demanded early presidential elections acting against the advice of his traditional Solidarity allies , intellectuals who were now running the government . Under pressure from the continuing worker unrest Wałęsa declared himself a supporter of workers ' interests , allegedly threatened by those whom he identified as communists ( such as President Jaruzelski ) or elitist political liberals ( such as Prime Minister Mazowiecki ) . Wałęsa presented himself as a person of good conservative , Christian and nationalist credentials .
In 1990 , Jaruzelski resigned as Poland 's president and was succeeded by Wałęsa , who won the 1990 presidential elections . Lech Wałęsa 's inauguration as president took place on 22 December 1990 ; he accepted the prewar presidential insignia from the stepping down President @-@ in @-@ Exile Ryszard Kaczorowski , distancing himself from Wojciech Jaruzelski . Wałęsa defeated Mazowiecki and in the second round Stanisław Tymiński , but under his presidency economic policy remained unchanged .
The communist Polish United Workers ' Party dissolved itself in 1990 and transformed into the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland . The Warsaw Pact was formally dissolved on 1 July 1991 ; the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991 and the last post @-@ Soviet troops left Poland in September 1993 . On 27 October 1991 , the first entirely free Polish parliamentary elections since the 1920s took place . This completed Poland 's transition from a communist party rule to a Western @-@ style liberal democratic political system .
= Ridgedale Center =
Ridgedale Center , colloquially known as Ridgedale , is an enclosed shopping mall in Minnetonka , Minnesota , a western suburb of the Twin Cities . It is directly located off I @-@ 394 / US 12 between Ridgedale Drive and Plymouth Road ( Hennepin CSAH 61 ) . Ridgedale Center comprises 1 @,@ 105 @,@ 337 square feet ( 100 @,@ 000 m2 ) of leaseable retail space , and contains approximately 140 retail tenants . It is currently owned and operated by General Growth Properties and anchored by JCPenney , Macy 's , Nordstrom and Sears .
Built in 1974 , it was originally anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , JCPenney , and Sears , before the first two anchors merged with other companies . The mall has undergone several expansions and renovations throughout the years , including the recent addition of a Nordstrom department store in 2015 . Considered an " upscale shopping center " , Ridgedale includes various luxury brands such as Michael Kors , Swarovski , and Tumi Inc ..
= = History = =
= = = 1974 – 86 : Grand opening = = =
Ridgedale Center was constructed on 81 @.@ 3 acres of land in 1974 by the Dayton – Hudson Corporation , becoming the Twin Cities ' fourth ' dale ' shopping center , following Southdale , Brookdale , and Rosedale . The original center comprised 1 @,@ 040 @,@ 000 square feet ( 97 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space , and was anchored by Dayton 's , Donaldson 's , JCPenney , and Sears , the former of which also developed the center .
Dayton 's announced plans in the early 1990 's to tear down their current location at Ridgedale , and replace it with a much larger location in the same mall ; these plans were also made at the other ' dale ' centers , like Southdale and Rosedale . However , these plans were eventually scrapped and never occurred . In 1996 , Dayton 's opened up a second anchor store at the center ; this new store focused on men 's clothing and furniture , while the original location changed focus and became centered on women 's and children 's clothing ; the two stores were differentiated by their new titles , " Men 's & Home Store " and " Women 's and Children 's Store " .
= = = 1987 – 2006 : Dayton 's , Marshall Field 's , and Macy 's = = =
In 1987 , Donaldson 's announced the discontinuation of their chain of stores , which would shut one of the mall 's original anchors . Instead , Donaldson 's merged with local department chain Carson Pirie Scott . The 128 @,@ 395 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) Carson Pirie Scott store would also eventually leave Ridgedale Center , in 1995 . Mervyn 's , a California @-@ based department store , announced interest in the former building , but never opened , despite opening locations at Pirie Scott 's former locations at Brookdale Center , Eden Prairie Center , and Rosedale Center . In 2001 , Dayton 's merged with Chicago @-@ based Marshall Field 's , which merged with Macy 's in 2006 .
= = = 2007 – present : Renovations and Nordstrom = = =
In early 2007 , Ridgedale underwent a multimillion @-@ dollar renovation to " freshen and brighten " the mall , with the use of " all @-@ new lighting , flooring , and paint . " The renovation also included the addition of new restrooms and seating areas . Completion of the renovation process occurred later that same year . The center was also briefly mentioned in the commercially successful 2007 film Juno .
In 2009 , Nordstrom announced plans to open a location at Ridgedale in 2011 ; however , these plans were later cancelled due to General Growth Properties , the mall 's owner , filing for bankruptcy . This announcement came with the closure of the Macy 's Men 's & Home Store . Later in 2013 , Nordstrom confirmed plans to open up a 140 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 000 m2 ) department store at Ridgedale by 2015 ; these plans allowed Macy 's current anchor of 202 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 000 m2 ) to grow into a larger , 286 @,@ 000 square feet ( 27 @,@ 000 m2 ) location . The current Macy 's Women 's & Children 's Store was expanded to provide additional space for the combination ; during this process , a major fire occurred at the construction site , delaying the construction by several weeks .
On June 4 , 2015 , deconstruction of the Men 's & Home Store occurred , to make way for the new Nordstrom store , plus an additional 85 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 900 m2 ) of leaseable space , presumably for upscale retail and dining options . This expansion was evaluated at $ 50 million , according to General Growth Properties . The Nordstrom location officially opened on October 2 , 2015 , followed by a grand opening ceremony .
= French battleship Paris =
Paris was the third ship of the Courbet @-@ class battleships , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed before World War I as part of the 1911 naval building programme . She spent the war in the Mediterranean , spending most of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until her sister ship Jean Bart was torpedoed by the submarine U @-@ 12 on 21 December . She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea .
Paris supported French and Spanish troops in 1925 during the Third Rif War before becoming a school ship in 1931 . She was modernized in three separate refits between the wars even though she was not deemed to be a first @-@ class battleship . She remained in that role until the Battle of France , which began on 10 May 1940 , after which she was hastily rearmed . She supported Allied troops in the defence of Le Havre during June until she was damaged by a German bomb , but she took refuge later that month in England . As part of Operation Catapult , she was seized in Plymouth by British forces on 3 July . She was used as a depot ship and barracks ship there by the Royal and Polish Navies for the rest of the war . Returned to the French in July 1945 she was towed to Brest the following month and used as a depot ship until she was stricken on 21 December 1955 .
= = Description = =
Paris was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 100 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 180 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because her superimposed turrets were close to the bow .
Paris had four propellers powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines which were rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Paris 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried twenty @-@ two 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes with twelve torpedoes .
Paris 's waterline armoured belt extended well below the waterline as the French were concerned about protection from underwater hits . Her main armour was also thinner than that of her British or German counterparts , but covered more area . It was 270 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 ft 9 in ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void .
= = Career = =
Paris was built by the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne . Her keel was laid down on 10 November 1911 and she was launched on 28 September 1912 . She was completed on 1 August 1914 , just in time for World War I.
After working up she was sent , along with her sisters , to the Mediterranean Sea . She spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until U @-@ 12 hit Jean Bart on 21 December with a torpedo . This forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte to cover the Otranto Barrage . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 she moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but her activities were very limited as much of her crew was used to man anti @-@ submarine ships . Before the end of the war she was fitted with seven 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) Mle 1897 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . These guns were adaptions of the famous French Mle 97 75 @-@ mm field gun .
= = = Interwar years = = =
Paris was sent to Pula on 12 December 1918 to supervise the surrendered Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , where she remained until 25 March 1919 . She provided cover for Greek troops during the Occupation of İzmir ( Smyrna ) from May 1919 before returning to Toulon on 30 June . She received the first of her upgrades at Brest between 25 October 1922 and 25 November 1923 . This included replacing one set of boilers with oil @-@ fired boilers , increasing the maximum elevation of the main armament from 12 ° to 23 ° , removal of her bow armour to make her less bow @-@ heavy , the installation of a fire @-@ control director , with a 4 @.@ 57 metres ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) rangefinder , and the exchange of her Mle 1897 AA guns for Mle 1918 guns . After her return to service she supported an amphibious landing at Al Hoceima by Spanish troops during the summer of 1925 after the Rifs attacked French Morocco during the Third Rif War . She destroyed coastal defence batteries there despite taking light damage from six hits and remained there until October as the flagship of the French forces . She was refitted again from 16 August 1927 to 15 January 1929 at Toulon and her fire @-@ control systems were comprehensively upgraded . A large cruiser @-@ type fire @-@ control director was added atop the foremast with a 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m coincidence rangefinder and a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 ft 10 in ) stereo rangefinder . The rangefinder above the conning tower was replaced by a duplex unit carrying two 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinders and another 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinder was added in an armoured hood next to the main mast . Two directors for the secondary guns were added on the navigation bridge , each with a 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) coincidence rangefinder . A 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 26 ft 11 in ) rangefinder was added to the roof of ' B ' turret , the second one from the bow . Three 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders were provided for her anti @-@ aircraft guns , one on top of the duplex unit on the conning tower , one on ' B ' turret and one in the aft superstructure . She resumed her role as flagship of the 2nd Division of the 1st Squadron of the Mediterranean Squadron until 1 October 1931 when she became a training ship .
Paris was overhauled again between 1 July 1934 and 21 May 1935 . Her boilers were overhauled , her main guns replaced and her Mle 1918 AA guns were exchanged for more modern Mle 1922 guns . They had a maximum depression of 10 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 5 @.@ 93 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 1 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) at a rate of fire of 8 – 18 rounds per minute and had a maximum effective ceiling of 8 @,@ 000 metres ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = = World War II = = =
Paris and Courbet formed a Fifth Squadron at the beginning of the war . They were transferred to the Atlantic to continue their training duties without interference . Both ships were ordered restored to operational status on 21 May 1940 by Amiral Mord and they were given six Hotchkiss 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) twin machine gun mounts and two single 13 @.@ 2 @-@ mm Browning machine guns at Cherbourg . Paris was ordered to Le Havre on 6 June to provide gunfire support on the Somme front and covered the evacuation of the town by the Allies , although the lack of spotting aircraft meant that she was not particularly effective in that role . Instead she helped to defend the harbour of Le Havre against German aircraft until she was hit by a bomb on 11 June . She sailed for Cherbourg that night for temporary repairs despite taking on 300 long tons ( 305 t ) of water per hour . She was transferred to Brest on 14 June and carried 2 @,@ 800 men when that port was evacuated on 18 June .
In the wake of the Armistice , Paris was docked at Plymouth , England . On 3 July 1940 , as part of Operation Catapult , British forces forcibly boarded her and she was used by the British as a depot ship and as a barracks ship by the Polish Navy for the rest of the war . On 21 August 1945 , after the war had ended , Paris was towed to Brest where she continued in her role as a depot ship . She was sold for scrap on 21 December 1955 and broken up at La Seyne from June 1956 .
= Amelia Bence =
Amelia Bence ( née María Amelia Batvinik ; 13 November 1914 – 8 February 2016 ) was an Argentine film actress and one of the divas of the Golden Age of Argentine Cinema ( 1940 – 60 ) .
Born to Belarusian Jewish immigrants , Bence began her career at a young age , studying with Alfonsina Storni at the Lavardén Children 's Theater and with Mecha Quintana at the Conservatorio Nacional de Música y Declamación ( National Conservatory of Music and Speech ) . She made her film debut in 1933 , in only the second sound film of Argentina , Dancing , by Luis Moglia Barth . Bence 's acting in La guerra gaucha ( 1942 ) , one of the most important films in the history of Argentine cinema , gave her recognition and earned her leading role offers . She starred in films such as Los ojos más lindos del mundo ( 1943 ) , Todo un hombre , Camino del infierno ( 1946 ) , A sangre fría ( 1947 ) , La otra y yo ( 1949 ) and Danza del fuego ( 1949 ) , garnering the Best Actress award from the Argentine Academy of Cinematography Arts and Sciences for Todo un hombre , A sangre fría and Danza del fuego . Bence also won the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress for Lauracha ( 1946 ) , and her work was acknowledged with awards in Spain , Cuba , and the US throughout the 1940s and 1950s .
Bence married Spanish actor Alberto Closas in 1950 , and after their divorce was in a relationship with Osvaldo Cattone in the 1960s . Between 1952 and 1954 , Bence was contracted by Reforma Films to film two movies in Mexico and earned high praise for her starring role in Alfonsina ( 1957 ) , which was selected as the Argentine entry for the Berlin International Film Festival and won her an award from the Argentina Film Academy . She developed an extensive theater career in the 1960s , starring in works like " La dama del trébol " , " Así es la vida " , " Maribel y la extraña familia " and " El proceso de Mary Duggan " . From 1973 to 1976 , she completed a long tour of Latin America and featured in " La valija " ( " The Suitcase " ) at the Gramercy Arts Theater in New York City , which earned her an Association of Latin Entertainment Critics ( ACE ) Award for Best Foreign Actress . Bence 's characterizations in " Doña Rosita , la soltera " ( 1975 ) and " La loba " ( 1982 ) in the United States and Peru were very successful . During the last stage of her career , she acted in several television productions , including series such as Romina , Bianca and Las 24 horas . In 1989 , she received the Silver Condor for Lifetime Achievement Award , and later won awards in the same category at the Podesta Awards in 1992 and by the National Endowment for the Arts in 1997 . Between 1996 and 2010 , she appeared in several theaters with her show " Alfonsina " , which combined music and poetry . After a career spanning eight decades in entertainment , she retired in 2010 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
María Amelia Batvinik was born on 13 November 1914 in Buenos Aires , the youngest of seven children to Belarusian Jewish immigrants , Jaime Batvinik from Minsk , and Ana Zaguer from Pinsk . From an early age , she was drawn to acting and began performing alongside other neighborhood children in the courtyards of their homes . That was how she met Paulina Singerman , a neighbor , who suggested to Bence 's mother that the child be enrolled in the Lavardén Children 's Theater , operating in the Teatro Colón . At the age of five , she officially debuted , encouraged by the sisters Paulina and Berta Singerman , in poet Alfonsina Storni 's work , " Juanita " . Bence recalled that the performance was not without mishap , as she accidentally swallowed a postage stamp she was to place on an envelope ; she was distraught , but Storni praised the way she handled the situation . She completed her primary school studies at the Escuela General Roca , while simultaneously studying piano with her sister Esther at the Fontova Conservatory . From the age of ten , she worked as an elevator operator at Gath & Chaves . In her free time , she worked in an acting group led by Pedro Aleandro , the brother of Ben Molar , where she participated in the play Las campanas by Julio Sánchez Gardel .
Despite the opposition of her family to acting , Bence convinced her mother to let her continue studying . Because there was no vacancy in the National Conservatory of Performing Arts , she decided to learn classical dance with Mecha Quintana at the National Conservatory of Music and Speech , where she briefly attended classes . Quintana assigned her a part in a ballet at the Opera Theatre of Musical Comedy " Wunder Bar " ( 1933 ) , starring Armando and Enrique Discépolo . On one occasion , she filled @-@ in for the star when the performer had an illness during the performance run .
= = = Film and theater debuts = = =
Bence 's first film role was as an extra in a scene with Pedro Quartucci in Argentina 's second sound film , Dancing ( 1933 ) , under the direction of Luis José Moglia Barth , who bestowed the stage name " Amelia Bence " on her . The film was a failure and did not have the same success as the first sound film ¡ Tango ! . The production had poor sound quality , audiences did not receive it well , and Bence was reluctant to include it in her filmography . She went back to the theater and began working under the direction of Enrique Susini in his company at the Odéon Theater , performing in such works as " Tu boca , Superficies " , " Los malos tiempos " and " Baile en el Savoy " , which were musical comedies and vaudeville shows . In " Baile en el Savoy " , Bence replaced the star , Amanda Varela , who became ill and shared the stage with Florencio Parravicini . The play was one of her first successes , having over 100 performances . When its run ended at the Odéon , it was transferred to the Cine Monumental and re @-@ released for several more weeks . She and Parravicini also starred in " Ocho en línea " at the Corrientes Theater , but the reviews were scathing . El Mundo reported that " the show seemed unrehearsed " but praised Bence saying , " Newcomer ... , managing with grace and efficiency " . In " Conde de Chantenay " , which had a short run due to Parravicini 's health , Bence was rated by the press as " demure , competent and pleasant " and in " De mí no se ríe nadie " , which was directed by León Zárate , she appeared in 200 performances .
In 1937 , Bence took a more serious role in Luis Saslavsky 's drama La fuga , in which she supported Tita Merello and Santiago Arrieta . The performance earned Bence a contract with Olegario Ferrando at Pampa Film and three other film roles . After a long theatrical season with Luis Arata and inconsequential participation in El forastero , she filmed La vuelta al nido with José Gola . Bence defined the film as " one of the best of our cinema ... A simple and profound story ... very intimate , full of sensitive details ... it was not understood by critics or the public at the time " .
In 1938 , Leopoldo Torres Ríos gave Bence her first starring role in film in Adiós Buenos Aires , where she played a showgirl " Luisita " living a bohemian life . In November 1938 , she attracted the attention of the public and press when she starred in the play Mujeres at the Smart Theatre , ( currently Multiteatro ) located on Avenida Corrientes . The play was written by American writer and actress Clare Boothe Luce and also starred Mecha Ortiz . In one of the scenes , Bence appeared bathing in a tub full of foam . She said : " I wore nylon mesh , it was very modest but , as was logical , it did not go unnoticed . I had a very big impact as a result of that scene ... so much so that , the Teatro Maipo ... made a parody of it " . The work was described as " original , fresh , and modern " , reaching 250 performances . It was revived at the Teatro Fénix de Flores .
= = = Recognition and " The Gaucho War " = = =
In the wake of her successful theatrical season , Bence filmed El matrero ( 1939 ) in Tucumán Province , in which she played " Pontezuela " , a girl who falls in love with the character of Agustín Irusta , is accused of a crime and is rejected by her father . She won praise for her performance , and was hired to an exclusive three @-@ year contract by Miguel Machinandiarena , who had just formed San Miguel Studios , which would soon become the largest studio in Argentina . Bence was hired to star opposite Tito Lusiardo in Antonio Momplet 's Novios para las muchachas ( 1941 ) , a comedy adapted from the play " Las de Caín " . That same year she starred in Carlos F. Borcosque 's La casa de los cuervos , based on a novel by Hugo Wast , which won her the Premios Sur for Best Actress from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences of Argentina .
In early 1942 , Bence filmed El tercer beso , directed by Luis César Amadori and co @-@ starring Pedro López Lagar and Silvia Legrand . Though Bence was concerned about playing the mother of Legrand , who was only 13 years younger than she was , the film was a success and she won her the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress from the Argentine Film Critics Association for the performance . The recognition led to her appearance frequently on the covers of magazines , and to an offer to appear in what would become one of the most important films in the history of Argentine cinema , La guerra gaucha . The film starred Bence and Sebastián Chiola , Ángel Magaña , Enrique Muiño , and Francisco Petrone and is set at the turn of the nineteenth century in northern Argentina . It was shot on location in Salta Province and was based on the novel of the same name by writer Leopoldo Lugones . Scriptwriters Hómero Manzi and Ulises Petit de Murat , wove the disparate stories of the characters into an overview of the gauchos ' revolt against Spanish rule . The film , unlike Hollywood Westerns , neither portrayed colonization as progress , nor focused the action on the indigenous people , instead focusing on the patriotic pride of the gauchos . The film won seven awards and Bence won an award as best actress of the year from the City of Buenos Aires . It also earned her an offer from Paramount Pictures to come to the US and work in Hollywood , but she declined the offer .
= = = A successful film star = = =
After the success of La guerra gaucha , Bence received only starring roles . In 1943 , she agreed to work with Pedro López Lagar on Son cartas de amor , a romantic story set at the time of the Spanish Civil War , in which she received an award for Best Actress from the Cuban Federation of Film and Theater Editors . In 1982 she donated the medal to a program raising funds to help the soldiers of the Falklands War . Later in 1943 , she starred in Los ojos más lindos del mundo , ( The Most Beautiful Eyes in the World ) . The title was a reference to the purplish green hue of Bence 's eyes and the title became associated with her , to the point that when she toured Chile in 1955 and 1964 , the press headlines read , " The most beautiful eyes in the world came here " . Her next film , Todo un hombre ( 1943 ) , was directed by Frenchman Pierre Chenal . In the final scene , Bence was replaced by a double because of the impossibility of postponing a trip to Brazil . She won the award for Best Actress from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the film . The cover of the magazine Antena for December 1943 announced the upcoming release of Julio Saraceni 's Nuestra Natacha , based on a play by Alejandro Casona . The film was released in September 1944 , shortly after the presentation of her film 24 horas de la vida de una mujer , in which she played the role of " Cecilia " , receiving good reviews in La Nación and Antena .
In 1946 , Bence starred with Mecha Ortiz in Camino del infierno , a melodramatic , psychological thriller involving a love triangle . Despite their performances , the film was poorly received by the critics . San Miguel Studios next put all three of its stars , Mecha Ortiz , María Duval and Bence in one film , Las tres ratas ( 1946 ) , under the direction of Carlos Schlieper , which fared much better with the public and critics . In the summer of 1944 , Bence met the actor Alberto Closas in Chile while filming María Rosa , who would become her husband . Both María Rosa and the other film made in Chile , Lauracha ( 1946 ) ended up being delayed for release due to a dispute between Pampa Film , Lumiton and San Miguel Studios . The legal dispute between the director Ernesto Arancibia and the film companies took nearly two years to resolve . Despite the delay in release , the Association of Film Critics awarded Bence the Silver Condor Award for Best Actress , for a role which Hal Erickson in
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Barker had all spoken in the aftermath . Barker quashed reunion rumors in December , but noted that they had been getting along .
Talk of a reunion commenced weeks after the trio began speaking again . After a two @-@ hour phone conversation between DeLonge and Hoppus , an arrangement was made for the trio to meet up at Hoppus and Barker 's Los Angeles studio in October 2008 . DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting . The trio had , in Hoppus 's words , " two gnarly heart @-@ to @-@ hearts , " during which the three opened up . " Tom had just kind of come out to Los Angeles for the day , " recalled Hoppus , " I remember he said , ' So , what do you guys think ? Where are your heads at ? ' And I said , ' I think we should continue with what we 've been doing for the past 17 years . I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing . ' " Eventually , the band appeared for the first time on stage together in nearly five years as presenters at the 51st Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2009 . The band 's official website was updated with a statement : " To put it simply , We 're back . We mean , really back . Picking up where we left off and then some . In the studio writing and recording a new album . Preparing to tour the world yet again . Friendships reformed . 17 years deep in our legacy . "
= = Recording and production = =
The band began recording demos of new material in 2009 . All three members brought song ideas that they worked on for years . As the band got back together , Barker said that the trio immediately " got inspired " by practicing their old songs and listening to them again , and they decided to record demos . There were four demos done , and only one was near completion , " Up All Night " . The trio wanted to release it as a single then , but quickly they realized that it was too ambitious to complete it before their reunion tour began in July . Sessions were stalled by the summer 2009 reunion tour , during which the band reconnected musically and emotionally . During the tour , Barker got the phone call that DJ AM had overdosed and died in New York , which heavily affected him . In addition to the tragedy regarding DJ AM , DeLonge was diagnosed with skin cancer the following year , but it eventually was cleared . The band did a large amount of writing before leaving on tour , but upon completion of the tour , they took time off to " take a couple of months and chill and do other stuff , " with intentions to regroup in 2010 . In June and July 2010 , the band spent time at their rehearsal spot , and their intention was to wrap up touring by September , and stay in the studio for the rest of the year until the album was finished . The album sessions were to be partially documented in The Blinkumentary , which was scrapped in 2012 .
The recording and release of Neighborhoods was delayed multiple times . The recording 's delay was due to the way the band chose to work — in bits and pieces , alone and together , in a pair of California studios — in addition to each member 's busy schedules . The album was recorded at both DeLonge 's studio in San Diego and in Los Angeles by Hoppus and Barker . Recording in separate studios was DeLonge 's idea , and ideas were exchanged via e @-@ mail . Various engineers met up in person to trade files on hard drives . Although the three musicians were rarely in the same room while recording , opting to work on their parts individually , DeLonge asserted that the method of recording was a more efficient way of working considering the schedules , not due to a lack of unity within the band . In addition , Barker was releasing a solo record , DeLonge was involved in Angels & Airwaves , and Hoppus had to fly to New York City once a week to film his television show , Hoppus on Music . The record was the band 's first to be self @-@ produced , due to the death of long @-@ time producer Jerry Finn in 2008 . Not only did Finn helm their last three studio albums , but he served as an invaluable member of the band : part adviser , part impartial observer , he helped smooth out tensions and hone their sound . " I honestly still feel like he ’ s in the studio with us , because for me , personally , everything that was about recording and being in a studio , I learned from Jerry , " said Hoppus . Instead of a producer , each band member had their own dedicated sound engineer . DeLonge , who was against using a producer after self @-@ producing most of his Angels & Airwaves records , described the band situation as " very democratic , " noting that he learned during the recording process to " let go and be okay with not being able to control everything . "
Hoppus attributed the album 's delay to the band learning to work by themselves without Finn , and both DeLonge and Hoppus expressed frustration during the sessions at the band 's cabal of publicists , managers and attorneys ( which DeLonge described as " the absolute diarrhea of bureaucracy " ) . A result of the band 's split was each members hiring his own attorney , and , during the sessions of Neighborhoods , the band had four managers . Later , it was revealed that DeLonge and Hoppus would go months without direct communication , only speaking through their managers . Hoppus moved to London with his family late in the recording process , also complicating matters . Under pressure , the band released a statement in April that effectively rescheduled all European tour dates due to the album 's prolonged recording . The decision — a " hugely expensive " one — was protested by DeLonge but pushed forward by Barker , who felt the trio had made commitments to only tour with new material . The biggest argument of the recording process ensued , which resulted in Geffen Records setting a July 31 deadline for the record amid concerns about the volatility of the band , explaining there would be penalties if the album was not turned in on time . DeLonge joked that , " We 'll probably actually drive it to the ( Geffen ) president 's house at two in the morning and hand it through his bedroom window at the last possible minute . " The band , as a whole , only entered the studio for " one or two weeks " following the release of the statement in the spring , with only three days dedicated to writing . Recording lasted through May and into the summer , and by the time of the July 31 deadline , the record was near completion and finally completed over August .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
Stylistically , Neighborhoods has been described as alternative rock and pop punk . Pre @-@ release , the album was described by the band as ambitious , weird , and expansive . The music of the album was inspired by each musician 's tastes : DeLonge 's contributions bear hints of arena and stadium rock , Barker infuses hip hop into his drum tracks , and Hoppus felt compelled by " weird indie rock . " Hoppus stated early on that a goal for the album was to try many new things , but to remain a catchy and " poppy " sensibility . The lyricism of the album was influenced by heavy events in each member 's lives during the latter part of the decade , elements considered dark by Hoppus . The band made sure to produce a few throwback songs recalling their sound in the " mid @-@ 90 's . "
Though DeLonge hoped to retain the angst present in the band 's past work , he wanted to " deliver it in a package that 's very modern , using instrumentations and formulas to launch you into different places with music that is not just three @-@ chord pop @-@ punk with riffs . " He later felt the album was not progressive as he had wished : " I 'm thinking , ' Why don 't we do this ? Why don 't we create these landscapes ? ' I think we should have been pushing ourselves , and trying to push the genre forward . " Likewise , Barker felt DeLonge wanted their music to be derivative of groups such as U2 or Coldplay , commenting , " For us , we were always like ' Blink is Blink , man . We want to sound like fucking Blink @-@ 182 . ' "
Hoppus wrote lyrics dealing with breakdowns in communication and trust and tackled with themes of isolation and confusion , but these lyrics were not specific to any of the band 's history . Hoppus struggled with writing upbeat , happy songs for the album and attributed to dark lyricism to the heavy events occurring shortly before the reunion . MTV News called Neighborhoods the " bleakest thing Blink have ever done , haunted by specters both real — depression , addiction , loss — and imagined , " noting the constant lyrical mention of death in many tracks . The album mixes the electronic flourishes of + 44 and the " laser @-@ light grandeur " of Angels & Airwaves into what MTV News called " a sound that recalls nothing so much as dark streets and black expanses , mostly of the suburban variety . "
= = = Packaging and title = = =
The title Neighborhoods evolved out of the trio discovering that each bring a very different aesthetic to the band , each like different neighborhoods in a city . " Everybody in the world thinks of something unique unto themselves when they hear the word ' Neighborhoods ' , " said Hoppus . " To some it is a big city , others a small town , others suburbia , everything . The world is wide , exciting and very different . That 's what Neighborhoods means to me . " The album artwork for the record was revealed on August 4 , 2011 , featuring the band name written atop a city skyline . The Neighborhoods sleeve contains many names close to the band , including Chloe ( DeLonge 's pet Labrador Retriever ) , Ava and Jon ( DeLonge 's daughter Ava Elizabeth and son Jonas Rocket ) , Jack ( Hoppus ' son ) , Landon , Alabama and Ati ( Barker 's son , daughter and step @-@ daughter , Atiana ) , G ! ( Mike Giant , designer of the cover ) , and lastly , a memorial to DJ AM .
= = Songs = =
" Ghost on the Dance Floor " opens the album , and is specifically about " hearing a song you shared with someone that 's passed . " The track resonated with Barker , who called DeLonge one night because the song affected him while listening to it , because of the death of DJ AM . " Natives " first arose from a tribal beat Barker created in the studio , and the songs title changed multiple times before settling on simplicity . " Up All Night " is the album 's oldest song , and dates to just after the band 's 2009 reunion , when they grouped together and produced demos . The band returned to it multiple times over the recording process , each time making it heavier than before . " After Midnight " was one of four new songs birthed from a last @-@ minute writing session after the band canceled their European tour . Barker 's favorite track ( and originally titled " Travis Beat " ) was written in separate studios but composed and recorded together .
" Snake Charmer " , initially titled " Genesis , " as a reference to the Book of Genesis , is based on the Biblical story of Adam and Eve . It pre @-@ dates the band ’ s reunion , and was a guitar riff DeLonge kept around to expand upon in the future . The song 's coda was composed by Barker and engineer Chris Holmes . Hoppus composed two versions of " Heart 's All Gone " , one fast and one slow , and ended up liking both , so the slower version serves as an interlude on the album 's deluxe edition . " Wishing Well " was solely created by DeLonge , and is what Hoppus describes as the epitome of the album : " It 's very catchy , but the lyrics are really , really dark and a little depressing . " " Kaleidoscope " arose when Hoppus woke up with the song 's opening lyrics in his head , which he expanded into a Descendents @-@ ish classic punk song . " The mentality behind it is being a slacker in 2011 , " Hoppus said . " The 20s and 30s malaise that is America right now . " It was also inspired by the album 's lengthy recording process and the transformation of the band . " This Is Home " was originally titled " Scars to Blame " , but changed considerably when Hoppus took the chorus and bridge and combined it with new lyrics written by DeLonge , morphing it into what he described as " an anthem for youthful abandon . "
" MH 4 @.@ 18 @.@ 2011 " was a working title for a song that was to be named " Hold On " , and represents a combination of Hoppus ' initials and the date he wrote the song . However , DeLonge convinced Hoppus to keep the original title because he thought it sounded cool , likening it to a virus . The song was inspired by one occasion in which Hoppus was idle at a stoplight when a helicopter flew over ahead , casting a large shadow . He began to think of war @-@ torn countries and impoverished areas in which circling helicopters are a " way of life , " and wrote the song to capture that mentality . " Love Is Dangerous " arose from a minimalist , electronic ballad , but gradually took on a heavier sound when combined with guitars . Hoppus described " Fighting the Gravity " as a " very strange song , " and highlighted its production : he ran a drum machine through his bass amp , and when the volume was turned up , it shook the entire building , causing a light fixture in the control room to start shaking . Hoppus and Holmes mic @-@ ed up the fixture , creating the rattling heard near the beginning . " Even If She Falls " is an upbeat , " catchy love song , " that Hoppus viewed as a positive note to end the record on .
= = Release and promotion = =
Expectations for Neighborhoods were described by Alternative Press as " truly gigantic , both within the music industry and the record @-@ buying mainstream . " MTV News called Neighborhoods one of the most anticipated albums of 2010 when the album was scheduled for that year , and then again as one of the most anticipated rock albums of 2011 . Kerrang ! also called it one of the most anticipated releases of 2011 , and it was also featured on a list of Spin 's " 26 Fall Albums That Matter Most " . The album title and release date were officially announced in July 2011 . In preparation of the deluxe edition , the band compiled ten tracks as well as three extras . The deluxe edition tracks are sequenced differently from the standard version . " Up All Night " was released as the album 's lead single on July 14 , and the band began streaming another new song , " Heart 's All Gone " , through a dedicated website on August 4 . The second single from Neighborhoods , titled " After Midnight " premiered on BBC Radio 1 on September 6 , 2011 . The album leaked two weeks before its release , despite being under a very high level of security . Hoppus commented to NME that he was surprised it took so long to leak and was relieved rather than annoyed that it had , reading warm comments about the album online .
Blink @-@ 182 returned to Interscope Records to distribute the album , but found the music industry landscape dramatically different since the band 's last effort . " The label itself has no resources or capital to do what they used to , " DeLonge said in an interview with Billboard , " They just have you locked up on a contract . " Interscope , since the band 's break @-@ up , had greatly pared down its rock department , in contrast to other labels . Blink @-@ 182 broke up at a heightened popularity period for pop punk , but Neighborhoods was released in an era for the genre in which Billboard described as " lacking exciting mainstream representation , " in addition to falling sales for peer bands . The band approached sponsorships , song releases and social media incorporation during the rollout of Neighborhoods . Social media such as Facebook and Twitter were present throughout each stage of the album , which Hoppus believed allowed more direct access and control over the band 's music . Although Modlife , DeLonge 's revenue @-@ sharing online service , was not involved in the promotion of the record , the band 's personal business projects were integrated , such as Macbeth Footwear and Famous Stars and Straps . Retailers such as Hot Topic and Interpunk.com carried different @-@ colored vinyl editions of Neighborhoods that included MP3 download cards . The band partnered with AT & T in order to promote the album , appearing in a national spot for the HTC Status ; the band also partnered with Best Buy , which sold a uniquely colored HTC Status preloaded with the band 's music . Television ads through networks such as ESPN were explored the week of release . In addition , Hoppus and DeLonge appeared in a " film festival " for the fan montage video of " Up All Night " , honoring various Internet fans through tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek categories . " Wishing Well " was released November 21 , 2011 , as a promotional single to alternative radio .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Neighborhoods debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with 151 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The album dropped to position 10 in its second week , and fell out of the top 20 soon afterward . The album also debuted at number one on both the magazine 's Alternative Albums and Top Rock Albums charts , number two on the Digital Albums chart , and number four on Tastemaker Albums . Internationally , the album performed best in Canada and Australia , where the album also debuted in the number two position . In New Zealand , the album peaked at number three , and the album debuted at number six on the UK Albums Chart and in Germany .
Despite this , sales were not as smooth as the group 's label , Interscope , had hoped , according to Billboard : " Despite the extended hiatus between albums , Neighborhoods failed to connect on the same scale as earlier releases . " As of May 2016 , it had sold 353 @,@ 000 units in the US . In the United Kingdom , the album went silver , certifying sales of 60 @,@ 000 units , and it was certified gold in Australia for sales of 35 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Critical response = = =
Neighborhoods received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 69 , based on 18 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews . " A pre @-@ release review from NME regarded Neighborhoods the band 's best album , calling it " bravely progressive " and noting the dark lyricism and random experimentation . Mike Diver of BBC Music described the album as " unexpectedly great , " and while agreeing the recording process gave some tracks a " dislocated feel , " he concluded that " Neighborhoods could easily have been a disaster – that it ’ s not , and actually a very successful endeavour , is worthy of substantial praise . " Chad Grischow of IGN called Neighborhoods a " startlingly great rock album " in which the band " hits an artistic growth spurt " , summarizing it as " the most mature , rewarding , and best album of their career . " James Montgomery of MTV News called the " long @-@ awaited , decidedly dark comeback album " a new transition for the band , calling Neighborhoods a " deep , dark , downright auto @-@ biographical effort . " AbsolutePunk staff writer Thomas Nassiff called Neighborhoods a " great record " while awarding a score of nine out of ten . He noted the album 's " bleak and dark " lyricism , while describing the album 's sound as containing elements of the trio 's various side @-@ projects , as well as a natural progression from their 2003 album . Nitsuh Abebe of New York Magazine deemed the record " one of those albums on which a group reunites as professionals and equals , each having gone off and collected his own interests via side projects , and then negotiates a sound that brings it all to bear : no @-@ nonsense modern rock , serious but unpretentious , ambitious but full of the same easy hooks as ever . "
Writing for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine remarked that Neighborhoods is " a different beast than any of the cheerfully snotty early Blink @-@ 182 albums , as the band picks up the gloomy thread left hanging on its eponymous 2003 album ... yet it 's far better to hear Blink @-@ 182 grapple with adolescent angst via the perspective of middle age than vainly attempting to re @-@ create their youth . Perhaps Blink could stand to sharpen their words but it 's better that they concentrated on their music , creating a fairly ridiculous yet mildly compelling prog @-@ punk spin on the suburbs here . " Tom Goodwyn of NME remarked that it finds the band " completely at ease with its past and confident enough to acknowledge their early work , with nods on the album to moments from their whole back catalogue . " British rock magazine Kerrang awarded Neighborhoods a " good " three out of five score in their review . Critic Mark Sutherland noted that while " the finished product is inevitably disjointed , Blink emerge as a surprisingly serious rock proposition . " He went on to add that , " While it occasionally sounds like Mark , Tom , and Travis are playing three different songs at once ( ' Kaleidoscope ' , ' After Midnight ' ) , the band are still capable of producing genuine moments of magnificence . " Scott Heisel of Alternative Press attributed the album 's flaws to the lack of an outside producer and the fact that only a few tracks were written and recorded as a group : " Blink @-@ 182 's members are still capable of writing good songs , but without a strong outside influence ( i.e. , a producer ) and no real desire or effort to consistently work in the same room with one another , the amount of truly transcendent , classic material is minimal . Ultimately , Neighborhoods is a slightly awkward entry in the band 's catalog that shows as much potential as it does flaws . "
Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly awarded the album a " B- " grade , opining that , " the peaks on Neighborhoods — their first disc in eight years — do little more than recall past triumphs . Outside of some latent goth leanings ( ' This Is Home ' ) and a gauzy detour ( ' Ghost on the Dance Floor ' ) , it 's mostly twitch @-@ crunch @-@ whine @-@ repeat . " Michael Brown of Drowned in Sound gave a mixed review , awarding the album a lukewarm five out of ten . He critiqued that , " Blink have the potential for much more than their past reputation may convey , but Neighborhoods is reminiscent of that first awkward conversation after a heated argument , as no @-@ one 's quite sure where to go next . " Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone gave the album three stars out of five , noting elements of sophistication , introspection , and darkness in the music and lyrics and commenting that " Some Clinton @-@ era pants @-@ dropping might 've been a fun nostalgia move . But those days are gone ; it 's their early @-@ 2010s nightmare as much as anyone else 's . " Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club was critical of DeLonge 's vocals , saying that he " sounds flat as ever , and has a fondness for clunky lyrics " , concluding that " Although Blink @-@ 182 has long since left its past as a bare @-@ bones punk band behind , overwrought rock isn 't its forte , either . Neighborhoods finds a nice balance between the two , but it could still use a little less fussiness . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine considered it uninspired : " When they try to add relatively ambitious elements to the things they actually do well , Blink @-@ 182 is more successful . [ ... ] It 's admirable that Blink @-@ 182 tries to challenge themselves over the course of Neighborhoods , but their growing pains don 't make for a particularly good album or a welcome comeback . " Scott McLennan of The Boston Globe considered the album a step forward , summarizing , " Blink @-@ 182 again delivers a record with nothing outright awful and enough dynamite songs to pack a punch at future tours . " Mikael Wood of Spin called the album " surprisingly and refreshingly low @-@ key , " but its self @-@ examination " comparatively adrift " with the sound of their past .
= = Touring and aftermath = =
Blink @-@ 182 first began touring in support of Neighborhoods with the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour in August 2011 . The 2011 tour marked the tenth anniversary of the tour , which Blink @-@ 182 headlined in its first incarnation . The trio headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour with My Chemical Romance , which ran from August to October 2011 , with additional dates scheduled in Canada with Rancid and Against Me ! . In 2012 the band embarked on a worldwide 20th Anniversary Tour . The band continued touring in 2012 with their 20th Anniversary Tour , where they performed the rescheduled European dates originally canceled in order to continue recording . They were scheduled to headline the Bamboozle 2012 Music Festival but cancelled when Barker had to undergo an operation for tonsilitis . The 20th Anniversary Tour extended into Australia for in 2013 as part of the Soundwave festival , as well as 4 sideshows along the east coast with punk acts The Vandals and Sharks . Barker , who still suffers a fear of flying , did not attend ; Brooks Wackerman , drummer of Bad Religion at the time , filled @-@ in for Barker 's position for the Australian tour .
The band has looked back on Neighborhoods more recently with a divided reaction . In 2012 , DeLonge would concede that the recording method , originally his idea , led to a loss of unity , noting that e @-@ mails dictated the majority of recording of the record , due to the hectic schedules of the band . " There 's some songs on there that I love , but for the most part it was disconnected , " Barker recalled . " It was like , ' You do this part in your studio , and then you 're gonna play on it and send it back to me . ' When we 're not in the studio together , you don 't have the opportunity to gel off each other . " In addition , Barker was still recovering from his 2008 plane crash , which made things difficult in the studio . " Dude , I was still healing , " he told Rolling Stone . " I had scabs all over my body and was , like , a bloody mess . It was just way too soon . "
In 2015 , following DeLonge 's departure , Barker claimed DeLonge " didn 't even care about [ Neighborhoods ] . He didn 't even listen to mixes or masterings from that record . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hoppus , Tom DeLonge , and Travis Barker .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= Charles Read ( RAAF officer ) =
Air Marshal Sir Charles Frederick Read , KBE , CB , DFC , AFC ( 9 October 1918 – 17 September 2014 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He served as Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) from 1972 to 1975 . Born in Sydney , Read joined the RAAF in 1937 , and began his career flying biplane fighters . As a Beaufighter pilot , he led No. 31 Squadron and No. 77 Wing in the South West Pacific during World War II . His achievements earned him the Distinguished Flying Cross and a mention in despatches , and he finished the war an acting group captain .
Read 's post @-@ war commands included the Australian First Tactical Air Force , No. 24 ( Commonwealth ) Squadron RAF , Central Flying School and No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in 1960 . Following staff roles , Read took charge of RAAF Base Point Cook and the RAAF Academy in the mid @-@ 1960s , and later RAAF Base Richmond . In 1970 he was promoted to air vice marshal and became Deputy Chief of the Air Staff . He succeeded Air Marshal Sir Colin Hannah as CAS in March 1972 , when the latter cut short his term as head of the Air Force to become Governor of Queensland . Air Marshal Read retired from the military in March 1975 and was knighted the following year .
= = Early career = =
Born in Sydney on 9 October 1918 , Read was the son of an immigrant from Bristol , England . He was educated at Sydney Grammar School , where he completed his Leaving Certificate . After working as a clerk in a motoring firm , Read joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 21 July 1937 . He underwent instruction at No. 1 Flying Training School in Point Cook , Victoria , and gained his commission as a pilot officer in June 1938 . Over the next two years he flew with No. 3 Squadron and No. 22 Squadron , which were based at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , and operated Hawker Demon biplanes . He was involved in experimental parachute drops with dummies near Menangle ; on one such test a fundamental flaw in the harness revealed itself when the dummy slipped clean from the chute , necessitating a redesign . By the time Australia declared war on 3 September 1939 , Read had been promoted to flying officer . He later recalled a flurry of activity on the day , but with little real purpose : " After all , we were pretty remote from Europe " .
= = World War II = =
Read was assigned to No. 30 Squadron flying Bristol Beaufighters after the unit was formed in March 1942 ; during this posting he reportedly flew a Beaufighter under the Sydney Harbour Bridge . Squadron Leader Read was subsequently given responsibility for raising No. 31 Squadron , also equipped with Beaufighters . After completing its initial training , the unit was deployed to Coomalie , Northern Territory , in October . Coming under the control of North @-@ Western Area Command , it went into action over Portuguese Timor the following month . By April 1943 , Read had been promoted wing commander . On 2 May , he led a low @-@ level sortie against Penfui airfield , a key base for Japanese raids on Darwin , during which he destroyed two enemy Mitsubishi Zero fighters on the ground with cannon . Read was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for the " courage and skill " he displayed during assaults on Japanese installations , pressed home in the face of severe anti @-@ aircraft fire . The citation was promulgated in the London Gazette on 2 July 1943 .
Returning to Australia , Read held command of No. 1 Service Flying Training School at Point Cook from October 1943 until the unit 's disbandment in September 1944 . He transferred back to the South West Pacific theatre later that year as Officer Commanding No. 77 Wing , which controlled three squadrons of Beaufighters . Read led Beaufighters of No. 31 Squadron into action during the Operation Oboe Six landings at Labuan on 10 June 1945 , and was the first RAAF pilot to land at the newly opened Tarakan airfield on 28 June . He was mentioned in despatches for the operational and administrative efficiency achieved by No. 77 Wing , and by the end of the war was an acting group captain on the headquarters staff of the Australian First Tactical Air Force at Morotai . He took over command of the formation following the end of hostilities , leading it into 1946 as its units were steadily disbanded . Read returned to Australia in early 1946 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Read married Betty Bradshaw on 1 June 1946 ; the couple had three sons . He was the inaugural commanding officer ( CO ) of the re @-@ formed No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook from November 1947 to September 1949 . During this time he was offered a permanent commission in the post @-@ war Air Force , with the provisional rank of squadron leader . Read was then promoted to substantive wing commander , and posted to England where he led No. 24 ( Commonwealth ) Squadron RAF from March to December 1950 . Returning from England in 1952 , he was made CO of Central Flying School at RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria , and went on to hold staff appointments at Headquarters Training Command from 1953 to 1957 .
As group captain , Read commanded No. 82 Wing at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland , from February 1957 to July 1960 , flying English Electric Canberra jet bombers . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in the 1960 New Year Honours . Read then served as Director of Operational Requirements at the Department of Air in Canberra . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1964 New Year Honours for his work introducing aircraft and weapons systems into the Air Force , including two overseas missions for aircraft and equipment selection . In December 1964 he was promoted to air commodore , and the following year attended the Imperial Defence College in London . Read was made Officer Commanding RAAF Base Point Cook in January 1966 , simultaneously holding the appointment of Commandant of RAAF Academy . He then served as Officer Commanding RAAF Base Richmond from March 1968 to July 1969 .
Read was promoted air vice marshal and made Deputy Chief of the Air Staff ( DCAS ) in January 1970 . In 1962 , while Director of Operational Requirements , he had recommended the Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter for Australian service . As DCAS , after plans to acquire such a heavy @-@ lift capability had languished for eight years , Read was able to finally give the go @-@ ahead for their purchase . He led a team to the United States in May 1970 to review a proposal to lease two squadrons of McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantoms to provide an interim strike force for the RAAF , pending delivery of the long @-@ delayed General Dynamics F @-@ 111C swing @-@ wing bomber . According to the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , Read 's decision to take up the F @-@ 4E offer , over competing Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer and Grumman A @-@ 6 Intruder options , " delighted RAAF senior officers and aircrews " .
In March 1972 , Air Marshal Sir Colin Hannah resigned as CAS one year short of his planned three @-@ year term , to become Governor of Queensland . Read had not been consulted by Hannah prior to the latter 's departure , and was reputed to be somewhat reluctant to take over the CAS role . Nevertheless , he was promoted to air marshal and served a full three @-@ year tour as the Air Force 's senior officer . Read was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 1972 Queen 's Birthday Honours . A highlight of his tenure as CAS was the belated entry into RAAF service of the F @-@ 111C with No. 82 Wing in June 1973 ; as well as being an advocate for building up Australia 's offensive strike capability , he had been a member of the 1963 mission led by Air Marshal Val Hancock to examine replacements for the Canberra , which led to the F @-@ 111 's acquisition . Read ordered the Officer Commanding No. 82 Wing , Group Captain Jake Newham , to operate the F @-@ 111 with great caution initially , well within limits , lest the controversial aircraft suffer greater damage to its reputation through early attrition . Read felt that " the nature of the office of CAS changed for the worse " towards the end of his term as the RAAF 's senior officer , as a plethora of committees sprang up in the wake of the Tange report on the defence force . In the words of historian Alan Stephens , " The seemingly interminable round of committee meetings which followed the Tange reorganisation made management very difficult , to the extent that Air Marshal Read often felt he was fighting against the system rather than working with it " .
= = Retirement = =
Read retired from military life on 20 March 1975 and was succeeded by Air Marshal James Rowland , who later became Governor of New South Wales . Considered disdainful of bureaucracy and some of the trappings of high office , Read refused to sit for the traditional portrait painted of former Chiefs of the Air Staff . As CAS during the Whitlam Labor government , which was generally antipathetic to imperial knighthoods , he was not raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) until the 1976 Queen 's Birthday Honours , after the Liberal Party under Malcolm Fraser had been returned to power . Originally from Vaucluse , in Sydney 's east , by 2010 Read was living in Safety Beach , on the New South Wales Mid North Coast . He died at Woolgoolga and District Retirement Village on 17 September 2014 .
= German cruiser Karlsruhe =
Karlsruhe was a light cruiser , the second member of the Königsberg class , and was operated between 1929 and April 1940 , including service in World War II . She was operated by two German navies , the Reichsmarine and the Kriegsmarine . She had two sister ships , Königsberg and Köln . Karlsruhe
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Locke 's personality , such as his desire to have a unique purpose and his willingness to believe in the unlikely .
Boone always offers to help his fellow survivors , joining the party trying to send a radio distress call on the second day , helping Sayid triangulate Danielle Rousseau 's distress signal on the eighth day , searching for the abducted Claire Littleton on the sixteenth day and standing guard for the return of Ethan Rom on the twenty @-@ eighth day . IGN wrote " he appeared to be both integral and counterproductive to their survival " and " Boone appeared to be a pure and honest guy who tried to help people on the island and attempted to carry his own weight among the seemingly @-@ unscathed survivors of Oceanic Flight 815 . "
= = Development = =
Unlike many other characters of the first season , who were rewritten based on their actors , Boone was largely the same through production . He was originally going to be named Boone Anthony Markham V , going by the nickname , " Five . " In the script for the pilot , the writers ran a search and replace to change Boone 's name so when Jack counted to five , the script read , " One , two , three , four , Boone . " Somerhalder did not want to shoot a pilot ; however , he jumped at the opportunity once he found out he would be working with co @-@ creator / executive producer J.J. Abrams . Somerhalder was paid between $ 20 @,@ 000 and $ 40 @,@ 000 an episode , initially received the third highest billing in the credits , before the producers decided to list the main cast alphabetically .
Boone has appeared in a total of twenty @-@ five episodes , and his voice has been heard in a twenty @-@ sixth episode . Boone has physically appeared in three episodes since the first season with the credit of " special guest star . " He returned for the flashbacks of Shannon , Nikki Fernandez and Paulo and Locke 's hallucination . In Nikki 's third season flashback , the producers did not ask Somerhalder to cut his hair for two days of work and had him wear a wig , making his hair noticeably longer than it should have been . There is some confusion over the spelling of Boone 's last name . While " Carlyle " appears on Boone 's checkbook and grave , " Carlisle " appears on the subtitles for " Hearts and Minds . "
In the original outline of the eleventh episode , Locke was to be accompanied by two guest characters to search for Claire and discover the Hatch . In the final product , Boone accompanied Locke , a choice leading to Boone 's death . While the executive producers have stated Somerhalder took the news of his character 's death professionally , Somerhalder has said he found it " pretty devastating . " Boone 's death is notable as the first death of a major character on the series . According to executive producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse , Boone 's death made sense from a story perspective to fuel the rivalry between Jack and Locke and lead to the events in the season finale . Following Somerhalder 's departure from the show , ABC signed him to another one @-@ year contract . Somerhalder stated being a part of Lost was " the greatest experience " of " the greatest year of his life . "
= = Reception = =
BuddyTV called Boone a fan " favorite . " After three episodes had aired , an article in USA Today called Somerhalder " camera @-@ friendly . " A poll was run by ComingSoon.net in spring 2005 on the favorite of the fourteen main Lost characters , in which Boone placed seventh with 4 @.@ 3 % of over 2000 votes . After his death , a TV Guide critic wrote she misses Boone 's " very pretty eyes . " IGN ranked Boone as the tenth best character of the first three seasons of Lost .
Somerhalder co @-@ won the 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award for " Best Ensemble - Drama Series . He was also nominated in the category of " TV : Choice Breakout Performance – Male " in the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , but lost to Desperate Housewives ' Jesse Metcalfe , who plays John Rowland . While starring on Lost , Somerhalder was voted one of " 20 Teens Who Will Change the World " by Teen People , despite being 26 years old at the time . Teen People also called him " the next Johnny Depp . " He placed ninth on TV Guide 's " Top Ten Hunks " list .
= Half @-@ Life 2 : Survivor =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Survivor is an arcade game based on the science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game , Half @-@ Life 2 . It was released on June 28 , 2006 on Taito 's Type X + arcade system , with a 32 " widescreen high definition LCD . The game 's player character is controlled with joysticks and floor pedals , and offers three game modes : Story , Battle , and Mission , each with different objectives . The game was met with a generally positive reception . Reviewers found it interesting to play the game in an arcade environment , and considered the shift to an arcade setting an excellent introduction of the Half @-@ Life series of video games to Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Players control their movement using two joysticks ( one for each hand ) and floor pedals . Three gameplay modes are available : Story , which approximates the events of the original game ; Mission , which forces networked players to work cooperatively toward a goal ; and Battle , which parallels the deathmatch content of the original game . Up to eight players — either local players or individuals in other networked arcades — can participate in the Battle and Mission modes .
In Story mode , players advance through partial combat scenes from the original game , following neon @-@ lit guiding arrows . Each chapter has several levels with goals such as " Kill the Combine " or " Find your way to the goal " . When goals are completed , the player is taken to next level . When players finish all the levels of the chapter , the game ends . Progress can be saved on a removable card to allow the player to choose a new chapter at the next visit . Aside from the G @-@ Man introductory cut @-@ scene , Half Life 2 : Survivor does not incorporate any of Half @-@ Life 2 's story elements , levels , or physics @-@ based puzzles .
In Mission mode , there are three objective maps with three difficulties : normal , hard , and super hard . Map goals include " Collect gems " , " Destroy Zombie spawning points " , and " Escape " . A Battle mode is also available in the game . It is essentially four @-@ on @-@ four team match . Players can choose between two different factions : the Combine and the Human Resistance . Both factions have four classes of troops : Ranger , Soldier , Sniper , and Engineer .
= = Development = =
The game uses content common to the Xbox and PC releases , although the game focuses on the set pieces that characterized the original game . Half @-@ Life 2 : Survivor was first revealed to the public by Taito in a private exhibition in Tokyo on November 29 , 2005 . It was originally meant to be released in March 2006 but it was pushed back to June 28 , 2006 . The game is only available in Japan .
The game runs on a machine based on Taito 's Type X unit , an arcade system built with PC components , which runs on the Windows XP Embedded operating system . The game machine 's cabinet uses a 32 @-@ inch LCD screen which runs at a resolution of 1360x768 pixels . The machine also has a 5 @.@ 1 @-@ channel surround sound system , and it uses a smart card for storing player data . Because the game is network @-@ enabled , players in different arcades are able to play with each other . A maximum of eight players can play in the same match ; robots are used to fill in empty player slots if there are fewer than eight human players .
= = Reception = =
Reception to the transposition of the Half @-@ Life series to an arcade setting was generally positive . The stylistic shift from the earlier , more traditional gameplay style to the newer , multi @-@ point arcade control scheme was a significant stylistic shift , one reviewer calling the gameplay " weird and disorienting " , but still concluding it to be very enjoyable overall . The video games review website , Video Games Blogger , considered the port to an arcade setting " interesting and totally unexpected " , and concluded its review by commenting that the arcade game could possibly increase interest in first @-@ person shooter video games in Japan , a country considered to be more interested in arcade @-@ style games .
= Playa de Oro virus =
Playa de Oro virus ( OROV ) is a probable species of hantavirus found in the rodents Oryzomys couesi and Sigmodon mascotensis in the Mexican state of Colima . The former is thought to be the main host . The sequences of parts of the virus 's RNA @-@ based genome have been determined ; they differ by 7 – 10 % in amino acid composition and 22 – 24 % in nucleotide composition from closely related viruses .
Playa de Oro virus was identified as a new species in 2008 and is most closely related to Bayou virus , Catacamas virus , Muleshoe virus , and Black Creek Canal virus , found in other species of Oryzomys and Sigmodon . Catacamas virus is found in a different population of Oryzomys couesi , and the presence of different viruses in these two species has been used as an argument for classifying the two populations of the host as separate species .
= = History and occurrence = =
Playa de Oro virus was first identified in rodents collected in 2004 as part of a survey of wild mammals at Playa de Oro in Manzanillo , Colima , western Mexico . The discovery was published in 2008 by Yong @-@ Kyu Chu and colleagues . Among 600 small mammals , antibodies against the hantavirus Sin Nombre virus were found in 23 individuals ( out of 358 studied ) of Oryzomys couesi , a rice rat that was the most common species found , six ( out of 87 ) of the cotton rat Sigmodon mascotensis , and one ( out of 77 ) of the pygmy mouse Baiomys musculus . In addition , twelve O. couesi and one S. mascotensis yielded hantavirus RNA . Viruses were found in males more often than in females . Because the amino acid sequences in sequenced parts of the virus 's genome differed by as much as 7 to 10 % from closely related hantaviruses , Chu and colleagues identified the virus found at Playa de Oro as a new species , called Playa de Oro virus or OROV . Although the authors could not prove that the virus fulfilled all the criteria for identifying a new virus species , they argued that it was likely that it did fulfill those criteria . It is currently treated as a probable species in the Hantavirus genus .
= = Virology = =
Hantaviruses have a genome that consists of three segments of single @-@ stranded , negative @-@ sense RNA ( see RNA virus : Replication ) , called the large ( L ) , medium ( M ) , and small ( S ) segments . The entire S segment and a fragment of the M segment have been sequenced .
The S segment consists of 1953 bases , of which 1287 ( starting at position 43 ) code for the nucleocapsid protein . In addition , a second 192 @-@ base open reading frame occurs in the middle of this sequence ( starting at position 122 ) , as in several other hantaviruses . Among three specimens of O. couesi , the sequence in this segment differed by only 1 % , and all changes were silent mutations . The amino acids of the S segment differ by 7 to 10 % from those of the related hantaviruses Bayou virus ( BAYV ; from the marsh rice rat , Oryzomys palustris ) , Catacamas virus ( CATV ; from a Honduras population of Oryzomys couesi ) , and Black Creek Canal virus ( BCCV ; from the hispid cotton rat , Sigmodon hispidus ) . The nucleotide sequence differs by 24 % from those viruses .
Among 1537 @-@ base fragments of the sequence of the M segment , several variable sites were observed , including some non @-@ silent mutations . The sequence differs by 8 to 10 % from BAYV , CATV , and BCCV in terms of amino acids and by 22 % in terms of nucleotides .
= = = Epidemiology and effects = = =
Because OROV occurs frequently in Oryzomys couesi , Chu and colleagues suggested that it is the primary host of the virus and that infections in Sigmodon mascotensis are the result of spillover between these two rodent species , which occur closely together . Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome , the disease caused by hantaviruses such as Sin Nombre virus , has never been reported in Mexico , but antibodies against hantaviruses have been found in human blood samples in Yucatán and various wild rodents are known to be reservoirs of hantavirus species . Thus , there is a potential risk of OROV infection in humans . Before the discovery of OROV , one hantavirus species had been identified in Mexico — El Moro Canyon virus from the small rodent Reithrodontomys megalotis .
= = = Relationships = = =
According to phylogenetic analyses based on the sequences of both the S and M segments , OROV is most closely related to the clade formed by BAYV , CATV , BCCV , and Muleshoe virus ( MUL ; from the hispid cotton rat ) . In 2009 , Piet Maes and colleagues proposed that the closely related BAYV , BCCV , and MUL be united into a single species . Chu and colleagues were surprised to find that the same species , Oryzomys couesi , harbored different viruses ( OROV and CATV ) , though noted that the subspecies infected by the two viruses were different . In 2010 , Delton Hanson and colleagues suggested on the basis of various lines of evidence , including the presence of different hantaviruses , that western Mexican populations of Oryzomys couesi represent a different species , Oryzomys mexicanus .
= The Boat Race 1980 =
The 126th Boat Race took place on 5 April 1980 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . It was won by Oxford in the closest finish for a century , despite one of their oarsman collapsing before the end of the race .
In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by five lengths , and in the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford were victorious .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race . However Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 56 . The race was sponsored for fourth time by Ladbrokes . It was the last race to be commentated on BBC Radio by John Snagge .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Cambridge coach Graeme Hall was stroke for the Light Blues in the 1968 race , racing against Oxford coach Daniel Topolski who was bowman for the Dark Blues that year . Cambridge Boat Club president John Woodhouse noted : " We have cut down the number of formal dinners with old Blues and old coaches , and we have tried to keep the evenings quiet . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew featured three Old Blues , Chris Mahoney , Mike Diserens , and Boris Rankov , who was rowing in his third University Boat Race . In J.S. Palmer and A.G. Phillips , Cambridge 's crew contained two Blues returning from the previous year 's race . Hugh Laurie was following the tradition of his father , former Light Blue president and Olympic gold medallist Ran , who had won the Boat Race in 1934 , 1935 and 1936 .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start on the Surrey station . The race started at 4 @.@ 45 pm . Following a clash soon after the start , and another at Harrods , the crews were level . Despite Oxford 's number seven , Thomas Barry , losing part of his blade , his crew established a lead and defended it against a higher rating Cambridge . Umpire Alan Burrough allowed the race to continue , despite the clash and close steering . By Barnes Bridge , Oxford 's bowman , Steve Francis , son of author Dick Francis , was exhausted and " had more or less stopped rowing " . Cambridge 's push continued but Oxford passed the finishing post with a canvas ' advantage , the closest finish of the century . Francis was treated for exhaustion , but was later diagnosed with hepatitis .
In the reserve race , Isis beat Goldie by five lengths , their first victory in four years . In the 35th running of the Women 's Boat Race , Oxford triumphed , only their second victory in twenty years .
= = Reaction = =
It was the first time Oxford had won five consecutive races since 1913 and was the " closest finish since at least the turn of the century . " Laurie recalls his attempts to emulate his father 's rowing career as " feeble " . Rankov , rowing in the third of his six Boat Races , recalls the race as one of his most memorable . He continued : " It was unbelievable . They kept coming at us and every time we tried to get away nothing happened . " Woodhouse lamented : " All I can say is that we shouldn 't have lost by so much . "
BBC reporter Snagge , commentating on his last Boat Race , remarked : " An absolutely cracking race ... a grand battle . "
= Does Anybody Hear Her =
" Does Anybody Hear Her " is a song recorded by Christian rock band Casting Crowns , released by Beach Street Records , Reunion Records , and Provident Label Group . Written by Mark Hall and produced by Mark A. Miller , it was released on September 23 , 2006 as the third single from the band 's 2005 album Lifesong . An alternative CCM and adult contemporary song , " Does Anybody Hear Her " relates the story of a girl who is being pushed away by the Christian church as well as the message that condemning other people is wrong .
" Does Anybody Hear Her " received positive reviews from most music critics , many of whom praised the song 's lyrical theme . It was successful on Christian radio , peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts ; it also topped the Radio & Records Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspirational charts . It ranked at number thirty @-@ three on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart and number forty @-@ six on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart .
= = Background and production = =
According to lead vocalist Mark Hall , " Does Anybody Hear Her " is about a girl " who is making all the wrong decisions and about how " and how the Christian church is not there for her . Hall began writing the song around 2000 about a girl in his youth group ; it ultimately encompassed around 15 @-@ 20 girls who due to their father not being there for them tried to find intimacy elsewhere , ultimate " [ giving ] themselves away to the first person who loves them " . Hall said that " We [ the Christian church ] attach identities to people , saying , ' It ’ s too late to reach this person , ' or ' This person here , there ’ s still some good there , so we should try on this one , ' or ' This one ’ s a lost cause , we just need to get him out of here ' . That ’ s a scary place to live if you ’ re that person — if you didn ’ t make the church ’ s ' list ' " .
" Does Anybody Hear Her " was written by Mark Hall . It was produced by Mark A. Miller and recorded and mixed by Sam Hewitt at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee . Additional recording was done at Lifesong Studio in McDonough , Georgia . The song was mastered by Richard Dodd and engineered by Dale Oliver and John Lewis Lee III . The strings on the song were arranged by Bobby Huff and were recorded at Little Big Studio by Boeho Shin and Daewoo Kim .
= = Composition = =
" Does Anybody Hear Her " is a song with a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is set in common time in the key of F major ( although the band usually performs the song live in the key of E major ) and has a tempo of 77 beats per minute . Mark Hall 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of C4 to the high note of F5 . A ballad , " Does Anybody Hear Her " is an alternative CCM and adult contemporary song . Lyrically , the song relates the story of a young woman who is being pushed away by the Christian church . It delivers the message that condemning other people is wrong and that the Christian church is being too judgmental of pregnant teenagers .
= = Critical reception = =
" Does Anybody Hear Her " received positive reviews from most music critics . Kim Jones of About.com called the song her favorite off of Lifesong . Jared Johnson of Allmusic praised the song as an example of " Mark Hall 's artistic balladry " . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard described it as " potent " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine felt that the song 's " softer cadence " didn 't diminish its " hard @-@ hitting message " . Although describing it as " poignant " , Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today felt the song was too broad in scope . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout described " Does Anybody Hear Her " as " a step backwards from the opening tracks [ of Lifesong ] " but felt that its musical tone " still works in the grand scheme of the song 's message " .
= = Release and chart performance = =
" Does Anybody Hear Her " was released to Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspirational radio on September 23 , 2006 . It debuted at number twenty @-@ four on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs for the chart week of November 4 , 2006 . It advanced to number five in its seventh chart week and to number four in its twelfth chart week . In its fifteenth chart week , " Does Anybody Hear Her " hit the number one position , which it held for six consecutive weeks . In total , it spent thirty @-@ three weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart . It also peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian AC and Radio & Records Christian AC and Soft AC / Inspirational charts .
" Does Anybody Hear Her " ranked at number eighty @-@ nine on the 2006 year @-@ end Radio & Records Christian AC chart . It ranked at number eight on the 2007 year @-@ end Billboard Hot Christian AC chart and at number ten on the 2007 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart , as well as at number eight on the 2007 year @-@ end Radio & Records Christian AC chart and number thirteen on the 2007 year @-@ end Soft AC / Inspirational chart . On the decade @-@ end Billboard charts , " Does Anybody Hear Her " ranked at number thirty @-@ three on the Hot Christian AC chart and number forty @-@ six on the Hot Christian Songs chart .
= = Live performances = =
Casting Crowns performed " Does Anybody Hear Her " as the fourth song on their set list at a concert on November 12 , 2005 at the Stabler Arena in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . They performed it as the eleventh song on their setlist at a concert on February 4 , 2010 at the Sprint Center in Kansas City , Missouri . As part of an acoustic set at a concert on February 28 , 2010 in Hershey , Pennsylvania .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Does Anybody Hear Her " – 4 : 28
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album liner notes of Lifesong .
= = Charts = =
= = Release and radio history = =
= Pennsylvania Route 63 =
Pennsylvania Route 63 ( PA 63 ) is a 37 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 60 @.@ 2 km ) state highway located in the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania area . The western terminus of the route is at PA 29 in Green Lane , Montgomery County . The eastern terminus is at Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) in Bensalem Township , Bucks County . The route heads through a mix of suburban and rural areas of northern Montgomery County as a two @-@ lane road , passing through Harleysville , before coming to an interchange with I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) in Towamencin Township . From this point , PA 63 continues through predominantly suburban areas of eastern Montgomery County as a two- to four @-@ lane road , passing through Lansdale , Maple Glen , Willow Grove , and Huntingdon Valley . Upon entering Northeast Philadelphia , the route follows Red Lion Road and U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) before heading southeast on a freeway called Woodhaven Road to I @-@ 95 .
What would become PA 63 was originally designated as Legislative Route 198 in 1911 , running from Green Lane to Northeast Philadelphia . When first designated , PA 63 ran from PA 29 in Green Lane to US 611 ( now PA 611 ) in Willow Grove , following its current alignment . In 1928 , it was extended east to PA 532 in Northeast Philadelphia , following Edge Hill Road , Terwood Road , and Welsh Road to Bethayres , where the route continued along Philmont Avenue to PA 532 . By 1940 , PA 63 was moved to its current alignment between Willow Grove and Bethayres and was realigned to follow Byberry Road to PA 532 . The former alignment of PA 63 on Edge Hill Road and Terwood Road became PA 163 , which was removed by 1950 . In the 1950s , the Woodhaven Road freeway was planned to serve Northeast Philadelphia , connecting I @-@ 95 to PA 63 at Philmont Avenue , with a further extension to I @-@ 276 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike ) in Southampton once planned . The freeway was completed to Evans Street just west of US 1 in the 1960s and PA 63 was extended along Byberry Road and Woodhaven Road to end at I @-@ 95 . In the 1980s , PA 63 was rerouted to use Red Lion Road and US 1 to reach Woodhaven Road . Plans to extend Woodhaven Road through the rest of Northeast Philadelphia remain , but have been on hold due to community opposition and financial constraints .
= = Route description = =
= = = Green Lane to Lansdale = = =
PA 63 begins at a " T " intersection with PA 29 in the borough of Green Lane in Montgomery County . From this intersection , the route heads southeast as two @-@ lane undivided Main Street , passing by several homes . After crossing Upper Ridge Road , the road crosses into Marlborough Township and becomes Sumneytown Pike . PA 63 continues through rural areas with some development , passing through the community of Sumneytown . Upon crossing Unami Creek , the route enters Upper Salford Township and heads into forested areas , where PA 63 meets the southern terminus of PA 563 ( Ridge Road ) . Following that intersection , the road passes through a mix of farmland , woodland , and residential developments . The route crosses over the East Branch of Perkiomen Creek before crossing into Lower Salford Township . At this point , PA 63 becomes Main Street and heads into the community of Harleysville , where it passes through suburban residential neighborhoods before heading into a commercial area , crossing PA 113 ( Harleysville Pike ) .
In the area of this intersection , PA 63 is briefly a divided highway . After PA 113 , the road passes through the center of Harleysville . The road turns south , becoming a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane before it heads to the southeast again as a two @-@ lane road , continuing past a mix of farm fields and residential and commercial development . PA 63 bypasses the community of Mainland to the northeast with two westbound lanes and one eastbound lane before entering Towamencin Township near a crossing of Skippack Creek .
In Towamencin Township , PA 63 widens to four lanes and is called Sumneytown Pike again , passing woods and development before reaching an interchange with I @-@ 476 ( Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension ) . Southeast of I @-@ 476 , the route enters a commercial area , where the highway turns northeast onto Forty Foot Road , a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . PA 63 passes through suburban areas , narrowing to three lanes before widening back to five lanes . Along this stretch , the route passes southeast of Christopher Dock Mennonite High School . A short distance later , PA 63 turns southeast onto Welsh Road and Forty Foot Road continues northeast toward Hatfield as PA 463 . Along two @-@ lane Welsh Road , PA 63 forms the border between Hatfield Township to the northeast and Towamencin Township to the southwest . The road heads through residential neighborhoods .
At the intersection with Squirrel Lane , PA 63 briefly forms the border between Lansdale to the northeast and Towamencin Township to the southwest before fully entering Lansdale and becoming Main Street . The road passes a mix of homes and businesses before coming to the northern terminus of PA 363 ( Valley Forge Road ) . After the PA 363 intersection , the road runs through the downtown of Lansdale , where the route crosses SEPTA ’ s Lansdale / Doylestown Line near the Lansdale Transportation Center . The road leaves downtown and heads into areas of homes and businesses . At a crossing of Wissahickon Creek , PA 63 forms the border between Lansdale to the northeast and Upper Gwynedd Township to the southwest before running along the border of Montgomery Township and Upper Gwynedd Township after crossing North Wales Road .
= = = Lansdale to Willow Grove = = =
At North Wales Road , PA 63 again becomes Welsh Road and passes several businesses as a four @-@ lane divided road . The route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road again as it passes between business parks to the northeast and farms and woods to the southwest ahead of an intersection with US 202 Bus . ( Dekalb Pike ) . Upon intersecting US 202 , PA 63 forms the border between Montgomery Township to the northeast and Lower Gwynedd Township to the southwest . The road passes through a mix of residential and commerciaal development , widening into a three @-@ lane road with two westbound lanes and one eastbound lane . PA 63 becomes the border between Horsham Township and Lower Gwynedd Township and crosses PA 309 ( Bethlehem Pike ) , with jughandles controlling the movements from PA 309 to PA 63 .
The route narrows back to two lanes as it passes residential subdivisions , becoming the border between Horsham Township to the northeast and Upper Dublin Township to the southwest at the Tennis Avenue intersection . Upon reaching the community of Maple Glen , PA 63 passes businesses and crosses PA 152 ( Limekiln Pike ) and Norristown Road . Past Maple Glen , the road continues past more homes , along with a few farms .
Farther southeast , the route widens into a three @-@ lane road with one eastbound lane and two westbound lanes as it passes near business parks . PA 63 soon widens to four lanes , with two lanes in each direction . The road becomes a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane as it comes to the Blair Mill Road intersection , at which point it forms the border between Upper Moreland Township to the northeast and Upper Dublin Township to the southwest .
The road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway that soon becomes undivided as it crosses over the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 276 ) and Norfolk Southern ’ s Morrisville Line before heading into a mix of residential and commercial areas as a five @-@ lane road again . Upon forming the border between Upper Moreland Township and Abington Township , PA 63 becomes Moreland Road , briefly becoming a divided highway . The route heads into the community of Willow Grove as a five @-@ lane road . The road enters a business area , becoming a divided highway again as it passes to the northeast of the Willow Grove Park Mall . The road crosses Easton Road and becomes undivided as it crosses SEPTA ’ s Warminster Line . The route passes a mix of homes and businesses as it comes to an intersection with PA 611 ( Old York Road ) .
= = = Willow Grove to Bensalem = = =
At this point , PA 63 heads into wooded residential areas as a two @-@ lane road . At the intersection with Edge Hill Road , the route turns southwest onto that road and fully enters Abington Township , eventually turning southeast onto Old Welsh Road . The road curves to the east and crosses into Lower Moreland Township . The road becomes Welsh Road again and widens to four lanes as it enters a mix of residential and commercial establishments in the community of Huntingdon Valley , crossing Pennypack Creek . Upon crossing PA 232 ( Huntingdon Pike ) , the route becomes Philmont Avenue and narrows back to two lanes . PA 63 turns south onto Red Lion Road and crosses SEPTA ’ s West Trenton Line as it continues through wooded residential subdivisions , making a turn to the southeast into Philadelphia .
PA 63 enters the Northeast Philadelphia section of the city a short distance past the Pine Road intersection . PA 63 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes between the Island Green Country Club ( site of the former Budd Company Red Lion plant ) and residential and industrial developments to the south . The road continues through a mix of residential and commercial development as it crosses PA 532 ( Bustleton Avenue ) . East of PA 532 , the route passes over CSX ’ s Trenton Subdivision and comes to an intersection with US 1 ( Roosevelt Boulevard ) .
PA 63 turns left and follows a concurrency with US 1 , which at this point is a wide boulevard with local @-@ express lanes . The road carries a 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 lane configuration as it heads northeast through areas of businesses and industrial parks . After intersecting Byberry Road , the concurrency with US 1 ends at a cloverleaf interchange , where PA 63 heads southeast onto the six @-@ lane Woodhaven Road freeway , which is lined with frontage roads .
Woodhaven Road carries the route between an industrial park to the northeast and residential neighborhoods to the southwest as it comes to the Thornton Road interchange . Past here , the freeway passes residential areas on both sides and has interchanges with Academy Road and Knights Road . At this point , the surroundings along PA 63 become commercial as it comes to the Franklin Mills Boulevard / Millbrook Road interchange that provides access to the Philadelphia Mills shopping mall . Within the interchange , the road is temporarily four lanes wide . The frontage roads end past that interchange as Woodhaven Road turns south to cross Poquessing Creek and head into Bensalem Township in Bucks County . Upon entering Bucks County , PA 63 has an interchange with US 13 . A short distance south of US 13 , PA 63 ends at an interchange with I @-@ 95 at exit 35 . This interchange also has access to the park and ride at the Cornwells Heights Station on Amtrak ’ s Northeast Corridor and SEPTA ’ s Trenton Line .
Two portions of PA 63 are part of National Highway System : between I @-@ 476 and Sumneytown Pike in Towamencin Township and from Norristown Road in Maple Glen east to I @-@ 95 in Bensalem Township .
= = History = =
In 1911 , what would become PA 63 was designated as Legislative Route 198 between Green Lane and Philadelphia . By 1927 , PA 63 was designated to run from PA 29 in Green Lane to US 611 ( now PA 611 ) in Willow Grove , following its current alignment . PA 63 was extended east to PA 532 in Philadelphia in 1928 , following its current alignment between US 611 and Edge Hill Road in Willow Grove . From this intersection , the road followed Edge Hill Road and Terwood Road east before following Welsh Road to an intersection with PA 163 / PA 232 in Bethayres and following Philmont Avenue between PA 163 / PA 232 and PA 532 .
By 1930 , PA 63 had seven auxiliary routes : PA 163 , PA 263 , PA 363 , PA 463 , PA 563 , PA 663 , and PA 763 . PA 63 was moved to its current alignment between Willow Grove and Bethayres by 1940 , with the former alignment of the route between these two points becoming a rerouted PA 163 . Also by this time , PA 63 was rerouted to follow Byberry Road between Philmont Avenue and PA 532 . By 1950 , the PA 163 designation was removed from Edge Hill Road and Terwood Road .
In 1954 , the Philadelphia City Planning Commission planned a freeway named Woodhaven Road to run from I @-@ 95 in Bensalem Township northwest to Lower Moreland Township , passing through Northeast Philadelphia . Construction on Woodhaven Road began in 1962 with completion between I @-@ 95 and US 13 in 1963 and northwest past US 1 to Evans Street in 1966 . Following the completion of the freeway , PA 63 was extended east onto it . By 1983 , PA 63 was rerouted to use Red Lion Road and US 1 between Philmont Avenue and Woodhaven Road instead of Byberry Road .
The PA 63 freeway was at one time proposed to continue north from Northeast Philadelphia to the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Southampton . From here , the freeway would become known as the Cross County Expressway and serve the PA 611 corridor , utilizing the Doylestown Bypass as it continued north to the PA 33 freeway near Easton . The freeway south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike was planned to cost $ 68 million and be finished by 1975 while the part north of there was planned to be completed by 1985 . However , this freeway was never built . Meanwhile , plans still existed to extend Woodhaven Road from Evans Street to the Montgomery County border at Philmont Avenue . This extension had been approved by the Federal Highway Administration in 1968 and PennDOT had torn down 28 homes in the Somerton neighborhood in order to build the road . The Woodhaven Road extension was cancelled in the late 1970s due to funding issues and opposition from Lower Moreland Township residents who did not want to see increased congestion from the extension .
In 1998 , the Woodhaven Road extension resurfaced as a means to relieve traffic along Byberry Road . This proposed extension was to continue west only to PA 532 ( Bustleton Avenue ) . However , Lower Moreland Township officials again voiced their opposition that the extension would increase traffic on area roads . In addition , residents in the Westwood development blocked the proposed road . PennDOT removed the Woodhaven Road extension from its long @-@ range plans in 1996 .
Despite this , plans for extending Woodhaven Road resurfaced in 2001 when local officials began discussing the extension with PennDOT . Various options for the extension were created , including extending the freeway as far as Philmont Avenue and possibly PA 232 ( Huntingdon Pike ) as well as widening and improving adjacent roads including PA 532 ( Bustleton Avenue ) and Byberry Road . In addition , the project also calls for replacing the weight @-@ restricted Byberry Road bridge over a CSX rail line .
After putting the Woodhaven Road project on hold due to budget issues , PennDOT brought it back again as a parkway that is to continue west to PA 532 , with an estimated cost of $ 30 million . Under this proposal , the railroad bridge is to be replaced , with Byberry Road terminating at cul @-@ de @-@ sacs on both sides . The current Woodhaven Road extension plan continues to face opposition from area residents who fear increased traffic .
In June 2011 , the portion of PA 63 in Mainland between Freed Road and Old Forty Foot Road was shifted to a new alignment to the northeast , with the old alignment becoming Mainland Road .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 63 Alternate Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 63 Alternate Truck is a truck route around a weight @-@ restricted bridge over the Unami Creek in Marlborough Township , on which trucks over 30 tons and combination loads over 40 tons are prohibited . The route follows PA 29 , Park Avenue , Schwenksville Road , and Old Skippack Road . It was signed in 2013 .
= = Related routes = =
PA 163 was a route designated between 1930 and 1940 to connect PA 73 in Philadelphia to PA 63 / PA 232 in Bethayres . Between 1940 and 1950 , the route was redesignated to connect Willow Grove to Bethayres along Edge Hill Road and Terwood Road .
PA 263 is a route that connects PA 611 in Willow Grove to PA 32 in Centre Bridge .
PA 363 is a route that connects US 422 in Audubon to PA 63 in Lansdale .
PA 463 is a route that connects PA 63 in Hatfield Township to PA 611 in Horsham .
PA 563 is a route that connects PA 63 in Upper Salford Township to PA 412 in Nockamixon Township .
PA 663 is a route that connects PA 100 in Pottstown to PA 309 / PA 313 in Quakertown .
PA 763 was a route that connected PA 263 in Hatboro to PA 232 in Lower Moreland Township , following Byberry Road . It was created by 1930 with the designation removed by 1940 .
= The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword =
The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword is an action @-@ adventure game for the Wii home console , developed and published by Nintendo . The sixteenth mainline entry in the The Legend of Zelda series , it was released worldwide in November 2011 . Taking the role of series protagonist Link , players navigate the the skies around the floating island of Skyloft and the land below it , completing quests that advance the story and solving environmental and dungeon @-@ based puzzles . Gameplay mechanics and combat , the latter focusing on attacking and blocking with sword and shield , are reliant on the Wii MotionPlus expansion device .
Skyward Sword takes place at the beginning of the Zelda continuity , detailing the origins of the Master Sword , a recurring weapon within the series . The current incarnation of Link , resident of a floating town called Skyloft , heads on a quest to rescue his childhood friend Zelda after she is kidnapped and spirited to the Surface , an abandoned land below the clouds . Armed with the Goddess Sword and aided by a spirit named Fi , Link must ensure Zelda 's safety and stop Ghirahim as he attempts to resurrect his master .
Development lasted around five years , beginning after the release of Twilight Princess in 2006 . Multiple earlier Zelda games influenced the developers , including Twilight Princess , Ocarina of Time and Majora 's Mask . Many aspects of the game 's overworld and gameplay were designed to streamline and populate the experience for players . The art style was influenced by the work of impressionist painters including Paul Cézanne . The implementation of Wii MotionPlus proved problematic for the developers , to the point where it was nearly discarded . The music , composed by a team led by Hajime Wakai and supervised by Koji Kondo , was the first Zelda title to use a live orchestra for majority of the tracks .
First revealed in 2009 , it was initially planned for release the following year before being delayed to 2011 to further refine and expand it . The game was a critical and commercial success , receiving perfect scores from multiple journalistic sites , winning and receiving nominations for numerous industry and journalist awards , and selling over three million copies worldwide . Feedback on the game later influenced the development of the next entry for home consoles , Breath of the Wild .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda : Skyward Sword is an action @-@ adventure video game in which players take on the role of series protagonist Link through a series of overworlds populated by monsters and navigating dungeons featuring puzzles and further enemies including dedicated bosses . Link is controlled using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk , and the Wii MotionPlus expansion device is required to play . The greater majority of gameplay mechanics revolve around use of motion controls : these include camera control with the Nunchuck and general hotkey actions and movement linked to the Wii Remote . Jumping across gaps and scaling ledges happen automatically within context . The Nunchuck is also used to make Link perform a forward roll . In addition to his standard pace , Link can sprint for short distances . Sprinting and other actions such as climbing and carrying heavy objects is limited by a stamina meter , which recharges after a few seconds when not performing actions that drain it . When depleted entirely , Link 's movement speed is reduced and he is left vulnerable until the meter refills . Standard navigation takes place from a third @-@ person perspective , while the Dowsing search function switches to a first @-@ person view : Dowsing scans an area for a selected object , with new Dowsing objectives appearing depending on game context .
Fighting enemies , which appear in both the overworld and dungeons , relies on Link 's use of his sword and shield . Link 's sword movements are mapped to the direction the Wii Remote is flicked by the player , and other moves include a forward thrust and a stab . Enemy movements are designed to anticipate and block Link 's combat movements . By raising the Wii Remote , the sword gathers energy which can be unleashed in a Skyward Strike . Skyward Strikes are also used to trigger environmental elements such as magical switches . The shield is controlled with the Nunchuck : when the shield is raised , it can be used to reflect attacks . Spin attacks and Finishing Blows are activated by swinging both the Wii Remote and Nunchuck . Link 's health is represented with Hearts , with Link taking damage whenever he is hit : if he loses all Hearts , the game ends .
The game takes place on the floating island of Skyloft and surrounding airborne islands ; and the three Surface overworlds where the majority of the main adventure takes place . Side quests for the town 's citizens are unlocked as the game progresses . The different areas of the Surface are accessed through portals in the clouds . Side quests for characters of the Surface are also available , and sometimes mandatory for completing the main quest . The Skyloft overworld is navigated with a great bird called a Loftwing , while the Surface is navigated on foot . Marker beacons can be set on the map for Link to follow , and save points in the form of statues preserve Link 's progress up to that point . During his quest , Link is aided by the sword spirit Fi , who is able to give hints to the player for both environmental elements and enemies : for example , when an enemy is targeted and Fi is summoned , she will give the enemy 's characteristics and weaknesses .
Traditional series items such as Bombs used for demolition and the Bow and Arrow for ranged attacks are available as Link progresses through the game , along with new additions such as a mechanical Beetle that flies to areas beyond Link 's reach for a variety of actions including activating switches ; and a whip for grabbing otherwise @-@ unreachable objects and levers . Link 's shield takes damage when blocking attacks fail , and may eventually break . Items and equipment can also be optionally upgraded using materials gathered from defeated monsters and within each overworld environment , making them stronger and more durable . In addition to consuming resources , Link must also pay for the upgrade with Rupees , the game 's currency which is scattered throughout the world .
= = Synopsis = =
Skyward Sword takes place at the beginning of the Zelda continuity : according to legend , three ancient Goddesses bestowed a great power capable of granting any wish : the Triforce . The Demon King Demise sought the Triforce , and lay waste to much of the land in his quest for it . The Goddess Hylia gathered the remaining people on a giant outcrop of rock and sent it into the sky beyond the clouds , allowing her to launch a full @-@ scale offensive against Demise allied with the land 's remaining benevolent races . She was victorious , but the land was severely damaged . Uncounted years later , the outcrop is known under the name of Skyloft , and its people believe the " Surface " below the clouds is a myth .
In the present , knight @-@ in @-@ training Link passes his final exam despite the attempted interference of his class rival Groose , who considers himself a romantic rival for Link 's childhood friend Zelda . After passing the exam and on a celebratory flight together , Zelda is whisked away below the clouds by a dark tornado . After recovering back on Skyloft , Link is led to the island 's statue of Hylia by Fi , the spirit of the Goddess Sword residing within the statue . Link draws the sword , showing himself to be the prophesied hero who will finally destroy Demise . Opening a way to the Surface , Link is guided by Fi to the Sealed Temple , where he meets an old woman who tells him to track Zelda : this leads Link across the regions of Faron Woods , Eldin Volcano , and the Lanayru Desert . While he catches up with Zelda , he is prevented from returning her to Skyloft by Impa , a young woman guarding and guiding Zelda . Link is also confronted by Ghirahim , a self @-@ proclaimed Demon Lord working towards freeing Demise . At the Temple of Time in the Lanayru Desert , Link defends Zelda and Impa from Ghirahim , giving the two time to depart through a Time Gate into the past which Impa destroys as they pass through .
Returning to the Temple of Hylia , Link is followed by Groose and the two end up on the Surface together . Link then has to defeat the Imprisoned , a monstrous form of Demise attempting to reach the Sealed Temple , after the old woman shows him a second dormant Time Gate . With the Imprisoned defeated , Link sets out to strengthen the Goddess Sword by passing trials set by the ancient Goddesses and using their gifts to find Sacred Flames to purify and strengthen the blade so the Time Gate can be awakened . Returning to find the Imprisoned attempting to break free , Link reseals it with help from Groose . Activating the Time Gate and traveling to the past , he finds Zelda and learns that she is the mortal reincarnation of Hylia : Hylia could not kill Demise and was too weakened from their battle to fend him off again , so she created the Goddess Sword and reincarnated as a mortal to find someone who would fulfill her duty by using the Triforce to wish Demise 's destruction , as only mortals can use the artifact . Zelda then seals herself inside a crystal to strengthen the seal on Demise , after granting her power to the Goddess Sword , evolving it into the true Master Sword .
Link locates the Triforce on Skyloft and uses it to destroy Demise . With Demise dead , Zelda is freed , but Ghirahim arrives and kidnaps Zelda : though Demise is dead in the present , Ghirahim intends to use Zelda as a sacrifice to resurrect him in the past . Link pursues Ghirahim into the past and fights through his army . He then defeats Ghirahim , who turns out to be the spirit of Demise 's sword , but is unable to prevent Zelda 's soul from being used to reincarnate Demise ' humanoid form . Groose guards Zelda 's body while Link challenges Demise to single combat : Link triumphs , absorbing Demise 's essence into the sword , but not before Demise curses Link and Zelda 's bloodlines to be haunted by his reincarnated rage . To complete the sword 's seal , Link drives it into a pedestal in the Sealed Temple , with Fi accepting eternal slumber as a result . Groose , Link and the revived Zelda return to their time while Impa remains behind as she is a person of that time period and must watch over the Time Gate and Master Sword . In the present , the old woman greets them one last time before she dies and vanishes , revealing that she was Impa . The game ends with Zelda deciding to remain on the Surface to watch over the Triforce : she and Link together establish the kingdom of Hyrule .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and release = = =
Skyward Sword began development in 2006 , after the release of The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess for GameCube and Wii . It was developed by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development , a development division of series publisher Nintendo . Its producer was Eiji Aonuma , a major contributor to the Legend of Zelda series . His main preoccupation during these early stages was whether the developers could continue creating The Legend of Zelda titles using the same development mindset that had been used up to Twilight Princess . The game 's director was Hidemaro Fujibayashi : previously working as assistant director on The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass for the Nintendo DS , Skyward Sword was his first project for home consoles . He began work on Skyward Sword after finishing Phantom Hourglass , and continued working on the game alongside his work on The Legend of Zelda : Spirit Tracks . When Spirit Tracks was finished , Fujibayashi and the game 's development team transferred back to working on Skyward Sword .
According to Aonuma , the team 's starting point for development was the Wii version of Twilight Princess : feeling they had not fully realized their goal of creating a vast and realistic world with Twilight Princess , they used their previous work as a foundation for the next title . They also sought to create a memorable experience equivalent to The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time , by that time considered the series ' most memorable title . Development lasted around five years , and according to series producer Shigeru Miyamoto , the game 's budget was considered quite high for a Nintendo project . The development time was initially estimated at three years , but difficulties and changes in the game 's development extended development time by a further two years : despite this , Miyamoto felt that this was not wasted development time as the first two years went into experimentation . By June 2011 , the game was complete aside from fine tuning and balancing its mechanics .
A new Zelda title was first hinted at in April 2008 , when Miyamoto stated that the Zelda development team were reforming to create new games . Miyamoto later confirmed at the 2008 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) that a new Zelda was in development for the Wii . The game was officially unveiled at E3 2009 , although its official title remained unknown . Due to its in @-@ development state , Miyamoto could not show off gameplay as he had wished . Instead , he showed promotional art featuring Link and Fi . He also announced the game 's use of Wii MotionPlus , along with its planned 2010 release window . In a later interview , Aonuma 's comments on the game 's playability brought this release window into doubt . He also noted that his wish to focus on the new game meant that the release date of Spirit Tracks was shifted to the end of 2009 rather than its initial projected release in early 2010 . The game 's official title was announced at the
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Hayden 's legal representative , Randolph Williams , urged the judge to show leniency because the suspect had shown remorse for his crime from the moment of his arrest . The judge , Justice Basil Reid , sentenced Hayden to life in prison with the possibility of parole after fifteen years .
= = Reaction = =
After his death , the Jamaica Observer described Williamson as " Jamaica 's most prominent gay rights activist " , while both the BBC and The Independent called him the country 's " best @-@ known gay rights activist " , and Gary Younge of The Guardian termed him " the public face of gay rights in the country " .
Tony Hadn , a volunteer for J @-@ FLAG , stated that Williamson was " so courageous . He never stopped to think , ' oh , I might get in trouble for this , ' so in that sense he was very selfless . " He was succeeded as J @-@ FLAG 's leader by Gareth Williams , who informed press that Williamson " was the only out gay person in Jamaica who had the courage to put his face on television , I was very close to him ... His murder was really a traumatic loss for our community . " One member of J @-@ FLAG stated that " Brian Williamson is our Martin Luther King " . Four days later , J @-@ FLAG held a memorial devoted to Williamson , which was attended by almost two hundred people ; the memorial involved personal tributes , poetry slams , and lip synching to Whitney Houston songs .
On 23 June , the British LGBT rights group OutRage ! held a memorial vigil outside the High Commission of Jamaica in London . OutRage ! leader Peter Tatchell attended the vigil , there proclaiming that the Jamaican Prime Minister , P. J. Patterson , " shares responsibility for the wave of homophobic violence , culminating in the murder of Brian Williamson " because he had failed to decriminalize same @-@ sex sexual activity and clamp down on homophobic violence in Jamaican society . Also in attendance at the vigil were the Green Party 's London Assembly member Darren Johnson , Amnesty International 's Carol Buddd , Big Up 's Charles Anglin , UKBlackOut 's Andrew Prince , and the Lesbian and Gay Immigration Group 's Barry O 'Leary . The London Gay Men 's Chorus attended , singing a rendition of " Let My People Go " .
In their 2012 study of the relationship between homophobic attitudes in Jamaica and Britain , Keon West and Miles Hewstone described Williamson 's murder as the " most prominent " example of an anti @-@ gay murder on the island .
= = = Academic sources = = =
= Extra Large Medium =
" Extra Large Medium " is the 12th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . Directed by John Holmquist and written by Steve Callaghan , the episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on February 14 , 2010 . In " Extra Large Medium " , the show 's main character , Peter , discovers that he has supposedly developed " extrasensory perception " ( ESP ) after his two sons , Chris and Stewie , go missing during a family hike in the woods . Soon after being rescued , Chris decides to ask out a classmate at his school , named Ellen , who has Down syndrome , and eventually takes her on a romantic date , which he goes on to regret . Meanwhile , Peter begins performing psychic readings , but is eventually discovered to be faking his ability once he is approached by the town 's police force .
The episode generated significant controversy . Former Governor of Alaska and 2008 Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee Sarah Palin , who is referenced briefly in the episode as being the mother of Ellen , took offense to the episode 's portrayal of Down syndrome , due to her son 's diagnosis of the disorder . Andrea Fay Friedman , who was also diagnosed with Down syndrome and portrayed the character of Ellen , publicly refuted Palin , instead supporting executive producer and series creator Seth MacFarlane , who defended the episode , and was also supported by Bill Maher , the host of Real Time . The episode got more criticism from the Parents Television Council during its original broadcast .
Despite the controversy , critical responses to the episode were mostly positive ; critics praised its storyline , numerous cultural references , and its portrayal of a person with Down syndrome . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 42 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jennifer Birmingham , Jackson Douglas , Andrea Fay Friedman , Phil LaMarr , Michele Lee and Nana Visitor , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics , for the episode 's song entitled " Down Syndrome Girl " , at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . Both Walter Murphy and MacFarlane were recognized for their work on the music and lyrics . " Extra Large Medium " was released on DVD , along with 11 other episodes from the season , on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
When the Griffin family decide to go for a hike in the local woods , Chris and Stewie get lost while chasing after a floating butterfly . As a result , they go missing for several days , with only limited supplies . As Lois is at her wits ' end , she decides to see a psychic medium who assures her of the children 's safety and well being . Eventually the boys are found and rescued by Bruce , and returned to their home in Quahog which only furthers Lois 's psychic obsession to the annoyance of a skeptical Brian . In defiance of Lois 's assertion that extrasensory perception exists , Brian has Peter perform a cold reading on a passerby in the park in order to demonstrate that psychic readings are purely an act , and not real . However , Peter is struck by his success as a medium , convincing himself that he actually has extrasensory perception , and decides to capitalize on it by opening his own psychic readings business and performing in front of a live audience . Soon after , Peter 's bluff is finally called when Joe requests his help in a frantic search for a missing person who has been strapped to a bomb . Peter stalls for time during the search ( as he just wants to feel the victim 's daughter 's breasts ) , eventually resulting in a gruesome death when the bomb explodes , prompting Peter to flatly admit that he actually has no psychic powers whatsoever .
Meanwhile , during the time when Chris and Stewie were lost in the woods , Chris promises to ask out Ellen , a school classmate with Down syndrome . After their rescue , Stewie helps prepare Chris for a date by dressing him up , and instructing him on how to act through a prolonged musical number . During the date , Ellen turns out to be pushy and demanding , and the relationship quickly falls apart . Chris admits that he had bought into a stereotype of people with Down syndrome being kind and loving , and breaks up with her . Stewie consoles Chris by congratulating him for overcoming his shyness and demonstrating confidence in asking her out on a date , as he had promised to do .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was directed by series regular John Holmquist , and written by series show runner Steve Callaghan before the conclusion of the eighth production season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Seth MacFarlane and David Zuckerman working as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Extra Large Medium " .
Actress Andrea Fay Friedman , who was diagnosed with Down syndrome at birth , and who has appeared on several television shows , including Saving Grace and Life Goes On , voiced the character Ellen . Before performing on the show , Friedman stated in an interview that she had never watched Family Guy , but found it to be " funny " after watching several episodes from the series . In developing Friedman 's character , her physical appearance was largely used in creating Ellen , in addition to adding a " bossy " personality to the character , which Friedman was reluctant to perform at first . She eventually " had a nice time " performing the script , however , as it was her first voice acting performance .
" Extra Large Medium " , along with the eleven other episodes from the first half of Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actress Jennifer Birmingham , actor Jackson Douglas , Andrea Fay Friedman , voice actor Phil LaMarr , singer Michele Lee , and actress Nana Visitor guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Recurring guest voice actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made guest appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
Peter mentions starring in Starlight Express , which is a rock musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber ; although Peter 's role as shown onscreen has little to do with the actual performance . While Stewie and Chris are lost in the forest overnight , Stewie plays a guessing game with one of the answers being Thornton Melon . Stewie looks at the television audience wondering why the majority of them chose Thornton Melon , then Stewie notes that Thornton Melon was the character that Rodney Dangerfield played in the 1986 film Back to School . It was in fact a quote by Henry David Thoreau . Stewie 's reference to a newspaper headline saying " Stewie Defeats Truman " is a takeoff of the famous " Dewey Defeats Truman " headline , which erroneously predicted that Thomas E. Dewey would defeat Harry S. Truman in the 1948 presidential election . Peter 's new career as a psychic is a parody of John Edward and his TV series Crossing Over . While the police depend on Peter to help them find someone , Peter stalls by pretending to channel the spirit of Lou Costello ; his exchange with Joe about the missing man , Mr. Hu who lives on First Street , is a takeoff of the famous Abbott and Costello routine " Who 's on First ? " . Also , there was a cutaway to the Enterprise from the original Star Trek series showing Spock winning the lottery ( with the numbers 18 , 24 , 41 and 72 ) , then cussing at everyone shortly before leaving . Nana Visitor voices the Enterprise viewscreen , while series writer and producer John Viener voices Spock in the cutaway .
= = Reception = =
" Extra Large Medium " was broadcast on February 14 , 2010 in the United States as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was preceded by an episode of The Simpsons , and Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . It was followed by MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! . The episode was viewed by an estimated 6 @.@ 42 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the 2010 Winter Olympics on NBC , Undercover Boss on CBS and Extreme Makeover : Home Edition on ABC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographicbeating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings were slightly up from the previous episode , " Dial Meg for Murder " .
Reviews of the episode were positive , citing the episode as " a pleasant surprise . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and American Dad ! that preceded and followed the episode respectively and The Cleveland Show , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club commented that he felt that the Chris plot line was " hung together in a way the storylines usually don 't on this show , " adding that , " I 'll give the show points for both degree of difficulty and pulling off something I didn 't think it would . " In the conclusion of his review , VanDerWerff rated the episode as a B- , beating only The Cleveland Show episode " Buried Pleasure " . In a slightly less positive review , Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 , and began his assessment of the episode by stating , " This one will certainly get some politically correct Down syndrome advocates all riled up , but Family Guy is nothing without a little controversy . " Isler went on to call the plot " uneven in quality , " but with " some moments that could be in the Family Guy " greatest hits " archive . " Television critic Jason Hughes of the TV Squad called the Abbott and Costello joke " hilariously appropriate " , and stated that the episode 's portrayal of a person with Down syndrome was " refreshing . "
= = = Controversy = = =
At one point , Ellen states that her mother is the former Governor of Alaska , which strongly implies that her mother is Sarah Palin , the only woman to have served in the office of governor in the state . Palin 's daughter Bristol publicly stated on her mother 's Facebook profile on February 16 , 2010 , that she took offense to the episode , feeling that it mocked her brother , Trig , who has Down syndrome , commenting , " If the writers of a particularly pathetic cartoon show thought they were being clever in mocking my brother and my family yesterday , they failed . All they proved is that they 're heartless jerks . " Sarah Palin also criticized the episode in an appearance on The O 'Reilly Factor , calling those who made the show " cruel , cold @-@ hearted people . " The writer of the episode , Steve Callaghan , addressed Palin 's criticism of the episode at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 24 , 2010 , in talking about the upcoming ninth season of the show , stating , " This season , I decided that I 'd even things out and write something that would offend smart people . "
In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Seth MacFarlane responded to Palin 's criticism , saying that the series always uses satire as the basis of its humor , and that the show is an " equal @-@ opportunity offender . " In addition , Andrea Fay Friedman , who voiced Ellen , and who herself has Down syndrome , also responded to the criticisms saying that the joke was aimed at Sarah Palin and not her son , and that " former Governor Palin does not have a sense of humor . " In a subsequent interview , Friedman rebuked Palin , accusing her of using her son , Trig , as a political prop to pander for votes , saying that she has a normal life and that Palin 's son should be treated as normal , rather than like a " loaf of French bread . " Later , MacFarlane addressed both Palin 's statement and Friedman 's rebuttal in an appearance on Real Time with Bill Maher calling Palin 's outrage a presumptuous attempt to defend people with Down syndrome , and characterizing Friedman 's statement as her way of saying that she does not need feigned pity from Palin . Family Guy cast member Patrick Warburton stated that he objected to the joke , saying , " I know that you have to be an equal @-@ opportunity offender , but there are some things that I just don 't think are funny . " While frequent MacFarlane critic Parents Television Council touched on the Palin controversy in its assessment of the episode , the rest of the show 's content — which contained " mean @-@ spirited pot @-@ shots , explicit language , and strong sexual content " — earned the watchdog group 's " Worst TV Show of the Week " title . The PTC specifically cited the Broadway @-@ style song , which the PTC said " contained all the stereotypes of mental retardation " and " disturbing sexual references , " and the climatic scene in the subplot , where Peter pretends to be a psychic , which the PTC said also contained sexual humor .
On July 8 , 2010 , the episode 's song entitled " Down Syndrome Girl " was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music and Lyrics at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . Series creator Seth MacFarlane and composer Walter Murphy were nominated for their work on the song 's lyrics and music . On July 24 , 2010 , MacFarlane gave a live performance of the song at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , to an audience of nearly 4 @,@ 200 attendees . At the Creative Arts Awards on August 21 , 2010 , " Down Syndrome Girl " lost to the USA Network series Monk .
= Red fox =
The red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) is the largest of the true foxes and the most abundant wild member of the Carnivora , being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa , North America and Eurasia . It is listed as least concern by the IUCN . Its range has increased alongside human expansion , having been introduced to Australia , where it is considered harmful to native mammals and bird populations . Due to its presence in Australia , it is included among the list of the " world 's 100 worst invasive species " .
The red fox originated from smaller @-@ sized ancestors from Eurasia during the Middle Villafranchian period , and colonised North America shortly after the Wisconsin glaciation . Among the true foxes , the red fox represents a more progressive form in the direction of carnivory . Apart from its large size , the red fox is distinguished from other fox species by its ability to adapt quickly to new environments . Despite its name , the species often produces individuals with other colourings , including albinos and melanists . Forty @-@ five subspecies are currently recognised , which are divided into two categories : the large northern foxes , and the small , basal southern foxes of Asia and the Middle East .
Red foxes are usually together in pairs or small groups consisting of families , such as a mated pair and their young , or a male with several females having kinship ties . The young of the mated pair remain with their parents to assist in caring for new kits . The species primarily feeds on small rodents , though it may also target rabbits , game birds , reptiles , invertebrates and young ungulates . Fruit and vegetable matter is also eaten sometimes . Although the red fox tends to kill smaller predators , including other fox species , it is vulnerable to attack from larger predators , such as wolves , coyotes , golden jackals and medium- and large @-@ sized felines .
The species has a long history of association with humans , having been extensively hunted as a pest and furbearer for many centuries , as well as being represented in human folklore and mythology . Because of its widespread distribution and large population , the red fox is one of the most important furbearing animals harvested for the fur trade . Too small to pose a threat to humans , it has successfully colonised many suburban areas .
= = Terminology = =
Females are called vixens , and young cubs , pups , or kits . Although the Arctic fox has a small native population in northern Scandinavia , while the corsac fox 's range extends into European Russia , the red fox is the only fox native to Western Europe , and so is simply called " the fox " in colloquial British English .
The word " fox " comes from Old English , which derived from Proto @-@ Germanic * fuhsaz . Compare with West Frisian foks , Dutch vos , and German Fuchs . This , in turn , derives from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * puḱ- ‘ thick @-@ haired ; tail ' . Compare to the Hindi pū ̃ ch ‘ tail ' , Tocharian B päkā ‘ tail ; chowrie ' , and Lithuanian paustìs ‘ fur ' . The bushy tail also forms the basis for the fox 's Welsh name , llwynog , literally ‘ bushy ' , from llwyn ‘ bush ' . Likewise , Portuguese : raposa from rabo ‘ tail ' , Lithuanian uodẽgis from uodegà ‘ tail ' , and Ojibwa waagosh from waa , which refers to the up and down " bounce " or flickering of an animal or its tail .
The scientific term vulpes derives from the Latin word for fox , and gives the adjectives vulpine and vulpecular .
= = Evolution = =
The red fox is considered a more specialised form of Vulpes than the Afghan , corsac and Bengal foxes in the direction of size and adaptation to carnivory ; the skull displays much fewer neotenous traits than in other species , and its facial area is more developed . It is , however , not as adapted for a purely carnivorous diet as the Tibetan fox .
= = = Origins = = =
The species is Eurasian in origin , and may have evolved from either Vulpes alopecoides or the related Chinese V. chikushanensis , both of which lived during the Middle Villafranchian . The earliest fossil specimens of V. vulpes were uncovered in Baranya , Hungary dating from 3 @.@ 4 @-@ 1 @.@ 8 million years ago . The ancestral species was likely smaller than the current one , as the earliest red fox fossils are smaller than modern populations . The earliest fossil remains of the modern species date back to the mid @-@ Pleistocene in association with the refuse of early human settlements . This has led to the theory that the red fox was hunted by primitive humans as both a source of food and pelts .
= = = Colonisation of North America = = =
Red foxes colonised the North American continent in two waves : during or before the Illinoian glaciation , and during the Wisconsinan glaciation . Gene mapping demonstrates that red foxes in North America have been isolated from their Old World counterparts for over 400 @,@ 000 years , thus raising the possibility that speciation has occurred , and that the previous binomial name of Vulpes fulva may be valid . In the far north , red fox fossils have been found in Sangamonian deposits in the Fairbanks District and Medicine Hat . Fossils dating from the Wisconsian are present in 25 sites in Arkansas , California , Colorado , Idaho , Missouri , New Mexico , Tennessee , Texas , Virginia , and Wyoming . Although they ranged far south during the Wisconsinan , the onset of warm conditions shrank their range toward the north , and have only recently reclaimed their former American ranges because of human @-@ induced environmental changes . Genetic testing indicates two distinct red fox refugia exist in North America , which have been separated since the Wisconsinan . The northern ( or boreal ) refugium occurs in Alaska and western Canada , and consists of the large subspecies V. v. alascensis , V. v. abietorum , V. v. regalis , and V. v. rubricosa . The southern ( or montane ) refugium occurs in the subalpine parklands and alpine meadows of the Rocky Mountains , the Cascade Range , and Sierra Nevada . It encompasses the subspecies V. v. macroura , V. v. cascadensis , and V. v. necator . The latter clade has been separated from all other red fox populations since the last glacial maximum , and may possess unique ecological or physiological adaptations .
Although European foxes were introduced to portions of the United States in the 1900s recent genetic investigation indicates an absence of European fox haplotypes in any North American populations . Also , introduced eastern red foxes have colonized southern California , the San Joaquin Valley , and San Francisco Bay Area , but appear to have mixed with the Sacramento Valley red fox V. v. patwin only in a narrow hybrid zone . In addition , no evidence is seen of interbreeding of eastern red foxes in California with the montane Sierra Nevada red fox V. v. necator or other populations in the Intermountain West ( between the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges to the west .
= = = Subspecies = = =
As of 2005 , 45 subspecies are recognised . In 2010 , another distinct subspecies , which inhabits the grasslands of the Sacramento Valley , V. v. patwin , was identified through mitochondrial haplotype studies .
Substantial gene pool mixing between different subspecies is known ; British red foxes have crossbred extensively with foxes imported from Germany , France , Belgium , Sardinia , and possibly Siberia and Scandinavia . However , genetic studies suggest very little differences between red foxes sampled across Europe . Lack of genetic diversity is consistent with the red fox being a highly vagile species , with one red fox covering 320 km ( 200 mi ) in under a year 's time .
Red fox subspecies in Eurasia and North Africa are divided into two categories :
Northern foxes are large and brightly coloured .
Southern grey desert foxes include the Asian subspecies V. v. griffithi , V. v. pusilla , and V. v. flavescens . These foxes display transitional features between northern red foxes and smaller fox species ; their skulls possess more primitive , neotenous traits than the northern forms , and they are much smaller ; the maximum sizes attained by southern foxes are invariably less than the average sizes of northern foxes . Their limbs are also longer , and their ears larger .
Red foxes living in Middle Asia show physical traits intermediate to the northern and southern forms .
= = Description = =
= = = Build = = =
The red fox has an elongated body and relatively short limbs . The tail , which is longer than half the body length ( 70 per cent of head and body length ) , is fluffy and reaches the ground when in a standing position . Their pupils are oval and vertically oriented . Nictitating membranes are present , but move only when the eyes are closed . The forepaws have five digits , while the hind feet have only four and lack dewclaws . They are very agile , being capable of jumping over 2 @-@ m @-@ high fences , and swim well . Vixens normally have four pairs of teats , though vixens with seven , nine , or ten teats are not uncommon . The testes of males are smaller than those of Arctic foxes .
Their skulls are fairly narrow and elongated , with small braincases . Their canine teeth are relatively long . Sexual dimorphism of the skull is more pronounced than in corsac foxes , with female red foxes tending to have smaller skulls than males , with wider nasal regions and hard palates , as well as having larger canines . Their skulls are distinguished from those of dogs by their narrower muzzles , less crowded premolars , more slender canine teeth , and concave rather than convex profiles .
= = = Dimensions = = =
Red foxes are the largest species of the genus Vulpes . However , relative to dimensions , red foxes are much lighter than similarly sized dogs of the genus Canis . Their limb bones , for example , weigh 30 per cent less per unit area of bone than expected for similarly sized dogs . They display significant individual , sexual , age and geographical variation in size . On average , adults measure 35 – 50 cm ( 14 – 20 in ) high at the shoulder and 45 – 90 cm ( 18 – 35 in ) in body length with tails measuring 30 – 55 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 @.@ 8 – 21 @.@ 9 in ) . The ears measure 7 @.@ 7 – 12 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 – 5 in ) and the hind feet 12 – 18 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 – 7 in ) . Weights range from 2 @.@ 2 – 14 kg ( 4 @.@ 9 – 30 @.@ 9 lb ) , with vixens typically weighing 15 – 20 % less than males . Adult red foxes have skulls measuring 129 – 167 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 6 @.@ 6 in ) , while those of vixens measure 128 – 159 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) . The forefoot print measures 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in length and 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in width , while the hind foot print measures 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long and 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) wide . They trot at a speed of 6 – 13 km / h , and have a maximum running speed of 50 km / h . They have a stride of 25 – 35 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) when walking at a normal pace . North American red foxes are generally lightly built , with comparatively long bodies for their mass and have a high degree of sexual dimorphism . British red foxes are heavily built , but short , while continental European red foxes are closer to the general average among red fox populations . The largest red fox on record in Great Britain was a 17 @.@ 2 kg ( 38 @.@ 1 lbs ) , 1 @.@ 4 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 7 in ) long male , killed in Aberdeenshire , Scotland , in early 2012 .
= = = Fur = = =
The winter fur is dense , soft , silky and relatively long . For the northern foxes , the fur is very long , dense and fluffy , but is shorter , sparser and coarser in southern forms . Among northern foxes , the North American varieties generally have the silkiest guard hairs , while most Eurasian red foxes have coarser fur . There are three main colour morphs ; red , silver / black and cross ( see Mutations ) . In the typical red morph , their coats are generally bright reddish @-@ rusty with yellowish tints . A stripe of weak , diffuse patterns of many brown @-@ reddish @-@ chestnut hairs occurs along the spine . Two additional stripes pass down the shoulder blades , which , together with the spinal stripe , form a cross . The lower back is often a mottled silvery colour . The flanks are lighter coloured than the back , while the chin , lower lips , throat and front of the chest are white . The remaining lower surface of the body is dark , brown or reddish . During lactation , the belly fur of vixens may turn brick red . The upper parts of the limbs are rusty reddish , while the paws are black . The frontal part of the face and upper neck is bright brownish @-@ rusty red , while the upper lips are white . The backs of the ears are black or brownish @-@ reddish , while the inner surface is whitish . The top of the tail is brownish @-@ reddish , but lighter in colour than the back and flanks . The underside of the tail is pale grey with a straw @-@ coloured tint . A black spot , the location of the supracaudal gland , is usually present at the base of the tail . The tip of the tail is white .
= = = = Mutations = = = =
Atypical colourations in red foxes usually represent stages toward full melanism , and mostly occur in cold regions .
= = = Senses = = =
Red foxes have binocular vision , but their sight reacts mainly to movement . Their auditory perception is acute , being able to hear black grouse changing roosts at 600 paces , the flight of crows at 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 31 mi ) and the squeaking of mice at about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . They are capable of locating sounds to within one degree at 700 – 3 @,@ 000 Hz , though less accurately at higher frequencies . Their sense of smell is good , but weaker than that of specialised dogs .
= = = Scent glands = = =
Red foxes have a pair of anal sacs lined by sebaceous glands , both of which open through a single duct . The anal sacs act as fermentation chambers in which aerobic and anaerobic bacteria convert sebum into odorous compounds , including aliphatic acids . The oval @-@ shaped caudal gland is 25 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) long and 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) wide , and reportedly smells of violets . The presence of foot glands is equivocal . The interdigital cavities are deep , with a reddish tinge and smell strongly . Sebaceous glands are present on the angle of the jaw and mandible .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social and territorial behaviour = = =
Red foxes either establish stable home ranges within particular areas or are itinerant with no fixed abode . They use their urine to mark their territories . A male fox raises one hind leg and his urine is sprayed forward in front of him , whereas a female fox squats down so that the urine is sprayed in the ground between the hind legs . Urine is also used to mark empty cache sites , used to store found food , as reminders not to waste time investigating them . The use of up to 12 different urination postures allows them to precisely control the position of the scent mark . Red foxes live in family groups sharing a joint territory . In favourable habitats and / or areas with low hunting pressure , subordinate foxes may be present in a range . Subordinate foxes may number one or two , sometimes up to eight in one territory . These subordinates could be formerly dominant animals , but are mostly young from the previous year , who act as helpers in rearing the breeding vixen 's kits . Alternatively , their presence has been explained as being in response to temporary surpluses of food unrelated to assisting reproductive success . Non @-@ breeding vixens will guard , play , groom , provision and retrieve kits , an example of kin selection . Red foxes may leave their families once they reach adulthood if the chances of winning a territory of their own are high . If not , they will stay with their parents , at the cost of postponing their own reproduction .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Red foxes reproduce once a year in spring . Two months prior to oestrus ( typically December ) , the reproductive organs of vixens change shape and size . By the time they enter their oestrus period , their uterine horns double in size , and their ovaries grow 1 @.@ 5 – 2 times larger . Sperm formation in males begins in August – September , with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in December – February . The vixen 's oestrus period lasts three weeks , during which the dog @-@ foxes mate with the vixens for several days , often in burrows . Copulation is accompanied by a copulatory tie , which may last for more than an hour . The copulatory tie occurs when the male 's bulbus glandis enlarges . The gestation period lasts 49 – 58 days . Though foxes are largely monogamous , DNA evidence from one population indicated large levels of polygyny , incest and mixed paternity litters . Subordinate vixens may become pregnant , but usually fail to whelp , or have their kits killed postpartum by either the dominant female or other subordinates .
The average litter size consists of four to six kits , though litters of up to 13 kits have occurred . Large litters are typical in areas where fox mortality is high . Kits are born blind , deaf and toothless , with dark brown fluffy fur . At birth , they weigh 56 – 110 g ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 oz ) and measure 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in body length and 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in tail length . At birth , they are short @-@ legged , large @-@ headed and have broad chests . Mothers remain with the kits for 2 – 3 weeks , as they are unable to thermoregulate . During this period , the fathers or barren vixens feed the mothers . Vixens are very protective of their kits , and have been known to even fight off terriers in their defence . If the mother dies before the kits are independent , the father takes over as their provider . The kits ' eyes open after 13 – 15 days , during which time their ear canals open and their upper teeth erupt , with the lower teeth emerging 3 – 4 days later . Their eyes are initially blue , but change to amber at 4 – 5 weeks . Coat colour begins to change at three weeks of age , when the black eye streak appears . By one month , red and white patches are apparent on their faces . During this time , their ears erect and their muzzles elongate . Kits begin to leave their dens and experiment with solid food brought by their parents at the age of 3 – 4 weeks . The lactation period lasts 6 – 7 weeks . Their woolly coats begin to be coated by shiny guard hairs after 8 weeks . By the age of 3 – 4 months , the kits are long @-@ legged , narrow @-@ chested and sinewy . They reach adult proportions at the age of 6 – 7 months . Some vixens may reach sexual maturity at the age of 9 – 10 months , thus bearing their first litters at one year of age . In captivity , their longevity can be as long as 15 years , though in the wild they typically do not survive past 5 years of age .
= = = Denning behaviour = = =
Outside the breeding season , most red foxes favour living in the open , in densely vegetated areas , though they may enter burrows to escape bad weather . Their burrows are often dug on hill or mountain slopes , ravines , bluffs , steep banks of water bodies , ditches , depressions , gutters , in rock clefts and neglected human environments . Red foxes prefer to dig their burrows on well drained soils . Dens built among tree roots can last for decades , while those dug on the steppes last only several years . They may permanently abandon their dens during mange outbreaks , possibly as a defence mechanism against the spread of disease . In the Eurasian desert regions , foxes may use the burrows of wolves , porcupines and other large mammals , as well as those dug by gerbil colonies . Compared to burrows constructed by Arctic foxes , badgers , marmots and corsac foxes , red fox dens are not overly complex . Red fox burrows are divided into a den and temporary burrows , which consist only of a small passage or cave for concealment . The main entrance of the burrow leads downwards ( 40 – 45 ° ) and broadens into a den , from which numerous side tunnels branch . Burrow depth ranges from 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in – 8 ft 2 in ) , rarely extending to ground water . The main passage can reach 17 m ( 56 ft ) in length , standing an average of 5 – 7 m ( 16 – 23 ft ) . In spring , red foxes clear their dens of excess soil through rapid movements , first with the forepaws then with kicking motions with their hind legs , throwing the discarded soil over 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) from the burrow . When kits are born , the discarded debris is trampled , thus forming a spot where the kits can play and receive food . They may share their dens with woodchucks or badgers . Unlike badgers , which fastidiously clean their earths and defecate in latrines , red foxes habitually leave pieces of prey around their dens . > The average sleep time of a captive red fox is 9 @.@ 8 hours per day .
= = Communication = =
= = = Body language = = =
Red fox body language consists of movements of the ears , tail and postures , with their body markings emphasising certain gestures . Postures can be divided into aggressive / dominant and fearful / submissive categories . Some postures may blend the two together .
Inquisitive foxes will rotate and flick their ears whilst sniffing . Playful individuals will perk their ears and rise on their hind legs . Male foxes courting females , or after successfully evicting intruders , will turn their ears outwardly , and raise their tails in a horizontal position , with the tips raised upward . When afraid , red foxes grin in submission , arching their backs , curving their bodies , crouching their legs and lashing their tails back and forth with their ears pointing backwards and pressed against their skulls . When merely expressing submission to a dominant animal , the posture is similar , but without arching the back or curving the body . Submissive foxes will approach dominant animals in a low posture , so that their muzzles reach up in greeting . When two evenly matched foxes confront each other over food , they approach each other sideways and push against each other 's flanks , betraying a mixture of fear and aggression through lashing tails and arched backs without crouching and pulling their ears back without flattening them against their skulls . When launching an assertive attack , red foxes approach directly rather than sideways , with their tails aloft and their ears rotated sideways . During such fights , red foxes will stand on each other 's upper bodies with their forelegs , using open mouthed threats . Such fights typically only occur among juveniles or adults of the same sex .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
Red foxes have a wide vocal range , and produce different sounds spanning five octaves , which grade into each other . Recent analyses identify 12 different sounds produced by adults and 8 by kits . The majority of sounds can be divided into " contact " and " interaction " calls . The former vary according to the distance between individuals , while the latter vary according to the level of aggression .
Contact calls : The most commonly heard contact call is a three to five syllable barking " wow wow wow " sound , which is often made by two foxes approaching one another . This call is most frequently heard from December to February ( when they can be confused with the territorial calls of tawny owls ) . The " wow wow wow " call varies according to individual ; captive foxes have been recorded to answer pre @-@ recorded calls of their pen @-@ mates , but not those of strangers . Kits begin emitting the " wow wow wow " call at the age of 19 days , when craving attention . When red foxes draw close together , they emit trisyllabic greeting warbles similar to the clucking of chickens . Adults greet their kits with gruff huffing noises .
Interaction calls : When greeting one another , red foxes emit high pitched whines , particularly submissive animals . A submissive fox approached by a dominant animal will emit a ululating siren @-@ like shriek . During aggressive encounters with conspecifics , they emit a throaty rattling sound , similar to a ratchet , called " gekkering " . Gekkering occurs mostly during the courting season from rival males or vixens rejecting advances .
Another call that does not fit into the two categories is a long , drawn out , monosyllabic " waaaaah " sound . As it is commonly heard during the breeding season , it is thought to be emitted by vixens summoning males . When danger is detected , foxes emit a monosyllabic bark . At close quarters , it is a muffled cough , while at long distances it is sharper . Kits make warbling whimpers when nursing , these calls being especially loud when they are dissatisfied .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet , hunting and feeding behaviour = = =
Red foxes are omnivores with a highly varied diet . In the former Soviet Union , up to 300 animal and a few dozen plant species are known to be consumed by them . They primarily feed on small rodents like voles , mice , ground squirrels , hamsters , gerbils , woodchucks , pocket gophers and deer mice . Secondary prey species include birds ( with passeriformes , galliformes and waterfowl predominating ) , leporids , porcupines , raccoons , opossums , reptiles , insects , other invertebrates and flotsam ( marine mammals , fish and echinoderms ) . On very rare occasions , foxes may attack young or small ungulates . They typically target mammals up to about 3 @.@ 5 kg ( 7 @.@ 7 lb ) in weight , and they require 500 grams ( 18 oz ) of food daily . Red foxes readily eat plant material , and in some areas fruit can amount to 100 % of their diet in autumn . Commonly consumed fruits include blueberries , blackberries , raspberries , cherries , persimmons , mulberries , apples , plums , grapes , and acorns . Other plant material includes grasses , sedges and tubers .
Red foxes are implicated in the predation of game and song birds , hares , rabbits , muskrats , and young ungulates , particularly in preserves , reserves , and hunting farms where ground nesting birds are protected and raised , as well as in poultry farms .
While the popular consensus is that olfaction is very important for hunting , two studies that experimentally investigated the role of olfactory , auditory , and visual cues found that visual cues are the most important ones for hunting in red foxes and coyotes .
Red foxes prefer to hunt in the early morning hours before sunrise and late evening . Although they typically forage alone , they may aggregate in resource @-@ rich environments . When hunting mouse @-@ like prey , they first pinpoint their prey 's location by sound , then leap , sailing high above their quarry , steering in mid @-@ air with their tails , before landing on target up to 5 metres ( 16 ft ) away . They typically only feed on carrion in the late evening hours and at night . They are extremely possessive of their food and will defend their catches from even dominant animals . Red foxes may occasionally commit acts of surplus killing ; during one breeding season , four foxes were recorded to have killed around 200 black @-@ headed gulls each , with peaks during dark , windy hours when flying conditions were unfavorable . Losses to poultry and penned game birds can be substantial because of this . Red foxes seem to dislike the taste of moles but will nonetheless catch them alive and present them to their kits as playthings .
A 2008 – 2010 study of 84 red foxes in the Czech Republic and Germany found that successful hunting in long vegetation or under snow appeared to involve an alignment of the fox with the Earth 's magnetic field .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
Red foxes typically dominate other fox species . Arctic foxes generally escape competition from red foxes by living farther north , where food is too scarce to support the larger @-@ bodied red species . Although the red species ' northern limit is linked to the availability of food , the Arctic species ' southern range is limited by the presence of the former . Red and Arctic foxes were both introduced to almost every island from the Aleutian Islands to the Alexander Archipelago during the 1830s – 1930s by fur companies . The red foxes invariably displaced the Arctic foxes , with one male red fox having been reported to have killed off all resident Arctic foxes on a small island in 1866 . Where they are sympatric , Arctic foxes may also escape competition by feeding on lemmings and flotsam , rather than voles , as favoured by red foxes . Both species will kill each other 's kits , given the opportunity . Red foxes are serious competitors of corsac foxes , as they hunt the same prey all year . The red species is also stronger , is better adapted to hunting in snow deeper than 10 cm ( 4 in ) and is more effective in hunting and catching medium to large @-@ sized rodents . Corsac foxes seem to only outcompete red foxes in semi @-@ desert and steppe areas . In Israel , Blanford 's foxes escape competition with red foxes by restricting themselves to rocky cliffs and actively avoiding the open plains inhabited by red foxes . Red foxes dominate kit and swift foxes . Kit foxes usually avoid competition with their larger cousins by living in more arid environments , though red foxes have been increasing in ranges formerly occupied by kit foxes due to human @-@ induced environmental changes . Red foxes will kill both species , and compete for food and den sites . Grey foxes are exceptional , as they dominate red foxes wherever their ranges meet . Historically , interactions between the two species were rare , as grey foxes favoured heavily wooded or semiarid habitats as opposed to the open and mesic ones preferred by red foxes . However , interactions have become more frequent due to deforestation allowing red foxes to colonise grey fox @-@ inhabited areas .
Wolves may kill and eat red foxes in disputes over carcasses . In areas in North America where red fox and coyote populations are sympatric , fox ranges tend to be located outside coyote territories . The principal cause of this separation is believed to be active avoidance of coyotes by the foxes . Interactions between the two species vary in nature , ranging from active antagonism to indifference . The majority of aggressive encounters are initiated by coyotes , and there are few reports of red foxes acting aggressively toward coyotes except when attacked or when their kits were approached . Foxes and coyotes have sometimes been seen feeding together . In Israel , red foxes share their habitat with golden jackals . Where their ranges meet , the two canids compete due to near identical diets . Foxes ignore jackal scents or tracks in their territories , and avoid close physical proximity with jackals themselves . In areas where jackals become very abundant , the population of foxes decreases significantly , apparently because of competitive exclusion .
Red foxes dominate raccoon dogs , sometimes killing their kits or biting adults to death . Cases are known of foxes killing raccoon dogs entering their dens . Both species compete for mouse @-@ like prey . This competition reaches a peak during early spring , when food is scarce . In Tartaria , red fox predation accounted for 11 @.@ 1 % of deaths among 54 raccoon dogs , and amounted to 14 @.@ 3 % of 186 raccoon dog deaths in north @-@ western Russia .
Red foxes may kill small mustelids like weasels , stone martens , pine martens , stoats , kolonoks , polecats and young sables . Eurasian badgers may live alongside red foxes in isolated sections of large burrows . It is possible that the two species tolerate each other out of commensalism ; foxes provide badgers with food scraps , while badgers maintain the shared burrow 's cleanliness . However , cases are known of badgers driving vixens from their dens and destroying their litters without eating them . Wolverines may kill red foxes , often while the latter are sleeping or near carrion . Foxes in turn may kill unattended young wolverines .
Red foxes may compete with striped hyenas on large carcasses . Red foxes may give way to hyenas on unopened carcasses , as the latter 's stronger jaws can easily tear open flesh that is too tough for foxes . Foxes may harass hyenas , using their smaller size and greater speed to avoid the hyena 's attacks . Sometimes , foxes seem to deliberately torment hyenas even when there is no food at stake . Some foxes may mistime their attacks , and are killed . Fox remains are often found in hyena dens , and hyenas may steal foxes from traps .
In Eurasia , red foxes may be preyed upon by leopards , caracals and Eurasian lynxes . The lynxes chase red foxes into deep snow , where their longer legs and larger paws give them an advantage over foxes , especially when the depth of the snow exceeds one metre . In the Velikoluki district in Russia , red foxes are absent or are seen only occasionally where lynxes establish permanent territories . Researchers consider lynxes to represent considerably less danger to red foxes than wolves do . North American felid predators of red foxes include cougars , Canadian lynxes and bobcats . Occasionally , large raptors such as Eurasian eagle owls will prey on young foxes , while golden eagles have been known to kill adults .
= = Range = =
Red foxes are wide ranging animals , whose range covers nearly 70 million km2 ( 27 million mi2 ) . They are distributed across the entire Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa , Central America , and Asia . They are absent in Iceland , the Arctic islands , some parts of Siberia , and in extreme deserts .
Red foxes are not present in New Zealand and are classed as a " prohibited new organism " under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996 , preventing them from being imported .
= = = Australia = = =
In Australia , 2012 estimates indicate that there are more than 7 @.@ 2 million red foxes with a range extending throughout most of the continental mainland . The species became established in Australia through successive introductions by settlers in 1830s in the British colonies of Van Diemen 's Land ( as early as 1833 ) and the Port Phillip District of New South Wales ( as early as 1845 ) for the purpose of the traditional English sport of fox hunting . A permanent fox population was not established on the island of Tasmania and it is widely held that they were outcompeted by the Tasmanian devil . On the mainland , however , the species was successful as an apex predator . It is generally less common in areas where the dingo is more prevalent , however it has , primarily through its burrowing behaviour , achieved niche differentiation with both the feral dog and the feral cat . As such it has become one of the continent 's most invasive species . The red fox has been implicated in the extinction and decline of several native Australian species , particularly those of the family Potoroidae including the desert rat @-@ kangaroo . The spread of red foxes across the southern part of the continent has coincided with the spread of rabbits in Australia and corresponds with declines in the distribution of several medium @-@ sized ground @-@ dwelling mammals , including brush @-@ tailed bettongs , burrowing bettongs , rufous bettongs , bilbys , numbats , bridled nailtail wallabys and quokkas . Most of these species are now limited to areas ( such as islands ) where red foxes are absent or rare . Local eradication programs exist , although eradication has proven difficult due to the denning behaviour and nocturnal hunting , so the focus is on management with the introduction of state bounties . According to the Tasmanian government , red foxes were introduced to the previously fox @-@ free island of Tasmania in 1999 or 2000 , posing a significant threat to native wildlife including the eastern bettong , and an eradication program conducted by the Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Water has been established .
= = = Sardinia = = =
The origin of the Sardinian ichnusae subspecies is uncertain , as it is absent from Pleistocene deposits in their current homeland . It is possible it originated during the Neolithic following its introduction to the island by humans . It is likely then that Sardinian fox populations stem from repeated introductions of animals from different localities in the Mediterranean . This latter theory may explain the subspecies ' phenotypic diversity .
= = Diseases and parasites = =
Red foxes are the most important rabies vector in Europe . In London , arthritis is not uncommon in foxes , being particularly frequent in the spine . Foxes may be infected with leptospirosis and tularemia , though they are not overly susceptible to the latter . They may also fall ill from listeriosis and spirochetosis , as well as acting as vectors in spreading erysipelas , brucellosis and tick @-@ born encephalitis . A mysterious fatal disease near Lake Sartlan in the Novosibirsk Oblast was noted among local red foxes , but the cause was undetermined . The possibility was considered that it was caused by an acute form of encephalomyelitis , which was first observed in captive bred silver foxes . Individual cases of foxes infected with Yersinia pestis are known .
Red foxes are not readily prone to infestation with fleas . Species like Spilopsyllus cuniculi are probably only caught from the fox 's prey species , while others like Archaeopsylla erinacei are caught whilst travelling . Fleas that feed on red foxes include Pulex irritans , Ctenocephalides canis and Paraceras melis . Ticks such as Ixodes ricinus and I. hexagonus are not uncommon in foxes , and are typically found on nursing vixens and kits still in their earths . The louse Trichodectes vulpis specifically targets foxes , but is found infrequently . The mite Sarcoptes scabiei is the most important cause of mange in red foxes . It causes extensive hair loss , starting from the base of the tail and hindfeet , then the rump before moving on to the rest of the body . In the final stages of the condition , foxes can lose most of their fur , 50 % of their body weight and may gnaw at infected extremities . In the epizootic phase of the disease , it usually takes foxes four months to die after infection . Other endoparasites include Demodex folliculorum , Notoderes , Otodectes cynotis ( which is frequently found in the ear canal ) , Linguatula serrata ( which infects the nasal passages ) and ringworms .
Up to 60 helminth species are known to infect foxes in fur farms , while 20 are known in the wild . Several coccidian species of the genera Isospora and Eimeria are also known to infect them . The most common nematode species found in fox guts are Toxocara canis and Uncinaria stenocephala , Capillaria aerophila and Crenosoma vulpis , the latter two infect their lungs . Capillaria plica infect the fox 's bladder . Trichinella spiralis rarely affects them . The most common tapeworm species in foxes are Taenia spiralis and T. pisiformis . Others include Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis . Eleven trematode species infect red foxes , including Metorchis conjunctus .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = In folklore and mythology = = =
Red foxes feature prominently in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which they are sympatric . In Greek mythology , the Teumessian fox or Cadmean vixen , was a gigantic fox that was destined never to be caught . The fox was one of the children of Echidna .
In Celtic mythology , the red fox is a symbolic animal . In the Cotswolds , witches were thought to take the shape of foxes to steal butter from their neighbours . In later European folklore , the figure of Reynard the Fox symbolises trickery and deceit . He originally appeared ( then under the name of " Reinardus " ) as a secondary character in the 1150 poem " Ysengrimus " . He reappeared in 1175 in Pierre Saint Cloud 's Le Roman de Renart , and made his debut in England in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Nun 's Priest 's Tale . Many of Reynard 's adventures may stem from actual observations on fox behaviour ; he is an enemy of the wolf and has a fondness for blackberries and grapes .
Chinese folk tales tell of fox @-@ spirits called huli jing that may have up to nine tails , or kumiho as they are known in Korea . In Japanese mythology , the kitsune are fox @-@ like spirits possessing magical abilities that increase with their age and wisdom . Foremost among these is the ability to assume human form . While some folktales speak of kitsune employing this ability to trick others , other stories portray them as faithful guardians , friends , lovers , and wives . In Arab folklore , the fox is considered a cowardly , weak , deceitful , and cunning animal , said to feign death by filling its abdomen with air to appear bloated , then lies on its side , awaiting the approach of unwitting prey . The animal 's cunning was noted by the authors of the Bible , and applied the word " fox " to false prophets ( Ezekiel 13 : 4 ) and the hypocrisy of Herod Antipas ( Luke 13 : 32 ) .
The cunning Fox is commonly found in Native American mythology , where it is portrayed as an almost constant companion to Coyote . Fox , however , is a deceitful companion that often steals Coyote 's food . In the Achomawi creation myth , Fox and Coyote are the co @-@ creators of the world , that leave just before the arrival of humans . The Yurok tribe believed that Fox , in anger , captured the sun , and tied him to a hill , causing him to burn a great hole in the ground . An Inuit story tells of how Fox , portrayed as a beautiful woman , tricks a hunter into marrying her , only to resume her true form and leave after he offends her . A Menominee story tells of how Fox is an untrustworthy friend to the Wolf .
= = = Hunting = = =
The earliest historical records of fox hunting come from the fourth century BC ; Alexander the Great is known to have hunted foxes and a seal dated from 350 BC depicts a Persian horseman in the process of spearing a fox . Xenophon , who viewed hunting as part of a cultured man 's education , advocated the killing of foxes as pests , as they distracted hounds from hares . The Romans were hunting foxes by 80 AD . During the Dark Ages in Europe , foxes were considered secondary quarries , but gradually grew in importance . Cnut the Great reclassed foxes as Beasts of the Chase , a lower category of quarry than Beasts of Venery . Foxes were gradually hunted less as vermin and more as Beasts of the Chase , to the point that by the late 1200s , Edward I had a royal pack of foxhounds and a specialised fox huntsman . In this period , foxes were increasingly hunted above ground with hounds , rather than underground with terriers . Edward , Second Duke of York assisted the
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making the lambs more at risk to fox predation . Lambs born from gimmers ( ewes breeding for the first time ) are more often killed by foxes than those of experienced mothers , who stick closer to their young .
Red foxes may prey on domestic rabbits and guinea pigs if they are kept in open runs or are allowed to range freely in gardens . This problem is usually averted by housing them in robust hutches and runs . Urban foxes frequently encounter cats and may feed alongside them . In physical confrontations , the cats usually have the upper hand . Authenticated cases of foxes killing cats usually involve kittens . Although most foxes do not prey on cats , some may do so , and may treat them more as competitors rather than food .
= = = Taming and domestication = = =
In their unmodified wild state , red foxes are generally unsuitable as pets . Many supposedly abandoned kits are adopted by well @-@ meaning people during the spring period , though it is unlikely that vixens would abandon their young . Actual orphans are rare , and the ones that are adopted are likely kits that simply strayed from their den site . Kits require almost constant supervision ; when still suckling , they require milk at four @-@ hour intervals day and night . Once weaned , they may become destructive to leather objects , furniture and electric cables . Though generally friendly toward people when young , captive red foxes become fearful of humans , save for their handlers , once they reach 10 weeks of age . They maintain their wild counterpart 's strong instinct of concealment , and may pose a threat to domestic birds , even when well fed . Although suspicious of strangers , they can form bonds with cats and dogs , even ones bred for fox hunting . Practical uses for tame foxes are few , though they can be encouraged to kill rats and mice in granaries . Tame foxes were once used to draw ducks close to hunting blinds .
A strain of truly domesticated red foxes was introduced by Russian geneticist Dmitry Konstantinovich Belyaev who , over a 40 @-@ year period , bred several generations of silver morph foxes on fur farms , selecting only those individuals that showed the least fear of humans . Eventually , Belyaev 's team selected only those that showed the most positive response to humans , thus resulting in a population of foxes whose behaviour and appearance was significantly changed . After about ten generations of controlled breeding , these foxes no longer showed any fear of humans , and often wagged their tails and licked their human caretakers to show affection . These behavioural changes were accompanied by physical alterations , which included piebald coats , floppy ears in pups , and curled tails , similar to traits that distinguish domestic dogs from wolves .
= = = Urban foxes = = =
= = = = Distribution = = = =
Red foxes have been successful in colonising built @-@ up environments , especially lower @-@ density suburbs . Throughout the twentieth century , they established themselves in many Australian , European , Japanese , and North American cities . The species first colonised British cities during the 1930s , entering Bristol and London during the 1940s , and later established themselves in Cambridge and Norwich . In Australia , red foxes were recorded in Melbourne as early as the 1930s , while in Zurich , Switzerland , they only starting appearing in the 1980s . Urban red foxes are most common in residential suburbs consisting of privately owned , low @-@ density housing . They are rare in areas where industry , commerce or council @-@ rented houses predominate . In these latter areas , the distribution is of a lower average density because they rely less on human resources ; the home range of these foxes average from 80 to 90 hectares , whereas those in more residential areas average from 25 to 40 hectares .
In 2006 it was estimated that there were 10 @,@ 000 foxes in London . City @-@ dwelling foxes may have the potential to consistently grow larger than their rural counterparts , as a result of abundant scraps and a relative dearth of predators . In cities foxes may scavenge food from litter bins and bin bags , although much of their diet will be similar to rural foxes .
= = = = Behaviour = = = =
Urban red foxes are most active at dusk and dawn , doing most of their hunting and scavenging at these times . It is uncommon to spot them during the day , but they can be caught sunbathing on roofs of houses or sheds . Foxes will often make their homes in hidden and undisturbed spots in urban areas as well as on the edges of a city , visiting at night for sustenance . While foxes will scavenge successfully in the city ( and the foxes tend to eat anything that the humans eat ) some urban residents will deliberately leave food out for the animals , finding them endearing . Doing this regularly can attract foxes to one 's home ; they can become accustomed to human presence , warming up to their providers by allowing themselves to be approached and in some cases even played with , particularly young cubs .
= = = = Urban fox control = = = =
Urban foxes can cause problems for local residents . Foxes have been known to steal chickens , disrupt rubbish bins and damage gardens . Most complaints about urban foxes made to local authorities occur during the breeding season in late January / early February or from late April to August , when the new cubs are developing . In the UK , hunting foxes in urban areas is banned , and shooting them in an urban environment is not suitable . One alternative to hunting urban foxes has been to trap them , which appears to be a more viable method . However , killing foxes has little effect on the population in an urban area ; those that are killed are very soon replaced , either by new cubs during the breeding season or by other foxes moving into the territory of those that were killed . A more effective method of fox control is to deter them from the specific areas they inhabit . Deterrents such as creosote , diesel oil , or ammonia can be used . Cleaning up and blocking access to den locations can also discourage a fox 's return .
= = = = Relationship between urban and rural foxes = = = =
In January 2014 it was reported that " Fleet " , a relatively tame urban fox tracked as part of a wider study by the University of Brighton in partnership with the BBC 's Winterwatch , had unexpectedly travelled 195 miles in 21 days from his neighbourhood in Hove , at the western edge of East Sussex , across rural countryside as far as Rye , at the eastern edge of the county . He was still continuing his journey when the GPS collar stopped transmitting , due to suspected water damage . Along with setting a record for the longest journey undertaken by a tracked fox in the United Kingdom , his travels have highlighted the fluidity of movement between rural and urban fox populations .
= Steorn =
Steorn Ltd / ˈstjɔːrn / is a small , private technology development company based in Dublin , Ireland . It announced in August 2006 it had developed a technology which provides " free , clean , and constant energy " , apparently in violation of the law of conservation of energy , a fundamental principle of physics .
Steorn challenged the scientific community to investigate their claim and , in December 2006 , said that it had chosen a jury of scientists to do so . In June 2009 the jury gave its unanimous verdict that Steorn had not demonstrated the production of energy .
Steorn has also given two public demonstrations of their technology . In the first demonstration , in July 2007 at the Kinetica Museum in London , the device failed to work . The second demonstration , which ran from December 2009 to February 2010 at the Waterways Visitor Centre in Dublin , involved a motor powered by a battery and provided no independent evidence that excess energy was being generated . It was dismissed by the press as an attempt to build a perpetual motion machine , and a publicity stunt .
In December 2015 , Steorn began taking orders for the € 1 @,@ 200 Orbo Cube , a device claimed to power a mobile phone without the need for charging . While some Orbo Cubes were supplied to customers , no working device has been demonstrated .
= = History = =
Steorn was founded in 2000 and , in October 2001 , their website stated that they were a " specialist service company providing programme management and technical assessment advice for European companies engaging in e @-@ commerce projects " . Steorn is a Norse word meaning to guide or manage .
In May 2006 , The Sunday Business Post reported that Steorn was a former dot @-@ com company which was developing a microgenerator product based on the same principle as self @-@ winding watches , as well as creating e @-@ commerce websites for customers . The company had also recently raised about € 2 @.@ 5 million from investors and was three years into a four @-@ year development plan for its microgenerator technology . Steorn has since stated that the account given in this interview was intended to prevent a leak regarding their free energy technology .
The company 's investment history shows several share allotments for cash between August 2000 and October 2005 , the investments totalling € 3 million . In 2006 , Steorn secured € 8 @.@ 1 million in loans from a range of investors in order to continue their research , and these funds were also converted into shares . Steorn said that they would seek no further funding while attempting to prove their free @-@ energy claim in order to demonstrate their genuine desire for validation .
= = Free energy claim = =
In August 2006 , Steorn placed an advertisement in The Economist saying that they had developed a technology that produced " free , clean and constant energy " . Called Orbo , the technology was said to violate conservation of energy but had been validated by eight independent scientists . None of these scientists would talk to the media , and Steorn suggested that this was because they did not want to become embroiled in a controversy .
= = = Views on the technology = = =
No specific details of the workings of the claimed technology have been made public . Seán McCarthy stated in a 2006 RTÉ radio interview , " What we have developed is a way to construct magnetic fields so that when you travel round the magnetic fields , starting and stopping at the same position , you have gained energy " . In 2011 , Steorn 's website was updated to suggest that the Orbo is based on magnetic fields which vary over time . Barry Williams of the Australian Skeptics has pointed out that Steorn is " not the first company to claim they have suddenly discovered the miraculous property of magnetism that allows you to get free energy " while Martin Fleischmann says that it is not credible that positioning of magnetic fields could create energy .
Following a meeting between McCarthy and Professor Sir Eric Ash in July 2007 , Ash reported that " the Orbo is a mechanical device which uses powerful magnets on the rim of a rotor and further magnets on an outer shell . " During this meeting , McCarthy referred to the law of conservation of energy as scientific dogma . However , conservation of energy is a fundamental principle of physics , more specifically a consequence of the unchanging nature of physical laws with time by Noether 's Theorem . Ash said that there was no comparison with religious dogma since there is no flexibility in choosing to accept that energy is always conserved . Rejecting conservation of energy would undermine all science and technology . Ash also formed the opinion that McCarthy was truly convinced in the validity of his invention but that this conviction was a case of " prolonged self @-@ deception . "
Many people have accused Steorn of engaging in a publicity stunt although Steorn denies such accusations . Eric Berger , writing on the Houston Chronicle website , commented : " Steorn is a former e @-@ business company that saw its market vanish during the dot.com bust . It stands to reason that Steorn has retooled as a Web marketing company and is using the " free energy " promotion as a platform to show future clients how it can leverage print advertising and a slick Web site to promote their products and ideas " . Thomas Ricker at Engadget suggested that Steorn 's free @-@ energy claim was a ruse to improve brand recognition and to help them sell Hall probes , while Josh Catone , features editor for Mashable , believes that it was merely an elaborate hoax .
= = = Jury process = = =
In its advertisement in The Economist , Steorn challenged scientists to form an independent jury to test their technology and publish the results . Within 36 hours of the advertisement being published , 420 scientists contacted Steorn and , on 1 December 2006 , Steorn announced it had selected a jury . It was headed by Ian MacDonald , emeritus professor of electrical engineering at the University of Alberta , and the process began in February 2007 .
In June 2009 the jury announced its unanimous verdict that " Steorn 's attempts to demonstrate the claim have not shown the production of energy . The jury is therefore ceasing work " . Dick Ahlstrom , writing in the Irish Times , concluded from this that Steorn 's technology did not work . Steorn responded by saying that because of difficulties in implementing the technology the focus of the process had been on providing the jury with test data on magnetic effects for study . Steorn also said that these difficulties had been resolved and disputed its jury 's findings .
= = = Demonstrations = = =
On 4 July 2007 , the technology was to be displayed at the Kinetica Museum , Spitalfields Market , London . A unit constructed of clear plastic was prepared so that the arrangement of magnets could be seen and to demonstrate that the device operated without external power sources . The public demonstration was delayed and then cancelled because of technical difficulties . Steorn initially said that the problems had been caused by excessive heat from the lighting .
A second demonstration ran between 15 December 2009 and February 2010 at the Waterways Visitor Centre in Dublin , and was streamed via Steorn 's website . The demonstration was of a device powered by a rechargeable battery . Steorn said that the device produced more energy than it consumed and recharged the battery . No substantive details of the technology were revealed and no independent evidence of Steorn 's claim was provided .
On 1 April 2010 Steorn opened an online development community , called the Steorn Knowledge Development Base ( SKDB ) , which they said would explain their technology . Access is available only under licence on payment of a fee .
In May 2015 , Steorn put an " Orbo PowerCube " on display behind the bar of a pub in Dublin . The PowerCube was a small box which the pub website claimed contained a " perpetual motion motor " which required no external power source . The cube was shown charging a mobile phone . Steorn claimed to be performing some " basic field trials " in undisclosed locations .
= = = Orbo phone charger = = =
Beginning in December 2015 , Steorn began accepting orders for two products , including a phone charger , through email only . The announcement was posted only to a Facebook page titled " Orbo " and a Steorn YouTube channel . In early December , Steorn CEO Shaun McCarthy said that he was waiting for the first shipment of the two products , the Orbo Phone and the Orbo Cube , from a manufacturer in China . Steorn described the Orbo Cube as a showcase for the technology rather than a mass @-@ market product , with the Cube retailing at € 1 @,@ 200 .
= John Brunt =
Captain John Henry Cound Brunt VC , MC ( 6 December 1922 – 10 December 1944 ) was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces . He served in Italy during the Second World War and was twice decorated for bravery in action before he was killed by mortar fire .
= = Early life = =
John Henry Cound Brunt was born on 6 December 1922 , on a farm in Priest Weston , near Chirbury , Shropshire to Thomas Henry Brunt and Nesta Mary Brunt ( née Cound ) , and began his education at Chirbury village school . He had an elder sister named Dorothy ( born 13 May 1920 ) and a younger sister Isobel ( born 5 October 1923 ) . When Dorothy was eight , the family moved to a farm near Whittington , Shropshire , where John grew up . As he became older , his fearless nature became more apparent ; every week , he read the comic " Tiny Tots " , which featured instructions on " How to teach yourself to swim " . One day , he asked Dorothy to take him to the Shropshire Canal , which went through their farmland . Before his sister could stop him , Brunt had taken off all his clothes and jumped into the canal . When they finally arrived home , their mother wanted to know why he had no clothes on , and John responded that he had been teaching himself to swim . As he got older , his daredevil attitude became even more serious ; on one occasion , he was found swinging himself along the guttering of a dutch barn sixty feet above the farmyard .
When old enough , Brunt was enrolled at Ellesmere College , where his mischievous streak became quickly apparent through pranks and dares ; once , while in the sanatorium with mumps , he slipped a laxative into the matron 's tea . Nevertheless , he is fondly remembered at the school . It was while he was at Ellesmere that he contracted measles , resulting in his need to wear glasses . An enthusiastic sportsman , Brunt played cricket , hockey , rugby , water polo and wrestling . He was the only pupil at the school to tackle the headmaster while playing rugby , injuring the older man 's knee in the process .
In 1934 , the Brunt family moved to Paddock Wood in Kent and , in his school holidays , " Young John " ( as he was known in the village ) would come home . Although he was still a reckless individual , he was thought of very highly , and helped train the Paddock Wood Home Guard between 1940 and 1943 , assisted by his father . He spent his last days in Paddock Wood helping with the hop harvest .
= = Military career = =
Brunt joined the British Army when he left school , training as a private with the Queen 's Own Royal West Kent Regiment in 1941 . He received a commission as a second lieutenant on 2 January 1943 , and was posted to North Africa . Although he was commissioned in the Sherwood Foresters , he never served with them , instead being posted to the 6th Battalion , Royal Lincolnshire Regiment , having become friendly with Captain Alan Money , an officer in the Lincolns , on the boat to Africa .
On 9 September 1943 , Brunt 's regiment landed at Salerno in Italy and Lieutenant Brunt was given command of No.9 Platoon in A Company . The unit subsequently moved south @-@ east to establish a base in a farm near the river Asa .
= = = Military Cross = = =
Between December 1943 and January 1944 , Brunt commanded a battle patrol and saw near @-@ constant action . In the early hours of 15 December , they received orders to destroy an enemy post based in some houses 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of the River Peccia . In efforts to break the enemy line , he crossed and re @-@ crossed the river so many times that the troops took to calling it " Brunt 's Brook " . After an intense five @-@ minute bombardment , Brunt led a section into an assault . The first two houses contained two enemy soldiers , but it was the third house that provided the most resistance . Using grenades and Tommy guns , they managed to kill eight enemy troops outside the house , as well as those inside , all belonging to the 1st Battalion , 2nd Herman Goering Panzer Grenadier Regiment . After thirty minutes of intense fighting , the patrol withdrew , having had one man killed and six wounded . While the rest of the section pulled back , Brunt remained behind with his sergeant and a private to retrieve a wounded soldier . For his actions , he was awarded the Military Cross .
On 5 January 1944 , Brunt was in a sick bed in a rear hospital . He pleaded with doctors to be allowed to leave to take part in an attack , and was given permission , leading his patrol under heavy fire . He was back in the hospital twenty @-@ four hours later with concussion after a piece of shrapnel almost split his helmet , but would have carried on fighting if it had not been for an non @-@ commissioned officer , who forcibly led him away from the front line . At the end of the campaign , Brunt is said to have commented to his friends , " I 've won the M.C. , now for the V.C. ! "
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
After resting in Syria and Egypt , Brunt returned to Italy on 3 July 1944 , having been promoted to temporary captain and appointed second in command of " D " Company . By early December 1944 , the regiment was operating near Ravenna , fighting German troops who were retreating north through Italy . On the night of 3 December , the regiment began their attack on the town of Faenza . By the evening of 6 December , they had taken the village of Ragazzina near Faenza , and after heavy fighting the Lincolns established defensive positions in Faenza itself . For his actions during the engagement , Brunt was awarded the Victoria Cross . The full citation for the award appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette of 6 February 1945 , reading :
The next morning , having won the battle and the acclaim of his regiment , Captain Brunt was as eager to return to the offensive , keeping alert for more trouble as breakfast was being prepared for the men , their first meal in 48 hours . He was standing in the doorway of the platoon headquarters , having a mug of tea and chatting with friends , when a stray German mortar bomb landed at his feet , killing him outright . He had celebrated his 22nd birthday just four days before .
John Brunt is buried at Faenza War Cemetery in Italy under a Commonwealth War Grave headstone ; his Victoria Cross was announced posthumously in February 1945 .
= = Victoria Cross presentation = =
On 18 December 1945 , King George VI presented Brunt 's Victoria Cross and Military Cross to his parents at Buckingham Palace . Brunt 's father met Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander , the 15th Army Group commander for most of the Italian Campaign , at the ceremony and said to him " I expect that you know many men who should have been awarded this medal " , to which Alexander replied " No , because there is always only one who will do the unexpected and that day it was your son . "
= = Legacy = =
In 1946 , John Brunt 's sister Dorothy gave birth to a boy which she named John Brunt Miller , in honour of his heroic uncle .
On 3 September 1947 the Kent Arms public house in Paddock Wood , Kent , was named the John Brunt V.C. in his honour . In 1997 , the pub changed its name to The Hopping Hooden Horse ; after local outrage the original name was restored in 2001 . Behind the pub a small housing development called John Brunt VC Court was built .
During his military career , Brunt was awarded the Victoria Cross , Military Cross , 1939 @-@ 45 Star , Africa Star , Italy Star and the British War Medal 1939 – 1945 , all of which are on display in Royal Lincolnshire Regiment and Lincolnshire Yeomanry Collections in the Museum of Lincolnshire Life in Lincoln . In 1951 an altar rail in the Soldiers ' Chapel of St George in Lincoln Cathedral was dedicated to his memory by the regiment .
On 17 July 1965 The Victor comic featured a cover story named Brunt V.C. , a two @-@ page strip based on the actions that won Brunt the VC .
A John Brunt Memorial Cricket Pavilion was opened at Ellesmere College in 1970 , after funds were raised for it since 1945 . The College 's Ante Chapel holds a photograph of Brunt with a copy of his VC citation displayed below .
In May 2004 an outdoor plaque to his memory was unveiled in Priestweston .
= The Hardy Boys =
The Hardy Boys , Frank and Joe Hardy , are fictional characters who appear in various mystery series for children and teens .
The characters were created by Edward Stratemeyer , the founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book @-@ packaging firm , and the books have been written by many different ghostwriters over the years . The books are published under the collective pseudonym Franklin W. Dixon .
The Hardy Boys have evolved in various ways since their first appearance in 1927 . Beginning in 1959 , the books were extensively revised , largely to eliminate racial stereotypes . The books were also written in a simpler style in an attempt to compete with television . Some critics argue that in the process , the Hardy Boys changed , becoming more respectful of the law and simultaneously more affluent , " agents of the adult ruling class " and the like . Most , however , saw the updates as an attempt to make the style of the books more modern , while lamenting the loss of the richer pre @-@ war descriptive style . Similar complaints were made about the updates to the comparable girls ' series Nancy Drew .
A new Hardy Boys series , the Hardy Boys Casefiles , was created in 1987 , and featured murders , violence , and international espionage . The original Hardy Boys Mystery Stories series ended in 2005 . A new series , Undercover Brothers , was launched the same year , featuring updated versions of the characters who narrate their adventures in the first person . The Undercover Brothers ended in 2012 and was replaced in 2013 by The Hardy Boys Adventures , also narrated in the first person .
Through all these changes , the characters have remained popular . The books sell more than a million copies a year . Several additional volumes are published annually , and the boys ' adventures have been translated into more than 25 languages . The Hardy Boys have been featured in computer games and five television shows and used to promote merchandise such as lunchboxes and jeans .
Critics have offered many explanations for the characters ' longevity , suggesting variously that the Hardy Boys embody simple wish fulfillment , American ideals of masculinity , American ideals of boyhood , a well @-@ respected father paradoxically argued to be inept , and the possibility of the triumph of good over evil .
= = Premise = =
The Hardy Boys are fictional teenage brothers and amateur detectives . They live in the city of Bayport on Barmet Bay with their father , detective Fenton Hardy , their mother , Laura Hardy , and their Aunt Gertrude . Frank , the older brother , is eighteen ( sixteen in earlier versions ) , and his younger brother Joe is seventeen ( fifteen in earlier versions ) . The brothers nominally attend high school in Bayport , where they are in the same grade , but school is rarely mentioned in the books and never hinders the Hardys in solving mysteries . In the older stories , the Hardy Boys ' cases are often linked to the confidential cases their detective father is working on . He sometimes asks them for help , while at other times they stumble upon villains and incidents that are connected to his cases . In the Undercover Brothers series , begun in 2005 , the Hardys are members of an organization known as American Teens Against Crime , which assigns them to cases . The Hardy Boys are sometimes assisted in solving mysteries by their friends Chet Morton , Phil Cohen , Biff Hooper , Jerry Gilroy , and Tony Prito , and , less frequently , by their platonic girlfriends Callie Shaw and Iola Morton ( Chet 's sister ) .
The Hardy Boys are constantly involved in adventure and action . Despite frequent danger , the boys " never lose their nerve ... They are hardy boys , luckier and more clever than anyone around them . " They live in an atmosphere of mystery and intrigue : " Never were so many assorted felonies committed in a simple American small town . Murder , drug peddling , race horse kidnapping , diamond smuggling , medical malpractice , big @-@ time auto theft , even ( in the 1940s ) the hijacking of strategic materials and espionage , all were conducted with Bayport as a nucleus . " With so much in common , the boys are so little differentiated that one commentator facetiously describes them thus : " The boys ' characters basically broke down this way – Frank had dark hair ; Joe was blond . " In general , however , " Frank was the thinker while Joe was more impulsive , and perhaps a little more athletic . " The two boys are infallibly on good terms with each other and never engage in sibling rivalry , with the exception of the New Hardy Boys Casefiles series .
Frank and Joe do not lack for money and they travel frequently to far @-@ away locations , including Mexico in The Mark on the Door ( 1934 ) , Scotland in The Secret Agent on Flight 101 ( 1967 ) , Iceland in The Arctic Patrol Mystery ( 1969 ) , Egypt in The Mummy Case ( 1980 ) , and Kenya in The Mystery of the Black Rhino ( 2003 ) . The Hardys also travel freely within the United States by motorcycle , motor boat , iceboat , train and airplane , as well as their own car .
= = Creation of characters = =
The characters were conceived in 1926 by Edward Stratemeyer , founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book @-@ packaging firm . Stratemeyer initially pitched the new series to publishers Grosset & Dunlap and suggested that the boys might be called the Keene Boys , the Scott Boys , the Hart Boys , or the Bixby Boys . Grosset & Dunlap editors , for reasons unknown , chose the name " The Hardy Boys " and approved the project . Stratemeyer accordingly hired Canadian Leslie McFarlane to ghostwrite the first volumes in the series . McFarlane would author nineteen of the first twenty @-@ five volumes in the series . Subsequent titles have been written by a number of different ghostwriters , all under the pseudonym Franklin W. Dixon . The first three titles were published in 1927 , and were an immediate success : by mid @-@ 1929 over 115 @,@ 000 books had been sold . So successful was the series that Stratemeyer created the character of Nancy Drew as a female counterpart to the Hardys .
= = = Ghostwriters = = =
All the Hardy Boys novels have been written by ghostwriters . In accordance with the customs of Stratemeyer Syndicate series production , ghostwriters for the Syndicate signed contracts that have sometimes been interpreted as requiring authors to sign away all rights to authorship or future royalties . The contracts stated that authors could not use their Stratemeyer Syndicate pseudonyms independently of the Syndicate . In the early days of the Syndicate , ghostwriters were paid a fee of $ 125 , " roughly equivalent to two months ' wages for a typical newspaper reporter , the primary day job of the syndicate ghosts . " During the Great Depression this fee was lowered , first to $ 100 and later to $ 75 . All royalties went to the Syndicate ; all correspondence with the publisher was handled through a Stratemeyer Syndicate office , and the Syndicate was able to enlist the cooperation of libraries in hiding the ghostwriters ' names .
The Syndicate 's process for creating the Hardy Boys books consisted of creating a detailed outline , with all elements of plot ; drafting a manuscript ; and editing the manuscript . Edward Stratemeyer 's daughter , Edna Stratemeyer Squier , and possibly Stratemeyer himself , wrote outlines for the first volumes in the series . Beginning in 1934 , Stratemeyer 's other daughter , Harriet Stratemeyer Adams , began contributing plot outlines ; she and Andrew Svenson wrote most of the plot outlines for the next several decades . Other plot outliners included Vincent Buranelli , James Duncan Lawrence , and Tom Mulvey .
Most of the early volumes were written by Canadian Leslie McFarlane , who authored nineteen of the first twenty @-@ five titles , as well as co @-@ authored volume 17 The Secret Warning , between 1927 and 1946 . Unlike many other Syndicate ghostwriters , McFarlane was regarded highly enough by the Syndicate that he was frequently given advances of $ 25 or $ 50 , and during the Depression , when fees were lowered , he was paid $ 85 for each Hardy Boys book when other Syndicate ghostwriters were receiving only $ 75 for their productions . According to McFarlane 's family , he despised the series and its characters .
After co @-@ authoring Volume 17 , John Button , with Volume 18 , The Twisted Claw ( 1939 ) , took over the series full @-@ time until 1942 ; McFarlane resumed with Volume 22 , The Flickering Torch Mystery ( 1943 ) . McFarlane 's last contribution was Volume 24 , The Short @-@ Wave Mystery ( 1945 ) ; his wife , Amy , authored Volume 26 , The Phantom Freighter ( 1947 ) . Over the next several decades , other volumes were written by Adams , Svenson , Lawrence , Buranelli , William Dougherty , and James Buechler ( a teenager at the time ) . Beginning in 1959 , the series was extensively revised and re @-@ written . Many authors worked on the revised books , writing new manuscripts ; some of them also wrote plot outlines and edited the books . Among the authors who worked on the revised versions were Adams , Svenson , Buechler , Lilo Wuenn , Anne Shultes , Alistair Hunter , Tom Mulvey , Patricia Doll , and Priscilla Baker @-@ Carr .
In 1979 , the Hardy Boys books began to be published in paperback rather than hardcover . Lawrence and Buranelli continued to write titles ; other authors included Karl Harr III and Laurence Swinburne . In 1984 , the rights to the series were sold , along with the Stratemeyer Syndicate , to Simon & Schuster . New York book packager Mega @-@ Books subsequently hired authors to write the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories and a new series , the Hardy Boys Casefiles .
= = = Legal disputes = = =
In 1980 , dissatisfied with the lack of creative control at Grosset & Dunlap and the lack of publicity for the Hardy Boys ' 50th anniversary in 1977 , Harriet Adams switched publishers for the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew , as well as other series , to Simon & Schuster . Grosset & Dunlap filed suit against the Syndicate and Simon & Schuster , citing " breach of contract , copyright infringement , and unfair competition " and requesting $ 300 million in damages .
The outcome of the case turned largely on the question of who had written the Nancy Drew series . Adams filed a countersuit , claiming that , as author of the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories , she retained the rights to her work . Although Adams had written many Nancy Drew titles after 1953 and edited others , she claimed to be the author of all of the early titles . In fact , she had rewritten the older titles , but was not the original author . When Mildred Benson , the author of the early Nancy Drew volumes , was called to testify about her work for the Syndicate , Benson 's role in writing the manuscripts of early titles was revealed in court with extensive documentation , contradicting Adams ' claims to authorship . The court ruled that Grosset had the rights to publish the original series of both Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys as they were in print in 1980 , but did not own characters or trademarks . Furthermore , any new publishers chosen by Adams were completely within their rights to print new titles .
= = Evolution of characters = =
The Hardy Boys have gone through many permutations over the years . Beginning in 1959 , the books were extensively revised , and some commentators find that the Hardys ' characters changed in the process . Commentators also sometimes see differences between the Hardy Boys of the original Hardy Boys Mystery Stories and the Hardy Boys of the Hardy Boys Casefiles or the new Undercover Brothers series .
= = = 1927 – 1959 = = =
The early volumes , largely written by Leslie McFarlane , have been praised for their atmosphere and writing style , qualities often considered lacking in juvenile series books . McFarlane 's writing is clear and filled with specific details , making his works superior to many other Stratemeyer series titles . Such , at least , was McFarlane 's intention : " It seemed to me the Hardy Boys deserved something better than the slapdash treatment Dave Fearless had been getting ... I opted for Quality . " The volumes not written by McFarlane or his wife were penned by John Button , who wrote the series from 1938 to 1942 ; this period is sometimes referred to as the " Weird Period " as the writing is full of inconsistencies and the Hardy Boys ' adventures involve futuristic gadgetry and exotic locations .
In general , the world of these early volumes is a " [ dark ] and ... divided place " . In these early titles , the boys are cynical about human nature , an attitude apparently justified when the police , whom they have repeatedly helped , throw them into jail on slim evidence in The Great Airport Mystery ( 1930 ) . The police and authority figures in general come off poorly in these books , so much so that at one point Edward Stratemeyer wrote McFarlane to reprimand him for " grievous lack of respect for officers of the law . " The Hardys are less affluent than earlier Stratemeyer characters ; they eagerly accept cash rewards largely to finance college educations , and , with their parents , strive to please their Aunt Gertrude , because she possesses a small fortune . The rich are portrayed as greedy and selfish . This view of the world reflects McFarlane 's relative " lack [ of ] sympathy with the American power structure . " In his autobiography , McFarlane described his rationale for writing the books this way , writing : " I had my own thoughts about teaching youngsters that obedience to authority is somehow sacred .... Would civilization crumble if kids got the notion that the people who ran the world were sometimes stupid , occasionally wrong and even corrupt at times ? "
The books ' attitudes towards minority characters are a matter of disagreement . These early volumes have been called models of diversity for their day , since among the Hardys ' friends are Phil Cohen , who is Jewish , and the Italian immigrant Tony Prito . However , these two friends are rarely involved in the Hardys ' adventures , a level of friendship reserved for Biff Hooper and Chet Morton . The books have been extensively criticized for their use of racial and ethnic stereotypes and their xenophobia . Vilnoff , for example , the villain in the The Sinister Sign @-@ Post ( 1936 ) , is described as " swarthy " and " a foreigner " , notes critic Steve Burgess .
We sense his untrustworthy nature immediately when he sits down beside the boys at a football game and doesn 't understand it , despite the boys ' best efforts to explain . When he does grasp something , you know it . " I onnerstand pairfectly , " he says . Later he adds genially , " I haf you vhere I vant you now ! " Can 't quite place the accent ? It 's foreign . Twenty @-@ five chapters are not enough to solve the mystery of his nationality .
African Americans are the targets of much racism , being depicted as unintelligent , lazy , and superstitious , " bumpkin rescuers " at best and " secretive and conspiratorial villains " at worst . Benjamin Lefebvre notes that Harriet Adams at times rebuked Leslie McFarlane for not sufficiently following her instructions regarding the portrayal of African @-@ American characters ; he writes that it is not clear " whether Adams rewrote parts of McFarlane 's manuscripts to add [ racist ] details or to what extent these early texts would now be considered even more notoriously racist had McFarlane followed Adams 's instructions more carefully . " In Footprints Under the Window ( 1933 ) , Chinese American men are portrayed as effeminate threats both to national security and white heteromasculinity . Native Americans received mixed treatment ; those living within the continental United States are portrayed as members of once @-@ noble tribes whose greatness has been diminished by the coming of white men , while those living outside the continental U.S. are " portrayed as uneducated , easily manipulated , or semi @-@ savage . " However , Hispanics are generally treated as equals ; the Hardy Boys as well as their father speak Spanish , and Mexico 's history and culture are treated with respect and admiration .
= = = 1959 – 1979 = = =
The Hardy Boys volumes were extensively revised beginning in 1959 at the insistence of publishers Grosset & Dunlap , and against the wishes of Harriet Adams . The revision project , which also encompassed the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories , was sparked largely by letters that parents had been writing to Grosset & Dunlap since at least 1948 , complaining about the prevalence of racial stereotypes in the books . Volume 14 in the Hardy Boys series , The Hidden Harbor Mystery ( 1935 ) , was singled out for particular and repeated attention for its portrayal of a black criminal who organizes a gang of black boys and treats whites disrespectfully . As one parent put it , the books were " ingraining the old race @-@ riot type of fear . " As such letters became more frequent , Grosset & Dunlap informed the Stratemeyer Syndicate that the books must be revised and such stereotypes excised . The end result , however , was less the removal of stereotypes than the removal of non @-@ white characters altogether and the creation of an " ethnically cleansed Bayport " . By the 1970s , however , the series began to re @-@ introduce black characters .
An additional rationale for the revisions was a drop in sales , which became particularly significant by the mid @-@ 1960s . Accordingly , the revisions focused on streamlining the texts , as well as eliminating stereotypes . The books were shortened from 25 chapters to 20 and the writing style was made terser . Difficult vocabulary words such as " ostensible " and " presaged " were eliminated , as was slang . As a result of the new , more streamlined writing style , the books focus more on non @-@ stop action than on building atmosphere , and " prolonged suspense [ is ] evaporated . " The books were also aimed at an increasingly younger audience with shorter attention spans . For this reason , many commentators find the new versions nothing less than " eviscerated " , foremost among them being the first Hardy Boys ghostwriter , Leslie McFarlane , who agreed with a reporter 's statement that the books had been " gutted " .
In the course of revising and modernizing the series , many plots were completely re @-@ written . The Flickering Torch Mystery ( 1943 ) , for example , was changed from a plot involving an actual flickering torch used as a signal by a gang to a plot featuring a rock club called " The Flickering Torch " . When plots were kept , their more lurid elements were eliminated ; Vilnoff , the villain in The Sinister Sign @-@ Post , was changed from a criminal who compulsively sculpts miniature models of his own hands to a car thief without such eccentricities , and another villain , Pedro Vincenzo , who branded his victims no longer does so in the revised version of The Mark on the Door ( 1934 , rev. 1967 ) .
The books became more respectful of law and authority . Even villains no longer smoked or drank , and scenes involving guns and shoot @-@ outs were compressed or eliminated , in favor of criminals simply giving themselves up . The boys , too , become more respectful of rules and of the law ; for example , they no longer drive faster than the speed limit even in pursuit of a villain . The Hardys also became more and more wealthy , prompting the criticism that the " major problem in [ these volumes ] is that the Hardy Boys have risen above any ability to identify with people like the typical boys who read their books . They are members and agents of the adult ruling class , acting on behalf of that ruling class . "
= = = 1979 – 2005 = = =
The Hardy Boys began to be published in paperback in 1979 . The Hardys were also featured in two new series , the Hardy Boys Casefiles and the Clues Brothers . The latter series , modeled on the Nancy Drew Notebooks , was aimed at a younger audience , and ran from 1997 to 2000 . In contrast , the Casefiles , begun a decade earlier in 1987 , was aimed at an older audience than the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories . In the new series , the Hardys ' work with a secret government organization simply called the " Network " , with which they collaborate to " infiltrate organized crime , battle terrorists and track down assassins around the world . " The Hardys ' personalities are portrayed as more separate and distinct , and they sometimes fight ; in the first of the series , Dead on Target , for example , the brothers brawl after Frank tries to restrain Joe after Joe 's girlfriend , Iola Morton , is killed by a car bomb . In general , the series is more violent , and the Hardy Boys carry various guns ; Lines like " Joe ! Hand me the Uzi ! " are not out of character . Barbara Steiner , a Casefiles ghostwriter , describes a sample plot outline : " I was told that Joe Hardy would get involved with a waitress , a black widow kind of character , and that Joe would get arrested for murder . I was told the emphasis was on high action and suspense and there had to be a cliff @-@ hanger ending to every chapter . "
= = = 2005 – present = = =
The long @-@ running Hardy Boys Mystery Stories series ended in 2005 and was replaced with a reboot series , The Hardy Boys : Undercover Brothers . In these volumes , the Hardys ' adventures are narrated in the first person , each brother alternating chapters . This fresh approach to telling the adventures reveals two boys quite foreign to how they have been portrayed before , egotistical and jealous , and longtime readers will find few connections with the boys ' previous personalities . The boys ' Aunt Gertrude becomes " Trudy " , their mother Laura is given a career as a librarian , and their father is semi @-@ retired . The boys are given their cases by a secret group known as ATAC , an acronym for American Teens Against Crime . In this new series , the Hardy Boys seem " more like regular kids – who have lots of wild adventures – in these books , which also deal with issues that kids today might have thought about . For example , the second book in the series , Running on Fumes , deals with environmentalists who go a little too far to try to save trees . " The Hardys are also featured in a new graphic novel series , begun in 2005 and produced by Papercutz , and a new early chapter book series called The Hardy Boys : Secret Files , begun in 2010 by the publisher Simon & Schuster under their Aladdin imprint . The last Undercover Brothers books were released in January 2012 ( main series ) and July 2012 ( Nancy Drew / Hardy Boys Super Mystery ' 07 series ) . At the time of cancellation , there was one book that had been announced , but was ultimately shelved ( The Case Of The MyFace Kidnapper ) ; it is unknown whether this was going to be the final title of this unpublished book , since many bookstore websites and Simon & Schuster 's website always had the letters " W.T " behind the title , meaning that it was a " working title . "
February 2013 saw the launch of The Hardy Boys Adventures , a series written in the first @-@ person . For the first time since 1985 , the books will be issued in hardcover , along with paperback editions .
= = Books = =
The longest @-@ running series of books to feature the Hardy Boys is the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories , sometimes also called the Hardy Boys Mysteries . The series ran from 1927 to 2005 and comprises 190 volumes , although some consider only the first 58 volumes of this series to be part of the Hardy Boys " canon " . The Hardy Boys also appeared in 127 volumes of the Casefiles series and 39 volumes of the Undercover Brothers series , and are currently the heroes of the Hardy Boys Adventures series . The brothers were also featured in a few standalone books , such as The Hardy Boys Ghost Stories , and some crossover titles where they teamed up with other characters such as Nancy Drew or Tom Swift .
= = = International publications = = =
Hardy Boys books have been extensively reprinted in the United Kingdom , with new illustrations and cover art . The Hardys ' adventures have also been translated into over twenty @-@ five languages , including Norwegian , Swedish , Spanish , Icelandic , Hebrew , French , German , Japanese , Russian , Malay , and Italian . The books are widely read in India , and Japan 's Kyoto Sangyo University listed twenty @-@ one Hardy Boys books on its reading list for freshmen in the 1990s .
= = Television = =
There have been five separate Hardy Boys television adaptions .
In the late 1950s , Disney contracted with the Stratemeyer Syndicate and Grosset & Dunlap to produce two Hardy Boys TV serials , starring Tim Considine and Tommy Kirk . The first of the serials , The Mystery of the Applegate Treasure , was aired on The Mickey Mouse Club in 1956 during the show 's second season . To appeal to the show 's audience , the Hardy Boys were portrayed as younger than in the books , seeming to be twelve or thirteen years old ( Considine was 15 and Kirk was 14 during filming ) . The script , written by Jackson Gillis , was based on the first Hardy Boys book , The Tower Treasure , and the serial was aired in 19 episodes of fifteen minutes each with production costs of $ 5 @,@ 700 . A second serial , The Mystery of Ghost Farm , followed in 1957 , with an original story by Jackson Gillis . However , for unknown reasons , no more serials were produced .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , sales of Hardy Boys books began to drop . The Stratemeyer Syndicate conducted a survey , which revealed that the decline in sales was due to the perceived high cost of the books and to competition from television . As a result , the Syndicate approved an hour @-@ long pilot for a new Hardy Boys television show . The pilot , based on The Mystery of the Chinese Junk , was aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on September 8 , 1967 and starred Tim Matthieson ( later Matheson ) as Joe Hardy and Rick Gates as Frank . Both actors were twenty at the time of production and portrayed the Hardy Boys as young adults rather than children , as they had been in the Mickey Mouse Club serials . The show did poorly , however , and the series was abandoned .
Two years later , in 1969 , the American Broadcasting Company aired a Saturday morning cartoon series based on the Hardy Boys ; the series was produced by Filmation and ran from 1969 to 1971 . In this series , the Hardys were members of a rock and roll band . A group of professional musicians performed all the songs on the series , and toured across the United States . The animated series produced two bubblegum music albums " of moderate quality with no commercial success . " The series was notable for being the first cartoon to include a black character . The show took note of current concerns ; although aimed at a young audience , some plot lines dealt with illegal drugs , and the animated Frank and Joe spoke directly to children about not smoking and the importance of wearing seat belts .
ABC aired another series featuring the Hardy Boys , The Hardy Boys / Nancy Drew Mysteries , from 1977 to 1979 . The prime time series starred Parker Stevenson and Shaun Cassidy as Frank and Joe Hardy ; Pamela Sue Martin and later Janet Louise Johnson played Nancy Drew . During the first season , the series alternated between episodes featuring the Hardy Boys one week and Nancy Drew the next . The Hardy Boys were cast as young adults ( Stevenson and Cassidy were twenty @-@ four and eighteen respectively during the filming of the first episodes ) to appeal to a prime time television audience . The series featured original plots as well as ones based on Hardy Boys books , among them The Clue of the Screeching Owl , The Disappearing Floor and The Flickering Torch Mystery . The series received an Emmy nomination and featured a number of guest stars , including Kim Cattrall , Ray Milland , Howard Duff , and Ricky Nelson . During the second season , the series format changed to focus more on the Hardy Boys , Nancy Drew appearing mostly in crossover episodes with the brothers ; midway through production of the second season , Martin quit and was replaced by Johnson . The series returned for a third season , dropping the Nancy Drew character completely and shortening its title to The Hardy Boys .
In 1995 , a TV show called The Hardy Boys was produced and syndicated by New Line Television , a division of New Line Cinema . The show was co @-@ produced by Canadian broadcasting company Nelvana and was dubbed in French for airing in Quebec and France as well as in the United States . Colin Gray starred as Frank Hardy and Paul Popowich played Joe . The characters were portrayed as in their early twenties , Frank working as a reporter and Joe still in college . The show lasted for only one season of thirteen episodes due to poor ratings .
= = Video games = =
Several Hardy Boys video games have been released :
Hardy Boys Adventure Series by Dreamcatcher
The Hidden Theft ( PC 2008 )
The Perfect Crime ( PC 2009 )
The Masked Phantom ( PC shelved )
Hardy Boys Nintendo DS series by Her Interactive & Saga
Treasure on the Tracks ( Nintendo DS 2009 )
= = In other media = =
The Hardy Boys have appeared in several titles in the Nancy Drew computer game series produced by Her Interactive . Her Interactive partnered with Sega to release its own series of Hardy Boys games . The first game in the series is titled " Treasure on the Tracks " and was released in 2009 for Nintendo DS .
JoWood Productions and DreamCatcher Games have released a Hardy Boys computer game called The Hidden Theft . Jesse McCartney and Cody Linley are the voices of Frank and Joe .
The Hardy Boys have also been used to sell a variety of merchandise over the years , much of it tied to television adaptations . They have appeared in several board games , comic books , coloring books , and activity books , jigsaw puzzles , and lunch boxes ; two LP albums , Here Come the Hardy Boys and Wheels ; a Viewmaster set , a toy truck , charm bracelets , rings , wristwatches , greeting cards , jeans , and guitars .
The Hardy Boys have been parodied in the animated series South Park in an episode titled " The Mystery of the Urinal Deuce " , in which the " Hardly Boys " investigate a 9 / 11 conspiracy theory .
In the 1970s , Parker Brothers released The Hardy Boys Mystery Game . In the board game , two to four players take on the role of amateur sleuths and try to solve a mystery .
= = Thematic analysis = =
The Hardy Boys have been called " a cultural touchstone all over the world . " Their adventures have been continuously in print since 1927 . The series was an instant success : by mid @-@ 1929 over 115 @,@ 000 books had been sold , and as of 2008 the books were selling over a million copies a year ( the first Hardy Boys book , The Tower Treasure , alone sells over 100 @,@ 000 copies a year ) . Worldwide , over 70 million copies of Hardy Books have been sold . A number of critics have tried to explain the reasons for the characters ' longevity .
One explanation for this continuing popularity is that the Hardy Boys are simple wish fulfillment . Their adventures allow readers to vicariously experience an escape from the mundane . At the same time , Frank and Joe live ordinary lives when not solving mysteries , allowing readers to identify with characters who seem realistic and whose parents and authority figures are unfailingly supportive and loving . The Hardy Boys also embody an ideal of masculinity : by their very name they " set the stage for a gentrified version of hardness and constructed hardiness as an ideal for modern American males " , part of the " cultural production of self @-@ control and mastery as the revered ideal for the American man . " More controversially , to Meredith Wood , the characters embody not just an ideal of masculinity , but an ideal of white masculinity . She tries to argue that " racist stereotypes are ... fundamental to the success of the Hardy Boys series . " In support of this claim , Wood cites what she says is the replacement of one stereotype ( evil Chinese ) with another ( evil Latin Americans ) in the original and revised versions of Footprints Under the Window . She further claims that this is the reason for the popularity of the Applewood Books reprints of the original , unrevised texts rather that the widely cited blandness of the rewrites .
Critic Gary Westfahl considers the Hardy Boys to not display any sexuality . The Hardys ' ignorance of sex and their increasing respect for the law have led to some negative perceptions and many parodies of the characters . They are " well @-@ scrubbed Boy Scout types " who " fetishized squareness " . They have been parodied numerous times , in such works as The Hardy Boys and the Mystery of Where Babies Come From by Christopher Durang , The Secret of the Old Queen : A Hardy Boys Musical by Timothy Cope and Paul Boesing , and Mabel Maney 's novel A Ghost in the Closet : A Hardly Boys Mystery . National Lampoon ran an article in 1985 entitled " The Undiscovered Notebooks of Franklin W. Dixon " , in which the authors " purport to have stumbled upon some unpublished Hardy Boys manuscripts " , including " The Party Boys and the Case of the Missing Scotch " and " The Hardly Boys in the Dark Secret of the Spooky Closet " . It should be noted that the original series contained references to the attraction felt by Frank and Joe to the female leads .
Others have pointed to the Hardy Boys ' relationship with their father as a key to the success of the series . As Tim Morris notes , while Fenton Hardy is portrayed as a great detective , his sons are usually the ones that solve cases , making Fenton Hardy a paradoxical figure :
He is always there , he knows everything . He is infallible but always failing . When the boys rescue him , he is typically emaciated , dehydrated , semi @-@ conscious , delirious ; they must succor him with candy bars and water . He can take on any shape , but reveals his identity within moments of doing so . He never discusses a case except the one he 's working on in a given novel , so that his legendary close @-@ mouthedness turns to garrulousness when a Hardy Boys novel begins , which is of course the only time we ever get to see him . All the same , he only discusses the case in enough detail to mislead his sons and put them in mortal danger . He has systems of information and data @-@ gathering that put the FBI to shame , yet he is always losing his case notes , his ciphers , his microfilm , or some other valuable clue , usually by leaving it in his extra pair of pants , meaning that the Boys have to drive to Canada or Florida or somewhere to retrieve it . I suppose he isn 't mysterious at all ; he simply embodies what many think of their own fathers : utterly powerful , contemptibly inept .
As a result , the Hardy Boys are able both to be superior to their father and to gain the satisfaction of " fearlessly making their dad proud of them . "
In the end , many commentators find that the Hardy Boys are largely successful because their adventures represent " a victory over anxiety " . The Hardy Boys series teaches readers that " although the world can be an out @-@ of @-@ control place , good can triumph over evil , that the worst problems can be solved if we each do our share and our best to help others . "
= Brazilian ironclad Rio de Janeiro =
The Brazilian ironclad Rio de Janeiro was an armored gunboat ( Portuguese : Canhoneira Couraçada Nr. 3 ) built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the mid @-@ 1860s . Like the other two gunboats she was built in Brazil and was designed as a casemate ironclad . Commissioned in April 1866 , the ship did not enter combat until September , when she bombarded Paraguayan fortifications at Curuzu . Rio de Janeiro hit two mines on 2 September and rapidly sank , taking 53 of her crew with her .
= = Design and description = =
Rio de Janeiro was designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for a small , simple , shallow @-@ draft armored gunboat capable of withstanding heavy fire . A casemate ironclad design was chosen for ease of construction and a bronze ram , 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 5 ft 11 in ) long , was fitted . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . For sea passages the ship 's freeboard could be increased to 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) by use of removable bulwarks 1 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 ft 7 in ) high . On riverine operations , the bulkwarks and the ship 's masts , were usually removed .
The ship measured 56 @.@ 69 meters ( 186 ft 0 in ) long overall , with a beam of 9 @.@ 19 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) and had a mean draft of 2 @.@ 62 meters ( 8 ft 7 in ) . Rio de Janeiro normally displaced 871 metric tons ( 857 long tons ) and 1 @,@ 001 metric tons ( 985 long tons ) at deep load . Her crew numbered 148 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Rio de Janeiro had a single John Penn & Sons 2 @-@ cylinder steam engine driving a single 2 @-@ bladed propeller . Her engine was powered by two tubular boilers . The engine produced a total of 420 indicated horsepower ( 310 kW ) which gave the ship a maximum speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . The ship 's funnel was mounted directly in front of her casemate . Rio de Janeiro carried enough coal for six days ' steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Rio de Janeiro mounted two 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loaders and two 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore guns in her casemate . To minimize the possibility of shells or splinters entering the casemate through the gunports they were as small as possible , allowing only a 24 ° -arc of fire for each gun . The rectangular , 9 @.@ 8 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 2 in ) casemate had two gun ports on each side as well as the front and rear .
The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . The gun had a maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of 12 ° . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of Rio de Janeiro was made from three layers of wood , each 203 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The ship had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 1 @.@ 52 meters ( 5 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters ( 4 in ) covering the machinery and magazines , 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) elsewhere . The curved deck , as well as the roof of the casemate , was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The casemate was protected by 102 millimeters of armor on all four sides , backed by 609 millimeters ( 24 @.@ 0 in ) of wood capped with a 102 mm layer of peroba hardwood .
= = Service = =
Rio de Janeiro was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 28 June 1865 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 18 February 1866 and completed on 1 March 1866 . Commissioned in April she reached the combat zone on 4 May . The ship reached Corrientes , with the ironclad Lima Barros , in July 1866 . On 1 September Rio de Janeiro bombarded the Paraguayan fortifications at Curuzú in company with the other Brazilian ironclads . A 68 @-@ pounder shell entered one of her gunports during the bombardment , killing four men and wounding five . The next day , after her damage was repaired , the ship struck two mines in the Apa River while trying to rendezvous with the other Brazilian ironclads bombarding Curupaity . Rio de Janeiro sank instantly with the loss of 53 of her crew . She remains there , entombed under some 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) of sand .
= Action of 18 August 1798 =
The Action of 18 August 1798 was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars , fought between the British fourth rate ship HMS Leander and the French ship of the line Généreux . Both ships had been engaged at the Battle of the Nile three weeks earlier , in which a British fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson had destroyed a French fleet at Aboukir Bay on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt . Généreux was one of only four French ships to survive the battle , while Leander had been detached from the British fleet by Nelson on 6 August . On board , Captain Edward Berry sailed as a passenger , charged with carrying despatches to the squadron under Earl St Vincent off Cadiz . On 18 August , while passing the western shore of Crete , Leander was intercepted and attacked by Généreux , which had separated from the rest of the French survivors the day before .
Captain Thomas Thompson on Leander initially tried to escape the much larger French ship , but it rapidly became clear that Généreux was faster than his vessel . At 09 : 00 the ships exchanged broadsides , the engagement continuing until 10 : 30 , when Captain Louis @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Lejoille made an unsuccessful attempt to board Leander , suffering heavy casualties in the attempt . For another five hours the battle continued , Thompson successfully raking Généreux at one stage but ultimately being outfought and outmanoeuvered by the larger warship . Eventually the wounded Thompson surrendered his dismasted ship by ordering his men to wave a French tricolour on a pike . As French sailors took possession of the British ship , Lejoille
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he was unable to participate in the Islanders ' training camp in September and was returned to the OHL . Playing in his third season for Guelph , he improved to 28 goals and 82 points over 61 games . Bertuzzi competed for an Islanders ' roster spot at their 1994 training camp , but was sent back to his junior team after going scoreless in three exhibition games .
During his last campaign with Guelph in 1994 – 95 , he recorded 119 points – sixth overall in the league . His 54 goals established a single @-@ season team record , beating Mike Prokopec 's mark , set the previous year , by two goals . The Storm 's forward tandem of Bertuzzi and Jeff O 'Neill , who finished fourth in league scoring , led the club to the best regular season record in the league . He went on to add a team @-@ leading 33 points in 14 playoff games , en route to an OHL Finals loss to the Detroit Junior Red Wings . After four seasons with Guelph , he left the club ranked third all @-@ time in career points with 280 , behind O 'Neill and Martin St. Pierre .
= = = New York Islanders ( 1995 – 98 ) = = =
Two years after his draft , Bertuzzi and the Islanders had not yet been agreed to a contract . With Bertuzzi eligible to re @-@ enter the draft if the Islanders did not sign him by July 7 , 1995 , general manager Don Maloney made it apparent that he would use the team 's second overall pick in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft to select him again if a contract could not be agreed upon by the required date . Moments before the midnight deadline , the Islanders were able to sign Bertuzzi to a four @-@ year , US $ 4 @.@ 6 million contract . His agent , Pat Morris , had reportedly wanted a similar deal to that of fellow Islanders prospect Brett Lindros – a five @-@ year , $ 6 @.@ 7 million contract signed the previous summer .
During training camp in September 1995 , Islanders head coach Mike Milbury heralded Bertuzzi as the team 's best performing forward . Making his NHL debut on October 7 , 1995 , he scored a wrap around goal against goaltender Blaine Lacher in a 4 – 4 tie with the Boston Bruins . Beginning the season on the team 's top line with Zigmund Palffy and Travis Green , Bertuzzi finished his rookie year with 18 goals and 39 points over 76 games . The following season , Bertuzzi recorded 23 points in 64 games . The Islanders did not qualify for the playoffs in either of his two full seasons with the club , ranking second @-@ last in the Eastern Conference in 1995 – 96 and 1996 – 97 .
Bertuzzi 's playing style as a power forward resulted in comparisons to former Islander Clark Gillies . As a result , the club hired Gillies to personally mentor Bertuzzi . Failing to meet lofty expectations from the club , Gillies once said of Bertuzzi , " If you 're built like a freight train , you can 't drive around like a Volkswagen . " Feeling burdened with the pressure of playing up to the club 's expectations while his offensive production diminished , he requested to be traded away at one point during the 1996 – 97 season . In response , Milbury , who had also taken over general manager duties the previous season , demoted Bertuzzi to the Islanders ' minor league affiliate , the Utah Grizzlies of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) . Playing 13 games in the minors , he registered 10 points before being called back up to the NHL . During the 1997 – 98 campaign , he continued to score below his pace as a rookie . On February 6 , 1998 , he was traded along with defenceman Bryan McCabe and a third @-@ round selection in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft ( Jarkko Ruutu ) to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for veteran forward Trevor Linden . The deal was made prior to the NHL 's roster freeze in preparation for the 1998 Winter Olympics .
Bertuzzi and McCabe had both been widely regarded as the players of the future for New York after their respective drafts in 1993 . While Milbury expressed regret at having to trade McCabe , relations between Bertuzzi and the club were strained . Welcoming the trade , Bertuzzi commented that " things weren 't working out [ in New York ] . "
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 1998 – 2006 ) = = =
Bertuzzi immediately began producing with Vancouver , tallying 15 points in 22 games after the trade . Combined with his totals from New York , he finished with 23 points over 74 games in 1997 – 98 . Contrasting his strained relationship with Milbury in New York , Canucks head coach Mike Keenan has recalled his experience with Bertuzzi upon his arrival as positive : " He came as a young player and he was very open @-@ minded about learning about the game . " Similar to the Islanders , Bertuzzi joined a struggling club in Vancouver ; the team finished last in the Western Conference in his first two seasons after the trade .
After beginning the 1998 – 99 season on the Canucks ' top line , Bertuzzi was limited to 32 games due to injuries , the first of which was a fractured tibia . He suffered the injury on November 1 , 1998 , after a shot by teammate Mattias Öhlund hit him in the leg . His season was later ended with a torn anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) in his left knee , suffered during a game on March 5 , 1999 . He recorded 8 goals and 16 points in 1998 – 99 . In the off @-@ season , Bertuzzi became a restricted free agent and was re @-@ signed by the Canucks to a two @-@ year contract in September 1999 . The deal was reported by The Vancouver Sun to be worth a little over $ 2 million .
Returning from injury the following season , Bertuzzi emerged as one of the Canucks ' best offensive contributors , finishing with 25 goals ( second on the team to Markus Näslund ) and 50 points in 1999 – 2000 . At the end of the season , he received the team 's Most Exciting Player Award , as voted by the fans . He received the distinction three more times during his career with the Canucks from 2002 to 2004 ) . Meanwhile , the Canucks began improving as a team , finishing four points out of a playoff spot in the West in 2000 .
The following season , Bertuzzi recorded his first career NHL hat trick , recording all three goals on the power play against San Jose Sharks goaltender Evgeni Nabokov in a 6 – 3 win on December 30 , 2000 . Bertuzzi recorded a second consecutive 25 @-@ goal season in 2000 – 01 , adding 30 assists for 55 points , third in team scoring behind Näslund and Andrew Cassels . His -18 plus @-@ minus rating , however , was a team @-@ worst . The Canucks continued to improve , qualifying for the post @-@ season for the first time in five years . Entering the 2001 playoffs as the final and eighth seed in the West , they were eliminated in the first round by the Colorado Avalanche . Bertuzzi scored two goals and two assists over four games in his first NHL post @-@ season appearance . In the off @-@ season , Bertuzzi filed for salary arbitration after initially failing to come to terms on a new contract with the Canucks . Both sides avoided arbitration by agreeing to a three @-@ year deal on July 26 , 2001 .
In the first month of the 2001 – 02 season , Bertuzzi received an automatic 10 @-@ game suspension from the league ( forfeiting $ 118 @,@ 557 in salary ) after leaving the bench to help teammate Ed Jovanovski in a fight . The incident occurred during a game against the Colorado Avalanche in which opposing coach Bob Hartley sent enforcer Scott Parker onto the ice as the extra attacker during a delayed penalty . Parker proceeded to physically engage Jovanovski , at which point Bertuzzi left the bench to help his teammate . Vancouver struggled with him out of the lineup , winning 3 games during the 10 @-@ game span . Two months after returning from suspension , Bertuzzi went 15 consecutive games with at least a point , scoring 7 goals and 12 assists from January 3 – February 4 , 2002 . The streak tied Petr Nedved for the longest in Canucks history . During that span , in a game on January 9 , Canucks head coach Marc Crawford replaced Andrew Cassels with Brendan Morrison , marking the beginning of what was considered by many to be the most effective line combination in the league for several seasons . Bertuzzi had emerged as an effective power forward , able to use his size and strength to position himself in front of the net , with good stickhandling ability . According to Canucks assistant coach Jack McIlhargey , Bertuzzi 's skill set favourably complemented Näslund 's goal @-@ scoring and Morrison 's playmaking abilities . The trio were dubbed by Vancouver media as the " West Coast Express " , named after the city 's commuter rail service of the same name .
Late in the 2001 – 02 season , he recorded his second career hat trick on March 19 , 2002 , during a win against the New York Rangers . He scored his first two goals of the game against Dan Blackburn and his third into an empty net . Despite missing 10 games from his suspension , Bertuzzi finished the 2001 – 02 season third in league @-@ scoring with 85 points , behind Näslund and Calgary Flames forward Jarome Iginla . His 1 @.@ 18 points @-@ per @-@ game average ranked second in the league behind Mario Lemieux , who played 48 fewer games than Bertuzzi . He also improved his plus @-@ minus rating by 39 points from the previous season , finishing a career @-@ high + 21 . Although the Canucks were the league 's highest scoring team , they finished with the final seed in the West for the 2002 playoffs , ranking eighth in their conference . Facing the Detroit Red Wings in the opening round , they were eliminated in six games . Bertuzzi recorded four points during the series .
The following season , Bertuzzi appeared in his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . He was joined by fellow Canucks Markus Näslund , defenceman Ed Jovanovski and head coach Marc Crawford , helping the Western Conference to a 6 – 5 shootout win against the East . He played on a line with Näslund and Peter Forsberg . Later in the season , he notched his third career hat trick on March 17 , 2003 , scoring three goals against Ron Tugnutt in a game against the Dallas Stars . He finished the season with career @-@ highs of 46 goals ( third in the league ) , 51 assists and 97 points ( fifth in the league ) . His 25 power play goals led the league and tied Pavel Bure for the Canucks single @-@ season record . Linemates Näslund and Morrison also recorded personal bests with 104 and 71 points , respectively . Meanwhile , the Canucks emerged as a top team in the West . Losing the Northwest Division title to the Avalanche by one point in the regular season , they finished as the fourth seed in their conference . After going down three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one in the opening round against the St. Louis Blues , Vancouver won three straight games to advance to the second round . Facing the Minnesota Wild , the Canucks gave up their own three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one series lead and were eliminated in seven games . During the series , Bertuzzi had reportedly walked by the Xcel Energy Center box office and told Wild fans they would not need their Game 6 tickets because Minnesota would be eliminated by then . In another on @-@ ice incident , he skated by the opposing bench during Game 7 when the Canucks were winning 2 – 0 , telling Wild players to " get [ their ] golf clubs . " Despite his successful regular season , Bertuzzi struggled to score in the playoffs , recording 6 points in 14 games . In the off @-@ season , Bertuzzi was named with Näslund to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team .
With Bertuzzi entering the final year of his contract , the Canucks began negotiating a contract extension prior to the 2003 – 04 season . Despite Bertuzzi 's agent , Pat Morris , declaring that they would cease negotiations once the season began , Bertuzzi signed a four @-@ year , $ 27 @.@ 8 million deal with the Canucks on October 23 , 2003 . The contract took effect immediately , erasing the last year on his previous contract , and included a $ 3 million signing bonus ( $ 2 @.@ 5 million paid in the first year and $ 500 @,@ 000 in the second ) . The deal paid him $ 4 @.@ 3 million the first year , $ 6 @.@ 633 million the second year and $ 6 @.@ 933 for the third and fourth .
In January 2004 , he was voted by league fans to the starting lineup of the NHL All @-@ Star Game . Representing the Western Conference alongside Näslund and Canucks head coach Marc Crawford , they were defeated by the East 6 – 4 . Bertuzzi had two assists while playing on a line with Näslund and Joe Sakic . Nearing the end of the 2003 – 04 season , Bertuzzi was indefinitely suspended by the NHL for punching Colorado Avalanche forward Steve Moore from behind during a game on March 8 , 2004 . His actions were a retaliation to a hit from Moore on Näslund during a previous game . Sitting out the remainder of the regular season and playoffs due to his suspension , he finished 2003 – 04 with 60 points over 69 games . Vancouver replaced Bertuzzi on the team 's top line with Matt Cooke and went on to their first Northwest Division title , before being eliminated in the first round of the 2004 playoffs by the Calgary Flames .
Inactive in 2004 – 05 due to the players lockout and his ongoing suspension , which had been extended internationally , Bertuzzi returned to the Canucks in 2005 – 06 , as the league ended his playing ban . He recorded 25 goals and 71 points , including two hat tricks ( November 13 , 2005 , against the Detroit Red Wings and January 14 , 2006 , against the New York Islanders ) . Though he ranked third in team scoring , Crawford has recalled that by the end of the season , Näslund and Bertuzzi had been eclipsed by Daniel and Henrik Sedin as the team 's offensive leaders .
There was speculation that the effects of the Steve Moore incident , which included assault charges and constant media coverage , were negatively affecting his play . While on the road , he was consistently heckled and booed by fans throughout the NHL . Näslund , a close friend of Bertuzzi 's , later expressed sympathy for him , saying in a 2008 interview , " It still bothers me what Todd has had to go through ... There 's no question he was standing up for me ... it all went too far . "
Beyond the negative impact on Bertuzzi 's individual play , the media speculated that the fallout from the Moore incident had become a distraction to the organization as a whole . Compounding the situation in Vancouver , the Canucks had missed the playoffs for the first time in four years . As such , general manager Dave Nonis spent the off @-@ season making significant changes to the Canucks lineup . On June 23 , 2006 , he traded Bertuzzi to the Florida Panthers , along with goaltender Alex Auld and defenceman Bryan Allen , in exchange for goaltender Roberto Luongo , defenceman Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth @-@ round selection in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft ( Sergei Shirokov ) . After seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons with the Canucks , Bertuzzi left the club ranked seventh all @-@ time among franchise scoring leaders with 449 points .
= = = Florida , Detroit , and Anaheim ( 2006 – 08 ) = = =
Instrumental in facilitating the trade to Florida was Bertuzzi 's positive relationship with Panthers general manager Mike Keenan , who was his first coach in Vancouver . Debuting with the Panthers on October 6 , 2006 , Bertuzzi scored a goal and three assists in an 8 – 3 win against the Boston Bruins . He appeared in six more games for Florida , notching seven points total , before being sidelined with back spasms . After being diagnosed with a herniated disc in early @-@ November , Bertuzzi opted for surgery , which kept him out of the lineup for five months . While recovering , the Panthers dealt him to the Detroit Red Wings at the trade deadline in exchange for forward prospect Shawn Matthias and conditional draft picks . Bertuzzi was in the last year of his contract with no guarantee he would re @-@ sign with Florida in the off @-@ season .
Bertuzzi returned to action on March 22 , 2007 , debuting with his new team in a 2 – 1 shootout loss to the Columbus Blue Jackets . Eight days later , he scored his first goal as a Red Wing in a 4 – 3 shootout loss to the Dallas Stars . On April 7 , he suffered a neck injury that kept him out of the lineup for the last game of the regular season and the first two games of the 2007 playoffs . He finished the campaign with 11 points in 15 games split between Florida and Detroit . During the playoffs , the Red Wings advanced to the Western Conference Finals , where they lost in six games to the Anaheim Ducks , who went on to win the Stanley Cup . Bertuzzi recorded 7 points in 16 playoff games .
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Bertuzzi agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract with the Anaheim Ducks on July 2 , 2007 . Signing him was Ducks general manager Brian Burke , who had served as the Canucks general manager during Bertuzzi 's time in Vancouver . Bertuzzi had reportedly been in negotiations to re @-@ sign with Detroit , but the club only wanted a one @-@ year deal . Playing the Red Wings in the Ducks ' first game of the regular season on October 3 , 2007 , he registered a goal and an assist in a 3 – 2 shootout loss . In the first month of the 2007 – 08 campaign , he suffered a concussion and was sidelined for 14 games in October and November 2007 . Bertuzzi returned to the lineup in time for the Ducks ' away game against the Canucks on November 27 , which marked his first NHL game in Vancouver since being traded away . Bertuzzi was received warmly by Canucks fans , as the Ducks lost the game 4 – 0 . Playing in 68 contests over the season , he registered 40 points with Anaheim . Entering the 2008 playoffs as the defending champions , the Ducks were eliminated in the first round four games to two by the Dallas Stars . In six playoff contests , Bertuzzi recorded two assists .
= = = Calgary Flames ( 2008 – 09 ) = = =
During the subsequent summer , several Ducks players were set to become free agents , including high @-@ profile forward Corey Perry . Requiring additional salary cap space to make room for defenceman Scott Niedermayer , who announced he was returning for another season , Bertuzzi was placed on unconditional waivers with the intention of buying out the remaining year on his contract . Addressing Bertuzzi 's buy out with the media , Burke asserted that he " believe [ d ] [ Bertuzzi ] can still play at the NHL level , " and that the Ducks were merely " handcuffed by [ their ] salary cap situation . " Bertuzzi once again became an unrestricted free agent and signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 95 million contract with the Calgary Flames on July 7 , 2008 . Joining Calgary , he was reunited with Flames coach Mike Keenan . Before the start of the 2008 – 09 season , Bertuzzi switched jersey numbers from 4 to 7 , in honour of his boyhood idol , Phil Esposito . The numbers 44 , which Bertuzzi wore in New York , Vancouver and Detroit , and 4 , which he wore in Anaheim , were already taken in Calgary .
Bertuzzi scored his first goal with the Flames , deflecting a Dion Phaneuf shot , on October 12 , 2008 , in a 5 @-@ 4 overtime loss to the Vancouver Canucks . While initial fan reaction to Bertuzzi was negative due to his previous role with the division @-@ rival Canucks , as well as his reputation following the Steve Moore incident , he was eventually accepted in Calgary . In January 2009 , he missed five games due to a back injury . Several months later , he was sidelined again with a knee injury and underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair damaged cartilage on March 3 , 2009 . Missing 11 games , he returned in time for the 2009 playoffs , where the Flames were eliminated by the Chicago Blackhawks in the opening round . He finished his only season in Calgary with 44 points in 66 regular season games , while adding a goal and an assist in six playoff contests .
= = = Return to Detroit ( 2009 – 2014 ) = = =
On August 18 , 2009 , Bertuzzi re @-@ joined the Red Wings by accepting a one @-@ year contract with the club worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million . He recorded 44 points ( 18 goals and 26 assists ) in 2009 – 10 , ranking fifth in team scoring . During the second round of the 2010 playoffs , Bertuzzi recorded a career @-@ high five @-@ point contest ( a goal and four assists ) in a Game 4 victory against the San Jose Sharks . Bertuzzi finished with a playoffs career @-@ high 11 points in 12 games .
In the off @-@ season , Bertuzzi signed a two @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 875 million contract extension with the Red Wings on June 16 , 2010 . During the 2010 – 11 season , he appeared in his 1,000th NHL game on February 20 , 2011 , against the Minnesota Wild . Bertuzzi scored a shootout goal to help Detroit win the game 2 – 1 . Dressing for 81 games that season , he ranked seventh in team scoring with 45 points ( 16 goals and 29 assists ) . During the 2011 playoffs , he added 6 points ( 2 goals and 4 assists ) over 11 games as the Red Wings were eliminated in the second round by the San Jose Sharks .
During his time with Detroit , he has earned praise from head coach Mike Babcock and his teammates for adapting his playing style to be more defensively responsible . Bertuzzi credited the influence of teammates Pavel Datsyuk and Henrik Zetterberg , both successful two @-@ way players in the league .
= = = Binghamton Senators Tryout and Retirement ( 2015 ) = = =
On January 9 , 2015 he signed a professional tryout contract with the Ottawa Senators AHL affiliate the Binghamton Senators in hopes to get a contract with Ottawa . Bertuzzi was released from his professional tryout offer with Binghamton on January 21 , 2015 , after posting no points and a minus @-@ 3 rating in his 2 games played with the Senators . He subsequently retired that year .
= = International play = =
Bertuzzi debuted internationally for Team Canada at the 1998 World Championships in Switzerland . He was among the youngest players selected to the team , along with Canucks teammate Bryan McCabe and Chicago Blackhawks forward Eric Dazé , who were all born in 1975 ( third @-@ string goaltender Christian Bronsard was two years younger , but did not play in any games ) . In six games , he recorded three points , as Canada failed to qualify for the medal rounds .
Two years later , Bertuzzi competed at the 2000 World Championships in St. Petersburg , Russia . One of five Canucks players chosen to the national team , he was joined by Adrian Aucoin , Ed Jovanovski , Brendan Morrison and Peter Schaefer . His second tournament appearance was more productive , as he scored nine points in nine games – first among Canadian players and fourth overall – while also leading the tournament in penalty minutes with 47 . Canada did not medal , losing to Finland in the semifinal by a 2 – 1 score . His 63 total penalty minutes from both tournament appearances set an all @-@ time Canadian record for World Championship competitors since 1977 ( when Canada resumed competing in the tournament ) .
In December 2005 , Bertuzzi was controversially selected to play for Team Canada at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy . His inclusion , along with that of Dany Heatley and Shane Doan , was discussed at length by the Canadian Olympic Committee ( COC ) . The committee had concerns stemming from the Steve Moore incident and Bertuzzi 's probationary status , but subsequently approved his representation of Canada at the Olympics . According to a Canadian Press article , " [ COC president ] Chambers said the [ unusual meeting ] was prompted by some media concerns raised over the three athletes participating in the Games . The fact it took the committee so long to approve the list means there was some debate . "
Bertuzzi went on to post three points ( all assists ) at the 2006 Olympics , tying for second in team scoring with nine other players . Canada failed to advance past the quarterfinal , losing to Russia by a 2 – 0 score . They finished in seventh place overall after winning gold at the previous Winter Olympics in 2002 .
= = Steve Moore incident = =
On February 16 , 2004 , during a game between Vancouver and Colorado , Avalanche center Steve Moore checked Markus Näslund in the head , causing a minor concussion and a bone chip in his elbow . Näslund missed three games as a result of the hit . In a rematch , Bertuzzi began following Moore around the ice , attempting to provoke him into another fight . With Moore ignoring him , Bertuzzi grabbed Moore 's jersey from behind and punched him in the back of the head , with Moore 's face hitting the ice as they both fell down . Bertuzzi , as well as several other players from both teams , landed atop Moore as he fell to the ice . Bertuzzi was assessed a match penalty and ejected from the game . Per league rules , he was also suspended indefinitely pending a ruling from Bettman .
After lying on the ice for approximately 10 minutes , Moore was removed from the playing surface on a stretcher . He was treated for three fractured vertebrae in his neck , a grade three concussion , vertebral ligament damage , stretching of the brachial plexus nerves , and facial lacerations . He was also suffering from amnesia . Bertuzzi apologized to Moore and his family , as well as to Burke , Canucks owner John McCaw , Jr . , the Canucks organization , his teammates , and the fans in a press conference two days later .
On March 11 , 2004 , the league ruled he would remain suspended for at least the remainder of the Canucks ' season , which ultimately cost him the final 13 games of the regular season plus seven playoff games . The Canucks were additionally fined $ 250 @,@ 000 . While the following NHL season was suspended due to the 2004 – 05 lockout , Bertuzzi intended to play in Europe , but the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) extended his NHL suspension to cover their jurisdiction . Bertuzzi remained professionally inactive during the 2004 – 05 season . The IIHF 's sanction also kept him from representing Canada in the 2004 and 2005 World Championships , as well as the 2004 World Cup .
Bettman scheduled a reinstatement hearing for Bertuzzi on April 26 , 2005 . The hearing was attended separately by Bertuzzi and Moore . Prior to the 2005 – 06 season , Bettman announced Bertuzzi 's reinstatement on August 8 , citing that " Mr. Bertuzzi ha [ d ] paid a very significant price for his conduct , " adding that he felt Bertuzzi was " genuinely remorseful and apologetic . " Bertuzzi 's 17 @-@ month suspension caused him to miss a total of 20 games — the fourth @-@ longest suspension in NHL history at the time . The suspension accounted for $ 501 @,@ 926 @.@ 39 in forfeited salary , as well as an approximate $ 350 @,@ 000 in lost endorsements . On the day of his reinstatement , Team Canada 's executive director , Wayne Gretzky , offered him a spot on the national team 's summer orientation camp in preparation for the 2006 Winter Olympics .
= = = Legal actions = = =
After a four @-@ month investigation , the criminal justice branch of the Attorney General of British Columbia announced formal charges of assault causing bodily harm against Bertuzzi on June 24 , 2004 . With the charge , Bertuzzi faced up to one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years in prison . Bertuzzi pleaded guilty to the assault charge on December 22 after arranging a plea bargain with prosecutors . He was given a conditional discharge requiring 80 hours of community service and one year 's probation that additionally prohibited him from playing in any hockey game Moore was competing in . Under Canadian law , Bertuzzi 's successful completion of his probationary period precluded him from a criminal record . Moore expressed disappointment regarding Bertuzzi 's discharge and was upset that he was unable to attend the court date , having to issue a written victim statement instead . Moore 's lawyer , Tim Danson , was given one day 's notice of the court date following Bertuzzi 's plea bargain , which he said was insufficient time for Moore to travel to Vancouver .
On February 17 , 2005 , Moore filed a lawsuit in a Colorado court against Bertuzzi , numerous individuals within the Canucks organization , including Brad May ( Bertuzzi 's teammate at the time who was quoted as saying that there would " definitely be a price on Moore 's head " after Moore 's hit on Näslund ) , Brian Burke , Marc Crawford , as well as the Canucks organization as a whole and the Orca Bay Sports and Entertainment company that owned the team . The lawsuit was thrown out in October 2005 , as the Colorado judge ruled the case was better suited for Canadian courts , as Moore and all the defendants were Canadian citizens . Planning to appeal the decision , Danson stated publicly the following month that Moore had begun skating and doing regular workouts , but continued to suffer concussion @-@ related symptoms .
On February 16 , 2006 , Moore filed another lawsuit in the Ontario Superior Court against Bertuzzi , the Canucks , and Orca Bay , seeking CAD $ 15 million in pecuniary damages for loss of income , CAD $ 1 million for aggravated damages , and CAD $ 2 million for punitive damages . Moore 's parents , who were watching their son on television when the attack happened , also sued , seeking CAD $ 1 @.@ 5 million for " negligent infliction of nervous shock and mental distress " . In December 2006 , Bettman and top lieutenant Bill Daly facilitated a meeting between Moore 's representatives and the defendants in hopes of agreeing on an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement . An out @-@ of @-@ court settlement was reached in Moore 's lawsuit in October 2014 . Terms of the settlement are confidential .
= = Personal life = =
Bertuzzi was born and raised in Sudbury , Ontario . His father , Albert Bertuzzi , is an Italian @-@ Canadian who worked in the window @-@ washing business . When Bertuzzi was a teenager , Albert survived a near @-@ fatal car accident in which he was thrown from the vehicle through the windshield . His father has stated that he was proud of his own local reputation as a " dirty player " and referred to it as a " Bertuzzi trait " . He has said that Bertuzzi takes after him in regards to his toughness and aggression . Bertuzzi 's great @-@ uncle , Larry Bertuzzi , is a Toronto @-@ based lawyer who has done arbitration work for the NHL , including on the Eric Lindros trade .
Growing up , Bertuzzi played minor hockey with the Nickel Centre and Sudbury Minor Hockey programs . In 1990 – 91 , Bertuzzi played as an underaged player in the major midget ranks with the Sudbury Capitals AAA team . Physically built as a power forward throughout his youth , he stood 6 feet and 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 88 metres ) and weighed 195 pounds ( 88 @.@ 5 kilograms ) by age 15 .
Bertuzzi and his wife , Julie , were married in July 1996 . They have two children born one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years apart in Vancouver , a son named Tag and a daughter named Jaden . Bertuzzi is a recreational golfer and has credited the sport with allowing him to relax more as a hockey player . During his 10 @-@ game suspension from the NHL in October and November 2001 , he played golf to focus his energy . Afterwards , he made it a custom to go to the driving range before every game .
Bertuzzi 's nephew , Tyler Bertuzzi , who currently plays for the Grand Rapids Griffins of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , was drafted 58th overall by the Detroit Red Wings in the 2013 NHL Entry Draft .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = Records = =
Guelph Storm team record ; most goals , single season — 54 in 1994 – 95 ( surpassed Mike Prokopec , 52 goals in 1992 – 93 )
Vancouver Canucks team record ; longest point @-@ scoring streak — 15 games ( 7 goals , 12 assists ; January 3 – February 4 , 2003 ) ( tied with Petr Nedved ; November 19 – December 27 , 1992 )
Vancouver Canucks team record ; most powerplay goals , single season — 25 in 2002 – 03 ( tied with Pavel Bure )
= = Transactions = =
June 26 , 1993 : Drafted 23rd overall by the New York Islanders
July 6 , 1995 : Signed to a four @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 6 million contract with the New York Islanders
February 6 , 1998 : Traded to the Vancouver Canucks from the New York Islanders with Bryan McCabe and a 3rd round choice in 1998 ( Jarkko Ruutu ) for Trevor Linden
September 1999 : Re @-@ signed to a two @-@ year contract with the Vancouver Canucks
October 27 , 2003 : Signed a four @-@ year , $ 27 @.@ 9 million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks
March 11 , 2004 : Suspended indefinitely by the NHL for deliberate injury to Steve Moore in a game versus the Colorado Avalanche
August 8 , 2005 : Officially reinstated by the NHL
June 23 , 2006 : Traded to the Florida Panthers by the Vancouver Canucks with Bryan Allen and Alex Auld for Roberto Luongo , Lukas Krajicek and a sixth @-@ round draft choice in 2006 ( Sergei Shirokov )
February 27 , 2007 : Traded to the Detroit Red Wings by the Florida Panthers for prospect Shawn Matthias and conditional draft picks
July 2 , 2007 : Signed a two @-@ year , $ 8 million contract as an unrestricted free agent with the Anaheim Ducks
June 28 , 2008 : Placed on waivers by the Anaheim Ducks ; subsequently bought out
July 7 , 2008 : Signed a one @-@ year $ 1 @.@ 95 million contract as an unrestricted free agent with the Calgary Flames
August 18 , 2009 : Signed a one @-@ year $ 1 @.@ 5 million contract as an unrestricted free agent with the Detroit Red Wings
May 10 , 2010 : Signed a two @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 85 million contract extension with the Detroit Red Wings
= Christian interpretations of Virgil 's Eclogue 4 =
Eclogue 4 , also known as the Fourth Eclogue is the name of a Latin poem by the Roman poet Virgil . Part of his first major work , the Eclogues , the piece was written around 40 BC , during a time of temporary stability following the Treaty of Brundisium ; it was later published in and around the years 39 – 38 BC . The work describes the birth of a boy , a supposed savior , who once of age will become divine and eventually rule over the world . During late antiquity and the Middle Ages , a desire emerged to view Virgil as a virtuous pagan , and as such , early Christians , such as Roman Emperor Constantine , early Christian theologian Lactantius , and St. Augustine — to varying degrees — reinterpreted the poem to be about the birth of Jesus Christ .
This belief persisted into the Medieval era , with many scholars arguing that Virgil not only prophesied Christ prior to his birth but also that he was a pre @-@ Christian prophet . Dante Alighieri included Virgil as a main character in his Divine Comedy , and Michelangelo included the Cumaean Sibyl on the ceiling painting of the Sistine Chapel ( a reference to the widespread belief that the Sibyl herself prophesied the birth of Christ , and Virgil used her prophecies to craft his poem ) . Modern scholars , such as Robin Nisbet , tend to eschew this interpretation , arguing that seemingly Judeo @-@ Christian elements of the poem can be explained through means other than divine prophecy .
= = Background = =
The scholarly consensus is that Virgil began the hexameter Eclogues ( or Bucolics ) in 42 BC and it is thought that the collection was published around 39 – 38 BC , although this is controversial . The Eclogues ( from the Greek word for " selections " ) are a group of ten poems roughly modeled on the bucolic hexameter poetry ( " pastoral poetry " ) of the Hellenistic poet Theocritus . The fourth of these Eclogues can be dated to around 40 BC , during a time when the Roman Civil war seemed to be coming to an end . ‘ ’ Eclogue ’ ’ 4 largely concerns the birth of a child ( puer ) who will become divine and eventually rule over the world . Classicist H. J. Rose notes that the poem “ is in a sense Messianic , since it contains a prophecy ( whether meant seriously or not ) of the birth of a wonder @-@ child of more than mortal virtue and power , who shall restore the Golden Age . ”
By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries AD , Virgil had gained a reputation as a virtuous pagan , a term referring to pagans who were never evangelized and consequently during their lifetime had no opportunity to recognize Christ , but nevertheless led virtuous lives , so that it seemed objectionable to consider them damned . Eventually , some Christians sought to reconcile Virgil 's works with the supposed Christianity present in them . Consequently , during the Late Antiquity and beyond , many assumed that the puer referenced in the Fourth Eclogue was actually Jesus Christ .
= = History = =
= = = Early interpretations = = =
The first notable person to be fascinated with the supposed prophecy of the Fourth Eclogue and its potential references to Jesus was Constantine the Great , Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337 , and he used part of it in an address he gave to the " Assembly of the Saints " , which was preserved by the Roman historian Eusebius in his work Vita Constantini . Constantine interpreted the entire work himself although he omitted a few lines that overtly reference paganism , such as the last part of line 10 , which names Apollo . Constantine assigned the roles of the virgo in line 6 to the Blessed Virgin Mary , the puer in lines 8 , 18 , 60 , and 62 is Christ , the lions in line 22 to the persecutors of Christians , and the serpent in line 24 to the Serpent of Evil . Constantine argued that the Assyrian flower in line 25 represented the race of people , i.e. the Assyrians , who were " leader [ s ] in the faith of Christ " , and that references in line 30 meant that " those who had borne hardships for the sake of God would perceive that the fruit of their endurance was sweet . " The emperor also interpreted the reference to Achilles fighting against Troy in lines 34 @-@ 36 as a reference to Christ ( the " new " Achilles ) waging a war against the forces of evil ( the " new " Troy ) . Finally , Constantine proposed that the references to the Golden Age in lines 37 @-@ 59 do not refer the birth of a mortal child , but rather a being who " mortal parents have not smiled upon " : in other words , Jesus Christ , who , according to Christian scripture , " had no parents in the usual sense " .
Constantine 's primary religious advisor , Lactantius saw references to Jesus in the poem . In fact , he may have actually proposed the idea before Constantine , due to the confusion surrounding the publication date of his book , Divinae Institutiones ( The Divine Institutes ) — felt that the poem referred to " the coming of Christ at the millennium " , and he argued that Virgil penned the poem in accordance with prophecies made by the Cumaean Sibyl ( the priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Cumae ) concerning the birth of Christ . Likewise , St. Augustine believed Virgil was referencing Christ ; he assumed that the poet was writing poetically , since he was writing in the " shadowy " persona of an unnamed narrator , but he was also writing with veracity , since any traces of guilt " could be wiped away only by that Savior concerning whom the verse was written . " Echoing the sentiment of Lactantius , St. Augustine opined that the mention of Cumae in line 4 is a reference to the supposed Sibylline prophecy concerning Christ . Ultimately , St. Augustine felt that Virgil spoke non a se ipse ( " not from himself " ) , which is to say he prophesied the birth and coming of Christ , but did not understand what he himself was writing .
The opinion that Eclogue 4 was a reference to the coming of Jesus was not universally held by early members of the early Church , however . St. Jerome , an early Church writer noted for translating the Bible into Latin , specifically wrote that Virgil could not have been a Christian prophet without having accepted Christ , and claimed that anyone that had accepted that Virgil was a pre @-@ Christian prophet was being childish . Classicist Ella Bourne , however , noted that the mere fact that St. Jerome responded to the idea is a testament to the belief 's pervasiveness .
= = = Medieval interpretations = = =
In the early part of the sixth century , Latin grammarian Fulgentius made a passing reference to the supposed prophetic nature of the eclogue , noting : In quarta vaticinii artem adsumit ( " In the Fourth [ Eclogue ] , [ Virgil ] takes up the art of prophecy " ) . Yet after this , the historical and scholarly record is silent until the ninth century . According to legend , Donatus , the bishop of Fiesole , quoted the seventh line of the poem to his friars as part of a confession of his faith prior to his death . During the same century , Agnellus , the archbishop of Ravenna , referenced the poem , noting that it was evidence that the Holy Spirit had spoken through both Virgil and the Sybil . The monk Christian Druthmar also makes use of the seventh line in his commentary on Matthew 20 : 30 .
In the eleventh century , Virgil began appearing in plays , such as one particular Christmas work wherein the poet is the last " prophet " called on to give testimony concerning Christ . According to Bourne , the play was particularly popular , and philologist Du Cange gives mention of similar play performed at Rouen . Virgil and his purported prophecy even found itself in the Wakefield Mystery Plays . Around this time , Eclogue 4 and Virgil 's supposed prophetic nature had saturated the Christian world ; references to the poem are made by Abelard , the Bohemian historian Cosmos , and Pope Innocent III in a sermon . The Gesta Romanorum , a Latin collection of anecdotes and tales that was probably compiled about the end of the 13th century or the beginning of the 14th , confirms that the eclogue was pervasively associated with Christianity .
Virgil eventually became a fixture of Medieval ecclesiastic art , appearing in churches , chapels , and even cathedrals , oftentimes depicted holding a scroll with a select passage from the Fourth Eclogue on it . In a similar vein , Michelangelo included the Cumaean Sibyl on the ceiling painting of the Sistine Chapel . According to Paul Barolsky , the Sibyl 's presence " evokes her song in Virgil [ i.e. the Fourth Eclogue ] , prophesying spiritual renewal through the coming of Christ — the very theme of the ceiling . " Barolsky also points out that Michelangelo painted the Sibyl in close proximity to the prophet Isaiah ; thus , the painter drew a visual comparison between their purported prophecies .
This association between Virgil and Christianity reached a fever pitch in the fourteenth century , when the Divine Comedy was published ; the work , by Dante Alighieri , prominently features Virgil as the main character 's guide through Hell . Notably , in the second book Purgatorio , Dante and Virgil meet the poet Statius , who , having " read a hidden meaning in lines of Virgil 's own " , was allowed passage into Purgatory , and eventually Heaven . Bourne argued that this reference is proof enough that Dante , like those before him , believed Virgil to have been an unknowing Christian prophet . In the fifteenth century , a popular story concerning Secundian , Marcellian and Verian — who started out as persecutors of Christians during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius — emerged . The story claims that the trio were alarmed by the calm manner in which their Christian victims died , and so they turned to literature and chanced upon Eclogue 4 , which eventually caused their conversions .
= = = Later interpretations = = =
The French writer René Rapin ( 1621 – 1687 ) was impressed with the potential connection between Virgil and Christianity , and used the Fourth Eclogue as influence , basing many of his lines in his own Sixth Eclogue , concerning two shepherds meeting with a sibyl near the Jordan River , on Virgil 's work . One of the more overt modern references to the Fourth Eclogue , Virgil , and Christianity , appears in Alexander Pope 's 1712 poem , Messiah . Bourne wrote that the work " shows clearly that [ Pope ] believed that Virgil 's poem was based on a Sibylline prophecy " . Robert Lowth seems also to have held this opinion , noting , by way of Plato , that the poem contains references made " not by men in their sober senses , but [ by ] the God himself " . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Oxford scholar John Keble claimed : Taceo si quid divinius ac sanctius ( quod credo equidem ) adhaeret istis auguriis ( " I am silent about whether something more divine and sacred — which is what I , in fact , believe — clings to these prophecies " ) .
= = Modern views = =
Many modern scholars contend that the seemingly Christian nature of the poem is due to Virgil referencing Eastern oracles , which may have been influenced by Jewish texts and prophecies . For instance , Robin Nisbet , after carefully analyzing the work , ultimately concluded that Virgil probably appropriated some elements used in the poem from Jewish mythology by means of Eastern oracles , and later adapted them towards Western ( which is to say , Roman ) modes of thought .
= Tarja Turunen =
Tarja Soile Susanna Turunen @-@ Cabuli ( born August 17 , 1977 ) , generally known as Tarja Turunen or simply Tarja , is a Finnish singer @-@ songwriter . She is a full lyric soprano and has a vocal range of three octaves .
Turunen studied singing at Sibelius Academy and Hochschule für Musik Karlsruhe . She is well known as a professional classical lied singer but best known as the former lead vocalist of the Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish , which she founded with Tuomas Holopainen and Emppu Vuorinen in 1996 . Their combination of hard and fast guitar riffs with Turunen 's dramatic , " operatic " lead vocals quickly achieved critical and commercial popularity . Their symphonic metal style , soon dubbed " opera metal " , inspired many other metal bands and performers .
Turunen was dismissed from the band on October 21 , 2005 ( just after the performance of the band 's End of an Era concert ) for personal reasons . She started her solo career in 2006 with the release of a Christmas album called Henkäys ikuisuudesta . In 2007 , Turunen released My Winter Storm , an album featuring various styles including symphonic metal , and started the Storm World Tour . Turunen released her third album , What Lies Beneath , in 2010 . She performed several concerts in Europe , playing in metal festivals including the Graspop Metal Meeting and the Wacken Open Air , before starting the What Lies Beneath World Tour , which lasted until April 8 , 2012 . Her first live DVD Act I was filmed during this tour on March 30 and 31 , 2012 in Rosario , Argentina . Act I was released on August 24 , 2012 . Turunen started the Colours in the Dark World Tour on October 17 , 2013 to promote her new album Colours in the Dark . Her second live DVD was filmed during the events of Beauty and the Beat and was released on May 30 . On September 11 , 2015 , Tarja Turunen released her first classical studio album , Ave Maria – En Plein Air . On 5 August 2016 the album The Shadow Self is scheduled to be released , with a prequel album The Brightest Void scheduled for release on June 3 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1977 – 1995 : Early life = = =
Tarja Turunen was born in the small village of Puhos , near Kitee , Finland . She has an older brother , Timo , and a younger brother , Toni . Her mother Ritva Sisko Marjatta ( Hakkarainen ) worked in the town administration , and her father Teuvo Turunen is a carpenter . Her talent for music was first noted when she sang the song " Enkeli taivaan " ( the Finnish version of " From Heaven Above to Earth I Come " ) in the Kitee church hall at age three . She joined the church choir and started taking vocal lessons . At age six , she started playing piano .
At comprehensive school , Turunen performed as a singer for several projects . Her first piano teacher Kirsti Nortia @-@ Holopainen , " Tarja was in a school that had some very musical people . Even then she got to perform a lot . I think she sang in every school function there was . " Her music teacher , Plamen Dimov , later explained that , " If you gave Tarja just one note , she immediately got it . With the others , you 'd have to practice three , four , five times " . At school she had a tough time , since some girls bullied her because they envied her voice . To solve that problem , Dimov organized projects outside school . At fifteen , Turunen had her first major appearance as a soloist at a church concert in front of a thousand listeners . In 1993 she attended the Senior Secondary School of Art and Music in Savonlinna .
For several years Turunen performed various songs including soul music by Whitney Houston and Aretha Franklin . Later she listened to songs from the classical crossover singer Sarah Brightman , especially the song " The Phantom of the Opera " , and decided to focus on that genre of music . At eighteen , she moved to Kuopio to study at the Sibelius Academy .
= = = 1996 – 2005 : With Nightwish = = =
In December 1996 , former classmate Tuomas Holopainen invited Turunen to join his new acoustic mood music project , and she immediately agreed . At the recording session for the first demo Holopainen discovered that due to her classical singing lessons , Turunen 's voice had become much more powerful than he recalled from their school days . At the following band practices , Emppu Vuorinen used an electric guitar instead of an acoustic guitar because he felt that it gave a better accompaniment to her voice . Holopainen later explained that the band members had gradually realised that Turunen 's voice had become too dramatic for acoustic mood music and eventually came to the conclusion that the music had to be massive too . Hence Holopainen decided to form Nightwish as a metal band .
Nightwish recorded a second demo with " more bombastic , dramatic " songs in September 1997 . Holopainen used this material to convince the Finnish label Spinefarm Records to publish the band 's debut album , Angels Fall First . The success of the first album came as a surprise to the label . As the album hit the top 40 of the Finnish charts , Nightwish started their tour The First Tour of the Angels . That same year , Turunen performed at the Savonlinna Opera Festival for the first time , singing songs from Wagner and Verdi .
Due to her commitment to the band , Turunen was not able to concentrate sufficiently on her schoolwork and her academic studies were interrupted . In 1998 , Nightwish published their second album , Oceanborn . This album lacked the earlier elements of folk and ambient music , and instead focused on fast , melodic keyboard and guitar lines and Turunen 's dramatic voice . In addition to the Oceanborn Europe Tour ( 1999 ) , Turunen sang solo in Waltari 's rock @-@ themed ballet Evankeliumi ( also known as Evangelicum ) in several sold @-@ out performances at the Finnish National Opera . In 2000 and 2001 , Nightwish recorded Wishmaster and Over the Hills and Far Away and toured Europe and South America ( the Wishmaster World Tour ) . During the Wishmaster World Tour , Turunen met Argentine businessman Marcelo Cabuli whom she married in 2003 .
Turunen enrolled in 2000 at the German music university Hochschule für Musik Karlsruhe to gain a professional qualification as a soloist with further specialization in art song . In addition to the good reputation of the university , Turunen chose to go to Karlsruhe because some people at the Finnish university did not take her seriously as a classical singer due to her commitment in a metal band . While there , she recorded vocals for Nightwish 's 2002 album Century Child and for Beto Vázquez Infinity . As with the other albums , Holopainen wrote the pieces and sent Turunen the lyrics and a demo recording of the prerecorded instrumental tracks by mail . Using the demo , Turunen designed her vocal lines and the choral passages .
In 2002 , Turunen toured South America , performing in the classical Lied concert Noche Escandinava ( Scandinavian Night ) to sold @-@ out houses . Following this and an exhausting world tour in support of Century Child ( the World Tour of the Century ) , Nightwish took a hiatus and Turunen returned to Karlsruhe to finish her studies . After the hiatus Nightwish recorded the album Once ; it was released on May 10 , 2004 . The album has sold platinum in Finland and Germany and was the best selling album in all of Europe in July 2004 . The band performed in the supporting Once Upon a Tour throughout 2004 and 2005 .
For Christmas 2004 , Turunen released her first solo single , titled " Yhden enkelin unelma " ( One Angel 's Dream ) , which sold gold in her native country of Finland . At Christmas 2005 it made a reentry at position one in the Finnish Charts . In spring 2005 she prepared the duet " Leaving You for Me " , a collaboration with Martin Kesici , accompanied by a video .
= = = 2005 : Breakup = = =
The first change in the line up of Nightwish was in September 2001 , when bassist Sami Vänskä was fired because Holopainen was no longer able to continue working with him . In the following years the relationship between Holopainen and Turunen 's husband and manager Marcelo Cabuli deteriorated . This had an impact on the relationship between Holopainen and Turunen as well . At a band meeting after the concert in Oberhausen in December 2004 Turunen announced to the band members that she wanted to leave the band , but agreed to record one more album and to participate in the subsequent tour , planned for 2006 / 2007 . According to her husband , Turunen had further agreed not to make her decision public and to release her first solo album after the new studio album from Nightwish . After the last concert of the Once Upon a Tour on October 21 , 2005 ( which was released on video as End of an Era ) , Holopainen gave Turunen a letter signed by himself and the other band members informing her that the band did not want to work with her any more . The open letter was simultaneously published on the band 's website . The media closely covered her very public separation from Nightwish , and due to references in the letter to diva @-@ like behaviour and to greed , even Turunen 's character became the subject of media discussions .
To you , unfortunately , business , money , and things that have nothing to do with those emotions have become much more important .
Turunen responded through an open letter on her website and through some interviews in which she explained her view . She was upset that after nine years of working together , Holopainen had announced the separation via an open letter . Because of the continuing media interest , Marcelo Cabuli posted a message addressing the situation on the website in February 2006 . He asked that anyone who had questions should email him . In June 2006 , Cabuli posted a lengthy reply to many of the questions he had received . He answered questions related to the greed accusation by explaining that the band had agreed on the distribution of earnings in a contract at the formation of Nightwish . Based on that contract , every band member got a fixed share of 20 % of the band 's income . Marcelo Cabuli stated that , unlike others , Turunen had never fought for additional songwriter royalties .
For sure in her case , money is not coming first in her book of life . [ ... ] If we would check which band member earns a lot more money than any other one in the band , you should be surprised .
Despite the circumstances of the separation , Holopainen 's appreciation of Turunen as an artist remained . He explained that he did not search for a similarly trained singer as a successor for Turunen because he considers her to be extraordinarily good in her genre and therefore irreplaceable . Turunen said in an interview that she is very proud of her career with Nightwish . She considers the remaining band members extremely talented and wishes all the best for them and their subsequent lead singer Anette Olzon .
Between 1997 and 2005 she had toured the world with Nightwish , playing on all the continents except Africa and Antarctica . She performed live for more than 500 @,@ 000 people .
= = = 2005 – present : Independent career = = =
At the end of 2005 , Turunen performed several classical concerts in Finland , Germany , Spain , and Romania . Since she expected to participate in another Nightwish album , several concerts and the release of her Christmas album Henkäys ikuisuudesta ( officially translated as Breath from Heaven ) were the only activities scheduled for 2006 . Turunen again played at the Savonlinna Opera Festival in July 2006 , this time as the main act ; she sang alongside Finnish tenor Raimo Sirkiä , supported by the Kuopio Symphonic Orchestra . Turunen performed classical arias like " O mio babbino caro " by Puccini , " Libiamo ne ' lieti calici " by Verdi and some songs from Andrew Lloyd Webber — " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " and " Phantom of the Opera " — among other songs . In November she performed at the charity concert " Tomorrow 's Child " with the Tapiola Choir as a benefit for the UNICEF Children 's Fund . On December 6 , 2006 , Turunen performed a big concert at the Sibelius Hall in Lahti , Finland ; it was broadcast live by the Finnish channel YLE TV2 for 450 @,@ 000 viewers . She was nominated for the Finnish Emma Award as Best Soloist of 2006 . The following year , Turunen recorded vocals for the track " In the Picture " on the Nuclear Blast All @-@ stars album Into the Light .
In August 2006 she started to work on her next solo album , My Winter Storm , the beginning of her main solo project . It was the
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Queen of the Night in Mozart 's opera The Magic Flute . " Sleeping Sun " required a well @-@ trained breathing technique . Turunen explained in an interview that when they recorded Oceanborn , she had serious doubts , fearing that she was not yet advanced enough in her studies to have mastered the required techniques .
A challenge of a different kind was the cover version of Gary Moore 's " Over the Hills and Far Away " ( 2001 ) , as it required a deeper voice , far below the vocal range of an average soprano . In an interview with Breakout magazine , she reported that in the studio , the band members were shaken by a paroxysm of laughter as she tried to warm up for the vocal lines . As a side benefit of her efforts , Turunen gradually expanded her vocal range considerably into the lower range , which manifested even more on the following albums .
For the album Century Child ( 2002 ) , she experimented with a more " rock " sounding voice , where she maintained the classical singing technique , but , for example , sang with less vibrato . Turunen was not satisfied that she had successfully transitioned to this new style until the album Once ( 2004 ) .
I feel very comfortable with Once because I have tried to change my singing style with Nightwish already since Century Child because Tuomas requested that , the songs requested that ... It has been hard work and I didn 't manage to do that on Century Child , I was not very happy with it . On Once it 's all very natural , how I 'm singing and what I 'm singing . But as I said , it has been really hard work because I 've been a classical singer for the last ten years so it was hard to start over again and think of different styles . Of course I 'm always singing with my classical techniques , I never sing with my poor speaking voice – I cannot do that anymore .
This deeper " rock " -sounding voice on Once — as well as on the song " In the Picture " of the album Into the Light — was welcomed by critics as a refreshing change .
Her first solo album My Winter Storm ( 2007 ) contains rock and metal songs as well as songs that resemble classical songs . Turunen uses both her classical singing voice and a rock @-@ sounding voice . In many songs she starts with a rock voice , and then switches for widely arching melodies into a distinctly classical singing voice .
Tarja 's classically trained voice flies bravely over orchestral sounds and brute guitars . Like a phoenix from the ashes [ ... ] she lifts up again and again for widely arching melodies , sometimes spurred on by multi @-@ voiced female choirs .
In an interview , she explained that My Winter Storm was the first album where she had the chance to use her full vocal range .
Now that I can use the whole range of my voice , it feels very nice . I have never sung so low as I did on one of the songs on the new record and there 's a song on which I sang my highest notes ever ! I really have used a huge range on this album – around three octaves – because the moods are changing in every song and this reflects that .
In the album Colours in the Dark she used her speaking voice for the first time in many years .
= = = Register = = =
Turunen 's voice type is soprano . Over the course of her career , Turunen has developed a vocal range of three octaves .
Her range is apparent on her album My Winter Storm , where the lowest note sung is F3 in the song " The Seer " , while in another song , she aimed for D6 .
I sang a repertoire of a mezzo @-@ soprano for many years and because of that , still today , I have rarely quite low register for a lyrical soprano . Nowadays , I see myself as a light lyrical soprano .
= = Reception = =
Turunen 's voice is described by critics as remarkably powerful and emotional . Sometimes it is stated that her voice is too trained or operatic for metal music , but even critics who do not like classical voices admit that her voice suits the kind of metal songs she sings unusually well .
Until the end of their collaboration , Turunen 's singing was a trademark of Nightwish . She was known as the face and voice of Nightwish while bandleader Holopainen was the soul . Turunen was seen as a key to Nightwish 's success . She is respected by other musicians of the metal genre and is an influence on their work ; for instance , Simone Simons of Epica names her as her inspiration to study classical music and apply that vocal style to a metal band .
Turunen receives most of her media attention in Europe , especially in her home of Finland . In December 2003 , she was invited by Finnish president Tarja Halonen to celebrate the Finnish Independence Day at the Presidential Palace together with other Finnish celebrities . The event is televised annually live by the state @-@ owned broadcaster , the Finnish Broadcasting Company . In December 2007 , she performed different versions of the Finnish national anthem " Maamme " ( Finnish : " Our country " ) accompanied by the Tapiola Sinfonietta , to celebrate the 90th anniversary of Finnish independence . The concert was televised by the Finnish Broadcasting Company for 2 million Finnish viewers . On December 2013 , Turunen was the invited soloist at the Christmas Peace event in the Turku Cathedral , Finland , with the presence of Finnish president Sauli Niinistö . The concert aired on Yle TV1 at the Christmas Eve . During her solo career , Turunen has sold over 100 @,@ 000 certified records in Finland , which places her among the top 50 of best @-@ selling female soloists .
In Europe , her popularity is mainly limited to the hard rock and metal scene . She had a broader exposure on November 30 , 2007 , when she was invited to open the farewell fight of Regina Halmich . Her performance of " I Walk Alone " was televised live by the German television station ZDF for 8 @.@ 8 million viewers . Turunen will be one of the star coaches in the fourth season of The Voice of Finland in the spring of 2015 on Nelonen . After the success of the 2015 edition of The Voice of Finland , Tarja was again chosen to be one of the star coaches for the 2016 edition .
= = Personal life = =
In 2003 Turunen married Argentine businessman Marcelo Cabuli ; they live in Buenos Aires with their daughter Naomi Eerika Alexia Cabuli Turunen ( born 2012 ) . In an interview Tarja explained that in 2016 they had plans to move back to Europe due to her touring schedule and that their daughter was starting school in the coming year .
= = Discography = =
= = = Solo career = = =
= = = With Nightwish = = =
Angels Fall First ( 1997 )
Oceanborn ( 1998 )
Wishmaster ( 2000 )
Over the Hills and Far Away ( 2001 )
Century Child ( 2002 )
Once ( 2004 )
= Italian ironclad San Martino =
San Martino was a Regina Maria Pia @-@ class ironclad warship , the second member of her class . She was built for the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s ; like her three sister ships , she was built in France . San Martino was laid down in July 1862 , was launched in September 1863 , and was completed in November 1864 . The ships were broadside ironclads , mounting a battery of four 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) and twenty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns on the broadside .
San Martino saw action at the Battle of Lissa , fought during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . There she was in the center of the action , at the head of the Italian main body . Of the three ships in her division , San Martino was the only vessel to survive the battle . After the war , the ship 's career was uneventful , the result of the emergence of more modern ironclads and a severe reduction in the Italian naval budget following their defeat at Lissa . She was rebuilt as a central battery ship some time after Lissa , and was modernized again in the late 1880s . The ship was eventually broken up for scrap in 1903 .
= = Design = =
San Martino was 81 @.@ 2 meters ( 266 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 24 m ( 50 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 35 m ( 20 @.@ 8 ft ) . She had a crew of 480 – 485 officers and men . She was a broadside ironclad , and she was initially armed with a main battery of four 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns and twenty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns , though her armament changed throughout her career . The ship was protected by iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . The battery deck was protected by 4 @.@ 3 in ( 110 mm ) of iron plate .
San Martino displaced 4 @,@ 201 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 135 long tons ; 4 @,@ 631 short tons ) normally and up to 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 6 knots ( 23 @.@ 3 km / h ; 14 @.@ 5 mph ) from 2 @,@ 620 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 950 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was initially schooner @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine , though her masts were later reduced to a barque rig . Ultimately , she lost her sailing rig completely , having it replaced with a pair of military masts with fighting tops .
= = Service history = =
The keel for San Martino was laid down at the Société Nouvelle des Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne , France , on 22 July 1862 . She was launched on 21 September 1863 , and completed on 9 November 1864 . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 27 , in attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines . San Martino was one of the few ironclads fit for action , so she , Castelfidardo , Regina Maria Pia , and Principe di Carignano formed up to prepare to attack Tegetthoff 's ships . Persano held a council of war aboard Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . At that time , San Martino was assigned to the 2nd Division , under Persano , along with the ironclad Re d 'Italia and the coastal defense ship Palestro . After arriving off Lissa on the 18th , Persano sent most of his ships to bombard the town of Vis , but Persano was unable to effect the landing . The next morning , Persano ordered another attack ; four ironclads would force the harbor defenses at Vis while San Martino and the rest of the fleet would attempt to suppress the outer fortifications . This second attack also proved to be a failure , but Persano decided to make a third attempt the next day . San Martino and the bulk of the fleet would again try to disable the outer forts in preparation for the landing .
Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; the three ships of Admiral Giovanni Vacca 's 1st Division were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . San Martino was at the center of the Italian line . Shortly before the action began , Persano decided to leave his flagship and transfer to Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They there thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet .
Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , though he failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass . The Austrians then turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . San Martino initially engaged the unarmored ships of the Austrian 2nd Division , but as Re d 'Italia became embroiled in the ensuing melee , San Martino 's captain attempted to come to her aid , though the ship was unable to prevent the Austrian flagship , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , from ramming and sinking her . Tegetthoff immediately ordered his crew to lower boats to pick up the men in the water , but with San Martino fast approaching , he could not leave his ship a stationary target . He instead ordered the small aviso Kaiserin Elizabeth to pick up the Italian survivors , but she too came under fire and was forced to abandon the effort .
During the battle , San Martino collided with Regina Maria Pia and had her ram bow twisted , causing leaks in her hull . Shortly thereafter , Persano broke off the engagement to consolidate his forces , but his ships , low on coal and ammunition , and with badly demoralized crews , could not be rallied by Persano 's half @-@ hearted attempt to launch an attack . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; as night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . San Martino had been hit numerous times , and had her side armor penetrated by one shell , which did not succeed in penetrating the timber backing . Twice during the engagement , the ship was set on fire by Austrian shells , though her crew was able to put the fires out . After the battle , Vacca replaced Persano ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out .
= = = Later career = = =
For the rest of her long career , San Martino served in a variety of roles , both in the main fleet and in Italy 's colonial empire . After the war , the Italian government slashed the naval budget so significantly that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . Some time after 1866 , the ship was rebuilt as a central battery ship , with most of her guns located in a central , armored casemate . Two other guns were placed in the bow as chase guns , with a third mounted as a stern chaser . At this time , her armament was also revised , to two 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns in the bow and nine 8 in guns , four on each broadside and the last in the stern .
San Martino took part in the annual 1888 fleet maneuvers , along with the ironclads Lepanto , Italia , Caio Duilio , and Enrico Dandolo , one protected cruiser , four torpedo cruisers , and numerous smaller vessels . The maneuvers consisted of close @-@ order drills and a simulated attack on and defense of La Spezia . Between 1888 and 1890 , the ship had her barque rig replaced with military masts . By this time , she had been rearmed with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns in the casemate and several smaller guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . These included five 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns , four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannons . She also received three torpedo tubes . In 1894 , the ship was assigned to the Third Division of the Italian fleet , along with the newly commissioned protected cruiser Liguria and the torpedo cruiser Confienza . The ship was stricken from the naval register in 1903 and thereafter broken up for scrap .
= 1969 FA Cup Final =
The 1969 FA Cup Final was the final match of the 1968 – 69 staging of English football 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup , better known as the FA Cup . The match was contested between Leicester City and Manchester City at Wembley Stadium in London on Saturday 26 April 1969 . This was the first FA Cup final since 1951 to take place in the month of April . Three @-@ time winners Manchester City were appearing in their seventh final , whereas Leicester City were seeking to win the competition for the first time , having lost three previous finals .
Each team won six ties to reach the final , and overcame one of the 1968 finalists ( West Bromwich Albion and Everton ) at the semi @-@ final stage . As Manchester City were reigning league champions and Leicester City were battling to avoid relegation , the Manchester club were strong favourites . The match finished 1 – 0 to Manchester City . The goal came in the 24th minute , scored by Neil Young . The victory was Manchester City 's fourth FA Cup win .
= = Route to the final = =
As both Leicester City and Manchester City were First Division clubs , they entered the competition in the third round .
Leicester City started their cup run against Barnsley , but required a replay to overcome their Third Division opponents 2 – 1 . The first Leicester goal was controversial , as the referee overruled his linesman , who had flagged for a foul . Barnsley equalised with a penalty , but Leicester quickly retook the lead . Later in the second half Leicester claimed a third goal , but the referee adjudged that the ball had not crossed the line . A 1 – 0 win at Millwall followed .
In the fifth round , Leicester City faced Liverpool . The match was postponed six times before it eventually took place on 1 March . A 0 – 0 draw meant a replay at Anfield . Andy Lochhead gave the Foxes the lead on 34 minutes . Five minutes later McArthurs 's handball gave Liverpool a penalty , but Peter Shilton saved Tommy Smith 's spot @-@ kick . Liverpool attacked for much of the second half , but Leicester held out to win 1 – 0 . The quarter final saw a trip to Mansfield Town , who had knocked out clubs from five different divisions . On a pitch described by The Times ' Geoffrey Green as " resembling a glutinous swamp " , Leicester won 1 – 0 . The goal was a header by Rodney Fern from a Len Glover cross . The semi @-@ final , played at Hillsborough Stadium , was against cup @-@ holders West Bromwich Albion . In a game of few chances , Allan Clarke scored from an Andy Lochhead knockdown with four minutes remaining . Leicester City gained their fourth 1 – 0 win of the competition and reached the final .
Manchester City 's first tie was against Luton Town of the Third Division , which City won 1 – 0 , Francis Lee the scorer . In the fourth round , the club were drawn away to Newcastle United , one of only two top @-@ flight clubs with an away draw . The match finished 0 – 0 , and so was replayed at Maine Road . Manchester City won 2 – 0 , but had to play much of the match with 10 men after Mike Summerbee was sent off . Like Leicester 's fifth round tie , Manchester City 's match at Blackburn Rovers ' Ewood Park was delayed multiple times due to poor weather . When it was eventually played Manchester City were comfortable 4 – 1 winners . In the sixth round , Manchester City were drawn at home to Tottenham Hotspur . The match was closely contested ; in his autobiography , City 's Mike Doyle described it as the hardest match of the whole cup run . As in the third round , City won 1 – 0 thanks to a Francis Lee goal .
The semi @-@ final , against Everton , was played at Villa Park . Everton were renowned for their powerful midfield of Ball , Harvey and Kendall , but opted to play more defensively than usual . Manchester City nevertheless paid special attention to this area , and instructed David Connor to man @-@ mark Ball . Mike Doyle suffered an injury in the first half , and spent 20 minutes off the field . City had the better of the game , but goalscoring chances were missed by Lee and Young . With little time remaining , Young forced a corner . Young took the corner himself , from which teenager Tommy Booth scored the game 's only goal .
= = Build @-@ up = =
Manchester City were appearing in the final for the seventh time . They had won the cup three times previously ( in 1904 , 1934 and 1956 ) , and had been beaten in the final three times ( in 1926 , 1933 and 1955 ) . Leicester City were making their fourth cup final appearance , and their third of the decade , having lost on all three previous occasions ( in 1949 , 1961 and 1963 ) . The clubs had met in the FA Cup in each of the preceding three seasons . In 1966 Manchester City won a fifth round tie 1 – 0 after a replay , and won again in the third round in 1967 . In the 1967 – 68 season Leicester finally prevailed . After a 0 – 0 draw at Maine Road , Leicester City came back from 2 – 0 down at Filbert Street to win 4 – 3 .
Manchester City manager Joe Mercer named his team for the final several days in advance . Glyn Pardoe missed training on Monday 21st with a leg injury , but after the fitness of Pardoe , Tony Coleman and Alan Oakes was tested in a practice match , all three were passed fit . Leicester City named a 14 @-@ man squad before travelling to a training camp in Bisham on the Tuesday . Manchester City travelled south on the Thursday , staying in Weybridge . Leicester had fitness doubts over Dave Gibson , Len Glover and John Sjoberg , but initially expected all three to be available for the final . However , in a practice match against Brentford , Sjoberg had to leave the field with a groin injury . His place in the team was taken by Alan Woollett .
Each club received 16 @,@ 000 tickets for the final from the Football Association . The match was televised live by the BBC and ITV . Both broadcasters devoted several hours to match build @-@ up , incorporating FA Cup @-@ themed versions of other programmes , such as Cup Final It 's a Knockout .
As the previous season 's league champions , Manchester City were strong favourites , particularly as Leicester were embroiled in a struggle to avoid relegation from the First Division . The Times correspondent anticipated that the condition of the pitch would influence the match , stating that " if — as it is said — it is in a good , lush state Manchester will be happy . If , on the other hand , it proves to be heavy , then it could suit Leicester the better . " On the day before the game Joe Mercer criticised the pitch , likening it to a cabbage patch .
= = Match = =
At 21 , Leicester 's David Nish became the youngest ever captain of a cup finalist . His opposite number Tony Book became the third oldest at 35 . Book had missed a large part of season through injury , but upon returning his impact was so great that he shared the award for the 1969 FWA Footballer of the Year .
As the teams prepared to leave their dressing rooms , Manchester City deliberately delayed their exit by a short period to play on any nerves the Leicester City players may have had . Manchester City coach Malcolm Allison was not permitted to take his place on the bench , as he was serving a touchline ban . Instead , he had to sit in the stand behind the dugout . Before kick @-@ off , the players were introduced to the guest of honour , Princess Anne .
Fears that the contest would be a mismatch proved to be unfounded , with Leicester playing in a more attacking manner than anticipated . The Observer 's Hugh McIvanney wrote that " Suggestions that Leicester would attempt to minimise the discrepancy in talents by a concentration on defensive spoiling were exposed as unjust ... ... offering the deceptively languid dribbles of Clarke , the thoughtful passes of Roberts and Gibson and the thrustful running of Lochhead as proof that the skills were not all on one side " . Neil Young and Tony Coleman both had early scoring chances for Manchester City , but missed the target . For Leicester City , a dribbling run by Clarke ended in a shot that was saved by Dowd , and a mishit shot by Len Glover was cleared off the goal @-@ line by a defender . Manchester City scored midway through the first half . Mike Summerbee crossed the ball from wide on the right , and Young hit a left footed shot high into Peter Shilton 's net . Few further chances occurred in the first half .
Just after half @-@ time , Leicester City had their strongest scoring chance , when Andy Lochhead received a headed knockdown from Allan Clarke , but Lochhead 's shot went high above the goal . A dominant period by Manchester City then followed , which included a chance for Colin Bell from a free @-@ kick . Len Glover was forced to move into defence with his team under pressure , but was injured shortly afterward and had to be substituted . Defender Malcolm Manley came on in his place .
A poll of journalists named Allan Clarke as man of the match .
= = = Summary = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The Manchester City team returned to Manchester the following evening . They travelled by train to Wilmslow , from where they undertook a 13 @-@ mile parade in an open @-@ topped bus . 25 @,@ 000 people lined the route , with a further 3 @,@ 000 people in Albert Square , where the parade finished . Three days later , the team paraded the cup in front of their supporters before their match against West Ham United at Maine Road .
The good conduct of the supporters of both teams was praised in Parliament by MPs Barnett Janner and Tom Boardman .
Manchester City 's cup was their fourth . In winning the trophy , Joe Mercer became the first person to win the league championship and FA Cup as both a captain and a manager . By winning the competition , Manchester City earned the right to compete in the 1969 – 70 European Cup Winners ' Cup . City went on to win the Cup Winners ' Cup , beating Górnik Zabrze 2 – 1 in the final . Leicester City continued to struggle in their remaining league matches and were relegated to the Second Division . Leicester became only the second club to reach a cup final and suffer relegation in the same season . By coincidence , the other club to have done so was Manchester City , who were subject to the same fate in 1926 .
= Battle of the Raz de Sein =
The Battle of the Raz de Sein was a naval engagement of the blockade of Brest during the French Revolutionary Wars between a French and Royal Navy ships of the line on 21 April 1798 . The British blockade fleet under Admiral Lord Bridport had sailed from St Helens on 12 April and on the morning of 21 April was crossing the Iroise Passage when sails were spotted to the east . Three ships were detached in pursuit , led by the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Mars under Captain Alexander Hood . As the British ships approached their quarry a third sail was sighted to the southeast close to the coastline and moving north towards Brest .
This ship was the 74 @-@ gun Hercule under Captain Louis L 'Héritier , newly commissioned at Lorient and sailing to Brest to join the main French fleet and the British squadron immediately changed direction to intercept the new target . Facing overwhelming odds L 'Héritier attempted to escape through the narrow Raz de Sein passage , but found the tide against him and so anchored at the mouth of the passage to await the British attack . At 21 : 15 Mars reached Hercule , coming under heavy fire as Hood manoeuvred into position , bringing his ship crashing alongside the French vessel . For more than an hour the ships fired directly into one another , so close that their guns could not be run out but had to be fired from inside the ships . Damage and casualties were severe on both sides , the latter including Hood who was mortally wounded at the height of the engagement .
Ultimately Hercule was forced to surrender after attempts to board Mars failed . Both ships were battered and burnt , with the French suffering at least 290 casualties and the British 90 . Hercule was conveyed to Britain in the aftermath and later repaired and served in the Royal Navy until 1810 . Both L 'Héritier and the deceased Hood were highly praised for their conduct during the battle , which is noted as being a very rare example during this period of an action between two ships of approximately equal strength without any external influence .
= = Background = =
During the French Revolutionary Wars the Royal Navy had exerted dominance at sea over its continental rivals , most immediately the French Navy with its principal fleet based at Brest on the Breton coast of the Bay of Biscay . To contain this fleet the British practiced a close blockade strategy ; maintaining a fleet off Brest whenever weather conditions permitted to prevent the French fleet from breaking out into the Atlantic Ocean . This blockade force also limited French trade and maritime communications , attacking merchant ships and individual warships seeking to resupply or reinforce the main French fleet . This made French maritime journeys extremely hazardous even in inshore waters : in June 1795 the main French fleet had suffered a defeat at the hands of the blockade force at the Battle of Groix in the approaches to the port of Lorient , while at the Action of 13 January 1797 the independently sailing 74 @-@ gun ship of the line Droits de l 'Homme was driven ashore and destroyed in the approaches to Brest by two frigates of the blockade squadron .
On 12 April 1798 the British blockade fleet under the command of Admiral Lord Bridport sailed from its winter anchorage at St Helens on the Isle of Wight for the Breton coast . Bridport mustered ten ships of the line to maintain the watch on Brest , although detachments of the fleet had been cruising in the region since 25 January and with notice he could call on 28 ships of the line . The French fleet had suffered a series of setbacks in the early years of the war : in addition to the losses at Groix , seven ships had been lost at the Glorious First of June in 1795 and more were wrecked during the failed Croisière du Grand Hiver operation of 1795 and the Expédition d 'Irlande in 1796 . To replenish these losses , the French Navy was building new ships at its major fleet bases and in April 1798 a ship had been commissioned at Lorient : the Hercule , a 74 @-@ gun ship of 1 @,@ 876 tons burthen launched in July 1797 and commanded by the experienced Captain Louis L 'Héritier , veteran of the Glorious First of June , and with a crew of 680 , 20 short of a full complement .
= = Pursuit = =
On 20 April L 'Héritier was ordered to take Hercule on her maiden voyage , the short journey northwest along the coast to join the main fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Morard de Galles at Brest , where the crew would be augmented to reach the full complement . On board were surplus naval supplies , including a full set of rigging for a ship of the line , from the destroyed ship Quatorze Juillet which had caught fire at Lorient earlier in the month . L 'Héritier 's crew were inexperienced and the captain did not intend to seek action , remaining close to the coastline during the first day of the journey . As his ship crossed Audierne Bay between Point Penmarc 'h and the Pointe du Raz however sails were sighted to the northwest .
These sails belonged to three ships of Bridport 's fleet . At 11 : 00 on 21 April the British fleet had been cruising in the Iroise Passage when two sails were sighted approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) to the east . Bridport ordered his three most easterly ships to detach and investigate the sails : the 74 @-@ gun ships of the line HMS Mars under Captain Alexander Hood , HMS Ramillies under Captain Henry Inman and the 38 @-@ gun frigate HMS Jason under Captain Charles Stirling . The strong winds favoured the large ships of the line as they pursued the strange sails , which were identified as French , until at 14 : 00 they were pulling abreast of them when a third sail was sighted about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) to the southeast , sailing close to the shore .
This new sail was much larger than the others sighted earlier in the day , and the detached squadron abandoned their former pursuit and turned towards the new arrival , Hercule . By 17 : 45 , L 'Héritier was in full flight with the British force strung out behind him , the rest of Bridport 's fleet far to the west . Jason had the lead with Mars shortly behind , although Inman on Ramillies had lost his fore topmast and had dropped back . Hood , an experienced officer and a nephew of both Bridport and the veteran Admiral Lord Hood , pressed his ship forwards and gradually gained on both Jason and Hercule . L 'Héritier knew that in open water he would be caught and overwhelmed , and sought instead to escape through the narrow and dangerous channel of the Raz de Sein , a rocky passage between the Île de Sein and the Pointe du Raz : during the Expédition d 'Irlande the French ship of the line Séduisant had been wrecked in the Raz de Sein with 680 lives .
As Hercule approached the channel , Hood put Mars on the starboard tack , overtaking Jason and bearing down on the French ship . At 20 : 30 , L 'Héritier recognised that the current was too strong for Hercule to successfully navigate the Raz de Sein and instead anchored at the mouth of the channel with a spring on his cable , a system of attaching the bow anchor that increased stability and allowed L 'Héritier to swing his broadside to face the enemy while stationary , roughly 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) southwest of Pointe de Raz and about 21 nautical miles ( 39 km ) from his destination at Brest .
= = Battle = =
At 20 : 45 , with Jason far behind in the darkness , Mars hauled up and Hood attempted to manoeuvre into an effective position from which to attack the waiting Hercule . The vagaries of the current in the Raz de Sein passage prevented Hood from handling his ship effectively however and instead he resolved on bringing Mars directly alongside and fighting broadside to broadside . At 21 : 15 Mars was in range and L 'Héritier opened fire , Hood replying immediately . For ten minutes , the masts and rigging of Mars came under fire , with damage to the bowsprit and foremast , as Hood continued to attempt to hold his firing position against the current before pulling slightly ahead of Hercule at 21 : 25 and dropping anchor . The port bow anchor became entangled with the starboard anchor on Hercule and the British ship was swung violently into the French ship , the force of the collision unhinging four of the gunports on Mars .
Thus locked together , both captains ordered their ships to pour fire into the other . So closely aligned were they that many cannon on both ships could not be run out , and instead had to be fired from inside the ships . The heat from this sustained bombardment was so intense that the wood began to blacken and burn as heavy roundshot smashed gaping holes in the sides of each ship : during the combat the ragged holes torn in the side of Hercule were so extensive that the planking between the gunports was torn away , leaving wide scars along the ship 's sides . Casualties were heavy on both sides : 20 minutes after the action began a musket ball struck Hood in the thigh , severing his femoral artery . Fatally wounded and bleeding profusely , Hood was carried below and command passed to Lieutenant William Butterfield . The French casualties were significantly higher than the British , a result of the much higher rate of fire achieved by Hood 's well @-@ trained crew .
Aware that his ship was suffering the worst of the casualties , L 'Héritier ordered his men to attempt to board the British ship of the line , but first one and then another attempt to do so was driven back with heavy casualties . The lighting of Hercule had gone out at the beginning of the engagement , leaving her crew confused , and as a result , only around 40 men answered when L 'Héritier ordered the boarding ; he was himself injured twice , to the head by a sabre and to the thigh by a pike , while leading the assault . At 10 : 30 , after an hour of continual bombardment L 'Héritier surrendered : Hercule 's hull had been torn open , five guns were dismounted with others damaged and more than two fifths of the crew killed or wounded . Jason was approaching fast and the rest of Bridport 's fleet was close enough to see the muzzle flashes from the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
L 'Héritier submitted his sword to Butterfield in surrender and it was presented to the dying Hood , who accepted it before expiring . At 22 : 50 Jason arrived and Stirling took charge of removing prisoners from Hercule and began the long process of extricating the two battered ships of the line from the dangerous Raz de Sein channel . Losses on the French ship were not accurately recorded in the aftermath of the action , but some accounts suggested they were as high as 400 although a more realistic estimate of 290 casualties was made by the surviving French officers . British losses amounted to three officers and 19 men killed , eight men missing ( believed to have drowned after falling overboard resisting L 'Héritier 's boarding attempts ) and another 60 wounded . The weather was fortunately calm , as neither Mars nor Hercule were in a condition to survive a storm , and with great care Hercule was brought into Plymouth on 27 April and repairs were begun with the intention of restoring the ship to active service condition . The cost of these repairs totaled £ 12 @,@ 500 ( the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 186 @,@ 700 as of 2016 ) , but HMS Hercule was ultimately commissioned into the Royal Navy and served until 1810 .
Historian Robert Gardiner has noted that this " classic fight " was unusual in being fought between two single ships of the line of equal force and size without an external influence , and Edward Pelham Brenton wrote in 1823 that " The meeting of two ships of the line is a circumstance of rare occurrence , and its decision in our favour a brilliant ornament to our naval history " : he could only identify three other such incidents in British naval history . Examination of the relative size and strength of the combatants shows that they were well @-@ matched : the respective broadside weights were 984 lbs on Mars to 985 lbs on Hercule ; Hercules at 1 @,@ 876 tons burthen measured only 34 tons more than Mars , and Hercule 's understrength crew of 680 was still 46 more than on board Mars and the British crew had also been active during the Spithead Mutiny in 1797 , during which Hood had been temporarily deposed as captain . Both were relatively new ships , Hercule only 24 hours at sea while Mars was the nameship of the 1794 Mars class built at the start of the French Revolutionary Wars . In summary , historian William James indicates that the greater experience of Hood 's crew and the nearby presence of other British ships gave Mars a slight advantage , but that " the action of the Mars and Hercule was one that , in the conduct of it throughout , reflected about an equal share of credit upon both the contending parties . "
Although some British histories reported that L 'Héritier died of his wounds in the aftermath of the action , this was not the case ; on his return to France following exchange , L 'Héritier faced a court martial for the loss of his ship and was honorably acquitted and received a letter of praising his resistance from Minister of Marine Rear @-@ Admiral Étienne Eustache Bruix . In Britain , Butterfield was promoted to commander , and Hood was posthumously commended , Bridport writing in his official dispatch that " No Praise of mine can add one Ray of Brilliancy to the distinguished Valour of Captain Alexander Hood " . His body was returned to England and buried near his home in Butleigh , Somerset under a monument provided by his family .
= Bill Oakley =
Bill Oakley ( born February 27 , 1966 ) is an American television writer and producer , known for his work on the animated comedy series The Simpsons . Oakley and Josh Weinstein became best friends and writing partners at high school ; Oakley then attended Harvard University and was Vice President of the Harvard Lampoon . He worked on several short @-@ term media projects , including writing for the variety show Sunday Best , but was then unemployed for a long period .
Oakley and Weinstein eventually penned a spec script for Seinfeld , after which they wrote " Marge Gets a Job " , an episode of The Simpsons . Subsequently , the two were hired to write for the show on a permanent basis in 1992 . After they wrote episodes such as " $ pringfield ( Or , How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling ) " , " Bart vs. Australia " and " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " , the two were appointed executive producers and showrunners for the seventh and eighth seasons of the show . They attempted to include several emotional episodes focusing on the Simpson family , as well as several high @-@ concept episodes such as " Homer 's Enemy " , " Two Bad Neighbors " and " The Principal and the Pauper " , winning three Primetime Emmy Awards for their work .
After they left The Simpsons , Oakley and Weinstein created Mission Hill . The show was plagued by promotional issues and was swiftly canceled . They worked as consulting producers on Futurama , then created The Mullets in 2003 . The two wrote several unsuccessful TV pilots , and were due to serve as showrunners on Sit Down , Shut Up in 2009 . Oakley left the project over a contract dispute . He has since written for The Cleveland Show and Portlandia , without Weinstein . He also served as co @-@ executive producer and writer on Portlandia , sharing a Writers Guild of America Award with his fellow writers in 2013 . Oakley is married to fellow writer Rachel Pulido .
= = Early life = =
Oakley was born William Lloyd Oakley in Westminster , Maryland and raised on a farm in Union Bridge , Maryland . He was a fan of Mad magazine from an early age , which helped shape his comic sensibility . He attended St. Albans High School in Washington D.C. , where he met and became best friends with Josh Weinstein in the eighth grade . The two created the school humor magazine The Alban Antic in 1983 . Such would be the length of their partnership ; the two often finish each other 's sentences . Oakley later attended Harvard University , where he wrote for and served as Vice President of the Harvard Lampoon , working on the famous 1986 USA Today parody issue . He graduated in 1988 after studying American history .
= = Career = =
Oakley did not land a job on a major comedy series , as previous Harvard graduates who wrote for the Lampoon had done , despite writing numerous spec scripts for shows such as Saturday Night Live and Late Night with David Letterman ; he moved back home . There , he worked in publicity , doing promotion for America 's Most Wanted . In their free time , Oakley and Weinstein wrote for local comedy groups , such as Gross National Product . In 1989 , they moved to New York City after being hired to write for a game show on Ha ! , before writing for a variety show on the network featuring Denis Leary . The two also wrote for the National Lampoon and Spy . An editor of Spy was hired by NBC to run the variety show Sunday Best , and took Oakley and Weinstein to Los Angeles with him in 1991 . When the show was canceled after three episodes , they were unemployed for a lengthy period , and Oakley lived on unemployment benefits . He later considered applying to join the United States Foreign Service .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
= = = = As a writer = = = =
After changing their agent , they wrote a spec script for Seinfeld , which was well received . Amongst those who liked it were Al Jean and Mike Reiss , showrunners of The Simpsons . There were no openings on the staff at the time , but Oakley and Weinstein were hired to write the episode " Marge Gets a Job " , based on an idea by Conan O 'Brien . The episode aired as part of season four . Their Seinfeld script and The Simpsons episode caught the attention of Diane English , and they were offered a job on a sitcom . Before they accepted this job , they were told that Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky were leaving The Simpsons , and then joined the writing staff on a permanent basis in 1992 , in the third season of that show . They began as story editors . They were initially quiet and felt " intimidated " , being in the same room as " 10 of the greatest minds in comedy " , but eventually started pitching jokes with confidence . They wrote their scripts together , working side @-@ by @-@ side at a computer . Their first episode as staff writers was " Marge in Chains " , an existing idea that they were assigned . The first draft of the script was based on research about women in prison conducted by Oakley and Weinstein , making it " slightly more realistic " than the final version of the episode , in which many realistic elements were replaced .
After season four , most of the original staff left the show . Before David Mirkin arrived to take over as showrunner for season five , Oakley , Weinstein , O 'Brien and Dan McGrath were the only writers working on the show and spent a month mapping out most of the season 's episodes . Oakley and Weinstein wrote several episodes for season five , penning the " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " segment of " Treehouse of Horror IV " , " $ pringfield ( Or , How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling ) " , " Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy " , the show 's 100th episode " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " and " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " . For season six they wrote " Sideshow Bob Roberts " , basing much of the episode on the Watergate scandal , in which they had a great interest . They also wrote " Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy " , and " Bart vs. Australia " . The writing staff wanted to do an episode in which the Simpsons family traveled to a foreign country ; they selected Australia because they thought that everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and " would get the jokes " , with the episode being intentionally inaccurate . The episode proved somewhat controversial ; some Australian fans said the episode was a mockery of their country . Shortly after it had aired , the Simpsons staff received over a hundred letters from Australians who were insulted by the episode . The pair wrote the two @-@ part episode " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " , which was initially proposed by series creator Matt Groening . While deciding who the culprit was , Oakley and Weinstein pitched Barney Gumble because he was a character that could go to jail and it could change the dynamic of the show . Mirkin suggested Maggie because he felt it was funnier and wanted the culprit to be a family member . Oakley and Weinstein were initially unsure about having Maggie as the culprit , and it was decided that the episode would end with Maggie shifting her eyes and making it look like it was not a complete accident .
= = = = As showrunner = = = =
Oakley and Weinstein were appointed executive producers and showrunners of the seventh and eighth seasons . They were chosen partly because they had been with the show since the third season and understood many of its dynamics . The showrunner is responsible for overseeing all aspects of the show 's production . Each episode takes ten months to produce , so the showrunner must " oversee many different episodes in different stages of production all at the same time " , with roles including head writer , making notes on the storyboards and working with the voice actors , animators , editors and composers . Oakley and Weinstein often set two script @-@ rewriting rooms in motion at the same time , delegating leadership in the rooms to writers such as Steve Tompkins and David Cohen . Mirkin , who had suggested that the two take over , remained on the show in an advisory capacity , helping Oakley and Weinstein with technical aspects of the show such as editing and sound mixing . When they took over the series , they wanted many of the episodes to be realistic ones that focused more on the five members of the Simpson family and explored their feelings and emotions towards each other . They wanted to produce Treehouse of Horror episodes , episodes about Sideshow Bob , Itchy & Scratchy and several " format @-@ bending " episodes such as " 22 Short Films About Springfield " , for which Oakley wrote the Principal Skinner and Superintendent Chalmers scene , the latter being his favorite character . They aimed for " at least two episodes per season that ' pushed the envelope ' , [ and ] expanded the definition of what an episode could be . " This was a style they employed for both seasons they produced . Season eight featured several episodes in which focus was given to secondary characters and in which new issues were explored , such as divorce . Their preferred choice of guest stars were those with unique and interesting voices , and several of their guest stars were " old grizzled men with distinctive voices " such as R. Lee Ermey , Donald Sutherland , Kirk Douglas and Lawrence Tierney . Oakley considered season three to be the single greatest comedic season of television ever produced and so attempted to recreate the feel of that season for the two he ran , focusing on stories with real emotions and situations , as well as some off @-@ the @-@ wall episodes . Season three was their basis for Homer : " We liked Homer the way he was in the second and third seasons . That was what we consciously used as our model . Dimwitted , loving , hyper @-@ enthusiastic , creatively goofy , parody of the American father – drawn with real emotions , though admittedly amplified . This was exemplified in " Mother Simpson " , " Lisa the Iconoclast " , " Diddly @-@ Dum @-@ Doodly " , and a couple others . In some of the less reality @-@ based episodes , i.e. the Beer Baron one – usually Swartzwelder 's , we 'd treat this stricture with a certain amount of latitude . "
One of their most notable episodes was " Homer 's Enemy " , an episode designed to " push the envelope conceptually . " The idea for " Homer 's Enemy " was first conceived by Oakley , who thought that Homer should have an enemy . This evolved into the concept of a " real world " co @-@ worker who would either love or hate Homer . The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results . The result was the character of Frank Grimes , a man who has had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it and is dismayed and embittered by Homer 's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance . " Homer 's Enemy " explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment . In the episode , Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit ; in some scenes , his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted . By the close of the episode , Grimes , a hard working and persevering " real American hero , " is relegated to the role of antagonist ; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious . Oakley says the episode was " hyper @-@ meta " and focused on " parodying to some degree the Homer we don 't like . That 's one of the things that episode is supposed to illustrate – ' Homer gone wrong ' . Although , I would argue that in ' Homer 's Enemy ' he 's not even really even all that excessively stupid or immature , actually . " Weinstein said : " We wanted to do an episode where the thinking was ' What if a real life , normal person had to enter Homer 's universe and deal with him ? ' I know this episode is controversial and divisive , but I just love it . It really feels like what would happen if a real , somewhat humorless human had to deal with Homer . There was some talk [ on NoHomers.net ] about the ending — we just did that because ( a ) it ’ s really funny and shocking , ( 2 ) we like the lesson of ' sometimes , you just can 't win ' — the whole Frank Grimes episode is a study in frustration and hence Homer has the last laugh and ( 3 ) we wanted to show that in real life , being Homer Simpson could be really dangerous and life threatening , as Frank Grimes sadly learned . " When the episode was first broadcast , many fans felt it was too dark , unfunny and that Homer was portrayed as overly bad @-@ mannered . On the DVD commentary , Weinstein considers this episode one of the most controversial of the seasons he ran , as it involves sharp observational humor which many fans " didn 't get . " Weinstein talks about a " generation gap " — the episode was originally panned by viewers , but has since become a favorite among fans who grew up with the show .
Other episodes included " Two Bad Neighbors " , which sees Homer meet former President George H. W. Bush , a reference to the show 's feud with the Bushes in the early 1990s . Weinstein said that the episode is often misunderstood . Many audiences expected a political satire , while the writers made special effort to keep the parody apolitical . Oakley stresses that " it 's not a political attack , it 's a personal attack ! " , and instead of criticizing Bush for his policies , the episode pokes fun at his " crotchetiness " . Oakley described the episode as a companion piece to " Homer 's Enemy " , in that a character is juxtaposed alongside Homer and does not get along with him .
Oakley considered working on the show to be similar to working in a bubble due to the lack of interference from the Fox network 's executives , as is commonplace on other shows . This allowed them to produce any episodes they wanted , as Weinstein commented : " The great thing about The Simpsons is that we pretty much were able to get away with everything , so there weren 't any episodes we really wanted to do that we couldn 't do . Even the crazy high @-@ concept ones like ' Two Bad Neighbors ' and ' Homer 's Enemy ' we managed to put on the air because honestly there were no network execs there to stop us . " Such was the network 's limited input that , when an executive suggested the staff introduce a new character to live with the Simpsons so as to " liven up the show " , the staff rejected the idea and instead created the episode " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " , inserting the one @-@ time character Roy , with no explanation as to who he was , or why he was living with the family , as a reference to the executive 's proposal . The episode , which marked the point at which The Simpsons surpassed The Flintstones for the number of episodes produced for an animated series , was named by the BBC as one of the ten most memorable episodes of the show . They noted " the writers used the opportunity to pay tribute to the art of animation and rail against network interference in their show . " The intrusion of the network censors was limited : the normal procedure is for an episode 's script to be sent to the censor and then faxed back with a list of lines and words that should be substituted , causing limited problems , as often the offending lines are removed or changed for comedic purposes after animation . The episode " Homer 's Phobia " drew the censor 's objections . Its script came back with two pages of notes about almost every single line . The censors stated that they did not like the use of the word " gay " , or the discussion of homosexuality at all , and closed with a paragraph which stated that " the topic and substance of this episode are unacceptable for broadcast " . The censor problems ultimately came to nothing ; when the episode came back from animation in South Korea , the then @-@ Fox president had just been fired and replaced , with the censors being replaced as well . The new censors sent back merely one line : " acceptable for broadcast " .
= = = = Leaving the show = = = =
Oakley and Weinstein stood down as showrunners after season eight because they " didn 't want to break [ the show ] . " Oakley said : " We always said we 'd never do a joke that we 'd done before . " They felt the showrunner should not stay for more than two seasons . Due to the pressures of having to work on two seasons at once ( writing season eight , while doing post @-@ production of season seven ) , Oakley said that at least two episodes from season eight would ideally have been rewritten , had there been sufficient time , and that towards the end , they were " treading water " . As they were working on post @-@ production of season eight , they were credited as consulting producers for season nine , which was in its initial writing stages . Oakley stated that they contributed " somewhere between 0 and .0001 % " of the season , only attending the table readings of the scripts .
They produced three episodes held over from season eight , which aired as part of season nine : " The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson " , " The Principal and the Pauper " and " Lisa the Simpson " . " The Principal and the Pauper " was negatively received due the sudden revelation that long @-@ time character Seymour Skinner was actually an imposter . For example , in his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes " The Principal and the Pauper " as the " broadcast that marked [ the ] abrupt plunge " from The Simpsons ' " Golden Age " , which he says began in the middle of the show 's third season . He calls the episode " [ one of ] the weakest episodes in Simpsons history " . As such , Oakley considers it the most controversial episode from his tenure as executive producer . He and Weinstein advise viewers to treat " The Principal and the Pauper " as an " experiment " . They surmise that the negative reception was partly due to the fact that it was not immediately apparent to viewers that this was such an episode ( as opposed to , for example , " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " ) . They describe the ending of the episode as an attempt to reset the continuity and allow fans to consider the episode on its own . " Lisa the Simpson " was their final involvement with the show . The duo wanted to end on a good note — Weinstein stated that the episode " was meant to embody the humor , depth , and emotions of The Simpsons , " — and they were pleased with the result .
= = = = Awards and critical reaction = = = =
Oakley won three Emmys for his work on The Simpsons , and shared them with the other producers . When Oakley was the showrunner and executive producer , " Homer 's Phobia " won the Emmy for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) in 1997 . The previous year , " Treehouse of Horror VI " was submitted for the award . The staff felt the 3D animation sequence " Homer ³ " would have given it the edge . The episode eventually lost to Pinky and the Brain . Oakley later expressed regret about not submitting an episode with a more emotionally driven plot , such as " Mother Simpson " . In 1996 , during season seven , the show received a Peabody Award . Oakley shared the awards for " Lisa 's Wedding " and " Trash of the Titans " in 1995 and 1998 respectively . Oakley and Weinstein themselves were nominated , along with the show 's composer Alf Clausen , for the Emmy for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics for writing " Señor Burns " from " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? ( Part Two ) " .
Many of the episodes by Oakley and Weinstein are considered amongst the show 's best . For example , in 2003 , Entertainment Weekly included six episodes they produced ( " Homer 's Phobia " , " A Fish Called Selma " , " The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson " , " 22 Short Films About Springfield " , " The Simpsons Spin @-@ Off Showcase " and " The Itchy and Scratchy and Poochie Show " ) and one episode they wrote ( " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " ) as part of their list of the show 's 25 best episodes . Robert Canning of IGN said the episode " You Only Move Twice " from season eight " may well be the greatest Simpsons episode of all time . In my book , it 's at least tied , " with " Marge vs. the Monorail " . A. O. Scott described their era as " reach [ ing ] a pinnacle of zany self @-@ reference with " 22 Short Films About Springfield " and " Simpsons Spin @-@ off Showcase " . " The two are popular amongst the show 's fans , and in the early days of the Internet , Oakley read and participated in fan discussion of the show on newsgroups such as alt.tv.simpsons. In 2005 and 2006 , they participated in two question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions on the fan message board NoHomers.net.
= = = Mission Hill and other work = = =
After Oakley and Weinstein left The Simpsons , they created Mission Hill in 1997 , a show about a hip , lazy , 24 @-@ year @-@ old cartoonist named Andy French , and sold it to The WB for a fall 1999 debut . They pitched the show in 1998 " as an animated series for young adults with a sophisticated , ' Simpsons ' -style sensibility . " They aimed to make the show about realistic issues affecting young adults , which were too mature for The Simpsons . The network was impressed and initially ordered 13 episodes ; they ordered five more once the first was completed . Oakley explained : " The audience we 're going for is one that 's sophisticated , that likes high and low humor , that 's very savvy in animation . [ But ] this show is definitely a case where a lot of people don 't get it . It 's not setup , setup , setup , punch line . It 's observational humor . It 's jokes told in a weird way , in the background or with a bizarre sound effect . " The show was plagued by " public relations " difficulties , which meant it was " tarnished " from the start . A badly edited two @-@ minute promotional video for the show , sent to advertisers in April 1999 for the annual upfronts , was poorly received . Oakley and Weinstein had been informed that the upfronts did not matter . Similarly , because no episodes were finished in time , journalists were not able to see anything of the show at the network 's schedule presentation in July . Subsequently , as Weinstein commented to the Washington Post , " for seven months , the only impression people had of the show was based on a two @-@ minute tape that looked terrible . Six major publications panned it before they even saw it . " The pilot garnered largely negative reviews from publications such as The Deseret News ; and earned a positive write @-@ up in Variety . Furthermore , the show was forced to change from its originally planned title of The Downtowners due to its closeness to an MTV show . All of these factors combined to ensure the show received little attention , and the WB ran only a few commercials for it . Weinstein stated : " I don 't know exactly why America doesn 't know about this show . It 's like Teen People came out with its fall preview , and we 're not even in it . " Mission Hill came at a time when the TV schedules were already saturated with animated shows ; some of the response could be chalked up to its genre .
The show was put out on a Friday , a night on which the WB had never broadcast before , at 8 : 00 pm , a time Oakley felt was inappropriate , and aired in front of The Wayans Bros. , The Jamie Foxx Show and The Steve Harvey Show , all shows with which Oakley felt it was " incompatible " . The show 's poor reviews and ratings of an average of 1 @.@ 8 million led to its swift cancellation . Oakley concluded that the pair had been " very naive " with regard to producing the show , and that it " would 've been better on cable anyway because it would never have appealed to a broad enough audience due to the subject matter . " The 13 completed episodes were later aired on Cartoon Network 's adult swim block and the show garnered a worldwide cult following . After lobbying from Oakley and Weinstein , the WB eventually released the series on DVD .
From 2001 to 2002 , the two served as consulting producers on Futurama . They worked for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half days a week , contributing jokes and helping with stories . They worked most substantially on the episodes " That 's Lobstertainment ! " and " Roswell That Ends Well " . They produced The Mullets for UPN in 2003 . Oakley and Weinstein have written and produced several television pilots . These include a CBS dramedy entitled 22 Birthdays , Business Class , a comedy for NBC about two traveling salesmen , The Funkhousers , an off @-@ the @-@ wall comedy for ABC about a close @-@ knit family which was directed by Frank Oz and The Ruling Class for Fox , about a high school class who all got along , regardless of their social group . They have written two feature film screenplays : The Optimist for New Line Cinema , in which Seann William Scott was slated to star as a man born with no unhappiness gene , and Ruprecht , a Santa Claus @-@ related comedy for Disney .
Along with Weinstein , Oakley was to serve as an executive producer on the Fox television series Sit Down , Shut Up in 2009 . Oakley ended his involvement with the show due to a contract dispute between the staff and Sony Pictures . Sony refused to offer a contract which operated under the complete terms of the Writers Guild of America . Weinstein continued working on the show . His two subsequent projects have been without Weinstein . In late 2009 , NBC commissioned a pilot for Oakley 's sitcom about " the youngest judge in a circuit courthouse . " He wrote the 2010 episode of The Cleveland Show " Gone with the Wind " . Amongst other projects , Oakley planned a live @-@ action show where the characters are all robots , which would be made by the same people who produce the children 's show Yo Gabba Gabba ! . Oakley began writing for the sketch comedy show Portlandia in its second season . He became a co @-@ executive producer from the show 's third season , co @-@ writing every episode with Fred Armisen , Carrie Brownstein and Jonathan Krisel . He and his fellow writers shared the Writers Guild of America Award for Outstanding Achievement in Writing Comedy / Variety ( Including Talk ) – Series in 2013 . Oakley and Weinstein will again team up to co @-@ write and co @-@ executive produce 22 Birthdays , the failed pilot they originally produced for CBS , as a pilot for Bravo . Doug Liman and Dave Bartis will also be co @-@ executive producers . It is set to air in 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Oakley and his wife Rachel J. Pulido have two daughters Mary and bouncey little Elizabeth ( Bitsy ) , and a son named James . He and his family live in Portland , Oregon .
Pulido ( born January 26 , 1967 ) graduated from Harvard , where she was a writer for the Harvard Lampoon . She wrote for The Simpsons and Mission Hill and was the only Hispanic staff writer in the twenty @-@ year history of The Simpsons . She has said that she thinks of herself as Mexican . Pulido wrote the episode " Grade School Confidential " , and the Bumblebee Man segment of " 22 Short Films About Springfield " .
= = Credits = =
Episodes listed are those Oakley has been credited as writing or co @-@ writing
Sunday Best ( 1991 ) – writer
The Simpsons ( 199
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icity Huffman ) tries to conceal her cancer from her friends and children . The episode also introduces Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) , Susan 's old friend who returns to the neighborhood after being away for 12 years .
" Now You Know " drew over 19 million viewers , becoming the fourth most watched program of the week across all networks . Nevertheless , it was the least watched Desperate Housewives season premiere at the time . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who agreed that the episode showed significant improvement over the show 's third season . Critics also praised the addition of Delany to the cast . ABC and the show 's producers received viewer backlash due to an alleged slur against Filipino doctors included in the episode .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Desperate Housewives focuses on the residents living in the suburban neighborhood of Wisteria Lane . In previous episodes , Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) sends her pregnant teenage daughter , Danielle ( Joy Lauren ) , to a convent and fakes her own pregnancy . Bree plans to raise Danielle 's child as her own . Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) is diagnosed with Hodgkin 's lymphoma . Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) and Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) marry while Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) breaks up with Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) , leading her to seemingly hang herself . Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) marries Mayor Victor Lang ( John Slattery ) ; however , after overhearing him confess that he only married her to secure the Latino vote for his potential candidacy in the election for governor , she seeks comfort with Carlos , her ex @-@ husband .
= = = Episode = = =
Edie 's suicide attempt is revealed to be a ploy to manipulate Carlos into staying in their relationship ; however , when Carlos does not show up in time to rescue her , she almost dies . He brings her to the hospital and is forced to call off plans to run away with Gabrielle .
One month later , former Wisteria Lane resident Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) moves back to the neighborhood after twelve years of absence with her husband , Adam ( Nathan Fillion ) , and teenage daughter , Dylan ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) . Katherine had known Susan before moving away under mysterious circumstances . Susan 's daughter , Julie ( Andrea Bowen ) , is puzzled to learn that Dylan has no recollection of their childhood friendship or of her life on Wisteria Lane . Later , in a cryptic conversation , Adam asks Katherine if they made a mistake in moving back , and Katherine reminds him that they did not have a choice .
Lynette and her husband , Tom ( Doug Savant ) , have been keeping her cancer a secret from their children and friends . She wears a wig to hide her baldness from the chemotherapy . Muriel ( Julia Campbell ) , an uptight PTA mother , nags Lynette to organize a school event , forcing Lynette to reveal her illness to everyone . After recovering from her suicide attempt , Edie discovers that Carlos has $ 10 million in an offshore bank account . She promises he can trust her with the secret , just as she can trust him not to break her heart . Meanwhile , Victor confronts Gabrielle about her unwillingness to sell her house and commit to their marriage . Dissatisfied with their relationships , Carlos and Gabrielle reignite an affair .
Bree and her husband , Orson ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , find it increasingly difficult to stage her fake pregnancy . Their hoax is almost revealed at a neighborhood barbecue when a fork stabs her pregnancy stomach pads . Orson suggests coming clean to avoid the humiliation if their lies were to be discovered , but Bree tells him that this child is her second chance at successfully raising a child . Meanwhile , Susan worries that Mike is dissatisfied with their marriage , especially after Adam , her new gynecologist , reveals that she may be entering menopause . However , Adam later informs Susan that his earlier assessment was a mistake and that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
" Now You Know " was written by series creator Marc Cherry and directed by Larry Shaw . The episode featured the debut of Dana Delany as Katherine Mayfair , a former Wisteria Lane resident who moves back to the neighborhood . Cherry describes the character as " a woman who was clearly different in the past ... an alpha female who goes up against all @-@ out women , especially Bree . " Cherry developed Katherine with the intention of making her " a character everyone loves to hate , " citing J. R. Ewing ( Larry Hagman ) from Dallas and Amanda Woodward ( Heather Locklear ) from Melrose Place as inspirations . Cherry ensured that character would have " a comedic point of view , " unlike the Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) character from the series ' second season , stating : " In the second season we went to the mystery that was just kind of dark and stopped the action . [ This time ] we 're using humor , drama , pathos , everything [ the Mayfairs ] have to offer . "
Delany auditioned for the role of Bree for the series ' pilot episode in 2004 . Cherry offered her the role three times , but she rejected it , and Marcia Cross was hired soon after . Delany turned down the role because she believed the Bree character was too similar to her character on Pasadena . Cherry acknowledged that while Delany captured the slyness he had originally intended for the character , Cross ultimately became the better choice : " Marcia , who will be the first to tell you , ' I 'm not funny , I never get the joke , ' her Bree was kind of oblivious to her own Breeness . Interestingly enough , when we went forward with the show , it became a much funnier character than I envisioned . " While developing the Katherine character , Cherry immediately offered the role to Delany . " That 's unusual in Hollywood , " Delany commented . " Usually when you say ' no , ' they hold it against you for the rest of your career . I 've experienced that . "
Cherry offered Nathan Fillion the role of Katherine 's second husband , Adam . Fillion was asked to choose what type of doctor his character would be . He recalled , " I said I 'd be a gynecologist so I could interact with all the women . " Known mostly for his work in the sci @-@ fi genre , Fillion considered his role on Desperate Housewives a return to his roots , as he had acted on the soap opera One Life to Live earlier in his career . Tuc Watkins auditioned for the role and was cast as Bob Hunter on the series a few weeks later . Lyndsy Fonseca joined the cast as Katherine 's daughter , Dylan . Fonseca stated that her character 's mother keeps Dylan " on a rigorous schedule and a short leash . Almost like a dog . "
The episode continued Lynette 's cancer storyline , which Cherry intended to be both emotional and comical . He notes , " we established from very early on that she 's suffering from non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , so we never once let the audience think she 's going to die . It 's more about examining how your friends and family react to you when you 're sick . " " We don 't want to do some ridiculous she @-@ might @-@ die thing . That 's not our point in dealing with the disease . It was mostly to see what being sick does to you and the people around you . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards = = =
Marcia Cross submitted this episode for consideration of her work for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards . She was placed in the Top 10 , but did not garner a nomination .
= = = Viewership and ratings = = =
According to ABC , " Now You Know " was watched by 19 @.@ 32 million viewers . It held a 12 @.@ 2 rating / 18 share , the night 's best rating across all networks , and placed as the fourth most @-@ watched program of the week , behind CSI on CBS , and Dancing with the Stars and Grey 's Anatomy on ABC . " Now You Know " was the least @-@ watched season premiere of Desperate Housewives at the time , drawing about five million fewer viewers than the third season premiere a year earlier , a 23 percent decrease in viewership . According to The New York Times , viewership was down due to an increase in DVR usage .
= = = Critical = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack praised the Bree storyline , calling its scenes the best of the episode . He was critical of the Lynette storyline and highlighted its implausibility , calling it " a cop @-@ out and just an excuse for drama . " However , he appreciated the scene in which Lynette reveals her cancer to her friends . Stack enjoyed the addition of the Mayfair family , stating that although he was not a fan of Delany 's acting , " seems perfect for this role and looks to be a choice adversary for Bree . " He also praised the set @-@ up for their mystery storyline . Stack was critical of the Edie character , opining : " She used to be funny and sexy , but now she 's just a big loon . " He dismissed Susan 's storyline as " lame " and deemed the character " obnoxious . " He also noted the significant absence of the Gabrielle character . Robert Bianco of USA Today declared that the show was " back in fine form . " He called the episode amusing , opining that the episode " launched a plethora of promising stories while introducing welcome new residents Dana Delany and Nathan Fillion . " TV Guide 's Matt Roush enjoyed the episode , complimenting the addition of the new cast members . Regarding the Katherine character , he wrote , " while she 's obviously harboring a dark secret , at least there 's no one trapped in the basement , " referencing the Betty Applewhite storyline from the second season . He identified the Susan and Mike storyline as problematic , as " She 's so annoying , and he 's so boring . " Roush also noted that Felicity Huffman was " making the most of her cancer storyline . "
= = = Filipino controversy = = =
Following the episode 's broadcast , the show 's producers and ABC were criticized for including an alleged racial slur in the episode . In the scene in which the Susan character is informed she may be entering menopause , she replies : " OK , before we go any further , can I check these diplomas ? Just to make sure they aren 't , like , from some med school in the Philippines ? " Viewers called ABC to complain and an online petition had gathered 30 @,@ 000 signatures by October 3 , 2007 , three days after the episode 's original broadcast . Several politicians and medical professionals of Filipino descent , including Health Secretary Francisco Duque III on Manila , condemned ABC for airing the line . On October 4 , ABC announced that the episode had been removed from online platforms in order for the line to be removed ; the line was also removed from future broadcasts and DVD productions of the episode . Nevertheless , network boycotts and other forms of protest continued .
= Wadsworth Jarrell =
Wadsworth Aikens Jarrell is an African @-@ American painter , sculptor and printmaker . Born in Albany , Georgia , he moved to Chicago , Illinois , where he attended the Art Institute of Chicago . After graduation , he became heavily involved in the local art scene and through his early work he explored the working life of blacks in Chicago and found influence in the sights and sounds of jazz music . In the late 1960s he opened WJ Studio and Gallery , where he , along with his wife , Jae , hosted regional artists and musicians .
Mid @-@ 1960s Chicago saw a rise in racial violence leading to the examination of race relations and black empowerment by local artists . Jarrell became involved in the Organization of Black American Culture , a group that would serve as a launching pad for the era 's black art movement . In 1967 , OBAC artists created the Wall of Respect , a mural in Chicago that depicted African American heroes and is credited with triggering the political mural movement in Chicago and beyond . In 1969 , Jarrell co @-@ founded AFRICOBRA : African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists . AFRICOBRA would become internationally acclaimed for their politically themed art and use of " coolade colors " in their paintings .
Jarrell 's career took him to Africa in 1977 , where he found inspiration in the Senufo people of Ivory Coast , Mali and Burkina Faso . Upon return to the United States he moved to Georgia and taught at the University of Georgia . In Georgia , he began to use a bricklayer 's trowel on his canvases , creating a textured appearance within his already visually active paintings . The figures often seen in his paintings are abstract and inspired by the masks and sculptures of Nigeria . These Nigerian arts have also inspired Jarrell 's totem sculptures . Living and working in Cleveland , Jarrell continues to explore the contemporary African American experience through his paintings , sculptures , and prints . His work is found in the collections of the National Museum of African American History and Culture , High Museum of Art , The Studio Museum in Harlem and the University of Delaware .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Jarrell was born in Albany , Georgia , in 1929 to Solomon Marcus and Tabitha Jarrell . Named after the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , he was the youngest of six children . A year after Jarrell 's birth the family moved to a 28 @-@ acre farm near Athens , Georgia , where they grew vegetables and cotton . Jarrell 's father was a carpenter and furniture maker who had his own business , the S.M. Jarrell Furniture Store . All three Jarrell boys worked there , one of them learning to cane chairs . Their father 's artistic ability and mother 's skill as a quilt @-@ maker contributed to the entire family 's love for art . As a child , Jarrell first attended a one @-@ room schoolhouse where he was encouraged by his teacher , Jessie Lois Hall , to explore his artistic side . He then went to a private Baptist school starting in the seventh grade before transferring to Athens High in the tenth grade . In high school his talent for art was apparent as he started creating his own comic strip , cartoons for the school paper , and illustrations for sports events , finally taking up oil painting . As a young man interested in art during the late 1930s and early 1940s he learned about painting and illustration through magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and Collier 's . Unable to figure out the distinction between illustration and painting , Jarrell thought " artists eventually got rich - but it was illustrators making the large sums of money . "
Jarrell 's relationship with his mother became closer once his father and one of his brothers left to work at a shipyard during World War II . His father died of malaria while working there . While in high school , Jarrell helped his mother tend the farm , but did not like the work . After graduating from high school , he joined the Army , was stationed at Fort Polk , Louisiana and served briefly in Korea . At Fort Polk he became company artist and made extra money designing shirts and making paintings for fellow soldiers .
= = = Higher education and current life = = =
After military service , Jarrell moved to Chicago where his sister Nellie attended Northwestern University . It was in Chicago where Jarrell would have his first museum experiences . Growing in up Georgia , African Americans were not allowed to visit museums until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , therefore these early museum visits made a major impression on him . A year later he enrolled at the Art Institute of Chicago for advertising art and graphic design , where he attended night classes . His days were spent working at the International Paint company where he mixed paint . He also took classes at the Ray Vogue School for Commercial Arts . He began attending the Art Institute full @-@ time in 1954 . Jarrell eventually lost interest in commercial art and focused on classes about painting and drawing , gaining inspiration from instructor Laura McKinnon and her ideas about spatial relationship theory . In 1958 , he graduated with his original major ( s ) , retaining a strong desire to pursue the life of a fine artist . At this time he also met artist Jeff Donaldson , who became a friend who influenced his career . In 1959 , the year of his first marriage , he became an advertising photographer , taking photos of type and lettering styles . The couple would divorce shortly after the marriage .
In 1963 , Jarrell met Elaine Annette Johnson , known as Jae , who ran a clothing boutique , the woman who became his second wife on June 2 , 1967 . They spent their honeymoon in Nassau and on January 7 , 1968 , Wadsworth Jr. was born . During the pregnancy Jae closed her boutique and moved into Jarrell 's studio , running a mail order service instead . As the social and economic world of Chicago declined , gang violence threatened the family 's neighborhood . After their second child , Jennifer , was born the family decided to move to the New York area . In May 1971 , they made the move , first heading to Waterbury , Connecticut , then New Haven before spending three months in Boston . The family then moved to Washington , D.C. where Jarrell began teaching at Howard University in 1971 , recruited by Jeff Donaldson . At Howard he pursued his MFA , focusing on African culture , specifically the Senufo people . The couple would have another daughter , Roslyn Angela , in 1972 . S
Struggling to fit in at Howard , unable to make tenure , and with concerns about the increasing crime rates in Washington , in 1977 the family decided to move once again , this time to Athens , Georgia . Shortly after the move Jarrell became an assistant professor at the University of Georgia . He and his wife started a high @-@ end educational toy company that stemmed from their children 's love for similar toys when living in Washington , D.C .. They opened a small shop called Tadpole Toys and Hobby Center in Athens to great reception . However , as a result of poor sales in May 1982 they were forced to close it . Soon afterwards , Jarrell received tenure at the University . In 1988 , he retired from his position and from teaching as a whole in order to focus on his creative work . By 1994 all three children were grown ; the two daughters attended the Art Institute of Chicago , and Wadsworth Jr. became a seafarer . That year , Jae and daughter Jennifer moved to New York to find a place to live , settling in SoHo , where they were joined by Jarrell a few months later . Currently , Jarrell and Jae live and work in Cleveland , Ohio .
= = Artistic career = =
" Every year you are reminded of George Washington 's birthday ... my kids learn about this at school , but nothing is said about black heroes . If white Americans can engage in what I call repetitious advertising , then I feel justified in advertising for black Americans . " - Wadsworth Jarrell , 1978
= = = Chicago = = =
After graduation from the Art Institute , Jarrell lived off his wages from mixing paint and furthered his skills in his studio for a year . He started to submit his work to competitions , being accepted at the Chicago Show at the Navy Pier and the Union League Show . Jarrell produced artworks inspired by theories learned in school and scenes of everyday life in black Chicago . With an interest in horse racing , jazz clubs and bars , he often took a sketchpad on his explorations , eventually creating paintings like Neon Row ( 1958 ) , a street scene , Shamrock Inn ( 1962 ) , a bar scene , and The Jockeys # 1 ( 1962 ) , from a visit to a horse racing track . These themes would recur throughout his career . His early works display the " two @-@ dimensional illusionism " he learned in school : linear and geometric perspective with overlapping objects receding to a vanishing point on the horizon . Color is used to depict movement and stability , a contrast seen in Shamrock Inn and The Jockeys # 1 , however , Jarrell 's palette had evolved into brighter and bolder color combinations , at times contrasting in their final execution . The influence of post @-@ impressionism is evident in these earlier works , in line with art education trends at the time .
A notable turning point for his career came in 1963 when a watercolor ( similar to Jazz Giants # 1 ( 1962 ) ) was accepted for the Art Institute 's " 2nd Biennial Drawing , Watercolor and Print Exhibition . " The exhibit earned him prizes , media attention , and the opportunity to exhibit his work at other galleries throughout the Midwest . He moved to a large studio in the Hyde Park neighborhood and continued expanding on his work and focusing on musical and sport related themes . His pigment application became rapid , whether he was depicting a jazz musician or a jockey on his horse , allowing the image to express strong movement . Cockfight ( 1965 ) shows the evolution of Jarrell 's work : intense color bands , swirls , and at times a psychedelic appearance to the bird in focus , a style that became a mainstay in his work .
Influenced by his honeymoon in the Caribbean , Jarrell became interested in the effects of man @-@ made and natural sunlight on the environment . Experimentation with pigments , media , imagery and design allowed him to create artworks that fully expressed his intended messages . Referring to works such as Nassau ( 1968 ) and Sign of the Times ( 1966 ) , Jarrell commented : " The colors of the Bahamas influenced my use of color and my approach to my work . " With Sign of the Times he shows a street scene , his first attempt at a painting involving social interaction . In 1968 , Jarrell became art director at Sander Line Graphics , only to quit shortly thereafter to become self @-@ employed . Aside from creating his art he also started a successful mail @-@ order photo processing business . Soon after Jarrell and Jae decided to open a gallery space below their studio : WJ Studio and Gallery . While the studio and gallery flourished , Jarrell taught part @-@ time art classes at Wadsworth Elementary School and considered moving to New York , seeking refuge in the heart of the art world .
= = = = Wall of Respect = = = =
In 1964 Chicago experienced two major race riots . Triggered by Civil Rights struggles and angst , more riots followed in subsequent years and the Black Power movement came into fruition . Artists began to explore ways to express black pride , self @-@ determination and self @-@ reliance leading in 1966 to the Organization of Black American Culture ( OBAC ) . Artist Norman Parish asked Jarrell to attend a meeting for OBAC 's Artists ' Workshop . The meetings would consist of artists bringing their work to be critiqued and reflect on ideas of the black experience in art , leading to the concept behind Wall of Respect . The mural consisted of African American heroes and personalities , each artist deciding who should be depicted in their section . Sylvia Abernathy designed the layout , giving Jarrell a 12 × 14 foot space to share with photographer Bill Abernathy . Jarrell focused on a favorite theme , rhythm and blues , and featured portrayals of James Brown , B.B. King , Billie Holiday , Muddy Waters , Aretha Franklin and Dinah Washington . The Artists ' Workshop would sour towards the end of the project : there were controversies stemming from the painting in Norman Parish 's section , conflicts regarding copyrights being sold without permission , disagreements on law enforcement involvement , as well as deceit . Nevertheless the Wall was considered a success , triggering the creation of liberation themed murals in Chicago and beyond .
= = = = WJ Studio and Gallery = = = =
In 1968 , Jarrell and his wife opened WJ Studio and Gallery , below their home and studio . The space not only showcased the couple 's work and that of other artists but went on to display the talents of Chicago poets and musicians . Jarrell 's love for blues and jazz music made it easy for him to access the city 's talent and his involvement with OCAC provided him with contacts in the poetry world . Artists such as Muhal Richard Abrams , John Stubblefield , Henry Threadgill , Anthony Braxton and the Chicago Art Ensemble would perform at the space . The gallery also served as a gathering place for the likes of Jeff Donaldson , Barbara Jones @-@ Hogu , Gerald Williams and others , who would come to discuss concepts of a relevant black art aesthetic . The group struggled : Jarrell described the search as an attempt to find " a collective concept that would say ' black art ' at a glance . " Eventually , the group made a breakthrough while listing principles and ideas regarding the concept of black art ; the term " coolade colors " was contributed by a fabric designer . The term covered the bright fashion of stylish African American men of the time , which Jarrell described as " loud lime , pimp yellows , hot pinks , high @-@ key color clothing . " The final concept for their aesthetic search would be message oriented art , revolving around socially aware content . African design would be included and meaningfulness for black people would be a necessity . This group 's formation would be considered one of the best aligned and organized collectives in the Black Arts Movement . This group went on to form COBRA .
= = = = COBRA and the black aesthetic = = = =
Like many African American grass roots organizations , Jarrell 's gallery group struggled to carry the torch after the deaths of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Jarrell and his fellow Chicago artists took the path of non @-@ violence by way of their artistic talents and a sense of ownership through their contributions at WJ Studio and Gallery . With these ideals backing them and their new aesthetic philosophy , the group took on the name COBRA – Coalition of Black Revolutionary Artists . With the creation of COBRA , Jarrell completed his first work that conceptualized the concept behind the group , Black Family ( 1969 ) , which utilized the color scheme of the coolade colors such as light blue and orange contrasting with white areas , which heightened the bright colors ' intensity . This technique allowed Jarrell to create what he described as an " intuitive space , " drawing the viewer 's attention towards the family on the canvas : a caring mother , protective father and two relaxed children . With a father depicting strength and honesty , and what Robert Douglas describes as a " heroic quality , " to the painting , Jarrell expresses important aspects of the COBRA ideal . Writing also appears on the canvas , with the word " blackness " represented by the letter B. The group decided to go from focusing on themed exhibitions to encouraging artworks that " portray the general problems of black people or attempt to visualize some solutions to them . "
= = = = AFRICOBRA 's beginnings = = = =
" AFRICOBRA artists are visual griots of the African American community , an imagery that illuminates the beauty and glory of the Africans ' experience in the West . They present to us an iconography bestowed on them by the pressing and always exciting culture of the African American . " - Larry Neal
In 1969 , COBRA revised their philosophy and artistic concept to expand their concern for black liberation and civil rights on an international level . Inspired by the words of Malcolm X , " All black people , regardless of their land base , have the same problems , the control of their land and economics by Europeans or Euro @-@ Americans . " , they changed their name to AfriCOBRA : African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists . Jarrell 's work had evolved to bring the focus figure to the foreground of his paintings , as seen in Coolade Lester ( 1970 ) , a portrait of musician Lester Lashley . Letters make another appearance : D ( down ) , B ( black ) , F ( fine ) and Q ( question ) . The work is described as a " humanistic portrayal of the genius of Africans in the creation of jazz . " Other works by Jarrell at the time became politically and socially charged with the aesthetics put forth by AfriCOBRA . Homage to a Giant ( 1970 ) is Jarrell 's first tribute to Malcolm X. This work is used by Jarrell to speak for the black struggle against oppression and the death of student protestors fighting for that cause . Four images of Malcolm X are painted alongside those of Huey Newton , Jesse Jackson and Stokley Carmichael . " B " makes its usual appearance representing " blackness " and " badness " as well as a quote from Ossie Davis 's eulogy at Malcolm 's funeral . This piece , along with Coolade Lester , appeared in AFRI @-@ COBRA 's first exhibition in 1970 at the Studio Museum in Harlem : " AFRI @-@ COBRA I : Ten in Search of a Nation . " The response to the show was one of misunderstanding by many viewers , with the result that the concepts presented were interpreted as " protest art . "
" AFRICOBRA II " was held in 1971 at the Studio Museum in Harlem before it traveled to five other museums and galleries . Jarrell exhibited Revolutionary and Black Prince ( both 1971 ) at the show . These two portraits are described by art historian Robert Douglas as displaying " Jarrell 's masterful understanding of portraiture , rendered through a chiaroscuro technique employing a multitude of meticulously painted B 's in different sizes and coolade hues . " Revolutionary is a homage to Angela Davis . She wears a Revolutionary Suit that was designed by Jae Jarrell for the AFRICOBRA II exhibition . Prints were made of the work . However , in the original , the cartridge belt is attached to the canvas , an idea of Jae 's . The words " love " , " black " , " nation " , " time " , " rest " , " full of shit " , " revolution " , and " beautiful " burst out of her head on the canvas . The message " I have given my life in the struggle . If I have to lose my life , that is the way it will be , " travels down her chest and left arm . " B " , as usual , represents " blackness " " bad " and in this painting " beautiful " . The work epitomizes the goal by AFRICOBRA artists to use all space possible in their creations , described as " jam @-@ packed and jelly tight . " Revolutionary was reviewed by Nancy Tobin Willig as " a portrait of a young black woman screaming slogans – with a bandoleer loaded with real bullets slung over her shoulder . Jarrell 's painting is an overstatement . It is not art as the weapon . It is the weapon as art . " Black Prince is Jarrell 's second tribute to Malcolm X. " B " appears in the painting , as well as " P " ; " PRINCE " and " BLACK " which travel throughout Malcolm 's face and hand . The quote " I believe in anything necessary to correct unjust conditions , political , economic , social , physical . Anything necessary as long as it gets results , " is painted across his chest and arm . Their second show , " AFRICOBRA III " , opened in 1973 . Critics were more aware of the aesthetic and movement at this show ; critic Paul Richard commented that the works of Nelson Stevens , Jeff Donaldson and Jarrell " together contradict something I have long believed : that art that is so blatantly political is not art at all . "
= = = Out east = = =
Despite the offers for a position he received from Jeff Donaldson , who was running Howard University 's art department , Jarrell sought to remain independent and the family moved to New York . Jarrell obtained work as a photographer in Boston , eventually choosing to accept Donaldson 's offer , moving the family in time for Jarrell to teach photography classes during the fall semester . During this time " AFRICOBRA II " traveled to Howard and Jarrell exhibited Together We Will Win ( 1973 ) , showing black " warriors , " children , women and workers " offering solutions to African people 's problems , " and Liberation Soldiers , ( 1972 ) , depicting the Black Panthers . Both works included the use of aluminum and gold foil glued to the canvas . In 1973 the final AFRICOBRA show , " AFRICOBRA III " was held . However , members still continued to meet and practice the ideals put forward by the group .
= = = = African influences = = = =
Jarrell 's studies of African art and the Senufo people appeared as a major influence during the mid @-@ 1970s . Paintings such as Prophecy , Reorientation and Navaga depict human figures that appear blended with Senufo sculptures . Navaga ( 1974 ) shows a seated woodcarver , holding a staff he works on , appearing to be made of wood himself . He wears clothing of and is surrounded by coolade colors . The face is that of Jarrell 's father , manipulated into a Senufo sculptural style . In the triptych Prophecy Jarrell shows African women as Senufo figures holding sculptures of the Yoruba deity Shango , and is described as " jam @-@ packed " with imagery , making it hard to decipher in a short time .
In winter of 1977 Jarrell and Jae visited Lagos , Nigeria , as part of the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture , making this the couple 's first international exhibition . Other AFRICOBRA members journeyed there as well . Jarrell was influenced heavily by the bronze lost @-@ wax castings of Benin and the woodcarving and textile arts of Oshogbo , which he believed solidified the mission of AFRI @-@ COBRA 's symbolic work through " intuitive space . " Jarrell also revisited his passion for horse racing , attending the Grand Durbar in Kaduna . On Jarrell 's return , AFRI @-@ COBRA formed their next show " AFRI @-@ COBRA / Farafindugu " ; farafindugu inferring " black world " in Mandinka . The exhibit , at the African American Museum in Philadelphia , featured two works by Jarrell created as a response to his journey to Africa : Mojo Workin and Soweto ( both 1977 ) . Mojo Workin featured a contribution from his then six @-@ year @-@ old eldest daughter , Jennifer . She created the drawing The Magic Lady and with Jarrell 's painting it was believed that mojo was expressed when others encountered the work . This is one of the first times Jarrell uses a stained canvas . Soweto reflects the struggles of African people , specifically those suffering from the apartheid in South Africa . The painting is named after the city of Soweto , where a massacre of students occurred in 1976 . Continuing to be inspired by his travels to Nigeria , Jarrell completed the work Zulu Sunday which was created to express similarities between African Americans and Nigerians through a celebration of a Sunday afternoon social affair . The painting shows Zulus dressed in ornate traditional dress , socializing on the street , unified by a sunburst .
= = = Georgia = = =
In 1977 the Jarrells moved from Washington , D.C. to Athens , Georgia . With his children getting older and the couple 's toy company struggling to stay afloat , Jarrell became assistant professor at the University of Georgia . His position at the university assured him studio space . In 1979 he had two solo shows and participated in three AFRICOBRA exhibitions . His work continued to be socially and politically aware with paintings like Festival # 1 ( 1978 ) showing brilliant Senufo figures , a work supporting South Africans at war . African imagery became more apparent in his paintings with zigzag patterns and lizards appearing , representing " that Africans , as the first people , have the right to speak on their own behalf , " as seen in Midnight Poet at 125th Street & Lenox ( 1979 ) . In 1979 Jarrell received grant money to create a 52 x 31 foot mural at the East Athens Community Center . A team of art students helped Jarrell and Jae to complete the work , titled Ascension , which remains in Athens today .
By the mid @-@ 1980s Jarrell was being represented by the Fay Gold Gallery in Atlanta . In 1984 the family moved to Atlanta when Jae accepted a teaching position at The Lovett School . Jarrell continued to commute to Athens to teach . The move to Atlanta provided more income for the family while allowing Jarrell to sell more work and spark relationships with potential customers , galleries and museums in the region . Jarrell became the painting professor for the University 's Studies Abroad Program in 1986 . For two months he lived in Cortona , Italy with Jae and his two daughters , while Wadsworth Jr. remained in Atlanta finishing high school . The opportunity allowed him to explore the country , visiting historic sites throughout Italy and the Venice Biennale . Upon his return he was promoted to full professor at the university in February 1987 , but he resigned in 1988 .
During the 1990s Jarrell continued to explore aspects of black life in his paintings . Dudes on the Street ( 1991 ) is a depiction of black life in the city ; two cartoon @-@ like men and two women stand on the street with an expired parking meter next to them . The background features a ribs restaurant and a record shop , with coolade colors drenching the entire landscape . Robert Douglas compared the piece to Chicken Shack by Archibald Motley , stating " both artists have fulfilled the mission of celebrating black life . " Two paintings about boxing were created during this time as well : Stride of a Legend / Tribute to Papa Tall , a tribute to Muhammad Ali and textile designer Papa Tall of Senegal , and The Champion ( 1991 ) a portrayal Evander Holyfield .
= = = = Horse racing revisited = = = =
While in Georgia Jarrell revisited his interest in horse racing . He became interested in African American jockeys , creating the paintings The Jocks # 2 ( 1981 ) and Master Tester ( 1981 ) and Homage to Isaac Murphy ( 1981 ) . The Jocks # 2 is a group portrait of James " Soup " Perkins , William Walker , Jimmy Winkfield and Isaac Murphy . The figures appear like a Kemetic wall painting with hints of green and light blue . At the center is Isaac Murphy , a legendary jockey of the Kentucky Derby , wearing a glowing crown . A full tribute to Murphy is seen in Homage to Isaac Murphy , a large polyptych consisting of four canvasses . Cut out leaf motifs are adhered to the canvas and applied with acrylic stains , which make the motif 's appear as negative space on the surface of the painting . Zigzags are prominent , a lizard appears to represent speed , a lawn jockey , and the dates of Murphy 's wins , titles and horse names are at the top . The painting is finished with a stylized portrait of Murphy and cowry shells are glued to the canvas representing the money won by Murphy during his career . Master Tester is an abstract of horse trainer Marshall Lilly , riding a horse , wearing a derby hat . In 1993 Jarrell would have a solo show , titled " Edge Cutters , " at the Kentucky Derby Museum in Lexington , Kentucky .
= = = = The bricklayer 's trowel & jazz tributes = = = =
In December 1982 Jarrell was commissioned by Westinghouse Electric Company to create a three @-@ hundred @-@ foot mural in their Athens headquarters , to boost the morale of the employees . The mural was the first time he used a bricklayer 's trowel in his work , a tool introduced to him by Adger Cowans . The Apple Birds and The Return of the Apple Birds , from 1983 , show his dramatic use of the trowel . The paintings were inspired by a drawing by his daughter , Jennifer , at the age of two . The Apple Birds were drawn by and talked about by Jennifer as having apple @-@ shaped heads with stems at the top , long arms and short bodies . Zigzags , geometric shapes and layers make up the environment that the Apple Birds live in on the canvas . The trowel is used throughout to create 3 @-@ D layers and overlaps .
Jarrell created many jazz tributes starting in the 1980s . Cookin ' n Smokin ' ( 1986 ) is a tribute to jazz musician Oscar Peterson , who is shown playing piano with a sunburst design around his head . To the left of Peterson is bass player Ray Brown . Both figures have large heads , their faces have exaggerated features similar to African masks , and are described as being " midpoint between naturalism and abstraction " by Robert Douglas . The trowel is used throughout to blend color . Jazz Giants ( 1987 ) , another jazz tribute , shows Dizzy Gillespie , Harry Carney , Johnny Hodges and Cootie Williams performing . Leaf patterns and circles common in Jarrell 's work are seen throughout . The trowel is used to create recognizable portraits of the musicians , with the paint on a white background appearing as if a woodcut . Priestess ( 1988 ) depicts another jazz icon , Nina Simone , who appears twice - playing piano and singing solo , backed by a band . 1979 's I Remember Bill is a memorial to Jarrell 's friend guitarist Bill Harris , originally of The Clovers . Jarrell occasionally traveled with Harris , hanging his paintings behind Harris as he performed . The painting is a large mixed @-@ media polyptych of shaped canvas , and a painted six @-@ stringed guitar sits on the top of the work . The painting features glued on photographs of Harris and two painted portraits of the musician , surrounded by Jarrell 's signature symbols , designs and patterns .
Other works include : Corners of Jazz ( 1988 ) , a large mural featuring Ray Charles , Lester Young , and Billie Holiday , Shon 'nuf ( 1989 ) , featuring Ray Charles , At the Three Deuces ( 1991 ) with Miles Davis , Charlie Parker and Sam Potter , Basie at the Apollo ( 1992 ) with Count Basie 's orchestra , The Empress ( 1992 ) for Bessie Smith , and Lady & Prez # 2 , showing Holiday and Young performing together .
= = = Sculpture = = =
Inspired by his trip to Italy , Jarrell created the sculpture Tribute to Ovambo Bellows , a conical @-@ shaped painted tribute to the Ovambo people , which would be the basis for a new shift in his work , towards sculpture . The new works would be categorized by their heavy spiritual nature , reflective of African culture and heritage . Hausa Space - a Village ( 1993 ) represents the villages Jarrell visited in Nigeria . The houses that he saw were decorated with icons and symbols of spiritual and ritual meaning , painted in bright colors . These decorations are used to fight evil spirits , while Jarrell 's pieces speak for peace . Many of the sculptures blend elements of African art and design ; Sorcerer ( 1993 ) and Messenger of Information ( 1993 ) show his earlier influences from Senufo art and other inspirations related to the design , spirituality and people of Africa . Totem – like sculptures began to be created in 1995 . The three sculptures making up the Ensemble series ( 1995 ) each stand over five feet tall and are painted with brilliant colors , topped off with a small animal . For the first time , in Days of the Kings ( 1995 ) , horse racing appears in Jarrell 's sculptures . Sixteen totems serve as tributes to African Americans in horse racing , reminiscent of the designs of the Bijogo and Alberto Giacometti . Epiphany ( 1996 ) memorializes the Million Man March , held in Washington , D.C. the previous year , an event that Jarrell described as one of the most important of that century . This piece , and other works , were later exhibited at the 1996 Summer Olympics .
= = = Reception = = =
Dr. Stacy Morgan , association professor in the department of American Studies at the University of Alabama , describes Jarrell 's work as " a remarkable body of vibrant , stylistically innovative and politically engaged art . "
= = Notable awards = =
First prize , 1988 , Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition , Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art
Cover , 1985 , Art Papers
Excellence in painting award , 1985 , Southern Home Shows Exposition
Award , 1974 , District of Columbia Commission on the Arts
Artist @-@ in @-@ Residence , 1974 , District of Columbia Public Schools
= = Notable exhibitions = =
= = = Solo exhibitions = = =
Edge Cutters . 1993 , Kentucky Derby Museum .
Large Format . 1987 , Southwest Atlanta Hospital .
Paintings and Sculptures , Wadsworth Jarrell . 1987 , Albany Museum of Art .
The Power and the Glory . 1979 , University of Georgia .
Going Home . , 1976 , Howard University .
= = = Group exhibitions = = =
AFRI @-@ COBRA : No Middle Ground . 1992 , Museum of Science and Industry , Chicago , Illinois .
Twelfth Annual Atlanta Life Invitational Exhibition . 1992 , Herndon Plaza , Atlanta .
Vital Signs . 1991 , Atlanta Contemporary Art Center .
AFRI @-@ COBRA : The First Twenty Years . 1990 , Florida A & M University .
Horse Flesh . 1990 , Kentucky Derby Museum .
Beaches Annual Exhibition . 1989 , Museum of Contemporary Art Jacksonville .
Artists in Georgia 1988 . , 1988 Atlanta Contemporary Art Center .
The Art in Atlanta . 1988 , Southeastern Center for Contemporary Art .
Birmingham Biennial . 1987 , Birmingham Museum of Art .
AFRICOBRA USA . 1987 , Sermac Gallery , Fort @-@ de @-@ France , Martinique .
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le is her tenacity . " She 's a bulldog . And he always saw that in her . And he always knew that subconsciously the only person who 'd be able to give him a second look is someone who 's not willing to take the first look for granted . " On her side , Jorja Fox has said that " The story of Sara and Grissom is a little like a fable . And most great fables don 't really have 100 percent resolution . "
= = Public reaction = =
Sara Sidle has gained an extensive fan base throughout the years . A romantic relationship between Sidle and her supervisor , Gil Grissom , was hinted at during the first years of the show ; but it was only in Season 6 that the relationship was confirmed and then made definitive with Grissom 's marriage proposal in Season 8 .
Grissom and Sidle 's relationship has been the subject of intense debate in the press and on @-@ line forums , between fans of the romantic relationship and those who believe the romance detracts from what was once a show devoted mainly to mysteries and a forensics laboratory .
In early August 2007 , upon rumors of Jorja Fox leaving the show , a grassroots campaign started . Thousands of fans donated to the cause , and they had a plane flying over the Universal Studios of Los Angeles weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays with a " Keep Jorja Fox on CBS " banner for a month . The online forum Your Tax Dollars at Work , which has about 15 @,@ 000 members and has organized the campaign , created another campaign that includes mailing the show 's producers a dollar , so as to keep Fox on the show . By October 5 , 2007 , more than $ 3 @,@ 500 had reportedly been mailed to the Universal Studios from forty @-@ nine countries . The campaign had started less than a week before , on September 29 , 2007 .
Though the effort garnered media coverage , it was announced in late October , 2007 that Jorja Fox 's final appearance as a full cast member would be in the episode Goodbye and Good Luck , which aired on November 15 , 2007 . Both writers and Fox have said that they believe that Sara Sidle " will be back " sometime in the future . Fox and CSI writer Carol Mendelsohn chose to donate the money sent to the studios to CASA , a national association that supports and promotes court @-@ appointed advocates for abused or neglected children .
CBS initially confirmed that Jorja Fox would be returning to CSI in the tenth season for the season premiere and four subsequent episodes . Executive producer Carol Mendelsohn has amended that Fox 's tenure on the show has been extended indefinitely . CBS states that the season premiere would deal with where life has taken Sara and what brings her back to Las Vegas .
= = Video games = =
Jorja Fox voiced Sara Sidle in the first two CSI video games , CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and CSI : Dark Motives . The other two video games , CSI : Hard Evidence and CSI : 3 Dimensions of Murder , were recorded by Kate Savage . Rachel Robinson voiced Sara in the ninth CSI game , CSI : Fatal Conspiracy .
= = Career = =
= Hellcats =
Hellcats is an American cheerleading comedy @-@ drama television series that originally aired on The CW in the United States from September 8 , 2010 , to May 17 , 2011 . Based on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick , the series focuses in the lives of college cheerleaders , mainly Marti Perkins ( Aly Michalka ) , a pre @-@ law college student who has to join the cheerleading team , the Hellcats , in order to get the athletic scholarship she needs . The main cast also includes Ashley Tisdale , Robbie Jones , Heather Hemmens , Matt Barr , Gail O 'Grady , and Sharon Leal .
In May 2010 , Hellcats had been picked by The CW for the fall 2010 – 11 season . Initially with a 13 @-@ episode order , The CW aired the series after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights . The pilot episode aired on September 8 , 2010 , and became the first premiere to ever match or build on an America 's Next Top Model lead @-@ in since The CW began in 2006 . The CW later gave a full season order for the series , with executives saying they were " thrilled that [ it ] paid off for us " . On May 17 , 2011 , The CW announced that Hellcats would not be renewed for the 2011 fall schedule .
Hellcats has been described as " Election meets Bring It On " by critics . It received generally mixed reviews during its first season , obtaining a Metacritic weighted average of 51 percent , based on the impression of 22 critics . The series also earned a nomination in the 2011 People 's Choice Awards .
= = Series overview = =
Hellcats follows Marti Perkins , a pre @-@ law college student at Lancer University , who lost her scholarship and has no other choice but to join the college 's cheer squad , the Hellcats , in order to obtain a new one . There she meets her new roommate and team captain Savannah Monroe , the injured flyer Alice Verdura , her new partner Lewis Flynn and the Hellcats coach Vanessa Lodge who hopes to win nationals , otherwise the cheer leading program will be cut . All the while , Marti also has to deal with her financially unstable and sometimes irresponsible mother , Wanda Perkins , whom she often has to bail out of difficult situations , and her best friend Dan Patch .
= = Cast and characters = =
Marti Perkins ( Aly Michalka ) is the protagonist of the series and a townie from Memphis , Tennessee . Described as " wicked smart " , she is a pre @-@ law student at Lancer University . Her mother , Wanda Perkins ( Gail O 'Grady ) , works at the university pub and is a party girl who never grew up . Her mother 's behavior is , for the most part , an embarrassment to Marti . When Lancer 's administrative department cuts scholarships for Lancer employees and families , Marti learns she can get a new one by choosing one of Lancer 's programs . She then auditions for a position on Lancer 's cheerleading team , the Hellcats .
Savannah Monroe ( Ashley Tisdale ) , the captain of the Hellcats , is described as " peppy and petite " with a " fierce intensity " . She initially clashes with Marti , but realizes she is the godsend that the Hellcats need to win the championship . She votes for Marti when the team has auditions for a new flyer . Savannah is from a very religious , upper @-@ middle class southern family . After a fight with her family , she left the university she was attending , Memphis Christian , and transferred to secular Lancer . Her sister Charlotte , a recurring role played by Emma Lahana , is the captain of the Cyclones , the cheerleading team at Savannah 's old school and a Hellcats ' rival .
Alice ( Heather Hemmens ) is dangerously narcissistic and after she injures her wrist , she dislikes the idea of Marti replacing her on the squad , or the attention Marti receives from Alice 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Lewis Flynn . Lewis ( Robbie Jones ) is one of the Hellcats ' bases and is an easy @-@ going guy who has a love for action . He was once a star on the Lancer football team but quit when he discovered a scandal of players being paid by the college . He tried out for the Hellcats team when his then @-@ girlfriend Alice encouraged him to do so in order to gain scholarship money after the football scandal , and instantly became hooked . He has an instant attraction to Marti . They later start dating . Dan Patch ( Matt Barr ) is a townie who is Marti 's friend . He had an unspoken crush on her but now is dating Savannah , Marti 's new friend on the team . Sharon Leal plays Vanessa Lodge , a former Hellcat cheerleader who is now the team 's coach . Her job is threatened if the Hellcats do not place at the national competition .
Supporting cast includes Red Raymond ( Jeff Hephner ) , the Lancer 's football coach who shares a romantic past with Vanessa , and Derrick Altman ( D. B. Woodside ) , a doctor who works at Lancer University and is now Vanessa 's boyfriend . Bill Marsh ( Aaron Douglas ) is the college 's athletic director who is still involved in a " pay for play " scandal with players that could get the school 's programs ( including the Hellcats ) suspended . Morgan Pepper ( Craig Anderson ) is a pre @-@ law student and Marti 's classmate . He later befriends Marti and joins her to solve a legal case introduced by their teacher Julian ( Gale Harold ) . Other Hellcats members include Darwin ( Jeremy Wong ) a gay cheerleader , and Frankie ( Alana Randall ) . Kathy ( Magda Apanowicz ) is a member of the Cyclones , usually called " Nasty Kathy " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Hellcats is based on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick and the series has been described as " Election meets Bring It On " . Actor Tom Welling teamed with Kevin Murphy to executive produce the series , which was initially given the name Cheer . The pilot episode was written by Murphy and directed by Allan Arkush . On May 18 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter , Variety and Entertainment Weekly reported that The CW had picked up the series for the 2010 – 2011 television season and confirmed that Paul Becker would be the head choreographer for the series . Tisdale 's character was originally named Sierra Sloan but was renamed Savannah Monroe in the press release .
While presenting its 2010 – 11 season schedule on May 21 , 2010 , The CW officially confirmed the pick up of the series and announced its intention to air Hellcats after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights . TV Guide reported that Ashley Tisdale is the best paid of the cast , earning $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode during the first season of the series .
During the 2010 Television Critics Association press tour in Los Angeles on July 29 , 2010 , producer Murphy said the series " was inspired by aspirational sports movies of the 1980s like Breaking Away , Vision Quest , and Pittsburgh @-@ set Flashdance " , and also added that " Hellcats is a show either for optimists or for people who are interested in learning the trade " . Producer Welling said he was attracted to the series mainly because of the script , and he also felt the cheerleaders ' world had not yet been tapped into on television . When asked why it picked up Hellcats , The CW replied saying the series is " one of the underdogs " and it liked the big production numbers .
The filming of the pilot episode took place in Vancouver , Canada between April 13 – 21 , 2010 . The filming of the next episodes of the first season began on July 14 in Vancouver . The cast had two weeks of rehearsal for the pilot episode but after the series ' fall season pick up , they will only have a week to rehearse the dance numbers for each episode . Former Fame actress and choreographer Debbie Allen directed the episode " Pledging My Love " .
The CW Network attempted to break the Guinness World Records mark for the " Largest Cheerleading Dance " at a single venue by inviting cheerleading squads to participate in a five @-@ minute choreographed Hellcats dance in September 2010 . However , the mark was not broken as there were not enough cheerleaders present .
= = = Casting = = =
On March 8 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter announced that Aly Michalka and Gail O 'Grady were the first actresses to be cast in the series . Michalka would play the lead role of Marti Perkins , a college girl who decided to join the Hellcats , and O 'Grady was to portray Wanda Perkins , Marti 's mother . The site later announced that actress Ashley Tisdale was cast as Savannah Monroe ( then known as Sierra Sloane ) , the fiercely intense captain of the Hellcats .
Matt Barr was cast as Dan Patch , a womanizer who quietly pines for Marti . On April 5 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter and Variety reported that actors Robbie Jones and Heather Hemmens were cast . Jones would portray the male lead , a cheerleading " base " who falls for Marti , and Hemmens was reported to play a cheerleader sidelined with a wrist injury . On April 8 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that actress Sharon Leal was cast as Vanessa Lodge , a former Hellcat star who now serves as the squad 's coach . Elena Esovolva was cast as Patty " The Wedge " Wedgerman , a lesbian cheerleader and a base for the squad .
On April 14 , 2010 , it was announced that Ben Browder was cast as Red Raymond , Lancer University 's football coach . On May 21 , 2010 , however , it was announced that Browder was no longer portraying Raymond , although he had already shot scenes for the pilot episode . His role was being recast and possibly retooled as well . Raymond 's role was later given to Jeff Hephner . On July 13 , one day before the beginning of filming , D. B. Woodside was cast as Derrick Altman , a " handsome young physician who takes care of the Hellcats cheerleaders " .
Producer Kevin Murphy confirmed that Gale Harold would guest star in the series as one of Marti 's law professors . Michalka added that Harold would appear in the third episode of the first season and had a multiple @-@ episode arc . In late November 2010 , AJ Michalka was cast in a recurring role as a girl who works at a record store near Lancer University and befriends Marti . Camille Sullivan was added to the supporting cast in February 2011 to portray Red Reymond 's ex @-@ wife .
On January 18 , 2011 , it was announced that Esovolova would not be returning to the show . Michalka has said that it was difficult for the writers to incorporate her storylines with the others .
= = = Music = = =
During the 2010 Television Critics Association press tour held in Los Angeles on July 29 , 2010 , lead actresses Michalka and Tisdale were asked about the idea of singing on the show . They stated that they plan to keep their music careers separate from the series , although Michalka advised that she would sing in the fourth episode . In addition to that , Michalka 's band 78violet recorded " Belong Here " , which served as the theme song for Hellcats . It was later released into digital stores .
Executive producer Kevin Murphy confirmed in an interview that a soundtrack would be released for the series , which would include the theme song and other songs recorded for the series . He later added " So we are building a library of material . Once we have enough , we 're gonna put it on iTunes and definitely do a soundtrack album . " Songs covered for the series include " The Letter " originally by The Box Tops , Sting 's " Brand New Day " , Squeeze 's " Tempted " and The Go @-@ Go 's hit " We Got the Beat " . Canadian singer Fefe Dobson recorded " Rockstar " , an exclusive song for the series that was played during the " A World Full of Strangers " episode . However , " Rockstar " was ultimately released on the iTunes Deluxe Edition of Dobson 's album Joy . As previously promised by Murphy , a digital EP featuring five of the songs recorded for the series was released on November 30 , 2010 , via Warner Bros. Records .
The first season of Hellcats also included live performances by guest musicians , including Hey Monday , Faber Drive , Fefe Dobson , 3OH ! 3 featuring Ashley Tisdale , Elise Estrada and Ciara .
= = Episodes = =
The first and only season of Hellcats consisted of 22 episodes . The pilot episode was broadcast on September 8 , 2010 . The initial order for the series was thirteen episodes . On September 23 , 2010 , due to successful ratings , The CW ordered six more scripts for the first season , although its production order was still at thirteen . On October 22 , 2010 , Variety announced that The CW had given a full season order for the series . The network said they took risks this year but they were " thrilled that they 've paid off for us " .
Hellcats aired on Wednesdays at 9 – 10 pm until December 1 , 2010 , when the eleventh episode aired . Starting January 25 , 2011 , The CW moved Hellcats to Tuesday nights at 9 – 10 pm , following One Tree Hill .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The show has received mixed reviews , with a Metacritic score of 51 percent , based on 22 critic reviews . It was praised and criticized by critics in several round @-@ up reviews of 2010 in television . Los Angeles Times had a good first impression of the pilot episode , saying Hellcats has a predictable story but , on the other hand , Michalka and Tisdale seem perfect for their roles . The newspaper also wrote the cheerleading world portrayed in the series is a " fun and deep world to explore " . The journal later gave a complete review of the series , comparing it to 1983 's film Flashdance aimed squarely at audiences too young for Gossip Girl but too old for Hannah Montana .
Verne Gay of Newsday praised Michalka 's performance in the series , while The Hollywood Reporter praised the series itself and said it has " multilayered characters that defy expectations " .
Curt Wagner of ChicagoNow said the series is predictable and has unrealistic situations , and criticized the lack of fun in the jokes . The journal also praised Tisdale 's performance , claiming she was the one who made him laugh the most . Hellcats also received positive reviews from Entertainment Weekly and People .
Mara Reinstein of Us Weekly gave an early review of the first episode of the series , saying Hellcats has " plenty of winning elements " but added that the series lacks spirit . She also praised the performance and Marti 's relationship with her mother . ABC News listed Hellcats as one of the ten best new shows of 2010 's fall season and described the series as " almost laughably formulaic " and added it " works like a charm " . Brian Lowry of Variety praised the series ' promise , and said that the series has a Glee @-@ like element in the script , while also criticizing Michalka and acclaiming O 'Grady 's performance . Lowry also added Hellcats 's premiere " isn 't quite unabashedly trashy enough to completely qualify as a guilty pleasure " .
Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times criticized Michalka 's performance and called the series a " soft @-@ porn music video for teenagers " . Washington Post 's Hank Stuever was critical about the pilot episode , describing it as " mean @-@ spirited , painfully dumb and badly acted " . He also wrote Hellcats is the opposite to Fox 's Glee .
= = = Ratings = = =
The pilot episode " A World Full of Strangers " averaged a total of 3 @.@ 0 million viewers and scored a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the network 's target audience of women 18 – 34 , which marks the first premiere to ever match or build on an America 's Next Top Model lead @-@ in since The CW began . Hellcats also delivered the largest non @-@ Top Model performance in The CW 's Wednesday 9 – 10 pm time period in 3 years since the Gossip Girl series premiere . On September 10 , the network aired an encore of the pilot episode which averaged a total of 2 @.@ 42 million viewers and won the hour with adults 18 – 49 .
Hellcats delivered The CW 's most watched Tuesday of the season with 2 @.@ 2 million viewers watching " Papa , Oh Papa " , its 12th episode and the first in its new Tuesday 9 – 10 pm timeslot . Ratings fell rapidly as the series progressed , with the nineteenth episode , " Before I Was Caught " , hitting a series low , with less than a million viewers watching it on April 27 , 2011 . The finale was watched by 1 @.@ 16 million viewers .
The series averaged 2 @.@ 11 million viewers with live + 7 day DVR viewing .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Broadcast = =
While presenting its 2010 – 11 season schedule on May 21 , 2010 , The CW announced its intention to air Hellcats in the United States after America 's Next Top Model on Wednesday nights starting September 8 , 2010 , at 9 pm . The series moved to Tuesday nights in the 9 – 10 pm timeslot , starting with the twelfth episode . Hellcats has been syndicated for broadcast in several countries worldwide , including Australia , Canada , Greece , Ireland , Israel , United Kingdom , Brazil , Spain , the Arab World , Latin @-@ America , New Zealand , and Denmark .
= Alexander Pechersky =
Alexander ' Sasha ' Pechersky ( Russian : Алекса ́ ндр Аро ́ нович Пече ́ рский ; 22 February 1909 – 19 January 1990 ) was one of the organizers , and the leader , of the most successful uprising and mass @-@ escape of Jews from a Nazi extermination camp during World War II ; which occurred at the Sobibor extermination camp on 14 October 1943 .
In 1948 Pechersky was arrested by the Soviet authorities along with his brother during the countrywide Rootless cosmopolitan campaign against the Jews suspected of pro @-@ Western leanings . Only after Stalin 's death in 1953 was he released from jail due in part to mounting international pressure . However , the harassment did not stop there . Pechersky was prevented by the Soviet government from testifying in multiple international trials related to Sobibor , including the Eichmann Trial in Israel . The last time he was refused the permission to exit the country and testify was in 1987 , for a trial in Poland .
= = Pre @-@ war life and career = =
Pechersky , a son of a Jewish lawyer , was born on February 22 , 1909 in Kremenchuk , Poltava Governorate , Russian Empire ( now Ukraine ) . In 1915 , his family moved to Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don where he eventually worked as an electrician at a locomotive repair factory . After graduating from university with a diploma in music and literature , he became an accountant and manager of a small school for amateur musicians .
= = World War II = =
On 22 June 1941 , the day when Germany invaded the Soviet Union , Pechersky was conscripted into the Soviet Red Army with a rank of junior lieutenant . By September 1941 , he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant quartermaster ( class II ) . In the early autumn of 1941 , he rescued his wounded commander from being captured by the Germans . He didn 't receive any medals for this deed . One of his fellow soldiers reportedly said : " Sasha , if what you 've done doesn 't make you a hero , I don 't know who is ! " In October 1941 , during the Battle of Moscow , their unit was surrounded and captured by the Germans in the pocket at the city of Vyazma , Smolensk Oblast .
Captured , Pechersky soon contracted typhus , but survived the seven @-@ month @-@ long illness . In May 1942 , he escaped along with four other prisoners of war , but they were all recaptured the same day . He was then sent to a penal camp at Borisov , Belarus , and from there to a prisoners of war ( POW ) camp located in the forest next to the city of Minsk . During a mandatory medical examination it was discovered that he was circumcised . Pechersky recalled a German medical officer asking him : " Do you admit to being a Jew ? " He admitted it , since any denial would result in a whipping , and was thrown into a cellar called " the Jewish grave " along with other Jewish POWs ( prisoners of war ) , where for 10 days he sat in complete darkness , being fed 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) of wheat and a cup of water every second day .
On August 20 , 1942 , Pechersky was sent to a SS @-@ operated arbeitslager , a work camp , in Minsk . The camp housed 500 Jews from the Minsk Ghetto , as well as Jewish Soviet POWs ; there were also between 200 – 300 Soviet inmates whom the Germans labeled as incorrigible : people who were suspected of contacting the Soviet partisans and those who were repeatedly truant while working for the Germans . The prisoners were starved and worked from dawn till dusk . Pechersky wrote about the Minsk work camp :
The German Nazi camp commandant didn 't let a single day pass without killing someone . If you looked at his face you could tell he was a sadist . He was thin , his upper lip shaking and his left eye bloodshot . He always had a hangover or was drunk and committed unspeakable horrors . He shot people for no reason and his favorite hobby was commanding his dog to attack random people who were ordered not to defend themselves . — Pechersky
= = Sobibor extermination camp = =
On 18 September 1943 , Pechersky , along with 2 @,@ 000 Jews from Minsk including about 100 Soviet Jewish POWs , was placed in a train cattle car which arrived at the Sobibor extermination camp on September 23 , 1943 . Eighty prisoners from the train , including Pechersky , were selected for work in Lager II . The remaining 1 @,@ 920 Jews were immediately led to the gas chambers . Pechersky later recalled his thoughts as the train pulled up to Sobibor , " How many circles of hell were there in Dante 's Inferno ? It seems there were nine . How many have already passed ? Being surrounded , being captured , camps in Vyazma , Smolensk , Borisov , Minsk ... And finally I am here . What 's next ? " The appearance of Soviet POWs produced an enormous impression on Sobibor prisoners : " hungry hope @-@ filled eyes following their every move " .
Pechersky wrote about his first day in Sobibor :
I was sitting outside on a pile of logs in the evening with Solomon ( Shlomo ) Leitman , who subsequently became my top commander in the uprising . I asked him about the huge , strange fire burning 500 meters away from us behind some trees and about the unpleasant smell throughout the camp . He warned me that the guards forbade looking there , and told me that they are burning the corpses of my murdered comrades who arrived with me that day . I did not believe him , but he continued : He told me that the camp existed for more than a year and that almost every day a train came with two thousand new victims who are all murdered within a few hours . He said around 500 Jewish prisoners – Polish , French , German , Dutch and Czechoslovak work here and that my transport was the first one to bring Russian Jews . He said that on this tiny plot of land , no more than 10 hectares [ 24 @.@ 7 acres or .1 square kilometer ] , hundreds of thousands of Jewish women , children and men were murdered . I thought about the future . Should I try to escape alone or with a small group ? Should I leave the rest of the prisoners to be tortured and murdered ? I rejected this thought . — Pechersky
During his third day at Sobibor , Alexander Pechersky earned the respect of fellow prisoners by standing up to Karl Frenzel , an SS senior officer , as the incident was recalled by Leon Feldhendler .
Pechersky , still wearing his Soviet Army uniform , was assigned to dig up tree stumps in the North Camp . Frenzel was in charge because an underling was elsewhere and was in a bad mood . Frenzel was waiting for an excuse to pick on someone since he considered himself an officer and a gentleman and waited for some reason to begin his sadistic games . One Dutch Jew was too weak to chop a stump so Frenzel began beating him with his whip .
Pechersky stopped chopping and watched the whipping while resting on his axe . Kapo Porzyczki translated when Frenzel asked Pechersky if he didn ’ t like what he saw . Pechersky didn 't bow down , shake or cower in fear but answered , Yes Oberscharfuhrer . Franzel told Pechersky that he had 5 minutes to split a large tree stump in two . If Pechersky beat the time he would receive a pack of cigarettes , if he lost , he would be whipped 25 times . Franzel looked at his watch , and said : Begin .
Pechersky split the stump in four and a half minutes and Frenzel held out a pack of cigarettes and announced that he always does as he promises . Pechersky replied that he doesn ’ t smoke , turned around and got back to chopping down new tree stumps . Frenzel came back twenty minutes later with fresh bread and butter and offered it to Pechersky . Pechersky replied that the rations at the concentration camp were more than adequate and that he wasn ’ t hungry . Frenzel turned around and left , leaving Kapo Porzyczki in charge . That evening , this episode of defiance spread throughout Sobibor . This episode influenced the leadership of the Polish Jews to approach Pechersky about ideas for an escape plan . — Leon Feldhendler
= = = Escape plan = = =
Pechersky 's plan merged the idea of a mass escape with vengeance : to help as many prisoners as possible to escape while executing SS officers and guards . His final goal was to join up with the partisans and continue fighting the Nazis .
Five days after arriving at Sobibor , Pechersky was again approached by Solomon Leitman on behalf of Leon Feldhendler , the leader of the camp 's Polish Jews . Leitman was one of the few prisoners who understood Russian and Pechersky didn 't speak either Yiddish or Polish . Pechersky was invited to talk with a group of Jewish prisoner leaders from Poland , to whom he spoke about the Red Army victory in the Battle of Stalingrad and partisan victories . When one of the prisoners asked him why the partisans won 't rescue them from Sobibor , Pechersky reportedly replied : " What for ? To free us all ? The partisans have their hands full already . Nobody will do our job for us . "
The Jewish prisoners who had worked at the Bełżec extermination camp were sent to Sobibor to be exterminated when Bełżec closed . From a note found among the clothing of the murdered , the Sobibor prisoners learned that those who had been killed were from work groups in the Belzec camp . The note said : " We worked for a year in Belzec . I don 't know where they 're taking us now . They say to Germany . In the freight cars there are dining tables . We received bread for three days , and tins and liquor . If all this is a lie , then know that death awaits you too . Don 't trust the Germans . Avenge our blood ! "
The leadership of the Polish Jews was aware that Belzec and Treblinka had been closed , dismantled and all remaining prisoners had been sent to the gas @-@ chambers and they suspected that Sobibor would be next . There was a great urgency in coming up with a good escape plan , and Pechersky , with his army experience , was their best hope . The escape had to also coincide with the time when the Sobibor 's deputy commandant Gustav Wagner went on vacation , since the prisoners felt that he was sharp enough to uncover the escape plan .
= = = Luka = = =
Pechersky clandestinely met with Feldhendler under the guise of meeting Luka , a woman he was supposedly involved with . Luka is often described as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old woman from " Holland " , but records indicate she was 28 and from Germany , her real name was Gertrud Poppert – Schönborn . After the war , Pechersky insisted that the relationship was platonic . Her fate after the escape was never established and she was never seen alive again . During an interview with Thomas Blatt , Pechersky said the following regarding Luka : " Although I knew her only about two weeks , I will never forget her . I informed her minutes before the escape of the plan . She has given me a shirt . She said , ' it 's a good luck shirt , put it on right now ' , and I did . It 's now in the museum . I lost her in the turmoil of the revolt and never saw her again . "
Luka 's shirt still exists and is described on 000000002010 @-@ 05 @-@ 03 @-@ 0000May 3 , 2010 by Pechersky 's daughter as :
It is very well preserved . Light gray . Has dark @-@ gray stripes . A little worn from wear and being often washed . Long sleeves . The shirt collar has some blurred letters of the Latin alphabet which are no longer readable .
= = = The uprising = = =
According to Pechersky 's plan , the prisoners would assassinate the German SS staff , thereby rendering the auxiliary guards leaderless , obtain weapons , and eliminate the remaining guards . Individual Polish Jewish inmates were assigned specific German SS guards that they were supposed to lure inside the workshops under some pretext and silently kill . Ester Raab , a survivor of the escape , recalled : " The plan was , at 4 o ’ clock ( pm ) , should start ( the escape ) , everybody has to kill his SS man , and his guard at his place of work . " Only a small circle of trusted Polish Jewish inmates were aware of the escape plan as they didn 't trust the Jews from other European countries .
On 14 October 1943 , Pechersky 's escape plan began . During the day , several German SS men were lured to workshops on a variety of pretexts , such as being fitted for new boots or expensive clothes . The SS men were then stabbed to death with carpenters ' axes , awls , and chisels discreetly recovered from property left by gassed Jews ; with other tradesmen 's sharp tools ; or with crude knives and axes made in the camp 's machine shop . The blood was covered up with sawdust on the floor . The escapees were armed with a number of hand grenades , a rifle , a submachine gun and several pistols that the prisoners stole from the German living quarters , as well as the sidearms captured from the dead SS men . Earlier in the day , SS @-@ Oberscharführer Erich Bauer , at the top of the death list created by Pechersky , unexpectedly drove out to Chełm for supplies . The uprising was almost postponed since the prisoners believed that Bauer 's death was necessary for the success of the escape . Bauer came back early from Chełm , discovered that SS @-@ Scharführer Rudolf Beckmann had been assassinated , and began shooting at the Jewish prisoners . The sound of the gunfire prompted Alexander Pechersky to begin the revolt earlier than planned . Pechersky screamed the preplanned code @-@ words : " Hurrah , the revolt has begun ! "
Disorganized groups of prisoners ran in every direction . Ada Lichtman , a survivor of the escape recalls : " Suddenly we heard shots ... Mines started to explode . Riot and confusion prevailed , everything was thundering around . The doors of the workshop were opened , and everyone rushed through ... We ran out of the workshop . All around were the bodies of the dead and wounded . " Pechersky was able to successfully escape into the woods . At the end of the uprising , 11 German SS personnel and an unknown number of Ukrainian guards were killed . Out of approximately 550 Jewish prisoners at the Sobibor death camp , 130 chose not to participate in the uprising and remained in the camp ; about 80 were killed during the escape either by machine gun fire from watchtowers , or while getting through a mine field in the camp 's outer perimeter ; 170 more were recaptured by the Nazis during large @-@ scale searches . All who remained in the camp or caught after the escape were executed . 53 Sobibor escapees survived the war . Within days after the uprising , the SS chief Heinrich Himmler ordered the camp closed , dismantled and planted with trees .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Immediately after the escape , in the forest , a group of 50 prisoners followed Pechersky . After some time , Pechersky informed the Polish Jews that he along with a few Soviet Jewish soldiers would enter the nearby village and then shortly return with food . They allegedly collected all the money ( Pechersky implies the money collection is a fabricated detail ) and weapons except one rifle , but never came back . In 1980 , Thomas Blatt asked Pechersky why he abandoned the other survivors . Pechersky answered :
My job was done . You were Polish Jews in your own terrain . I belonged in the Soviet Union and still considered myself a soldier . In my opinion , the chances for survival were better in smaller units . To tell the people straight forward : " we must part " would not have worked . You have seen , they followed every step of mine , we all would perish . [ ... ] what can I say ? You were there . We were only people . The basic instincts came into play . It was still a fight for survival . This is the first time I hear about money collection . It was a turmoil , it was difficult to control everything . I admit , I have seen the imbalance in the distribution of the weaponry , but you must understand , they would rather die than to give up their arms . — Pechersky
Pechersky , along with two other escapees , wandered the forests until they ran into Yakov Biskowitz , and another Sobibor escapee . Biskowitz testified at the Eichmann Trial regarding the meeting :
The two of us wandered through the forests , until we met Sasha Pechersky . There were three of them whom I came across . One had weak legs . They wore white clothes made of hand @-@ woven material . They had sunk into mud after escaping . After that , we met together . There were now five of us – we walked to the Skrodnitze forests . There we met the first Jewish partisans called Yehiel 's Group ( under Yehiel Grynszpan ) – it was a group of Jews who had undertaken action . We engaged in sabotaging railway lines , cutting telephone wires , hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks on German army units . — Yakov Biskowitz
The two Russian Jewish soldiers who Yahov Biskowitz met with Pechersky were Alexander Shubayev ( who was responsible for executing SS @-@ Untersturmführer Johann Niemann ; was later killed fighting the Germans ) and Arkady Moishejwicz Wajspapier ( who was responsible for executing SS @-@ Oberscharführer Siegfried Graetschus and Volksdeutscher Ivan Klatt ; survived the war ) . For over a year Pechersky fought with the Yehiel 's Group partisans as a demolition expert and later with the Soviet group of Voroshilov Partisans , until the Red Army drove out the Germans from Belarus .
As an escaped POW , Pechersky was conscripted into a special penal battalions , conforming to Stalin 's Order No. 270 and was sent to the front to fight German forces in some of the toughest engagements of the war . Pechersky 's battalion commander , Major Andree
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ads , breaking pages . Adjusting the settings fixed the problem , however the process was complicated . ZDNet noted the lack of information presented concerning attacks the firewall blocked . Norton LiveUpdate downloads and installs program updates .
The Family Edition adds parental controls . Parental controls are backed by a quality control team of 10 searching the web for inappropriate content . Found content is categorized in subject matter and placed on a blacklist of about 36 @,@ 000 sites . A designed administrator can add blocked sites , however the pre @-@ supplied blacklist cannot be viewed or edited since it is hard coded . Administrators can block certain subject matters . Another option is to block all sites , then create a whitelist of allowed sites . Family Edition can also block transmission of specified personal information . Such information is replaced with the letter " X " . However , CNN noted X @-@ rated sites are retrieved when personal information is queried by a search engine .
Version 2 @.@ 0 was released June 12 , 2000
= = = Version 2001 ( 2 @.@ 5 , 3 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Version 2001 ( 2 @.@ 5 ) was released September 18 , 2000 , adding support for Windows ME in addition to the Windows 9x series , Windows NT , and Windows 2000 . Following attacks by the ILOVEYOU and Anna Kournikova script viruses , this version can block malicious scripts without virus signatures , but by analyzing behavior .
The firewall scans for Internet @-@ enabled applications and creates access rules based on a knowledge base maintained by Symantec during installation . In PC Magazine testing , the installation took 24 minutes to complete on a 750 MHz Pentium III with 92 Internet @-@ enabled applications . Using the firewall , users can determine whether to accept cookies , Java applets , and ActiveX controls on a global or per @-@ site basis . A new feature , Intrusion Detection with AutoBlock , can detect port scans and block further intrusion attempts . The program provides notifications for intrusion attempts , stating the severity level and providing access to threat details . Alternatively , the firewall can put the computer in stealth , essentially hiding the system . Users can configure the security level , affecting the number of notifications . Testing conducted by PC Magazine using Shields Up and Symantec 's Security Check found that the firewall successfully stealthed all ports , hiding the computer from view . A leak test was conducted to see the firewall 's ability to detect outbound connections . Each attempt was detected and the suite offered to block the attempts .
The Family Edition , like the prior version , includes parental controls and the information filtering feature . Parental controls come with a list of objectionable sites , separated into 32 categories . The list is updated every two weeks by Norton LiveUpdate . Using the list alone , Norton only blocks sites present on the list . Consequently , Norton may not block sites until the next update . Parents can customize the list , adding or removing sites . A list of allowed sites can be created to restrict children to those specific sites . This version uses application blocking rather than protocol or port filtering to control Internet access . Children can be restricted in what applications they used to access the Internet . A parental controls profile can be set up for each child , and settings can be automatically configured based on their age group , whether they be a child , teenager , adult , or administrator . Internet usage and violations are noted in a report presented to parents . PC Magazine found that enabling parental controls added a minute to a computer 's boot time .
Version 3 @.@ 0 was released March 19 , 2001
= = = Version 2002 ( 4 @.@ 0 , 5 @.@ 0 ) = = =
Version 2002 was announced August 28 , 2001 . The Family Edition was dropped , so parental controls and information filtering are bundled with this release . The installation was noted as quick and simple by both PC Magazine and CNET . An installation requires a reboot , and afterwards the Security Assistant guides users through a questionnaire to best configure the settings . A problem CNET encountered when upgrading from the prior release was the loss of customized settings . PC Magazine found the default settings , aimed at avoiding frequent notifications , were somewhat permissive . Windows 95 support was also dropped .
Running a full scan complies a list of Internet @-@ enabled applications . Users set permissions or accept Norton 's default settings . The firewall detects and blocks port scans and logs intrusion attempts . This version does not run a trace on attackers , however Symantec is planning an online tool to do so . To ensure rogue programs can not masquerade as trustworthy applications , Norton verifies programs against a list of digital signatures for known programs , update Tracker warns users if hackers attempt to gain access to users ' computers . The firewall blocked all access attempts from Shields Up and Port Checker . This version includes a wizard to simplify firewall setup to accommodate for multiple computers sharing an Internet connection . With this release , Norton can prevent specified personal information from being transmitted via a compatible instant messenger client , e @-@ mail , and websites . Ad @-@ blocking includes the Ad Trashcan , where users can place ads that slipped past ad @-@ filtering .
A Professional Edition was announced December 11 , 2001 , with marketing aimed towards business owners . This version features Norton Intrusion Detection , which intercepts suspicious connections and attacks , such as the Code Red worm . Intrusion Detection focuses on Windows @-@ based attacks only . Central management is also present in this version . Administrators configure firewall and productivity settings for client computers . Productivity settings allow administrators to block newsgroups , websites , and advertisements . The suite integrates with XP user accounts ; settings can be personalized for each user .
= = = Version 2003 ( 6.x ) = = =
Version 2003 was announced September 16 , 2002 , scheduled to be available for purchase later that month . This version adds Norton Spam Alert to reduce e @-@ mail spam . Spam filtering scans the whole message and its context , rather than looking for keywords to ensure accuracy . A POP3 client must be used . When a message is identified as spam , Norton inserts an identifier , by default it is " Spam Alert : " , in the subject line . Using the mail client , users can create a rule to delete or move flagged messages . Users can also create strings of text for Spam Alert to look for when classifying e @-@ mail . In PC Magazine testing , Spam Alert mistakenly classified 2 @.@ 8 percent of legitimate e @-@ mail as spam . 47 percent of spam slipped past the filter . Although false positive rate was low , the feature did not fare well at finding actual spam .
The updated main interface has green and red indicators to show which features are active and which need attention . The firewall has several updated features in this version . A Block Traffic button present in the main interface blocks all incoming and outgoing Internet traffic . Another new feature , the Visual Tracker , graphically maps attacks back to their origin . The firewall blocked all port scans conducted by CNET , stealthing each port .
Following the Nimda and Code Red worms , this version scans all incoming and outgoing traffic for suspicious data exchanges against a routinely updated database , a feature ported from Norton Internet Security 2002 Professional Edition . Connection to the offending computer is automatically severed if the traffic matches a database item .
Symantec announced a Professional Edition on November 19 , 2002 . Data recovery tools in this version allow users to recover deleted or malware @-@ damaged files . The inclusion of a data erasure tool allows users to delete files while minimizing the chance of recovery . Web Cleanup removes browser cache files , history , and cookies . To maintain dial @-@ up connections , Connection Keep Alive simulates online activity during periods of user inactivity . Norton Productivity Control enables users to filter Internet content and block newsgroups . When used with the User Access Manager , multiple filtering profiles can be created , assigned to different users .
= = = Version 2004 ( 7.x ) = = =
Announced September 8 , 2003 , version 2004 adds adware , spyware , and keylogger protection . PC Magazine found the added protection to be weak . Out of the spyware samples Norton detected , a significant number were not removed completely , requiring manual removal . Norton also did little to prevent spyware infections .
Norton AntiSpam , the renamed spam filtering feature , has a set of spam rules , which cannot be viewed or edited . Whitelists and blacklists of senders can be created . Users may also create their own spam definitions . AntiSpam integrates with Outlook , Outlook Express , and Eudora , allowing users to tag e @-@ mail as spam on @-@ the @-@ fly . E @-@ mail identified as spam are either quarantined by default , however the feature can be configured to delete such messages automatically . In CNET testing , AntiSpam correctly identified 94 percent of spam messages .
Product activation was introduced in this release . After installation , users are allowed a 15 @-@ day grace period to activate their copy of Norton Internet Security 2004 . The program will not work after the deadline without the 24 @-@ character product key . The product key used to activate a copy of Norton Internet Security ties in with an alphanumeric code based on a computer 's hardware configuration . Users may activate their product five times with the same product key , however licensing terms dictate users are allowed only to install Norton Internet Security 2004 on one computer .
= = = Version 2005 ( 8.x ) = = =
Symantec introduced Version 2005 on August 17 , 2004 . This version is sometimes referred to with the tagline of " AntiSpyware Edition " , since spyware detection is integrated with Norton and is by default enabled . Found threats are listed , separating the ones already dealt with and the ones requiring user interaction . More detailed information is provided through a link to Symantec 's website . However , PC Pro and PC Magazine noted lengthy scan times . A full scan took 24 minutes to over half an hour , respectively . IN PC Pro testing , Norton detected 61 percent of the spyware samples , compared to an average of 68 percent for all the tested products . Removal rates were above average , 72 percent versus the average of 68 percent . Norton blocked reinstallation with a score of 48 percent , compared to the group average of 43 percent . Overall , Norton ranked fifth among the tested products . In PC Magazine testing , Norton installed slowly on infected systems and failed to install on one altogether . Contacting Symantec did not resolve the issue .
Other new features include Internet Worm Protection to block worms , which scan IP addresses for open ports . It also blocks inbound ports based on known and suspected exploits using signatures and heuristics . The addition of the feature follows MSBlast in 2003 and Sasser in 2004 , worms that exploited vulnerability in Microsoft Windows ' operating systems . In response to emerging privacy threats — 75 percent of the threats in the last 12 months attempted to steal confidential information — this version adds phishing protection . Using the firewall component , users can create a whitelist of sites where confidential information can be transmitted . Users are alerted when information is transmitted to a site not on the list . The Outbreak Alert feature warns users of major threats as classified by Symantec , and users can press the Fix Now button to applies a set of changes to close vulnerabilities , such as blocking necessary ports used by a propagating worm . The Browser Privacy can suppress information website generally receive about its visitors , such as the browser and operating system used . The feature can also block advertisements .
Privacy Control can warn users when sending confidential information . It can also be configured to block the transmission . It allows users to specify how the information can sent , such as via IM or e @-@ mail . Item @-@ specific exceptions allow users to control where there data can be sent . However , PC Pro found a flaw in the information filtering feature . The way information is formatted on the list of confidential information can affect its effectiveness . For example , entering the last six digits of a credit card number will not stop the numbers from leaking if they are grouped in four digits . PC Magazine also noted the fact anyone who can login to the computer can view the database of private information . For that reason , Symantec recommends entering only the last portion of sensitive information .
Norton AntiSpam now scans e @-@ mails for spoofed URLs and deals with any offending e @-@ mail as spam . E @-@ mails can also be blocked based on language , however by default the filter allows all languages . AntiSpam can sync its own list of allowed senders with POP3 address books . Users can train the spam filter by pointing out valid e @-@ mail marked as spam and vice versa . Support for Yahoo ! Mail and Hotmail was added in this release .
= = = Version 2006 ( 9.x ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2006 debuted on September 26 , 2005 . The new main interface , the Norton Protection Center , aggregates all information in a central location . Security status is shown by how secure the computer is for tasks such as e @-@ mail and Internet browsing , not in the context of which features are enabled . The Protection Center can also recognize third @-@ party software protecting the computer . The new interface advertises additional products from Symantec ; some categories of protection , such as " Data Protection " , will read " No Coverage " until the user purchases and installs Norton SystemWorks . An additional system tray icon is created by the Protection Center .
The installation was noted as lengthy by PC Magazine , especially on malware @-@ infected systems . Spyware detection has been tweaked since the last release . It has been updated to better identify keyloggers . In PC Magazine testing , Norton successfully detected all 11 spyware threats and removed all but two . PC Magazine did give Norton credit even when manual removal was required . The suite also removed three of four commercial keyloggers . When attempting to install the spyware on a clean system , Norton blocked all 11 and two of the four commercial keyloggers . In most cases , it did not block the installation , however Norton did call for a scan after the spyware was installed . In PC Pro testing , Norton detected 78 percent of spyware , removed 82 percent , and blocked 65 percent from installing .
Norton AntiSpam was discontinued as a separate product from Symantec , now only available in Norton Internet Security . The feature can block all e @-@ mail from unknown senders , and automatically blocks messages with suspicious elements such as invisible text , HTML forms , and phishing URLs . To improve accuracy , Norton analyzes outgoing e @-@ mails and messages whose categorization is corrected by users by hitting the This is spam and This is not spam buttons . In PC Magazine testing , the feature marked one in ten valid e @-@ mail as spam and let one in every six spam messages in the inbox . 400 messages were used , and the program was allowed to process the messages for over a week . In PC Pro testing , the feature performed better , blocking 96 percent of spam , with a false positive rate of 0 @.@ 2 percent .
Norton recommends disabling the Windows Firewall to avoid redundant alerts . The firewall stealthed all significant ports in PC Magazine testing . Attacking the firewall itself was unsuccessful , PC Magazine was unable to stop its service , terminate its process , or disable the firewall using simulated mouse clicks . The firewall also passed PC Pro 's tests , successfully stealthing all ports .
Other features include Bloodhound technology , which looks for virus @-@ like behavior to better find zero day viruses . The Security Inspector looks for common vulnerabilities , including insecure user account passwords and browser insecurities . Advertisement blocking rewrites a website 's HTML to prevent advertisements from being displayed . Parental controls , an optional component , can block certain programs from accessing the Internet , such as IM clients , and restrict newsgroup access . Restrictions can be assigned to different Windows users accounts . Sites are classified in 31 categories , and the four profiles which can be assigned each block different categories of sites . Supervisors define exceptions , add global blocked sites , or block all access to sites not on a user @-@ created whitelist . Both PC Magazine and PC Pro noted the exclusion of time @-@ based restrictions . Information filtering can be controlled on a per @-@ user basis .
Windows 98 compatibility was dropped from this release .
= = = Version 2007 ( 10.x ) = = =
The 2007 version was announced September 12 , 2006 . A tabbed interface allows users to access the Norton Protection Center and the program settings without separate tray icons and windows open . Symantec revised Norton Internet Security and made this version more modularized , which has reduced the suite 's memory usage to 10 – 15 megabytes and scan times by 30 – 35 percent . Another result is that spam filtering and parental controls are separate components to install . When installed , the features consume 100 MB of disk space .
Anti @-@ phishing integrates with Internet Explorer . It analyzes sites , examining the website 's URL , title , form , page layout , visible text and links , and uses a blacklist to detect phishing sites . Users are blocked access from suspected phishing sites , however are presented an option to continue . In PC Magazine testing , the feature blocked 22 of 24 phishing sites , while Internet Explorer 7 recognized 17 of the 24 sites . In PC Pro testing , the feature successfully blocked access to every phishing site it was tested against . Spam filtering no longer includes a language feature , Symantec claims it is less useful with current spam and created false positives . Tested against 1 @,@ 500 messages by PC Magazine , Norton let over half of the spam to the inbox . Five percent of valid mail were marked as spam . This version utilizes Symantec 's Veritas VxMS technology to better identify rootkits . VxMS allows Norton to find inconsistencies among files within directories and files at the volume level . A startup application manager allows users to prevent applications from launching at login . This release drops support for Windows 2000 and was compatible with Windows Vista upon its release with an update .
The firewall makes all decisions by itself to lessen the chance of being weakened by a misinformed decision . Applications known to be safe are allowed Internet access , and vice versa for malicious applications . Unknown ones are analyzed and blocked if they exhibit malicious behavior . In both PC Magazine and PC Pro testing , the firewall did not incorrectly block any safe applications from Internet access . All malware was blocked by the firewall . PC Magazine testing reflected the same results . The firewall also stealthed all ports . Exploits were blocked by the intrusion prevention system , which prevents threats from leveraging vulnerabilities . The system is updated whenever a vulnerability is identified for Windows @-@ based computers . Attempts to disable the firewall were unsuccessful ; registry changes , process termination , and simulated mouse clicks all failed . Disabling Windows services had no effect on the firewall since it works at the kernel driver level . This version automatically adjusts configuration for different networks based on the physical address of the gateway rather than IP addresses .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton detected 15 of 16 spyware samples . 13 of the 16 were removed . Against eight commercial keyloggers , the suite removed all the samples . On a clean system , Norton blocked 14 of the 16 spyware samples from installing , and stopped seven of the eight keyloggers from installing .
= = = Version 2008 ( 15.x ) = = =
The 2008 version was announced on August 28 , 2007 , adding support for Windows Vista 64 @-@ bit . New features include SONAR , the Norton Identity Safe , and Browser Defender . SONAR monitors applications for malicious behavior . The Identity Safe supersedes the information filtering function ; instead of blocking personal information from leaving the computer , it stores personal information to fill webforms . It is password protected and checks a website 's authenticity before filling any forms . Browser Defender inspects and blocks suspicious API calls , intended to stop drive @-@ by downloads . The Network Map identifies networked computers with Norton Internet Security 2008 installed . Remote monitoring allows checking the status of other installations on different computers ; problems are identified with a red " X " icon . Using the feature , users also can control network traffic between computers . It also warns users if they are using an unencrypted wireless network . The startup application manager and advertisement blocking features were dropped from this release . Information filtering , although superseded by the Identity Safe in the suite , is available separately . It can be used in conjunction with the Identity Safe .
Phishing protection now integrates with Mozilla Firefox . Testing by PC Magazine found that Norton blocked 94 percent of phishing sites , compared to 83 percent for Internet Explorer 7 and 77 percent for Firefox 2 . CNET identified an issue with the feature ; when anti @-@ phishing is disabled , the Identity Safe still offers users to automatically submit personal information to websites , including phishing sites . Symantec declined to call it a " flaw " , stating it is recommended to use the Identity Safe with anti @-@ phishing enabled . Alternatively , the Identity Safe could be used with Firefox and Internet Explorer 's built @-@ in anti @-@ phishing capability .
PC Magazine found that the firewall put all ports in stealth mode . The firewall blocked ten of 12 leak tests , used to see if malware can evade the firewall 's control of network traffic . Previous versions did not identify the tests because none carried a malicious payload . Another test was conducted using Core Impact , which successfully exploited one vulnerability on the test computer . However , other components of Norton stopped the exploit from causing harm . The other attempts were unsuccessful either because the system was invulnerable or Norton 's Intrusion Prevention System stopped it . Attempts to disable the firewall were unsuccessful by PC Magazine . On the contrary , PC Pro identified 15 open ports on a computer with Norton installed .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton completely detected most of the malware samples . For two @-@ thirds of the samples , all traces were removed . Norton found and removed all the commercial keyloggers . A full scan took nearly an hour to complete though , twice as long as the 2007 version . The suite blocked most of the malware from installing and all the commercial keyloggers , regardless of any modifications made to the samples . PC World noted that Norton removed 80 percent of malware @-@ associated files and Registry entries .
Spam filtering imports users ' address books to compile a whitelist of allowed senders . Addresses to which users send mail and e @-@ mail tagged as valid mail can be automatically added to the whitelist . Using several thousand messages , PC Magazine found that Norton marked over 40 percent of valid e @-@ mail as spam . Over 80 percent of valid newsletters were marked as spam . Norton did correctly identify 90 percent of spam e @-@ mail .
= = = Version 2009 ( 16.x ) = = =
The 2009 version was released for sale September 9 , 2008 . Symantec set several goals for version 2009 while in development : complete installations under minute and a footprint of 100 MB . Average installation times range from eight to ten minutes , and the previous 2008 version had a 400 MB footprint . Other goals included reducing load time after the computer starts , from 20 – 30 seconds to 10 seconds , and file scanning times with a technology allowing Norton to skip certain trusted files . The technology works on the basis that if a piece of software runs on a significant proportion of computers , then it is safe .
A public beta was released July 14 . A reduction in memory consumption was made , prompted by the fact 40 percent of people contacting Symantec support had 512 MB of RAM . The beta uses about 6 MB of memory , compared to 11 MB by the prior version . To reduce scan times , Norton Insight uses data from Norton Community participants to avoid scanning files that are found on a statistically significant amount of computers . Citing a NPD Group study finding that 39 percent of consumers switching antiviruses blamed performance , a CPU usage meter will be available within the final product to allow users to find the cause of high CPU usage , whether it be Norton or another program . This version features more frequent updates , a change called Norton Pulse Updates . Rather than deliver an update every eight hours , as the 2008 version does , Pulse Updates are delivered five to fifteen minutes . The Silent Mode automatically suspends alerts and updates when a program enters fullscreen mode and can be manually enabled . The suite 's activities take place while the computer is idle , and terminate once user activity is registered . The final release ( 16 @.@ 5 ) bundles spam filtering , which used to be a free download from Symantec . This release also bundles Norton Safe Web , which identifies malicious websites , compatible with Internet Explorer and Firefox . Norton Safe Web color codes search results from famous search engine such from Google and Yahoo for safety . The Norton Safe Web toolbar also includes an Ask.com search box . The search box does not share code with the Ask toolbar ; instead the box redirects queries to the Ask search engine . Norton Safe Web is compatible with Internet Explorer and Firefox . Norton Safe Web .
Benchmarking conducted by PassMark Software highlights the 2009 version 's 52 second install time , 32 second scan time , and 7 MB memory utilization . Symantec funded the benchmark test and provided scripts used to benchmark each participating antivirus software . Tests were conducted in Windows Vista running on a dual core processor . PC Magazine found the suite added 15 seconds to the boot time , with a baseline of 60 seconds . Norton added less than 5 percent to the time it takes to complete file operations . 25 percent more time was taken to unzip and zip a set of files .
In PC Magazine testing , Norton removed most traces of 40 percent of the malware . On a similar test , specifically using commercial keyloggers , Norton was able to remove most of the keyloggers , beating other tested products . Norton blocked all attempts to install malware on a clean system . Modifications made to the samples did not fool Norton . Norton was not able to block the installation of all the commercial keyloggers .
Phishing protection blocked 90 percent of verified phishing websites in PC Magazine testing . Internet Explorer 7 caught 75 percent , and Firefox caught 60 percent .
Norton stealthed all ports , according to PC Magazine . Port scans were unsuccessful . The firewall blocked all exploit attempts by Core Impact .
Malware blocking and removal garnered good results PC Magazine testing . All but one malware samples contained within a folder were removed once the folder was opened . The last one was removed when executed . Modifications made to the samples did not affect detection . On a similar test , specifically using commercial keyloggers , Norton did not successfully detect all . In removing threats , Norton almost completely removed 40 percent of the malware samples and related executables . Norton was also able to remove more commercial keyloggers than any other product .
= = = Version 2010 ( 17.x ) = = =
Version 2010 was released officially on September 8 , 2009 . This version features a technology code named , Project Quorum , which introduces reputation @-@ based threat detection to keep up with the 200 million attacks each month , many of which Symantec claims evade signature based detection . The new approach relies on Norton Community Watch , in which participants send information about the applications running on their computers . Safe applications exhibit common attributes , such as being of a known origin with known publishers . Conversely , new malware may have an unknown publisher , among other attributes . Using the data a " reputation score " is calculated and can be used to infer the likelihood of an unknown application being safe , or malicious .
Other facets of Quorum are parental controls and spam filtering . Norton Internet Security 2010 bundles a free subscription of OnlineFamily.Norton , which PC Magazine found to be an improvement over the parental controls bundled with prior releases . Spam filtering uses technologies Symantec acquired from Brightmail . Two filters are used to find spam : a locally installed one and a check against Symantec 's servers to see if the message is known spam . In PC Magazine testing , no valid e @-@ mail were marked as spam . However , 11 percent of spam still made it to the inbox . This was a significant improvement over prior releases . Another improvement to the product is the improved heuristic feature called SONAR 2 . It leverages reputation data to judge if a program is malicious or clean . Norton Insight has also been expanded , showing users the number of Norton Community participants who have a certain program installed , its impact of system resources , and how long it has been released . Information about the program 's origin and a graph of its resource usage is also provided . A new feature codenamed Autospy helps users understand what Norton did when malware was found . The malware 's actions and Norton 's resolution are presented to the user . Previous releases removed threats on sight and quietly warned users , potentially confusing when users are deceived in downloading rogue security software .
Another addition to the product is the new " Flip Screen " . With a compatible graphics card , the main display " flips over " to show the opposite side of the main interface , consisting of a chart of CPU or memory usage and a timeline of security events . Without one , the " Flip Screen " link is replaced by a " back " link , which opens the back of the windows as a separate window .
The product also adds a search engine labeled " Safe Search " . The custom search allows the user to filter out unsafe sites , get insight on them , and keep track of HTTP cookies . Malware removal and blocking performed well , setting or meeting records in PC Magazine testing . It achieved a detection rate of 98 % . The highest out of 12 tested antivirus products . The exception was blocking commercial keyloggers , where Norton made an above average score . File operations took 2 percent longer , and the file compression and extraction test took 4 percent longer . The only area where Norton introduced a significant delay was when the system was booting , the beta version of the suite added 31 percent to the boot time , significantly longer than prior versions . According to the Norton performance comparison website , Norton Internet Security scans 31 percent faster , is 70 percent lighter , and installs 76 percent faster than the leading Anti @-@ virus product . According to AV @-@ comparatives , Norton Internet Security was " Best Product of 2009 " , Bronze award for 98 @.@ 6 % detection rate in 2010 and Norton Internet Security 2010 blocked 99 / 100 internet threats from infecting the user 's computer .
= = = Version 2011 ( 18.x ) = = =
Norton Internet Security 2011 was released for Beta testing on April 21 , 2010 . Changes include a new user interface and improved scanning of internet sites for malware . With the 2011 version , Symantec also released an application that " scans " the user 's Facebook feed for any malware links . This application does not require a valid subscription . In a test sponsored by Symantec , Norton Internet Security 2011 was the only security suite to ever achieve a 100 percent protection score in a new third @-@ party test from Dennis Labs . Improved reputation scan provides the user with an easy to understand interface on files stored on the user 's computer . Marking them as trusted , good , poor , or bad . The final version of Norton Internet Security 2011 was released on August 31 , 2010 . New features in version 2011 also include Norton Rescue Tools . These tools include Norton Bootable Recovery tool and Norton Power Eraser .
On December 9 , 2010 , Symantec released the 18 @.@ 5 version through Norton LiveUpdate . However , this update was later pulled due to numerous reports on the Norton forums that the update is causing system instability and freeze ups during system scans ( both full and quick scans ) . This issue only affects some customers . Users affected by this update are advised to uninstall the product , run the Norton Removal Tool , and reinstall the 18 @.@ 1 version from http : / / www.norton.com / nis11 . Symantec later fixed the bugs and re @-@ released the update .
Following the acquisition of VeriSign Security by Norton 's parent company Symantec , several of VeriSign 's features were incorporated into the 2011 edition . The new product features a new Norton logo which uses the VeriSign checkmark formerly seen in VeriSign 's own logo , as well as several new icon changes to the Norton Safe Web and Norton Identity Safe features .
= = = Version 2012 ( 19.x ) = = =
Released ( 19 @.@ 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 28 ) on September 6 , 2011 , Norton Internet Security 2012 brought new features . One of the new features included in the new release is Download Insight 2 @.@ 0 , which not only monitors files for safety but also the stability of a given file . That means that if a file is stable on Windows 7 , but unstable on Windows XP , XP users will be notified of the file 's instability .
Enhanced removal tools are tightly integrated for better cleanup of already infected systems . Once triggered , the new , more powerful version of Norton Power Eraser restarts the system to locate and remove fake antivirus software fake antivirus software and other deeply embedded threats that are otherwise hard to remove . A new tool called Norton Management helps manage different computers and devices equipped with Norton software from a single location .
Other changes in this release include SONAR 4 , Google Chrome compatibility for Identity Safe and Safe Web and the ability to store passwords and notes in the cloud . However , the License Agreement does not guarantee passwords are stored securely and provides no remedy if the cloud vault is compromised .
The user interface is also simplified with only three buttons . The third button opens a more advanced and complicated menu , where the user is able to manage settings and access different product features . The CPU meter that was removed from Norton 2011 , also makes a return ( only on the " advanced screen " ) .
Combining the netbook and desktop line , Norton Internet Security integrates Bandwidth metering , which controls the product 's traffic usage and takes it down to minimum if necessary . This is ideal for networks with limited traffic . Also , the user interface window adjusts accordingly to the size of the computer screen .
This version of Norton Internet Security includes several Easter eggs . Pressing Shift + 1 , 2 , 3 or 4 would change the theme to default background ( plain black ) , ray , animals , and floral respectively . Also holding Control + Win Key + Alt while pressing " performance button " to activate " Crazy Flip " , which will make the window flip head over heels . The effect would continue until the main window is closed and reopened .
Furthermore , scans are no longer scheduled through the Windows Task Scheduler , but through the Symantec 's proprietary one , which performs tasks while the computer is idle ( i.e. , when the user is away from the computer ) .
= = = Version 20.x ( 2013 ) = = =
Version 20 ( 2013 ) began a " Version @-@ less " approach by dropping the 20xx naming convention , and will automatically update itself as new releases become available . Notable changes include a new user interface better suited for touchscreen devices , " Social Networking Protection , " which intends to protect against threats targeted at social networks , and was also the first release to officially support Windows 8 .
= = = Version 21.x ( 2014 ) = = =
This version , released on October 7 , 2013 , became the last version to be marketed by Symantec . Norton Internet Security , along with Norton Antivirus and Norton 360 , have been replaced with Norton Security .
= = = Version 22.x ( 2015 ) = = =
A version 22 @.@ 5 update was released in June 2015 . It includes a restyled user interface and Windows 10 Support .
= = = Norton Security = = =
In September 2014 Norton Internet Security was streamlined into Norton Security , as part of Symantec 's streamlined Norton line .
= = Netbook edition = =
Symantec has released a special edition of Norton Internet Security optimized for netbooks . This is available as download from the Symantec website or in a USB thumb drive . Symantec states that the Netbook edition is optimized for netbooks . The main display is optimized to provide support for the 800 x 480 screen resolution . In addition , non @-@ critical tasks are delayed while the netbook is on battery . Furthermore , the Netbook edition contains complimentary access to Norton 's secure online backup and parental control to protect children as they surf the web .
= = Macintosh edition = =
= = = Version 1 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 1 @.@ 0 for Mac was released November 1 , 2000 . It can identify and remove both Windows and Mac viruses . Other features include a firewall , advertisement blocking in the browser , parental controls , and the ability to prevent confidential information from being transmitted outside the computer . Users are prompted before such information is able to be transmitted . The incorporation of Aladdin Systems ' iClean allows users to purge the browser cache , cookies , and browsing history within Norton 's interface . Operating system requirements call for Mac OS 8 @.@ 1 . Hardware requirements call for 24 MB of RAM , 12 MB of disk space , and a PowerPC processor .
= = = Version 2 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 2 @.@ 0 for Mac was released on ( date unknown if you know please provide it ) . Version 2 @.@ 0 also ties in with the WHOIS database , allowing users to trace attacking computers . Users can inform network administrators of the attacking computers for corrective actions . When running under Mac OS 8 @.@ 1 or 9 , a PowerPC processor , 24 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required . Under Mac OS X 10 @.@ 1 , a PowerPC G3 processor , 128 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required .
= = = Version 3 @.@ 0 = = =
Norton Internet Security version 3 @.@ 0 for Mac was released on ( date unknown if you know please provide it ) . The subsequent release , version 3 @.@ 0 , maintained the feature set found in version 2 @.@ 0 . The firewall now allocates internet access as needed rather than relying on user input using predefined rules . Compatibility with OS 8 was dropped . When running under OS 9 @.@ 2 , a PowerPC processor , 24 MB of RAM , and 25 MB of free space is required . Under OS X 10 @.@ 1 @.@ 5 through 10 @.@ 3 , a PowerPC G3 , 128 MB of RAM , and 150 MB of free space is required . However , version 3 @.@ 0 is not compatible with OS X 10 @.@ 4 , or " Tiger " .
= = = Version 4 @.@ 0 = = =
Version 4 @.@ 0 was released on December 18 , 2008 . Symantec also markets a bundle of Version 4 @.@ 0 and the 2009 version for Windows , intended for users with both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X installed. iClean was dropped from this release . The firewall now blocks access to malicious sites using a blacklist updated by Symantec . To prevent attackers from leveraging insecurities in the Mac or installed software , exploit protection was introduced in this release . Phishing protection was introduced in this release as well . Operating system requirements call for Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 @.@ 11 or higher . A PowerPC or Intel Core processor , 256 MB of RAM and 150 MB of free space are required .
= = = Version 5 @.@ 0 = = =
Features
Norton Safe Web : Proactively protects you while you surf the Web by warning you of and blocking unsafe and fake websites right in your search results . ( Mac OS ® X 10 @.@ 7 only )
Antiphishing Technology : Blocks fraudulent phishing websites created to steal your identity and your money .
Smart Two @-@ Way Firewall : Prevents cybercriminals from hacking into your Mac ® , stealing your personal information and messing with your stuff .
Location Awareness : Lets you adjust your level of protection depending upon where you ’ re using your Mac ® ( at home , the office , the local coffee shop , on the road ) .
Vulnerability Protection : Updates daily to stop cybercriminals from using vulnerabilities in applications and other software to sneak threats onto your computer .
AntiVirus Protection : Protects your Mac ® , iPhoto ® pictures , iTunes ® media , iMovie ® projects and all your important stuff from viruses , spyware and other threats without slowing down your computer .
Confidential File Guard : Password protects your stuff to keep it safe from prying eyes .
Daily Protection Updates : Runs in the background to protect your Mac ® — and your stuff — from new , late @-@ breaking threats .
Email and Instant Message Monitoring : Scans MobileMe ® , iChat ® and other IMs for suspicious attachments and other tricks used to steal your identity and your hard @-@ earned money .
FREE 24x7 Support : Symantec provides free 24 / 7 email , chat and phone support for a period of one year from initial product installation . *
Protection options for Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 to 10 @.@ 7 : Includes both Norton ™ Internet Security 5 for Mac ® ( for Mac OS ® X v10.7 )
= = Norton vs. others = =
Norton Internet Security underwent considerable changes in performance after Symantec rewrote the its code for the 2009 release . Norton products now have only two running processes , using about 15 MB of RAM . According to PassMark Security Benchmark 2012 Norton AntiVirus and Norton Internet Security are the lightest suites available . AV @-@ Comparatives.org also tested these products and gave similar results . PC Magazine recognized the 2011 and 2012 lines as the fastest and strongest in protection . PCWorld 's tests of security software put Norton Internet Security 2009 in first place . In a 2011 test conducted by PC World , Norton Internet Security was the winner . Dennis Technology Labs ( in tests sponsored by Symantec ) confirmed the performance and effectiveness of Norton 2011 and 2012 lines .
= = Criticism of older versions before 2009 = =
= = = FBI cooperation = = =
Symantec , in compliance with the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , whitelisted Magic Lantern , a keylogger actively developed by the FBI . The purpose of Magic Lantern is to obtain passwords to encrypted e @-@ mail as part of a criminal investigation . Magic Lantern was first reported in the media by Bob Sullivan of MSNBC on November 20 , 2001 and by Ted Bridis of the Associated Press . Magic Lantern is deployed as an e @-@ mail attachment . When the attachment is opened , a trojan horse is installed on the suspect 's computer . The Trojan horse is activated when the suspect uses PGP encryption , often used to increase the security of sent e @-@ mail messages . When activated , the trojan horse will log the PGP password , which allows the FBI to decrypt user communications . Symantec and other major antivirus vendors have whitelisted Magic Lantern , rendering their antivirus products , including Norton Internet Security , incapable of detecting it . Concerns include uncertainties about Magic Lantern 's full potential and whether hackers could subvert it for purposes outside the jurisdiction of the law .
Graham Cluley , a technology consultant from Sophos , said , " We have no way of knowing if it was written by the FBI , and even if we did , we wouldn ’ t know whether it was being used by the FBI or if it had been commandeered by a third party " . Another reaction came from Marc Maiffret , chief technical officer and cofounder of eEye Digital Security , " Our customers are paying us for a service , to protect them from all forms of malicious code . It is not up to us to do law enforcement 's job for them so we do not , and will not , make any exceptions for law enforcement malware or other tools . "
FBI spokesman Paul Bresson , in response to the question of whether Magic Lantern needed a court order to be deployed , said , " Like all technology projects or tools deployed by the FBI it would be used pursuant to the appropriate legal process . "
Proponents of Magic Lantern argue the technology would allow law enforcement to efficiently and quickly decrypt messages protected by encryption schemes . Unlike a predecessor , Carnivore , implementing Magic Lantern does not require physical access to a suspect 's computer , which would necessitate a court order .
= = = Uninstallation = = =
Older versions of Norton were hard and slow to uninstall , leaving many traces and sometimes completing with errors . However , in the 2009 versions , Symantec featured their own uninstaller , that removes their products better and more quickly , usually in less than a minute . Norton Removal Tool is a well known instrument that removes Norton products completely , without any trace . The tool can be downloaded from Symantec 's website
Symantec reports that Norton 2010 range of products feature a cleaner uninstall and over @-@ installs is the recommended update route to 2011 .
= = = Windows Service Packs = = =
When Norton Internet Security 2008 is installed , users may encounter incompatibilities upgrading to Windows XP Service Pack 3 or Windows Vista Service Pack 1 . Users report numerous invalid registry keys being added by a tool named fixcss.exe , resulting in an empty Device Manager and missing devices such as wireless network adapters . Symantec initially blamed Microsoft for the incompatibilities but has since accepted partial responsibility .
Dave Cole , Symantec 's Vice President & General Manager , acknowledged that users running Norton products were experiencing problems , but said the numbers are small . Cole also said that Symantec had done " extensive testing " of its products with Windows XP SP3 , but this issue was not encountered . Cole blamed Microsoft " This is related to XP SP3 . " Microsoft recommended that users contact Windows customer support . To resolve the problem , Symantec has issued a fix intended for users before upgrading . Symantec also recommends disabling the tamper protection component in the 2008 release , dubbed SymProtect . A tool to remove the added registry entries is also available from Symantec .
= = = Windows Vista = = =
Sarah Hicks , Symantec '
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Michigan Avenue on the west , and Lake Michigan on the north and east , according to most sources , although the City of Chicago only recognizes a small portion of this region as Streeterville . Thus , it can be described as the Magnificent Mile plus all land east of it . The majority of the land in this neighborhood is reclaimed sandbar .
The neighborhood contains a combination of hotels , restaurants , professional office centers , residential high rises , universities , medical facilities , and cultural venues . The area has undergone increased development in the early 21st century as numerous empty lots in Streeterville have been converted into commercial and residential properties , especially in the southern part of the neighborhood . The neighborhood had earlier experienced booms following World War I and World War II .
= = History = =
Before the American settlement of the Chicago area , the lake shoreline fluctuated from year to year as storm waves eroded parts of the shore and built up the shore elsewhere . By 1803 , when American troops started the construction of Fort Dearborn , a baymouth bar blocked the mouth of the river causing it to jog southwards and enter Lake Michigan at about the level of present @-@ day Madison Street . When surveyed in 1821 the Lake Michigan shoreline north of the river ran approximately along what is now North St Clair Street , just to the east of what is now Michigan Avenue . In 1834 , after a number of failed attempts to cut through the sandbar at the mouth of the river , a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ foot ( 457 @.@ 2 m ) pier was built to protect a channel cut through the bar . Silt and sand accumulated north of this pier , creating usable land that was later nicknamed " The Sands " . Squatters and a vice district encroached on the district , causing angst among the property owners . In 1857 , Chicago Mayor John Wentworth evicted these trespassers from the land .
In the late 1880s , George Streeter claimed that his newly acquired boat struck a sandbar just off the Chicago shoreline during a storm . Landfill dumped in an effort to create land on which to build Lake Shore Drive by the Lincoln Park Board created 186 acres ( 0 @.@ 75 km2 ) of new land along the lake front , which Streeter attempted to claim . Streeter claimed that this newly created land was his and that it was an independent territory which he called the District of Lake Michigan .
For the next few decades , Streeter persisted in his claims , sometimes supporting them through criminal means . A witness in Streeter 's 1902 land fraud trial testified that Streeter had purposely set out to contest the claims of the wealthy shoreline owners . Contractor Hank Brusser told the court that Streeter asked him to fill in portions of the shoreline in order to create confusion over land titles . According to Brusser , Streeter said that : " They [ the owners of the shoreline ] will have to buy us off " and that " We 'll get a million out of it " . Streeter was also motivated by the profit he gained by selling and taxing the land he claimed .
The local press became enamored with the story of Streeter 's brash personality and his self @-@ proclaimed district . Mayor William Hale Thompson tried to evict the Streeters for selling liquor , and after several eviction attempts and gun battles , Streeter landed in jail . In 1918 , the courts ruled against his claim of sovereignty . Today , the district is home to some of the most expensive real estate in Chicago .
The 1920 opening of the Michigan Avenue Bridge , which was part of the efforts to enact the Burnham Plan of 1909 , as well as the economic boom of the 1920s , brought wealth to the eastern sector of the Near North Side and paved the way for a luxury shopping district on North Michigan Avenue . Investors built high @-@ rise apartment buildings such as those in the East Lake Shore Drive Historic District , and elaborate hotels . The Bridge connected to a North Michigan avenue that served as a replacement for the former Pine Street which hosted warehouses and factory buildings near the river , and large mansions and rowhouses in northward sections in the neighborhoods of McCormickville and Streeterville . Magnificent Mile architecture during the economic boom of the 1920s emphasized historicist architectural styles such as Beaux @-@ Arts classicism , Gothic revival , and vertical @-@ style modernism . The buildings redefined the Chicago skyline with stylistic variation that gave new meaning to urban context and design compatibility .
A post @-@ World War II construction surge occurred in the area , and in the 1950s the city pursued a plan of urban renewal . A local real estate developer named Arthur Rubloff led the revitalization of North Michigan Avenue under the banner of “ The Magnificent Mile ” . The success of this effort spurred the erection of more high @-@ rise apartments and new investment in the Near North Side . This development led to the " canyonization " of Michigan Avenue , where the buildings on both sides of the street tower above , creating an " urban canyon " .
= = Today = =
Although there is general agreement that Streeterville is bounded on the west by the Magnificent Mile , the City of Chicago and the Streeterville Organization of Active Residents , claim the boundary extends one block further to the west to Rush Street . Streeterville includes some of Chicago 's tallest skyscrapers , such as the John Hancock Center , and upscale stores , hotels , and restaurants .
Although its main campus is in Evanston , Illinois , Northwestern University has its Chicago campus here . The Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine is on the Chicago campus and is adjacent to several closely affiliated hospitals , including Northwestern Memorial Hospital , the Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago , the Prentice Women 's Hospital , and the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago . The Prentice Women 's Hospital opened in October 2007 , and the Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago opened in May 2012 . The Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago is located in Streeterville and construction of a replacement facility , also in Streeterville , was begun in 2013 . The Northwestern University School of Professional Studies and part of its Kellogg School of Management are nearby . The Northwestern University School of Law is at Chicago Avenue and Lake Shore Drive , adjacent to Lake Shore Park and Lake Michigan . Next to the Park is the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago . The downtown campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business has a Chicago River setting to the south . The east side of the Magnificent Mile portion of Michigan Avenue is part of Streeterville , as are Navy Pier , the most visited attraction in Chicago , and the John Hancock Observatory , the eighth @-@ most visited attraction in Chicago .
The area east of Michigan Avenue and north of the Chicago River had a split personality for much of the 20th century - the northern portion upscale residential , retail , and university uses and the area near the Chicago River and Navy Pier dedicated to shipping and factories . At the end of the 1960s , however , residential complexes such as Lake Point Tower ( 1965 ) and McClurg Court Center ( 1971 ) began to appear among the warehouses and by the end of the century , residential and retail dominated the entire area . The neighborhood now has a reputation as part of an upscale residential strip that balances the more industrial western portion of the Near North Side . In 2007 , construction started on what would have been Chicago 's tallest skyscraper , the Chicago Spire . It was to be located in the southeastern corner of the neighborhood , next to Lake Shore Drive . The Chicago Spire was originally supposed to be completed in 2010 , but was later cancelled .
In the early 21st century , much of the southern part of the neighborhood that had previously contained warehouses and empty lots has undergone development , including the River East Center east of Columbus Drive . The River East Art Center serves as the primary retail hub apart from the Magnificent Mile . South Streeterville currently has numerous skyscrapers that are either proposed or already under construction such as a new tower at InterContinental Chicago and 500 North Lake Shore .
Streeterville hosts several landmarks and places that have been designated as historic districts . The East Lake Shore Drive Historic District , which consists of a row of early 20th century luxury apartments , sits on the northern edge of the district opposite Lake Michigan . The Old Chicago Water Tower District is located along Michigan Avenue where Streeterville meets the border of the River North and Gold Coast ( Chicago ) neighborhoods at Chicago Avenue . The Water Tower District contains the only public buildings that survived the 1871 Great Chicago Fire . Also , part of the Michigan – Wacker Historic District lies within Streeterville at the southern end of the Magnificent Mile and contains numerous high rises and skyscrapers built in the 1920s .
The neighborhood hosts several individual landmarks . The neighborhood hosts a National Historic Landmark , the Jean Baptiste Point Du Sable Homesite , the home of the first settler in Chicago . Properties in the neighborhood listed in the National Register of Historic Places include 257 East Delaware , the 860 @-@ 880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments , the Drake Hotel , the Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , the Navy Pier and the Palmolive Building . Other Chicago Landmarks in the neighborhood include Allerton Hotel , Farwell Building , McGraw @-@ Hill Building , Perkins , Fellows & Hamilton Office and Studio , Tribune Tower , and the Woman 's Athletic Club . Notable buildings in the district include the skyscrapers on the Magnificent Mile :
John Hancock Center ( 1 @,@ 127 feet ( 344 m ) )
900 North Michigan ( 871 feet ( 265 m ) )
Water Tower Place ( 859 feet ( 262 m ) )
Park Tower ( 844 feet ( 257 m ) )
Olympia Centre ( 725 feet ( 221 m ) )
One Magnificent Mile ( 673 feet ( 205 m ) )
Chicago Place ( 608 feet ( 185 m ) )
Palmolive Building ( 565 feet ( 172 m ) ) .
Non @-@ Michigan Avenue skyscrapers in the neighborhood include the following :
Lake Point Tower ( 645 feet ( 197 m ) )
River East Center ( 644 feet ( 196 m ) )
North Pier Apartments ( 581 feet ( 177 m ) )
Onterie Center ( 570 feet ( 170 m ) )
Elysées Condominiums ( 529 feet ( 161 m ) )
401 East Ontario ( 515 feet ( 157 m ) )
The Streeter ( 514 feet ( 157 m ) )
Streeter Place ( 554 feet ( 169 m ) )
400 East Ohio Street ( 505 feet ( 154 m ) ) .
Some of the notable buildings in the district that have not been designated are Wrigley Building and Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago .
The neighborhood hosts more than 25 hotels , including the Ritz Carlton , one of three five star hotels in the Midwestern United States , and the historic Drake Hotel . The Peninsula Hotel , another of the three five star hotels in the Midwestern United States , and the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago , the other of the Midwestern five star hotels are located in the neighborhood near Rush Street . These two hotels host the highest rated spas in Illinois .
= = Economy = =
Qatar Airways operates an office in Suite 1310 at the John Hancock Center .
Playboy Enterprises ' offices were on the 15th and 16th floors of 680 N. Lake Shore Drive until 2012 .
Several consulates are in Streeterville . Countries with consulates include Bosnia and Herzegovina , Bulgaria , Chile , Denmark , Greece , Japan , Lithuania , and Switzerland .
= = Transportation = =
Streeterville is accessible via Lake Shore Drive with multiple direct exits in both directions . In addition , the Chicago ' L ' has a stops at Chicago and Grand stations on the Red Line , which runs along State Street immediately to the west of the neighborhood . From the Kennedy Expressway the Ohio Street exit feeds into Streeterville . Numerous Chicago Transit Authority bus routes run within the neighborhood , notably along Michigan Avenue , Grand Avenue , and Chicago Avenue . During warm @-@ weather months , water taxis and sightseeing boats ply the Chicago River along the south edge of the neighborhood and Navy Pier handles similar Lake Michigan water traffic .
= Operation Donnerkeil =
Unternehmen Donnerkeil ( Operation Thunderbolt ) was the codename for a German military operation of the Second World War . Donnerkeil was designed as an air superiority operation to support the Kriegsmarine 's ( German Navy ) Operation Cerberus , also known as the " Channel Dash " .
In 1941 Kriegsmarine surface vessels had carried out commerce raiding sorties in support of the German U @-@ Boats in the Battle of the Atlantic . In January 1941 Operation Berlin was launched followed by Operation Rheinübung in May 1941 . The dominance of the Royal Navy 's surface fleet prevented the German units returning to ports in the Baltic sea or Germany . The surviving ships , the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau and the cruiser Prinz Eugen , docked in the port of Brest , France . Throughout 1941 RAF Bomber Command attacked the ships in dock . The close proximity of the ports to Royal Air Force ( RAF ) airfields allowed a large number of sorties to be flown against the targets in quick succession . The Oberkommando der Marine ( Naval High Command ) , and Adolf Hitler himself desired to move the ships out of range from potential air raids .
In December 1941 the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( High Command of the Air Force ) was ordered to formulate an air superiority plan for the protection of three German capital ships to escape from France to Germany through the English Channel . General der Jagdflieger ( General of the Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland prepared the aerial assets for the operation . Both Cerberus and its supporting operation , Donnerkeil , were launched on 11 February 1942 . During the first phase of the operation the Germans achieved surprise . The German ships reached Germany on 13 February 1942 , just two days after the start of Cerberus and Donnerkeil .
During the Channel Dash the Luftwaffe succeeded in defeating air attacks on the German ships during the operation , thus allowing them to reach German waters . In the air battles that took place over the Channel the British suffered heavy losses for a non @-@ existent return . German losses were modest , and the operation achieved its objective .
= = Background = =
The first German Capital ships to dock at Brest were the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , on 22 March 1941 . In the previous eight weeks , January — March , they had participated in the German Operation Berlin against Allied shipping in the Atlantic Ocean . Just nine weeks later , the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen also sought refuge in the harbour on 1 June 1941 , after the failed Operation Rheinübung ( Operation Exercise Rhine ) . However , whilst in port , the ships were in easy range of British air power and suffered frequent attacks and some damage . A ten @-@ month offensive by the RAF from 29 March 1941 succeeded in flying 2 @,@ 928 sorties against the Brest harbour , 171 in daylight . Some of these suffered heavy losses . A raid on 24 July lost 12 percent of its strength . Night bombing was safer as the Germans lacked night @-@ fighters and the 18 losses to enemy action were claimed by Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery ( AAA ) . During the course of their campaign the RAF used more sophisticated navigation aids . On the night of the 7 / 8 December 1941 the Oboe navigation aid was employed for the first time .
Concerned after the loss of Bismarck , Adolf Hitler ordered the Kriegsmarine to move the ships to Germany for overhauls in preparation for their deployment to Norway . There they were to serve as a fleet in being , and as the premier naval defence for German @-@ occupied Norway . After lengthy discussions the Oberkommando der Marine opted for the shorter , but arguably more dangerous route , through the English Channel .
On 12 January 1942 Hitler met with the commanders of the operation at his Headquarters in East Prussia ( Wolf 's Lair ) . Present were Wilhelm Keitel , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Wehrmacht ( German Armed Forces ) , Hans Jeschonnek ( Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff ) , Alfred Jodl ( Chief of Staff for Military Operations ) and Adolf Galland , General der Jagdflieger ( General of the Fighter Forces ) , Erich Raeder ( Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Navy ) and Vice @-@ Admiral Otto Ciliax , who was to lead the battle group ( Kampfgruppe ) . During the course of the meeting Hitler likened the German fleet to " a patient with cancer which is doomed unless they submit to an operation . An operation , on the other hand , even though it may have to be drastic , will at least offer some hope that the patient 's life may yet be saved . The passage of our ships is such an operation . It must be attempted " . Not much operational detail was discussed . The Luftwaffe was ordered to provide air cover and diversion raids against British targets . Jeschonnek promised around 250 aircraft .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Luftwaffe plan = = =
The OKL was not happy about supporting Cerberus . Jeschonnek remarked to Galland that if Cerberus failed then the Luftwaffe would be made a scapegoat . Jeschnonnek was to be proved right . During the 12 January 1942 meeting , the Navy demanded maximum fighter cover be given and won Hitler 's support . Should anything go wrong , the Navy would most likely blame the Luftwaffe for damage sustained by enemy air forces . During the meeting Jeschonnek stood his ground and refused to give any guarantees or to reinforce the Western Fighter Forces from other theatres . Galland was given executive power for the air operation which was given the code name Unternehmen Donnerkeil ( Operation Thunderbolt ) . The existence of the operation was so secret that both Jeschonnek and Galland had to sign secrecy pledges as they left Hitler 's Headquarters in East Prussia .
The details of the plan were worked out with Oberst ( Colonel ) Karl Koller , Generalfeldmarschall Hugo Sperrle 's chief of staff , Luftflotte 3 ( Air Fleet 3 ) . To assemble sufficient strength some training units had to be mobilised ( the bulk of the Jagdwaffe was in the Soviet Union owing to Operation Barbarossa ) .
The route was subdivided into three sectors based upon the existing Jafü ( Fighter Sector ) boundaries , but to ensure local control Max Ibel , former Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 27 ( Fighter Wing 27 ) was appointed Jagdfliegerführer Schiff , shortened to Jafü Schiff ( meaning Fighter Controller Ship ) and embarked onto Scharnhorst as a signals officer in order to communicate with Luftwaffe units during the operation . Eight dummy operations , involving around 450 sorties , were made from 22 January to 10 February to train for the mission . It is unclear whether the British were aware of these training missions .
To disrupt British radio transmissions , Wolfgang Martini 's unit , the Funkhorchdienst ( Radio Enlightening Service , or Signals intelligence ) attempted to jam radio @-@ telephone frequencies . They created a subtle jamming technique which increased atmospheric interference which degraded the performance of British coastal radars . In addition Dornier Do 217s of Kampfgeschwader 2 ( Bomber Wing 2 ) was ordered to fly electronic deception missions over the western channel to divert enemy aircraft . Joachim Coeler 's Fliegerkorps IX prepared to strike at RAF bases in south @-@ west England and to engage and slow down British naval forces that might attempt an interception . Fernaufklärungsgruppe 123 ( strategic or long @-@ range reconnaissance ) was responsible for maintaining reconnaissance in the channel 's east and west entrance and was to support Fliegerkorps IX .
To ensure constant air support , Jagdgeschwader ( Fighter Wings ) and Nachtjagdgeschwader ( Night Fighter Wings ) in the shape of Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 , were ordered to achieve a frantic pace in servicing and preparing aircraft for their next mission . To keep a constant aerial vigil over the task force , the ' black men ' ( mechanics ) had to complete rearming and refuelling in 30 minutes or less . Galland insisted that the air units aircraft should be split between high and low altitude to provide sound cover . The low altitude groups would be able to evade detection by British coastal radar . Galland demanded an umbrella of at least 16 fighters over the ships at any one time along the whole length of the channel . The fighter group would be split into two groups of eight aircraft for their respective patrol altitudes . Each formation was split into two Schwärme of four aircraft . The Schwärme tactics involved one formation flying to sea and one to land in a zigzag pattern . All Schwärme were ordered to fly back and forth along the line of ships in wide figures of eight while maintaining radio silence . Every sortie was meticulously timed to allow the fighters exactly 30 minutes over the ships , enough to maintain cover and allow the relieved units to refuel and rearm and return to start the cycle again . However , during Donnerkeil , the relieving sortie would arrive after only 20 minutes which meant the actual fighter cover for half the dash would be 32 fighters .
= = = British preparations = = =
RAF forces codenamed their response to the German action as Operation Fuller . The British Air Forces were aware that the Germans might opt to choose the English Channel as their route . Captain Norman Dening , head of the Admiralty ’ s Operational Intelligence Centre was not certain that the Germans would attempt it , though he regarded as a possibility . At the end of January he had warned that the German warships were preparing to put to sea and a major operation should be expected . Dening sent a message to First Sea Lord Dudley Pound :
The short cut of the German ships is via the English Channel . It is 240 miles from Brest to Cherbourg and another 120 miles from Cherbourg to the Dover straits . While ships could make the passage from Brest to Cherbourg or from Cherbourg to the Dover straits in the same dark period , they could not make the complete passage from Brest to Dover in one dark period .
At first sight this passage from up the Channel seems hazardous for the Germans . It is probable , however , that as their heavy ships are not fully efficient , they would prefer such a passage , relying for their security on the destroyers and aircraft which are efficient , and knowing full well that we have no heavy ships to oppose them in the Channel …
Taking all factors into consideration , it appears that the Germans can pass east up the Channel with much less risk than they will incur if they attempt an ocean passage .
Air Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of RAF Coastal Command agreed this was the probable route . He expected the Germans to make an attempt anytime after the 10 February . Unfortunately , the Air Ministry and the three RAF commands , RAF Coastal Command , RAF Bomber Command and RAF Fighter Command , believed the Germans would use the darkness for the longest and most dangerous part of the journey through the straits and would leave in daylight . The far from adequate forces at their disposal , they believed , would be best used at night . Most of RAF Bomber Command was ordered to stand down accordingly . Such an order made it totally unprepared to strike in daylight hours on 12 February .
Coastal Command had agreed to provide three squadrons of Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers . The Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) contributed one squadron of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers . RAF Bomber Command had some 300 bombers on standby for any operation . There were problems , however . The Swordfish were very slow , and fighter escort of the aircraft was difficult . The Beaufort squadrons were all spread out and it was difficult to bring them together . One squadron was based at Leuchers , Scotland , one at Thorney Island , Portsmouth , England , and one near St Eval , Cornwall , England .
= = Forces involved = =
= = = Luftwaffe = = =
The Luftwaffe contributed five wings to the operation . Jagdgeschwader 1 ( Fighter Wing 1 or JG 1 ) , Jagdgeschwader 2 ( JG 2 ) , Jagdgeschwader 26 ( JG 26 ) were equipped with day fighter aircraft , mostly the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . JG 2 and JG 26 operated the Fw 190 , while JG 1 operated the Bf 109 . Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 was also pressed into the air superiority role . Its Messerschmitt Bf 110s operated in much smaller numbers . Kampfgeschwader 2 operated in a support role , mainly maritime interdiction and air raids on enemy airfields in southern England to distract the RAF from the Channel ’ s airspace . The Germans , in total , had a combined strength of 252 fighters , 30 heavy fighters and 32 bombers . JG 1 and JG 2 operated the Bf 109 , while JG 26 maintained a " monopoly " on the Fw 190 .
= = = RAF and FAA = = =
Confidence in the British bomber force was low . Having had no anti @-@ shipping attack training , their ability to inflict damage to the ships was poor . The main hope was placed in the torpedo bomber force made up mainly of the Beaufort and Swordfish aircraft of Coastal Command and the Fleet Air Arm . Beauforts of No. 42 Squadron RAF , No. 86 Squadron RAF and No. 217 Squadron RAF were made available from Coastal Command for the mission , but were short of torpedoes . The three torpedo squadrons were the only ones available on 12 February 1942 . Some 57 Bristol Beauforts had been diverted to other theatres , leaving a chronic shortage of torpedo bombers in Britain at a time when a major enemy naval operation was expected . Moreover , a further two squadrons ( No. 415 and No. 489 Squadron RAF ) had been withdrawn to convert to Handley Page Hampdens . No. 22 Squadron RAF was in the midst of a transfer to the Middle East at the time of the German operation .
No. 825 Squadron FAA and their Fairey Swordfish were also made available . Lockheed Hudson 's of No. 224 Squadron RAF and No. 233 Squadron RAF were also committed for reconnaissance operations . No. 22 Squadron RAF was recalled from leave to take part in any potential operation in the Channel . Hudsons from No. 407 Squadron RCAF were also available , and were placed on high alert . They took part in the fighting . RAF Bomber Command contributed its No. 5 Group RAF , containing some 242 of the 300 aircraft available to the service .
RAF Fighter Command committed several squadrons to the operation ; No. 1 , 19 , 91 , 41 , 118 , 129 , 137 , 234 , 401 , 403 , 607 , 316 , 411 , 452 , 485 , 137 , 128 , 64 , 65 , 72 , and 11 .
= = Channel Dash = =
= = = Contact = = =
During the evening of the 10 February 1942 the German flotilla prepared to undertake their operation . As they slipped anchor RAF bombers appeared over head . The German ships conducted a u @-@ turn and sped back to the dock . The RAF bombers released their bombs but did little damage . Fortunately they did not notice anything untoward .
Ultra intercepts had put the British on alert . However , a series of mistakes and bad luck enabled the Germans to evade detection . Three Lockheed Hudsons of Coastal Command conducted a patrol at three positions . The first , named " Stopper " , maintained surveillance between sunset and first light off the port of Brest . The Second , " Line SE " watched due north of the port , and the third , " Habo " , covered the area between Le Havre and Boulogne . The patrols lasted between 01 : 00 hours to dawn on 11 February . At 19 : 25 on the 11 February , " Stopper " took off as usual but was intercepted by a Bf 110 night fighter of NJG 1 . The Hudson evaded the Bf 110 , but its ASV equipment was unserviceable . The aircraft headed back to St. Eval , landing at 20 : 40 . Its replacement headed over the same area , reaching the location at 22 : 38 . It was too late , during the interlude , Ciliax and his ships had slipped their moorings . The “ Line SE ” Hudson should have picked up the German fleet , but in a repeat incident the ASV failed at 20 : 55 . At 21 : 50 all attempts to repair it failed , and the Hudson returned to base . No replacement took its place . Everything now depended on " Habo " , but Ciliax ’ s luck held . At dawn , mist began to form over the airfield at Thorney Island . The mist was threatening to deny a clear landing run for the Hudson , so it was recalled one hour early , just as the German ships were approaching " Habo ’ s " zone . II . / NJG 1 flew 19 sorties , protecting the ships during the night , until replaced by JG 2 at 08 : 00 .
For 11 hours the German fleet sailed from Brest into the English Channel to the Dover Straits . By chance , a mechanic on the radar station at Fairlight , East Sussex had just finished repairing the equipment when he picked up 27 echos at 10 : 15 on 12 February , south of Cap Gris Nez . The information was relayed to Vice @-@ Admiral Bertram Ramsay , who ordered his Air Officer liaison to contact No. 11 Group RAF to ask for armed reconnaissance . Ramsay also warned No. 16 Group RAF and the FAA squadron operating out of RAF Manston that there were possible targets were in the Channel , despite not knowing the exact number or size of the enemy vessels . The performance of the radar was down to the jamming of the sets ( Ballstöranlage ) by two Heinkel He 111s which had been flying off the south coast from their airfield near Paris . The flights ceased at 09 : 00 when installations along the French coast had taken over . The detection by Fairlight was a piece of good fortune , the Germans had assumed it to be out of action . Ten Dornier Do 217s from III . / KG 2 flew missions against Plymouth harbour and airfield , while 15 flew diversion missions to keep RAF fighters clear of the He 111s .
Ramsay 's request arrived at RAF Kenley . Two experienced pilots , Group Captain Francis Victor Beamish ( 10 victories ) and Wing Commander Finlay Boyd ( 14 victories ) , were sent on patrol to investigate . Flying over the channel in Spitfires , they ran into large numbers of Bf 109s protecting a large fleet of warships and dived away . Holding radio silence they kept their discovery until they landed . They sighted the ships at 10 : 42 and landed at 11 : 09 . It was another 16 minutes before Bomber Command was alerted and Ramsay did not know of the situation until 11 : 30 . Soon afterwards , at around 12 : 16 GMT , the first naval actions began between escorting Schnellboots and British Motor Torpedo Boats ( MTBs ) and the British were alerted . Galland ordered all low flying to cease and allowed Max Ibel and his team aboard Scharnhorst to break radio silence . Ibel then began directing Fw 190 and Bf 109s toward RAF units heading to the area . As luck would have it , as the first outnumbered British units entered the airspace over the ships , the German vessels were now at their closest point to German airfields . It allowed the Luftwaffe to offer maximum protection .
= = = Main assaults = = =
Lieutenant Commander Eugene Esmonde , acting as Squadron Leader , No. 825 Squadron FAA took off with his Fairey Swordfish formation at 12 : 25 to attack the ships . No. 411 and 64 Squadron were to escort the FAA but arrived over Manston 15 minutes late and missed the rendezvous . The only unit to keep to mission orders was Squadron Leader Brian Kingcome 's No. 72 Squadron . Unaware of the Swordfish squadron 's location , they ran into each other by fortunate accident . Owing to low cloud cover , they dropped to between 50 and 100 feet . The heavy German fighter cover put an end to the protection the Spitfire 's could provide as the RAF fighters now had to look after themselves . The Spitfires and Swordfish were engaged by Fw 190s of 8 staffel and 9 staffel . / JG 26 led by Gruppenkommandeur ( Group Commander ) Gerhard Schöpfel of III . / JG 26 . The Fw 190s were just relieving fighters of JG 2 . Frail and slow , the Swordfish forced German pilots to lower their undercarriages to prevent overshooting the biplanes . In the event all six Swordfish were shot down . The Spitfires destroyed three Fw 190s in return . Several Swordfish managed to fire off their torpedoes but none found their mark . Lieutenant Commander Esmonde was shot down and killed by an Fw 190 . He was awarded the Victoria Cross . Only five of the original eighteen Swordfish crew survived . No. 41 Squadron RAF claimed three Bf 109s ( most likely from JG 1 ) destroyed and one damaged off the Belgian coast . No. 72 Squadron claimed three Fw 190s destroyed and four damaged in the battles around 13 : 00 . No. 410 Squadron claimed two Bf 109s destroyed and two damaged in the same dogfights . The German ships consumed very little ammunition , as the action had been carried out largely by the Luftwaffe .
The stand down order had meant RAF Bomber Command 's contribution to the proceedings came relatively late in the day . It dispatched a total of 73 bombers at between 13 : 55 and 14 : 50 ( GMT ) . None of the attackers succeeded in hitting their targets . At 14 : 35 nine Bristol Beauforts from No. 42 Squadron led by W.H Cliff took off . Arriving over Manston at 14 : 50 they found other aircraft from No. 407 RCAF orbiting . It took nearly 30 minutes to form a proper formation . With several other squadrons they attacked the Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen at heights of between 60 and 100 feet but their torpedoes missed . No losses were suffered by No. 42 Squadron . The Hudsons struck at between 400 and 900 feet . Two RCAF bombers were lost without success . No. 217 Squadron nearly achieved a hit on Gneisenau , but the ship turned away , just missing the salvo . Later , another wave of 134 — 137 bombers intercepted the ships between 16 : 00 and 17 : 05 . Only 20 crews managed to make attacks owing to poor training ( Bomber Command crews were not trained to hit naval targets ) , a low cloud base ( 700 metres ) and poor visibility ( sea level visibility was between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 yards ) . Nine bombers were lost . Another formation of 35 Vickers Wellington aircraft attempted a strike between 17 : 50 and 18 : 15 , losing two of their number . The most notable raid in this action was by six Beauforts from No. 86 , three from No. 217 and three from No. 22 Squadron . Wing Commander C. Flood , No. 86 Squadron led the attack in the only ASV @-@ loaded aircraft . Locating the German ships in the darkness they attacked , but heavy AAA fire scattered the bombers and no successes were achieved . Of the 242 bombers that took part in the missions , it is likely only 39 conducted attacks , though it is possible that a further 16 carried out attacks , suggesting a total of 54 aircraft actually released their bombs against the ships . Of this total 15 of those were shot down . RAF Fighter Command also threw in fighter @-@ bombers to try and inflict damage , operating Hawker Hurricanes over the Dover area .
The only success the British managed to achieve was to damage both the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst ( the latter seriously ) . Scharnhorst hit two mines , one at 14 : 31 GMT , and a further one at 21 : 34 GMT . Gneisenau also struck a mine at 18 : 55 GMT . Both ships recovered and steamed on . Scharnhost had been stopped dead in the water with engine damage after the first hit . The failure to alert Bomber Command earlier meant a chance was missed to deliver an attack on Scharnhorst when it was most vulnerable . The second and third mine hits came after nightfall , which enabled both vessels to avoid further attacks . The last RAF sighting of the ships had occurred at 18 : 00 GMT .
It is unclear exactly who was responsible for the damage on the German ships . It is possible that the mines were air @-@ dropped by RAF Handley Page Hampden bombers . Should this be the case , the bombers achieved far more damage than the Royal Navy and the rest of the RAF combined .
= = = Losses and overclaiming = = =
In protecting the RAF bombers , Fighter Command lost 20 fighters , 14 pilots killed and three captured . Only eight of the RAF fighters were shot down by the Luftwaffe . A further eight were shot down by AAA fire , two collided and two were lost to unknown causes . Ten of the fighters were Spitfires , six were Hawker Hurricanes and four were Westland Whirlwinds . During the air battles , mutual overclaiming took place , though the Luftwaffe was significantly worse . RAF Fighters claimed 16 Bf 109s destroyed and 13 damaged . Four Fw 190s were also claimed destroyed and six damaged . Actual German losses amounted to 17 fighters , along with five Do 217s . Human casualties amounted to 23 killed . German fighter units claimed 60 RAF aircraft shot down , with JG 26 awarded seven kills and six probable victories . Actual British losses were 41 , a number of which were lost to AAA fire . III . / KG 2 had participated in raids against RAF airfields . The Luftwaffe had flown 300 fighter and 40 bomber missions during the 11 — 12 February .
= = Attacks in port = =
The German flotilla had reached home ports on the evening of the 12 February . However , while the threat from RAF bombers in daylight had now gone , Bomber Command was soon making night bombing attacks on Kiel ’ s port . Gneisenau was moved into an inner basin alongside her depot ship , Monte Olivia . The hatches were left open and her tanks , still containing a large amount of fuel , were left unattended . RAF Bomber Command made its first attack on the night of the 25 / 26 February , when 61 bombers flew over Kiel . Monte Olivia was destroyed but Gneisenau escaped . On 26 / 27 February another 61 RAF bombers returned . A bomb penetrated Gneisenau 's foredeck and exploded . The oil fumes from the tanks ignited and the ship was engulfed in fire from her bow to the Anton turret . The entire forward part of the bow needed to be replaced . She steamed to Gdynia , in Poland on 4 April where she was decommissioned out of range of RAF bombers . Gneisenau did not put to sea again . The raid cost three aircraft , one Hampton and two Wellingtons . German casualties amounted to 16 civilians and 116 sailors dead .
On 27 / 28 February 1942 33 bombers flew over Wilhelmshaven looking for Scharnhorst . Cloud obscured the target area and German reports noted only three explosions . Three Armstrong Whitworth Whitley bombers were lost to unstated causes . In 1942 Scharnhorst had evaded the worst attacks from RAF Bomber Command . It was ready for redeployment by the summer , but a series of accidents , such as striking a mine and running aground meant this was delayed until the turn of the year . The ship made three unsuccessful attempts to sail to Norway . On 10 January 1943 she was spotted by RAF aircraft and turned back after reaching only the Skagerrak . Another attempt was tried in January but failed . On 3 March 1943 Scharnhorst finally made it to Norway . She would survive another eight months before being sent on her last wartime mission , Operation Ostfront . During her sortie Scharnhorst was sunk at the Battle of the North Cape .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = British failures = = =
The failure to coordinate the FAA , RAF and Navy dispersed any counterstrike . Confusion owing to the weather and the lack of any centralised control of British sea and air forces caused each element to work independently of one another . This caused several friendly fire incidents , such as the attack by No. 217 Squadron on HMS Mackay . The most serious failure was Fighter Command ’ s failure to provide adequate protection to bomber and naval forces . Although the weather also prevented greater German fighter activity by the time the target area was reached , valuable time had been lost by bomber formations searching for their fighter escorts over the rendezvous positions which either never arrived or were given incorrect orders or direction too late to be acted upon . Little communication was enabled between fighter and bomber units , but also between the strike units themselves . Compounding the problems , RAF Bomber Command ’ s crews , which made up the majority of the strike forces , were not trained for attacks against naval targets . The only anti @-@ shipping torpedo @-@ bomber squadrons were No. 42 and 217 Squadrons of Coastal Command , which owing to logistical issues , were five torpedoes short of their total complement .
Air Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté , RAF Coastal Command , blamed the failure of Operation Fuller on the neglect of anti @-@ shipping aviation , not to those directing the forces during the operation or intelligence services . Joubert called for all anti @-@ shipping units to be handed over to the service . Better training , more aircraft and a higher quality of equipment would allow the RAF to avoid a repeat of the Channel Dash . The Air Ministry refused his request and instead put No. 2 Group RAF Bomber Command in support of Coastal units against enemy shipping between Cherbourg and Wilhelmshaven . Production and procurement remained in favour of Bomber Command , producing types for the strategic bombing campaign over Germany , even after the failure of Fuller . Adding to the RAF 's difficulty , most of Coastal Command 's anti @-@ shipping units were withdrawn to the more essential Mediterranean Theatre of Operations ( MTO ) , leaving Coastal Command short of naval strike aircraft in 1942 . Air Marshal Charles Portal agreed this needed to change arguing , " We agree on the importance of torpedo bomber aircraft , and this was proved completely during the passage of the Scharnhorst and Gneisenau [ and Prinz Eugen ] up the channel " . In May 1942
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Joubert succeeded in procuring the new Bristol Beaufighter , which entered service in November 1942 . However , only one squadron was made operational . Despite the need for anti @-@ shipping strike aircraft , the service continued to struggle until 1943 , when Portal fulfilled his promise and more of these aircraft , including the de Havilland Mosquito , became available .
Donnerkeil also proved to be a watershed in electronic warfare , for by using jamming techniques , Wolfgang Martini removed British inhibitions concerning the use of ECM against the German defensive system ( Kammhuber line ) and paved the way for the debut of Window Chaff in June 1943 , which had a devastating effect on the ability of German night @-@ fighter radar defences to locate and intercept RAF bombers during the Defence of the Reich . The first step in this campaign was a British Army operation , Operation Biting , to steal a Würzburg radar set on 27 / 28 February 1942 . The British removed components and developed counter @-@ measures . The Germans responded by fortifying all radar sets , which only made them more visible for RAF aerial reconnaissance . The British also began the occasional jamming of Freya radar sets . The Germans did not realise this was happening until September 1942 . German forces also used offensive jamming of British radar , to enable fighter @-@ bomber operations over England . The British described them as a " real menace " . Radar @-@ jamming , counter @-@ measures and other innovations escalated from that point onward .
= = = German perspective = = =
Operation Donnerkeil had been an outstanding success for the Luftwaffe . The measure of success lay not in the ratio of losses , which amounted to 2 : 1 in the German favour , but the failure of the RAF , FAA and Royal Navy to intercept or at least inflict severe damage to the German warships . The meagre forces committed by the Navy had been repulsed easily by the German warships and their escorts . Heavy AAA fire had offered a helpful defence against air attack , but the German air defence had succeeded , along with poor weather , in breaking up RAF assaults on the ships . Galland , responsible for the plan , called it the high point of his career .
However , for the Kriegsmarine , Operation Cerberus had been operational success , but a strategic reverse . The present situation had forced them into an operation which was in effect , a strategic withdrawal from the Atlantic . From that point onwards , the German campaign in the Atlantic was to be carried by the U @-@ Boats , unsupported by a surface fleet . With the German ships removed from the French Atlantic ports , the British fleets could contain them much more effectively in Norway and the North Sea . Moreover , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had been damaged by mines and required extensive repairs . Prinz Eugen was torpedoed and her stern collapsed just weeks after Cerberus . All three ships were out of action for extended periods . More bad luck followed , with Gneisenau being knocked out for good in February 1942 and the sinking of the Scharnhorst in December 1943 . None of the ships sailed in the Atlantic again in the intervening period , leaving the Battle of the Atlantic to be carried on by U @-@ Boat forces .
= Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Stalingrad @-@ class battlecruiser , also known as Project 82 ( Russian : Тяжёлые крейсера проекта 82 ) , was a Soviet Union battlecruiser design from 1941 . It was a smaller and less expensive counterpart to the Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers of 1939 . The original role was for a light , fast ship intended to break up attacks by Royal Navy fast cruiser forces who might attempt bombardment of Russia 's northern ports . The design would have been able to outgun any ship with similar speed , or outrun anything more heavily armed . Design work had just started when the German invasion of the Soviet Union opened and the design was put on hold .
The design was reimagined in 1944 , intended to operate along with the Sverdlov @-@ class cruisers and proposed aircraft carriers to make up powerful task forces able to challenge the USA 's fleet . In this role it would need to be a more powerful ship than the original design , taking over for the now @-@ cancelled Kronstadts . They were intended to fend off enemy attacks and protect the carriers when bad weather prevented flying . A series of at least four were planned , and Stalingrad finally began construction in 1951 . Supported primarily by Joseph Stalin and opposed by a considerable part of the naval staff , the project came to an abrupt end with Stalin 's death in 1953 . By this time a second example was under construction and abandoned on the slips , while a third never started .
The partially completed Stalingrad ended as a target ship for testing anti @-@ ship missiles , before being broken up around 1962 .
= = Background and genesis = =
The roots of the Project 82 @-@ class began back in May 1941 when the Main Naval Staff approved tactical requirements ( Russian : Operativno Takticheskoye Zadanie , OTZ ) for a medium @-@ sized cruiser between the light cruisers of the Kirov and Chapayev classes , and the Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers . It was intended to fulfill the following roles :
Engage enemy cruisers armed with 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns
Destroy enemy light cruisers
Support its own light cruisers
Lay minefields
Suppress the enemy 's medium @-@ caliber coast defense batteries and support landing operations
Conduct operations against the enemy 's maritime lines of communication
To accomplish these missions , the Navy desired a ship of 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 long tons ) or smaller , armed with eight 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and twelve 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns , twelve 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and one triple 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mount . It was to be armored to withstand 203 @-@ millimeter ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shells with a speed not less than 36 knots ( 41 mph ; 67 km / h ) , a range of 10 @,@ 000 nmi ( 18 @,@ 520 km ) at 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) and able to carry four seaplanes launched by two catapults . Three preliminary designs were proposed in response , but only one , which displaced 25 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ) , was able to meet all of the requirements . However , the designers recommended an increase in the main armament caliber to 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) , a strengthened anti @-@ aircraft battery and reductions in the armor protection , speed , and range .
The opening of Operation Barbarossa a month later rendered these plans moot . Both the Project 82 and the Kronshtadt ( Project 69 ) classes were put on hold .
The project was revived in 1943 with a new requirement issued on 15 September . This was basically identical to the original , but added one new requirement : " Protect the operations of aircraft carriers and conduct joint operations with them . " Estimated characteristics were a displacement between 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 long tons ) , nine main guns between 210 – 230 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) , a secondary battery of a dozen 130 @-@ mm dual @-@ purpose guns and thirty @-@ two 37 @-@ mm AA guns . The speed , range and aircraft requirements remained the same , although the torpedo tubes were dropped . Over a dozen preliminary designs had been proposed by May 1944 , but none were acceptable .
A new tactical requirement was issued in November 1944 that envisioned a more realistic displacement of 25 @,@ 000 – 26 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 000 – 26 @,@ 000 long tons ) while the speed was dropped to 33 knots ( 38 mph ; 61 km / h ) and the range to 8 @,@ 000 nmi ( 14 @,@ 820 km ) . Armament was also revised to nine 220 @-@ mm guns , sixteen 130 @-@ mm guns , thirty @-@ two 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) and twenty 23 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 91 in ) AA guns . These last guns were changed to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) in 1945 .
Admiral Nikolai Kuznetsov believed that these ships could protect the planned Soviet aircraft carriers in bad weather from American cruisers and pushed to have them built , but the Shipbuilding Commissariat balked . It refused to begin detailed design work pleading the uncertainty of the post @-@ war building situation and the already heavy workload of its design bureau . Undeterred , the Navy continued studying cruiser designs and planned a ten @-@ year construction programme for the period 1946 – 1955 . This was based on defensive operations along the periphery of the Soviet Union against Anglo @-@ American carrier groups while submarines would attack their lines of communication . Ten of these large cruisers were envisioned as part of this construction program . When the program was discussed by the Politburo on 29 September 1945 there was no great disagreement on the large cruisers , although Stalin favored increasing the size of their main guns to 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) , but did not push the issue when Admiral Kuznetsov resisted .
A bigger problem was the resistance of the Shipbuilding Commissariat which said it would be impossible to lay down any ships of new design until about 1950 and that only incremental changes could be made to the designs currently in production . The Navy saw no reason why new ships , reflecting wartime experience , could not be laid down beginning in 1948 . To resolve the dispute a special commission was appointed , led by Lavrentiy Beria , which mostly sided with the Shipbuilding Commissariat in that most ships of the program would be improved versions of current designs . Four of the large cruisers were to begin construction , two each at Shipyard 402 in Molotovsk and Shipyard 444 at Nikolayev with another three planned to be laid down in 1953 and 1955 . This compromise was approved on 27 November 1945 and detailed design work began in 1946 for designs equipped with both the 220 @-@ mm and 305 @-@ mm guns .
This was reaffirmed by a decree of the Council of Ministers on 28 January 1947 . By August 1947 , the Navy and the Shipbuilding Ministry had winnowed down design proposals to only three , one from each armed with 305 mm guns and a joint design armed with 220 mm guns . The latter 's design was slightly smaller ( 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) ) than the Navy 's 40 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 39 @,@ 000 long tons ) design , and had an armor belt 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thinner , but was otherwise almost identical . The joint design was 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) smaller with a reduced secondary armament , but was about 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 1 @.@ 7 mph ; 2 @.@ 8 km / h ) faster . All proposals had a range of 6 @,@ 000 nmi ( 11 @,@ 110 km ) at 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) . These designs weren 't reviewed until March 1948 , probably because of the need to coordinate reaction to the American Marshall Plan , and Stalin approved the Navy 's more heavily protected design . But even this was subject to more delays as the detailed specifications had to be approved and this didn 't occur until 31 August 1948 , likely delayed by the Tito – Stalin split and the start of the Berlin Blockade , both in June .
With the approval of the specifications , TsKB @-@ 17 , the heavy @-@ ship design bureau , began work on the sketch design to be submitted for approval to the Council of Ministers before the start of the technical design could begin . By March 1949 , four alternatives had been completed , differing mainly in the arrangement of the 130 mm guns and the boiler layout . The bureau preferred one layout and the Navy and the Shipbuilding Ministry concurred so the bureau began the technical design , without formal approval , in order to be ready to lay down the first two ships in the third quarter of 1950 as already scheduled . However , when Stalin reviewed the sketch design in September 1949 , he rejected it , ordering a smaller , faster ship capable of 35 knots ( 40 mph ; 65 km / h ) . TsKB @-@ 17 was able to produce a preliminary technical design that met Stalin 's demands by the end of the year , an amazingly fast amount of time for what should have been a very involved process . The most likely explanation is that the designers retained as much of their original work as possible and found room for the more powerful turbines and more numerous boilers necessary to attain Stalin 's specified speed by deleting the two rear twin 130 mm turrets , and their magazines , as revealed by a comparison of the 1949 and 1951 sketches .
The Navy didn 't like the compromises made to reduce the displacement down to Stalin 's 36 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 35 @,@ 000 long tons ) and to achieve the high speed demanded as revealed in a March 1950 meeting in the Kremlin where Stalin revealed critical points about his thoughts for these ships . When the admirals responded to his question about the purpose of these ships by saying that they were to fight the enemy 's heavy cruisers , he contradicted them and said that their purpose was to fight light cruisers : " It is necessary to increase its speed to 35 knots and create a cruiser that will cause panic among the enemy 's light cruisers , disperse and destroy them . " Furthermore he believed that they would fight close to home , defending the coastal waters of Soviet Union . " You cannot blindly copy the Americans and English , they face different conditions , their ships travel far over the ocean , out of touch with their bases . We are not considering conducting oceanic battles , but instead will fight close to our own shores , so we do not need a large ammunition supply on the ship . " The admirals also did not like the reduction in the secondary armament made to accommodate the larger machinery and extra boilers needed to reach the speed desired by Stalin , but he reminded them that most aircraft would attack the battlecruiser at heights below 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and the ceiling of the 130 mm was far in excess of that . He also ordered a reduction in the light anti @-@ aircraft guns believing that its escorts would defend it . This design was approved by the Council of Ministers on 25 March 1950 .
This allowed the technical design process to begin and it was completed in December 1950 . Reviews by the Navy and Shipbuilding Ministries in February 1951 led to some significant changes to the design in April . The original form of the bow was similar to that of the Chapayev @-@ class light cruisers , but sea trials of the lead ship of that class in December 1950 — January 1951 proved that she was very wet forward , which hindered her seakeeping ability . The Stalingrad 's bow form was radically altered with a much more raked stem , its sheer and flare were greatly increased and the ship gained almost 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in ) in length , possibly in response to the Chapayev 's problems . In addition the thickness of her belt armor was increased from 150 to 180 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 1 in ) , possibly in response to weight savings elsewhere . This final design was submitted for approval on 4 June 1951 , but preparations for the working design drawings began before it was approved .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Stalingrad class were 260 meters ( 853 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline , and 273 @.@ 6 meters ( 897 ft 8 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 32 meters ( 105 ft 0 in ) , a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) forward , 8 @.@ 8 meters ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft , and displaced 36 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 35 @,@ 900 long tons ) at standard load and 42 @,@ 300 tonnes ( 41 @,@ 600 long tons ) at full load . They were the first large Soviet @-@ built ships with a flush deck . The hull was completely welded to save weight and they used longitudinal framing throughout . Metacentric height was estimated at 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 ft 6 in ) , presumably in the design load condition . The ships had a triple bottom underneath the armored citadel that had a height of 2 @.@ 25 meters ( 7 ft 5 in ) and 23 main watertight compartments . They had a crew of 1712 men plus space for 30 when acting as a flagship .
The cost for each ship was estimated at 1 @.@ 168 billion rubles , almost four times the 322 million rubles for a Sverdlov @-@ class cruiser . The ship was intended to be commanded by a rear admiral , with its executive officer , political officer and the heads of the gunnery and engineering divisions as captains 1st rank .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The high speed demanded of the Stalingrads required four TV @-@ 4 geared steam turbines , each producing 70 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 52 @,@ 199 kW ) and driving one propeller . They were powered by twelve water @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 66 kg / cm2 ( 6 @,@ 472 kPa ; 939 psi ) at a temperature of 460 ° C ( 860 ° F ) . The machinery was arranged on the unit system so that one hit couldn 't knock out all the boilers or all the turbines and immobilize the ship . Two boiler compartments , each with three boilers , were situated underneath the forward funnel , with a turbine compartment for the wing shafts immediately aft and this arrangement was repeated for the two center shafts . 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of fuel oil were carried which gave a range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 260 km ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ) . Maximum speed was 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 mph ; 65 @.@ 7 km / h ) .
Eight 750 kW turbo @-@ generators drove the 380V , 50 Hz electrical system in addition to four 1000 kW Diesel generators located outside each end of the armored citadel for a total capacity of 10 @,@ 000 kW .
= = = Armor = = =
The armor scheme of the battlecruisers was quite complex with armor plates of no less than 25 different thicknesses used . Although only designed to withstand cruiser shellfire no less than 10 @,@ 400 tonnes ( 10 @,@ 200 long tons ; 11 @,@ 500 short tons ) , or 29 % of the total displacement was devoted to armor . The citadel armor was intended to provide an immunity zone against 8 in ( 200 mm ) armor @-@ piercing shells at ranges between 13 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 m ) and 34 @,@ 000 yards ( 31 @,@ 000 m ) . The remainder of the armor was intended to resist 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) high explosive shells and 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) HE bombs .
The belt armor was 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick and inclined outwards at an angle of 15 ° to maximize its effectiveness against both plunging and horizontal fire . It had a vertical height of 5 @.@ 25 m ( 17 @.@ 2 ft ) , 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 ft 7 in ) of which was below the design waterline . It covered approximately 60 % of the ship 's waterline or about 156 m ( 512 ft ) . 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor covered the hull side above the belt as protection from splinters . The forward end of the armored citadel was closed off by a 140 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick transverse bulkhead on the forward end and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) aft . The deck armor in the citadel ranged in thickness , from 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) for the upper deck , a 70 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) middle deck — increased to 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) over the handling rooms for the 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) gun turrets — and a lower splinter deck of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , which increased outboard to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The waterline forward of the citadel was protected by a 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) splinter belt all the way to the bow , with a similar extension aft to the steering gear compartment . The middle deck behind this splinter belt was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The steering gear was protected by 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) of armor on the sides , a 70 – 100 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) deck and a 200 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) armored bulkhead aft .
Additional armored plates were fixed to the third bulkhead of the underwater protection system to protect against diving shells hitting below the level of the waterline belt . Their thicknesses varied depending on location and ranged oddly from 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) amidships to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) over the 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) magazines . The main battery turrets were protected by 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of armor on the faces and 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) on the sides and 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of armor on the roofs . Their barbettes had a maximum of 235 mm ( 9 @.@ 3 in ) on their forward faces and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) on the after face . Below the main deck they were protected by only 195 – 155 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 1 in ) of armor . The 130 mm turrets were only protected by 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) of armor as splinter protection .
The forward conning tower had a forward face of 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) that thinned down to 225 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) on the aft section with a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) roof . Its controls and cable runs were protected by a 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) tube and the lower part of the conning tower 's supporting structure was protected with 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) plates . Aft there was a lightly protected auxiliary control station with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) sides . Between the middle and lower decks the funnel uptakes were protected by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of armor and 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) between the upper and middle decks . A 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) upper and 175 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) lower grating protected the boilers from shells and fragments entering through the uptake openings .
The torpedo protection system was developed on the basis of model tests and full @-@ scale trials using the incomplete hull of the prewar battlecruiser Kronshtadt and was expected to resist a torpedo warhead equivalent to 400 – 500 kg ( 880 – 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of TNT . It was made up of an external bulge with four longintudinal bulkheads . The first was 8 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick , the second was 8 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 98 in ) , the third was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and the fourth 15 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) . Presumably the thinner thicknesses were at the ends of the ships where the bulkheads were squeezed together . The outer space was left empty , but the two middle spaces were filled with oil that was intended to be exchanged with sea water as it was consumed , and the inner space was also to be left empty . One curious feature was that the first and second bulkheads were concave in profile . Apparently this was believed to improve their protective qualities , although there is no indication of how it did this . " The total depth of the system was about 4 – 4 @.@ 5 m ( 13 – 15 ft ) amidships , which seems rather shallow . " The triple bottom underneath the armored citadel was believed to protect the ship against a charge equivalent to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) of TNT five meters below the ship 's hull .
= = = Armament = = =
Rather than use the Tsarist @-@ era 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) MK @-@ 3 @-@ 12 gun as originally planned , or use the 305 @-@ mm / 54 guns ordered for the Kronstadts , it was decided in 1947 to adopt a new and more powerful 61 @-@ caliber gun of the same size that was to use three newly designed triple SM @-@ 6 turrets . Each individual gun weighed 101 @.@ 58 t ( 99 @.@ 98 long tons ; 111 @.@ 97 short tons ) and the complete turret weighed 1 @,@ 370 t ( 1 @,@ 350 long tons ; 1 @,@ 510 short tons ) . The guns could be depressed to − 4 ° and elevated to 50 ° at a rate of 10 ° per second . Traverse speed was 4 @.@ 5 ° per second and each turret was ordinarily remotely controlled from the More @-@ 82 main fire control director , but could be locally controlled if necessary . They fired 467 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 030 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) to a maximum range of around 53 @,@ 070 m ( 58 @,@ 040 yd ) using 209 kg ( 461 lb ) of propellant . Their rate of fire was 3 @.@ 26 rounds per minute and 80 rounds were stowed aboard for each gun . One barrel was completed in December 1953 for evaluation purposes after the ships were canceled earlier that year .
The 130 @-@ mm 58 @-@ caliber guns were also a new design . They were to be fitted in a new twin @-@ gun BL @-@ 109A dual @-@ purpose mount . Each individual gun weighed 4 @.@ 88 t ( 4 @.@ 80 long tons ; 5 @.@ 38 short tons ) and the complete turret weighed 65 @.@ 2 t ( 64 @.@ 2 long tons ; 71 @.@ 9 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -8 ° and elevate to 83 ° at a rate of 20 ° a second . Traverse speed was 20 ° per second . The guns fired 33 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 74 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 950 – 1 @,@ 000 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 – 3 @,@ 300 ft / s ) to a maximum horizontal range of 32 @,@ 390 m ( 35 @,@ 420 yd ) using 12 @.@ 92 kg ( 28 @.@ 5 lb ) of propellant . Their rate of fire was 15 rounds per minute and 200 rounds were stowed for each gun .
Twenty @-@ four 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 78 @-@ caliber light anti @-@ aircraft guns were to be carried by the Stalingrads in six quadruple SM @-@ 20 @-@ ZIF power @-@ driven , fully enclosed mounts . Two mounts were fitted on each side of the forward funnel and the last two were superimposed above the rear main gun turret . Each individual gun weighed 402 @.@ 8 kg ( 888 lb ) and the complete mount weighed 9 @.@ 75 t ( 9 @.@ 60 long tons ; 10 @.@ 75 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -13 ° and elevate to 85 ° at a rate of 25 ° a second . Traverse speed was 30 ° per second . The gun fired 1 @.@ 41 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 1 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 080 m / s ( 3 @,@ 500 ft / s ) to a maximum horizontal range of 12 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) . Its rate of fire was 75 rounds per minute and 800 rounds were carried for each gun .
Forty 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) 79 @-@ caliber AA guns were carried in ten quadruple powered BL @-@ 120 mounts . These were designed especially for the Stalingrads and were fully , if lightly , armored against splinters . Each individual gun weighed 101 kg ( 223 lb ) and the complete mount weighed 4 t ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) . The guns in this mount could depress to -5 ° and elevate to 90 ° at a rate of 25 ° a second . Traverse speed was 70 ° per second . The gun fired .281 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 62 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum effective range of 2 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 100 yd ) . Its effective rate of fire was 240 rounds per minute and 1200 rounds were carried for each gun .
= = = Electronics = = =
Target data for the More @-@ 82 director was derived from the Zalp ( NATO designation Half Bow ) fire @-@ control radar and Grot rangefinding radars mounted on turrets Nos. 2 and 3 . These were backed up by a single KDP @-@ 8 @-@ 10 optical director mount fitted with 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) and 10 @-@ meter ( 33 ft ) rangefinders . Some of the BL @-@ 109A mounts were to fitted for range @-@ finding radars , probably Shtag @-@ B ( NATO designation Egg Cup ) , but they were ordinarily controlled by three SPN @-@ 500 directors , one for each pair of gun mounts . The SPN @-@ 500s carried a 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) rangefinder as well as Yakor ( NATO designation Sun Visor ) fire @-@ control radar . Air search capability was provided by the Fut @-@ N ( NATO designation Slim Net ) radar with anti @-@ aircraft fire control provided by Fut @-@ B ( NATO designation Hawk Screech ) radars .
The main air @-@ search radar was the Giuis @-@ 2 ( NATO designation Cross Bird ) , a Soviet development of the wartime British Type 291 radar . It had a range of 80 km ( 50 mi ) against aerial targets and 20 km ( 12 mi ) against surface targets . The main surface @-@ search radar was Rif @-@ A ( NATO designation Ball End ) that had a range of 40 km ( 25 mi ) against surface targets . The Stalingrads also had Neptun and Nord navigational radars . Soviet electronics were still fairly primitive during this period and the trials of the light cruiser Sverdlov , which carried many of these systems , revealed that the effective range of the Rif @-@ A surface @-@ search radar was less than that of the Yakor and Zalp fire @-@ control radars . There were also problems transferring data from the Giuis @-@ 2 air @-@ search radar to the Yakor and Fut @-@ B anti @-@ aircraft fire @-@ control radars , which was a serious problem when dealing with high @-@ speed aircraft . The Giuis @-@ 2 also interfered with ultra @-@ shortwave radio reception .
Korall radar @-@ jammers were mounted on either side of the mainmast as well as a Machta system on the foremast . Solentse @-@ 1P infrared detectors were carried on either side of the superstructure . Fakel @-@ MO and Fakel @-@ MZ antenna comprised the IFF system . A Gerkules sonar was also fitted in addition to various radio direction finders .
= = = Missile variant = = =
The TsKB @-@ 17 design bureau proposed variants of the design with both cruise and ballistic missiles . The ballistic missiles would have been launched from vertical tubes replacing the forward turrets , and in one version , the entire main armament . The proposal was dropped because both types would have needed a fully stabilized launching platform to give them any chance of hitting their targets and that the ballistic missiles would need three hours of preparation time .
= = Construction = =
Three ships were started :
The first sections of Stalingrad had been laid down in November 1951 in Slipway " O " of the Marti South Shipyard in Nikolayev where a Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship , Sovetskaya Ukraina , had begun construction in 1938 , but the slipway itself was in need of reconstruction and its lower end was occupied by the hull of the Sverdlov @-@ class light cruiser Mikhail Kutuzov which was scheduled for launch at the end of 1952 . Moskva 's keel was laid down in September 1952 by the Baltic Works in Leningrad . The unnamed third ship was laid down at Yard 402 , at Molotovsk around October 1952 , Soviet sources refer to her proposed names as Kronshtadt or Arkhangelsk . A fourth ship was apparently ordered from Yard 402 , but was never laid down .
Stalingrad 's formal keel @-@ laying was on 31 December 1951 and it was hoped that she could be launched on 6 November 1953 , the eve of the 36th anniversary of the October Revolution . But deliveries of steel , armor , machinery and other equipment were delayed or arrived out of sequence , despite extraordinary efforts by the Ministry of Shipbuilding , and slowed construction enough so that she fell about six months behind schedule and the same was more or less true for the other ships . By 1 January 1953 Stalingrad was intended to be 42 @.@ 9 % complete , but was actually only 18 @.@ 8 % done . Moskva was planned to be 11 @.@ 5 % finished , but was only 7 @.@ 5 % done . And the unnamed ship was intended to be 5 @.@ 2 % along , but was only 2 @.@ 5 % complete .
These ships were canceled on 18 April 1953 , after Stalin 's death on 5 March , by the Ministry of Transport and Heavy Machinery , and the hulls of Moskva and the third ship were scrapped on the slipways later that year . The Ministry ordered in June that Stalingrad 's hull , which was about 70 % ready for launching , be used for weapons tests . Her hull was launched on 16 April 1954 and her stern , which was more or less complete , was dismantled — her bow hadn 't been built when work was suspended a year earlier — and the central , 150 @-@ meter ( 490 ft ) long , section was modified for her new role .
= = Career as a target hulk = =
Stalingrad 's hull was towed from Nikolayev on 19 May 1955 by three tugs , but was driven ashore by high winds on 23 May at the southern entrance to Sevastopol Bay . She grounded on a very rocky bottom in very shallow water only about 50 m ( 160 ft ) from shore . A number of the ordinary methods to refloat a ship couldn 't be used because she was very nearly empty and so nothing could be off @-@ loaded and the rocky bottom meant that it couldn 't be excavated out from underneath her . The first attempt used brute force provided by the cruisers Molotov and Kerch to unsuccessfully tow her off . Several other attempts were made using explosive charges to create shock waves that would pivot her stern into deeper water in combination with tugs attempting to pull her around , but these were counterproductive in that several holes were blown in her sides which flooded several compartments and grounded her that much more firmly . At this time a more detailed assessment was made of the situation and 259 steel projections were discovered on the underside of her hull , left over from her launching cradles . These ranged in length from 40 – 169 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) and totally invalidated all calculations about the amount of force required to free her .
The capsizing of the battleship Novorossiysk in Sevastopol harbor on 29 October 1955 delayed salvage operations on Stalingrad until the end of the year . The hull had to be patched , the water pumped
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arrison = = =
In 1607 , the minister , John Munro of Tain , a dissenter against the religious plans of James VI , was imprisoned with a fellow minister at Doune , though he escaped with the contrivance of the then Constable of the Castle , who was subsequently imprisoned for aiding the dissenters . The Royalist James Graham , 1st Marquess of Montrose occupied Doune Castle in 1645 , during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . In 1654 , during Glencairn 's rising against the occupation of Scotland by Oliver Cromwell , a skirmish took place at Doune between Royalists under Sir Mungo Murray , and Cromwellian troops under Major Tobias Bridge . The castle was garrisoned by government troops during the Jacobite Rising of Bonnie Dundee in 1689 , when repairs were ordered , and again during the rising of 1715 . During the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , Doune Castle was occupied by Charles Edward Stuart , " Bonnie Prince Charlie " , and his Jacobite Highlanders . It was used as a prison for government troops captured at the Battle of Falkirk . Several prisoners , held in the rooms above the kitchen , escaped by knotting together bedsheets and climbing from the window . Escapees included the author John Home , and a minister , John Witherspoon , who later moved to the American colonies and became a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence .
= = = Ruin and restoration = = =
The castle deteriorated through the 18th century , and by 1800 Doune was a roofless ruin . It remained so until the 1880s , when George Stuart , 14th Earl of Moray ( 1816 – 1895 ) began repair works . The timber roofs were replaced , and the interiors , including the panelling in the Lord 's Hall , were installed . The castle is now maintained by Historic Scotland , having been donated to a predecessor organisation by Douglas Stuart , 20th Earl of Moray , in 1984 , and is open to the public . The castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument , and is a Category A listed building , the highest levels of protection for nationally important built heritage in Scotland .
= = Description = =
Doune occupies a strategic site , close to the geographical centre of Scotland , and only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Stirling Castle , the " crossroads of Scotland " . The site is naturally defended on three sides by steeply @-@ sloping ground , and by the two rivers to east and west . The castle forms an irregular pentagon in plan , with buildings along the north and north @-@ west sides enclosing a courtyard . It is entered from the north via a passage beneath a tower containing the principal rooms of the castle . From the courtyard , three sets of stone external stairs , which may be later additions , lead up to the Lord 's Hall in the tower , to the adjacent Great Hall , and to the kitchens in a second tower to the west .
The main approach , from the north , is defended by earthworks , comprising three ditches , with a rampart , or earthen wall , between . Also outside the castle walls is a vaulted passage , traditionally said to lead into the castle , but in fact accessing an 18th @-@ century ice house . There are no openings within the lower part of the castle 's walls , excepting the entrance and the postern , or side gate , to the west , although there are relatively large windows on the upper storeys . Windows in the south wall suggest that further buildings were intended within the courtyard , but were never built . The stonework is of coursed sandstone rubble , with dressings in lighter Ballengeich stone .
= = = The Lord 's tower = = =
The principal tower , or gatehouse , is rectangular in plan 18 metres ( 59 ft ) by 13 metres ( 43 ft ) , and almost 29 metres ( 95 ft ) high , with a projecting round tower on the north @-@ east corner , beside the entrance . It comprises the Lord 's Hall , and three storeys of chambers above , located over the entrance passage . The vaulted , cobbled passage , 14 metres ( 46 ft ) long , was formerly defended by two sets of timber doors , and a yett , or hinged iron grille , remains . Guardrooms on either side overlook the passage via gunloops , and also on the ground floor is a well , in the basement of the round tower .
There is no direct communication between the ground floor and the Lord 's Hall above , which occupies the whole first floor . This is accessed via an enclosed and gated stair from the courtyard . The hall is vaulted , and has an unusual double fireplace . The floor tiles , timber panelling , and minstrels ' gallery are additions of the 1880s . It was originally thought that the connecting door to the Great Hall was also of this date , but is now accepted as being original . Side rooms on the hall level include a chamber in the round tower , with a hatch above the well , and a small chamber within the south wall which overlooks both hall and courtyard . A machicolation , or " murder hole " , below the hall 's north window , allows objects to be dropped onto attackers in the passage .
Above the hall is a second hall , forming part of the Duchess ' suite of rooms . An oratory in the south wall , overlooking the courtyard , contains a piscina and credence niche . The oratory gives access to mural passages leading to the walkway along the curtain wall . The timber ceiling of the Duchess ' hall , and the timber floors and roof above , are of the 1880s . The upper parts of the stonework are among the repairs dating from 1580 .
= = = Great Hall and kitchen tower = = =
West of the Lord 's tower is the Great Hall , 20 metres ( 66 ft ) by 8 metres ( 26 ft ) , and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) high to its timber roof , again a 19th @-@ century replacement . The hall has no fireplace , and was presumably heated by a central fire , and ventilated by means of a louvre like the one in the modern roof . No details of the original roof construction are known , however , and the restoration is conjectural . Large windows light the hall , and stairs lead down to the three cellars on ground level .
The hall is accessed from the courtyard via a stair up to a triangular lobby , which in turn links the hall and kitchens by means of two large serving hatches with elliptical arches , unusual for this period . The kitchen tower , virtually a tower house in its own right , is 17 metres ( 56 ft ) by 8 metres ( 26 ft ) . The vaulted kitchen is on the hall level , above a cellar . One of the best @-@ appointed castle kitchens in Scotland of its date , it has an oven and a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 18 ft ) wide fireplace . A stair turret , added in 1581 and possibly replacing a timber stair , leads up from the lobby to two storeys of guest rooms . These include the " Royal Apartments " , a suite of two bedrooms plus an audience chamber , suitable for royal visitors .
= = = Courtyard and curtain wall = = =
Projecting stones on the south wall of the kitchen block , known as tuskings , and four pointed @-@ arched windows in the south curtain wall , suggest that further ranges of buildings were planned . The large , eastern @-@ most window , may have been intended for a chapel , and it is recorded that a chapel dedicated to the 8th @-@ century monk Saint Fillan was located at Doune Castle , but the lack of foundations suggest that there was no large building in this part of the castle . The foundations which do exist were excavated in September 2002 , revealing a structure which was interpreted as a kiln or oven against the south wall . The central well is around 18 metres ( 59 ft ) deep .
The curtain wall is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thick , and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) high . A walkway along the top of the wall is protected by parapets on both sides , and is carried over the pitched roofs of the hall and gatehouse by steep steps . Open , round turrets are located at each corner , with semicircular projections at the midpoint of each wall . A square turret with machicolations is located above the postern gate in the west wall .
= = = Interpretation of the layout = = =
The Lord 's tower is a secure , private set of rooms , probably intended for the sole use of the Lord and his family , and with its own lines of defence . The architectural historian W. Douglas Simpson interpreted this arrangement as being the product of the " bastard feudalism " of the 14th century . During this period , Lords were required to defend their castles by means of mercenaries , rather than the vassals of the earlier feudal system , and Simpson suggested that the Lord of Doune designed his tower to be defensible against his own , potentially rebellious , garrison . This interpretation is no longer widely accepted by historians , and the castle is instead seen as a development towards more integrated courtyard buildings , such as the royal palace of Linlithgow , which was constructed through the 15th and early 16th century . The layout of Doune has similarities with those of the contemporary castles at Tantallon and Bothwell , and appears , at various scales , in other buildings of the period .
= = In fiction and drama = =
Doune Castle has featured in several literary works , including the 17th @-@ century ballad , " The Bonny Earl of Murray " , which relates the murder of James Stewart , 2nd Earl of Moray , by the Earl of Huntly , in 1592 . In Sir Walter Scott 's first novel , Waverley ( 1814 ) , the protagonist Edward Waverley is brought to Doune Castle by the Jacobites . Scott 's romantic novel describes the " gloomy yet picturesque structure " , with its " half @-@ ruined turrets " .
The castle was used as a location in MGM 's 1952 historical film Ivanhoe which featured Robert Taylor and Elizabeth Taylor . The BBC adaptation of " Ivanhoe " in 1996 also featured Doune as a location . The castle was used as the set for Winterfell in the TV series Game of Thrones ( 2011 – present ) , an adaptation of the A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels by George R. R. Martin . The castle was used as a stand @-@ in for the fictional " Castle Leoch " in the TV adaptation of the Outlander series of novels .
= = = Monty Python and the Holy Grail = = =
The British comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail — a parody of the legends of King Arthur by the Monty Python team — was filmed on location in Scotland in 1974 . The film 's producers had gained permission from the National Trust for Scotland to film scenes at several of their Scottish castles , as well as the permission of Lord Moray to film at Doune Castle . However , the National Trust later withdrew their permission , leaving the producers with little time to find new locations . Instead , they decided to use different parts of Doune Castle to depict the various fictional castles in the film , relying on tight framing of shots to maintain the illusion .
Scenes featuring Doune Castle include :
At the start of the film , King Arthur ( Graham Chapman ) and Patsy ( Terry Gilliam ) approach the east wall of Doune Castle and argue with soldiers of the garrison .
The song and dance routine " Knights of the Round Table " at " Camelot " was filmed in the Great Hall .
The servery and kitchen appear as " Castle Anthrax " , where Sir Galahad the Chaste ( Michael Palin ) is chased by seductive girls .
The wedding disrupted by Sir Lancelot ( John Cleese ) was filmed in the courtyard and Great Hall .
The Trojan Rabbit scene was filmed in the entryway and into the courtyard .
The only other castles used for filming were Castle Stalker in Argyll , also privately owned , which appears as " Castle Aaaaarrrrrrggghhh " at the end of the film , and ( briefly ) Kidwelly Castle in Wales . The DVD version of Monty Python and the Holy Grail includes a documentary , In Search of the Holy Grail Filming Locations , in which Michael Palin and Terry Jones revisit Doune and other sites used for filming . Doune Castle has become a place of pilgrimage for fans of Monty Python and the film , and , since 2004 , an annual " Monty Python Day " has been held at the castle .
= Siege of Paris ( 845 ) =
The Siege of Paris and the Sack of Paris of 845 was the culmination of a Viking invasion of the kingdom of the West Franks . The Viking forces were led by a Norse chieftain named " Reginherus " , or Ragnar , who traditionally has been identified with the legendary saga character Ragnar Lodbrok . Ragnar 's fleet of 120 Viking ships , carrying thousands of men , entered the Seine in March and proceeded to sail up the river . The West Frankish king Charles the Bald assembled a smaller army in response , but as the Vikings defeated one division , comprising half of the army , the remaining forces retreated . The Vikings reached Paris at the end of the month , during Easter . After plundering and occupying the city , the Vikings finally withdrew after receiving a ransom payment of 7 @,@ 000 French livres ( 2 @,@ 570 kilograms or 5 @,@ 670 pounds ) of silver and gold from Charles the Bald .
= = Background = =
The Frankish Empire was first attacked by Viking raiders in 799 ( ten years after the earliest known Viking attack at Portland , Dorset in England ) , which eventually led Charlemagne to create a coastal defence system along the northern coast in 810 . The defence system successfully repulsed a Viking attack at the mouth of the Seine in 820 ( after Charlemagne 's death ) , but failed to hold against renewed attacks of Danish Vikings in Frisia and Dorestad in 834 . The attacks in 820 and 834 were unrelated and relatively minor , and more systematic raiding did not begin until the mid @-@ 830s , with the activity alternating between both sides of the English Channel . Viking raids were often part of struggles among Scandinavian nobility for power and status , and like other nations adjacent to the Franks , the Danes were well @-@ informed about the political situation in Francia ; in the 830s and early 840s they took advantage of the Frankish civil wars . Major raids took place in Antwerp and Noirmoutier in 836 , in Rouen ( on the Seine ) in 841 , and in Quentovic and Nantes in 842 .
= = Invasion and siege = =
In March 845 , a fleet of 120 Danish Viking ships containing more than 5 @,@ 000 men entered the Seine under the command of a Danish chieftain named " Reginherus " , or Ragnar . This Ragnar has often been tentatively identified with the legendary saga figure Ragnar Lodbrok , but the historicity of the latter remains a disputed issue among historians . In or around 841 , Ragnar had been awarded land in Turholt , Frisia by Charles the Bald , but he eventually lost the land as well as the favour of the king . Ragnar 's Vikings raided Rouen on their way up the Seine in 845 , and in response to the invasion , determined not to let the royal Abbey of Saint @-@ Denis ( near Paris ) be destroyed , Charles assembled an army which he divided into two parts , one for each side of the river . Ragnar attacked and defeated one of the divisions of the smaller Frankish army , and took 111 of their men as prisoners and hanged them on an island on the Seine . This was done to honor the Norse god Odin , as well as to incite terror in the remaining Frankish forces .
The Vikings finally arrived in Paris on Easter Sunday , 29 March , entered the city and plundered it . During the siege , a plague broke out in their camp . The Norse had been exposed to the Christian religion , and after first praying to the Norse gods , they undertook a fast , acting on the advice of one of their Christian prisoners , and the plague subsided . The Franks could not assemble any effective defence against the invaders , and the Vikings withdrew only after being paid a ransom of 7 @,@ 000 livres ( French pounds ) of silver and gold by Charles the Bald , amounting to approximately 2 @,@ 570 kilograms ( 5 @,@ 670 lb ) . Considering Ragnar 's earlier loss of land by Charles , the substantial payment may also have been regarded as some form of compensation for Ragnar 's loss , and the invasion itself as an attack of revenge . In any case , this would be the first of a total of thirteen payments of so @-@ called Danegeld to Viking raiders by the Franks ( although the term itself is not expressly known to have been used at this particular point ) . While agreeing to withdraw from Paris , Ragnar pillaged several sites along the coast on the return voyage , including the Abbey of Saint Bertin .
Although Charles has been criticised severely for granting the large ransom payment to the Vikings , he had other more critical issues to deal with at the same time , including disputes with his brothers , regional revolts and disgruntled nobles , as well as pressure from abroad . Since he would have trouble trusting his own counts to assemble and lead troops to defeat Ragnar 's large force militarily , paying them off instead would buy Charles time , and possibly peace from further Viking raids — at least in the near future .
= = Aftermath = =
The same year , a Viking fleet also sacked Hamburg , which had been elevated to an archbishopric by Pope Gregory IV in 831 on the initiative of Louis the Pious in order to oversee the Saxon territory and to support the introduction of Christianity to Scandinavia . In response , the East Frankish king Louis the German sent a diplomatic mission , headed by Count Cobbo ( one of two court counts ) , to the court of Horik , demanding that the Danish king submit to Frankish overlordship and pay reparations for the invasion . Horik eventually agreed to the terms and requested a peace treaty with Louis , while also promising to return the treasure and captives from the raid . Horik most likely wanted to secure the border with Saxony as he faced a conflict with King Olof of Sweden and domestic struggles . By the treaty , Louis demanded Horik 's obedience , which was further secured by Horik regularly sending embassies and gifts to Louis , and his suspension of support to Viking raiders .
Although many Vikings had died in the plague during the siege of Paris , Ragnar lived to return home to King Horik . According to a story originating from a member of Cobbo 's embassy , Ragnar , having attacked the Abbey of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ des @-@ Prés , then in the outskirts of medieval Paris , and which Cobbo later visited , attributed the plague to the power of Saint Germain of Paris . While Ragnar showed the gold and silver he had acquired to Horik and boasted about how easy he thought the conquest of Paris had been , he reportedly collapsed crying while relating that the only resistance he had met was by the long deceased saint . As several of Ragnar 's men died not long after , the king was so frightened that he ordered the execution of all the survivors , and the release of all his Christian captives . This event , in part , led Horik to receive Archbishop Ansgar , " Apostle of the North " , on friendly terms in his own kingdom .
Vikings would return again and again in the 860s and secure loot or ransom , but , in a turning point for the history of France , the city 's walls would hold against the Vikings ' greatest attacking force in the Siege of Paris ( 885 – 86 ) .
= Proactiv =
Proactiv , also known as Proactiv Solution , is a brand of skin @-@ care products developed by two American dermatologists , Katie Rodan and Kathy Fields , and launched in 1995 by Guthy @-@ Renker , a California @-@ based direct marketing company . The range includes moisturizers , body washes and hair products , but the brand is known for its three @-@ step anti @-@ acne kit consisting of a cleanser , toner and lotion . Proactiv + , a reformulation of the three @-@ step kit , was introduced in 2013 .
As a result of its celebrity endorsements and infomercials , Proactiv is one of the most popular skincare brands of all time , according to the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology . Sales amounted to $ 800 million a year as of 2010 , with a media budget of nearly $ 200 million and $ 12 – 15 million for celebrity fees . The product is mostly sold online as part of a continuity program . A month after ordering , customers are sent a three @-@ month supply , which continues until the subscription is cancelled . Customers have complained that the subscriptions are hard to cancel .
According to a 2011 review , there have been few studies on the efficacy of Proactiv . A 2011 Consumer Reports study compared Proactiv with two less expensive types of benzoyl peroxide , AcneFree and OXY Maximum , and found all three to be equally effective . The US Food and Drug Administration warned in 2014 that over @-@ the @-@ counter acne treatments can cause severe irritation , as well as rare but life @-@ threatening allergic reactions .
= = History = =
= = = Product development = = =
Proactiv was created in the late 1980s by Katie Rodan and Kathy Fields , who met while at Stanford University School of Medicine .
Proactiv was offered to Neutrogena , which declined it , but its CEO , Allan Kurtzman , suggested selling it via infomercials . Guthy @-@ Renker were already in the infomercial business and agreed to market and distribute it . The first infomercial appeared in October 1995 , offering a money @-@ back guarantee and fast delivery , and featuring Judith Light , who suffered from acne problems herself . Rodan and Fields later founded their own skincare brand , Rodan + Fields .
= = = Guthy @-@ Renker = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker LLC is a direct @-@ response marketing company registered in Palm Desert , California . Founded in 1988 by Bill Guthy and Greg Renker , the company is known as " the Rolls Royce " of the infomercial industry . As of 2012 its portfolio of products was making $ 1 @.@ 8 billion a year . The range includes Victoria Principal 's Principal Secret skincare ( its earliest skincare brand ) , Wen Hair Care , Cindy Crawford 's Meaningful Beauty skincare , the Dean Martin Celebrity Roast DVDs , and the Malibu Pilates Chair .
= = = Nestlé = = =
In March 2016 , Nestlé joined Guthy @-@ Renker as a majority owner of Proactiv .
= = Products = =
Proactiv is a registered trademark of Guthy @-@ Renker . The brand 's primary product is a three @-@ step kit comprising a cleanser , toner and lotion , which sells for $ 20 a month in the United States if purchased as part of the continuity program .
The toner contains glycolic acid , an exfoliant , and witch hazel , an astringent . The active ingredient in the cleanser and lotion , outside Europe , is a 2 @.@ 5 percent concentration of benzoyl peroxide , lower than in most prescription @-@ strength acne treatments . Benzoyl peroxide has been used since 1934 to kill Propionibacterium acnes , the bacterium that causes acne . Several over @-@ the @-@ counter acne treatments contain it , including Clean & Clear , Clearasil , Doctor 's Dermatologic Formula , Neutrogena Advanced Systems , PanOxyl and Stridex .
There is also a three @-@ step program in Extra Strength , with a 7 percent concentration of benzoyl peroxide , and a Gentle Formula that instead contains a 2 percent concentration of salicylic acid , an exfoliant . The three @-@ step kit in Europe is based on salicylic acid ; in the UK it costs £ 39 @.@ 99 ( $ 60 ) for a two @-@ month supply . Other Proactiv products include an oil @-@ free moisturizer that uses octinoxate ( 7 @.@ 5 percent ) and zinc oxide ( 3 percent ) , and an anti @-@ dandruff shampoo with a one percent concentration of zinc pyrithione .
Guthy @-@ Renker introduced Proactiv + in 2013 , charging $ 30 in the United States for a month 's supply if the customer creates a subscription . It is a paraben @-@ free three @-@ step kit comprising a cleanser and toning gel , each with 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide , and a moisturizer with salicylic acid . It is reportedly more hydrating than the original program .
= = Safety and efficacy = =
Proactiv is aimed at customers with mild to moderate acne . According to a 2011 review , there have been few studies examining its efficacy . A 2007 study saw inflammatory lesions reduced by 39 percent in subjects using a combination of butenafine and benzoyl peroxide , compared with 34 percent in those using Proactiv containing only benzoyl peroxide . A physician suggested in Salon that its three @-@ step system might make it easier for teenagers to comply , but that the key to its success lay with its celebrity endorsements .
In 2011 Consumer Reports compared Proactiv ( 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide ) with two less expensive products , AcneFree ( 2 @.@ 5 percent benzoyl peroxide ) and OXY Maximum ( 10 percent benzoyl peroxide ) . At the time a two @-@ month supply of Proactiv cost around $ 40 in the US , AcneFree $ 20 and OXY Maximum $ 5 . Eighty @-@ three subjects , aged 14 to 40 , used one of the products twice a day for eight weeks . The magazine reported that , no matter which product was used , after two weeks around 75 percent of subjects saw a 35 percent reduction in blemishes on average . After eight weeks around 50 – 66 percent saw a 40 percent reduction on average .
Benzoyl peroxide can have a drying effect on the skin , can cause erythema ( redness ) and fine scaling , though these effects are usually mild , and can increase sensitivity to sunlight . One in 500 may experience allergic contact dermatitis . It is categorized as a pregnancy category C agent , " suggesting that its use in pregnancy may not be prudent , " according to a literature review in the Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology . If benzoyl peroxide comes into contact with clothing it is likely to bleach it .
The US Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) warned in 2014 that over @-@ the @-@ counter acne products containing benzoyl peroxide and / or salicylic acid , including Proactiv , can cause severe irritation , as well as rare but life @-@ threatening allergic reactions . Consumers were advised to stop using the products if they experience hives or itching , and to seek emergency medical attention if they feel faint , or experience throat tightness , breathing problems , or swelling of the eyes , face , lips or tongue . The FDA noted that it remains unclear whether the reactions are caused by the active ingredients , inactive ingredients or a combination .
= = Sales and marketing = =
= = = Sales = = =
Proactiv is marketed and distributed by Guthy @-@ Renker , and is responsible for about half the company 's revenue . Sales of Proactiv amounted to $ 800 million as of 2010 . Seventy percent of sales were in the United States as of 2007 .
The product is available in some stores , including Boots in the UK , and in kiosks and vending machines ( known as ZoomShops ) in malls and airports through a partnership between American Kiosk Management and Guthy @-@ Renker . But the product is mostly sold online or through a toll @-@ free number directly by Guthy @-@ Renker ; sixty percent of Proactiv orders were placed online as of 2010 .
= = = Continuity program = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker sells Proactiv as part of a continuity program , also known as a negative @-@ option offer , whereby customers are sent repeat orders until they cancel . When purchasing directly from the company , customers automatically become members of a Proactiv club . A month after ordering , and every three months thereafter , they are sent a three @-@ month supply costing $ 60 ( in the US as of 2011 ) , plus shipping and handling . They are billed monthly until they cancel the subscription . The approach is based on the customer lifetime value model .
Customers have complained that they have created subscriptions inadvertently and found them difficult to cancel . The most common complaints about Guthy @-@ Renker , according to Truth in Advertising , are unauthorized billing , difficulty cancelling orders , billing for products that never arrive , unhelpful customer service , and refusing refunds despite money @-@ back guarantees .
= = = Commercials = = =
Guthy @-@ Renker had a media budget of $ 200 million for Proactive as of 2010 , much of it spent on air @-@ time , and was spending another $ 12 – 15 million a year on celebrity endorsements . Justin Bieber for example , was paid $ 3 million over two years . Its infomercials have featured celebrities who have themselves suffered from acne problems ; the list includes Kelly Clarkson , P. Diddy , Avril Lavigne , Lindsay Lohan , Alyssa Milano , Katy Perry , Jessica Simpson , Britney Spears and Vanessa Williams .
According to the New York Times , until 2010 Proactiv infomercials were " fast @-@ talking " and " hard @-@ selling " ; an announcer repeatedly advised viewers to " call now , " and offered faster shipping if the order was placed within three minutes . As infomercials became less popular , Proactiv sales stalled . Since 2010 Guthy @-@ Renker has tried to move the brand into the mainstream cosmetics market , focusing on quality rather than price . It began advertising on network television during shows like American Idol , and in Elle , InStyle and People magazines . It also expanded into social media and mobile marketing . As of 2010 Proactiv had 1 @.@ 5 million views on its YouTube channel , 41 @,@ 000 Facebook fans , and 8 @,@ 700 Twitter followers .
In 2012 the Advertising Standards Authority ( ASA ) in the UK banned some of Proactiv 's advertising as misleading . A viewer complained that the celebrities were likely to have used the US version of Proactiv , which differs from the UK version . According to the ASA , the celebrities had signed statements saying they had used the UK version for a few weeks one to three years earlier , but the advertisements gave the appearance that they had continued to benefit from it , so the viewer 's complaint was upheld .
= Homer the Heretic =
" Homer the Heretic " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 8 , 1992 . In the episode , Homer decides to forgo going to church and has an excellent time staying home . His behavior quickly attracts the wrath of God , who visits him in a dream . The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by Jim Reardon . The chalkboard gag from this episode was a reference to the previous episode " A Streetcar Named Marge " , which had made controversial references to New Orleans .
= = Plot = =
On a freezing Sunday morning , Marge gathers the family to go to church . Homer refuses to go , much to her annoyance and dismay , after he sees the weather outside and accidentally tears his church trousers . Staying behind , he sleeps in late , dances in his underwear ( à la Tom Cruise in the film Risky Business ) , makes his special waffle recipe , wins a radio trivia contest , watches an action @-@ packed football game , and finds a penny . Homer attributes his good fortune to skipping church and declares it the best day of his life . Meanwhile , Marge and the kids shiver their way through a rambling sermon , only to find themselves trapped at the end since the door has frozen shut . The congregation is forced to stay longer while Groundskeeper Willie defrosts the doors , and then Marge is unable to start her car because of the cold .
When she and the children finally get home , Marge is horrified to hear that Homer intends to never go to church again . She tries to persuade him otherwise , but to no avail . That night , Marge prays for her husband at their bedside . Homer tries to seduce her while she is doing so , but then falls asleep suddenly and has a dream in which God personally appears to him . God is furious with Homer for forsaking his church . Homer answers that " I 'm not a bad guy , I work hard , and I love my kids ... so why should I spend half my Sunday hearing about how I 'm going to hell ? " God agrees to let Homer worship in his own way . Homer starts following his own religion tailored to his personal tastes , including holidays he invents to get out of work .
Marge , Reverend Lovejoy and Ned Flanders attempt without success to bring Homer back to the congregation . One Sunday morning , while everybody else is at church , Homer falls asleep on the couch smoking a cigar , which ignites some magazines and ultimately sets the whole house ablaze . Homer wakes up but quickly succumbs to the thick smoke and faints . Apu , chief of Springfield 's volunteer fire department , rushes to the Simpson house with other firefighters including Krusty the Clown , Chief Wiggum , and Barney Gumble . Meanwhile , Flanders runs into the burning house to rescue Homer and pulls him out just as the firefighters arrive . After the fire is out , Homer declares that God was delivering vengeance . Reverend Lovejoy counters that God was working through the hearts of Homer 's friends , despite their different faiths . Homer agrees to give church another try and the next Sunday is there , albeit snoring loudly through the service . Appearing in his dreams again , God consoles Homer on the failure of his religion . He starts to tell Homer the meaning of life , but is cut off by the ending credits .
= = Production = =
This episode originated when Al Jean commented to Mike Reiss , " We had a lot of luck with Homer stealing cable , which was based on the eighth commandment , so maybe we could look to other commandments . So we thought , ' Honor the Sabbath ' would be a good one . So the ' Homer doesn 't go to church ' storyline was given to George Meyer . " Reiss and Jean thought that as a lapsed Catholic , Meyer would " bring the proper degree of rage " to the episode . Meyer had a lot of fun making the episode , thinking that most people could relate to the bliss of staying home from church . One of the main problems Meyer had writing this episode is that whenever Homer saw God , he had to have fallen asleep so that it appeared to be a dream . Meyer did not want to show that God was literally appearing to Homer . This resulted in him falling asleep so many times during the first draft of the episode that it was almost as if Homer had narcolepsy . This was also the first episode from season four that was read to the production team . Although first reads on previous seasons had not been well received by the production team , " Homer the Heretic " read very well , particularly some of the visuals in the third act , such as the house on fire and Homer being rescued by Flanders .
This was the first episode of The Simpsons where the animation was produced by Film Roman . Up until this point , Film Roman had mostly worked on Garfield and Friends and Bobby 's World episodes , and were not used to the speed with which The Simpsons episodes were produced . However , they quickly adjusted . Film Roman went on to do the animation for the rest of the series and eventually The Simpsons Movie . Previously , the animation was produced by Klasky Csupo .
The chalkboard gag for this episode , " I will not defame New Orleans " , was made as an apology to the citizens of New Orleans after it was musically insulted in the previous episode .
Along with " Mr. Plow " , a later episode of this season , this is one of the few television episodes that prominently featured snow outside of Christmas or Thanksgiving centric episodes .
In the scene in which Jimi Hendrix and Benjamin Franklin play a game of air hockey in Heaven , Hendrix was supposed to have a speaking line of his own to respond to Jefferson 's line . It was cut late during production because the voice actor for Hendrix did not sound enough like Hendrix . Jefferson 's line was kept because " nobody knows what he sounds like " , whereas Hendrix had a distinct voice .
The abrupt cutting off of God 's voice before he reveals the meaning of life was intended to be cut off by a voiceover promotion for whatever FOX program aired after The Simpsons . However , FOX did not pick up on this and so God 's voice was instead cut off by the show 's credits .
= = Cultural references = =
The brand label on Homer 's shower radio reads " No @-@ Soap , Radio ! " , so @-@ named for the punch line of a well @-@ known practical joke . The scene where Homer dances in his underwear to the Royal Teens song " Short Shorts " is almost identical to a scene in the 1983 Tom Cruise film , Risky Business . The burning floor collapsing beneath Flanders ' feet is a reference to the film Backdraft .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer the Heretic " finished 36th in ratings for the week of October 5 – 11 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 2 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , loved the episode . They described it as " A brilliant episode , underlining everything that The Simpsons is about . Homer hates church , Marge wants the kids to see Homer as an example , and everyone pulls together in the end . Good stuff , and if God really is like that , he 's a groovy kind of guy . " In 2012 , HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall cited the episode as his favorite of the show , writing that it " captures everything that was and is great about the series : social satire , extraordinary quotability ( ' This Things I Believe ' ) , a good family story , and an innate sweetness in spite of Homer 's outsized antics . " In 2004 , ESPN.com released a list of the Top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking Benjamin Franklin and Jimi Hendrix 's air hockey game , a scene from the episode , at # 83 . The episode 's reference to Risky Business was named the 45th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
The writers of the FOX program King of the Hill put " Homer the Heretic " among the five best episodes of The Simpsons , including " Brother from the Same Planet " , " Lisa 's Wedding " , " Lisa 's Substitute " , and " Behind the Laughter " . When asked to pick his favorite season out of The Simpsons seasons one through twenty , Paul Lane of the Niagara Gazette picked season four and highlighted " Brother from the Same Planet " and " Mr. Plow " which he called " excellent " , along with " the sweetly funny " " Lisa 's First Word " , and " Homer the Heretic " .
= Willow Grove Park Mall =
Willow Grove Park Mall is a three @-@ story shopping mall located in the unincorporated community of Willow Grove in Abington Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania at the intersection of Easton Road and Moreland Road ( Pennsylvania Route 63 ) . The mall contains over 130 stores along with several restaurants including The Cheesecake Factory . The Willow Grove Park Mall has Bloomingdale 's , Sears , Macy 's , Nordstrom Rack , and JCPenney as anchor stores . It is owned by Pennsylvania Real Estate Investment Trust ( PREIT ) . The Willow Grove Park Mall is the third most profitable mall in the Philadelphia area .
The Willow Grove Park Mall opened in 1982 on the site of the former Willow Grove Park . The mall , developed by Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization , was originally anchored by Bloomingdale 's , B. Altman and Company , and Abraham & Straus .
In 2000 , PREIT and the Pennsylvania State Employees ' Retirement System acquired the mall , with a renovation completed in 2001 that added Macy 's as an anchor . PREIT became the sole owner of the mall in 2003 .
= = Location = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall is located on the site of the previous Willow Grove Amusement Park in the unincorporated community of Willow Grove in Abington Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Center City Philadelphia in the northern suburbs of the city . The mall is bordered by Pennsylvania Route 63 ( Moreland Road ) to the northeast , Easton Road to the southeast , and Old Welsh Road to the southwest . The mall is located near Pennsylvania Route 611 and is a little more than a mile from the Willow Grove exit of the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The Willow Grove Park Mall serves as a transit hub for four Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority ( SEPTA ) bus routes . The Route 22 bus runs between Olney Transportation Center in North Philadelphia and Warminster via the Willow Grove Park Mall and the Route 55 bus runs between Olney Transportation Center and Doylestown by way of the mall . Both the Route 22 and 55 buses have several trips from Olney Transportation Center that terminate at the Willow Grove Park Mall . The Route 95 bus runs between the Willow Grove Park Mall and Gulph Mills . The Route 310 bus connects the mall to business parks in Horsham . The mall is also near the Willow Grove station on the Warminster Line of SEPTA Regional Rail . The Willow Grove Park Mall has a market area that covers eastern Montgomery County along with Northwest Philadelphia , North Philadelphia , Northeast Philadelphia , and portions of central Bucks County .
= = Stores = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall currently contains five anchor stores . The largest is Bloomingdale 's , which is 237 @,@ 537 square feet ( 22 @,@ 068 m2 ) and opened in 1982 . The Bloomingdale 's store is one of two located in the Philadelphia area . The second largest is Macy 's , which is 225 @,@ 000 square feet ( 20 @,@ 903 m2 ) and opened in 2001 as part of a mall expansion . The third largest anchor store is Sears , which is 175 @,@ 584 square feet ( 16 @,@ 312 m2 ) and opened in 1982 as B. Altman and Company before becoming Sears in 1987 . In 2015 , Sears is reducing its space to 96 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 919 m2 ) on the first floor while leasing 77 @,@ 500 square feet ( 7 @,@ 200 m2 ) of space to Primark , mainly on the second floor . Another anchor space opened in 1982 as Abraham & Straus before becoming Strawbridge & Clothier ( later Strawbridge 's ) in 1988 . Strawbridge 's closed in 2006 , with a part of the former space on the third floor reopening as The Cheesecake Factory in 2007 , which is 10 @,@ 310 square feet ( 958 m2 ) in area , and a 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 697 m2 ) Bravo Cucina Italiana that opened in 2011 . In addition , a relocated two @-@ story 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 579 m2 ) Forever 21 opened in a small portion of the former Strawbridge 's in December 2011 . The lower two floors of the Strawbridge 's space became a 114 @,@ 000 square feet ( 10 @,@ 591 m2 ) JCPenney store in 2012 , the mall 's fourth largest anchor . The remaining area of the former Strawbridge 's on the third floor opened as a 41 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 809 m2 ) Nordstrom Rack in 2012 , the mall 's smallest anchor store .
In addition to the anchor stores , the Willow Grove Park Mall contains over 130 smaller stores , including Abercrombie & Fitch , Coach , a two @-@ story H & M , J.Crew , Lucky Brand Jeans , Sephora , Victoria 's Secret , and Williams @-@ Sonoma . The mall also contains a food court with eleven spaces as well as three sit @-@ down restaurants : Bravo Cucina Italiana , The Cheesecake Factory , and T.G.I. Friday 's . As of 2011 , the Willow Grove Park Mall has a nonanchor occupancy rate of 94 @.@ 4 % .
= = History = =
The current site of the Willow Grove Park Mall was originally Willow Grove Park , a popular amusement park that existed from 1896 to 1975 . In 1978 , Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization announced plans to build a US $ 25 million mall on the site of the former amusement park . The plans for the mall were approved by Abington in 1979 , which included a downsizing to three anchor stores from four among concerns from residents about the size of the future mall . The Willow Grove Park Mall opened on August 11 , 1982 . The mall was designed with a Victorian theme honoring the former amusement park . The developers of the Willow Grove Park Mall were Federated Department Stores and The Rubin Organization and the architect was RTKL . When the mall opened , the original anchor stores were Bloomingdale 's , Abraham & Straus , and B. Altman and Company . Bloomingdale 's had relocated to the mall from a freestanding store in Jenkintown . When it opened , the Willow Grove Park Mall was intended to be an upscale mall . In 1984 , Federated Department Stores sold its share of the mall to the Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States for US $ 43 million . In 1986 , B. Altman and Company closed its store , which reopened as Sears in 1987 . Sears relocated to the mall from a store in Abington . Around this time , the store selection at the mall broadened to also target the middle class . In 1988 Abraham & Straus closed and became Strawbridge & Clothier , which had relocated to the mall from a store in Jenkintown .
The mall was acquired by PREIT and the Pennsylvania State Employees ' Retirement System in 2000 for US $ 140 million from a group of pension fund clients managed by Lend Lease Real Estate Investments In 2001 , the mall underwent a major renovation which included the addition of Macy 's as an anchor , the construction of a 212 @,@ 000 square feet ( 19 @,@ 695 m2 ) parking garage with 800 parking spaces adjacent to Sears and the food court , and the addition of a carousel at the third floor entrance opposite the food court . The renovation of the mall cost US $ 25 million . PREIT assumed full ownership of the Willow Grove Park Mall in 2003 by acquiring the Pennsylvania State Employees ’ Retirement System 's 70 % share of ownership for US $ 122 @.@ 3 million . In 2005 , a mosaic wall with images from the former Willow Grove Park was installed in the mall . The mosaics were created by the Abington Art Center 's Youth Empowerment Program and the Abington Township Balanced and Restorative Justice Program from designs made by Carol Strinton @-@ Broad . In 2006 , Strawbridge ’ s closed due to the acquisition of its parent company May Department Stores by Federated Department Stores ; a portion of the former store on the upper floor became home to The Cheesecake Factory in September 2007 . The lower two floors were planned to open as Boscov 's ; however , it never opened due to the chain filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2008 .
On July 28 , 2011 , it was announced that JCPenney would open a store on the lower two floors of the vacant Strawbridge 's . In addition , it was announced that Bravo Cucina Italiana and Nordstrom Rack would open stores on the third floor of the former Strawbridge 's . Bravo Cucina Italiana opened in November 2011 while Nordstrom Rack opened in May 2012 . Forever 21 also relocated to a larger store at the former Strawbridge 's site in December 2011 . The JCPenney store opened in October 2012 . On January 30 , 2015 , it was announced that Sears would lease some of its space to Irish retailer Primark . Sears would remain in its space on the first level while Primark will operate in the remainder of the space , mainly on the second level .
On November 25 , 2006 , during one of the busiest shopping weekends of the year after Thanksgiving , a small fire broke out in the Forever 21 store that forced the evacuation of 6 @,@ 000 shoppers ; no injuries were reported . On the evening of June 15 , 2011 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy from Upper Moreland Township who was smoking synthetic cannabis jumped from the third level of the parking garage , suffering injuries .
= = Economic impact = =
The Willow Grove Park Mall serves as a major regional attraction for Abington Township and is the third most profitable mall in the Philadelphia area . In the Pennsylvania part of the Philadelphia area , the Willow Grove Park Mall is the second most profitable mall after the King of Prussia Mall . The mall is regarded as one of three most successful locations for retailers entering the Philadelphia market due to its location and store selection . In 2011 , the Willow Grove Park Mall saw sales per square foot of $ 400 . The mall employed 1 @,@ 871 people in 2010 , making it the third largest employer in Abington Township with 8 @.@ 06 % of the jobs in the township .
The opening of the Willow Grove Park Mall led to the decline of retail along Old York Road in Abington and Jenkintown , with department stores such as Bloomingdale 's , Sears , and Strawbridge & Clothier relocating from this area to the mall during the 1980s . A Lord & Taylor store in the same area closed in 1989 , but was eventually replaced by the King of Prussia location in 1995 .
= IK Pegasi =
IK Pegasi ( or HR 8210 ) is a binary star system in the constellation Pegasus . It is just luminous enough to be seen with the unaided eye , at a distance of about 150 light years from the Solar System .
The primary ( IK Pegasi A ) is an A @-@ type main @-@ sequence star that displays minor pulsations in luminosity . It is categorized as a Delta Scuti variable star and it has a periodic cycle of luminosity variation that repeats itself about 22 @.@ 9 times per day . Its companion ( IK Pegasi B ) is a massive white dwarf — a star that has evolved past the main sequence and is no longer generating energy through nuclear fusion . They orbit each other every 21 @.@ 7 days with an average separation of about 31 million kilometres , or 19 million miles , or 0 @.@ 21 astronomical units ( AU ) . This is smaller than the orbit of Mercury around the Sun .
IK Pegasi B is the nearest known supernova progenitor candidate . When the primary begins to evolve into a red giant , it is expected to grow to a radius where the white dwarf can accrete matter from the expanded gaseous envelope . When the white dwarf approaches the Chandrasekhar limit of 1 @.@ 4 solar masses ( M ☉ ) , it may explode as a Type Ia supernova .
= = Observation = =
This star system was catalogued in the 1862 Bonner Durchmusterung ( " Bonn astrometric Survey " ) as BD + 18 ° 4794B . It later appeared in Pickering 's 1908 Harvard Revised Photometry Catalogue as HR 8210 . The designation " IK Pegasi " follows the expanded form of the variable star nomenclature introduced by Friedrich W. Argelander .
Examination of the spectrographic features of this star showed the characteristic absorption line shift of a binary star system . This shift is created when their orbit carries the member stars toward and then away from the observer , producing a doppler shift in the wavelength of the line features . The measurement of this shift allows astronomers to determine the relative orbital velocity of at least one of the stars even though they are unable to resolve the individual components .
In 1927 , the Canadian astronomer William E. Harper used this technique to measure the period of this single @-@ line spectroscopic binary and determined it to be 21 @.@ 724 days . He also initially estimated the orbital eccentricity as 0 @.@ 027 . ( Later estimates gave an eccentricity of essentially zero , which is the value for a circular orbit . ) The velocity amplitude was measured as 41 @.@ 5 km / s , which is the maximum velocity of the primary component along the line of sight to the Solar System .
The distance to the IK Pegasi system can be measured directly by observing the tiny parallax shifts of this system ( against the more distant stellar background ) as the Earth orbits around the Sun . This shift was measured to high precision by the Hipparcos spacecraft , yielding a distance estimate of 150 light years ( with an accuracy of ± 5 light years ) . The same spacecraft also measured the proper motion of this system . This is the small angular motion of IK Pegasi across the sky because of its motion through space .
The combination of the distance and proper motion of this system can be used to compute the transverse velocity of IK Pegasi as 16 @.@ 9 km / s . The third component , the heliocentric radial velocity , can be measured by the average red @-@ shift ( or blue @-@ shift ) of the stellar spectrum . The General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities lists a radial velocity of -11.4 km / s for this system . The combination of these two motions gives a space velocity of 20 @.@ 4 km / s relative to the Sun .
An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the Hubble Space Telescope , but the stars proved too close to resolve . Recent measurements with the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer space telescope gave a more accurate orbital period of 21 @.@ 72168 ± 0 @.@ 00009 days . The inclination of this system 's orbital plane is believed to be nearly edge @-@ on ( 90 ° ) as seen from the Earth . If so it may be possible to observe an eclipse .
= = IK Pegasi A = =
The Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of luminosity versus a color index for a set of stars . IK Pegasi A is currently a main sequence star — a term that is used to describe a nearly linear grouping of core hydrogen @-@ fusing stars based on their position on the HR diagram . However , IK Pegasi A lies in a narrow , nearly vertical band of the HR diagram that is known as the instability strip . Stars in this band oscillate in a coherent manner , resulting in periodic pulsations in the star 's luminosity .
The pulsations result from a process called the κ @-@ mechanism . A part of the star 's outer atmosphere becomes optically thick due to partial ionization of certain elements . When these atoms lose an electron , the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases . This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand . The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy , causing it to cool and shrink back down again . The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity .
Stars within the portion of the instability strip that crosses the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables . These are named after the prototypical star for such variables : Delta Scuti . Delta Scuti variables typically range from spectral class A2 to F8 , and a stellar luminosity class of III ( subgiants ) to V ( main sequence stars ) . They are short @-@ period variables that have a regular pulsation rate between 0 @.@ 025 and 0 @.@ 25 days . Delta Scuti stars have an abundance of elements similar to the Sun 's ( see Population I stars ) and between 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 5 M ☉ . The pulsation rate of IK Pegasi A has been measured at 22 @.@ 9 cycles per day , or once every 0 @.@ 044 days .
Astronomers define the metallicity of a star as the abundance of chemical elements that have a higher atomic number than helium . This is measured by a spectroscopic analysis of the atmosphere , followed by a comparison with the results expected from computed stellar models . In the case of IK Pegasus A , the estimated metal abundance is [ M / H ] = + 0 @.@ 07 ± 0 @.@ 20 . This notation gives the logarithm of the ratio of metal elements ( M ) to hydrogen ( H ) , minus the logarithm of the Sun 's metal ratio . ( Thus if the star matches the metal abundance of the Sun , this value will be zero . ) A logarithmic value of 0 @.@ 07 is equivalent to an actual metallicity ratio of 1 @.@ 17 , so the star is about 17 % richer in metallic elements than the Sun . However the margin of error for this result is relatively large .
The spectrum of A @-@ class stars such as IK Pegasi A show strong Balmer lines of hydrogen along with absorption lines of ionized metals , including the K line of ionized calcium ( Ca II ) at a wavelength of 393 @.@ 3 nm . The spectrum of IK Pegasi A is classified as marginal Am ( or " Am : " ) , which means it displays the characteristics of a spectral class A but is marginally metallic @-@ lined . That is , this star 's atmosphere displays slightly ( but anomalously ) higher than normal absorption line strengths for metallic isotopes . Stars of spectral type Am are often members of close binaries with a companion of about the same mass , as is the case for IK Pegasi .
Spectral class @-@ A stars are hotter and more massive than the Sun . But , in consequence , their life span on the main sequence is correspondingly shorter . For a star with
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ly " values of the SS were specific to the German post @-@ World War I concept of the " political soldier " who was indoctrinated to be a " fighter " who would devote his life to struggling for the nation .
Although not an SS document , the 1930 book Krieg und Krieger ( " War and Warriors " ) , edited by Ernst Jünger , with contributions by Friedrich Georg Jünger , Friedrich Hielscher , Werner Best and Ernst von Salomon , served as an excellent introduction to the intellectual traditions from which the SS ideal arose . The essays in Krieg und Krieger called for a revolutionary reorganization of German society , which was to be led by " heroic " leaders who would create a " new moral code " based upon the idea that life was a never @-@ ending , Social Darwinian " struggle " that could only be settled with violence . The book claimed that Germany had only been defeated in the First World War because the country had been insufficiently " spiritually mobilized " , and what was required to win the next war was the proper sort of " heroic " leaders , unhindered by conventional morality , who would do what was necessary to win . The values of the " heroic realism " literature gloried the principle and practice of fighting to the death regardless of the military situation .
Out of the intellectual heritage of the " heroic realism " literature came a rejection of the traditional values of Christianity and the enlightenment ( principles which were considered too sentimental ) ; what emerged in its place was a cold indifference to the value of human life . Marriage of the image of the " fighter " from " heroic realism " literature and the practical need of the SS to serve as political cadres for the National Socialist state , led to the elevation of the concept of " duty " as the highest obligation of the SS man . The SS ethos called for " achievement for achievement 's sake " , where achievement ranked as the highest measurement of success . As such , winning at all costs regardless the sacrifice became a supreme SS virtue . The SS principle of loyalty above all , as reflected in the official slogan " My honour is loyalty " , was severed from traditional moral considerations and instead focused entirely upon Hitler . The idealized and distorted version of German history which was espoused was intended to instill pride in SS men . Himmler admonished the SS against pity , neighborly love , and humility , instead celebrating hardness and self @-@ discipline . Indoctrinating the SS to perceive racial " others " and state enemies as undeserving of their pity , helped create an environment and a mental framework where the men saw acts of wanton violence against those same enemies , not as a crime , but part of their patriotic obligation to the Nazi state .
= = Ideology of genocide = =
As historian Claudia Koonz points out , " the cerebral racism of the SS provided the mental armor for mass murderers . " When Himmler visited Minsk and witnessed a mass killing of 100 people , he made a speech to the executioners emphasizing the need to put orders over conscience , saying that " soldiers ... had to carry out every order unconditionally " . According to historian George Stein , unquestioning obedience and " submission to authority " on the part of the SS represented one of the ideological " foundation stones " to combat the party 's enemies . As the Waffen @-@ SS took part in the invasions of eastern European countries and the Soviet Union , the men wrote of their " great service in saving western civilization from being overrun by Asiatic Communism . "
One Waffen @-@ SS recruiting pamphlet told potential members that answering the call meant being " especially bound to the National Socialist ideology , " a doctrine which implied both an ideological battle and a racial struggle against subhumans ( Untermenschen ) accompanied by an unprecedented brutalization of warfare . Participation in the " repellant task " of becoming psychologically involved in the killings was a rite of initiation of sorts and showed just how " internalized " the Nazi beliefs were for members of the SS . It was also part of the rhetoric of legitimation that gave meaning to their acts of extermination and habituated the SS to an ideology of genocide .
Special SS death squads known as Einsatzgruppen were used for large @-@ scale extermination and genocide of Jews , gypsies , Asians , and communists . On 17 June 1941 , Heydrich briefed the leaders of the Einsatzgruppen and their subordinate units on the general policy of killing Jews in the Soviet lands . SD member Walter Blume later testified that Heydrich called Eastern Jews the " reservoir of intellectuals for Bolshevism , " and said that the " state leadership held the view that [ they ] must be destroyed . "
The SS Einsatzgruppen were supplemented by the specially created Order Police ( drawn from Germany and / or the local populations ) who were indoctrinated by the SS to also take part in mass killings . One Order Police participant named Kurt Möbius testified during a postwar trial , that he believed the SS propaganda about the Jews being " criminals and sub @-@ humans " who had caused " Germany 's decline after the First World War . " He went on to state that evading " the order to participate in the extermination of the Jews " never entered his mind . One SS officer , Karl Kretschmer , " saw himself as a representative of a cultured people fighting a primitive , barbaric enemy , " and wrote to his family of the need to desensitize himself from the mass killings . Burleigh and Wippermann write : " Members of the SS administered , tortured , and murdered people with a cold , steely precision , and without moral scruples . "
The SS and its accompanying principles represented the realization of Nazi ideology and played a crucial role in the extermination of European Jews that followed the Nazis ' rise to power . As historian Gerald Reitlinger states , while the idealism and machinery of the SS as a state within a state will all be forgotten , their acts of " ... racial transplantations , the concentration camps , the interrogation cells of the Gestapo , the medical experiments of the living , the mass reprisals , the manhunts for slave labor and the racial exterminations will be remembered forever . "
Historian Hans Buchheim argues there was no coercion to murder Jews and others , and all who committed such actions did so out of free will . He wrote that chances to avoid executing criminal orders " were both more numerous and more real than those concerned are generally prepared to admit " . Buchheim commented that until the middle of 1942 , the SS had been a strictly volunteer organization , and that anyone who joined the SS after the Nazis had taken over the German government either knew or came to know that he was joining an organization that would be involved in atrocities of one sort or another . There is no known record of an SS officer refusing to commit an atrocity ; they willingly did so , and then cherished the awards they received for doing it .
Initially the victims were killed with gas vans or firing squad by SS Einsatzgruppen units , but these methods proved impracticable for an operation of the scale carried out by the Nazi state . In August 1941 , SS leader Himmler attended the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk . Nauseated and shaken by the experience , he was concerned about the impact such actions would have on the mental health of his SS men . He decided that alternate methods of killing should be found . On his orders , by spring 1942 the camp at Auschwitz had been greatly expanded , including the addition of gas chambers , where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B. By the end of the war , at least eleven million people , including 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews and between 200 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Romani people had been killed by the Nazi state with assistance by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries . Acting on Hitler 's orders , Himmler was a main architect of the Holocaust and the SS was the main branch of the Nazi Party that implemented it .
= = Post @-@ war = =
On 23 May 1945 , Himmler , who had been responsible for so much of the SS doctrine and that of the Nazi state , committed suicide after he was captured by the Allies . Other senior members of the SS fled . Chief of the Reich Main Security Office , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner , who was the ranking member of the SS upon Himmler 's suicide , was captured in the Bavarian Alps and tried at the Nuremberg Tribunal along with other leading Nazis like Hermann Göring , Joachim von Ribbentrop , Alfred Rosenberg , Hans Frank , among others . Kaltenbrunner was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed on 16 October 1946 .
Other SS intellectuals and physicians were also brought to trial and convicted , including the SS Ahnenerbe doctors who killed the enfeebled and / or disabled persons deemed " unworthy to live " or who performed medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners . During questioning after the war , many of the SS doctors from the concentration camps avowed that the allegiance they had sworn to Hitler superseded any of the rituals performed at medical school to say nothing of the Hippocratic Oath they had otherwise ignored . SS members absolved themselves through the pseudo @-@ scientific justification that they were merely acting as instruments ( men of action ) on behalf of the German people in pursuit of " racial hygiene . " Similar strategies of negation and dismissal of responsibility were displayed by SS men during their post @-@ war trials , either by way of legitimizing their actions as a result of unconditional obedience to their superiors ( intimating responsibility onto them ) or through the use of innocuous sounding bureaucratic language .
Given the impact that the Nazi ideology had on the European continent in causing a catastrophic war and unparalleled crimes , the Allied powers determined Germany shall be demilitarized and the country divided into four occupation zones . They also began the process of denazification ( Entnazifizierung ) . This was essentially an effort to " purge " the German people of the Nazi ideology that had pushed them to war and resulted in the Holocaust . Astonishingly , many members of the SS , including some from the upper echelons , faced little more than a stint in a POW camp , a short denazification hearing and were treated with " remarkable leniency " .
= = = Online = = =
" Introduction to the Holocaust " . United States Holocaust Memorial Museum . Retrieved 7 October 2015 .
= Indestructible ( Disturbed album ) =
Indestructible is the fourth studio album by the American heavy metal band Disturbed . A self @-@ produced effort , Indestructible is the first Disturbed album that did not feature Johnny K , the producer of Disturbed 's previous three albums , The Sickness , Believe , and Ten Thousand Fists . Indestructible was recorded at Groovemaster Studios in Chicago , Illinois . The album features two songs , " Perfect Insanity " and " Divide " , that were written by Disturbed prior to their first album , The Sickness , but were never previously released .
The album features significantly darker themes than any of Disturbed 's previous work , according to the band . Some of the lyrical themes involve actual experiences that vocalist David Draiman had endured over the course of the past few years prior to making the album , including " bad relationships " , a motorcycle accident that he was involved with , and an incident of suicide . To match the aggressive attitude and nature of said themes , Draiman told the other band members to create darker , more textural music than they have before . Despite these themes , the title track , " Indestructible " , is meant to encourage those in the military that are fighting in wars and boost their morale .
Indestructible was released on June 3 , 2008 in Compact Disc format , and also as two different limited edition and special edition digipaks , debuting at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , making it the third consecutive number @-@ one debut by Disturbed on that chart , which had only been achieved by five other rock bands prior to the album 's release . The album also shipped over 253 @,@ 000 units in its opening week . Indestructible was met with mixed reviews by critics , earning a score of 57 % on review @-@ aggregating website Metacritic , based on six reviews . The album was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in April 2009 for shipping over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The single " Inside the Fire " was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award in the " Best Hard Rock Performance " category .
= = Recording and production = =
After touring in support of the band 's previous album , Ten Thousand Fists , the band took a break . During this time , drummer Mike Wengren got married , and guitarist Dan Donegan had a child . In February 2007 , after the break was over , the band went to Groovemaster Studios in Chicago , Illinois and began writing music . Indestructible is Disturbed 's first self @-@ produced effort , without Johnny K acting as producer , as he did on the band 's previous albums , The Sickness , Believe , and Ten Thousand Fists . The band was comfortable with self @-@ producing , despite having Johnny K produce two consecutive number @-@ one albums , and this being their first time without him . As vocalist David Draiman reasoned , " we learned it , and we 'd like to try [ self @-@ producing ] . "
Early in the writing process , Donegan created guitar riffs . The rest of the band then listened to the riffs , and wrote the rest of the music , with the riffs being the base . As Donegan commented , " The writing process is ... pretty much the same since the beginning ... of this band . It 's always been riffs ; something musically that I 'll come up with [ that begins the writing process ] . " Wengren commented , " We 're always tossing around riffs and beats , but it isn 't really until we get home and we are able to clear our minds , decompress for a little bit , and then hit it , especially Danny and I , and just start throwing the riffs and the beats out , that the music starts to finally come to life . " Bassist John Moyer left the studio during the recording process , due to his wife being pregnant . Donegan and Wengren sent him demos through e @-@ mail , and he continued to write bass lines for the songs from his home studio . Regarding electronics on the album , Donegan said , " When the basic guitar , bass , [ and ] drums were being laid down , at first I didn 't really see a whole lot of room for some of the electronics , but as the songs were starting to develop , I was just in that frame of mind to try and toy around with some of the electronics . "
When the instrumentation was completed , Draiman began to write melody lines for each song . Draiman commented , " I 'm a big believer in the vibe of the music and the feel of it , how the song makes you feel musically should dictate what it is to be about and so if you start with something that has meaning , but the music doesn 't support the meaning , then what good is it ? " The first song completed musically was " The Night " , and Draiman completed the melody line in three days . This caused Draiman to tentatively call the record The Night . As Draiman recalled , " The instrumentation was so cool and so dark and textural that I right away kind of jumped into it . " When the first batch of songs were completed , the band sent them out to their record label , Reprise Records , and waited for their approval to continue writing more songs . After they received approval , they wrote the rest of the songs featured on the album .
Wengren commented , " We thought it would be pretty cool , especially for the fans , if we brought back maybe a song or two , that were actually written during the same period that The Sickness songs were written . Danny brought in some old demo tapes , I 'm talking twelve years old , back when ' Down With the Sickness ' and ' Stupify ' [ sic ] , and all that stuff was written , this was actually written before that . " The songs that Wengren was referring to were " Perfect Insanity " , and " Divide " . The band also recorded a version of the song " Midlife Crisis " , which was originally performed by Faith No More . Draiman comments , " We took the song , revamped it and modernized it to our current level , and the version 's killer . " However , the song did not make it into the final track listing of the album , and is instead featured on Covered , A Revolution in Sound . This version of " Midlife Crisis " later appeared on The Lost Children , the band 's first compilation album .
= = = Titling the record = = =
Indestructible took the longest amount of time to title when compared to Disturbed 's previous records , according to Wengren . The band had originally wanted to title the record The Night , because it was the first track to be completed , and it defined the musical direction the band wanted to use with Indestructible . The record had a song whose working title was " Defend " , but it eventually was re @-@ titled " Indestructible " . When the title was changed , the band felt the title had , as Donegan reasoned , " made a bigger statement " . Draiman said they titled the record Indestructible because the title " ... kind of symbolizes the fact that we 're still fucking here , that we haven 't been destroyed , that we withstood the test of time . "
Regarding the choice of the title , Moyer commented , " Usually there 's some name or phrase that sort of sums up , you know , what the vibe of the record 's about , so this one 's Indestructible , and it is an aggressive record , this record 's about kicking ass . " Donegan , commenting on the meaning of the title , stated , " We feel that we 've become indestructible to be able to survive this long in the business , and continuing a success with it . " Draiman concluded , " We have been through a lot . No matter what gets thrown at us , as a band , no matter what happens in the musical environment , we 're still here , we 're still viable , and still standing . "
= = Musical style and lyrical themes = =
Vocalist David Draiman states that , lyrically , the album was inspired by various occurrences of bad luck that happened to him . " I had a motorcycle accident , and I had my garage burn down with most of my vehicles , " Draiman commented . " ... I 've had really bad relationships that I 've been in and out of . They 've left their mark " , he concluded . The song " Indestructible " is " an anthem for soldiers " , Draiman comments . " It 's meant to be something that would make them feel invincible , take away their fear , make them strong and that 's what this whole body of work on this record does . It 's music to help you feel strong , " he concludes . Cuts such as " Deceiver " and " Inside the Fire " are about " really bad relationships " . " Inside the Fire " is about " standing over the body of my girlfriend , who just killed herself , and the Devil is standing over me , whispering in my ear to kill myself , " says Draiman . The song " The Night " is , " just kind of meant to portray the night almost as like a living entity that sets you free . You 're enveloped by it , enmasked by it , " Draiman comments . The band 's vocalist also says the song " Perfect Insanity " is about " toying with the idea of insanity . Coming at you from the perspective from the individual who is [ insane ] and warning people around him , particularly his love interests , about his psychotic tendencies . " Draiman says the track " Divide " " is meant to detract from the idea ' oh , let 's all be one , let 's all be united ! ' Fuck that , be yourself , be an individual , stand out , make your mark , make an impact . " Commenting on the meaning of the song " Façade " , Draiman says it is , " ... a song from the perspective of a girl in a relationship where she 's abused ... she 's thinking about killing him , like you see on the news . "
To match the themes Draiman had in mind , he told his bandmates , " give me your darkest , nastiest , [ most ] aggressive tribal rhythmic shit you can throw at me " . Prior to the release of the album , guitarist Dan Donegan supported this , stating , " musically , it 's a lot ballsier than we 've written [ before ] . " He continued , saying , " [ We 're ] trying to get a good blend of the elements of the past three CDs to try to evolve into something fresh and new for us as well . " Dan Marsicano of 411mania commented on the song " Perfect Insanity " , claiming it has " ... a short but sweet shredding solo , double bass drum work , and fast picked riffing ... " . He goes on to propose the same for the song " Divide " , saying it " follows the same pattern [ as " Perfect Insanity " ] , with aggressive guitar work followed through by Draiman 's vocals ... " Marsicano also proposes that " Inside the Fire " has " ... a memorable solo and a dark theme surrounding it , " and says that " The Night " is an " epic @-@ sounding track that has one of the best solos that Donegan has ever done and a catchy chorus . " Chris Akin of Metaleater proposes that the album is full of hooks , and that guitarist Donegan takes a " much more 80s approach " , due to his guitar solos . Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone proposes that the album contains " meticulously constructed guitar skronk , serrated verses and cathartic refrains " .
= = Promotion = =
The marketing campaign for Indestructible began in late 2007 , with a strategy of releasing content for fans early and often . Promotion began with distributing stickers at live events . Reprise Records also partnered with Hot Topic retailers , who thereafter put an Indestructible album teaser on all Disturbed merchandise , and eventually began selling a limited edition 7 " vinyl record with two songs from the album on it . In March 2008 , Disturbed performed a concert in Kuwait for United States military stationed there . The concert was streamed live on MySpace , and more than three million people viewed it . In February 2008 , an audio sample was posted on Disturbed 's MySpace profile to promote Indestructible . The sample , titled " Perfect Insanity " , is actually a song written early in the band 's career that never previously appeared on an album , but was expected to appear on the album . The track was later made available for download , in its entirety , on Disturbed 's website for promotional purposes . Another sample , titled " Inside the Fire " , appeared on Rock on the Range 's MySpace profile in March 2008 . The track was anticipated to be the first single released from the album , with a music video directed by Nathan Cox . On March 24 , 2008 " Inside the Fire " debuted on more than sixty radio stations . It was released for digital download the next day . On May 2 , 2008 the music video for " Inside the Fire " debuted on Disturbed 's website .
In April 2008 , a limited edition pre @-@ order digipak of Indestructible was made available for order exclusively through Disturbed 's website . The limited edition package featured the entire album , a B @-@ side track entitled " Run " , a DVD featuring a documentary about the making of the album and some instructional videos , a " wrap @-@ around " poster , a special VIP laminate which grants access to special Disturbed events through 2009 , and a special code which grants access to the " Inside the Fire " special website add @-@ on . Another special edition pre @-@ order of the album was on iTunes Music Store , and featured three live bonus tracks , as well as the entire album . Yet another pre @-@ order of the album allowed customers who pre @-@ ordered the album through Best Buy retailers to download the two songs , " Inside the Fire " , and " Indestructible " as playable content on the video game Rock Band . Three songs from Disturbed 's first online concert performance at DeepRockDrive were mastered and featured on the EP Live & Indestructible . On August 20 , 2008 a music video directed by Noble Jones for the album 's third single and title track , " Indestructible " , was posted on Disturbed 's website . The single was released digitally on September 29 , 2008 , and the music video was officially available for purchase the next day , packaged with the EP Live & Indestructible . Jones also directed the music video for the fourth single from Indestructible , " The Night " , in January 2009 , and it was released in late March 2009 .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
On the review @-@ aggregating website Metacritic , Indestructible received a score of 57 % , based on six reviews . Being the first self @-@ produced effort by the band , they had more leeway to create music without any outside interference , suggests 411mania writer Dan Marsicano . He concludes that the self @-@ production also led to a lack of guidance , though , which ultimately works against the album , rather than helping it . Guitarist Dan Donegan 's guitar work was praised , and About.com writer Chad Bowar notes many songs on the album are guitar @-@ driven . Metaleater writer Chris Akin also praises Donegan , saying , " If there is growth in the band , it 's in the guitars . Dan Donegan takes a much more 80s approach than he has on past recordings . " Allmusic writer James Monger praised Indestructible , suggesting that rather than taking melodic elements from acts like Pantera , like Disturbed 's previous records are suggested to , the album takes musical elements from acts such as Metallica or AC / DC .
Indestructible did , however , receive criticism . IGN writer Jim Kaz proposes that vocalist David Draiman has an " overly @-@ forced " vocal delivery . Kaz also finds , " The tunes are largely similar in style and structure ... In essence , there 's very little that stands out . " He goes on to say that the album already seems obsolete , " There 's just too much of the very recent past on Indestructible to move away from it . So in effect , it sounds a bit dated ... already . " It is also suggested that , although possessing a reliably solid foundation , the album lacks a meaning behind its drive : " They wind up sounding a little lost on Indestructible , stabbing their weapons without any reasons behind each parry , " says PopMatters writer Andrew Blackie .
= = = Sales and impact = = =
Indestructible shipped over 253 @,@ 000 units in its opening week . It is also Disturbed 's third consecutive studio album to debut at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , and remain in the top ten for five weeks , making Disturbed one of six bands to ever achieve three consecutive number @-@ one debuts . It also peaked at number @-@ one in Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . Indestructible was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in July 2008 , for shipping over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , and was certified platinum in April 2009 , shipping over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies in United States . The album has also sold over one million copies worldwide . The album 's lead single , " Inside the Fire " , received significant radio airplay . The single remained at number one on Mediabase 's Active Rock chart for fourteen weeks , setting a record as the longest running number @-@ one single on that specific chart . " Inside the Fire " was also nominated for a 2009 Grammy award in the " Best Hard Rock Performance " category . The title track , " Indestructible " , also reached number @-@ one on Mediabase 's Active Rock chart , making it Disturbed 's second number @-@ one song on that chart in 2008 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Disturbed .
The two bonus tracks , " Run " and " Parasite " , are both included on the band 's b @-@ side compilation , titled The Lost Children .
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Line @-@ up ( Band members ) = = =
David Draiman : Lead Vocals
Dan Donegan : Lead / Rhythm Guitars
John Moyer : Bass Guitars , Backing Vocals
Mike Wengren : Drums , Percussion
= = = Production staff ( Additional lineup ) = = =
Produced by Dan Donegan ; co @-@ produced by David Draiman and Mike Wengren
Engineered and additional production by Tadpole , assisted by Justin Wilks
Pro Tools by Tadpole and Cameron Webb
Mixed by Neal Avron , assisted by Nick Fournier
Mastered by Ted Jensen
Photography – Joey Lawrence
Cover illustration – David Finch
Art direction and design – Matt Taylor
A & R – Jeff Aldrich
Management – JBM
Legal – Jeffrey Light for Myman , Abell , Fineman , Greenspan & Light , LLP
Business – David Weiss & Associates
North American booking – Daryl Eaton & Rick Roskin for CAA
International booking – Emma Banks for CAA
Merchandise – Bravado
= = = " The Making ( Indestructible ) " = = =
Directed by Rafa Alcantara
Produced by Adam Cook and TWENTYFOURCORE Productions
Production assistant – Dan Fusselman
Edited by JT Smith and Rafa Alcantara
DVD post producer – David May
DVD associate producer – Raena Winscott
DVD Authoring – Jim Atkins for Media Services
= M @-@ 75 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 75 is a 11 @.@ 768 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 @.@ 939 km ) segment of state trunkline highway located in Charlevoix County in the U.S. state of Michigan . This highway serves as a loop off US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) , providing access to Boyne City . The highway happens to be geographically close to Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) , but they are not related .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 75 begins in downtown Boyne Falls at an intersection with US 131 . It follows Mill Street northwesterly out of town , passing to the north of a lake and the Boyne Mountain Airport . The airport property ends at the intersection with C @-@ 48 west of Boyne Falls . M @-@ 75 runs parallel to the Boyne River until it turns west near the Boyne City Municipal Airport to enter the community of Boyne City on East Division Street . Two blocks further west , it meets C @-@ 73 / East Jordan Road next to the Maple Lawn Cemetery . Next to the cemetery , the highway follows Boyne Avenue northwesterly into downtown . The trunkline turns north on East Street to cross the Boyne River and then turns east on State Street passing Rotary Park on the way out of town . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) measures the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) in traffic surveys . AADT is a measure of the average traffic levels for a section of roadway on any given day of the year . The southern segment of M @-@ 75 carried 6 @,@ 500 vehicles daily in the 2007 survey . Of these vehicles , commercial traffic was measured at 280 trucks .
East of Boyne City , M @-@ 75 turns northward and runs in that direction until turning again to follow the south shore of Walloon Lake . There it follows North Shore Drive into the town of Walloon Lake . M @-@ 75 ends at an intersection with US 131 . The roadway continues eastward as C @-@ 81 / Springvale Road . This northern segment carried 4 @,@ 100 vehicles and 170 trucks in 2007 . Neither segment is listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways .
= = History = =
In 1919 , the trunkline running through Boyne City was originally labeled M @-@ 57 . In 1927 , the entire highway was renumbered , and since this change , the trunkline has carried the M @-@ 75 moniker . The M @-@ 75 designation was left unaltered when US 27 between Gaylord and Indian River was converted to a freeway ; this freeway was redesignated as I @-@ 75 in 1962 . Some states , such as California , do not allow two highways in their state to carry the same highway number , which is not the case in Michigan . A reconstruction project in 1966 bypassed some sharp curves in the roadway and straightened sections between Boyne City and Walloon Lake . As of 2008 , the highway remains unaltered since the reconstruction .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Charlevoix County .
= Battle of Kupres ( 1992 ) =
The Battle of Kupres ( Bosnian , Croatian , Serbian : Bitka za Kupres ) was a battle of the Bosnian War , fought between the Bosnian Croat Territorial Defence Force ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) supported by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) troops on one side and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) , augmented by the Bosnian Serb TO on the other at the Kupres Plateau , on 3 – 11 April 1992 . During the fighting on 8 April the Bosnian Croat TO was reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) . The objective of the battle was control of the strategic Kupres Plateau , controlling a major supply route .
The opposing sides began bringing in reinforcements to the Kupres Plateau on 5 March to strengthen positions held around individual settlements populated by different ethnic groups , communications between those positions , and roads leading away from the plateau to the north and south . Different parts of the town of Kupres were controlled by the opposing forces , while the adjacent territory surrounding the town was controlled by the Bosnian Croat TO . In turn , that territory was surrounded by Bosnian Serb TO @-@ held territory . By the end of the month , the bulk of the civilians living in the area were evacuated . On 2 April , negotiations to defuse the situation failed while the reinforcements continued to arrive . The battle commenced the next day . In Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO achieved minor territorial gains on 4 – 5 April , before the JNA managed to advance to the outskirts of the town the next day . The JNA entered Kupres in the afternoon of 7 April and in the next few days , it successfully drove the Croatian forces from the plateau . The breakthrough came about after the infantry originally deployed to the battle was reinforced by an armoured battalion deployed from Knin .
Croatian forces were hampered by an inadequate command structure , poor coordination and lack heavy weapons . The battle resulted in more than 200 killed on both sides , and established lines of control which would remain unchanged until 1994 , when the plateau was recaptured by the HVO . In 2012 , Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Croats with war crimes committed at the plateau against civilians and prisoners of war . The next year , Croatian authorities charged 21 former JNA members with war crimes against HVO prisoners captured at the Kupres Plateau .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the implementation of the Vance plan , it was reorganised into a new Bosnian Serb army . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration was later cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . On 27 March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , drawing a border crossing by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade in response .
Control of the Kupres area was contested by Bosnian Serbs and Croats . Before the war , the former represented the majority of the population on the Kupres Plateau , comprising a total of 51 percent of its inhabitants , while Croats accounted for 39 percent . The JNA deployed an armoured unit based in Mostar to the plateau in May 1991 . The bulk of the force moved to Knin three months later , while a tactical group of the 30th Partisan Division redeployed to the general area as it withdrew from Slovenia after the Ten @-@ Day War . In September , the Bosnian Croats established the Territorial Defence Force ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) headquarters which set up armed volunteer units . By November , these units had been organised as the Kupres Battalion . The battalion consisted of five companies and an independent platoon . A Central Intelligence Agency report described the unit as a " barely organized collection of mostly local villagers and townspeople " . The arming of the various forces was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991 . In early 1992 , the 30th Partisan Division was subordinated to the JNA 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps and assigned Kupres as its area of responsibility ( AOR ) . The division , likely comprising only 2 @,@ 000 troops , was under the command of Colonel Stanislav Galić . As of 19 March , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps was under command of Lieutenant General Momir Talić .
In April , the Bosnian Serbs were able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The Bosnian Croats could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the Bosniaks were largely unprepared for combat with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , but small arms for less than half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons .
= = Prelude = =
On 5 March , the Bosnian Serb TO requested equipment for two companies mobilised in villages around Kupres — Malovan , Rilić and Ravno . The mobilisation was motivated by poor military intelligence provided by the 30th Partisan Division . It indicated the presence of thousands of HV and Bosnian Croat troops in the vicinity of Kupres , supported by Leopard 1 tanks drawn from a contingent of approximately 100 Leopards that the JNA believed had been delivered to Croatia . In response , the division was tasked to deploy its elements to Kupres , Ključ , Mrkonjić Grad , Šipovo , Jajce and the Mount Vlašić , take command of the Bosnian Serb TO and repel the expected Croatian attack . In order to achieve this , the division mobilised the 1st , 13th and 19th Partisan Brigades — assigning Kupres to the 19th Brigade as its AOR . By 23 March , the brigade received mobilised troops sufficient to set up three companies . Their immediate task was to block the Malovan and Kupreška Vrata mountain passes . The next day , the divisional commander toured the plateau and was informed that the Bosnian Croat forces were in control of the villages of Olovo , Osmanlije and Zlosela , in addition to Kupreška Vrata . On 26 March , the Bosnian Serb TO battalion based in Malovan was subordinated to the 19th Partisan Brigade . At this time , both sides had a relatively small portion of their force inside Kupres , while the Bosnian Croat TO held the area adjacently surrounding the town . The Bosnian Serb TO and the JNA completely controlled the areas surrounding the Bosnian Croat TO force .
The Malovan @-@ based battalion set up its first roadblock on 26 March , and the Kupres Battalion established its own checkpoints in response the following day . On 27 March , an attempt to reach a negotiated settlement failed and the commanding officer of the 19th Partisan Brigade announced that armed combat might start at a moment 's notice . The news prompted the evacuation of civilians of all ethnicities on 27 – 28 March . According to the daily report of the 30th Partisan Division of 29 March , the Kupres Plateau was deserted except for able bodied and armed men . The same report noted that the JNA could not deploy to Kupres itself without a fight . The JNA was convinced that the HV had intervened at Kupres to threaten the Bosnian Serbs . Kupres had a high strategic value , because it sat astride a road linking the towns of Bugojno and Tomislavgrad from the central Bosnia region to western Herzegovina and further on to Croatia .
= = = Reinforcements = = =
On 29 March , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps of the JNA decided took the initiative around Kupres , redeploying elements of the 1st Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade to the Kupres Plateau , along with units drawn from the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , and the 293rd Engineer Regiment . A company of the 3rd Battalion of the 13th Partisan Brigade was also moved to the plateau on the following day , while the rest of the brigade was ordered to be ready to move to Kupres . The Kupres Battalion of the Bosnian Croat TO mobilised an additional 200 troops in Kupres the same day . On 31 March , the strengthened 1st Motorised Battalion of the 11th Motorised Infantry Brigade , drawn from the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , arrived at the Kupres Plateau . The battalion was strengthened by the addition of a battery of five 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortars , six 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) howitzers , three 76 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) ZiS @-@ 3 guns and a platoon of 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) recoilless rifles .
In the afternoon of 2 April , a five @-@ hour meeting of local political leaders took place in Kupres , at the request of JNA . The purpose of the meeting , attended by members of Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Biljana Plavšić and Franjo Boras , was to defuse the situation . While there was an agreement to establish an ethnically balanced police force in Kupres and remove the roadblocks , the opposing sides could not agree on the role of the JNA . The Bosnian Serbs wanted the JNA to deploy to Kupres itself to ensure their protection , while the Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks wanted it to leave . During that same day , the 30th Partisan Division ordered the forces under its command , as well as the recent reinforcements , to capture Kupres and Kupreška Vrata and then hold their ground against anticipated Croatian counterattacks . Bosnian Croat authorities ordered the mobilisation of TO units in the nearby towns of Tomislavgrad and Posušje , with an armoured force at their disposal consisting of two T @-@ 55 tanks , two M36 tank destroyers , and one BVP M @-@ 80 infantry fighting vehicle .
There were 100 – 200 HV troops in Kupres during the battle . Those included a group drawn from the 204th Brigade , led by Robert Zadro ( son of late Blago Zadro , former commander of the 3rd Battalion of the brigade ) . During the fighting , elements of the Zrinski Battalion reached Kupres , while relatively small groups of soldiers drawn from the Frankopan Battalion and the 4th Guards Brigade arrived when the battle was nearly over . A company drawn from the 126th Infantry Brigade was deployed in Šuica , but it is unclear if it actively took part in the battle . There were also Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) units raised in Tomislavgrad and Posušje , which were involved in the fighting around Kupres . At the time , overall command of the Bosnian Croat forces was held by Brigadier Milivoj Petković .
= = Timeline = =
= = = 3 April = = =
According to the JNA , the Bosnian Croat TO attacked in the morning of 3 April , reached the village of Donji Malovan and blockaded the Kupreška Vrata Tunnel by 7 : 30 a.m. The village was captured by Croats after three hours of combat , and the fighting shifted towards the village of Gornji Malovan and Kupres . By the end of the day , the Bosnian Serb TO force in Gornji Malovan was besieged . The JNA instructed the Yugoslav Air Force to attack after it received reports that 15 HV tanks had appeared on the battlefield . The 30th Partisan Division staff amended the plans formulated the previous day and advanced with elements of the 11th Motorised Brigade towards Kupres via Zlosela , against positions held by the Kupres Battalion at 1 : 15 p.m. The change of plans enabled elements of the 13th Partisan Brigade to catch up to them by 6 : 00 p.m. and caused the attack to fail .
Following news of the fighting , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps called on its troops deployed in western Slavonia to reinforce the 30th Partisan Division . The corps felt it could weaken its positions in western Slavonia because the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) peacekeepers were expected to deploy there by the end of the month based on the Vance plan . Those troops consisted of the Volunteer Battalion of the 5th Corps , and they were augmented by the 2nd Howitzer Battalion of the 5th Mixed Artillery Regiment . The 1st Battery of the 5th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Defence Regiment was also added to the battalion .
= = = 4 – 5 April = = =
On 4 April , the Bosnian Croat TO captured Gornji Malovan . At the same time , the Bosnian Croat TO received reinforcements from Posušje , as well as a company from Bugojno and Uskoplje each . Fighting intensified as the JNA reinforcements arrived . A part of the Croatian reinforcements , which had just arrived from Bugojno and Uskoplje , fled after coming under attack near Zlosela . However , the JNA failed to achieve a breakthrough — even with five attack helicopters deployed in support of its advance towards Zlosela and Kupreška Vrata at 1 : 30 p.m.
The forces attacking towards Kupreška Vrata were redeployed the next day to assist in the advance towards Zlosela . In Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO secured the western part of the town , as well as Gornji Malovan . Regardless , no significant territory changed hands . Although the 9th ( Knin ) Corps dispatched ten tanks to Kupres from its 9th Tank Company , commanded by Colonel Slavko Lisica , only four of them reached Kupres , as six broke down along the way . In the town of Kupres itself , the Bosnian Croat TO was reinforced by the arrival of a group drawn from the HV special forces Zrinski Battalion . The 30th Partisan Division lost contact with the JNA troops ( 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade ) in Kupres at 1 : 00 p.m.
= = = 6 April = = =
At dawn on 6 April , the JNA launched a fresh attack towards Kupres and Kupreška Vrata , leaving the bulk of the 13th Partisan Brigade in reserve and employing the rest of the force at the plateau . The artillery was used so intensely that the 30th Partisan Division had to request resupply of its depleted stocks . The most effective part of the advance was the 9th Tank Company , which quickly pushed through the defensive positions , bypassed Zlosela and reached Olovo . In contrast , the Bosnian Croat TO command in Kupres was overwhelmed by the complexity of the situation and could not track which units it had at its disposal — even losing track of units physically near the command post .
The JNA further reinforced its position at the Kupres Plateau by ordering the redeployment of the 9th Armoured Battalion of the 9th ( Knin ) Corps to the area . It also established the Operational Group 11 ( OG @-@ 11 ) which was to take over the operation on 7 April , when the AOR of the 9th Corps was extended to the region . At the same time , the armoured and mechanised assets of the force were organised into the Tactical Group 1 ( TG @-@ 1 ) , commanded by Lisica . By the end of the day , the divisional reserve was committed to the battle , and the JNA claimed that they had captured Zlosela , Olovo and Osmanlije , as well as reaching the outskirts of Kupres . The Bosnian Croat TO captured the centre of Kupres and brought the 1st Battalion of the 19th Partisan Brigade into a difficult position , only to begin withdrawing towards Tomislavgrad after the main JNA force reached the town in the night of 6 / 7 April . Likewise , the Bosnian Croat TO started to pull back from Kupreška Vrata .
= = = 7 April = = =
On 7 April , the bulk of the 9th Armoured Battalion arrived on the battlefield , adding 17 T @-@ 55s , eight M @-@ 60 APCs and five BVP M @-@ 80s . The unit entered Kupres in the late afternoon , followed by two battalions of the 13th Partisan Brigade . A battalion of the 11th Motorised Brigade performed mopping up operations in the Zlosela area . A part of the Bosnian Croat TO force was retreating in disarray , while a portion of the force was trapped in Kupres and Zlosela , trying to break out . In the evening , as the mop @-@ up of the Olovo and Osmanlije area was completed , the OG @-@ 11 ordered attacks against Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan . The next day , the TG @-@ 1 received a commendation by the commander of the 9th ( Knin ) Corps , Major General Ratko Mladić .
= = = Final operations = = =
After it captured Kupres , the OG @-@ 11 turned south , in the direction of Gornji Malovan , Donji Malovan and Šuica . The attack , spearheaded by the 9th Armoured Battalion , reached Gornji Malovan on 10 April , the day Robert Zadro was killed . Fighting continued around Kupres until 11 April . Most of the Bosnian Croat TO troops , formally reorganised as the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) on 8 April , withdrew from the Kupres Plateau towards Šuica , while a small portion of the troops was forced to retreat via the Mount Cincar towards Livno .
= = Aftermath = =
Sources disagree on the number of Bosnian Croat and HV casualties . Their number is variously reported as 160 or 177 killed . The Bosnian Serbs and the JNA sustained losses of 85 killed and 154 taken prisoner of war . The JNA also captured 23 Bosnian Croat TO troops . The figures are reported to include 19 civilian deaths on each side . Even though the Serbian media initially reported that the villages of Gornji Malovan and Donji Malovan had been torched and razed to the ground , the information proved to be incorrect — the settlements sustained relatively minor damage . Conversely , Croat- or Bosniak @-@ inhabited villages were looted and torched . Zlosela suffered extensive damage — the village school was the only structure with a roof left in place .
Command and coordination of the Bosnian Croat forces had been particularly poor throughout the battle . HV General Janko Bobetko arrived in Tomislavgrad on 11 April to find that a company of the HV 126th Infantry Brigade , deployed to Šuica , had left its positions on its own accord . The move was followed by preparations for the evacuation of Šuica in expectation of a JNA advance south from Kupres . Bobetko managed to turn the 126th Brigade back to Šuica , persuading them to defend the town overnight in order to defend the entire region . It is not clear if the OG @-@ 11 intended to continue its advance towards Šuica though . Soon after the Battle of Kupres , a portion of the 9th Armoured Battalion was transferred to Glamoč to support the Bosnian Serb TO attack towards Livno there . The lines of control stabilised and would not shift in the area for more than two years , until the 1994 Battle of Kupres . By mid @-@ May 1992 , Bosnian Serb forces controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = = War crime charges = = =
In 2012 , Republika Srpska authorities charged seven Bosnian Croat officials and HVO officers with the killings of 19 Serb civilians , and 20 members of the Bosnian Serb TO in the area of Kupres in 1992 . The charges also pertained to the abuse of 18 prisoners of war captured in the Battle of Kupres . In 2013 , Croatian authorities in Šibenik charged 21 former members of the JNA with the abuse of 23 HVO prisoners of war . The charges specify that the prisoners were detained and abused in Knin prison between 24 April and 14 May . The abuse is alleged to have caused the deaths of two of the prisoners and grave injuries to three others .
= Alex Rhodes ( footballer ) =
Alexander Graham " Alex " Rhodes ( born 23 January 1982 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Isthmian League Premier Division side Margate . He predominantly plays as a left winger but also as a striker .
Rhodes started his career with Eastern Counties League Premier Division side Newmarket Town , where he came to prominence after scoring hat @-@ tricks in three successive games in 2003 . Rhodes scored 20 goals in the early part of the 2003 / 04 season , including 14 goals in 11 games in the league . After trials with several Football League clubs , he joined Brentford in November 2003 and scored the goal that ensured they were not relegated six months later . Rhodes scored five goals during his four seasons at Brentford , which were hampered by injury and included loan spells at Swindon Town and Grays Athletic . He signed for Bradford City in August 2007 but was released after one season , before joining Rotherham United . A loan spell at Woking was followed by his release from Rotherham in May 2009 , when he dropped back out of the Football League to join Oxford United . He played just four games before leaving Oxford by mutual consent , and moved to Braintree Town , initially on a short @-@ term deal . Rhodes rejoined Grays Athletic in January 2010 , but was released at the end of the 2009 – 10 season .
= = Personal life = =
Alex Rhodes was born on 23 January 1982 in Cambridge , Cambridgeshire . He first attended a football game at his hometown side Cambridge United but grew up as a Liverpool fan . As well as football , he played cricket as a youngster . Rhodes is nicknamed " Tiger " , because of his likeness to golfer Tiger Woods .
Rhodes had a tattoo of a 142 @-@ word quotation inked onto his leg in November 2008 ; the passage was originally written by peace activist Marian Williamson . It took five hours to inscribe onto Rhodes ' leg . Rhodes said he had the tattoo done because " I had a few knock @-@ backs when I was younger , when people were telling me I was too small , but I ’ ve always been determined to prove them wrong and I just feel this quotation is appropriate for me and my life . "
= = Career = =
= = = Newmarket Town = = =
Rhodes started his football career at non @-@ League side Newmarket Town , breaking into the club 's youth team at the age of 17 . He combined his early years at the club with work as a coach at Cambridge Regional College . During the 2002 – 03 season , Rhodes scored more than 30 goals . He continued his goal @-@ scoring form the following season and three successive hat @-@ tricks in September 2003 attracted the attention of league scouts , including Norwich City , Cambridge United and Yeovil Town . He scored 21 goals for Newmarket in the Eastern Counties League during the first four months of the 2003 – 04 season . After trials with Yeovil , Norwich and Ipswich
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Athletics Center Parking Structure . The athletic center is known for its innovative asymmetrically supported cable @-@ stayed structural system and S @-@ shaped roofs . It is composed of a masted building to the north containing the Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool , a masted building to the south containing the gymnasia , and a central building containing the Bernard DelGiorno fitness center .
Ratner , Ph.B. , ’ 35 , J.D. , ’ 37 , contributed $ 15 million toward the $ 51 million cost . He was a Phi Beta Kappa graduate and played for the baseball team during the time that the University participated in the Big Ten Conference . After graduating with a law degree , Order of the Coif , he eventually founded his own law firm Gould & Ratner in 1949 . Helen Myers McLoraine , also an alumnus from the 1930s , contributed in excess of $ 5 million to fund the swimming pool . Bernard DelGiorno — a gymnast with many degrees from the university : AB ’ 54 , AB ’ 55 , MBA ’ 55 — has made numerous donations including a $ 5 million one in 2006 to fund athletic facilities as well as other infrastructure on campus . DelGiorno worked in industrial relations and personnel at a steel plant before becoming a stockbroker for Paine Webber , which became a part of UBS Financial Services .
= = Details = =
The building features the 50 @-@ metre ( 55 yd ) x 25 @-@ yard ( 23 m ) Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool , which can be configured with up to 20 lanes in the 25 @-@ yard dimension and nine lanes in the 50 @-@ meter dimension . The pool 's configuration is flexible with a moveable bulkhead which allows for simultaneous activities . It also has a pair of one @-@ meter diving boards . The pool depth ranges from 4 to 13 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 4 @.@ 1 m ) in the shallow end and the diving well , respectively . The 24 @,@ 700 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 295 m2 ) competition natatorium features seating for 350 spectators .
The building also includes the Bernard DelGiorno fitness center . The DelGiorno Fitness Center facility occupies two levels of the Ratner center plus the rotunda area . In addition to a general fitness center , it includes a multipurpose dance studio ; classroom and meeting room space ; permanent and day lockers and locker rooms ; the University of Chicago Athletics Hall of Fame ; and the athletic department offices .
The building also features a competition gym and auxiliary gym , both of which are available to recreational users . The competition gym , which is the southernmost building , accommodates practice and game site for varsity basketball , volleyball , and wrestling , but is convertible into two recreational courts . The auxiliary gym is multipurpose and can accommodate indoor soccer , as well as basketball , volleyball , and badminton .
= = Use = =
The Ratner Center also serves as the home of the University of Chicago basketball , volleyball , and wrestling teams . The 1 @,@ 658 @-@ seat competition gymnasium has played host to the 2004 , 2007 and 2010 University Athletic Association Wrestling Championships and the 2006 NCAA Division III Great Lakes Regional Wrestling Championship . The building also hosted the 2009 University Athletic Association Women 's Volleyball Championship . The Myers @-@ McLoraine Swimming Pool was the site of the 2005 University Athletic Association Swimming and Diving Championship . It also hosted swimming at the 2006 Gay Games .
The center is available to University and hospital faculty , staff , alumni , and retirees as well as their spouses and children on a paid membership basis and registered students for free . As of 2010 , the University of Chicago is one of the few remaining universities in the United States to have a swimming requirement for its undergraduate degree program . Aside from the military service academies and a few of the Ivy League schools only a half dozen Universities had such a requirement as of 2006 . The swimming pool is the location of the administration of the two @-@ lap requirement . The facilities memberships are available to students as well as University and hospital faculty , staff , alumni and retirees , as well as spouses and children . Registered students ' memberships are free .
The building is complemented at the University by its predecessors the Henry Crown Field House and the modern incarnation of Stagg Field , which will continue to augment the athletic facilities needs of the campus patrons . Features of the indoor Henry Crown Field House include a 200 @-@ meter indoor running track ; racquetball , handball and squash courts ; multipurpose courts ; a multipurpose room ; and cardiovascular and weight training equipment . The Stagg Field outdoor complex includes a 400 @-@ meter track , eight tennis courts , and fields for baseball , softball , American football and soccer .
= = Design = =
The construction employed 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 814 t ; 1 @,@ 786 long tons ) of steel . The 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 907 @,@ 185 kg ) roof of the gym is supported by a pair of 125 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) steel masts . The pool 's roof is supported by three masts . Each mast is composed of three 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) diameter steel hollow structural sections ( HSS ) filled with high @-@ strength concrete that are arranged in a tapered tied @-@ column configuration .
The German @-@ import masts are united by 120 high @-@ strength steel cables that total approximately 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 981 m ) in length . They are inclined at a 10 degree angle from vertical . Each tapered composite mast that supports the flattened S @-@ shaped roof girders is supported by 15 splaying cables ; 9 fore @-@ stay cables and 6 backstay cables . During construction , the masts were filled with 10 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 69 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Pa ) cast @-@ in @-@ place concrete using innovative pumping techniques .
Concrete counterweights totaling 2 @,@ 500 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 911 m3 ) — with some as large as 50 by 25 by 13 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 by 7 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 0 m ) — counteract the weight of the roof from below the ground . The masts and counterweights are likened as external form @-@ giving elements to flying buttresses in gothic architecture , which predominates the campus ' architecture . The building is said to interpret gothic architecture through structural expressionism . The exterior support design made the interior space more receptive to open natural lighting and more accommodating for free movement .
The roof design incorporated multi @-@ level splayed cables so that the structural roof members could form a 33 @-@ inch ( 83 @.@ 8 cm ) deep uniformly curved roof plane . The roof members are curved and shallow . They support 7 2 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) thick 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) metal roof deck spans between the roof girders . The W33x169 girders are cold bent with reverse curves to multiple radii . The curved roof planes are suspended from German “ full @-@ lock ” steel cables and include three outer layers of interlocking Z @-@ shaped wires designed to minimize water infiltration and corrosion .
The engineering of the masts was complicated because stability was so important to the overall design success of the suspension structure . Mast displacements could significantly alter cable length and tension and redistribute loads through the superstructure contrary to design . The key to successful design was control of the foundation settlement . The sites natural underlying subsurface conditions were stiff silty clay below a medium dense sand layer , which was determined to be too accommodating to settlement to host the structure . Ground improvement , consisting of triple @-@ fluid jet grouting , was performed to reduce the compressibility of the silty clay , stiffen the sand deposit and provide a desirable shallow foundation system . This site marked the first time that these geotechnical ground improvement techniques were employed .
= = Reception = =
The facility 's engineering and design has earned it awards from the American Council of Engineering Companies , the American Institute of Steel Construction , and the Consulting Engineers Council of Illinois . The building earned a Merit Award in the category of new buildings in the $ 30 million and over category in the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations 2004 Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards program . The building earned the 2003 Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement of the Year award by the American Society of Civil Engineers and the 2004 Project of the Year Overall by Midwest Construction News .
= No Me Queda Más =
" No Me Queda Más " ( English : " There 's Nothing Left for Me " ) is a song by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . It was released as the third single from the album in October 1994 by EMI Latin . " No Me Queda Más " was written by Ricky Vela , while production was handled by Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla . A downtempo mariachi and pop ballad , " No Me Queda Más " portrays the ranchera storyline of a woman in agony after the end of a relationship . Its lyrics express an unrequited love , with the singer saying their love was the best and most important time for her even though he now is done with it .
" No Me Queda Más " , praised by music critics for its emotive nature , was one of the most successful singles of Selena 's career . It topped the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for seven non @-@ consecutive weeks , her third successive number @-@ one song . It was Selena 's first number @-@ one track on the US Regional Mexican Airplay chart , and became the most successful US Latin single of 1995 . It has been ranked the ninth @-@ best Tejano recording by Billboard magazine and the eleventh @-@ best Hot Latin Songs chart single in 2011 .
A music video for " No Me Queda Más " was shot in San Antonio 's Amtrak station . It received the Music Video of the Year award at the Billboard Latin Music Awards , whilst the recording received two Broadcast Music honors including Song of the Year . Many musicians have since recorded cover versions , including Mexican singer Pepe Aguilar , American salsa singer Tito Nieves , and Mexican pop group Palomo . The Palomo version peaked at number six on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart , while Nieves ' version reached number seven on the US Tropical Songs chart .
= = Inspiration , writing and production = =
In 1980 , Ricky Vela joined Selena y Los Dinos as their keyboardist . Although Vela was attracted to the group 's drummer , Suzette Quintanilla , he kept his feelings to himself . When he confessed his feelings to Suzette 's father , group manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , he began teasing him about it . After Suzette 's September 1993 marriage , Vela wrote " No Me Queda Más " and it was given to Selena to record for Amor Prohibido . Although the song was originally planned to be recorded as a mariachi track , EMI Latin president Jose Behar believed that a mariachi recording would not appeal to the popular market . Following this , the group gave it to Argentine arranger Bebu Silvetti to rework into a pop @-@ style track , and Behar asked Silvetti to " sweeten " the song to boost its airplay and chart performance . The result enhanced Selena 's pop @-@ radio success . Behar said in a Billboard interview that the song was " internalized " without affecting the originality of its recording . In a 2002 interview , Selena 's brother A.B. Quintanilla , said that during a recording session he had asked Selena to record the song for a fifth time . The singer replied , " What you got there is what you got " and left to go shopping : " Now looking back , she really did a beautiful job when recording the song , she had so much passion . The song became a classic . That 's what I can remember from one of the beautiful memories I have of Amor Prohibido . "
= = Music , theme and lyrics = =
" No Me Queda Más " is a downtempo mariachi and pop ballad , incorporating ranchera and flamenco influences into its sound . Musicologists Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called the song a bolero @-@ mariachi mix . This was echoed by the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , which noted its bolero influences . Texas Monthly editor Joe Nick Patoski wrote that Vela " riffed off romantic boleros " and the song " showcase [ d ] Selena 's vocal range and control " . " No Me Queda Más " has a " traditional trumpet duet harmony from [ styles of traditional Mexican mariachi music ] " , using traditional violins and guitars in a lush string arrangement . Written in the key of B minor , the beat is set in double time and moves at a moderate 95 beats per minute .
" No Me Queda Más " uses the traditional ranchera storyline , with the female singer agonizing over the end of a relationship . Its lyrics explore unrequited love ; when the singer 's lover leaves her for another woman , she nevertheless wishes them " nothing but happiness . " Selena sings the song " in a low , sober voice " , in a " desperate " and " sentimental " way . Ramiro Burr of the San Antonio Express @-@ News called her overdubbed vocals " powerful " and " emotive " , while music critics have described " No Me Queda Más " ' lyrics as " torchy " , " mournful " , " piercing " and " heartbreaking " .
= = Critical reception and impact = =
" No Me Queda Más " was praised by music critics , who considered it one of Selena 's most successful singles . Author Deborah Paredez called the song " romantic " . Roger Burns wrote in his book , Icons of Latino America , that " No Me Queda Más " became an " instant classic " . Billboard magazine Latin music contributor Leila Cobo called the recording " evocative " , while Paul Verna of Billboard called it " bittersweet " . Ramiro Burr wrote that the song , with its lyrics about " finding the strength to walk away " , was " touching " and Selena " fully conveyed the pain of love and the tone of redemption " . Author Jorge Velasquez called " No Me Queda Más " a " bonafide hit " , and the Polish web portal Onet.pl described it as one of Amor Prohibido 's biggest hits . Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " and " Techno Cumbia " the " key hits of [ Amor Prohibido ] " . Writing for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , Michael Clark complimented A.B. Quintanilla 's use of " world @-@ music flourishes " on the song . Lisa Leal of KVTV said that " No Me Queda Más " and Selena 's 1994 single , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , continue to be popular with fans and are Spanish @-@ language counterparts of the Beatles ' 1965 single , " Yesterday " , in fan popularity . It was the most popular song from Amor Prohibido on Mexican radio . " No Me Queda Más " was the Song of the Year at the 1995 Broadcast Music Awards , while Vela received the Songwriter of the Year award in 1996 . Its video was honored Music Video of the Year at the 1995 Billboard Latin Music Awards . " No Me Queda Más " was ranked as the ninth @-@ best Tejano song of all time on Ramiro Burr 's top @-@ ten list . It has appeared on a number of critics ' " best Selena songs " lists , including BuzzFeed ( at number one ) , Latino Post ( number four ) , and Latina ( number five ) .
= = Commercial performance = =
Billboard announced that a new airplay @-@ measuring system for its music charts would be based on Nielsen ratings beginning on November 12 , 1994 . " No Me Queda Más " entered the US Hot Latin Songs chart at number 40 on that date , and " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " remained at number one . On November 19 , the song rose to number ten on that chart and subsequently debuted on the US Regional Mexican Airplay chart at number seven . The following week , " No Me Queda Más " climbed to the fifth and fourth positions on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively . Billboard contributor John Lannert , noting that three different songs had topped the Hot Latin Songs chart since the inception of the Nielsen @-@ rating system , predicted that Luis Miguel 's number one single " La Media Vuelta " could be unseated by " No Me Queda Más " . The following week , " La Media Vuelta " remained atop the chart and " No Me Queda Más " rose to number two . " No Me Queda Más " topped the Regional Mexican Airplay chart for three consecutive weeks beginning on December 3 , Selena 's first number one on that chart . The song peaked at number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart on December 17 , her third consecutive number one . It debuted at number 13 on the US Latin Pop Songs chart on January 7 , 1995 , remaining atop the Hot Latin Songs chart . " No Me Queda Más " reclaimed the number @-@ one spot on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart for January 14 , unseating La Mafia 's " Me Duele Estar Solo " . La Mafia displaced " No Me Queda Más " from the top of the Regional Mexican Airplay and Hot Latin Songs charts on January 21 , ending the song 's five @-@ week reign on the latter . The following week , " No Me Queda Más " regained the top of both charts . On February 4 , " No Me Queda Más " fell to number two on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart and retained the top spot on the Hot Latin Songs chart for its seventh nonconsecutive week . It was displaced from the top of the Hot Latin Songs chart on February 11 by Grupo Bronco 's " Que No Me Olvide " .
Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . Four of her singles — " No Me Queda Más " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " Como la Flor " and " Amor Prohibido " — reentered the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts on April 15 . " No Me Queda Más " placed fifth and eighth on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively , and remained in the top ten of the Hot Latin Songs chart for 12 consecutive weeks . Billboard posthumously named Selena the Top Latin Artist of the 1990s in recognition of her fourteen top @-@ ten singles on the Hot Latin Songs chart , including seven number ones . " No Me Queda Más " was the most successful US Latin single of 1995 . It ranked eleventh on Billboard 's quarter @-@ century celebration of the Hot Latin Songs chart in 2011 . Billboard began monitoring digital downloads of Latin songs during the week ending January 23 , 2010 . " No Me Queda Más " made its debut at number 23 on the Latin Digital Songs chart following the twentieth anniversary of Selena 's death . On the Latin Pop Digital Songs chart , the song debuted at number 22 and peaked at number nine .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " No Me Queda Más " was filmed in October 1994 at the San Antonio Amtrak station . Produced by Summit Productions , the video was directed by Sean Roberts . Shooting took four days to complete . Jack Morgan was the on @-@ set photographer , and Diego Aguilar produced the video . Selena wore the same dress that she did when she won a Grammy Award for Best Mexican / American Album in 1994 . Veronica Flores , a reporter for the San Antonio Express @-@ News , was asked to make a cameo appearance as a wedding guest . The video 's location was later used for Selena 's fashion @-@ show scene in Selena ( 1997 ) , starring Jennifer Lopez . Hillary Clinton used " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " as part of her 2016 presidential campaign in San Antonio ( which was well received by Hispanics ) , playing the song at the location where Selena recorded the music video for " No Me Queda Más " . Univision ranked the music video at number four on their top ten favorite music videos of Selena .
In the video , Selena is sitting in a restaurant where a mariachi band is performing . A waiter offers her a glass of water . As the singer enjoys her dinner , the waiter returns with a note saying that her lover ( for whom she has been waiting ) has left her for another woman . Selena takes a sip of water before she leaves the restaurant , crying .
The singer is in the dark behind a busy highway , sobbing and peeling petals off a white rose in a game of He loves me ... he loves me not as a montage of images of Selena and her former lover plays . Selena then sings on a staircase in a white dress , accompanied by an orchestra . She considers crashing her ex @-@ lover 's beach wedding , but instead runs away in tears . Selena 's ex @-@ lover and his new wife kiss , and a video plays in which he kisses Selena 's hands . He then embraces his wife as Selena looks down , sobbing .
= = Cover versions = =
American salsa singer Tito Nieves recorded " No Me Queda Más " for his third studio album , Un Tipo Comun ( 1996 ) . The song was commercially more successful than the four singles released from the album , where it peaked at number seven on the US Tropical Songs chart . That same year , Dominican singer Kat DeLuna won first place when she sang " No Me Queda Más " at the New Jersey Hispanic Youth Showcase ; a children 's singing competition . In 1998 , Los Tres Reyes ( a mariachi group produced by Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . ) recorded a duet version of the song . Graciela Beltran covered the song during a memorial for Selena in Houston in 2003 . Mexican singer Pepe Aguilar performed and recorded " No Me Queda Más " for a live , televised tribute concert , Selena ¡ VIVE ! , in April 2005 . According to Michael Clark of the Houston Chronicle , " [ Aguilar 's ] vocal on " No Me Queda Más " was reminiscent of Aaron Neville " .
Mexican pop group Palomo recorded " No Me Queda Más " for their live album , En Concierto @-@ En Vivo Desde L.A. ( 2005 ) . The song debuted at number 37 on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart on March 19 , 2005 , and at number 46 on the Hot Latin Songs chart on April 2 . It remained on the chart until July 16 , peaking at numbers 19 and six on the Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts , respectively . American singer José Feliciano recorded it for his album , Jose Feliciano y Amigos , in 2006 ; Ramiro Burr of the Chicago Tribune called it a " bittersweet ranchera " . Cuban singer Toñita recorded " No Me Queda Más " for her album , Desafiando al Destino , in 2007 . A year later , American singer Maria Williams recorded an English @-@ language version entitled " Nothing Left For Me " for her debut album Hybrid . American singer David Archuleta performed the song as a tribute to Selena at the 2010 Tejano Music Awards , and Karen Rodriguez sang it during the tenth season of American Idol . On May 1 , 2015 Jennifer Lopez performed " A Selena Tribute " at the 2015 Latin Billboard Music Awards , which included " No Me Queda Más " . Lopez was praised by music critics , who appreciated the singer 's Selena @-@ esque costumes . The recording debuted and peaked at number 33 on the Hot Latin Songs chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Amor Prohibido .
= = Charts = =
= Puss in Boots =
" Master Cat , or The Booted Cat " ( Italian : Il gatto con gli stivali ; French : Le Maître chat ou le Chat botté ) , commonly known in English as " Puss in Boots " , is a European literary fairy tale about a cat who uses trickery and deceit to gain power , wealth , and the hand of a princess in marriage for his penniless and low @-@ born master . The oldest record of written history dates from Italian author Giovanni Francesco Straparola , who included it in his The Facetious Nights of Straparola ( c . 1550 – 53 ) in XIV – XV . Another version was published in 1634 , by Giambattista Basile with the title Cagliuso . The tale was written in French at the close of the seventeenth century by Charles Perrault ( 1628 – 1703 ) , a retired civil servant and member of the Académie française . The tale appeared in a handwritten and illustrated manuscript two years before its 1697 publication by Barbin in a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault called Histoires ou contes du temps passé . The book was an instant success and remains popular .
Perrault 's Histoires has had considerable impact on world culture . The original Italian title of the first edition was Costantino Fortunato , but was later known as Il gatto con gli stivali ( lit . The cat with the boots ) ; the French title was " Histoires ou contes du temps passé , avec des moralités " with the subtitle " Les Contes de ma mère l 'Oye " ( " Stories or Fairy Tales from Past Times with Morals " , subtitled " Mother Goose Tales " ) . The frontispiece to the earliest English editions depicts an old woman telling tales to a group of children beneath a placard inscribed " MOTHER GOOSE 'S TALES " and is credited with launching the Mother Goose legend in the English @-@ speaking world . " Puss in Boots " has provided inspiration for composers , choreographers , and other artists over the centuries . The cat appears in the third act pas de caractère of Tchaikovsky 's ballet The Sleeping Beauty , for example , and makes appearances in other media . Puss in Boots is a popular pantomime in the UK .
= = Plot = =
The tale opens with the third and youngest son of a miller receiving his inheritance — a cat . At first , the youngest son laments , as the eldest brother gains the mill , and the middle brother gets the mules . The feline is no ordinary cat , however , but one who requests and receives a pair of boots . Determined to make his master 's fortune , the cat bags a rabbit in the forest and presents it to the king as a gift from his master , the fictional Marquis of Carabas . The cat continues making gifts of game to the king for several months .
One day , the king decides to take a drive with his daughter . The cat persuades his master to remove his clothes and enter the river which their carriage passes . The cat disposes of his master 's clothing beneath a rock . As the royal coach nears , the cat begins calling for help in great distress . When the king stops to investigate , the cat tells him that his master the Marquis has been bathing in the river and robbed of his clothing . The king has the young man brought from the river , dressed in a splendid suit of clothes , and seated in the coach with his daughter , who falls in love with him at once .
The cat hurries ahead of the coach , ordering the country folk along the road to tell the king that the land belongs to the " Marquis of Carabas " , saying that if they do not he will cut them into mincemeat . The cat then happens upon a castle inhabited by an ogre who is capable of transforming himself into a number of creatures . The ogre displays his ability by changing into a lion , frightening the cat , who then tricks the ogre into changing into a mouse . The cat then pounces upon the mouse and devours it . The king arrives at the castle that formerly belonged to the ogre , and , impressed with the bogus Marquis and his estate , gives the lad the princess in marriage . Thereafter , the cat enjoys life as a great lord who runs after mice only for his own amusement .
The tale is followed immediately by two morals : " one stresses the importance of possessing industrie and savoir faire while the other extols the virtues of dress , countenance , and youth to win the heart of a princess . " The Italian translation by Carlo Collodi notes that the tale gives useful advice if you happen to be a cat or a Marquis of Carabas .
This is the theme in France , but other versions of this theme exist in Asia , Africa , and South America .
= = Background = =
Perrault 's " The Master Cataa , or Puss in Boots " is the most renowned tale in all of Western folklore of the animal as helper . However , the trickster cat was not Perrault 's invention . Centuries before the publication of Perrault 's tale , Somadeva , a Kashmir Brahmin , assembled a vast collection of Indian folk tales called Kathā Sarit Sāgara ( lit . " The ocean of the streams of stories " ) that featured stock fairy tale characters and trappings such as invincible swords , vessels that replenish their contents , and helpful animals . In the Panchatantra ( lit . " Five Principles " ) , a collection of Hindu tales from the fifth century A.D. , a tale follows a cat who fares much less well than Perrault 's Puss as he attempts to make his fortune in a king 's palace .
In 1553 , " Costantino Fortunato " , a tale similar to " Le Maître Chat " , was published in Venice in Giovanni Francesco Straparola 's Le Piacevoli Notti ( lit . The Facetious Nights ) , the first European storybook to include fairy tales . In Straparola 's tale however , the poor young man is the son of a Bohemian woman , the cat is a fairy in disguise , the princess is named Elisetta , and the castle belongs not to an ogre but to a lord who conveniently perishes in an accident . The poor young man eventually becomes King of Bohemia . An edition of Straparola was published in France in 1560 . The abundance of oral versions after Straparola 's tale may indicate an oral source to the tale ; it also is possible Straparola invented the story .
In 1634 , another tale with a trickster cat as hero was published in Giambattista Basile 's collection Pentamerone although neither the collection nor the tale were published in France during Perrault 's lifetime . In Basile , the lad is a beggar boy called Gagliuso ( sometimes Cagliuso ) whose fortunes are achieved in a manner similar to Perrault 's Puss . However , the tale ends with Cagliuso , in gratitude to the cat , promising the feline a gold coffin upon his death . Three days later , the cat decides to test Gagliuso by pretending to be dead and is mortified to hear Gagliuso tell his wife to take the dead cat by its paws and throw it out the window . The cat leaps up , demanding to know whether this was his promised reward for helping the beggar boy to a better life . The cat then rushes away , leaving his master to fend for himself . In another rendition , the cat performs acts of bravery , then a fairy comes and turns him to his normal state to be with other cats .
It is likely that Perrault was aware of the Straparola tale , since ' Facetious Nights ' was translated into French in the C16 and from thence passed into the oral tradition .
= = Publication = =
The oldest record of written history was published in Venice by the Italian author Giovanni Francesco Straparola in his The Facetious Nights of Straparola ( c . 1550 @-@ 53 ) in XIV @-@ XV . His original title was Costantino Fortunato ( lit . Lucky Costantino ) .
Le Maître Chat , ou le Chat Botté was later published by Barbin in Paris in January 1697 in a collection of tales called Histoires ou contes du temps passé . The collection included " La Belle au bois dormant " ( " The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood " ) , " Le petit chaperon rouge " ( " Little Red Riding Hood " ) , " La Barbe bleue " ( " Blue Beard " ) , " Les Fées " ( " The Enchanted Ones " , or " Diamonds and Toads " ) , " Cendrillon , ou la petite pantoufle de verre " ( " Cinderella , or The Little Glass Slipper " ) , " Riquet à la Houppe " ( " Riquet with the Tuft " ) , and " Le Petit Poucet " ( " Hop o ' My Thumb " ) . The book displayed a frontispiece depicting an old woman telling tales to a group of three children beneath a placard inscribed " CONTES DE MA MERE LOYE " ( Tales of Mother Goose ) . The book was an instant success .
Le Maître Chat first was translated into English as " The Master Cat , or Puss in Boots " by Robert Samber in 1729 and published in London for J. Pote and R. Montagu with its original companion tales in Histories , or Tales of Past Times , By M. Perrault . The book was advertised in June 1729 as being " very entertaining and instructive for children " . A frontispiece similar to that of the first French edition appeared in the English edition launching the Mother Goose legend in the English @-@ speaking world . Samber 's translation has been described as " faithful and straightforward , conveying attractively the concision , liveliness and gently ironic tone of Perrault 's prose , which itself emulated the direct approach of oral narrative in its elegant simplicity . " Since that publication , the tale has been translated into various languages and published around the world .
= = Question of authorship = =
Perrault 's son Pierre Darmancour was assumed to have been responsible for the authorship of Histoires with the evidence cited being the book 's dedication to Élisabeth Charlotte d 'Orléans , the youngest niece of Louis XIV , which was signed " P. Darmancour " . Perrault senior , however , long was known to have been interested in contes de veille or contes de ma mère l 'oye , and in 1693 published a versification of " Les Souhaits Ridicules " and , in 1694 , a tale with a Cinderella theme called " Peau d 'Ane " . Further , a handwritten and illustrated manuscript of five of the tales ( including Le Maistre Chat ou le Chat Botté ) existed two years before the tale 's 1697 Paris publication . Pierre Darmancour was sixteen or seventeen years old at the time the manuscript was prepared and , as scholars Iona and Peter Opie note , quite unlikely to have been interested in recording fairy tales . Darmancour , who became a soldier , showed no literary inclinations , and , when he died in 1700 , his obituary made no mention of any connection with the tales . However , when Perrault senior died in 1703 , the newspaper alluded to his being responsible for " La Belle au bois dormant " , which the paper had published in 1696 .
= = Adaptations = =
Perrault 's tale has been adapted to various media over the centuries . Ludwig Tieck published a dramatic satire based on the tale , called Der gestiefelte Kater , and , in 1812 , the Brothers Grimm inserted a version of the tale into their Kinder- und Hausmärchen . In ballet , Puss appears in the third act of Tchaikovsky 's The Sleeping Beauty in a pas de caractère with The White Cat . In film and television , Walt Disney produced an animated black and white silent short based on the tale in 1922 . It was also adapted into a manga by the famous Japanese writer and director Hayao Miyazaki in 1969 , and in the mid @-@ 1980s , Puss in Boots was televised as an episode of Faerie Tale Theatre with Ben Vereen and Gregory Hines in the cast . Another version from the Cannon Movie Tales series features Christopher Walken as Puss , who in this adaptation is a cat who turns into a human when wearing the boots . Another adaptation of the character with little relation to the story was in the Pokémon anime episode " Like a Meowth to a Flame , " where a Meowth owned by the character Tyson wore boots , a hat , and a neckerchief . DreamWorks Animation released the animated feature Puss in Boots , with Antonio Banderas reprising his voice @-@ over role from the Shrek films , on November 4 , 2011 . This new film 's story bears no similarities to the book . The cat food named Puss n Boots is owned by Retrobrands USA LLC and is available in the USA and Canada .
= = Commentaries = =
Jacques Barchilon and Henry Pettit note in their introduction to The Authentic Mother Goose : Fairy Tales and Nursery Rhymes that the main motif of " Puss in Boots " is the animal as helper and that the tale " carries atavistic memories of the familiar totem animal as the father protector of the tribe found everywhere by missionaries and anthropologists . " They also note that the title is original with Perrault as are the boots ; no tale prior to Perrault 's features a cat wearing boots .
Folklorists Iona and Peter Opie observe that " the tale is unusual in that the hero little deserves his good fortune , that is if his poverty , his being a third child , and his unquestioning acceptance of the cat 's sinful instructions , are not nowadays looked upon as virtues . " The cat should be acclaimed the prince of ' con ' artists , they declare , as few swindlers have been so successful before or since . The success of Histoires is attributed to seemingly contradictory and incompatible reasons . While the literary skill employed in the telling of the tales has been recognized universally , it appears the tales were set down in great part as the author heard them told . The evidence for that assessment lies first in the simplicity of the tales , then in the use of words that were , in Perrault 's era , considered populaire and du bas peuple , and finally , in the appearance of vestigial passages that now are superfluous to the plot , do not illuminate the narrative , and thus , are passages the Opies believe a literary artist would have rejected in the process of creating a work of art . One such vestigial passage is Puss 's boots ; his insistence upon the footwear is explained nowhere in the tale , it is not developed , nor is it referred to after its first mention except in an aside .
According to the Opies , Perrault 's great achievement was accepting fairy tales at " their own level . " He neither recounted them with impatience nor mockery , and without feeling that they needed any aggrandisement such as a frame story — although he must have felt it useful to end with a rhyming moralité . Perrault would be revered today as the father of folklore if he had taken the time to record where he obtained his tales , when , and under what circumstances .
Bruno Bettelheim remarks that " the more simple and straightforward a good character in a fairy tale , the easier it is for a child to identify with it and to reject the bad other . " The child identifies with a good hero because the hero 's condition makes a positive appeal to him . If the character is a very good person , then the child is likely to want to be good too . Amoral tales , however , show no polarization or juxtaposition of good and bad persons because amoral tales such as " Puss in Boots " build character , not by offering choices between good and bad , but by giving the child hope that even the meekest can survive . Morality is of little concern in these tales , but rather , an assurance is provided that one can survive and succeed in life . Small children can do little on their own and may give up in disappointment and despair with their attempts . Fairy stories , however , give great dignity to the smallest achievements ( such as befriending an animal or being befriended by an animal , as in " Puss in Boots " ) and that such ordinary events may lead to great things . Fairy stories encourage children to believe and trust that their small , real achievements are important although perhaps not recognized at the moment .
In Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion Jack Zipes notes that Perrault " sought to portray ideal types to reinforce the standards of the civilizing process set by upper @-@ class French society " . A composite portrait of Perrault 's heroines , for example , reveals the author 's idealized female of upper @-@ class society is graceful , beautiful , polite , industrious , well groomed , reserved , patient , and even somewhat stupid because for Perrault , intelligence in womankind would be threatening . Therefore , Perrault 's composite heroine passively waits for " the right man " to come along , recognize her virtues , and make her his wife . He acts , she waits . If his seventeenth century heroines demonstrate any characteristics , it is submissiveness .
A composite of Perrault 's male heroes , however , indicates the opposite of his heroines : his male characters are not particularly handsome , but they are active , brave , ambitious , and deft , and they use their wit , intelligence , and great civility to work their way up the social ladder and to achieve their goals . In this case of course , it is the cat who displays the characteristics and the man benefits from his trickery and skills . Unlike the tales dealing with submissive heroines waiting for marriage , the male @-@ centered tales suggest social status and achievement are more important than marriage for men . The virtues of Perrault 's heroes reflect upon the bourgeoisie of the court of Louis XIV and upon the nature of Perrault , who was a successful civil servant in France during the seventeenth century .
According to fairy and folk tale researcher and commentator Jack Zipes , Puss is " the epitome of the educated bougeois secretary who serves his master with complete devotion and diligence . " The cat has enough wit and manners to impress the king , the intelligence to defeat the ogre , and the skill to arrange a royal marriage for his low @-@ born master . Puss 's career is capped by his elevation to grand seigneur and the tale is followed by a double moral : " one stresses the importance of possessing industrie et savoir faire while the other extols the virtues of dress , countenance , and youth to win the heart of a princess . "
The renowned illustrator of Dickens ' novels and stories , George Cruikshank , was shocked that parents would allow their children to read " Puss in Boots " and declared : " As it stood the tale was a succession of successful falsehoods — a clever lesson in lying ! — a system of imposture rewarded with the greatest worldly advantages . "
Another critic , Maria Tatar , notes that there is little to admire in Puss — he threatens , flatters , deceives , and steals in order to promote his master . She further observes that Puss has been viewed as a " linguistic virtuoso " , a creature who has mastered the arts of persuasion and rhetoric to acquire power and wealth . " Puss in Boots " has successfully supplanted its antecedents by Straparola and Basile and the tale has altered the shapes of many older oral trickster cat tales where they still are found . The morals Perrault attached to the tales are either at odds with the narrative , or beside the point . The first moral tells the reader that hard work and ingenuity are preferable to inherited wealth , but the moral is belied by the poor miller 's son who neither works nor uses his wit to gain worldly advantage , but marries into it through trickery performed by the cat . The second moral stresses womankind 's vulnerability to external appearances : fine clothes and a pleasant visage are enough to win their hearts . In an aside , Tatar suggests that if the tale has any redeeming meaning , " it has something to do with inspiring respect for those domestic creatures that hunt mice and look out for their masters . " Briggs does assert that cats were a form of fairy in their own right having something akin to a fairy court and their own set of magical powers . Still , it is rare in Europe 's fairy tales for a cat to be so closely involved with human affairs . According to Jacob Grimm , Puss shares many of the features that a household fairy or deity would have including a desire for boots which could represent seven @-@ league boots . This may mean that the story of " Puss and Boots " originally represented the tale of a family deity aiding an impoverished family member .
Stefan Zweig , in his 1939 novel , Ungeduld des Herzens , references Puss in Boots ' procession through a rich and varied countryside with his master and drives home his metaphor with a mention of Seven League Boots .
= Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 =
Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 ( ペルソナ4 , Perusona Fō ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Atlus for Sony 's PlayStation 2 , and chronologically the fifth installment in the Persona series , itself a part of the larger Megami Tensei franchise . Persona 4 was released in Japan in July 2008 , North America in December 2008 , and Europe in March 2009 , and was later re @-@ released on the PlayStation Network in April 2014 . An enhanced remake for the PlayStation Vita , Persona 4 Golden , was released in Japan in July 2012 , in North America in November 2012 , and in Europe in February 2013 .
Persona 4 takes place in a fictional Japanese countryside and is indirectly related to earlier Persona games . The player @-@ named main protagonist is a high @-@ school student who moved into the countryside from the city for a year . During his year @-@ long stay , he becomes involved in investigating mysterious murders while harnessing the power of summoning Persona . The game features a weather forecast system with events happening on foggy days to replace the moon phase system implemented in the previous games .
The plot of Persona 4 was inspired by the work of mystery novelists owing to its murder mystery premise . The rural setting was based on a town on the outskirts of Mount Fuji and intended as a " ' nowhere ' place " and is the central setting to have players sympathize with the daily life of the characters . The developers added many in @-@ game events to prevent the game from becoming stale . During the localization , numerous alterations to names and cultural references were made to preserve the effect through translation , but some Japanese cultural references were altered or removed .
The release of the game in Japan was accompanied by merchandise such as character costumes and accessories . The North American package of the game was released with a CD with selected music from the game , and , unlike Persona 3 , the European package also contained a soundtrack CD . The music , as with the previous game , was composed primarily by Shoji Meguro . He was joined this time by Shihoko Hirata , who performed vocals on various songs , including the theme song " Pursuing My True Self " . The game was positively received by critics and developed into a full franchise . Various manga and light novel adaptations and spin @-@ offs have been produced . A television anime adaptation by AIC ASTA , titled Persona 4 : The Animation , aired in Japan between October 2011 and March 2012 , with an anime adaptation of Persona 4 Golden , produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures , airing as of July 2014 . The game has also spawned two fighting game sequels , Persona 4 Arena and Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , and a rhythm game , Persona 4 : Dancing All Night .
= = Gameplay = =
Persona 4 blends traditional RPG gameplay with simulation elements . The player controls the game 's protagonist , a teenage boy who is named by the player , who comes to the town of Inaba for a year . Gameplay is divided between the real world of Inaba , where the protagonist carries out his daily life , and the mysterious " TV World " , where various dungeons filled with monsters known as Shadows await . With the exception of scripted events , such as plot progression or special events , players can choose to spend their day how they like , be it participating in various real world activities , such as joining school clubs , taking part @-@ time jobs , or reading books , or exploring the TV World 's dungeons to gain experience and items . Days are broken up into various times of day , the most reoccurring being " After School / Daytime " and " Evening " , with most activities causing time to move on . Certain activities are limited depending on the time of day , days of the week , and the weather , with most evening activities unavailable if the player visits the TV World that day . Furthermore , some activities and dialogue choices may be limited by the protagonist 's five attributes ; Understanding , Diligence , Courage , Knowledge , and Expression , which can be increased by performing certain activities that build them . Whilst the player is free to choose how to spend their time , if they fail to rescue someone who is trapped in the TV World by the time fog appears in town , which takes place after several days of consecutive rain , the game will end , forcing the player to return to a week prior . As the game progresses , the protagonist forms friendships with other characters known as " Social Links " , which are each represented by one of the Major Arcana . As these bonds strengthen , the Social Links increase in Rank , which grant bonuses when creating new Personas in the Velvet Room . Additionally , strengthening Social Links with the main party members grant them additional abilities , such as the ability to perform a follow @-@ up attack or an additional ability for their Persona .
= = = Personas = = =
The main focus of the game revolves around Personas , avatars projected from one 's inner self that resemble mythological figures and represent the façades worn by individuals to face life 's hardships . Each Persona possesses its own skills , as well as strengths and weaknesses to certain attributes . As Personas gain experience from battle and level up , that Persona can learn new skills , which include offensive or support abilities used in battle , or passive skills that grant the character benefits . Each Persona can carry up to eight skills at a time , with older skills needing to be forgotten in order to learn new ones . Whilst each of the main party members have their own unique Persona , which transforms into a stronger form after maxing out their Social Link , the protagonist has the " Wild Card " ability to wield multiple Personas , which he can switch between during battle to access different movesets . The player can earn new Personas from Shuffle Time , with the protagonist able to carry more Personas as he levels up . Outside of the dungeons , the player can visit the Velvet Room , where players can create new Personas , or summon previously acquired Personas for a fee . New Personas are created by fusing two or more monsters to create a new one , which receives some of the skills passed down from its material monsters . The level of Personas that can be created are limited by the protagonist 's current level . If the player has built up a Social Link relating to a particular Arcana , then a Persona relating to that Arcana will receive a bonus upon creation .
= = = Combat = = =
Inside the TV World , the player assembles a party , consisting of the protagonist and up to three other characters , to explore randomly generated dungeons , each tailored around a victim who had been kidnapped . On each floor of a dungeon , the player may find roaming Shadows , as well as treasure chests containing items and equipment . Players progress through the dungeon by finding the stairs somewhere on each floor to progress to the next , eventually reaching the final floor where a boss enemy awaits . The player enters battle upon coming into contact with a Shadow . The player can gain an advantage by attacking the Shadow from behind , whilst being attacked from behind themselves will give the enemy an advantage . Similar to the Press Turn system used in other Shin Megami Tensei games , battles are turn @-@ based with characters fighting enemies using their equipped weapons , items , or the special skills of their Personas . Aside from the protagonist , who is controlled directly , the other characters can either be given direct commands or be assigned ' Tactics ' which alter their battle AI . If the protagonist loses all of his HP , the game ends , returning players to the title screen .
Offensive abilities carry several attributes , including Physical , Fire , Ice , Wind , Electricity , Light , Dark and Almighty . As well as various enemies carrying different attributes , player characters may also have strengths or weaknesses against certain attacks depending on their Persona or equipment . By exploiting an enemy 's weakness or performing a critical attack , the player can knock them over , granting the attacking character an additional move , whilst the enemy may also be granted an additional move if they target a player character 's weakness . If the player knocks all of the enemies down , they may be granted the opportunity to perform an " All @-@ Out Attack " , in which all the players rush the downed enemies to inflict heavy damage . Following a battle , players gain experience points , money , and items from their battle . Sometimes after a battle , the player may participate in a mini @-@ game known as " Shuffle Time " , which can grant player various bonuses or new Personas .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Persona 4 takes place in the fictional , rural Japanese town of Inaba , which lies among floodplains and has its own high school and shopping districts . Unexplained murders have taken place in the small town , where bodies are found dangling from television antennas and their cause of death unknown . At the same time , rumor has begun to spread that watching a switched @-@ off television set on rainy midnights will reveal a person 's soulmate . The game also follows the main characters into the TV World , a fog @-@ shrouded realm filled with monsters called Shadows , which can only be accessed through TV sets .
The protagonist is a high school student who has recently moved from a large city to Inaba , where he is to live and attend school for a year . At school , he quickly becomes friends with Yosuke Hanamura , the somewhat @-@ clumsy son of the manager of the local Junes megastore ; Chie Satonaka , an energetic girl with a strong interest in martial arts ; and Yukiko Amagi , a calm and refined girl who helps out at her family 's inn . A few days into the game , the protagonist , Yosuke , and Chie follow the " Midnight Channel " rumor , which leads them to discover the TV World and meet Teddie , a friendly creature that appears as a hollow bear costume . Using Personas , the students form an Investigation Team to investigate the connection between the TV world and the murders , and possibly capture the culprit . As the game progresses , the group gains new members , including : Kanji Tatsumi , a male delinquent who has a talent for feminine hobbies ; Rise Kujikawa , a former teen idol trying to find her identity who moves to Inaba as a transfer student ; and Naoto Shirogane , a young female detective investigating the case with the local police who wears masculine clothing and presents herself as male due to fear of rejection .
= = = Plot = = =
On April 11 , 2011 , the protagonist arrives in Inaba to live with the Dojimas , consisting of his uncle Ryotaro and his cousin Nanako , for one year , as his parents are working abroad . Just after his arrival , a TV announcer is found dead , her body hanging from an antenna ; Saki Konishi , the high school student who had discovered the body , is later found dead herself , hung upside @-@ down from a telephone pole . After the protagonist and his friends accidentally enter the TV world , they encounter Teddie , who helps them travel freely between the TV and real worlds . They awaken their Persona abilities , realizing that the murders stem from attacks by Shadows , beings native to the TV world created from repressed emotions , and are able to rescue several would @-@ be victims . Yosuke , Chie , Yukiko , Kanji , Rise , and Teddie one by one come to accept the parts of their psyches they rejected , which manifest as giant Shadows in the TV world , allowing them to wield Personas whilst each joins the group in turn . Mitsuo Kubo , a student from another high school who disappears following the death of Kinshiro Morooka , the protagonist 's foul @-@ mouthed homeroom teacher , claims credit for the murders ; it is eventually learned that Kubo only killed Morooka and played no part in the other murders , having murdered Morooka simply to gain credit for the other murders . Naoto Shirogane , a nationally @-@ renowned " Detective Prince " investigating the case , is also rescued and gains a Persona , and joins the group who learn that " he " is actually a girl who assumed a male identity to avoid the police 's sexism .
Events come to a head when Ryotaro Dojima mistakenly accuses the protagonist of being involved in the murders . Nanako is kidnapped during the protagonist 's interrogation , leading Ryotaro to engage in a vehicular pursuit with the culprit . The chase ends as they both crash ; the kidnapper escapes with Nanako through a television set in his truck , and the gravely @-@ injured Ryotaro entrusts her rescue to the group . The group tracks them down within the TV world ; the culprit , Taro Namatame , becomes a god @-@ like monster — Kunino @-@ sagiri — which attacks them but is defeated , and both he and Nanako are taken to the Inaba hospital . When Nanako appears to die , the group furiously confronts Namatame ; as the protagonist , the player must help the others realize that Namatame is not the killer by pointing out the lack of a proper motive , and subsequently work to determine that Ryotaro 's assistant , Tohru Adachi , is the true killer . Failure to do so ends the game with the party unable to solve the case ; Nanako either remaining dead , or reviving but remaining hospitalised ; and the recurring fog permanently setting in , the last of which will eventually lead to humanity 's demise .
Having identified the culprit as Adachi , the party chases and locates him within the TV world . Adachi explains that his actions were out of both boredom and the belief that humanity is better off believing what it wants ; his claims are dismissed by the party as the rantings of a madman . After fighting Adachi , he is possessed by Ameno @-@ sagiri , the Japanese God of Fog , who reveals that the fog is harmful to people and will eventually cause humanity to fall into a permanent state of ignorance and transform into Shadows . Upon his defeat , he agrees to lift the fog , congratulating the party on their resolve . Defeated , the wounded Adachi agrees to assume responsibility for his actions and turns himself in . The game moves forward to the day before the protagonist must travel home . If the player returns to the Dojima residence , the game ends with the party sending the protagonist off as he departs Inaba . Alternatively , should the player be able to identify the unexplained cause of the Midnight Channel and attempt to resolve this plot element , the protagonist meets with the party , and together they decide to end the case for good .
The protagonist confronts the gas station attendant encountered at the start of the game , who reveals herself to be the Japanese goddess Izanami , the " conductor " behind the game 's events . The cause of the recurring fog is established as an attempt to create a world of illusion by merging the TV world with the human world , all for the " sake " of humanity . The group tracks Izanami down within the TV world and battle her , but is at first unable to win ; the defeated protagonist is given strength by the bonds he has forged with those around him , and with this power awakens a new Persona — Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Okami — which he uses to defeat Izanami . In doing so , the fog in each world is lifted , and the TV world is restored to its original form . The game ends with the party sending the protagonist off the following day , and a post @-@ credits scene depicts the group resolving to remain friends forever , as the protagonist examines a photo of the party .
= = Development = =
According to the game director Katsura Hashino , while " ideas [ had been ] thrown around earlier " , development on Persona 4 in Japan did not begin until after the release of Persona 3 . The development team consisted of the team from Persona 3 and new hires which included fans of Persona 3 . Atlus intended to improve both the gameplay and story elements of Persona 3 for the new game , to ensure it was not seen as a " retread " of its predecessor . Hashino said that " to accomplish that , we tried to give the players of Persona 4 a definite goal and a sense of purpose that would keep motivating them as they played through the game . The murder mystery plot was our way of doing that . " The plot of Persona 4 was " greatly inspired " , according to Hashino , by mystery novelists such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Agatha Christie and Seishi Yokomizo . Persona 4 was officially unveiled in the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu in March 2008 . An article in the issue detailed the game 's murder mystery premise , rural setting , and new weather forecast system . The game 's North American release date was announced at the 2008 Anime Expo in Los Angeles , California . Atlus would not make an add @-@ on disc or epilogue for Persona 4 , as had been done with the Persona 3 FES . Persona 4 allowed players full control of characters in battle . This was due to negative comments from players about most of the player team in Persona 3 being controlled by the game 's AI . The amount of data the team ended up incorporating around school life , character relationships and spoke character dialogue was so large that there were fears it would not fit onto a single disc . The anime cutscenes were produced by Studio Hibari .
The design of Inaba is based on a town on the outskirts of Mount Fuji . Its rural design was a source of conflict between Persona 4 's developers , as " each staff member had their own image of a rural town " , according to director Katsura Hashino . The entire staff went " location hunting " to determine Inaba 's design . Inaba does not represent " a country town that has tourist attractions " , but rather a non @-@ notable , " ' nowhere ' place " . Hashino described the town as being " for better or for worse ... a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill town " . Unlike other role @-@ playing games , which may have large worlds for the player to explore , Persona 4 mostly takes place in Inaba . This reduced development costs , and enabled Atlus " to expand other portions of the game " in return . A central setting also allows players to " sympathize with the daily life that passes in the game " . To prevent the setting from becoming stale , the development team established a set number of in @-@ game events to be created to " keep the game exciting " . The choice of Japanese mythical figures for the characters ' Personas as opposed to the Graeco @-@ Roman deities used in earlier games was directly inspired by the new setting . The appearances of Personas were based on the characters ' personalities . The design team had a good deal of creating freedom , as while Japanese deities has well @-@ defined character traits , their appearances were generally little known . The Shadows were created by Hashino without much outside consultation , although he had help from female staff for female Shadow selves .
Despite living in the countryside , Persona 4 characters were designed to look and sound " normal " and like " modern high @-@ schoolers " , according to lead editor Nich Maragos . Initially , he wrote the game 's cast as being " more rural than was really called for " . " The characters aren 't really hicks ... They just happen to live in a place that 's not a major metropolitan area . " While interviewing members of Persona 4 's development team , 1UP.com editor Andrew Fitch noted that the characters from the city — Yosuke and the protagonist — have " more stylish " hair than the other characters . Art director Shigenori Soejima used hair styles to differentiate between characters from the city versus the country . " With Yosuke in particular , I gave him accessories , such as headphones and a bicycle , to make it more obvious that he was from the city . "
= = = Localization = = =
As with Persona 3 , the localization of Persona 4 was handled by Yu Namba and Nich Maragos of Atlus USA . In addition , there were four translators and two further editors . The Social Links were divided equally between the translators and editors . During localization of the game , character 's names were altered for the international audience for familiarity , including Kuma being renamed Teddie . A similar change was done for Rise Kujikawa 's stage name , " Risechie " ( りせちー , Risechī ) in Japan to " Risette " . Nanba also explained the change from " Community " ( コミュニティ , Komyuniti ) to " Social Link " , regarding the gameplay mechanic , as " community " has a different meaning in English , whereas Igor in his speeches often refers to " society " and " bonds " . Names were also altered for pun and other linguistic effect including dungeon items ' names such as the Kae Rail ( カエレール , Kaerēru ) becoming the " Goho @-@ M " , as the item 's use of returning the player to the entrance was taken to be " go home " and changing Junes 's slogan from " Everyday Young Life ! Junes ! " ( エヴリディ ・ ヤングライフ ！ ジュネス ！ , Evuridei Yangu Raifu ! Junesu ! , with " Junes " coming from the French Jeunesse for youth ) to " Everyday 's great at your Junes " , and eliminating some Japanese cultural references that would not transfer , such as the reference to Kosuke Kindaichi . There were also some issues regarding the translation of the names of Yukiko , Kanji and Rise 's dungeons , as the English names were made to fit the original Japanese graphics , and the " Void Quest " dungeon 's graphics were specifically made to harken back to the NES . He also remarked on how popular the interpretations of Kanji 's Shadow were in the west , and how it did not change how the character was seen by the other audience . A different change was the fact the main characters in the English dub referred to others members of the cast on a first @-@ name basis , while the Japanese version differed in this regard . For the dub , the editors sometimes switched between first @-@ name and last @-@ name referral for dramatic effect .
Atlus 's senior project manager Masaru Nanba commented it was decided that " Shin Megami Tensei " was to be kept in the title of Persona 3 and Persona 4 , as it was believed that they were part of the same series as Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne ; however , the " Shin Megami Tensei " title was omitted from both Persona 4 Golden and Persona 4 Arena , as it would have been much too long . Similarly , Persona 4 : The Ultimate in Mayonaka Arena and Persona 4 : The Golden were shortened to the previously stated titles . As with Persona 3 , the honorifics used in the Japanese voice track were retained in the English dub , despite proving contentions among series fans . This was done as part of an intended trend to remain faithful to the original source material . The pronunciations of honorifics , along with the sounds of names , were a point that was carefully considered by the localization team and it took a while for the English cast to get used to them . A member of the English dub that also appeared in Persona 3 was Yuri Lowenthal . Though he had dubbed characters in Persona 3 , Namba wanted him to have a larger part . His role as Yosuke ended up featuring 1000 more lines of dialogue than the other major characters . Important roles for the localization team were Teddie and Rise , as they would be the party 's supports . Another element in the English script was that the use of swear words was increased over Persona 3 : the first draft featured very strong language which was cut as it did not seem suited . The character Kanji was given a lot of swearing in his dialogue , due to his volatile nature . The use of swearing was carefully considered depending on the emotional situation .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack was primarily composed and directed by Shoji Meguro . The soundtrack features songs with vocals by Shihoko Hirata , whom Meguro felt was able to meet the range of emotion needed for the soundtrack , with the lyrics being written by Reiko Tanaka . Meguro was given a rough outline of the game 's plot and worked on the music in the same manner and simultaneously with the development of the story and spoken dialog , starting with the overall shape of the songs and eventually working on the finer details . According to Meguro , the songs " Pursuing My True Self " and " Reach Out to the Truth " were composed to reflect the inner conflicts of the game 's main characters ; the former song , used as the opening theme , helped to set an understanding of the characters ' conflicts , while the latter , used in battle sequences , emphasized the " strength of these characters to work through their internal struggles . " The " Aria of the Soul " theme used in the Velvet Room , a concept common to all the Persona games , remained relatively unchanged , with Meguro believing " the shape of the song had been well @-@ defined " from previous games . Composers Atsushi Kitajoh and Ryota Koduka also contributed music for the game . Kitajoh , who had previously written music for Atlus with Growlanser VI and Trauma Center : New Blood , contributed four themes to Persona 4 , while Koduka wrote the " Theme of Junes " .
Persona 4 's two @-@ disc soundtrack was released in Japan by Aniplex on July 23 , 2008 . The soundtrack was also released in North America . The side A of the soundtrack is the bonus disc packaged with each game , while side B of the soundtrack was part of Amazon.com 's exclusive Persona 4 Social Link Expansion Pack . Similarly to Persona 3 , a " Reinc
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credible evidence of any crime . Ray 's report further stated , " there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved " in seeking the files .
On September 21 , 1996 , Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act ( DOMA ) , which defines marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman , allowing individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages performed in other states . Paul Yandura , speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office , said that Clinton 's signing of DOMA " was a political decision that they made at the time of a re @-@ election . " In defense of his actions , Clinton has said that DOMA was an attempt to " head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states " , a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a " very reactionary Congress . " Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said , " ... the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse , and it was time to move on and get the president re @-@ elected . " Clinton himself stated that DOMA was something " which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for President Bush up , I think it 's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that . " Others were more critical . The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims " historic revisionism " . In a July 2 , 2011 editorial The New York Times opined , " The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election @-@ year wedge issue , signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments . " . Ultimately , in United States v. Windsor , the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013 .
Despite DOMA , Clinton was the first President to select openly gay persons for Administration positions , and is generally credited as the first President to publicly champion gay rights . During his Presidency , Clinton controversially issued two substantial executive orders on behalf of gay rights , the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce . Under President Clinton 's leadership , federal funding for HIV / AIDS research , prevention and treatment more than doubled . And Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non @-@ Discrimination Act , which , buoyed by his lobbying , failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996 . Advocacy for these issues , paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time , led to enthusiastic support for Clinton 's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign . Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013 . He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro @-@ gay stances and his reversal on DOMA .
The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) to influence the domestic policies of the United States , before and during the Clinton administration , and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself . The Chinese government denied all accusations .
As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration , Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act ( IIRIRA ) on September 30 , 1996 . Appointed by Clinton , the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800 @,@ 000 people a year to about 550 @,@ 000 .
Ken Gormley , author of The Death of American Virtue : Clinton vs. Starr , reveals in his book that President Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines in November 1996 . During his visit to the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) forum in Manila , while he was on his way to meet with a senior member of the Philippine government , Clinton was saved from danger minutes before his motorcade was scheduled to drive over a bridge charged with a timed improvised explosive device ( IED ) . According to officials , the IED was large enough to " blow up the entire presidential motorcade " . Details of the plot were revealed to Gormley by Lewis C. Merletti , former member of the Presidential Protection Detail and Director of the Secret Service . Intelligence officers intercepted a radio transmission indicating that there was a wedding cake under a bridge . This alerted Merletti and others as Clinton 's motorcade was scheduled to drive over a major bridge in downtown Manila . Once more , the word " wedding " was the code name used by a terrorist group for a past assassination attempt . Merletti wanted to reroute the motorcade , but the alternate route would add forty @-@ five minutes to the drive time . Clinton was very angry , as he was already late for the meeting , but following the advice of the secret service possibly saved his life . Two other bombs had been discovered in Manila earlier in the week so the threat level that day was high . Security personnel at the Manila International Airport uncovered several grenades and a timing device in a travel bag . Officials also discovered a bomb near a major U.S. naval base . The President was scheduled to visit both of these locations later in the week . An intense investigation took place into the events in Manila and it was discovered that the group behind the bridge bomb was a Saudi terrorist group in Afghanistan known as al @-@ Qaeda and the plot was masterminded by Osama bin Laden . Until recently , this thwarted assassination attempt was never made public and remained top secret . Only top members of the U.S. intelligence community were aware of these events .
= = = 1996 presidential election = = =
In the 1996 presidential election , Clinton was re @-@ elected , receiving 49 @.@ 2 percent of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole ( 40 @.@ 7 percent of the popular vote ) and Reform candidate Ross Perot ( 8 @.@ 4 percent of the popular vote ) , becoming the first Democratic incumbent since Lyndon Johnson to be elected to a second term and the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected President more than once . The Republicans lost three seats in the House and gained two in the Senate , but retained control of both houses of the 105th United States Congress . Clinton received 379 , or over 70 percent of the Electoral College votes , with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes .
= = = Second term = = =
In the January 1997 State of the Union address , Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide coverage to up to five million children . Senators Ted Kennedy — a Democrat — and Orrin Hatch — a Republican — teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997 , and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) , the largest ( successful ) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency . That year , Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act . He negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress . In October 1997 , he announced he was getting hearing aids , due to hearing loss attributed to his age , and his time spent as a musician in his youth . In 1999 Clinton signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm – Leach – Bliley Act , which repealed the part of the Glass – Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment , commercial banking , and insurance services since its enactment in 1933 .
= = = = Impeachment and acquittal = = = =
After the 1998 elections , the House impeached Clinton , alleging perjury and obstruction of justice related to the Lewinsky scandal . Clinton was only the second U.S. President to be impeached , after Andrew Johnson . Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22 @-@ year @-@ old White House ( and later Department of Defense ) employee Monica Lewinsky . After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed " substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment " , the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid @-@ term elections . To hold impeachment proceedings , the Republican leadership called a lame @-@ duck session in December 1998 .
While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party @-@ line vote , there was lively debate on the House floor . The two charges passed in the House ( largely with Republican support , but with a handful of Democratic votes as well ) were for perjury and obstruction of justice . The perjury charge arose from Clinton 's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Paula Jones 's sexual harassment lawsuit . The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition .
The Senate later acquitted Clinton on both charges . The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term , so the trial was held over until the next Congress . Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly . The Senate finished a twenty @-@ one @-@ day trial on February 12 , 1999 , with the vote of 55 Not Guilty / 45 Guilty on the perjury charge and 50 Not Guilty / 50 Guilty on the obstruction of justice charge . Both votes fell short of the Constitutional two @-@ thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder . The final vote was generally along party lines , with no Democrats voting guilty , and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty .
On January 19 , 2001 , Clinton 's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court that he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case .
= = = = Pardons and commutations = = = =
Clinton controversially issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20 , 2001 . Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton 's brother , Hugh Rodham , accepted payments in return for influencing the president 's decision @-@ making regarding the pardons . Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich . She was later replaced by then @-@ Republican James Comey , who found no wrongdoing on Clinton 's part . Some of Clinton 's pardons remain a point of controversy .
= = = Military and foreign events = = =
Many military events occurred during Clinton 's presidency . The Battle of Mogadishu occurred in Somalia in 1993 . During the operation , two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket @-@ propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors , trapping soldiers behind enemy lines . This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers , wounded 73 others , and one was taken prisoner . There were many more Somali casualties . Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets — a spectacle broadcast on television news programs . In response , U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground . In 1995 , U.S. and NATO aircraft attacked Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on U.N. safe zones and to pressure them into a peace accord . Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995 , to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement .
In February 1996 , the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US $ 131 @.@ 8 million in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser .
Capturing Osama bin Laden had been an objective of the U.S. government during the presidency of Bill Clinton ( and continued to be until bin Laden 's death in 2011 ) . Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden and that that U.S. authorities rejected each offer the 9 / 11 Commission Report stated that " we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim . "
In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al @-@ Qaeda ( which killed 224 people , including 12 Americans ) , Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden , both of which were unsuccessful . In August 1998 , Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan , targeting the Al @-@ Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan , which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons , and bin Laden 's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan .
To stop the ethnic cleansing and genocide of Albanians by anti @-@ guerilla military units in the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 's province of Kosovo , Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999 , named Operation Allied Force . General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission . With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 , the bombing campaign ended on June 10 , 1999 . The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region . NATO announced that its forces had suffered zero combat deaths , and two deaths from an Apache helicopter crash . Opinions in the popular press criticized pre @-@ war genocide statements by the Clinton administration as greatly exaggerated . In 2001 , the U.N.-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide did not take place , but recognized " a systematic campaign of terror , including murders , rapes , arsons and severe maltreatments . " The term " ethnic cleansing " was used as an alternative to " genocide " to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement , though critics charge there is no difference . Slobodan Milošević , the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities , was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges of crimes against humanity , genocide , and war crimes . Milošević died in 2006 , before the completion of the trial .
In Clinton 's 1998 State of the Union Address , he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical , biological and nuclear weapons :
Saddam Hussein has spent the better part of this decade , and much of his nation 's wealth , not on providing for the Iraqi people , but on developing nuclear , chemical and biological weapons and the missiles to deliver them . The United Nations weapons inspectors have done a truly remarkable job , finding and destroying more of Iraq 's arsenal than was destroyed during the entire gulf war . Now , Saddam Hussein wants to stop them from completing their mission . I know I speak for everyone in this chamber , Republicans and Democrats , when I say to Saddam Hussein , " You cannot defy the will of the world " , and when I say to him , " You have used weapons of mass destruction before ; we are determined to deny you the capacity to use them again .
Seeking to weaken Hussein 's grip on power , Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 into law on October 31 , 1998 , which instituted a policy of " regime change " against Iraq , though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces . The administration then launched a four @-@ day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox , lasting from December 16 to 19 , 1998 . At the end of this operation Clinton announced that " So long as Saddam remains in power , he will remain a threat to his people , his region , and the world . With our allies , we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program , while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors . " American and British aircraft in the Iraq no @-@ fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000 .
Clinton 's November 2000 visit to Vietnam was the first by a U.S. president since the end of the Vietnam War . On October 10 , 2000 , Clinton signed into law the U.S. – China Relations Act of 2000 , which granted permanent normal trade relations ( PNTR ) trade status to People 's Republic of China . The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform . Clinton also oversaw a boom of the U.S. economy . Under Clinton , the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969 .
After initial successes such as the Oslo Accords of the early 1990s , which also led to the Israel – Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998 , Clinton attempted an effort to end the Israeli – Palestinian conflict . He brought Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the Camp David Summit in July 2000 , which lasted 14 days . Following the failures of the peace talks , Clinton stated Arafat " missed the opportunity " to facilitate a " just and lasting peace . " In his autobiography , Clinton blames Arafat for the collapse of the summit . Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base , in which the President offered the Clinton Parameters , the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court : Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994 .
Along with his two Supreme Court appointments , Clinton appointed 66 judges to the United States courts of appeals and 305 judges to the United States district courts . His 373 judicial appointments are the second most in American history behind those of Ronald Reagan . Clinton also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies , as 69 nominees to federal judgeships did not receive a vote in the Republican @-@ controlled Senate Judiciary Committee . In all , 84 percent of his nominees were confirmed .
Among the judges appointed by Clinton to the courts of appeals was Sonia Sotomayor , who was nominated by Clinton in 1997 to the Second Circuit and confirmed in 1998 , following a delay of more than a year caused by Republican opposition .
Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts . In his eight years in office , 11 @.@ 6 % of Clinton 's court of appeals nominees and 17 @.@ 4 % of his district court nominees were black ; 32 @.@ 8 % of his court of appeals nominees and 28 @.@ 5 % of his district court nominees were women . Clinton appointed the first African American judges to the Fourth Circuit ( Roger Gregory ) and the Seventh Circuit ( Ann Claire Williams ) . Clinton also appointed the nation 's first openly gay or lesbian federal judge when he named Deborah Batts to the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York . Batts was confirmed by the Senate in a voice vote in 1994 .
= = Public opinion = =
Clinton 's job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s throughout his first term . In his second term , his rating consistently ranged from the high @-@ 50s to the high @-@ 60s . After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999 , Clinton 's rating reached its highest point . According to a CBS News / New York Times poll , Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent , which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . Clinton 's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61 % , the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years . Forty @-@ seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters .
As he was leaving office , a CNN / USA Today / Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him ; 55 percent thought he " would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life " ; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his " involvement in personal scandal " than for " his accomplishments " ; and 58 percent answered " No " to the question " Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy ? " The same percentage said he would be remembered as either " outstanding " or " above average " as a president , while 22 percent said he would be remembered as " below average " or " poor . " ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as , " You can 't trust him , he 's got weak morals and ethics – and he 's done a heck of a good job . "
In May 2006 , a CNN poll comparing Clinton 's job performance with that of his successor , George W. Bush , found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned . Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 % of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history .
In 2014 , 18 % of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II , making him the third most popular among postwar presidents , behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan . The same poll showed that just 3 % of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II .
A 2015 poll by The Washington Post asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness . According to their findings , Clinton ranked eighth overall , with a rating of 70 percent .
= = Public image = =
As the first baby boomer president , Clinton was the first president in more than half a century not to have been alive during World War II . Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward state Clinton 's innovative use of sound bite @-@ ready dialogue , personal charisma , and public perception @-@ oriented campaigning was a major factor in his high public approval ratings . When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show , he was described by some religious conservatives as " the MTV president . " Opponents sometimes referred to him as " Slick Willie " , a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by Pine Bluff Commercial journalist Paul Greenberg ; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas Governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller , Dale Bumpers and David Pryor . The claim " Slick Willie " would last throughout his presidency . Standing at a height of 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) , Clinton is tied with five others as the fourth @-@ tallest president in the nation 's history . His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba , especially in the South . Since 2000 , he has frequently been referred to as " The Big Dog " or " Big Dog . " His prominent role in campaigning for President Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail , earned him the nickname " Explainer @-@ in @-@ Chief . "
Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency . In 1998 , Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton " the first Black president " , saying , " Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness : single @-@ parent household , born poor , working @-@ class , saxophone @-@ playing , McDonald 's @-@ and @-@ junk @-@ food @-@ loving boy from Arkansas " . Noting that Clinton 's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments , Morrison compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that blacks typically endure .
Shortly after he took office , conservative newspaper owner Richard Mellon Scaife organized a fundraising campaign to smear Clinton 's image in the media . Leading the Arkansas Project , Scaife and other associates sought to find sources in Clinton 's home state of Arkansas who would be willing to dish out negative allegations against the President .
In 1994 , Paula Jones brought a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton , claiming he made unwanted advances in 1991 , which he denied . In April 1998 , the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright as lacking legal merit . But Jones appealed Webber Wright 's ruling , and her suit gained traction following Clinton 's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998 . In 1998 , lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents contending a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was governor of Arkansas . Robert S. Bennett , Clinton 's main lawyer for the case , called the filing " a pack of lies " and " an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States " funded by Clinton 's political enemies . Clinton later agreed to an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement , paying $ 850 @,@ 000 . Bennett said that the President made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life . During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit , which was held at the White House , Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky – a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury .
In 1992 , Gennifer Flowers stated that she had a relationship with Clinton that began in 1980 . Flowers at first denied that she had an affair with Clinton , but later changed her story . After Clinton at first denied having a relationship with Flowers on 60 Minutes , he later admitted that he had a sexual encounter with Flowers .
In 1998 , Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton groped her in a hallway in 1993 . An independent counsel determined Willey gave " false information " to the FBI , inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation . On March 19 , 1998 , Julie Hiatt Steele , a friend of Willey , released an affidavit , accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey 's account of being sexually groped by President Clinton in the Oval Office . An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former Independent Counsel for prosecutorial misconduct . Linda Tripp 's grand jury testimony also differed from Willey 's claims regarding inappropriate sexual advances .
Also in 1998 , Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978 , although she stated she did not remember the exact date . In another 1998 event , Elizabeth Gracen recanted a six @-@ year @-@ old denial and stated she had a one @-@ night stand with Clinton in 1982 . Gracen later apologized to Hillary Clinton . Throughout the year , however , Gracen eluded a subpoena from Kenneth Starr to testify her claim in court .
= = Post @-@ presidency ( since 2001 ) = =
Bill Clinton continues to be active in public life , giving speeches , fundraising , and founding charitable organizations . Clinton has spoken in prime time at every Democratic National Convention since 1988 . Robert Reich has suggested that Clinton is in a state of " permanent election " , due to the impeachment proceedings during his presidency and his continuing support in the campaigns of his wife Hillary Clinton .
= = = Activities until 2008 campaign = = =
In 2002 , Clinton warned that pre @-@ emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences , and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start ( though some dispute this ) . In 2005 , Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control , while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal .
The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock , Arkansas was dedicated in 2004 . Clinton released a best @-@ selling autobiography , My Life in 2004 . In 2007 , he released Giving : How Each of Us Can Change the World , which also became a The New York Times Best Seller and garnered positive reviews .
In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami , U.N. Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort . After Hurricane Katrina , Clinton joined with fellow former President George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush @-@ Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005 , and the Bush @-@ Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year . As part of the tsunami effort , these two ex @-@ presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre @-@ game show , and traveled to the affected areas . They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in 2007 .
Based on his philanthropic worldview , Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance . This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative ( CHAI ) , which strives to combat that disease , and has worked with the Australian government toward that end . The Clinton Global Initiative ( CGI ) , begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005 , attempts to address world problems such as global public health , poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict . In 2005 , Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugared drinks in schools . Clinton 's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities , and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative . The foundation has received donations from a number of governments all over the world , including Asia and the Middle East . In 2008 , Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti @-@ malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations . Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy , which was voted down .
= = = 2008 presidential election = = =
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign , Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife , Hillary Clinton . Through speaking engagements and fundraisers , he was able to raise $ 10 million toward her campaign . Some worried that as an ex @-@ president , he was too active on the trail , too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama , and alienating his supporters at home and abroad . Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary , which Obama won . Later in the 2008 primaries , there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary 's staffs , especially in Pennsylvania . Considering Bill 's remarks , many thought that he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary . Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama 's election . Fears were allayed August 27 , 2008 , when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention , saying that all his experience as president assures him that Obama is " ready to lead . " After Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign was over , Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt .
= = = After the 2008 election = = =
In 2009 , Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned in North Korea . Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China . Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994 . After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ il , Kim issued a pardon .
Since then , Clinton has been assigned a number of other diplomatic missions . He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 . In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake , U.S. President Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti 's recovery . Clinton continues to visit Haiti to witness the inauguration of refugee villages , and to raise funds for victims of the earthquake . In 2010 , Clinton announced support of , and delivered the keynote address for , the inauguration of NTR , Ireland 's first environmental foundation . At the 2012 Democratic National Convention , Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama .
= = = Post @-@ presidential health concerns = = =
In September 2004 , Clinton received a quadruple bypass surgery . In March 2005 , he underwent surgery for a partially collapsed lung . On February 11 , 2010 , he was rushed to NewYork – Presbyterian Hospital in New York City after complaining of chest pains , and had two coronary stents implanted in his heart . After this experience , Clinton adopted the plant @-@ based whole foods ( vegan ) diet recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn .
= = = Wealth = = =
The Clintons accrued several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency ; they were paid off four years after he left office . Both Bill and Hillary Clinton have received millions of dollars in book authorship fees . In February 2016 , CNN reported that documents show the Clintons combined to receive more than $ 153 million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015 . In May 2015 , The Hill reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $ 25 million in speaking fees since the start of 2014 , and that Hillary Clinton also made $ 5 million or more from her book , Hard Choices , during the same time period . In July 2014 , The Wall Street Journal reported that at the end of 2012 , the Clintons were worth between $ 5 million and $ 25 @.@ 5 million , and that in 2012 ( the last year they were required to disclose the information ) the Clintons made between $ 16 and $ 17 million , mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president . Clinton earned more than $ 104 million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012 . In June 2014 , ABC News and The Washington Post reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $ 100 million giving paid speeches since leaving public office , and in 2008 , the New York Times reported that the Clintons ' income tax returns show they have made $ 109 million in the 8 years from January 1 , 2000 to December 31 , 2007 , including almost $ 92 million from his speaking and book @-@ writing .
Bill Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year , mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe , often earning $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 300 @,@ 000 per speech . Hillary Clinton said that she and Bill came out of the White House financially " broke " and in debt , especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House . " We had no money when we got there , and we struggled to , you know , piece together the resources for mortgages , for houses , for Chelsea 's education . " She added , " Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of , obviously , taxes ; and then pay off the debts , and get us houses , and take care of family members . "
= = Honors and recognition = =
Various colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees , including Doctorate of Law degrees and Doctor of Humane Letters degrees . He is an Honorary Fellow of University College , Oxford , which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar . Schools have been named for Clinton , and statues have been built to pay him homage . U.S. states where he has been honored include Missouri , Arkansas , Kentucky , and New York . He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 2001 . The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock , Arkansas in his honor on December 5 , 2001 .
He has been honored in various other ways , in countries that include the Czech Republic , Papua New Guinea , Germany , and Kosovo . The Republic of Kosovo , in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War , renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a monumental Clinton statue .
Clinton was selected as Time 's " Man of the Year " in 1992 , and again in 1998 , along with Ken Starr . From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999 , Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup 's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century . He was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children , a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding , a TED Prize ( named for the confluence of technology , entertainment and design ) , and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community .
In 2011 , President Michel Martelly of Haiti awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross " for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12 , 2010 . " Clinton declared at the ceremony that " ... in the United States of America , I really don 't believe former American presidents need awards anymore , but I am very honored by this one , I love Haiti , and I believe in its promise . "
U.S. President Barack Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20 , 2013 .
= = Authored books = =
Between Hope and History . New York : Times Books . 1996 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8129 @-@ 2913 @-@ 3 .
My Life ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Vintage Books . 2004 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 3003 @-@ 3 .
Giving : How Each of Us Can Change the World ( 1st ed . ) . New York : Knopf . 2007 . ISBN 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 26674 @-@ 5 .
Back to Work : Why We Need Smart Government for a Strong Economy . Knopf . 2011 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 95975 @-@ 1 .
= = Recordings = =
Bill Clinton is one of the narrators on a 2003 recording of Sergei Prokofiev 's Peter and the Wolf , on Pentatone , together with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren .
= = = Popular books = = =
= = = Scholarly studies = = =
= Old House of Keys =
The Old House of Keys ( Manx : Shenn @-@ thie y Chiare as Feed ) is the former meeting place of the House of Keys , the lower house of Tynwald , the Isle of Man 's parliament . It is located across the street from Castle Rushen in Castletown , the former capital of the Isle of Man , in the south of the island . The building was used as the House of Keys from 1821 until 1874 , when the parliament was moved to Douglas .
Prior to 1821 , the House of Keys had no official home , but met first at Castle Rushen , and later at the Bishop of Sodor and Man 's library in Castletown . After criticism from a Royal Commission , plans were drawn up for a new meeting house for the Keys in 1813 , but after concerns about the cost , they were redrawn and approved in 1819 . The building , designed by Thomas Brine , was completed in 1821 . It housed the House of Keys until 1874 , when the Keys followed the other primary functions of the island and moved to Douglas . After their move , the Old House became a branch of Dumbell 's Bank , and later Parr 's Bank . In 2000 , Manx National Heritage acquired the building and began restoring the house to how it appeared in 1866 . The building opened to the public as a museum in November 2001 .
= = Background = =
The parliament of the Isle of Man — Tynwald — is the oldest currently running parliament in the world . The first recorded meeting of Tynwald was in 979 , but could date back as far as the 8th century . Originally a 32 @-@ member Tynwald ruled over the Kingdom of the Isles , with half of its representatives coming from the Isle of Man . In the 12th century , this dropped to a 24 @-@ member Tynwald when the Isle of Mull and Islay were lost to Argyll . By the 16th century , Tynwald consisted of an upper and lower house ; the lower house being known as the 24 Keys . At this time , the members met irregularly at Castle Rushen , when called upon by either the Lord of Mann or one of his Deemsters to help with legal and taxation issues . The Keys continued to meet at Castle Rushen until 1710 , when they moved to Thomas Wilson 's ( the Bishop of Sodor and Man ) library in Castletown . Late in the 18th century they still met in the library , of which a Royal Commission reported that " ... the Keys assemble in a mean decayed building little more than sufficient to contain the number which they consist . "
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Over twenty years after the Royal Commission 's damning report on the state of the library in which the Keys met , the Governor of the Isle of Man , John Murray , 4th Duke of Atholl , instructed Thomas Brine , the Clerk of Works for public buildings to cost and draw plans for a new House of Keys . These plans were rejected by the British Home Department and Treasury as too expensive , and despite repeated demands for a new meeting place , the proposal was put on hold . Brine carried out a survey of the library in 1817 at the request of the Keys , and condemned the building , resulting in the meetings of the Keys being held in a public house , the George Inn . Despite the comfort afforded by the building , it was criticised as being " ... highly improper for any Court of Justice and particularly so , for one of such importance in this Island as the House of Keys " as recorded in the Journal of the Keys in October 1817 .
Another design was requested of Brine , but this time for a smaller and less expensive building . In 1818 , the Keys purchased the building in which they had formerly met , moving the library to the Grammar School . The new plans were agreed upon by all concerned , but there continued to be disagreements between the British Treasury department and the Keys over how to fund the project . The Treasury believed that the cost should be covered by Manx taxes , but the Keys argued that this tax would be excessive . The two parties eventually agreed to pay some of the £ 1039 @-@ 10 @-@ 0d cost each , and the project was approved on 31 May 1819 , just under 30 years after the first discussions . The building was completed in less than two years , and the Keys started using the building in January 1821 .
= = = Operation = = =
Within a year of its completion , the House of Keys was heavily criticised in a letter to the Rising Sun newspaper . The external appearance of the building was described as bland and " more like that of a small country villa , or village jail , than a Senate House . " The interior was similarly lambasted , with particular attention being paid to the small space provided for the Speaker 's chair . During the Keys ' time in the building , they underwent one of their most significant changes . Until 1866 , the Keys were a self @-@ elected body , but following pressure from the public , most notably Isle of Man Times editor James Brown , the House agreed to be elected by popular vote . During the 1860s , Douglas became more prominent ; the Lieutenant Governor moved his residence there in 1861 , the Law Courts moved the following year , and by 1869 the town had replaced Castletown as the capital of the island . The House of Keys building in Castletown was described as too small , and " dilapidated with the wallpaper hanging off the wall . " In 1874 , the House of Keys moved to the Court House in Douglas , and five years later , into their current home , the Old Bank of Mona building also in Douglas .
= = = Later use = = =
After being vacated by the Keys , the building was purchased by Dumbell 's Bank . Not long after acquiring the building , the bank removed the ceiling from the chamber , and added a large skylight to create a grand banking hall . The building was repainted in an expensive shade of blue which was fashionable at the time . In 1900 , when Dumbell 's Bank collapsed , the building was taken over by Parr 's Bank . The render was stripped off the outside of the building sometime during the 1910s or 1920s , revealing the limestone underneath . In 1918 , the bank became part of Westminster Bank . In the 1960s , the upper floor of the chamber was replaced . The building was presented to the Castletown Commissioners in 1973 by the National Westminster Bank on the condition that it serve the town . It was used as the Town Hall until the opening of the Town Hall and Civic Centre in 1989 , and then as the Castletown Rural Library .
Manx National Heritage undertook the renovation of the building in 2000 and now run it as a museum . The building has been restored to its appearance in 1866 . That year was chosen as it was when the " House of Keys Election Bill " was passed , making the House of Keys a popularly elected body . In the absence of images depicting the interior , written descriptions were used , in conjunction with inventories .
= Battle of Frenchman 's Creek =
The Battle of Frenchman ’ s Creek took place during the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States in the early hours of November 28 , 1812 , in the Crown Colony of Upper Canada , near the Niagara River . The operation was conceived as a raid to prepare the ground for a larger American invasion . The Americans succeeded in crossing the Niagara and landing at both of their points of attack . They achieved one of their two objectives before withdrawing but the invasion was subsequently called off , rendering useless what had been accomplished . The engagement was named , “ the Battle of Frenchman ’ s Creek ” by the Canadians , after the location of some of the severest fighting . To contemporary Americans , it was known as , “ the Affair opposite Black Rock ” .
The battle site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1921 .
= = Background = =
After the American defeat at the Battle of Queenston Heights , command of the U.S. Army of the Centre on the Niagara Frontier passed from Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer of the New York Militia to his second @-@ in @-@ command , Brigadier General Alexander Smyth of the Regular U.S. Army . Smyth had deeply resented being subordinated to a militia officer and this was the opportunity for which he had been waiting . He immediately planned to invade Canada with 3 @,@ 000 troops . Assembling his forces at Buffalo , he directed a two @-@ pronged attack in advance of his main invasion . Captain William King , with 220 men , was to cross the Niagara and spike the batteries at the Red House , beside Fort Erie , in order to enable Smyth ’ s main invasion force to land without facing artillery fire . At the same time , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler , with 200 men , was to land in Canada between Fort Erie and Chippawa and destroy the bridge over Frenchman ’ s Creek in order to hinder the bringing @-@ up of British reinforcements to oppose Smyth 's landing .
The British commander @-@ in @-@ chief in North America , Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost , had forbidden any offensive action on the Niagara Frontier . This left the local British forces with no alternative but to wait for the Americans to make the first move and try to counter any attempt at invasion . The regular troops were distributed among the defensive outposts and supplemented with militia and Native American forces .
In a floridly worded proclamation , published on 10 November and addressed “ To The Men of New York ” , Smyth wrote that , “ in a few days the troops under my command will plant the American standard in Canada ” and he urged New Yorkers not to “ stand with your arms folded and look on in this interesting struggle ” but to “ advance … to our aid . I will wait for you a few days . ” Smyth ’ s statement of intent appears to have attracted no attention from his opponents across the border .
= = Opposing forces = =
Captain William King of the 13th U.S. Regiment of Infantry was detailed to attack the Red House with 150 troops and 70 U.S. Navy sailors under Lieutenant Samuel Angus . King ’ s soldiers came from Captain Willoughby Morgan ’ s company of the 12th U.S. Regiment of Infantry and Captains John Sproull and John E. Wool ’ s companies of the 13th Regiment .
Lieutenant Colonel Charles Boerstler was directed against Frenchman ’ s Creek with 200 men of his own 14th U.S. Regiment of Infantry . Colonel William H. Winder , commander of the 14th Regiment , was in reserve , with 350 of his own regiment .
The British local commander , Lieutenant Colonel Cecil Bisshopp , was stationed at Chippawa , with a company of the 1st Battalion , 41st Regiment of Foot , two infantry companies of the 5th Lincoln Militia and a small detachment of Lincoln Militia Artillery . More of the 5th Lincoln Militia under Major Richard Hatt were posted nearby . In the area that would face attack on December 26 , Bisshopp had several different detachments under his overall command . At Fort Erie were 80 of the 49th Regiment of Foot under Major Ormsby and 50 of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment under Captain Whelan . At Black Rock Ferry were two companies of Norfolk Militia under Captain John Bostwick . At the Red House , two @-@ and @-@ half miles from Fort Erie on the Chippawa Road , were 38 of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant Thomas Lamont , some men of the Royal Regiment of Artillery under Lieutenant King , and some militia artillerymen . Lamont 's battery mounted two guns : an 18 @-@ pounder and a 24 @-@ pounder ; while King ’ s battery mounted a 6 @-@ pounder and a 3 @-@ pounder . Further along the Chippawa Road , about four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half miles from Fort Erie , lay the post at Frenchman ’ s Creek , garrisoned by 38 more men of the 49th Regiment under Lieutenant J. Bartley . Not far away were 70 of the light infantry company of the 41st Regiment under Lieutenant Angus McIntyre .
= = Battle = =
= = = King ’ s Attack = = =
Only part of Captain King ’ s force , including 35 of Lieutenant Angus 's 70 sailors , succeeded in making a landing at the Red House . Under fire from the defenders , the invaders charged Lieutenant Lamont ’ s detachment of the 49th Regiment . The sailors , armed with pikes and swords , closed in for hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Lamont 's troops drove back the attackers three times but King made a fourth assault which hit the British left flank and overwhelmed them ; capturing Lamont and killing , taking or dispersing all of his men . The victorious Americans set fire to the post , spiked the guns and set off back to the landing @-@ point , where they expected their boats to have re @-@ landed in order to evacuate them . However , in the moonless darkness , King ’ s force became dispersed and split into two parties : one led by King and the other by Lieutenant Angus . Angus returned to the landing @-@ point and found only four of the party ’ s ten boats there . Unaware that the six missing boats had not in fact landed , Angus assumed that King had already departed , and he re @-@ crossed the river in the remaining boats . When King ’ s party reached the landing @-@ point , they found themselves stranded . A search downriver found two unattended British boats , in which King sent half of his men , and the prisoners that he had captured , over the Niagara while he waited with his 30 remaining men for more boats to come from Buffalo and pick him up .
= = = Boerstler ’ s Attack = = =
Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler made for Frenchman ’ s Creek but four of his eleven boats , “ misled by the darkness of the night or the inexperienced rowers being unable to force them across the current , fell below , near the bridge and were forced to return ” . Nevertheless , Boerstler ’ s seven remaining boats forced a landing , opposed by Lieutenant Bartley and his 37 men of the 49th Regiment . Boerstler led the attack , shooting with his pistol a British soldier who was about to bayonet him . Bartley 's outnumbered force retired , pursued to the Frenchman 's Creek Bridge by the Americans , who took two prisoners . Boerstler 's men were then attacked by Captain Bostwick ’ s two companies of Norfolk Militia , who had advanced from Black Rock Ferry . After an exchange of fire in which Bostwick ’ s force lost 3 killed , 15 wounded and 6 captured , the Canadians retreated . Boerstler now encountered another problem : many of the axes provided for the destruction of the Frenchman ’ s Creek bridge were in the four boats that had turned back and those that were in the seven remaining boats had been left behind when the Americans fought their way ashore . Boerstler dispatched eight men under Lieutenant John Waring to “ break up the bridge by any means which they could find ” . Waring had torn up about a third of the planking on the bridge when it was learned from a prisoner that “ the whole force from Fort Erie was coming down upon them ” . Boerstler quickly re @-@ embarked his command and rowed back to Buffalo , leaving behind Waring and his party at the bridge .
= = = British response = = =
In response to the attack , Major Ormsby advanced from Fort Erie to Frenchman ’ s Creek with his 80 men of the 49th Regiment , where he was joined by Lieutenant McIntyre ’ s 70 light infantrymen , Major Hatt ’ s Lincoln Militia and some British @-@ allied Native Americans under Major Givins . Finding that Boerstler ’ s invaders had already gone , and being unable to determine any other enemy presence in the pitch dark , Ormsby ’ s 300 men remained in position until daybreak , when Lieutenant Colonel Bisshopp arrived from Fort Erie . Bisshopp led the force to the Red House , where they found Captain King and his men still waiting to be evacuated . Outnumbered by ten @-@ to @-@ one , King surrendered .
= = = Winder ’ s reinforcement = = =
When the news arrived in Buffalo that King had spiked the Red House batteries , General Smyth was overjoyed . " Huzza ! " he exclaimed , " Canada is ours ! Canada is ours ! Canada is ours ! This will be a glorious day for the United States ! " and he dispatched Colonel Winder with his 350 men across the river to evacuate King and the rest of his force . Winder collected Lieutenant Waring and his party and then landed . However , he had only disembarked part of his force when Bisshopp 's 300 men appeared . Winder ordered his men back to their boats and cast off for Buffalo but his command came under a severe fire as they rowed away , costing him 28 casualties .
In spiking the guns at the Red House battery , the Americans had accomplished the more important of their two objectives : an invading force could now land between Chippawa and Fort Erie without facing artillery fire . However , subsequent events would render their service useless .
= = Casualties = =
The British official casualty return gave 15 killed , 46 wounded and 30 missing . As was often done in casualty returns with officers ( but not with enlisted men ) , Lieutenant King of Royal Artillery and Lieutenant Lamont of the 49th were included in the “ wounded ” category although they were also taken prisoner . The Americans took 34 prisoners , including Lamont and King , which would indicate that two of the enlisted men who were thought to have been killed were in fact captured . This gives a revised British loss ( with Lamont and King counted among the prisoners rather than the wounded ) of 13 killed , 44 wounded and 34 captured .
Eaton ’ s Compilation states that Captain King ’ s command had 8 killed and 9 wounded ; that Colonel Winder ’ s detachment had 6 killed and 22 wounded but that the losses of Lieutenant Colonel Boerstler ’ s detachment were unknown , being “ nowhere stated ” in the records . The New York Gazette of December 15 , 1812 , reported that , of Lieutenant Angus ’ s 35 sailors who assaulted the Red House , 28 were killed or wounded , 2 were captured and only 5 escaped unscathed . Captain King ( who was slightly wounded in the foot ) and 38 other prisoners were taken by the British , The British reported that King and Angus ’ s detachment left 12 killed behind them at the Red House ( 4 of whom were presumably from Angus 's naval detachment ) and that 18 American dead were recovered altogether . Since only 30 prisoners had surrendered along with King and since Winder ’ s detachment did not come under fire until they had re @-@ embarked and cast off for Buffalo , it would appear that 6 of the dead left on the battlefield and 8 of the prisoners belonged to Boerstler ’ s command . The known American casualties ( which include the killed and captured but not the wounded in Boerstler 's detachment ) therefore appear to have been 24 killed , 55 wounded and 39 captured .
= = Aftermath = =
With the Red House batteries out of action , Smyth immediately pressed on with his invasion plans . However , attempts to embark his 3 @,@ 000 men ended in chaos ; with only 1 @,@ 200 men managing to board because of a shortage of boats and the artillery taking up an unexpected amount of space on board . Amid torrential rain and freezing cold , a council of war headed by Smyth decided to postpone the invasion pending more thorough preparations that would enable the embarkation of whole force .
On November 31 , Smyth tried again , ordering his men to embark two hours before dawn in order to avoid enemy fire . This time , the embarkation was so slow that , two hours after daylight , only 1 @,@ 500 men were on board . Rather than attempt an amphibious landing in broad daylight , Smyth once again postponed the invasion . By this time , morale in Smyth ’ s command had plummeted : “ all discipline had dissolved ; the camp was a bedlam ” . This , and widespread illness among the troops , persuaded a second council of war called by Smyth to suspend all offensive operations until the army was reinforced .
The Army of the Centre went into winter quarters without attempting any further offensive operations and General Smyth requested leave to visit his family in Virginia . Three months later , without Smyth either resigning his commission or facing a court @-@ martial , his name was dropped from the U.S. Army rolls by President James Madison .
Unaware of the American intentions , the British and Canadians thought that King , Boerstler and Winder had been intended as the first wave of Smyth ’ s invasion rather than as a preparatory raid . The Canadian press praised the “ gallant achievement ” of the defenders in apparently repulsing the Americans and singled out Bisshopp for particular congratulation . In his dispatch to Prevost , Major General Sir Roger Hale Sheaffe , the British commander in Upper Canada , wrote that “ Lieut.-Colonel Bisshopp deserves high commendation for the spirit and activity he displayed , and great credit is due the officers and men who acted under his orders . ” Bisshopp was killed the following summer while leading the Raid on Black Rock .
Seven active infantry battalions of the Regular Army ( 1 @-@ 2 Inf , 2 @-@ 2 Inf , 1 @-@ 4 Inf , 2 @-@ 4 Inf , 3 @-@ 4 Inf , 1 @-@ 5 Inf and 2 @-@ 5 Inf ) perpetuate the lineages of several American infantry regiments ( the old 13th , 20th and 23rd Infantry Regiments ) that were at the Battle of Frenchman 's Creek .
= Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting System =
The Automated Tropical Cyclone Forecasting System ( ATCF ) is a piece of software originally developed to run on a personal computer for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) in 1988 , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) in 1990 . ATCF remains the main piece of forecasting software used for the United States Government , including the JTWC , NHC , and Central Pacific Hurricane Center . Other tropical cyclone centers in Australia and Canada developed similar software in the 1990s . The data files with ATCF lie within three decks , known as the a- , b- , and f @-@ decks . The a @-@ decks include forecast information , the b @-@ decks contain a history of center fixes at synoptic hours , and the f @-@ decks include the various fixes made by various analysis center at various times . In the years since its introduction , it has been adapted to Unix and Linux platforms .
= = Reason for development = =
The need for a more modernized method for forecasting tropical cyclones had become apparent by the mid @-@ 1980s . At that time Department of Defense was using acetate , grease pencils , and disparate computer programs to forecast tropical cyclones . The ATCF software was developed by the Naval Research Laboratory for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) beginning in 1986 , and used since 1988 . During 1990 the system was adapted by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) for use at the NHC , National Centers for Environmental Prediction and the Central Pacific Hurricane Center . This provided the NHC with a multitasking software environment which allowed them to improve efficiency and cut the time required to make a forecast by 25 % or 1 hour . ATCF was originally developed for use within DOS , before later being adapted to Unix and Linux .
= = Data decks used = =
An a @-@ deck is a data file that contains a listing of available forecast aid projections for a storm 's history . The real @-@ time guidance system uses a subset of the track and intensity information contained in these files to create the real @-@ time guidance plots . The a @-@ deck name comes from the fact that the filenames start with an " a " . Normally , all the model projections are included for the entire lifetime of the storm , so these files can increase to around 1 megabyte in size .
A b @-@ deck is a data file that contains the history of past storms ' center locations , intensity , and other parameters at the six hourly synoptic times : 0000 , 0600 , 1200 , and 1800 UTC . The files can contain information outside of synoptic hours , such as the time of landfall . During hurricane season , these files contain the best operational estimates of these parameters , and are known as the operational best tracks . Once the season has completed , the files are updated with revised information after the storm history undergone a careful review by forecasters and other experts . The post @-@ season files are known as the best tracks . The real @-@ time portion of this web site will always feature the operational best tracks ( the ones which have not undergone any review ) .
An f @-@ deck is a data file that contains a record of the fixes of a storm 's location and / or intensity . A location fix is any position estimate of the storm center . An intensity fix is any estimate of the storm 's intensity . Both location and intensity fixes can be obtained by aircraft flying low @-@ level penetrations through the storm center . Various methods that use satellite imagery or other remote sensing can also provide location and intensity fixes .
= = System identification = =
Systems within ATCF are identified with the basin prefix ( AL , CP , EP , IO , SH , SL , WP ) and then followed by two digit number between 00 and 49 for active tropical cyclones , which becomes incremented with each new system , and then the year associated with the system . Numbers from 50 through 79 after the basin acronym are used internally by the basin 's respective Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers and Regional Specialized Meteorological Center . Numbers in the 80s are used for training purposes and can be reused . Numbers in the 90s are used for areas of interest , sometimes referred to as invests or areas of disturbed weather , and are also reused within any particular year . Their status is listed the following ways within the associated data file : DB - disturbance , TD - tropical depression , TS - tropical storm , TY - typhoon , ST - super typhoon , TC - tropical cyclone , HU - hurricane , SD - subtropical depression , SS - subtropical storm , EX - extratropical systems , IN - inland , DS - dissipating , LO - low , WV - tropical wave , ET - extrapolated , and XX - unknown . Times used are in a four digit year , month , day , and hour format .
= = Similar software used elsewhere = =
In the 1990s , other countries developed similar tropical cyclone forecasting software . The Bureau of Meteorology in Australia developed the Australian Tropical Cyclone Workstation . The Canadian Hurricane Centre developed Canadian Hurricane Centre Forecaster 's Workstation .
= The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs =
The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs ( 1876 ) is an epic poem of over 10 @,@ 000 lines by William Morris that tells the tragic story , drawn from the Volsunga Saga and the Elder Edda , of the Norse hero Sigmund , his son Sigurd ( the equivalent of Siegfried in the Nibelungenlied and Wagner 's Ring of the Nibelung ) and Sigurd 's wife Gudrun . It sprang from a fascination with the Volsung legend that extended back twenty years to the author 's youth , and had already resulted in several other literary and scholarly treatments of the story . It was Morris 's own favorite of his poems , and was enthusiastically praised both by contemporary critics and by such figures as T. E. Lawrence and George Bernard Shaw . In recent years it has been rated very highly by many William Morris scholars , but has never succeeded in finding a wide readership on account of its great length and archaic diction . It has been seen as an influence on such fantasy writers as Andrew Lang and J. R. R. Tolkien . The Story of Sigurd is available in modern reprints , both in its original form and in a cut @-@ down version , but there is no critical edition .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Book I : Sigmund = = =
The poem opens with the marriage of king Volsung 's daughter Signy to Siggeir , king of the Goths . The bridal feast is interrupted by the arrival of a stranger , the god Odin in disguise , who drives a sword into a tree @-@ trunk . Though everyone tries to draw the sword , Volsung 's son Sigmund is the only man who can do it . The disappointed Siggeir takes his new wife home , inviting Volsung to visit him
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. William Morris ' words were deemed fitting to express this idea .
= Blacktip shark =
Not to be confused with the blacktip reef shark , Carcharhinus melanopterus .
The blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) is a species of requiem shark , and part of the family Carcharhinidae . It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world , including brackish habitats . Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species , with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range . The blacktip shark has a stout , fusiform body with a pointed snout , long gill slits , and no ridge between the dorsal fins . Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral , dorsal , pelvic , and caudal fins . It usually attains a length of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) .
Swift , energetic piscivores , blacktip sharks are known to make spinning leaps out of the water while attacking schools of small fish . Their demeanor has been described as " timid " compared to other large requiem sharks . Both juveniles and adults form groups of varying size . Like other members of its family , the blacktip shark is viviparous ; females bear one to 10 pups every other year . Young blacktip sharks spend the first months of their lives in shallow nurseries , and grown females return to the nurseries where they were born to give birth themselves . In the absence of males , females are also capable of asexual reproduction .
Normally wary of humans , blacktip sharks can become aggressive in the presence of food and have been responsible for a number of attacks on people . This species is of importance to both commercial and recreational fisheries across many parts of its range , with its meat , skin , fins , and liver oil used . It has been assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN , on the basis of its low reproductive rate and high value to fishers .
= = Taxonomy = =
The blacktip shark was first described by French zoologist Achille Valenciennes as Carcharias ( Prionodon ) limbatus in Johannes Müller and Friedrich Henle 's 1839 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . The type specimens were two individuals caught off Martinique , both of which have since been lost . Later authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The specific epithet limbatus is Latin for " bordered " , referring to the black edges of this shark 's fins . Other common names used for the blacktip shark include blackfin shark , blacktip whaler , common or small blacktip shark , grey shark , and spotfin ground shark .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
The closest relatives of the blacktip shark were originally thought to be the graceful shark ( C. amblyrhynchoides ) and the spinner shark ( C. brevipinna ) , due to similarities in morphology and behavior . However , this interpretation has not been borne out by studies of mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA , which instead suggest affinity with the blacknose shark ( C. acronotus ) . More work is required to fully resolve the relationship between the blacktip shark and other Carcharhinus species .
Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has also revealed two distinct lineages within this species , one occupying the western Atlantic and the other occupying the eastern Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific Oceans . This suggests that Indo @-@ Pacific blacktip sharks are descended from those in the eastern Atlantic , while the western Atlantic sharks became isolated by the widening Atlantic Ocean on one side and the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on the other . Blacktip sharks from these two regions differ in morphology , coloration , and life history characteristics , and the eastern Atlantic lineage may merit species status . Fossil teeth belonging to this species have been found in Early Miocene ( 23 – 16 Ma ) deposits in Delaware and Florida .
= = Description = =
The blacktip shark has a robust , streamlined body with a long , pointed snout and relatively small eyes . The five pairs of gill slits are longer than those of similar requiem shark species . The jaws contain 15 tooth rows on either side , with two symphysial teeth ( at the jaw midline ) in the upper jaw and one symphysial tooth in the lower jaw . The teeth are broad @-@ based with a high , narrow cusp and serrated edges . The first dorsal fin is tall and falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) with a short free rear tip ; no ridge runs between the first and second dorsal fins . The large pectoral fins are falcate and pointed .
The coloration is gray to brown above and white below , with a conspicuous white stripe running along the sides . The pectoral fins , second dorsal fin , and the lower lobe of the caudal fin usually have black tips . The pelvic fins and rarely the anal fin may also be black @-@ tipped . The first dorsal fin and the upper lobe of the caudal fin typically have black edges . Some larger individuals have unmarked or nearly unmarked fins . Blacktip sharks can temporarily lose almost all their colors during blooms , or " whitings " , of coccolithophores . This species attains a maximum known length of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) , though 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) is more typical , and a maximum known weight of 123 kg ( 271 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blacktip shark has a worldwide distribution in tropical and subtropical waters . In the Atlantic , it is found from Massachusetts to Brazil , including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea , and from the Mediterranean Sea , Madeira , and the Canary Islands to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It occurs all around the periphery of the Indian Ocean , from South Africa and Madagascar to the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent , to Southeast Asia . In the western Pacific , it is found from southern China to northern Australia , including the Philippines and Indonesia . In the eastern Pacific , it occurs from Baja California to Peru . It has also been reported at a number of Pacific islands , including New Caledonia , Tahiti , the Marquesas , Hawaii , Revillagigedo , and the Galápagos .
Most blacktip sharks are found in water less than 30 m ( 98 ft ) deep over continental and insular shelves , though they may dive to 64 m ( 210 ft ) . Favored habitats are muddy bays , island lagoons , and the drop @-@ offs near coral reefs ; they are also tolerant of low salinity and enter estuaries and mangrove swamps . Although an individual may be found some distance offshore , blacktip sharks do not inhabit oceanic waters . Seasonal migration has been documented for the population off the east coast of the United States , moving north to North Carolina in the summer and south to Florida in the winter .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The blacktip shark is an extremely fast , energetic predator that is usually found in groups of varying size . Segregation by sex and age does not occur ; adult males and nonpregnant females are found apart from pregnant females , and both are separated from juveniles . In Terra Ceia Bay , Florida , a nursery area for this species , juvenile blacktips form aggregations during the day and disperse at night . They aggregate most strongly in the early summer when the sharks are youngest , suggesting that they are seeking refuge from predators ( mostly larger sharks ) in numbers . Predator avoidance may also be the reason why juvenile blacktips do not congregate in the areas of highest prey density in the bay . Adults have no known predators . Known parasites of the blacktip shark include the copepods Pandarus sinuatus and P. smithii , and the monogeneans Dermophthirius penneri and Dionchus spp . , which attach the shark 's skin . This species is also parasitized by nematodes in the family Philometridae , which infest the ovaries .
= = = Behavior = = =
Like the spinner shark , the blacktip shark is known to leap out of the water and spin three or four times about its axis before landing . Some of these jumps are the end product of feeding runs , in which the shark corkscrews vertically through schools of small fish and its momentum launches it into the air . Observations in the Bahamas suggest that blacktip sharks may also jump out of the water to dislodge attached sharksuckers ( Echeneis naucrates ) , which irritate the shark 's skin and compromise its hydrodynamic shape . The speed attained by the shark during these jumps has been estimated to average 6 @.@ 3 m / s ( 21 ft / s ) .
Blacktip sharks have a timid disposition and consistently lose out to Galapagos sharks ( C. galapagensis ) and silvertip sharks ( C. albimarginatus ) of equal size when competing for food . If threatened or challenged , they may perform an agonistic display : the shark swims towards the threat and then turns away , while rolling from side to side , lowering its pectoral fins , tilting its head and tail upwards , and making sideways biting motions . The entire sequence lasts around 25 seconds . This behavior is similar to the actions of a shark attempting to move a sharksucker ; one of these behaviors possibly is derived from the other .
= = = Feeding = = =
Fish make up some 90 % of the blacktip shark 's diet . A wide variety of fish have been recorded as prey for this species : sardines , herring , anchovies , ladyfish , sea catfish , cornetfish , flatfish , threadfins , mullet , mackerel , jacks , groupers , snook , porgies , mojarras , emperors , grunts , butterfish , tilapia , triggerfish , boxfish , and porcupinefish . They also feed on rays and skates , as well as smaller sharks such as smoothhounds and sharpnose sharks . Crustaceans and cephalopods are occasionally taken . In the Gulf of Mexico , the most important prey of the blacktip shark is the Gulf menhaden ( Brevoortia patronus ) , followed by the Atlantic croaker ( Micropogonias undulatus ) . Off South Africa , jacks and herring are the most important prey . Hunting peaks at dawn and dusk . The excitability and sociability of blacktip sharks makes them prone to feeding frenzies when large quantities of food are suddenly available , such as when fishing vessels dump their refuse overboard .
= = = Life history = = =
As with other requiem sharks , the blacktip shark exhibits vivipary . Females typically give birth to four to seven ( range one to 10 ) pups every other year , making use of shallow coastal nurseries that offer plentiful food and fewer predators . Known nurseries include Pine Island Sound , Terra Ceia Bay , and Yankeetown along the Gulf Coast of Florida , Bulls Bay on the coast of South Carolina , and Pontal do Paraná on the coast of Brazil . Although adult blacktip sharks are highly mobile and disperse over long distances , they are philopatric and return to their original nursery areas to give birth . This results in a series of genetically distinct breeding stocks that overlap in geographic range .
Mating occurs from spring to early summer , and the young are born around the same time the following year after a gestation period of 10 – 12 months . Females have one functional ovary and two functional uteri ; each uterus is separated into compartments with a single embryo inside each . The embryos are initially sustained by a yolk sac ; in the 10th or 11th week of gestation , when the embryo measures 18 – 19 cm long ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) , the supply of yolk is exhausted and the yolk sac develops into a placental connection that sustains the embryo until birth . The length at birth is 55 – 60 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) off the eastern United States and 61 – 65 cm ( 24 – 26 in ) off North Africa . The mortality rate in the first 15 months of life is 61 – 91 % , with major threats being predation and starvation . The young remain in the nurseries until their first fall , when they migrate to their wintering grounds .
The growth rate of this species slows with age : 25 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) in the first six months , then 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) a year until the second year , then 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) a year until maturation , then 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) a year for adults . The size at maturity varies geographically : males and females mature at 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , respectively , in the northeastern Atlantic , 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 6 ft ) and 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) , respectively , in the Gulf of Mexico , 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 9 and 5 @.@ 2 ft ) respectively off South Africa , and 1 @.@ 7 and 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 9 ft ) , respectively , off North Africa . The age at maturation is 4 – 5 years for males and 7 – 8 years for females . The lifespan is at least 12 years .
In 2007 , a 9 @-@ year @-@ old female blacktip shark at the Virginia Aquarium and Marine Science Center was found to be pregnant with a single near @-@ term female pup , despite having never mated with a male . Genetic analysis confirmed that her offspring was the product of automictic parthenogenesis , a form of asexual reproduction in which an ovum merges with a polar body to form a zygote without fertilization . Along with an earlier case of parthenogenesis in the bonnethead ( Sphyrna tiburo ) , this event suggests that asexual reproduction may be more widespread in sharks than previously thought .
= = Human interactions = =
Blacktip sharks showing curiosity towards divers has been reported , but they remain at a safe distance . Under most circumstances , these timid sharks are not regarded as highly dangerous to humans . However , they may become aggressive in the presence of food , and their size and speed invite respect . As of 2008 , the International Shark Attack File lists 28 unprovoked attacks ( one fatal ) and 13 provoked attacks by this species . Blacktip sharks are responsible annually for 16 % of the shark attacks around Florida . Most attacks by this species result in only minor wounds .
As one of the most common large sharks in coastal waters , the blacktip shark is caught in large numbers by commercial fisheries throughout the world , using longlines , fixed @-@ bottom nets , bottom trawls , and hook @-@ and @-@ line . The meat is of high quality and marketed fresh , frozen , or dried and salted . In addition , the fins are used for shark fin soup , the skin for leather , the liver oil for vitamins , and the carcasses for fishmeal . Blacktip sharks are one of the most important species to the northwestern Atlantic shark fishery , second only to the sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) . The flesh is considered superior to that of the sandbar shark , resulting in the sandbar and other requiem shark species being sold under the name " blacktip shark " in the United States . The blacktip shark is also very significant to Indian and Mexican fisheries , and is caught in varying numbers by fisheries in the Mediterranean and South China Seas , and off northern Australia .
The blacktip shark is popular with recreational anglers in Florida , the Caribbean , and South Africa . It is listed as a game fish by the International Game Fish Association . Once hooked , this species is a strong , steady fighter that sometimes jumps out of the water . Since 1995 , the number of blacktip sharks taken by recreational anglers in the United States has approached or surpassed the number taken by commercial fishing . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip shark as Near Threatened , as its low reproductive rate renders it vulnerable to overfishing . The United States and Australia are the only two countries that manage fisheries catching blacktip sharks . In both cases , regulation occurs under umbrella management schemes for multiple shark species , such as that for the large coastal sharks category of the US National Marine Fisheries Service Atlantic shark Fisheries Management Plan . No conservation plans specifically for this species have been implemented .
= Al @-@ Rahba =
Al @-@ Rahba ( / ALA @-@ LC : ar @-@ Raḥbah , sometimes spelled Raḥabah ) , also known as Qal 'at ar @-@ Rahba , which translates as the " Citadel of al @-@ Rahba " , is a medieval Arab – Islamic fortress in Syria . It is located off the western banks of the Euphrates River , adjacent to the city of Mayadin and 42 kilometers ( 26 mi ) southeast of Dayr az @-@ Zawr . Situated atop a mound with an elevation of 244 meters ( 801 ft ) , al @-@ Rahba oversees the Syrian Desert steppe and historically guarded the Euphrates valley . It has been described as " a fortress within a fortress " ; it consists of an inner keep measuring 60 by 30 meters ( 197 ft × 98 ft ) , protected by an enclosure measuring 270 by 95 meters ( 886 ft × 312 ft ) . Al @-@ Rahba is largely in ruins today as a result of erosion .
The original site , which was known as " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " after its Abbasid namesake and founder , was located along the Euphrates . It was viewed by Muslim armies , caravans and travelers as the key to Syria from Iraq and sometimes vice versa . Bedouin tribes often took control of it and used it as a launching point for invasions of northern Syria . Because of its strategic location , al @-@ Rahba was frequently fought over by Muslim powers , including local lords , the Hamdanids , the Uqaylids , the Mirdasids and the Seljuks , among others . Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk was destroyed in an earthquake in 1157 .
A few years later , the current fortress was built close to the desert edge by the Zengid – Ayyubid lord Shirkuh . The latter 's descendants held al @-@ Rahba as a hereditary fief granted by Saladin until 1264 . One of them , Shirkuh II , oversaw a third major reconstruction in 1207 . Through the early Mamluk era ( late 13th – 14th centuries ) , the fortress was continuously restored and strengthened as a result of frequent sieges by the Ilkhanid Mongols of Iraq . Al @-@ Rahba was the most important Mamluk fortress along the Euphrates , an administrative center and the terminal stop on the sultanate 's postal route . It fell into disuse during Ottoman rule ( 1517 – 1918 ) and from then until the early 20th century , the fortress primarily served as a shelter for local shepherds and their flocks . Excavations were carried out at the site between 1976 and 1981 .
= = Location and etymology = =
Throughout Islamic history , al @-@ Rahba was considered , in the words of the 14th @-@ century traveler Ibn Batuta , " the end of Iraq and the beginning of al @-@ Sham [ Syria ] " . The fortress is located about 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) southwest of the Euphrates River , 1 kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) southwest of the modern Syrian city of Mayadin , and 42 kilometers ( 26 mi ) southeast of Dayr az @-@ Zawr , capital of the Dayr az @-@ Zawr Governorate , of which al @-@ Rahba is part . According to the 13th @-@ century geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi , the site 's name , al @-@ rahba , translates from Arabic as the " flat part of a wadi , where the water collects " ; al @-@ Rahba 's original location was on the western bank of the Euphrates . The current fortress is situated on an artificial mound detached from the plateau of the Syrian Desert to its west . Its elevation is 244 meters ( 801 ft ) above sea level .
= = History = =
= = = Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk = = =
= = = = Founding = = = =
According to historian Thierry Bianquis , " Hardly anything definite is known about the history of the town [ al @-@ Rahba ] before the Muslim era . " Medieval Talmudic and Syriac writers ( such as Michael the Syrian and Bar Hebraeus ) identified it with the Biblical town of Rehobot han @-@ Nahar ( " Rehobot by the river [ Euphrates ] " ) . Some medieval Muslim historians , among them al @-@ Tabari , have written that it was a place called " Furda " or " Furdat Nu 'm " , named after a monastery that supposedly existed in its vicinity called " Dayr Nu 'm " . However , the 9th @-@ century Persian historian al @-@ Baladhuri asserts that there was " no trace that ar @-@ Rahba ... was an old city " , and that it was first founded by the Abbasid general Malik ibn Tawk during the reign of Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun ( 813 – 833 CE ) . As such , the fortress town was often referred to " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " by Muslim historians . According to Syrian historian Suhayl Zakkar , al @-@ Rahba held significant strategic value as it was " the key to Syria and sometimes to Iraq " and it was the first stop for Syria @-@ bound caravans coming from Iraq . From al @-@ Rahba , travelers , caravans and armies could proceed northwestward along the Euphrates route to Aleppo or traverse the desert route to Damascus . Because of its strategic value , it was frequently fought over by rival Muslim powers . Bedouin tribes in particular used al @-@ Rahba as a main launch point for invasions of northern Syria , and as a safe haven and marketplace . Malik ibn Tawk served as its first lord , and after his death in 873 , he was succeeded by his son Ahmad . The latter was expelled following al @-@ Rahba 's capture in 883 by the Abbasid lord of al @-@ Anbar , Muhammad ibn Abi 'l @-@ Saj . By the 10th century , al @-@ Rahba had become a large town .
In 903 , the Qarmatian leader al @-@ Husayn ibn Zikrawayh was imprisoned in al @-@ Rahba before being transferred to Caliph al @-@ Mustakfi 's custody in al @-@ Raqqa . At the time , al @-@ Rahba was the center of the Euphrates province and headquarters of its governor , Ibn Sima . Al @-@ Husayn was executed , prompting his partisans from the Banu Ullays tribe to submit to Ibn Sima in al @-@ Rahba in early 904 . However , shortly after , they turned against Ibn Sima , whose forces routed them in an ambush in al @-@ Rahba 's environs in August . Following further battles , Ibn Sima received another round of surrenders by Qarmatian chieftains and da 'is ( Ismaili religious leaders ) . In March 928 , the Qarmatians under Abu Tahir al @-@ Jannabi conquered al @-@ Rahba and massacred scores of its inhabitants . Its residents faced hardships for several more years due to civil strife in the surrounding region . Peace was established in 942 with the arrival of a certain Abbasid commander named Adl who was dispatched by Bakjam , the strongman of the Baghdad @-@ based caliphate . Adl subsequently became governor of the Euphrates and Khabur valley regions .
= = = = Hamdanid period = = = =
Al @-@ Rahba came under Hamdanid rule a few years later , becoming part of the Euphrates district ( tariq al @-@ Furat ) of the Mosul @-@ based emirate . At the time , the town was described by the Persian geographer al @-@ Istakhri , as being larger than the ancient Circesium on the opposite side of the Euphrates . The lord of al @-@ Rahba , Jaman , rebelled against the Hamdanid emir of Mosul , Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( r . 929 – 967 ) . Jaman fled the town and drowned in the Euphrates but not before al @-@ Rahba was heavily damaged in the rebellion 's suppression . Nasir al @-@ Dawla granted his favored son , Abu 'l Muzzafar Hamdan , control of al @-@ Rahba , its district of Diyar Mudar , and the district 's revenues .
Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's sons contested control of al @-@ Rahba in the aftermath of their father 's deposition in 969 . It ultimately passed to his son Abu Taghlib when his brother and subordinate commander , Hibat @-@ Allah , captured it from Hamdan in a surprise attack . Abu Taghlib had al @-@ Rahba 's walls rebuilt . He restored al @-@ Rahba to Hamdan to preempt the possibility of his Buyid enemy , Izz al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Bakhtiyar , forming an alliance with Hamdan to undermine Abu Taghlib . The Hamdanids lost control of al @-@ Rahba in 978 , after which it was captured by the Buyid emir ' Adud al @-@ Dawla ( r . 949 – 983 ) . In 991 , al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants requested and received a governor assigned by ' Adud 's son , Emir Baha ' al @-@ Dawla ( r . 988 – 1012 ) . The town was described by Jerusalemite geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi in the late 10th century as being the center of the Euphrates district , located on the edge of the desert , having a semi @-@ circular layout and being defended by a strong fortress . He also noted that the wider vicinity was characterized by highly irrigated and productive lands , with abundant date palms and quince groves .
= = = = Uqaylid and Mirdasid period = = = =
In the early 11th century , control of al @-@ Rahba was contested between the Uqaylids of Mosul and the Fatimids of Egypt . Preceding this conflict , the Fatimid caliph al @-@ Hakim appointed a member of the Al Khafajah tribe , Abu Ali ibn Thimal , as lord of al @-@ Rahba . Abu Ali was killed in 1008 / 09 during a battle with his Uqaylid rivals led by Isa ibn Khalat . The latter lost al @-@ Rahba to another Uqaylid emir , Badran ibn Muqallid . The latter 's victory was short @-@ lived as the Fatimid emir of Damascus , Lu 'lu , soon captured both al @-@ Rahba and al @-@ Raqqah , a fortified city to the northwest . He appointed a governor for al @-@ Rahba and returned to Damascus .
A wealthy resident of al @-@ Rahba , Ibn Mahkan , revolted against the Fatimids and took control of the town shortly after Lu 'lu departed . Though able to oust the Fatimid governor , Ibn Mahkan was unable to hold the town without outside support since al @-@ Rahba was located amid the crossroads of several regional powers who coveted the town . Thus , he gained the backing of the Mirdasid emir of the Banu Kilab tribe , Salih ibn Mirdas . Conflict arose between Ibn Mahkan and Salih leading the latter to besiege al @-@ Rahba . The two reconciled and then Ibn Mahkan and his men captured the fortified town of Anah in Anbar . However , when Ibn Mahkan sought Salih 's support in suppressing a revolt in Anah , the latter used the opportunity to kill Ibn Mahkan .
After eliminating Ibn Mahkan , Salih became the lord of al @-@ Rahba , and made his allegiance with the Fatimids . Al @-@ Rahba was the first major territory Salih held and was the touchstone of the emirate he would establish in Aleppo and much of northern Syria . His son Thimal later succeeded him as emir of Aleppo , and al @-@ Rahba became his principal power base from which many of his wazirs ( advisers or ministers ) originated . He was later compelled by the Fatimids to hand over al @-@ Rahba to their ally Arslan al @-@ Basasiri , a Turkish general who revolted against his Seljuk masters and the Abbasid Caliphate . The ceding of al @-@ Rahba to al @-@ Basasiri was the first step in Thimal 's loss of the Mirdasid emirate . Together with the loss of al @-@ Raqqah , it provoked dissension within the Banu Kilab , with Thimal 's brother Atiyya resolving to restore the Mirdasid emirate . Al @-@ Basasiri 's revolt ultimately failed and he was killed in 1059 , prompting Atiyya to capture al @-@ Rahba in April 1060 . Later , in August 1061 , Atiyya successfully defended al @-@ Rahba from Numayrid advances .
The Mirdasids lost al @-@ Rahba in 1067 to the Uqaylid emir , Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla , a vassal of the Abbasid @-@ affiliated Seljuks . Beforehand , Atiyya and part of his army had been in Homs , allowing Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla the opportunity to rout al @-@ Rahba 's Banu Kilab defenders . Afterward , the name of the Abbasid caliph was read in the town 's khutba ( Friday prayer sermons ) instead of the Fatimids , a formal recognition of al @-@ Rahba 's change of allegiance . In 1086 , the Seljuk sultan Malik @-@ Shah granted al @-@ Rahba and its Upper Mesopotamian dependencies , Harran , al @-@ Raqqa , Saruj and Khabur , to Sharaf ad @-@ Dawla 's son , Muhammad .
= = = = Seljuk period = = = =
At some point the Seljuks or their Arab allies lost al @-@ Rahba , but in 1093 the Seljuk ruler of Damascus , Tutush captured it along with several other Upper Mesopotamian towns . Following his death , possession of al @-@ Rahba reverted to the Uqaylids , but in 1096 , Karbuqa of al @-@ Hillah captured and looted the town . He held onto it until 1102 when Qaymaz , a former mamluk ( slave soldier ) of the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan , took control of it . Tutush 's son Duqmaq and the latter 's deputy Tughtakin besieged the town , but failed to capture it . Qaymaz died in December 1102 and al @-@ Rahba passed to one of his Turkish mamluks named Hasan , who dismissed many of Qaymaz 's officers and arrested several of al @-@ Rahba 's notables due to suspicions of a coup against him . Duqaq renewed the siege , but this time was welcomed in by al @-@ Rahba 's townspeople , forcing Hasan to retreat into the citadel . Hasan surrendered after receiving guarantees of safe passage from Duqaq as well as an iqta ( fief ) elsewhere in Syria . According to the 12th @-@ century chronicler Ibn al @-@ Athir , al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants were treated well by Duqaq , who reorganized the administration of the town , established a garrison there , and assigned to it a governor from the Banu Shayban tribe , Muhammad ibn Sabbak .
Jawali , a general of the Seljuk sultan Muhammad I , conquered al @-@ Rahba from Ibn Sabbak in May 1107 , after a month @-@ long siege . Ibn al @-@ Athir recorded that al @-@ Rahba 's inhabitants suffered greatly during the siege and that some townsmen informed Jawali of a weak point in the fortress 's defense in return for promises of safety . When Jawali entered the town and sacked it , Ibn Sabbak surrendered and joined Jawali 's service .
In 1127 , the Seljuk lord of Mosul , Izz ad @-@ Din Mas 'ud ibn al @-@ Bursuqi besieged and conquered al @-@ Rahba as part of an attempted invasion of Syria . However , he fell ill and died there shortly after . His lordship in Mosul was taken by Imad ad @-@ Din Zengi , while al @-@ Rahba was left under the control of al @-@ Bursuqi 's mamluk , al @-@ Jawali , who ruled it as a subordinate of Zengi . Zengi 's son Qutb ad @-@ Din captured al @-@ Rahba some years later . In 1149 , Qutb ad @-@ Din 's brother Nur ad @-@ Din received al @-@ Rahba in Seljuk @-@ sponsored negotiations between the Zengid lords .
= = = Al @-@ Rahba al @-@ Jadida = = =
= = = = Ayyubid period = = = =
Al @-@ Rahba was destroyed in an earthquake in 1157 . Four years later , Nur ad @-@ Din granted the territories of al @-@ Rahba and Homs as a fief to Shirkuh , who had a certain Yusuf ibn Mallah administer it on his behalf . According to the 14th @-@ century Ayyubid historian , Abu 'l Fida , Shirkuh rebuilt al @-@ Rahba . Abu 'l Fida 's assertion may have been incorrect or the fortress built by Shirkuh fell into a ruinous state at some point before the century 's end . In any case , the new fortress , which became known as " al @-@ Rahba al @-@ Jadida " , was relocated about five kilometers west of the Euphrates ' western bank where the original site , " Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk " , had been situated . When Shirkuh died , his territories reverted to Nur ad @-@ Din . However , Shirkuh 's nephew and the founder of the Ayyubid Sultanate , Saladin , conquered much of Muslim Syria from the Zengids ( the Syrian coast had been in Crusader hands since the early 12th century ) by 1182 and granted Homs and al @-@ Rahba to Shirkuh 's son , Nasir ad @-@ Din Muhammad , as a hereditary emirate .
According to the Ayyubid @-@ era chronicler and one @-@ time resident of al @-@ Rahba , Ibn Nazif , the fortress of al @-@ Rahba again rebuilt by Shirkuh 's grandson , al @-@ Mujahid Shirkuh II ( r . 1186 – 1240 ) , in 1207 . Al @-@ Rahba was the easternmost fortress of Shirkuh II 's Homs @-@ based emirate , and was one of the four principal centers of the emirate , the other three being Homs itself , Salamiya and Palmyra . He personally oversaw the demolition of al @-@ Rahba 's ruins and the construction of the new fortress . Al @-@ Rahba remained in the hands of Shirkuh 's descendants until a few years after the annexation of Ayyubid Syria by the Mamluk Sultanate in 1260 .
= = = = Mamluk period = = = =
In 1264 , the Mamluk sultan Baybars ( r . 1260 – 1277 ) replaced the Ayyubid governor of al @-@ Rahba with one of his mamluk officers from Egypt . Al @-@ Rahba 's garrison and its commander held a high place in the Mamluk military hierarchy . The fortress , along with and al @-@ Bira to the north , emerged as the principal Mamluk bulwark against Mongol invasions of Syria 's eastern frontier . It was the Mamluks ' most important fortress along the Euphrates , supplanting al @-@ Raqqa , which had been the traditional Muslim center in the Euphrates valley since the 10th century . A large population of refugees from areas ruled by the Mongols settled in al @-@ Rahba as did many people from the adjacent , unfortified town of Mashhad al @-@ Rahba ( former site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk , modern @-@ day Mayadin ) . It was also the terminal stop of the Mamluk barid ( postal route ) and an administrative center .
Throughout the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods , al @-@ Rahba was situated near the tribal territory of the Al Fadl . About four hundred Al Fadl tribesmen joined the small army of Caliph al @-@ Mustansir , the Egypt @-@ based Abbasid caliph dispatched by Baybars to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols , when he reached al @-@ Rahba . The latter was al @-@ Mustansir 's first stop after he rode out from Damascus , but his campaign ultimately failed and he was killed in a Mongol ambush in al @-@ Anbar . The Mongols of Ilkhanid Iraq inflicted significant damage on al @-@ Rahba during their wars with the Mamluks . The fortress was restored by Baybars at some point toward the end of his reign . In 1279 , the Mamluk viceroy of Syria , Sunqur al @-@ Ashqar , rebelled against Sultan Qalawun ( r . 1279 – 1290 ) and took refuge with the Al Fadl chieftain , Isa ibn Muhanna , at al @-@ Rahba , where he requested the intervention of the Mongol ruler Abaqa Khan . When the Mongols could not help him , Sunqur fled the incoming Mamluk army , while Isa barricaded himself in the fortress . The Mongols ' failure to capture al @-@ Rahba after a month @-@ long siege commanded by the Ilkhanid ruler Öljaitü in 1312 / 13 marked the Ilkhanate 's final attempt to invade Mamluk Syria . Isa 's son Muhanna rebelled against Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad ( r . 1310 – 1341 ) in 1320 , and was pursued by the Mamluk army as far al @-@ Rahba . During the ensuing confrontation , the fortress may have been destroyed .
= = = = Ottoman era = = = =
Under the Ottomans , who conquered Syria and Iraq in the early 16th century , al @-@ Rahba 's military use apparently diminished . During the Middle Ages , the road between Palmyra and al @-@ Rahba was the most important Syrian desert route , but its importance declined during Ottoman rule . From then on , al @-@ Rahba was mostly used as a shelter for shepherds from nearby villages and their flocks . In 1588 , it was visited by the Venetian traveler Gasparo Balbi , who noted a dilapidated fortress and inhabitants known as " Rahabi " living below it . The French traveler , Jean @-@ Baptiste Tavernier , mentioned Mashhad Rahba , 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) southwest of the fortress , during his travels there in circa 1632 . In 1797 , French traveler Guillaume @-@ Antoine Olivier passed by al @-@ Rahba , mentioning that it was a fortress and a ruined site .
= = Excavations = =
The fortress has deteriorated considerably as a result of erosion . Excavations were carried out at al @-@ Rahba , including the presumed site of Rahbat Malik ibn Tawk along the Euphrates bank , between 1976 and 1981 under the auspices of Syria 's General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums , the Institut Français d 'Etudes Arabes de Damas and the University of Lyon II . In later years , surveys of the site and the surrounding desert and Euphrates and Khabur valleys were carried out by multi @-@ disciplinary teams of Syrian , American and European archaeologists . One of the French surveyors , J. L. Paillet , sketched the plans and elevations of the fortress , which are detailed in his 1983 dissertation , Le château de Rahba , étude d 'architecture militaire islamique médiévale .
Excavations at the foot of the fortress between 1976 and 1978 revealed a medieval settlement within a quadrangular enclosure , some of whose walls measured up to 30 meters ( 98 ft ) long and 4 meters ( 13 ft ) high . The walls generally have a thickness of 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Among the unearthed structures were the probable remains of a khan ( caravanserai ) , a congregational mosque with a small oratory , and a cavalry barracks . There was also a system of canals that brought in fresh water and emptied sewage . Among the artifacts found at the fortress and the former settlement beneath it were pottery sherds and coins ( mostly Mamluk and a few Ayyubid ) and numerous feather fletches belonging to arrows left over by Mongol besiegers . During the ongoing Syrian Civil War , looting and illegal digging for antiquities have occurred at al @-@ Rahba . Affected areas include the fortress 's storage rooms and courtyards , as well as the medieval settlement at its foot .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Specifications and components = = =
The citadel of al @-@ Rahba is described by historian Janusz Bylinski as " a fortress within a fortress " . Its core consists of a four @-@ story , pentagon @-@ shaped keep , roughly measuring 60 by 30 meters ( 197 ft × 98 ft ) . The keep is enclosed by a pentagon @-@ shaped wall , roughly measuring 270 by 95 meters ( 886 ft × 312 ft ) . The outer wall 's shape was described by Paillet as a triangle with its two parallel angles having been chamfered and substituted with short curtain walls . Around the artificial mound upon which the fortress sits is a moat with a depth of 22 meters ( 72 ft ) and a width of 80 meters ( 260 ft ) . Al @-@ Rahba 's moat is considerably deeper than the Ayyubid @-@ era desert fortresses of Palmyra and Shumaimis . A large cistern makes up the lowest floor of the keep .
Several bastions were built along the external walls of the fortress . The western and southeastern sides contained al @-@ Rahba 's four largest bastions , with the largest measuring 17 @.@ 2 by 15 @.@ 2 meters ( 56 ft × 50 ft ) and the smallest being 12 @.@ 4 by 12 @.@ 4 meters ( 41 ft × 41 ft ) . These bastions supported heavy defensive artillery . Their height surpassed the towers of Palmyra and Shumaimis probably because the latter forts ' locations on isolated hills did not necessitate " state of the art defensive artillery " , according to Bylinski . By contrast , at al @-@ Rahba , enemy siege engines could be placed at the close @-@ by plateaus , which were almost at level with the fortress . Al @-@ Rahba 's smallest bastion is on its northern , less vulnerable wall and measures 5 @.@ 2 by 4 @.@ 4 meters ( 17 ft × 14 ft ) .
Both the external walls and those around the keep were fitted with merlons and parapets , with the parapets of the keep positioned 6 @.@ 5 meters higher than their counterparts along the external wall . This was done to establish a secondary defensive line that enabled the building 's defenders to shoot arrows at attackers who breached the external walls . The core building was linked to the external fortifications by corridors and chambers .
= = = Construction phases = = =
Though large parts of the building are in ruins , excavations have determined that al @-@ Rahba went through at least eight undated construction phases probably starting from the early Ayyubid period . For the most part , each phase utilized different architectural techniques and fortification concepts , and none of the phases affected the entire extent of the building at one time . One common theme of the phases was the restoration or strengthening of al @-@ Rahba 's western and southeastern sides , which faced the desert plateau and were the most exposed areas of the fortress . In contrast , the northern side facing the population centers remained largely unchanged .
The first phase saw the walls built with mudbrick , a very common feature of Euphrates @-@ area structures . Although the shape of the building after its initial phase cannot be determined , Paillet presumes that its size likely corresponded to that of the current building . The small salient bastion that juts out of the northern wall dates to the first phase .
The second phase of construction added three salient bastions , each of which were over twice the size of the northern bastion . The new bastions were placed along the part of al @-@ Rahba 's citadel that faced the desert to the west . The builders in the second phase also reinforced al @-@ Rahba 's walls with roughly cut conglomerate blocks fixed together by high @-@ quality mortar . In the third phase , higher quality mudbrick was used , the western curtain wall was elevated and the southwestern curtain wall was replaced and decorated with bands of Arabic inscriptions . In addition , a large , brick dome was built atop the ground @-@ level chamber of the northwestern bastion . The external walls of the fortress reached their final form during the third phase , though there would be further restorations in later decades .
In the fourth phase , low @-@ lying casemates were added to the western and southwestern curtains to provide an additional platform for al @-@ Rahba 's defenders to use . The walls , particularly on the eastern side , were reinforced in the fifth phase , which Paillet attributes to the efforts of Shirkuh II and his Ayyubid contemporaries to strengthen the fortresses of Syria . The building technique used in this phase likely necessitated significant funds , equipment and technical expertise . Several changes were made including the southeastern tower being rebuilt and the northeastern tower being reinforced by an additional wall and a vaulted story . Moreover , the northern slope of the outer wall was further strengthened with a glacis built from large conglomerate blocks . A building in the center of al @-@ Rahba was erected during this phase , likely replacing an older structure or a courtyard .
The last major building phase was the sixth , which saw the restoration of the eastern and western external walls after they were severely damaged by Mongol besiegers . A northeastern salient bastion , much smaller than the eastern and western bastions , was also built . Masonry from the fifth phase was reused for the reconstruction along with new gypsum , limestone and other materials . The seventh and eighth phases both consisted of heightening al @-@ Rahba 's western external walls .
= The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes =
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes is a collection of twelve short stories by Arthur Conan Doyle , featuring his fictional detective Sherlock Holmes . It was first published on 14 October 1892 , though the individual stories had been serialised in The Strand Magazine between June 1891 and July 1892 . The stories are not in chronological order , and the only characters common to all twelve are Holmes and Dr. Watson . The stories are related in first @-@ person narrative from Watson 's point of view .
In general the stories in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes identify , and try to correct , social injustices . Holmes is portrayed as offering a new , fairer sense of justice . The stories were well received , and boosted the subscriptions figures of The Strand Magazine , prompting Doyle to be able to demand more money for his next set of stories . The first story , " A Scandal in Bohemia " , includes the character of Irene Adler , who , despite being featured only within this one story by Doyle , is a prominent character in modern Sherlock Holmes adaptations , generally as a love interest for Holmes . Doyle included four of the twelve stories from this collection in his twelve favourite Sherlock Holmes stories , picking " The Adventure of the Speckled Band " as his overall favourite .
= = Context = =
Arthur Conan Doyle began writing while studying medicine at university in the late 1870s , and had his first short story , " The Mystery of Sasassa Valley " , published in September 1879 . Eight years later , A Study in Scarlet , Doyle 's first Sherlock Holmes story , was published by Ward Lock & Co . The novel was well received , but Doyle was paid little for it , and despite a sequel novel , The Sign of the Four , also being published by Ward Lock , he shifted his focus to short stories . In early 1891 , the first editor of The Strand Magazine , Herbert Greenhough Smith , received two submissions from Doyle for the newly established magazine . He later described his reaction ; " I at once realised that here was the greatest short story writer since Edgar Allan Poe . " The first of these , " A Scandal in Bohemia " was published near the back of The Strand Magazine in July 1891 . The stories proved popular , helping to boost the circulation of the magazine , and Doyle received 30 guineas for each short story in the initial run of twelve . These first twelve stories were published monthly from July 1891 until June 1892 , and then were collected together and published as a book , The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes on 14 October 1892 by George Newnes , the publisher of The Strand Magazine . The initial print run of the book was for 10 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom , and a further 4 @,@ 500 copies in the United States , which were published by Harper Brothers the following day .
= = Stories = =
= = = Summary = = =
All of the stories within The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes are told in a first @-@ person narrative from the point of view of Dr. Watson , as is the case for all but four of the Sherlock Holmes stories . The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry for Doyle suggests that the short stories contained in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes tend to point out social injustices , such as " a king 's betrayal of an opera singer , a stepfather 's deception of his ward as a fictitious lover , an aristocratic crook 's exploitation of a failing pawnbroker , a beggar 's extensive estate in Kent . " It suggests that , in contrast , Holmes is portrayed as offering a fresh and fair approach in an unjust world of " official incompetence and aristocratic privilege " . The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes contains many of Doyle 's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories . In 1927 , he submitted a list of what he believed were his twelve best Sherlock Holmes stories to The Strand Magazine . Among those he listed were " The Adventure of the Speckled Band " ( as his favourite ) , " The Red @-@ Headed League " ( second ) , " A Scandal in Bohemia " ( fifth ) and " The Five Orange Pips " ( seventh ) . The book was banned in the Soviet Union in 1929 because of its alleged " occultism " , but the book gained popularity in a black market of similarly banned books , and the restriction was lifted in 1940 .
= = = Publication sequence = = =
= = Critical reception = =
The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes were well received upon their serialisation in The Strand Magazine . Following the publication of " A Scandal in Bohemia " in July 1891 , the Hull Daily Mail described the story as being " worthy of the inventive genius " of Doyle . Just over a year later , when Doyle took a break from publishing the short stories upon the completion of The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes , a piece in the Belfast News Letter reviewed a story by another author in The Strand Magazine saying that it " might have been read with a moderate amount of interest a year ago " , but that " the unique power " of Doyle 's writing was evident in the gulf in quality between the stories . The Leeds Mercury particularly praised the characterisation of Holmes , " with all his little foibles " , while in contrast the Cheltenham Looker @-@ On described Holmes as " rather a bore sometimes " , noting that descriptions of his foibles " grows wearisome " . The correspondent for Hampshire Telegraph lamented the fact that Doyle 's more thoughtful writing , such as Micah Clarke , was not so popular as the Holmes stories , concluding that an author " who wishes to make literature pay must write what his readers want " .
= = Adaptations = =
Sherlock Holmes has been adapted numerous times for both films and plays , and the character has been played by over 70 different actors in more than 200 films . A number of film and television series have borne the title " The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes " , but some of these are either original stories , combinations of a number of Doyle 's stories , or in one case , an adaptation of The Sign of the Four . Irene Adler , who is in the first short story , " A Scandal in Bohemia " , is prominent in many modern adaptations , despite only appearing in one story . Often in modern adaptations , she is portrayed as a love interest for Holmes , as in Robert Doherty 's Elementary and the BBC 's Sherlock , even though in the story itself , the narration claims : " It was not that he felt any emotion akin to love for Irene Adler . " Many of the stories from the collection were included as episodes in the Granada Television series , Sherlock Holmes which ran from 1984 until 1994 .
= Betty ( Adventure Time ) =
" Betty " is the forty @-@ eighth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . It was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , Adam Muto , and Moynihan . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on February 24 , 2014 . The episode guest @-@ stars Lena Dunham as the eponymous character , Betty . The entry also saw the return of Miguel Ferrer , Steve Agee , Duncan Trussell , and Maurice LaMarche as various characters .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , the Ice King reverts to Simon ( both voiced by Tom Kenny ) after being exposed to an anti @-@ magic being named Bella Noche , and gets help from Finn , Jake , and Marceline in order to get Betty , his former fiancée , back . Once he succeeds in bringing her back , however , he begins to die , forcing Betty herself to defeat Belle Noche .
An episode centered on Betty had been promised by the crew at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in 2012 . Due to the subject matter and length of the episode , several scenes had to be cut or trimmed for time , since so much was being placed in the episode . A review by Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club was complimentary towards the story , and Sava also applauded Dunham 's voice @-@ acting .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
In the context of the series , the Ice King is a recurring antagonist of the series , and frequently kidnaps princesses throughout Ooo ; although he is often at odds with Finn and Jake , he is generally not a serious threat . In the third season episode " Holly Jolly Secrets " , it is revealed that the Ice King was originally a human archaeologist named Simon Petrikov who , after placing a mysterious ice crown on his head , became crazed with magic and scared off the love of his life , Betty , whom he
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never saw again . In the fourth season episode " I Remember You " , it was revealed that the Ice King and 1000 @-@ year @-@ old Marceline the Vampire Queen had originally met following the events of the mysterious Mushroom War , a cataclysmic war that destroyed modern human society , and " Simon & Marcy " revealed that the two shared a father @-@ daughter bond .
= = = Events = = =
After Laser Wizard , Bufo , Forest Wizard , and — unwittingly — Ice King help a being named Bella Noche pass over into Wizard City , it reveals itself to be a creature of pure anti @-@ magic . As such , the jewels from Ice King 's crown are stripped of their magic , and Ice King reverts to his former self : Simon Petrikov ( both voiced by Tom Kenny ) . Simon , initially unaware of where he is , steals a magic carpet from Ash ( voiced by Steve Agee ) , flies to the Ice Kingdom , and enters a hidden sanctum wherein elements of his previous life — such as books , artifacts , and his clothing — have been preserved . He phones Marceline , telling her to rush over and bring her stuffed teddy bear Hambo .
Marceline arrives with Finn and Jake , and the trio learn that Simon is dying since he is over a thousand years old . As such , he wants to create a portal to the past and apologize to his fiancée Betty for making her leave him . Hambo , filled with sentimentality , is the key to the portal . Marceline , realizing that Hambo will be destroyed but that she will enable her former protector to see the love of his life for one last time , agrees . The portal is opened just moments after Simon had first put on the ice crown and scared Betty . Simon from the future appears to her , explains the situation , and apologizes . Betty , realizing what has happened jumps through the portal and kisses Simon , only for the portal to close and Simon to collapse .
Betty instantaneously realizes that Simon needs magic in order to survive , so she places him on the magic carpet and flies it to Wizard City . On the way , Death ( voiced by Miguel Ferrer ) appears to Simon in a vision , offering his one and only chance of escaping the curse of the crown . Simon refuses , and Betty attacks and eventually destroys Bella Noche . Simon reverts to Ice King , unaware of what happened . Later , he recounts the events to a captured Muscle Princess , while Betty — who survived the struggle with Bella Noche — watches sadly from a window and flies off on the magic carpet .
= = Production = =
" Betty " was written and storyboarded by Ako Castuera and Jesse Moynihan , from a story by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , Adam Muto , and Moynihan . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was co @-@ helmed by Nate Cash and Muto . An episode centered on Betty had been promised by the crew at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in 2012 . Moynihan had originally submitted an idea to the outline writers , who in turn worked with him and rewrote it to produce the final episode . Moynihan later noted that his personal intention for the episode was to " convey the idea that for Simon , death was preferable to life as Ice King , but that love and sacrifice to another person could provide hope for a future . " Huntress Wizard , a character popular with the Adventure Time fanbase , was originally supposed to be featured in the episode . Because " Betty " was already " jam packed " , everything " non @-@ essential " had to be cut out of the storyboard , which left Moynihan " heartbroken " . He later used the " deleted scene " for the episode 's promotional artwork .
" Betty " stars comedian and Girls creator Lena Dunham as Betty . Dunham and Adventure Time head writer Kent Osborne were Facebook friends , and knew each other from the independent film scene . When the crew approached her , she was excited and interested because she had a goddaughter who was a fan . She recorded her lines while she was in production for Girls in New York . The episode also marks the return of several guest stars . Miguel Ferrer reprises his role as Death , and Steve Agee returns as Ash . Ferrer had last appeared in the fourth season episode " Sons of Mars " , whereas Agee had appeared in the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " . Comedian Duncan Trussell reprises his role as Ron James ; he had previous appeared in the fifth season episode " Wizards Only , Fools " . Maurice LaMarche reprises his recurring role voicing the Grand Master Wizard ; he also voices Belle Noche in the series .
= = Reception = =
" Betty " aired on February 24 , 2014 on Cartoon Network . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 713 million viewers , and received a Nielsen household rating of 1 @.@ 2 . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 percent of all households at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 4th most @-@ watched episode aired by Cartoon Network for the week of February 24 to March 2 , 2014 .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded it an " A " and called it a " huge episode for the Ice King " , because it marked " a major shift in the character 's future by reconnecting with his past lover " , Betty . Sava noted that it was designed to " jump @-@ start the momentum by introducing new characters and storylines for future episodes " , and that its premise opens up various storytelling avenues for the future of the series . He also applauded the casting of Dunham as Betty , noting that she " finds the emotional truth underneath the absurd situation to balance the drama and comedy of the script . " Nexi Pandell of Wired magazine named the episode one of " Episodes You Can ’ t Skip " .
= The Uplift Mofo Party Plan =
The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the third studio album by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers , released on September 29 , 1987 on EMI Records . Due to prior obligations resulting in temporary personnel changes following the band 's formation in 1983 , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the only studio album to feature all four founding members of the band on every single track : vocalist Anthony Kiedis , bassist Flea , guitarist Hillel Slovak , and drummer Jack Irons .
The record features the band 's signature funk rock musical style , but also is influenced by reggae and heavy metal . For the album , the Red Hot Chili Peppers recruited new producer Michael Beinhorn , who encouraged the members to expand their musical horizons in order to create a more diverse work . The recording process was difficult due to Kiedis ' drug addiction ; however , the band was ultimately content with its work on Uplift . Flea later referred to the album as " the ' rockingest ' record " the band has ever made .
The album was more successful than its predecessors both critically and commercially , and was the band 's first album to enter the Billboard 200 , where it charted at number 148 . Although Uplift 's follow @-@ up Mother 's Milk would reach Gold first , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan would go on to become the band 's earliest effort to do so . Following the tour to promote the album , Slovak died of a heroin overdose and shortly after , Irons decided to quit the band , unable to cope with his friend 's death .
= = Background = =
After Red Hot Chili Peppers signed a record deal with EMI in 1983 , founding members Hillel Slovak and Jack Irons left the group to focus on their group What Is This ? , which had also signed a record deal . Vocalist Anthony Kiedis and bassist Flea hired Jack Sherman as guitarist and Cliff Martinez as drummer , and established themselves as a prominent funk rock band with their 1984 debut album The Red Hot Chili Peppers . Disappointed with the results of the production , Kiedis and Flea replaced Sherman with Slovak , who had quit his band , What Is This ? , several weeks earlier . The group 's George Clinton @-@ produced second album , Freaky Styley ( 1985 ) , was Slovak 's first studio album with the band . In early 1986 , the band began work on their upcoming album , and EMI gave the Chili Peppers a budget of $ 5 @,@ 000 to record a demo tape . The band chose to work with producer and former Public Image Ltd. guitarist Keith Levene , because he shared the members ' interest in drugs . Levene and Slovak put aside $ 2 @,@ 000 of the budget to spend on drugs without telling the rest of the group , which created tension between the members . Martinez ' " heart was no longer in the band " , but he did not quit , so Kiedis and Flea fired him . After the firing of Martinez , original drummer Jack Irons rejoined the band , which marked the first time all four founding members were together since 1983 .
Both Kiedis and Slovak struggled with debilitating heroin addictions , which grew worse as the band was preparing to record Uplift . Due to his addiction , Kiedis lacked the motivation to contribute to the band musically , and appeared at rehearsal " literally asleep " . He was asked to leave the band in order to undergo drug rehabilitation . During that time , the band won the LA Weekly Band of the Year award which prompted Kiedis to quit using heroin cold turkey . He visited his mother in Michigan for guidance , who drove him to drug rehabilitation immediately after picking him up from the airport upon seeing his unhealthy appearance . He checked into Salvation Army rehabilitation clinic in Grand Rapids , an experience which he initially detested until he noted that the other people in the clinic were understanding of his struggles and were trying to help him . He moved in with his mother after twenty days at the clinic , a time which marked the first time he was completely abstinent from drugs since he was eleven years old . After Kiedis completed his stint in rehabilitation , he felt a " whole new wave of enthusiasm " due to his sobriety and wrote the lyrics to a new song entitled " Fight Like a Brave " on the flight home . He rejoined the Red Hot Chili Peppers in Los Angeles to record the group 's next album .
= = Recording and production = =
While Kiedis was in rehab , the band sought a new producer for their next album . Aspiring producer Michael Beinhorn was looking for work at EMI Records after several unsuccessful projects on other labels , when a man working at EMI approached Beinhorn and suggested that he work with the Red Hot Chili Peppers , as " no one [ knew ] what to do with them " . Beinhorn recalled of the situation : " Though their music all seemed kind of abstract , there was definitely an excitement to it . I thought they needed a lot of arrangement help ... I also quickly learned that [ executives ] at the record label actually hated the Chili Peppers , like openly reviled them so bad that they didn 't even want them to succeed . It was the weirdest thing . " He contacted the band to meet up , and instead of arranging a formal meeting , the band proposed to meet him at a club in New Orleans called Tipitina 's . Beinhorn was impressed by the band 's originality and non @-@ conformist attitude and decided to work with the band . Kiedis then sat down with Beinhorn to discuss the recording of the album ; Kiedis planned to record the album in ten days and write the songs during the recording sessions .
The album was recorded in the basement of the Capitol Records Building in Hollywood . Although Kiedis had recently become clean , his withdrawal symptoms increased and affected his musical contributions to the group . After fifty days of sobriety , Kiedis decided to take drugs again as a one @-@ time attempt to celebrate his new music , which led to his resumed addiction . The recording process for the album became difficult as Kiedis would often disappear to seek drugs . Beinhorn recalled that " There were points in pre @-@ production where I really thought the record wasn 't gonna get made . " Kiedis felt " excruciating pain and guilt and shame " when he would miss a recording session so he would try to write lyrics while searching for drugs ; although the band was upset by his drug use and frequent disappearances , they were impressed with his musical output at the time .
Although Kiedis ' drug use disrupted the early recording process , the Chili Peppers still had an enjoyable time recording the album . The band was musically inspired by the rejoining of their original drummer Jack Irons , which added " such an important and different element to our chemistry . " Beinhorn encouraged the band to expand their musical horizons on the album , and although the band were initially uncomfortable stepping out of their comfort zone , the members began to feel that Beinhorn was helping them produce their best work . Slovak helped Kiedis record his vocals on the album . In between takes , Slovak would run around the studio out of excitement and say " This is the most beautiful thing we 've ever done . " Slovak reflected on his deep connection to the album in his diary ; " It was so fun . I 'm so extremely proud of everybody 's work — it is at times genius . " During a jam session , the guitarist created a melodic riff which differed greatly in style from the band 's previous work . While Slovak nearly abandoned the riff out of fear that it was too much of a departure stylistically , Beinhorn saw potential in the new melody @-@ based style and encouraged Slovak to turn the short tune into a full song . While the band was skeptical at first , each member began writing their own musical parts and the song became one of the album 's three singles , " Behind the Sun " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
In the book Give It Away : The Stories Behind Every Song , author Rob Fitzpatrick writes " As far as sheer power goes , The Uplift Mofo Party Plan is the Chili Peppers at their most virile , most chest @-@ beating , most unabashedly macho . " However , Kiedis recalls that during the composition of the album , Beinhorn encouraged him to step away from his improvisational speed @-@ rap style in favor of slower , crooning vocals . At the time , Kiedis was very uncomfortable with his singing voice , and felt that the new style was " sappy " . Kiedis also observed that guitarist Hillel Slovak 's playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This ? , and that Slovak had adopted a more fluid style featuring " sultry " elements as opposed to his original hard rock techniques .
On The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal . His melodic riff featured in the song " Behind the Sun " inspired the group to create " pretty " songs with an emphasis on melody . Kiedis describes the song as " pure Hillel inspiration " . Slovak also used a talk box on the song " Funky Crime " , in which he would sing into a tube while playing to create psychedelic effects . Flea incorporated a " slap " bass style on the album , which would become a staple of the band 's early work . " Backwoods " features a " loose , swinging groove " and a " sky @-@ scraping " guitar solo . " Skinny Sweaty Man " contains a rapid tempo and has been described as " hardcore garage psychedelic funkabilly " , while " No Chump Love Sucker " displays punk rock and thrash influences . The album also features a cover of Bob Dylan 's " Subterranean Homesick Blues " , which abandons nearly all of the original song 's folk stylistics in favor of the band 's signature funk @-@ rock leanings .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The majority of the lyrics in the album focus on friendships between the band members , sex , and life in Los Angeles . The reunion of the four original members of the group had a great influence over the lyrics ; Kiedis explained that " a lot of the jubilation in the lyrics of that record are about being united . " Kiedis was also inspired by personal experiences of himself and rest of the band members . During the recording of Freaky Styley , Kiedis and Slovak indulged in heavy cocaine use . When Slovak was under the influence , he would often wear brightly colored clothing and dance in a " shuffling " fashion , which became the inspiration for the song " Skinny Sweaty Man " from Uplift . The song " No Chump Love Sucker " was also inspired by Slovak ; during the recording of the album , Slovak had been " left high and dry " by a girlfriend who left him for someone who had " more money and more drugs " . The song served as a revenge song against " that type of evil , materialistic woman . "
" Funky Crime " was reflective of a conversation between the band and George Clinton while writing and recording Freaky Styley . Kiedis described the song as a lyrical description of the conversation , about how music itself is " color @-@ blind " but is " segregated by the media and radio based on their perceptions of the artists . " Kiedis wrote " Me and My Friends " , a song which " came together nicely " , while driving home from San Francisco with his childhood friend Joe Walters . " Backwoods " details the history of rock and roll . Kiedis said that " Love Trilogy " became one of the group 's all time favorite songs ; it is about " loving the things that aren 't necessarily perfect or always lovable " . He explained that " For years , whenever someone would question our lyrics , Flea would say , ' Read ' Love Trilogy ' and you 'll know what real lyrics are all about . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
EMI originally refused to release the album unless the Chili Peppers changed the name of the song " Party on Your Pussy " ; the band subsequently renamed the song " Special Secret Song Inside " . The Uplift Mofo Party Plan was released on September 29 , 1987 and peaked at number 148 on the Billboard 200 , which was far more successful than any of the band 's previous releases . It was the band 's first album to enter the Billboard 200 , and has since been certified Gold in the United States . The band filmed a music video for the album 's lead single , " Fight Like a Brave " , but the song failed to make an impact on any Billboard charts . " Behind the Sun " was not released as a single until 1992 , after the band had released two subsequent albums , Mother 's Milk and Blood Sugar Sex Magik . The single , which was released to promote the Chili Peppers ' What Hits ! ? compilation album , peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart .
The album also helped the Red Hot Chili Peppers earn a dedicated cult fanbase in Los Angeles . One of these fans was John Frusciante , who would later join the band as guitarist after Slovak 's death . Frusciante recalled : " The first time I saw the Red Hot Chili Peppers live was at the Variety Arts Center , and that was really amazing ... They were going for this real hard sound . Hillel was doing all this awesome feedback and stuff . It was the most magical experience I ever had in the experience of a show . " Frusciante based a lot of his playing style on Slovak 's work , and explained , " I learned everything I needed to know about how to sound good with Flea by studying Hillel 's playing and I just took it sideways from there . "
The album received mixed reviews from critics upon its release . Duncan Strauss of the Los Angeles Times described the album as " hit @-@ and @-@ miss " ; while he praised the " tender tunefulness " of " Behind the Sun " , he felt that the majority of the songs " wear pretty thin pretty fast , further suggesting that this is a band that 's in command on stage — but in trouble in the studio . " Bill Meredith of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars , observing that " The energy of having these four friends from Los Angeles back together jumps out of the opening anthem ' Fight Like a Brave ' and the experimental ' Funky Crime ' ... Slovak and Irons brought things to the Chili Peppers that no one else ever has . " Blaine Sayers of Consequence of Sound praised Slovak 's guitar work on the album , saying that " Slovak proves with these tracks that he was not just a funk guitarist , but he could rock with the best thrash metal bands of the 80s as well . " However , in The New Rolling Stone Record Guide , 4th Edition , author Nathan Brackett was highly critical of The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , giving it two out of five stars . He felt that the album was a minor improvement over the band 's last two efforts , but felt that the group 's offbeat humor detracted from the album : " The California quartet brings a modicum of structure to The Uplift Mofo Party Plan , but their humor — as their famous ' party on your pussy ' chorus demonstrates — wouldn 't merit an audience in a high @-@ school locker room . "
= = Tour and Slovak 's death = =
The band embarked on an extensive international tour to promote the album . The Chili Peppers noted that during the tour , their fan base had rapidly increased both in size and enthusiasm . Kiedis recalled " During the Uplift tour I remember actually feeling a change taking place not just in the amount of people showing up at the gigs but the intensity of the fan base . " Flea added that " We were in love with those songs and how much fun we were having playing them . "
Despite the band 's new enthusiasm , Kiedis and Slovak continued to struggle with their worsening drug addictions . Both Kiedis and Slovak stopped using heroin prior to the tour and decided to help each other " steer clear " of the drug . During the tour both experienced intense heroin withdrawal , with Slovak much more unstable than Kiedis . His withdrawal symptoms took a toll on his ability to play his instrument ; at one point Slovak had a mental breakdown and was unable to play a show , leaving the rest of the band to play an entire set with no guitar . He recovered a few days later , but his bandmates felt he was not healthy enough to perform and replaced Slovak with DeWayne McKnight for a few shows . After a few days with McKnight , the band decided to give Slovak another chance , and he rejoined for the European leg of the tour . Kiedis attempted to take Slovak to drug addiction counseling , but Slovak had difficulty admitting that his addiction was serious enough to require medical help .
Upon returning home , Slovak isolated himself from the rest of his bandmates , and struggled to resist the drug without the mutual support provided by his friends , Kiedis in particular . A few weeks after the band returned from the tour , the members attempted to get in contact with Slovak , but were unable to find him for several days . Slovak was found dead by police in his Hollywood apartment on June 27 , 1988 . During his autopsy , authorities determined that he had died on June 25 , 1988 due to a heroin overdose . Irons subsequently left the group , saying that he did not want to be part of a group where his friends were dying . Kiedis and Flea debated whether they should continue making music , but ultimately decided to move ahead , hoping to continue what Slovak " helped build " . The two recruited eighteen @-@ year @-@ old guitarist John Frusciante , who was a fan of the group and idolized Slovak . To replace Irons , the group held a lengthy open audition process , and eventually chose drummer Chad Smith .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Anthony Kiedis , Flea , Hillel Slovak , Jack Irons except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals
Hillel Slovak – guitar , sitar ( on " Behind the Sun " ) , vocoder , backing vocals
Flea - bass guitar , backing vocals
Jack Irons – drums , backing vocals
Additional musicians
Michael Beinhorn – background vocals
John Norwood Fisher – background vocals
David Kendly – background vocals
Angelo Moore – background vocals
Annie Newman – background vocals
Recording personnel
Michael Beinhorn – production
Russell Bracher – mixing assistant
Judy Clapp – recording engineer
Stan Katayama – mixing assistant
John Potoker – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering engineer
Additional personnel
Nels Israelson – photography
Henry Marquez – art direction
Gary Panter – cover illustration
= Fort Ticonderoga =
Fort Ticonderoga , formerly Fort Carillon , is a large 18th @-@ century star fort built by the French at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in northern New York in the United States . It was constructed by Canadian @-@ born French military engineer Michel Chartier de Lotbinière , Marquis de Lotbinière between October 1755 and 1757 during the Seven Years ' War , often referred to as the French and Indian War in the US . It was of strategic importance during the 18th @-@ century colonial conflicts between Great Britain and France , and again played an important role during the American Revolutionary War .
The site controlled a river portage alongside the mouth of the rapids @-@ infested La Chute River in the 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) between Lake Champlain and Lake George and was strategically placed in conflicts over trade routes between the British @-@ controlled Hudson River Valley and the French @-@ controlled Saint Lawrence River Valley . The terrain amplified the importance of the site . Both lakes were long and narrow , oriented north – south , as were the many ridge lines of the Appalachian Mountains extending as far south as Georgia , creating the near @-@ impassable mountainous terrains to the east and west of the Great Appalachian Valley that the site commanded . The name " Ticonderoga " comes from the Iroquois word tekontaró : ken , meaning " it is at the junction of two waterways " .
During the 1758 Battle of Carillon , 4 @,@ 000 French defenders were able to repel an attack by 16 @,@ 000 British troops near the fort . In 1759 , the British returned and drove a token French garrison from the fort . During the American Revolutionary War , the fort again saw action in May 1775 when the Green Mountain Boys and other state militia under the command of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured it from the British in a surprise attack . Cannons captured were transported to Boston where their deployment forced the British to abandon the city in March 1776 . The Americans held the fort until June 1777 , when British forces under General John Burgoyne occupied high ground above it and threatened the Continental Army troops , leading them to withdraw from the fort and its surrounding defenses . The only direct attack on the fort took place in September 1777 , when John Brown led 500 Americans in an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fort from about 100 British defenders .
The British abandoned the fort after the failure of the Saratoga campaign , and it ceased to be of military value after 1781 . It fell into ruin , leading people to strip it of some of its usable stone , metal , and woodwork . It became a stop on tourist routes of the area in the 19th century . Its private owners restored the fort early in the 20th century . A foundation now operates the fort as a tourist attraction , museum , and research center .
= = Geography and early history = =
Lake Champlain , which forms part of the border between New York and Vermont , and the Hudson River together formed an important travel route that was used by Indians before the arrival of European colonists . The route was relatively free of obstacles to navigation , with only a few portages . One strategically important place on the route lies at a narrows near the southern end of Lake Champlain , where Ticonderoga Creek , known in Colonial times as the La Chute River , enters the lake , carrying water from Lake George . Although the site provides commanding views of the southern extent of Lake Champlain , Mount Defiance , at 853 ft ( 260 m ) , and two other hills ( Mount Hope and Mount Independence ) overlook the area .
Indians had occupied the area for centuries before French explorer Samuel de Champlain first arrived there in 1609 . Champlain recounted that the Algonquins , with whom he was traveling , battled a group of Iroquois nearby . In 1642 , French missionary Isaac Jogues was the first white man to traverse the portage at Ticonderoga while escaping a battle between the Iroquois and members of the Huron tribe .
The French , who had colonized the Saint Lawrence River valley to the north , and the English , who had taken over the Dutch settlements that became the Province of New York to the south , began contesting the area as early as 1691 , when Pieter Schuyler built a small wooden fort at the Ticonderoga point on the western shore of the lake . These colonial conflicts reached their height in the French and Indian War , which began in 1754 .
= = Construction = =
In 1755 , following the Battle of Lake George , the Marquis de Vaudreuil , the governor of the French Province of Canada , sent his cousin Michel Chartier de Lotbinière to design and construct a fortification at this militarily important site , which the French called Fort Carillon . The name " Carillon " has variously been attributed to the name of a former French officer , Philippe de Carrion du Fresnoy , who established a trading post at the site in the late 17th century , or ( more commonly ) to the sounds made by the La Chute River , which were said to resemble the chiming bells of a carillon . Construction on the star @-@ shaped fort , which Lotbinière based on designs of the renowned French military engineer Vauban , began in October 1755 and then proceeded slowly during the warmer @-@ weather months of 1756 and 1757 , using troops stationed at nearby Fort St. Frédéric and from Canada .
The work in 1755 consisted primarily of beginning construction on the main walls and on the Lotbinière redoubt , an outwork to the west of the site that provided additional coverage of the La Chute River . The next year saw the building of the four main bastions and a sawmill on the La Chute . Work slowed in 1757 , when many of the troops prepared for and participated in the attack on Fort William Henry . The barracks and demi @-@ lunes were not completed until spring 1758 .
= = = Walls and bastions = = =
The French built the fort to control the south end of Lake Champlain and prevent the British from gaining military access to the lake . Consequently , its most important defenses , the Reine and Germaine bastions , were directed to the northeast and northwest , away from the lake , with two demi @-@ lunes further extending the works on the land side . The Joannes and Languedoc bastions overlooked the lake to the south , providing cover for the landing area outside the fort . The walls were seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 meters ) high and fourteen feet ( 4 @.@ 3 meters ) thick , and the whole works was surrounded by a glacis and a dry moat five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 meters ) deep and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide . When the walls were first erected in 1756 , they were made of squared wooden timbers , with earth filling the gap . The French then began to dress the walls with stone from a quarry about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away , although this work was never fully completed . When the main defenses became ready for use , the fort was armed with cannons hauled from Montreal and Fort St. Frédéric .
= = = Inside and outside = = =
The fort contained three barracks and four storehouses . One bastion held a bakery capable of producing 60 loaves of bread a day . A powder magazine was hacked out of the bedrock beneath the Joannes bastion . All the construction within the fort was of stone .
A wooden palisade protected an area outside the fort between the southern wall and the lake shore . This area contained the main landing for the fort and additional storage facilities and other works necessary for maintenance of the fort . When it became apparent in 1756 that the fort was too far to the west of the lake , the French constructed an additional redoubt to the east to enable cannon to cover the lake 's narrows .
= = Analysis = =
By 1758 , the fort was largely complete ; the only ongoing work thereafter consisted of dressing the walls with stone . Still , General Montcalm and two of his military engineers surveyed the works in 1758 and found something to criticize in almost every aspect of the fort 's construction ; the buildings were too tall and thus easier for attackers ' cannon fire to hit , the powder magazine leaked , and the masonry was of poor quality . The critics apparently failed to notice the fort 's significant strategic weakness : several nearby hills commanded the fort . Lotbinière , who may have won the job of building the fort only because he was related to Governor Vaudreuil , had lost a bid to become Canada 's chief engineer to Nicolas Sarrebource de Pontleroy , one of the two surveying engineers , in 1756 , all of which may explain the highly negative report . Lotbinière 's career suffered for years afterwards .
William Nester , in his exhaustive analysis of the Battle of Carillon , notes additional problems with the fort 's construction . The fort was small for a Vauban @-@ style fort , about 500 feet ( 150 m ) wide , with a barracks capable of holding only 400 soldiers . Storage space inside the fort was similarly limited , requiring the storage of provisions outside the fort 's walls in exposed places . Its cistern was small , and the water quality was supposedly poor .
= = Military history = =
= = = French and Indian War = = =
In August 1757 , the French captured Fort William Henry in an action launched from Fort Carillon . This , and a string of other French victories in 1757 , prompted the British to organize a large @-@ scale attack on the fort as part of a multi @-@ campaign strategy against French Canada . In June 1758 , British General James Abercromby began amassing a large force at Fort William Henry in preparation for the military campaign directed up the Champlain Valley . These forces landed at the north end of Lake George , only four miles from the fort , on July 6 . The French general Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm , who had only arrived at Carillon in late June , engaged his troops in a flurry of work to improve the fort 's outer defenses . They built , over two days , entrenchments around a rise between the fort and Mount Hope , about three @-@ quarters of a mile ( one kilometer ) northwest of the fort , and then constructed an abatis ( felled trees with sharpened branches pointing out ) below these entrenchments . Abercromby 's failure to advance directly to the fort on July 7 made much of this defensive work possible . Abercromby 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Brigadier General George Howe , had been killed when his column encountered a French reconnaissance troop . Abercromby " felt [ Howe 's death ] most heavily " and may have been unwilling to act immediately .
On July 8 , 1758 , Abercromby ordered a frontal attack against the hastily assembled French works . Abercromby tried to move rapidly against the few French defenders , opting to forgo field cannon and relying instead on the numerical superiority of his 16 @,@ 000 troops . In the Battle of Carillon , the British were soundly defeated by the 4 @,@ 000 French defenders . The battle took place far enough away from the fort that its guns were rarely used . The battle gave the fort a reputation for impregnability , which affected future military operations in the area , notably during the American Revolutionary War . Following the French victory , Montcalm , anticipating further British attacks , ordered additional work on the defenses , including the construction of the Germain and Pontleroy redoubts ( named for the engineers under whose direction they were constructed ) to the northeast of the fort . However , the British did not attack again in 1758 , so the French withdrew all but a small garrison of men for the winter in November .
The fort was captured the following year by the British under General Jeffrey Amherst in the 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga . In this confrontation 11 @,@ 000 British troops , using emplaced artillery , drove off a token garrison of 400 Frenchmen . The French , in withdrawing , used explosives to destroy what they could of the fort and spiked or dumped cannons that they did not take with them . Although the British worked in 1759 and 1760 to repair and improve the fort , the fort saw no more significant action in the war . After the war , the British garrisoned it with a small numbers of troops and allowed it to fall into disrepair . Colonel Frederick Haldimand , in command of the fort in 1773 , wrote that it was in " ruinous condition " .
= = = Early Revolutionary War = = =
In 1775 , Fort Ticonderoga , in disrepair , was still manned by a token force . Fort Ticonderoga was still extremely useful to the British as a supply and communication link between Canada and New York . On May 10 , 1775 , less than one month after the American Revolutionary War was ignited with the battles of Lexington and Concord , the British garrison of 48 soldiers was surprised by a small force of Green Mountain Boys , along with militia volunteers from Massachusetts and Connecticut , led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold . Allen claims to have said , " Come out you old Rat ! " to the fort 's commander , Captain William Delaplace . He also later said that he demanded that the British commander surrender the fort " In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " ; however , his surrender demand was made to Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham and not the fort 's commander , who did later appear and surrender his sword .
With the capture of the fort , the Patriot forces obtained a large supply of cannons and other armaments , much of which Henry Knox transported to Boston during the winter of 1775 – 1776 . Ticonderoga 's cannons were instrumental in ending the Siege of Boston when they were used to fortify Dorchester Heights . With Dorchester Heights secured the British were forced to evacuate Boston in March of 1776 . The capture of Fort Ticonderoga made communication between the British Canadian and American commands much more difficult .
Benedict Arnold remained in control of the fort until 1 @,@ 000 Connecticut troops under the command of Benjamin Hinman arrived in June 1775 . Because of a series of political maneuvers and miscommunications , Arnold was never notified that Hinman was to take command . After a delegation from Massachusetts ( which had issued Arnold 's commission ) arrived to clarify the matter , Arnold resigned his commission and departed , leaving the fort in Hinman 's hands .
Beginning in July 1775 , Ticonderoga was used as a staging area for the invasion of Quebec to begin in September . Under the leadership of generals Philip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery , men and materiel for the invasion accumulated there through July and August . On August 28 , after receiving word that British forces at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , not far from the New York – Quebec border , were nearing completion of boats to launch onto Lake Champlain , Montgomery launched the invasion , leading 1 @,@ 200 troops down the lake . Ticonderoga continued to serve as a staging base for the action in Quebec until the battle and siege at Quebec City that resulted in Montgomery 's death .
In May 1776 , British troops began to arrive at Quebec City , where they broke the Continental Army 's siege . The British chased the American forces back to Ticonderoga in June , and , after several months of shipbuilding , moved down Lake Champlain under Guy Carleton in October . The British destroyed a small fleet of American gunboats in the Battle of Valcour Island in mid @-@ October , but snow was already falling , so the British retreated to winter quarters in Quebec . About 1 @,@ 700 troops from the Continental Army , under the command of Colonel Anthony Wayne , wintered at Ticonderoga . The British offensive resumed the next year in the Saratoga campaign under General John Burgoyne .
= = = Saratoga campaign = = =
During the summer of 1776 , the Americans , under the direction of General Schuyler , and later under General Horatio Gates , added substantial defensive works to the area . Mount Independence , which is almost completely surrounded by water , was fortified with trenches near the water , a horseshoe battery part way up the side , a citadel at the summit , and redoubts armed with cannons surrounding the summit area . These defenses were linked to Ticonderoga with a pontoon bridge that was protected by land batteries on both sides . The works on Mount Hope , the heights above the site of Montcalm 's victory , were improved to include a star @-@ shaped fort . Mount Defiance remained unfortified .
In March 1777 , American generals were strategizing about possible British military movements and considered an attempt on the Hudson River corridor a likely possibility . General Schuyler , heading the forces stationed at Ticonderoga , requested 10 @,@ 000 troops to guard Ticonderoga and 2 @,@ 000 to guard the Mohawk River valley against British invasion from the north . George Washington , who had never been to Ticonderoga ( his only visit was to be in 1783 ) , believed that an overland attack from the north was unlikely , because of the alleged impregnability of Ticonderoga . This , combined with continuing incursions up the Hudson River valley by British forces occupying New York City , led Washington to believe that any attack on the Albany area would be from the south , which , as it was part of the supply line to Ticonderoga , would necessitate a withdrawal from the fort . As a result , no significant actions were taken to further fortify Ticonderoga or significantly increase its garrison . The garrison , about 2 @,@ 000 men under General Arthur St. Clair , was too small to man all the defenses .
General Gates , who oversaw the northern defenses , was aware that Mount Defiance threatened the fort . John Trumbull had pointed this out as early as 1776 , when a shot fired from the fort was able to reach Defiance 's summit , and several officers inspecting the hill noted that there were approaches to its summit where gun carriages could be pulled up the sides . As the garrison was too small to properly defend all the existing works in area , Mount Defiance was left undefended . Anthony Wayne left Ticonderoga in April 1777 to join Washington 's army ; he reported to Washington that " all was well " , and that the fort " can never be carried , without much loss of blood " .
General Burgoyne led 7 @,@ 800 British and Hessian forces south from Quebec in June 1777 . After occupying nearby Fort Crown Point without opposition on June 30 , he prepared to besiege Ticonderoga . Burgoyne realized the tactical advantage of the high ground , and had his troops haul cannons to the top of Mount Defiance . Faced with bombardment from the heights ( even before any shots had been fired from those cannons ) , General St. Clair ordered Ticonderoga abandoned on July 5 , 1777 . Burgoyne 's troops moved in the next day , with advance guards pursuing the retreating Americans . Washington , on hearing of Burgoyne 's advance and the retreat from Ticonderoga , stated that the event was " not apprehended , nor within the compass of my reasoning " . News of the abandonment of the " Impregnable Bastion " without a fight , caused " the greatest surprise and alarm " throughout the colonies . After public outcry over his actions , General St. Clair was court @-@ martialed in 1778 . He was cleared on all charges .
= = = One last attack = = =
Following the British capture of Ticonderoga , it and the surrounding defenses were garrisoned by 700 British and Hessian troops under the command of Brigadier General Henry Watson Powell . Most of these forces were on Mount Independence , with only 100 each at Fort Ticonderoga and a blockhouse they were constructing on top of Mount Defiance . George Washington sent General Benjamin Lincoln into Vermont to " divide and distract the enemy " . Aware that the British were housing American prisoners in the area , Lincoln decided to test the British defenses . On September 13 , he sent 500 men to Skenesboro , which they found the British had abandoned , and 500 each against the defenses on either side of the lake at Ticonderoga . Colonel John Brown led the troops on the west side , with instructions to release prisoners if possible , and attack the fort if it seemed feasible .
Early on September 18 , Brown 's troops surprised a British contingent holding some prisoners near the Lake George landing , while a detachment of his troops sneaked up Mount Defiance , and captured most of the sleeping construction crew . Brown and his men then moved down the portage trail toward the fort , surprising more troops and releasing prisoners along the way . The fort 's occupants were unaware of the action until Brown 's men and British troops occupying the old French lines skirmished . At this point Brown 's men dragged two captured six @-@ pound guns up to the lines , and began firing on the fort . The men who had captured Mount Defiance began firing a twelve @-@ pounder from that site . The column that was to attack Mount Independence was delayed , and its numerous defenders were alerted to the action at the fort below before the attack on their position began . Their musket fire , as well as grapeshot fired from ships anchored nearby , intimidated the Americans sufficiently that they never launched an assault on the defensive positions on Mount Independence . A stalemate persisted , with regular exchanges of cannon fire , until September 21 , when 100 Hessians , returning from the Mohawk Valley to support Burgoyne , arrived on the scene to provide reinforcement to the besieged fort . Brown eventually sent a truce party to the fort to open negotiations ; the party was fired on , and three of its five members were killed . Brown , realizing that the weaponry they had was insufficient to take the fort , decided to withdraw . Destroying many bateaux and seizing a ship on Lake George , he set off to annoy British positions on that lake . His action resulted in the freeing of 118 Americans and the capture of 293 British troops , while suffering fewer than ten casualties .
= = = Abandonment = = =
Following Burgoyne 's defeat at Saratoga , the fort at Ticonderoga became increasingly irrelevant . The British abandoned it and nearby Fort Crown Point in November 1777 , destroying both as best they could prior to their withdrawal . The fort was occasionally reoccupied by British raiding parties in the following years , but it no longer held a prominent strategic role in the war . It was finally abandoned by the British for good in 1781 , following the surrender at Yorktown . Area residents began stripping the fort of usable building materials , even melting some of the cannons down for their metal in the years following the war .
= = Tourist attraction = =
In 1785 , the fort 's lands became the property of the state of New York . The state donated the property to Columbia and Union colleges in 1803 , which sold it to William Ferris Pell in 1820 . Pell first used the property as a summer retreat , but the completion of railroads and canals connecting the area to New York City brought tourists to the area , so he converted his summer house , known as The Pavilion , into a hotel to serve the tourist trade . In 1848 , the Hudson River School artist Russell Smith painted Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga , depicting the condition of the fort .
The Pell family , a politically important clan with influence throughout American history ( from William C. C. Claiborne , the first Governor of Louisiana , to a Senator from Rhode Island , Claiborne Pell ) , restored the fort in 1909 and formally opened it to the public . The ceremonies , which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the discovery of Lake Champlain by European explorers , were attended by President William Howard Taft . Stephen Hyatt Pell , who spearheaded the restoration effort , founded the Fort Ticonderoga Association in 1931 , which is now responsible for the fort . Funding for the restoration also came from Robert M. Thompson , father of Steven 's wife Sarah Gibbs Thompson . Between 1900 and 1950 , the historically important lands around the fort , including Mount Defiance , Mount Independence , and much of Mount Hope , were also acquired by the foundation . The fort was rearmed with fourteen 24 @-@ pound cannons provided by the British government . These cannons had been cast in England for use during the Revolution , but the war ended before they were shipped over .
The fort is now a tourist attraction , early American military museum , and research center . The fort opens around May 10 , the anniversary of the 1775 capture , every year , closing in late October . It has been on a watchlist of National Historic Landmarks since 1998 , because of the poor condition of some of the walls and the 19th @-@ century pavilion constructed by William Ferris Pell . The pavilion is , as of early 2009 , undergoing restoration . In 2008 , the powder magazine destroyed by the French in 1759 was reconstructed by Tonetti Associates Architects , based in part on the original 1755 plans . Also in 2008 , the withdrawal of a major backer 's financial support forced the museum , facing significant budget deficits , to consider selling one of its major art works , Thomas Cole 's Gelyna , View near Ticonderoga . However , fundraising activities succeeded in making this unnecessary .
The not @-@ for @-@ profit Living History Education Foundation has teacher programs at Fort Ticonderoga that run in the summer and last approximately one week . The program trains teachers in how to teach Living History techniques , and to understand and interpret the importance of Fort Ticonderoga during the French and Indian War and the American Revolution .
The Pell 's estate is located north of the fort . In 1921 , Sarah Pell undertook reconstruction of the gardens , known now as King 's gardens , and hired for this work Marian Cruger Coffin , one of the most famous American landscape architects . In 1995 , the gardens were restored and later opened for public .
= = Memorials = =
The name Ticonderoga has been given to five different U.S. Navy vessels and entire classes of cruisers and aircraft carriers . The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960 . Included in the landmarked area are the fort itself , as well as Mount Independence and Mount Defiance . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 . The Ticonderoga pencil , manufactured by the Dixon Ticonderoga Corporation , is named for the fort .
= = = Fort history sources = = =
= = = Battle history sources = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
= Kingdom of Hungary ( 1000 – 1301 ) =
The Kingdom of Hungary came into existence in Central Europe when Stephen I , Grand Prince of the Hungarians , was crowned king in 1000 or 1001 . He reinforced central authority and forced his subjects to accept Christianity . Although written sources emphasize the role played by German and Italian knights and clerics in the process , a significant part of the Hungarian vocabulary for agriculture , religion and state was taken from Slavic languages . Civil wars and pagan uprisings , along with attempts by the Holy Roman Emperors to expand their authority over Hungary , jeopardized the new monarchy . The monarchy stabilized during the reigns of Ladislaus I ( 1077 – 1095 ) and Coloman ( 1095 – 1116 ) . These rulers occupied Croatia and Dalmatia , but both realms retained their autonomous position . Their successors — especially Béla II ( 1131 – 1141 ) , Béla III ( 1176 – 1196 ) , Andrew II ( 1205 – 1235 ) , and Béla IV ( 1235 – 1270 ) — continued this policy of expansion towards the Balkan Peninsula and the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains , transforming their kingdom into one of the major powers of medieval Europe .
Rich in uncultivated lands , silver , gold , and salt deposits , Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German , Italian and French colonists . These immigrants were mostly peasants who settled in villages , but craftsmen and merchants also came . Their arrival had a key role in the shaping of an urban lifestyle , habits and culture in medieval Hungary . The location of the kingdom at the crossroads of international trade routes favored the coexistence of several cultures . Romanesque , Gothic and Renaissance buildings and literary works written in Latin prove the predominantly Roman Catholic character of the culture , but Orthodox , and even non @-@ Christian ethnic minority communities also existed . Latin was the language of legislation , administration and judiciary , but " linguistic pluralism " contributed to the survival of many tongues , including a great variety of Slavic dialects .
The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign 's preeminent position , but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to the emergence of a self @-@ conscious group of lesser landholders , known as " royal servants " . They forced Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull of 1222 , " one of first examples of constitutional limits being placed on the powers of a European monarch " ( Francis Fukuyama ) . The kingdom received a major blow from the Mongol invasion of 1241 – 42 . Thereafter , Cuman and Jassic groups settled in the central lowlands , and colonists arrived from Moravia , Poland and other nearby countries . The erection of fortresses by landlords , promoted by the monarchs after the withdrawal of the Mongols , led to the development of semi @-@ autonomous " provinces " dominated by powerful magnates . Some of these magnates even challenged the authority of Andrew III ( 1290 – 1301 ) , the last male descendant of the native Árpád dynasty . His death was followed by a period of interregnum and anarchy . Central power was re @-@ established only in the early 1320s .
= = Background = =
The Hungarians , or Magyars , conquered the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries . Here they found a predominantly Slavic @-@ speaking population . From their new homeland , they launched plundering raids against East Francia , Italy and other regions of Europe . Their raids were halted by Otto I , future Holy Roman Emperor , who defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 .
Hungarians lived in patrilineal families , which were organized into clans that formed tribes . The tribal confederation was headed by the grand prince , always a member of the family descending from Árpád , the Hungarians ' leader around the time of their " land @-@ taking " . Contemporary authors described the Hungarians as nomads , but Ibn Rusta and others added that they also cultivated arable land . The great number of borrowings from Slavic languages prove that the Hungarians adopted new techniques and a more settled lifestyle in Central Europe . The cohabitation of Hungarians and local ethnic groups is also reflected in the assemblages of the " Bijelo Brdo culture " , which emerged in the mid @-@ 10th century .
Although they were pagan , the Hungarians demonstrated a tolerant attitude towards Christians , Jews , and Muslims . The Byzantine Church was the first to successfully proselytize among their leaders : in 948 the horka , and around 952 the gyula , were baptized in Constantinople . In contrast , the grand prince Géza ( c . 970 – 997 ) received baptism according to the Latin rite . He erected fortresses and invited foreign warriors to develop a new army based on heavy cavalry . Géza also arranged the marriage of his son , Stephen , with Giselle of Bavaria , a princess from the family of the Holy
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1116 . The earliest mention of the Székelys is in connection with the young king 's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia . The Hungarian @-@ speaking Székelys lived in scattered communities along the borders , but their groups were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century . Stephen II died childless in 1131 . During the reign of the blind Béla II , the kingdom was administered by his wife , Helena of Rascia , who ordered the massacre of the lords who had opposed her husband 's rule . Boris Kalamanos , an alleged son of King Coloman , who attempted to seize the throne from Béla II , received no internal support .
Béla II 's son , Géza II , who ascended the throne in 1141 , adopted an active foreign policy . He supported Uroš II of Rascia against Emperor Manuel I Komnenos . He promoted the colonization of the border zones . Flemish , German , Italian , and Walloon " guests " arrived in great numbers and settled in the Szepesség region ( Spiš , Slovakia ) and in southern Transylvania . Géza even recruited Muslim warriors in the Pontic steppes to serve in his army . Abu Hamid , a Muslim traveler from Al @-@ Andaluz refers to mountains that " contain lots of silver and gold " , which points at the importance of mining and gold panning already around 1150 .
If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or , as sometimes happens , has been unjustly accused of this , an emissary from the court , though he be of very lowly station and unattended , seizes him in the midst of his retinue , puts him in chains , and drags him off to various forms of punishment . No formal sentence is asked of the prince through his peers , ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused , but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient .
Géza II was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son , Stephen III . However , his uncles , Ladislaus II and Stephen IV , claimed the crown for themselves . Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség region ( Srem , Serbia ) to the Byzantines in 1165 . Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to the Walloon " guests " in Székesfehérvár , including their immunity of the jurisdiction of the local ispán .
When Stephen III died childless in 1172 , his brother , Béla III , ascended the throne . He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s . A contemporary list shows that more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency , and from tolls , ferries and markets . According to the list , his total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year , but this number is clearly exaggerated . Béla III emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings , which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles ' of his order regarding the obligatory use of written petitions . Landowners also started to put their transactions into writing , which led to the appearance of the so @-@ called " places of authentication " , such as cathedral chapters and monasteries authorized to issue deeds . Their emergence also evidences the employment of an educated staff . Indeed , students from the kingdom studied at the universities of Paris , Oxford , Bologna and Padua from the 1150s .
Aspects of 12th @-@ century French culture could also be detected in Béla III 's kingdom . His palace at Esztergom was built in the early Gothic style . Achilles and other names known from the Legend of Troy and the Romance of Alexander ( two emblematic works of chivalric culture ) were also popular among Hungarian aristocrats . According to a scholarly view , " Master P " , the author of the Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle on the Hungarian " land @-@ taking " , was Béla III 's notary .
= = Development of the Estates of the realm = =
= = = Age of Golden Bulls ( 1196 – 1241 ) = = =
Béla III 's son and successor , Emeric , had to face revolts stirred up by his younger brother , Andrew . Furthermore , incited by Enrico Dandolo , Doge of Venice , the armies of the Fourth Crusade took Zadar in 1202 . Emeric was succeeded in 1204 by his infant son , Ladislaus III . When the young king died in a year , his uncle , Andrew , mounted the throne . Stating that " the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable " , he distributed large parcels of royal lands among his partisans . Freemen living in former royal lands lost their direct contact to the sovereign , which threatened their legal status . Royal revenues decreased , which led to the introduction of new taxes and their farming out to Muslims and Jews .
Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife , Gertrude of Merania . She openly expressed her preference for her German compatriots , which caused her assassination by a group of local lords in 1213 . A new uprising broke out while the king was in the Holy Land on his crusade in 1217 and 1218 . Finally , a movement of the royal servants , who were actually free landholders directly subordinated to the sovereign , obliged Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull in 1222 . It summarized the royal servants ' liberties , including their tax exemption . Its last provision authorized the secular and spiritual lords to " resist and speak against " the sovereign " without the charge of high treason " . The Golden Bull also prohibited the employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration . This ban was confirmed when Andrew II , urged by the prelates , issued the Golden Bull 's new variant in 1231 , which authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate him in case of his departure from its provisions . For non @-@ Christians who continued to be employed in the royal household , Archbishop Robert of Esztergom placed the kingdom under interdict in 1232 . Andrew II was forced to take an oath , which included his promise to respect the privileged position of clergymen and to dismiss all his Jewish and Muslim officials . A growing intolerance against non @-@ Catholics is also demonstrated by the transfer of the Orthodox monastery of Visegrád to the Benedictines in 1221 .
Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring Principality of Halych . His son , Béla , persuaded a group of Cumans to accept Andrew II 's suzerainty in 1228 and established a new march in Oltenia ( known as the Banate of Szörény ) in 1231 . Béla IV succeeded his father in 1235 . His attempt to reacquire crown lands alienated by his predecessors created a deep rift between the monarch and the lords just as the Mongols were sweeping westward across the Eurasian steppes .
The king was first informed of the Mongol threat by Friar Julian , a Dominican monk who had visited a Hungarian @-@ speaking population in Magna Hungaria , in 1235 . In the next years , the Mongols routed the Cumans who dominated the western parts of the Eurasian steppes . A Cuman chieftain , Kuthen , agreed to accept Béla IV 's supremacy ; thus he and his people were allowed to settle in the Great Hungarian Plain . However , the Cumans ' nomadic lifestyle caused many conflicts with local communities . The locals even considered them as the Mongols ' allies .
= = = Mongol invasion ( 1241 – 1242 ) = = =
Batu Khan , who was the commander of the Mongol armies invading Eastern Europe , demanded Béla IV 's surrender without a fight in 1240 . The king refused , and ordered his barons to assemble with their retinue in his camp at Pest . Here , a riot broke out against the Cumans and the mob massacred the Cuman leader , Kuthen . The Cumans soon departed and pillaged the central parts of the kingdom . The main Mongol army arrived through the northeastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains in March 1241 . Royal troops met the enemy forces at the river Sajó , where the Mongols won a decisive victory in the battle of Mohi on April 11 , 1241 . From the battlefield , Béla IV fled first to Austria , where Duke Frederick II held him for ransom . Thereafter , the king and his family found refuge in Klis Fortress in Dalmatia . The Mongols first occupied and thoroughly plundered the territories east of the river Danube . They crossed the river when it was frozen in early 1242 . A contemporary account by Abbot Hermann of Niederalteich stated that " the Kingdom of Hungary , which had existed for 350 years , was destroyed " .
[ The Mongols ] " burnt the church " [ in Nagyvárad ( Oradea , Romania ) ] " , together with the women and whatever there was in the church . In other churches they perpetrated such crimes to the women that it is better to keep silent ... Then they ruthlessly beheaded the nobles , citizens , soldiers and canons on a field outside the city . ... After they had destroyed everything , and an intolerable stench arose from the corpses , they left the place empty . People hiding in the nearby forests came back to find some food . And while they were searching among the stones and the corpses , the " [ Mongols ] " suddenly returned and of those living whom they found there , none was left alive .
However , the kingdom did not cease to exist . Batu Khan withdrew his entire army when he was informed of the death of the Great Khan , Ögödei in March 1242 . Nevertheless , the invasion and the famine that followed it had catastrophic demographic consequences . At least 15 percent of the population died or disappeared . Transcontinental trading routes disintegrated , causing the decline of Bács ( Bač , Serbia ) , Ungvár ( Uzhhorod , Ukraine ) and other traditional centers of commerce . Local Muslim communities also disappeared , indicating they had suffered especially heavy losses during the invasion .
= = = Last Árpáds ( 1242 – 1301 ) = = =
After the Mongol withdrawal , Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands . Instead , he granted large estates to his supporters , and urged them to construct stone @-@ and @-@ mortar castles . He initiated a new wave of colonization that resulted in the arrival of a number of Germans , Moravians , Poles , and Romanians . The king re @-@ invited the Cumans and settled them in the plains along the Danube and the Tisza . A group of Alans , the ancestors of the Jassic people , seems to have settled in the kingdom around the same time .
New villages appeared , consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land . For instance , the settlement network of the so far scarcely inhabited forests of the Western Carpathians ( in present @-@ day Slovakia ) began to develop under Béla IV . Huts disappeared , and new rural houses consisting of a living room , a kitchen and a pantry were built . The most advanced agricultural techniques , including asymmetric heavy ploughs , also spread throughout the kingdom .
Internal migration was likewise instrumental in the development of the new domains emerging in former royal lands . The new landholders granted personal freedom and more favorable financial conditions to those who arrived in their estates , which also enabled the peasants who decided not to move to improve their position . Béla IV granted privileges to more than a dozen towns , including Nagyszombat ( Trnava , Slovakia ) and Pest .
Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed , he adopted an expansionist foreign policy . Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246 , and Béla IV 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Rostislav Mikhailovich , annexed large territories along the kingdom 's southern frontiers . However , conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir , Stephen , caused a civil war in the 1260s .
Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants , hereafter known as noblemen in 1267 . By that time , " true noblemen " were legally differentiated from other landholders . They held their estates free from any obligation , but everybody else ( even the ecclesiastic nobles , Romanian cneazes and other " conditional nobles " ) owed services to their lords in exchange for the lands they held . In a growing number of counties , local nobility acquired the right to elect four or two " judges of the nobles " to represent them in official procedures . The idea of equating the Hungarian " nation " with the community of noblemen also emerged in this period . It was first expressed in Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle written in the 1280s .
The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue , which increased their power . One of the barons , Joachim of the Gutkeled clan , even captured Stephen V 's heir , the infant Ladislaus , in 1272 . Stephen V died some months later , causing a new civil war between the Csák , Kőszegi , and other leading families who attempted to control the central government in the name of the young Ladislaus IV . He was declared to be of age in 1277 at an assembly of the spiritual and temporal lords and of the noblemen 's and Cumans ' representatives , but he could not strengthen royal authority . Ladislaus IV , whose mother , Elisabeth , was a Cuman chieftain 's daughter , preferred his Cuman kin , which made him unpopular . He was even accused of initiating a second Mongol invasion in 1285 , although the invaders were routed by the royal troops .
When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290 , the Holy See declared the kingdom a vacant fief and granted it to his sister 's son , Charles Martel , crown prince of the Kingdom of Naples . However , the majority of the Hungarian lords chose Andrew , the grandson of Andrew II , even though his father 's legitimacy was dubious . Andrew became the first monarch to take an oath on respecting the liberties of the Church and the nobility before his coronation . He regularly convoked the prelates , the lords and the noblemen 's representatives to assemblies known as Diets , which started to develop into a legislative body . However , the kingdom disintegrated into autonomous provinces , each ruled by powerful noblemen ( including Matthew Csák , Ladislaus Kán , and Amadeus Aba ) who ignored the king 's authority . The powerful Croatian lord , Paul I Šubić of Bribir , even dared to invite the late Charles Martel 's son , the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Charles Robert , to Hungary in 1300 . The young pretender was marching from Croatia towards Buda when Andrew III unexpectedly died on January 14 , 1301 .
= = Aftermath = =
With Andrew III 's death , the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct , and a period of anarchy began . Charles Robert was crowned king with a provisional crown , but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See 's attempts to control Hungary . They elected king the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Wenceslaus of Bohemia , who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line . However , the young king could not consolidate his position because many lords , especially those who held domains in the southern region of the kingdom , continued to support Charles Robert . Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in the summer of 1304 . After he inherited Bohemia in 1305 , he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III , Duke of Bavaria .
Otto , who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary , was crowned king , but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch . He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán , who forced him to leave Hungary . The majority of the lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10 , 1307 . He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom , as it was required by customary law , on August 27 , 1310 . During the next decade , he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority . Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after the death of the most powerful lord , Mattheus Csák , which enabled him to conquer Csák 's large province in the northeast of Hungary in 1321 .
= Third Perso @-@ Turkic War =
The Third Perso @-@ Turkic War was the third and final conflict between the Sassanian Empire and the Western Turkic Khaganate . Unlike the previous two wars , it was not fought in Central Asia , but in Transcaucasia . Hostilities were initiated in 627 AD by Khagan Tong Yabghu of the Western Göktürks and Emperor Heraclius of the Eastern Roman Empire . Opposing them were the Sassanid Persians , allied with the Pannonian Avars . The war was fought against the background of the last Byzantine @-@ Sassanid War and served as a prelude to the dramatic events that changed the balance of powers in the Middle East for centuries to come ( Battle of Nineveh , Islamic conquest of Persia ) .
= = Background = =
Following the First Siege of Constantinople by the Avars and Persians , the beleaguered Byzantine Emperor Heraclius found himself politically isolated . He could not rely on the Christian Armenian potentates of Transcaucasia , since they were branded as heretics by the Orthodox Church , and even the king of Iberia preferred to befriend the religiously tolerant Persians . Against this dismal background , he found a natural ally in Tong Yabghu . Earlier in 568 , the Turks under Istämi had turned to Byzantium when their relations with Persia soured over commerce issues .
In 625 , Heraclius dispatched to the steppes his emissary , named Andrew , who promised to the Khagan some " staggering riches " in return for military aid . The khagan , on his part , was anxious to secure the Chinese @-@ Byzantine trade along the Silk Route , which had been disrupted by the Persians in the aftermath of the Second Perso @-@ Turkic War . He sent word to the Emperor that " I shall take revenge on your enemies and will come with my valiant troops to your help " . A unit of 1 @,@ 000 horsemen fought their way through Persian Transcaucasia and delivered the Khagan 's message to the Byzantine camp in Anatolia .
= = Siege of Derbent = =
Early in 627 , the Göktürks and their Khazar allies approached the Caspian Gates at Derbent . This newly built stronghold was the only gate to the fertile land of Aghvania ( modern @-@ day Azerbaijan ) . Lev Gumilev observes that the lightly armed militia of Aghvania was no match against the hordes of heavy cavalry led by Tong Yabghu . His troops stormed Derbent and swarmed over Aghvania , plundering it thoroughly . The fall and sack of Derbent was described in detail by the Armenian historian Movses Kagankatvatsi , thought to have been an eyewitness to the event :
The fall of the fortress that had been considered impregnable sparked panic all over the country . Aghvanian forces withdrew to their capital , Partav , from whence they made for the Caucasus Mountains . The Göktürks and Khazars overtook them near the village of Kalankatuyk , where they were either slain or taken prisoner . The conquerors imposed upon Aghvania a heavy system of taxation , as reported by Movses :
= = Siege of Tbilisi = =
The next objective of the Turkic @-@ Byzantine offensive was the Kingdom of Iberia , whose ruler Stephanus was a tributary to Khosrau II of Persia . In the words of Movses Kagankatvatsi , the Khazars " encircled and besieged the famous and great sybaritic trade city of Tbilisi , " whereupon they were joined by Emperor Heraclius with his mighty army .
Heraclius and Tong Yabghu ( called Ziebel in the Byzantine sources ) met under the walls of Narikala . The yabgu rode up to the emperor , kissed his shoulder and made a bow . In return , Heraclius hugged the barbarian ruler , called him his son , and crowned him with his own diadem . During the ensuing feast the Khazar leaders received ample gifts in the shape of earrings and clothes , while the yabghu was promised the hand of the emperor 's daughter , Eudoxia Epiphania .
The siege dragged on without much progress , punctuated by frequent sallies on the part of the besieged ; one of these claimed the life of their king . After two months the Khazars retreated to the steppe , promising to return by the autumn . Tong Yabghu left young Böri Shad , either his son or nephew , in charge of the remaining forty thousand which were to assist Heraclius during the siege . Before long these departed as well , leaving the Byzantines to continue the siege alone and prompting jeers from the besieged .
When the Georgians ironically referred to the Emperor as " the goat , " hinting at his incestuous marriage , Heraclius recalled a passage from the Book of Daniel about the two @-@ horned ram overthrown by the one @-@ horned goat . He interpreted this as a good sign and struck southward against Persia . On 12 December 627 he appeared on the bank of the Tigris and clashed with Persian forces near the ruins of Nineveh . In January he ravaged the environs of the Persian capital Ctesiphon , signalling a sea @-@ change in the Persian @-@ Byzantine relations .
= = Conclusion = =
After the triumph of Heraclius , Tong Yabghu hastened to resume the siege of Tiflis and successfully stormed the city in winter . " With their swords raised , they advanced on the walls , and all this multitude , climbing upon each other 's shoulders , rose up the walls . A black shadow fell upon the wobegone citizens ; they were vanquished and lost their ground , " Movses narrates . Although the Georgians surrendered without further resistance , the city was looted and its citizens were massacred . The Persian governor and the Georgian prince were tortured to death in the presence of Tong Yabghu .
The Gokturks , renowned for their expertise in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , never excelled in siegecraft . For this reason Gumilev attributes the taking of Tiflis to the Khazars . There are good reasons for believing that this success encouraged Tong Yabghu to grander designs . This time he planned to incorporate Aghvania into his khaganate , rather than to wield a usual campaign of plunder . Before returning to Suyab he instructed Böri Shad and his generals to " spare the lives of the rulers and nobles of that land , in as much as they come out to meet my son , surrender to my rule , concede their towns , castles , and trade to my troops " .
These words indicate that Tong Yabghu was eager to retain control of the westernmost portion of the Silk Route , as he tightened his grip of its other segments all the way east to China . In April 630 Böri Shad determined to expand his control of Transcaucasia and sent his general Chorpan Tarkhan with as little as 30 @,@ 000 cavalry to invade Armenia . Using a characteristic ploy of nomadic warriors , Chorpan Tarkhan ambushed and annihilated a Persian force of 10 @,@ 000 dispatched by Shahrbaraz to counter the invasion . Turks knew the Sassanid respond would be harsh , they plundered cities and withdrew their forces back to the steppes .
= 2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka =
The 2008 attacks on Christians in southern Karnataka refer to the wave of attacks directed against Christian churches and prayer halls in the Indian city of Mangalore and the surrounding area of southern Karnataka in September and October 2008 by Hindu extrimist organisations , Bajrang Dal and the Sri Ram Sena . The attacks were widely perceived by Christians in southern Karnataka to be punishment from right @-@ wing Hindu nationalist organisations because they had been outspoken about Christian persecution in Orissa , after the assassination of Hindu monk Swami Lakshmanananda Saraswati allegedly by local christian community and also because the New Life Fellowship Trust ( NLFT ) , a non @-@ denominational Christian Church , was alleged by Bajrang Dal to be responsible for forced conversions of Hindus to Christianity .
Several isolated incidents against Christians were reported from 17 August onwards , and on 29 August some 45 @,@ 000 institutions across India participated in a " prayer for peace and communal harmony " in response to the ongoing anti @-@ Christian violence in Orissa . St. Aloysius College , a Jesuit institution in Mangalore , and some other 2000 Christian schools in Karnataka went on strike for varying periods between 29 August and 5 September prior to the attacks , protesting against the events in Orissa , in defiance of the orders of the government who stated that it was to be a regular work day . This led to government denouncement of the Christian institutions in the state for disobeying orders and led to a Bajrang Dal demonstration outside the St. Aloysius College , two weeks prior to the main attacks . The attacks began on 14 September , when a group of youths from the Bajrang Dal went inside the chapel of Adoration Monastery of the Sisters of St @-@ Clare near the Milagres Church in Hampankatta and desecrated it . Some 20 churches or prayer halls , including Catholic and Protestant churches and temples belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses and other evangelical sects , and colleges were damaged in towns and villages in the Mangalore taluk and other parts of Dakshina Kannada district , Udupi district and Chikkamagaluru district . A few Christian institutions were later attacked in Bangalore and Kasaragod district . Out of frustration and anger , the Christian community responded to the attacks within hours and began protesting . In Karkala , the Catholics of Karkala deanery staged a protest on 15 September and organised a 3 kilometre silent protest march . The protestors blocked arterial city roads in their masses , especially in places such as Hampankatta , Kulshekar , Bejai , Derebail and Thokottu and rang bells in almost all the churches of Mangalore , calling parishioners to their churches . The protests led to strong police suppression with lathi charges and tear gas , making around 150 arrests and injuring 30 to 40 people . The incident marked the first time that Catholics had ever resorted to violence in Mangalore when provoked . Between 15 September and 10 October , a new wave of anti @-@ minority attacks began against Christian communities in the Indian states of Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh , Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , New Delhi , Punjab , Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand , as well as Muslim communities in Gujarat and Maharashtra .
The September 2008 attacks had political significance , given that the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) Karnataka state government , led by B. S. Yeddyurappa , were also accused of involvement and backing the anti @-@ Christian campaigns and that the police were reported to have had knowledge of the imminent attacks but failed to prevent them . The police were criticised for their reaction to the protests and a report by a committee of human rights activists set up in the aftermath to examine the causes of the attacks claimed that they had used the event as a pretext to assault the community , rather than defend it . Justice B. K. Somasekhara of Karnataka , however , concluded that the police and government helped maintain order and were not responsible for the attacks . In response to the alleged forcible conversions of involvement , the Vishwa Hindu Parishad ( VHP ) gave a three @-@ month deadline for New Life Fellowship Trust ( NLFT ) to stop all conversion activities in Mangalore . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore declared that it would distance itself from the New Life Fellowship Trust .
In February 2011 , retired Justice M. F. Saldanha , formerly of the Bombay High Court , was outspoken against the protests and published a report in which he described the attacks as " state @-@ sponsored terrorism " and that the attacks were part of " communal forces " at work attacking Christian institutions on the coastal belt of India . The report and continued denial by the state government of being implicated in the attacks led to more than 100 @,@ 000 Christians representing some 45 Christian denominations and secular organisations leading a silent march in Mangalore on 21 February . Following the publications of the reports and subsequent protests , the government of Karnataka announced that it would drop 338 cases against Christians who had protested in the attack , and in December 2011 a further 23 cases against Christians were dropped .
= = Background and cause = =
Mangalore has long been a major Christian centre in India . In 1526 , under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio , the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore and Christianity began to spread . Many Christians migrated to South Canara from Goa . The Mangalorean Catholics were persecuted by Tipu Sultan during his reign between 1782 to 1799 and many were forcibly converted to Islam . On 24 February 1784 , Tipu rounded up 60 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Mangalorean Catholics and transported them to Seringapatam . They were held there in captivity for 15 years , until Tipu was killed by the British at the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 . Only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 of those Catholics taken captive in 1784 survived . In the latter half of the 19th century , Protestant missionaries began working in Mangalore and surrounding communities , and the Vicariate of Mangalore was established in 1853 . Mangalore , noted for its many churches and the strong representation of Catholics , was at one time known as the " Rome of the East " . However it is also noted as a pilgrimage centre for Hindus , given its numerous Hindu temples and shrines . Between 1991 and 2011 , the percentage of Christians living in India reportedly dropped from 2 @.@ 7 per cent to 2 @.@ 2 per cent , a declining figure which has been linked to ongoing difficulties facing Christians in a predominantly Hindu nation . In 2008 , an estimated 320 @,@ 300 Christians were living in the Dakshina Kannada district .
Several explanations of the cause of the September 2008 attacks have been postulated . Many Christians believe that the attacks were a direct response from right @-@ wing Hindu organisations who were targeting the people of Mangalore and the surrounding area because they had been outspoken about persecution of Christians in Orissa . St. Aloysius College , a Jesuit institution in Mangalore , and some other 2000 Christian schools in Karnataka , went on strike for varying periods between 29 August and 5 September prior to the attacks , protesting against anti @-@ Christian persecution in Orissa , contrary to the orders of the government who stated that they were to be regular work days . Primary and secondary education minister Vishweshwar Hegde Kageri , responding to the shutting down of the Christian educational institutions in Karnataka , had directed the public education department to issue show @-@ cause notices to schools that had objected to the violence against Christians in Orissa . A Christian institution in Shimoga had reportedly received a notice from the education ministry of Karnataka during the strike saying , " The VHP and Bajrang Dal have conducted a protest against the closure of schools and criticised your action . They have submitted letters requesting action against you for this . In this context , you are asked to show cause as to why action should not be initiated against you for using religion as an excuse to announce a holiday and as to why permission to run your institution should not be withdrawn . " State Home Minister V. S. Acharya explained the reason for the notices , " All Christian institutions are grant @-@ in @-@ aid institutions of the government and they should have had the courtesy to inform us before declaring a holiday . Their decision to act unilaterally cannot be tolerated . " The education minister was backed by the State President D. V. Sadananda Gowda , who issued a statement in which he stated that Christian education institutions had committed a crime by declaring holiday without obtaining the state government 's permission . However , the Indian National Congress ( INC ) condemned Hegde 's statement to take action against Christian education institutions and the leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly , Mallikarjun Kharge , stated that " The minister 's statement is not proper . It may lead to law and order problem in the State . " Bajrang Dal proponents protested with banners outside the St. Aloysius College gates and across Mangalore on Saturday 31 August , the day after the college had closed for a holiday , chanting slogans such as , " Jai Mata Di " ( Hail to the Mother ) and " Bharat Mata ki jai " ( Hail Mother India ) . It should be noted , however , that the closure of the schools in Mangalore were not alone ; some 45 @,@ 000 institutions across India had participated on 29 August in a " prayer for peace and communal harmony " in response to the events in Orissa .
Another explanation is that the attacks were an angry response by Bajrang Dal over the allegations that the New Life Fellowship Trust were indulging in forceful religious conversion of Hindus and distribution of vulgar literature slandering Hindu gods and goddesses . Bajrang Dal claimed that nearly 15 @,@ 000 people had been forced to adopt Christianity as their religion in Mangalore alone in the past year after monitoring the situation . In the book Satyadarshini , written by Andhra Pradesh Pastor Paravastu Suryanarayana Rao , it was also reported that the New Life Fellowship Trust had denigrated and defamed Hindu gods , causing anger amongst the Bajrang Dal . Hindu activists also alleged that excerpts from Rao 's book had been published in pamphlets to spread its influence . Mahila Parishat leader Asha Jagadish believed that the attacks were solely motivated by religious conversion by New Life and claimed that her neighbour was forcefully converted into Christianity to marry a Christian girl , further stating , " The Holy Saint School in Bangalore , where I studied up to fifth standard , did not allow me to wear kumkum or bangles according to Hindu tradition . " Fr . Francis Serrao , rector of St. Aloysius College , stated that he believed the attacks were not due to conversion , but was rather a reflection of the struggle between Christianity and Brahmanism and theorised that Christian ideology and Brahmin ideology can never coexist as " Christianity propagates love and Brahmanism propagates hate . "
= = Attacks = =
Incidences of violence against Christians had been reported during the month prior to the main attacks . On 17 August 2008 , demonstrators performed a dharna ( hunger strike ) outside the DHM church in Jayanagar , Davangere and again on 24 August at Nitya Jeeva Devalaya church , burning Christian literature in both events . No complaints or arrests were made in either of the events . Three days later , on 27 August , a Christian prayer hall and its pastor in Uchangidurga , Harpanahalli taluk of the Davanagere district , were attacked , leading to eight arrests . Then on 7 September , a group of about 300 individuals attacked the Yesu Kripalaya Church in Bada , Davangere district , vandalising it and burning the Bibles . Ten people were arrested at the scene in Bada . The multiple premeditated attacks started on 14 September 2008 , with some 20 churches attacked in Karnataka ; of which 14 were attacked within one hour . These included Catholic and Protestant churches as well as temples belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses and the New Life Fellowship Trust . The attacks began when a group of some 15 youths on motorbikes from the Bajrang Dal , a Hindu nationalist organisation which aims to achieve the " reversing of the invasions by Muslim conquerors and British imperialism " , arrived at the chapel of Adoration Monastery of the Sisters of St @-@ Clare in Hampankatta around 10 @.@ 15 am , shouting a pro @-@ Bajrang Dal slogan . They entered the monastery and attacked it with lathis , desecrating the tabernacle and the Eucharist , the 15 feet ( 5 m ) high golden coloured monstrance ( regarded by the nuns as the most sacred object in the church ) , a crucifix , the oil lamps , the vases on the altar , and a few statues of saints . A couple praying in the chapel at the time were also beaten by the intruders . Two nuns were also reportedly injured . Around the same time , a group of 30 to 35 people on motorbikes wearing masks attacked the empty Church of South India building at Kodaikal , armed with iron pipes , cricket stumps and sticks , shouting pro @-@ Bajrang Dal slogans . Aside from damage to the buildings , windows and religious iconography , furniture , Bibles , and other Christian literature were damaged in various churches . A gang of about 30 youths had made an attempt to ransack a prayer hall of the New Life Fellowship Trust , but their efforts were thwarted by the police .
Around 8 @.@ 30 pm on 14 September , miscreants pelted stones at the chapel of Padua Pre @-@ university College , a Christian college located at Nanthoor , badly damaging its windows . Around 9 @.@ 30 pm , miscreants badly damaged a statue located in front of Carmelites ' house in Katkere , near Koteshwar . The Church of St. Sebastian in Permannur was badly damaged , including its windows and furniture . The Holy Cross Church at Kulshekar and St. Joseph , The Worker Church at Vamanjoor were also damaged . Police reports confirmed that Our Lady 's Grotto at Vijayamarie Technical Institute and properties at the Infant Jesus Higher Primary School and Mary Hill Convent were also damaged by the miscreants on the night of 14 September . K. A. Abraham , pastor of Divine Deliverance Prayer Centre at Neerugadde in Shiroor , claimed that over 25 miscreants had attacked his prayer hall , and they were reported to have smashed the window panes , ransacked equipment and set a motorcycle and car on fire . Later , in the early hours of 15 September , individuals broke into the St. George Church belonging to the Syro Malabar Catholic Rite of the Belthangady Diocese in Ujire , Dakshina Kannada district , 70 km from Mangalore and burned the Bible , the carpet , prayer books and desecrated holy icons . Miscreants also ransacked the St. Thomas Church in Gorigandi in Chikkamagaluru district . Seven or eight masked men arriving on scooters were reported to have desecrated the large statue of St. Antony at St. Ann 's Friary on Jail Road in Bejai , throwing flower pots to smash its glass covering . The official report into the attacks later claimed that the Bajrang Dal were the likely suspects for the attacks on churches in Chikkamagaluru district , including the Christian Believers ' Prayer Hall , Jagadeshwara Church in Mudigere and Carmel Mathe Devalaya in Kudremukh , and had also harassed people gathered at Kapitanio High School in Mangalore . Several people also reportedly invaded the house and prayer meeting of a neo @-@ convert in Singatagere of Kadur taluk . Other areas affected by the attacks include Kalkanady , Falnir , Madyanthar , Makodu , Singatagere , Jayapura , Shaktinagar , Thokottu , Bantwal , Belthangady , Udupi , Kulur , Kundapura , Karkala , Koppa , Balehanoor and Moodbidri . Individuals were also targeted during the event ; in Kulur , two men and two children were attacked by a Hindu mob near Gurupur Bridge while on their way to their hometown in a private car , and in Kalladka , the Souza Textile owner and his wife were attacked by unidentified people . Two separate stabbing incidents were also reported in Kalladka , and the two men affected were admitted to hospital with serious injuries .
On 16 September , a 100 @-@ year @-@ old statue of Mary at the St. Mary 's Church in Kolar was damaged by vandals , St. George Church in Ernody was desecrated and attempted to be burned by vandals , and over 20 vandals desecrated the Rima Worship Centre at Adyar . On 18 September , vandals shattered the glass encasing of the Mother Mary statue of the Presentation Girls School in Dharwad and on 19 September , a gang of vandals on motorbikes pelted stones at the St. Xavier 's Church in Padu Kody in Mangalore taluk and destroyed the idols . On 21 September , a further four attacks were reported , including Brethren Christa Aaradhanalaya prayer hall near Nellihudikeri in Kodagu district , the Believers ' Church in Yedapadavu , Mangalore taluk , and two churches in Bangalore ; St. James Church in Mariyannapalya near Hebbal and Lumbini Gardens , which had two gold plated crowns and cash from the offering box stolen and the main sacrament vandalised ; and the Holy Church in the Name of Jesus at Rajarajeshwarinagar had the casing around the Infant Jesus smashed and the statue damaged . In Banaswadi , a group were reported to have pelted stones at a church and fled . A Catholic school was also attacked in Kasaragod district in Kerala . Between 15 September and 10 October , Hindu nationalists directed a wave of attacks targetting Christian communities in Kerala , Madhya Pradesh , Uttar Pradesh , Andhra Pradesh , Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Jharkhand , New Delhi , Punjab , Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand , and Muslim communities in Gujarat and Maharashtra .
= = = Christian protests = = =
In response to the attacks in areas such as Hampankatta , Shaktinagar , Vamanjoor , Thokottu and Bantwal , the Christian community began protesting . The protestors blocked arterial city roads in their masses , especially in places such as Hampankatta , Kulshekar , Bejai , Derebail and Thokottu and rang bells in almost all the churches of the city , calling parishioners to their churches . In Hampankatta , over 4 @,@ 000 Christians united to defend the Milagres Church and protest . Violence broke out at the Adoration monastery as police began caning the protestors with sticks and bursting teargas shells to disperse them , while they pelted stones at police vans and police . The police were reported to have caused further damage to the Adoration monastery by throwing back stones and glass bottles to restrain the protestors . Union Minister of Labour and Employment Oscar Fernandes and MLA B. Ramanath Rai arrived at the Hampankatta scene at 6 pm . In Karkala , the Catholics of Karkala deanery staged a protest on 15 September condemning the attacks and the desecration of the crucifix and sacrament at Adoration Monastery in particular and organised a 3 kilometre silent protest march from the bus stand to the taluk headquarters and submitted a memorandum to tehsildar Laxman Singh . The protests involved over 2 @,@ 500 people and among those present were incumbent parish priest John Barboza , Valerian Fernandes , Ajekar parish priest Valerian Fernandes , Attur parish priest Arthur Pereira , Miyar parish priest Ronald Miranda , Paschal Menezes , Parappady parish priest Alex Aranha , Michael D 'Silva , Hirgan parish priest Michael Lobo , Kanajar parish priest Alwyn D 'Cunha and many other priests and nuns in the area . The Christian protestors also clashed with police at St. Sebastian Church in the Permannur area of Ullal on the outskirts of Mangalore , shouting slogans and throwing stones at the police for their failure to arrest the perpetrators of the attacks . The police arrested several Christians after firing into the air and being involved in a lathi charge . A witness in Permannur claimed that Christians attacked the houses of Hindus in retaliation , shouting slogans against the BJP government . Four people of pro @-@ Hindu organisations were reportedly injured at Kalladka and Attavar on the outskirts of the Mangalore when their vehicles were attacked and were pelted with stones . Ten people , including one of the Sri Ram Sena activists , were reportedly stabbed during the protests and according to the police , the situation was used by some to settle personal scores and not all stabbing incidents were related to attack on churches and the subsequent violence in the city . The Sri Ram Sena protested against the stabbing of one of their activists by organising a shutdown of educational institutions and shops . The district administration responded by declaring a holiday for all educational institutions in Mangalore
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graphical improvements on the original game , and modifications needed to keep it running in ResidualVM , and gained their help to improve the game 's assets for the remastered version . One such feature was a modified control scheme that converted the game 's movement controls from the tank @-@ style controls to a point and click @-@ style interface . Schafer noted they created the game with tank @-@ style control as it was popular with other games like Resident Evil at the time , but recognized it did not work well within the adventure game genre . Schafer contacted Tobias Pfaff who created the point @-@ and @-@ click modification to obtain access to his code to incorporate into the remastered version .
= = = = Later development and new features = = = =
Double Fine demonstrated an in @-@ progress version of the remastered game at the 2014 IndieCade event in October 2014 ; new features included higher @-@ resolution textures and improved resolution for the character models as well as having real @-@ time lighting models , and the ability to switch back and forth between this presentation and the original graphics at the touch of a control . The remastered game runs in 4 : 3 aspect ratio but has an option to stretch this to a 16 : 9 ratio rather than render in a native 16 : 9 ratio . The remaster includes improvements to the control scheme developed by Pfaff 's patch and other alternate control schemes in addition to the original tank @-@ like controls , including analogue controls for console versions and point @-@ and @-@ click controls for computer versions . The game 's soundtrack was fully orchestrated through performances of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra ( who also performed the soundtrack for Double Fine 's Broken Age ) . The remastered version also includes developer commentary , which can be activated via the options menu and listened to at various points in the game . The PlayStation version also features cloud saving between the PS4 and Vita versions .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Original soundtrack = = =
Grim Fandango has an original soundtrack that combines orchestral score , South American folk music , jazz , bebop , swing , and big band music . It also has various influences from traditional Russian , Celtic , Mexican , Spanish , and Indian strings culture . It was composed and produced by Peter McConnell at LucasArts . Others credited are Jeff Kliment ( Engineer , Mixed By , Mastered ) , and Hans Christian Reumschüssel ( Additional Music Production ) .
The soundtrack was released in 1998 as a CD album with 32 tracks and sold at the LucasArts company store .
The soundtrack was very well received . IGN called it a " beautiful soundtrack that you 'll find yourself listening to even after you 're done with the game " . SEMO said " the compositions and performances are so good that listening to this album on a stand @-@ alone basis can make people feel like they 're in a bar back then " . RPGFan said " the pieces are beautifully composed , wonderfully played ( ... ) . has a stellar soundtrack with music that easily stands alone outside the context of the game . This CD was an absolute pleasure to listen to and comes highly recommended . " Game Revolution in its game review praised as one of the " most memorable soundtracks ever to grace the inside of a cranial cavity where an ear drum used to be . " PC Gamer in its 2014 list of Top 100 Games , acclaimed Grim Fandango for including " one of the best soundtracks in PC gaming history " .
In 1999 's Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Annual Interactive Achievement Awards , the soundtrack was nominated in the category of " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " . It was also lauded by GameSpot , which awarded it the " Best PC Music awards " , and included it in the " Ten Best PC Game Soundtracks " list in 1999 .
= = = Remastered soundtrack = = =
Peter McConnell announced that the game 's soundtrack will be fully orchestrated through performances of the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra for the remastered version of the game being released in 2015 . After the original Pro Tools sound files were recovered , McConnell found that some of the samples he had used originally did not sound good , and the team opted to re @-@ orchestrate the score .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
Grim Fandango gained critical acclaim upon its release . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the game scores of 93 % and 94 / 100 . Critics lauded the art direction in particular , with GameSpot rating the visual design as " consistently great " . PC Zone emphasized the production as a whole calling the direction , costumes , characters , music , and atmosphere expertly done . They also commented the game would make a " superb film " . The San Francisco Chronicle stated " Grim Fandango feels like a wild dance through a cartoonish film @-@ noir adventure . Its wacky characters , seductive puzzle @-@ filled plot and a nearly invisible interface allow players to lose themselves in the game just as cinemagoers might get lost in a movie . " The Houston Chronicle , in naming Grim Fandango the best game of 1998 along with Half @-@ Life , complimented the graphics calling them " jaw @-@ dropping " and commented that the game " is full of both dark and light humor . " IGN summed its review up by saying the game was the " best adventure game " it had ever seen .
The game also received criticisms from the media . Several reviewers noted that there were difficulties experienced with the interface , requiring a certain learning curve to get used to , and selected camera angles for some puzzles were poorly chosen . The use of elevators in the game was particularly noted as troublesome . The review from Adventure Gamers expressed dislike of the soundtrack , and , at times , " found it too heavy and not well suited to the game 's theme " . A Computer and Video Games review also noted that the game had continuous and long data loading from the CD @-@ ROM that interrupted the game and " spoils the fluidity of some sequences and causes niggling delays " .
= = = Awards = = =
Grim Fandango won several awards after its release in 1998 . PC Gamer selected the game as the 1998 " Adventure Game of the Year " . The game won IGN 's " Best Adventure Game of the Year " in 1998 , while GameSpot awarded it their " Best of E3 1998 " , " PC Adventure Game of the Year " , " PC Game of the Year " , " Best PC Graphics for Artistic Design " , and " Best PC Music awards " . GameSpot named Grim Fandango its Game of the Year for 1998 , and in the following year included the game in their " Ten Best PC Game Soundtracks " and was selected as the 10th " Best PC Ending " by their readership . In 1999 , Grim Fandango won " Computer Adventure Game of the Year " for the 1999 Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Annual Interactive Achievement Awards . It was also nominated for " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Art / Graphics " , " Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development " and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound and Music " that same year .
Grim Fandango has been included in several publishers ' " Top Games " lists well after its release . GameSpot inducted the game into their " Greatest Games of All Time " in 2003 citing , " Ask just about anyone who has played Grim Fandango , and he or she will agree that it 's one of the greatest games of all time . " GameSpy also added the game to their Hall of Fame in 2004 , further describing it as the seventh " Most Underrated Game of All Time " as of 2003 . Adventure Gamers listed Grim Fandango as the seventh " Top Adventure Game of All Time " in 2004 ; in their 2011 list of " Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures " it was listed as # 1 . In 2007 , IGN included the game in the " Top 25 PC Games " ( as 15th ) and " Top 100 Games of All Time " ( at 36th ) , citing that " LucasArts ' second @-@ to @-@ last stab at the classic adventure genre may very well be the most original and brilliant one ever made . " Grim Fandango remained as the 20th in the Top 25 PC Games in IGN 's 2009 list .
= = = = Lists of awards and rankings = = = =
= = = Sales and aftermath = = =
Grim Fandango sales were poor despite the positive reception given to the game . Initial estimates suggested that the game sold well during the 1998 holiday season . Total cumulative worldwide sales are estimated between 100 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 units . The game is commonly considered a commercial failure , even though LucasArts stated that " Grim Fandango met domestic expectations and exceeded them worldwide " . Tim Schafer has affirmed that the game was profitable .
While LucasArts proceeded to produce Escape from Monkey Island in 2000 , they canceled development of sequels to Sam & Max Hit the Road and Full Throttle stating that " After careful evaluation of current market place realities and underlying economic considerations , we 've decided that this was not the appropriate time to launch a graphic adventure on the PC . " Subsequently , the studio dismissed many of the people involved with their adventure games , some of whom went on to set up Telltale Games , creating an episodic series of Sam & Max games . These events , along with other changes in the video game market towards action @-@ based games , are seen as primary causes in the decline of the adventure game genre . Grim Fandango 's underperformance was seen as a sign that the genre was commercially " dead " to rival Sierra , as well . LucasArts stated in 2006 that they do not plan on returning to adventure games until the " next decade " . Ultimately the studio stopped developing video games in 2013 after The Walt Disney Company acquisition of Lucasfilm , and was dissolved shortly thereafter .
Tim Schafer left LucasArts shortly after Grim Fandango 's release , and created his own company , Double Fine Productions , in 2000 along with many of those involved in the development of Grim Fandango . The company has found similar critical success with their first title , Psychonauts . Schafer stated that while there is strong interest from fans and that he " would love to go back and spend time with the characters from any game [ he 's ] worked on " , a sequel to Grim Fandango or his other previous games is unlikely as " I always want to make something new . " With the help of developers such as Double Fine and Telltale Games , adventure games saw a resurgence in the 2010s , with financially successful titles such as Broken Age , The Walking Dead , and The Wolf Among Us .
= = = Remastered version = = =
Grim Fandango Remastered has received similar positive reception as the original release , with many critics continuing to praise the game 's story , characters , and soundtrack . They also found the developer 's commentary to be very insightful to the history of the game . Reviewers were disappointed at the lack of an auto @-@ save system , as well as the game not receiving a full high @-@ definition upgrade , leaving the higher @-@ resolution characters somewhat out of place with the original 3D backgrounds . Many reviewers also noted that the puzzles , though a staple of the day when Grim Fandango was first released , remain somewhat obtuse with solutions that are not clear even after the player solves them , and that a hint system , as was added to the Monkey Island remake , would have been very helpful . The game 's pacing , also unchanged from the original version , was also found harder to grasp considering the direction taken in modern games , in both the pacing within the game 's four acts , and the time taken to move around and between rooms . In his review for Eurogamer , Richard Cobbett warned players to " be careful of rose @-@ tinted memories " , that while the remastered version is faithful to the original , it does show aspects of the original game that have become outdated in more modern video game development . Wired 's Laura Hudson considered the remastered version highlighted how the original game was " an artifact of its time , an exceptional piece of interactive art wrapped inextricably around the technology and conventions of its time in a way that reveals both their limitations and the brilliance they were capable of producing " .
= = Legacy = =
In 2005 The Guardian characterized the game as " The last genuine classic to come from LucasArts , the company that helped define adventure games , Tim Schafer 's noir @-@ pastiche follows skull @-@ faced Manny Calavera through a bureaucratic parody of the Land of the Dead . With a look that takes from both Mexican mythology and art deco , Grim Fandango is as unique an artistic statement as mainstream gaming has managed to offer . While loved by devotees , its limited sales prompted LucasArts to back away from original adventures to simply exploit franchises . "
Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef , in a 2012 retrospective look , believed that Grim Fandango 's combination of film noir and the adventure game genre was the first of its kind and a natural fit due to the script @-@ heavy nature of both , and would later help influence games with similar themes like the Ace Attorney series and L.A. Noire .
Grim Fandango has been considered a representative title demonstrating video games as an art form ; the game was selected in 2012 as a candidate for public voting for inclusion within the Smithsonian Institution 's " The Art of Video Games " exhibit , while the Museum of Modern Art seeks to install the game as an exhibit as part of its permanent collection within the Department of Architecture and Design .
The game was included in the " Game Masters " exhibition , organized in 2012 by the Australian Centre for the Moving Image ( ACMI ) ; an event devoted to explore the faces and the history behind computer games . Tim Schafer was featured as the creative force behind Grim Fandango , within the exhibition section called " Game Changers " , crediting him along a few other visionary game designers for having " pushed the boundaries of game design and storytelling , introducing new genres , creating our best @-@ loved characters and revolutionising the way we understand and play games "
Grim Fandango has been the centerpiece of a large fan community for the game that has continued to be active more than 10 years after the game 's release . Such fan communities include the Grim Fandango Network and the Department of Death , both of which include fan art and fiction in addition to other original content .
In an interview with Kotaku after the announcement of the remake , Schafer stated that he has long considered the aspect of a Grim Fandango sequel to further expand on the setting that was created for the game . He felt the story would be a difficult component , as either they would have to figure a means to bring Manny back from his final reward , or otherwise build the story around a new character . However , one option he has considered to alleviate the issue is by creating an adventure game using an open @-@ world mechanic similar to the Grand Theft Auto series .
= Peter de Maulay =
Peter de Maulay or Peter de Mauley ( died 1241 ) was a nobleman and administrator who was one of King John of England 's " evil counsellors " . First appearing in the historical record in 1202 , Maulay was in England by 1204 and serving as an official of John . During the rebellions of the end of John 's reign , Maulay supported the king and was given custody of the king 's younger son as well as important prisoners . Maulay continued to serve the new king after 1216 but ran into difficulties with the regents for the young King Henry III and was accused of treason in 1221 . Although cleared of the treason accusation , Maulay retired to his lands in late 1221 . In 1223 Maulay 's lands at Upavon were confiscated by the king but were returned within a few months . Upavon was again confiscated in 1229 and given to another noble , but in 1233 King Henry regranted the manor to Maulay , an event which led to a revolt by Richard Marshal , the Earl of Pembroke , against the king . In 1241 Maulay went on crusade and died in late 1241 , probably in the Holy Land while on crusade .
= = Early life = =
Maulay 's parentage is unknown , but he originated from the Maulay region in Poitou . He appears to have had a younger brother named Aimery , who possibly was the same as an Aimery de Maulay who owned lands in Quinçay and La Rochelle between 1218 and 1259 . In a monastic chronicle , Peter is said to have relinquished his lands in France to Aimery in 1204 , after the overlordship of the lands passed from King John of England to King Philip II of France . Peter 's first appearance in the historical record was in 1202 , when he received land around Loudun in exchange for Moncontour . Under John , he was appointed an usher in the king 's household , where he soon became a close advisor of the king . He was considered one of the " evil counsellors " of John by the chronicler Roger of Wendover .
After John 's loss of Normandy , Maulay went to England and was given the manor of Upavon in Wiltshire . His grant of the manor was at the king 's pleasure , because the manor , which had been held by a noble who forfeited his land in England by staying in Normandy after its loss , would need to be restored to its rightful holder if John recovered Normandy . He served as an envoy to Rome in 1213 and in 1214 was in command of royal forces at La Rochelle in France . In 1214 he married Isabella , the daughter and heiress of Robert of Thornham . Robert had died in 1211 , so through his wife , Maulay acquired the Barony of Mulgrave in Yorkshire . Maulay paid the king 7000 marks as a fine for the right to marry Isabella , one of the highest fines paid for the right to marry under John . According to the medieval chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall , Maulay was the murderer of John 's nephew Arthur of Brittany .
When the barons of England revolted against John in 1215 , Maulay was given command of Corfe Castle by John . Along with Corfe , Maulay was also given custody of John 's younger son , Richard of Cornwall . He was also given Gomshall in Surrey . In 1216 he was given the office of Sheriff of Dorset and Somerset , where he made a name for himself with his exactions and heavy profiteering . Besides the custody of Richard of Cornwall , Maulay was also responsible for supervising the confinement of John 's niece , Eleanor of Brittany , who , as the daughter of Geoffrey II , Duke of Brittany , elder brother of King John , had a strong claim to the English throne and had been held captive since 1202 . At times , he was also responsible for keeping John 's wife , Isabella of Angouleme and his heir , Prince Henry , safe from rebels , as long as they were at Corfe .
= = Under Henry III = =
Maulay remained in office under the new king , Henry III , who succeeded to the throne in late 1216 . While at Corfe , he had custody of William of Lancaster , who had been captured by the royalist side at Rochester in 1215 . Ranulf de Blondeville , the Earl of Chester , attempted to secure William 's freedom but was rebuffed by Maulay , leading the earl to threaten to depart England and the king 's cause and go on crusade . In early 1217 Maulay was ordered by the regent , William Marshal , to surrender control of Sherborne Castle and Somerset to William Longespee , the Earl of Salisbury , to help secure the return of Longespee to the royal cause . But Maulay refused to do so . In October 1217 , Maulay was summoned to the royal court to answer charges that he had waged a private war against the earl over control of Somerset , and that he had broken a truce that had held between the two men . The dispute was finally solved in February 1218 when Maulay was confirmed by the regent as custodian of Sherborne Castle and in the office of Sheriff of Somerset . Maulay compensated Longespee for his loss with a payment of 500 pounds , and a further payment of 1000 pounds by the government and custody of a royal ward .
Maulay received a total of 6561 marks by 1221 from ransoms paid by 16 prisoners he held at Corfe . He also paid nothing into the Exchequer from Somerset or Dorset for the period from 1218 to 1220 , with the total owed to the government amounting to a bit over 1500 pounds . Maulay 's extortions , however , led to him losing custody of Richard of Cornwall in 1220 .
Maulay brought Richard of Cornwall to London to attend his brother 's second coronation , which occurred on 17 May 1220 .
= = Treason accusations = =
On 20 May 1221 Maulay was accused of treason by Richard Mucegros and Hubert de Burgh before the king . The specific crime was alleged to be a plot to hand over Eleanor of Brittany , then held at Corfe Castle , to King Louis IX of France . Maulay was imprisoned for a short time , but on 4 June was released after surrendering Corfe to the king . He was allowed to retain his sheriffdom . The accusation may have owed more to the fact that Maulay had recently taken Mucegros ' lands into custody because Mucegros had failed to make a payment due for a royal fine . The event may also have been used by de Burgh as an opportunity to weaken Maulay 's patron and de Burgh 's rival for power , Peter des Roches , while des Roches was out of England . The loss of Corfe by one of des Roches ' primary supporters would have weakened des Roches ' standing and power . In July Peter des Roches returned to England and in late July was instrumental in the clearing of Maulay from the charges of treason . Maulay was not given back custody of Corfe , but on 29 July the royal government discharged the 7000 marks that Maulay still owed for his marriage fine . The stated reason for the release of this debt was to compensate Maulay for his expenses while controlling Corfe , but the real reason appears to have been to compensate for the loss of Corfe . In late 1221 Maulay agreed to go on crusade with Peter des Roches and Falkes de Breauté , another of des Roches supporters . The loss of Damietta in September meant that the three men postponed their departure , and in November 1221 Maulay was replaced as sheriff . In return for Maulay 's agreement to the ouster , the Exchequer wrote off more debts that Maulay owed the government , this time over 8800 marks . Maulay retired to his lands in Yorkshire .
= = Upavon case = =
In February 1223 , Maulay forfeited Upavon to the king . This was part of a string of confiscations that struck at supporters of des Roches , including William de Cantilupe , Breauté , and Robert de Vieuxpont , by taking back grants that had been made earlier and which were held at the king 's will . The seizures were made to teach the nobles a lesson and curb their dissension from the royal government , which was in the hands of Roches ' rival de Burgh . Most of the manors , including Upavon , were returned to their previous holders in April after a settlement between de Burgh and those who resented his government . Around this time Maulay began work on the castle of Mulgrave Castle , in Yorkshire , which was part of his wife 's inheritance . In June and July 1224 , Maulay was present at on the royal side at the siege of Bedford Castle , which was held by de Breauté against the government . In 1225 Maulay claimed that he had sworn to King John that he would not give up custody of the royal castles until after John 's son came of age . Maulay lost Upavon to the king again in 1229 , with the king regranting Upavon to Gilbert Basset . This grant to Basset was by charter , with the lands to be held in fee . Maulay claimed that he only gave up his tenure because of threats by de Burgh .
Maulay returned to royal service in 1230 when he joined the royal expedition to Brittany and was once more at the royal court in 1232 as a follower of Peter des Roches . Maulay regained Upavon in 1233 , after the king reopened the case . Henry justified his action as being exercised " per voluntatem nostrum " , or through his own will . Henry opened a case of quo warranto , and then declined to recognize his own charter as valid , thus granting the manor to Maulay . Although the case could be made that Maulay 's right to the manor was better than Basset 's , it is more probable that the dispute over Upavon and its ownership was the opening move in an effort to curtail the influence of Richard Marshall , the Earl of Pembroke . It was also an attempt to turn back grants made by the king to de Burgh 's supporters , now that de Burgh had fallen from power . The royal actions led to conflict between Henry III and the barons , because of Henry 's grant of the manor to Basset . The restoration to Maulay and Basset 's deprivation were considered illegal by many of the nobles , and led to a revolt by Basset and Marshal , who was Basset 's overlord . Maulay was seen as a non @-@ Englishman who was profiting over a popular English noble , Basset . Maulay was briefly in disgrace but managed to return to favour , and was named constable of Devizes in January 1234 , his first royal appointment since 1221 . He was granted the office of Sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1236 , perhaps owing these offices more to his former ward , Richard of Cornwall , than to his patron des Roches , who fell from power in 1234 . Des Roches ' loss of power did not adversely affect Maulay 's royal service . Maulay was present at the baptism of Prince Edward , and was one of the nobles who raised the infant from the baptismal font .
= = Last years and legacy = =
Maulay had vowed to go on crusade in 1220 , and in 1241 he finally set out for the Holy Land , along with Richard of Cornwall . He died later in 1241 , probably while still in the Holy Land . His wife died before him and his heir was his son Peter de Maulay . Besides his heir , Maulay had two other sons – Robert and Stephen , and a daughter , Hilary , who married Piers de Brus , son and heir of Piers de Brus , the Lord of Skelton . Maulay had endowed a chantry at Meaux Abbey in Yorkshire in memory of his wife . He also confirmed grants of lands to Eskdale Priory , a Grandmontine house founded by Isabella 's father , and to Nostell Priory . Maulay was also a benefactor of the Knights of Saint Thomas , a military religious order for Englishmen .
= Henry Wells ( general ) =
Lieutenant General Sir Henry Wells , KBE , CB , DSO ( 22 March 1898 – 20 October 1973 ) was a senior officer in the Australian Army . Serving as Chief of the General Staff from 1954 to 1958 , Wells ' career culminated with his appointment as the first Chairman , Chiefs of Staff Committee , a position marking him as the professional head of the Australian Military . He served in this capacity from March 1958 until March 1959 , when he retired from the army .
Born in Victoria , Wells began his career in the Australian Army in 1916 when he entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon . Graduating as a lieutenant three years later , he served in a variety of staff and instructional positions before the outbreak of the Second World War . Initially posted to the 7th Division as a staff officer in 1940 , Wells was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made senior liaison officer to I Corps . Serving in Greece and North Africa , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership at El Alamein . Transferred to the South West Pacific theatre in 1943 as a brigadier , he served in the New Guinea Campaign with the headquarters of II Corps and later in the Borneo campaign with I Corps .
Wells was promoted to major general in 1946 and appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff . Following promotion to lieutenant general , he was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , British Commonwealth Forces Korea from 1953 to 1954 , serving during the last days of the war . In retirement , Wells was a director of several companies . Aged 75 , he died in 1973 .
= = Early life and career = =
Wells was born in the Victorian town of Kyneton on 22 March 1898 , the youngest of seven children to Arthur Wells , a draper , and his wife Elizabeth ( née Carter ) . Educated at Kyneton High School , Wells entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in February 1916 , where he was a keen sportsman . Graduating from the college in December 1919 , he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army , and posted to England for further training .
On his return to Australia , Wells was appointed as adjutant and quartermaster of the 8th Light Horse Regiment in 1921 . The following year , he was allocated to the 9th Light Horse Regiment . In February 1926 , Wells was briefly appointed brigade major of the 6th Cavalry Brigade , before becoming an instructor at the Small Arms School , Sydney , during July . On 14 December that year , Wells married Lorna Irene Skippen in a ceremony at St John 's Church of England , Cessnock ; the couple would later have two sons .
During 1927 , Wells was assigned to the Royal Military College , Duntroon as a company commander and promoted to captain that December . Returning to the Small Arms School as an instructor in 1931 , he was dispatched to England and attended the Staff College , Camberley between 1935 and 1936 . Arriving back in Australia , Wells was made adjutant and quartermaster of the 4th / 3rd Battalion , and later brigade major of the 1st Infantry Brigade . During 1938 , he was reposted to Royal Military College , Duntroon as a lecturer on tactics .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Greece and North Africa = = =
On 15 May 1940 , Wells transferred to the Second Australian Imperial Force for active service during the Second World War . Promoted to major , he was posted to the headquarters of the 7th Division . Wells proceeded with the division to the Middle East , where , on arriving in December , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and posted as senior liaison officer to I Corps . During this time , the Australian 6th Division and I Corps Headquarters were diverted for service in the Greek Campaign .
Wells arrived in Greece on 7 March 1941 , with an advance party of Lieutenant General Sir Thomas Blamey 's I Corps staff . On 10 April , a plan was formulated to withdraw Greek and Commonwealth troops from their positions in the Verria pass of the Vermion Mountains to the River Aliakmon . To carry this out , Blamey despatched Wells to coordinate the movement of the 12th Greek Division west to its new position . The withdrawal began on 12 April , but the force 's movement was hampered because of lack of vehicles and the division did not arrive until late evening the following day . During this time , Wells travelled between I Corps Headquarters and the 12th Greek Division , organising and coordinating the division 's movement , despite frequent air attacks on the roads .
On 24 April 1941 , Wells embarked from Greece along with the remainder of the I Corps Headquarters during the British and Commonwealth withdrawal . Commended for his " conspicuous skill , ability and energy " and fostering " mutual confidence and goodwill between the Allied forces " , Wells was recommended for the Distinguished Service Order , but was subsequently appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services in Greece . The announcement of the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 30 December 1941 . Then Brigadier Stanley Savige later wrote of Wells during the campaign : " Tireless in his long journeys , helpful in every possible way , and courageous in all circumstances " . For his " gallant and distinguished services " during this time , Wells was additionally Mentioned in Despatches .
Following Greece , the headquarters of I Corps returned to Palestine . Wells was made General Staff Officer , 2nd Grade ( GSO2 ) , the deputy chief of staff in charge of planning operations . I Corps was alerted to take part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign , in spite of the fact that since Blamey had been promoted to Deputy Commander in Chief Middle East Command , the corps lacked a commanding officer . General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson — the British commander in Palestine and Transjordan — believed that I Corps ' loss of transport and signal equipment precluded it from participating in the campaign from the outset . Instead , Wilson attempted to exercise command from the King David Hotel . This proved to be a serious error , as his staff were preoccupied with political and administrative issues , and were too remote from the battlefields to exercise the close command required . Following a series of reverses , I Corps headquarters was sent for on 18 June , and Lieutenant General John Lavarack assumed command that day . The headquarters was confronted by a difficult situation , with almost all reserves committed . Lavarack began regrouping his force , concentrating the 7th Division for a decisive thrust towards Beirut . Hard fighting was required before the campaign was brought to a successful conclusion .
Promoted to colonel , Wells became General Staff Officer , 1st Grade ( GSO1 ) , to the 9th Division in November 1941 . As such , he was the 9th Division 's chief of staff , responsible for the full range of staff activities . On 28 June 1942 , Wells accompanied Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead — Commander of the 9th Division — to Cairo , where they received orders tasking the 9th Division with the defence of Cairo . The pair spent that night and the following day organising plans for the move , before Morshead received further orders on 30 June cancelling his previous instructions and directing the division instead be dispatched to Alexandria ; the move took place on 1 July . Two days later , it was decided that the 24th Infantry Brigade would be sent forward to reinforce the position at El Alamein . The brigade was lacking in equipment , and Wells spent that day arranging equipment for the unit as well as overseeing its preparation ; the brigade moved forward the next day . The divisional headquarters proceeded to El Alamein on 7 July , and was posted to the northern flank of the British front line . The unit then spent the remainder of the month in action against Axis forces in the area . For his " distinguished services " during this period , Wells was Mentioned in Despatches a second time .
On 23 October 1942 , the British and Commonwealth forces under Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery launched an offensive against Axis forces at El Alamein . The 9th Division took part in the battle , and was initially tasked with the seizure of a section of the Oxalic Line . Over the proceeding twelve days , the Australians heavily contributed to the assault , with Morshead and his staff coordinating the 9th Division 's operations ; success was claimed on 4 November . Praised for his " ability of high order " , Wells was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his efforts in training and preparing the division before the battle , in addition to his labours during the engagement . The notification for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 11 February 1943 .
In late November 1942 , the members of the 9th Division returned to Palestine . In January , the unit embarked from North Africa and sailed home to Australia in preparation for service against the Japanese in the South West Pacific .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Wells arrived back in Australia during February 1943 . On 15 March , Morshead was appointed to command II Corps , and Wells was transferred along with him to the unit 's headquarters as Brigadier , General Staff . He was promoted to temporary brigadier in April . During this time , the combat forces of the corps undertook training in both jungle and amphibious warfare in preparation for its planned deployment to New Guinea . Wells took an active hand in organising these exercises , before he moved with the corps headquarters to New Guinea during October .
The movement of II Corps coincided with the vicious fighting around the Huon Peninsula and Finisterre Range . Wells assisted in the planning and coordination of operations over the subsequent months , which culminated in the seizure of Madang during April 1944 . Wells was awarded his third Mention in Despatches during this time for his " exceptional services in the field " .
In April 1944 , II Corps was redesignated as I Corps and returned to Australia , where it established itself on the Atherton Tableland in Queensland . The following month , Wells proceeded to Land Command Headquarters in Sydney , where he attended a conference on staff appointments . He returned to the corps eleven days later . During this period , Wells was once again active in organising the unit 's training off the Queensland coast , before he was granted a period of leave during August ; he returned to duty on 26 September . On 19 July 1945 , Wells was upgraded to a Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his " exceptional ability and outstanding devotion to duty " in conjunction with the " valuable assistance " given throughout the New Guinea campaign to the General Officer Commanding New Guinea Force .
During March 1945 , Wells acted as one of the eight pallbearers for Major General George Alan Vasey at the latter 's funeral . Vasey had been killed in a plane crash just off the coast of Cairns , while en route to assume command of the 6th Division in New Guinea . That same month , it was decided that I Corps would lead an assault against the island of Borneo . As a consequence , headquarters of I Corps moved to Morotai , where it opened on 24 April . The initial Borneo landings took place on 1 May , with the Australian force in action at Tarakan . Over the proceeding engagements , Wells assisted in the organisation and implementation of the operations in Borneo . As the war drew to a close in September 1945 , Wells returned to Australia and was posted to Army Headquarters in Melbourne .
= = Senior command = =
In March 1946 , Wells was briefly posted as director of military operations at Army Headquarters , before being promoted to temporary major general and appointed Deputy Chief of the General Staff . The following year , he embarked for the United Kingdom where he attended the Imperial Defence College in London . During this time , Wells attended an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace , where he was presented with his Commander of the Order of the British Empire by King George VI . On his return to Australia in 1949 , Wells was made Commandant of the Royal Military College , Duntroon . He served in this position until February 1951 , when he was appointed General Officer Commanding Southern Command with the rank of temporary lieutenant general . In June of that year , Wells acted as one of the ten pallbearers to Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey at his state funeral in Melbourne .
Wells was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , British Commonwealth Forces Korea , in 1953 . Assuming the role on 11 February , he led the Commonwealth contingent for the next twenty @-@ one months as the Korean War was coming to an end . Like his predecessors in the position , Wells exercised administrative command only , and had no direct control over battlefield operations . Though its incumbents were considered to have performed well , the role garnered little credit for helping facilitate combat success but was a soft target for criticism when operations did not run smoothly . Wells had been sent to Korea with no instructions regarding the withdrawal of troops and — as armistice talks appeared on the verge of success — he was closely involved in liaison with the heads of Commonwealth governments regarding General Mark Clark 's requests for their commitment to retain forces in the theatre for some period following the end of hostilities .
Raised to substantive lieutenant general on 12 April 1954 , Wells was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Queen 's Birthday Honours that June . He was commended for his " exceptional meritorious service " in Korea , and awarded the United States ' Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander . Presented with the decoration by General John E. Hull on 19 October , Wells returned to Australia three days later . In December , he was made Chief of the General Staff ; the professional head of the Australian Army . Wells ' appointment coincided with the commitment of Australian forces to the Malayan Emergency , and as such he presided over the deployment of soldiers to the engagement as well as the formation of the first regular brigade group . He was upgraded to a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1956 New Years Honours .
On 23 March 1958 , Wells was appointed the first Chairman , Chiefs of Staff Committee ( COSC ) ; the professional head of the Australian Military . The position had previously existed as an extension to the responsibilities of the senior service chief — either the Chief of Naval Staff , Chief of the General Staff or Chief of the Air Staff — but Wells was the first to occupy the position as a separate post . The chairmanship of COSC was created as part of the Australian government 's response to a review of the Defence group of departments conducted by Lieutenant General Sir Leslie Morshead in 1957 , which recommended greater centralisation of the armed forces . Although the Chairman was the Government 's principal military advisor and reported directly to the Minister for Defence , Wells was not promoted and remained at the same rank as the heads of the Navy , Army and Air Force . He was also hampered by being given only a small staff . The role of the Chairman , COSC was not strengthened until 1965 , when Air Marshal Sir Frederick Scherger — who had been appointed to the position in 1961 — was promoted to air chief marshal so that he out @-@ ranked the service heads . Wells served in this capacity until his retirement from the Australian military on 22 March 1959 .
= = Retirement = =
In retirement , Wells was appointed as a director to several companies , including Broken Hill South Ltd , Metal Manufactures Ltd , Navcot Australia Pty Ltd and Sitmar Line ( Australia ) Pty Ltd . During April 1961 , Wells was appointed honorary colonel of the Royal Victoria Regiment . Described as " somewhat reserved and taciturn " during his life , Wells died at Yarrawonga , Victoria , on 20 October 1973 , and was survived by his wife and their two sons . His funeral service took place with full military honours at Toorak Presbyterian Church , after which he was cremated . In his will , Wells bequeathed a sizable proportion of his estate to Junior Legacy , Melbourne . Wells Road , a street in Duntroon , Australian Capital Territory , is named in his honour .
= C. D. Howe =
Clarence Decatur " C. D. " Howe , PC ( 15 January 1886 – 31 December 1960 ) was a powerful Canadian Cabinet minister , representing the Liberal Party . Howe served in the governments of Prime Ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent continuously from 1935 to 1957 . He is credited with transforming the Canadian economy from agriculture @-@ based to industrial . During the Second World War , his involvement in the war effort was so extensive that he was nicknamed the " Minister of Everything . "
Born in Massachusetts , Howe moved to Nova Scotia as a young adult to take up a professorship at Dalhousie University . After working for the Canadian government as an engineer , he began his own firm , and became a wealthy man . In 1935 , he was recruited as a Liberal candidate for the Canadian House of Commons by then Opposition leader Mackenzie King . The Liberals won the election in a landslide , and Howe won his seat . Mackenzie King appointed him to the Cabinet . There , he took major parts in many new enterprises , including the founding of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) and Trans @-@ Canada Air Lines ( today Air Canada ) . When World War II began in 1939 , Howe played a crucial role in Canada 's war effort , and recruited many corporate executives ( as " dollar @-@ a @-@ year @-@ men " ) to serve as executives in wartime enterprises .
Howe 's impatience with the necessity for parliamentary debate of his proposals won him few friends , and he was often accused of dictatorial conduct by the Opposition . As the Liberal government entered its third decade , it and Howe came to be seen as arrogant . The Government 's attempt to impose closure in the 1956 Pipeline Debate led to major controversy in the House of Commons . In the 1957 election , Howe 's actions and policies were made an issue by Opposition leader John Diefenbaker . Howe faced a serious challenge in his riding , but was expected to make speeches elsewhere as a major Liberal leader . Howe lost his seat in the election , and Diefenbaker became Prime Minister , ending almost 22 years of Liberal rule . Howe returned to the private sector , accepting a number of corporate directorships . The former minister died suddenly of a heart attack in December 1960 .
= = Early years and academic career = =
Howe was born and raised in Waltham , Massachusetts , in the United States . The Howes were well @-@ regarded in the local community , and William Howe , Clarence 's father , was involved in local politics . When not doing political work , William Howe was a carpenter and house builder . Clarence 's mother , the former Mary Emma Hastings , was a teacher and the daughter of a prosperous farmer on whose farm Clarence spent his childhood summers .
Clarence did well in school , and upon his graduation from Waltham High School in 1903 , he took the entrance examinations for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He passed , and after taking basic courses at the school , did advanced work in engineering . During the summers , he worked for J.B. Worcester & Co . , a firm which had constructed much of the Boston subway system . While at school , he became a favourite pupil of Professor George Swain ; after Howe graduated in 1907 , Swain offered Howe a job as his teaching assistant . Howe accepted , although the young engineer felt that he should leave the Boston area to begin his career . Soon afterwards , Howe was offered an opportunity to become an engineering professor at Dalhousie University in Halifax , Nova Scotia . A popular story about Howe was that Swain had Howe and fellow engineer James Barker toss a coin to see who would get the job . Barker denied the tale later in life , stating he had no interest in the position and no one who knew Howe would be foolish enough to gamble with him , as Howe had shown himself to be uncommonly lucky . In any event , Howe had no better prospects in sight ; unemployment among his classmates was high due to the Panic of 1907 .
At the time , Dalhousie was a small University , with only 400 students , and members of the teaching staff had a heavy workload . Howe , at age 23 , was little older than some of his students . He had little experience in the field , and on trips outside Halifax , he and his students would solve problems together . Howe 's view was that any problem could be solved through common sense and hard work . Howe took his students to the countryside , where they camped , surveying and planning imaginary railroads . His student Denis Stairs , who would go on to lead the Montreal Engineering Company , said of Howe that by the time the camp ended , his students had great respect for him . Student C. J. Mackenzie , who Howe would later appoint to the National Research Council presidency , stated that Howe was not a brilliant lecturer , but that his presentations were always extremely clear . Howe later said of university education , " The worker at college continues to work , and becomes a successful engineer . The shirker continues to shirk , and gets nowhere . " In addition to his own work , Howe found time for an active social life in Halifax , and considered marrying the sister of one of his students , but she had another husband in mind .
After Howe 's first year in Halifax , engineering instruction of upperclassmen was taken away from Dalhousie and other universities in the province , and placed in a separate technical institute in which Howe had no role . Howe later stated that he liked Dalhousie , and had this change not occurred , he might have remained there as a professor . In 1913 , however , a former colleague at Dalhousie , Robert Magill , who had recently been appointed chairman of the Board of Grain Commissioners , offered Howe the post of chief engineer , with responsibility for supervising the construction of grain elevators . Howe stated , " I 've never seen one of those things in my life , but I 'll take the job . " The same year , he applied to become a British subject , as Canadians then were .
= = Engineer and businessman = =
In mid @-@ 1913 , Howe journeyed to Northwestern Ontario to take up his new post . The Board was headquartered in Fort William , Ontario , where Canadian wheat was transferred from rail to ship . The Board sought to build a series of large terminal grain elevators , which could process as well as store grain . The project would increase both capacity and competition — grain elevator companies had been accused by farmers ' interests of charging excessive prices . The first such elevator for the Board was raised in nearby Port Arthur , Ontario , and was acclaimed as one of the best grain elevators ever built in Canada , and one of the cheapest . Over the next two years , Howe traveled the West , supervising the construction of terminal elevators near major cities and ports . The capacity would be needed , as Canadian farmers increased production during the First World War .
In late 1915 , Howe traveled back to Massachusetts to court Alice Worcester , daughter of the head of the company he had worked for in the summer at MIT . After some surprise at the attention from a man she barely knew , Worcester eventually accepted him , and the two were married in mid @-@ 1916 . The same year , he resigned from government service to go into business with partners as C. D. Howe and Company , whose major business was initially the construction of grain elevators . Both the company headquarters and the marital home were in Port Arthur . Howe 's first contract was to build a grain elevator in Port Arthur . In December 1916 , a massive storm destroyed the half @-@ built elevator , wiping out Howe 's assets . Had his bank not come to his assistance with additional funds , he would have been ruined . When Howe turned over the completed elevator to the owner , the Saskatchewan Grain Growers Association , he was asked how badly he had done on the contract , and stated , " I lost my shirt . " The Association voted him a bonus to make up his loss .
Over the next several years , Howe 's business expanded into engineering consulting and , much more profitably , general contracting . His firm came to dominate the construction of grain elevators in the West , as the Saskatchewan and Alberta wheat pools gave him much of their construction business . This made him unpopular among private wheat companies : his firm did not receive any contracts to build terminal elevators for private corporations in the 1920s , but exceeded the number built by all other contractors combined , thanks to business from those cooperatives . Howe 's elevators were built more quickly , were better designed , and were cheaper to construct than those of his competitors . He worked to add to their efficiency ; the Dominion @-@ Howe unloader he helped design emptied a grain car in eight minutes , needing only
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homes , 144 emplaced cannons , the restored gunboat USS Cairo ( sunk on December 12 , 1862 , on the Yazoo River ) , and the Grant 's Canal site , where the Union Army attempted to build a canal to let their ships bypass Confederate artillery fire .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Grant , Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant . 2 vols . Charles L. Webster & Company , 1885 – 86 . ISBN 0 @-@ 914427 @-@ 67 @-@ 9 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
Various resources from the University Libraries Division of Special Collections , The University of Alabama .
= Unusual You =
" Unusual You " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , from her sixth studio album Circus . It was written and produced by Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg from Bloodshy & Avant , with additional writing by Kasia Livingston and Henrik Jonback . " Unusual You " is an electropop love song reminiscent of the music of Janet Jackson and Gwen Stefani , with sung lyrics that address an experienced woman finding unexpected love . " Unusual You " received mostly positive reviews from critics , who commended it for being a departure of the rest of the album . Following the release of Circus , the song charted at number eighty on the U.S. Billboard Pop 100 due to strong digital sales .
= = Background = =
" Unusual You " was written and produced by Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg from Bloodshy & Avant , with additional writing by Kasia Livingston and Henrik Jonback . Main instrumentation was recorded by Bloodshy & Avant at Robotberget in Stockholm , Sweden . Spears recorded her vocals at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California , while audio mixing was done by Anders Hvenare and Bloodshy & Avant at Robotberget . Background vocals were provided by Livingston . " Unusual You " appeared on a six @-@ song mix of Circus that was released on November 13 , 2008 . In August 2009 , it was reported by NRJ Radio that " Unusual You " was going to be released as the fifth single from the album in France and the United States .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Unusual You " is a midtempo electropop song , that has been described by Nekesa Mumbi Moody of the Associated Press as " synth @-@ centric " . The song has been noted by John Murphy of musicOMH to be reminiscent of " Gwen Stefani 's quieter moments . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times commented that " Unusual You " " goes for that shimmering waterfall mood first popularized by Janet Jackson rather than strict Madonna @-@ style workouts . " According to Chris Richards of The Washington Post , Spears 's vocals in the song are transformed into " a spectral coo . " Lyrically , " Unusual You " talks about an experienced woman finding unexpected love , with Spears voicing the lines , " Didn 't anyone tell you you 're supposed to break my heart ? / I expect you to / So why haven 't you ? . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Unusual You " received positive reviews from critics . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times noted that the song stood out on Circus because it did not paint " Britney as mannequin , sex object , paparazzi victim and leather @-@ clad mistress " like the other tracks on the album . Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone deemed it as " melodic [ and ] glowing " . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly named " Unusual You " as a standout track from Circus and added , " Spears still presents herself as fantasy object , but here might be her own fantasy — of real acceptance . Next time , Britney , flash us more of that . " Chris Richards of The Washington Post selected it as one of the " gems " of the album , along with " Womanizer " . John Murphy of musicOMH said that the lyrics make Spears " sound extraordinarily world @-@ weary for a 27 year old " and added that it " gives a pointer to an interesting new direction . " Jim Farber of the Daily News called the song " perhaps the first truly pretty melody Spears has ever sung . " Brad Wheeler of The Globe and Mail said " Unusual You " was entertaining , but not as remarkable as other tracks on Circus and dismissed the song as merely a " strobe @-@ lit , heart @-@ shaped testimonial . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that " Unusual You " and the two other ballads in the album , were Circus 's " only attempts at warmth . "
Poppy Cosyns of The Sun criticized the backing track of " Unusual You " as leaving " it sounding like the discovered dregs of a would @-@ be late Nineties hit . " Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Unusual You " " a surprisingly subtle and effective moment " and speculated that it was " surely a future single . " Steve Jones of USA Today described " Unusual You " as " saccharin " , adding that " she sounds much better in the dance tracks . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star called it the album 's one " moment of pathos " . Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticized " Unusual You " as " shamelessly Madonna @-@ aping . " Nekesa Mumbi Moody of the Associated Press commented that Spears 's most personal and emotional moments of Circus are in the slower tracks , most notably in " Unusual You " . Moody continued , " Though she didn 't write the song , it 's hard not to wince in empathy when you think about the string of users who have filtered in and out of her life . " Pete Paphides of The Times said " Unusual You " would " find a home with anyone whose love of melancholy Europop is fatal enough to take in Limahl 's ' Never Ending Story . ' " In 2015 , Gregory Hicks of MTV named " Unusual You " Spears 's best song that was not released as a single .
Following the release of Circus in December 2008 , " Unusual You " managed to peak at number eighty on the US Billboard Pop 100 due to strong digital sales . In 2008 when Circus album came out , popstar Lady Gaga was asked about which songs she was listening and Unusual You was on her playlist , she said : " It is really a good song . I listened to the Circus on the plane , and when I came to this song , I stopped and listened to it again and again . It is so beautiful and so sad , and I love the way it has a mysterious quality . As if the music was put into a mirror from a funhouse . Go girl . Good pop . "
= = Credits and Personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals and background vocals
Christian Karlsson - songwriting
Bloodshy & Avant – songwriting , mixing , programming , keyboards , bass and guitar
Henrik Jonback – songwriting and guitar
Pontus Winnberg - songwriting
Kasia Livingston – songwriting and background vocals
Credits adapted from Circus liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= HMS Speedy ( 1782 ) =
HMS Speedy was a 14 @-@ gun Speedy @-@ class brig of the British Royal Navy . Built during the last years of the American War of Independence , she served with distinction during the French Revolutionary Wars .
Built at Dover , Kent , Speedy spent most of the interwar years serving off the British coast . Transferred to the Mediterranean after the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars , she spent the rest of her career there under a number of notable commanders , winning fame for herself in various engagements and often against heavy odds . Her first commander in the Mediterranean , Charles Cunningham , served with distinction with several squadrons , assisting in the capture of several war prizes , such as the French frigates Modeste and Impérieuse . His successor , George Cockburn , impressed his superiors with his dogged devotion to duty . Speedy 's next commander , George Eyre , had the misfortune to lose her to a superior French force on 9 June 1794 .
She was soon retaken , and re @-@ entered service under Hugh Downman , who captured a number of privateers between 1795 and 1799 and fought off an attack by the large French privateer Papillon on 3 February 1798 . His successor , Jahleel Brenton , fought a number of actions against Spanish forces off Gibraltar . Her last captain , Lord Cochrane , forced the surrender of a much larger Spanish warship , the Gamo . Speedy was finally captured by a powerful French squadron in 1801 and donated to the Papal Navy by Napoleon the following year . She spent five years with them under the name San Paulo , but was struck around 1806 .
= = Design and construction = =
Speedy was one of two brig @-@ sloops built to the same design by Thomas King of Dover , Kent . She and her sister ship HMS Flirt were constructed to provide small , fast escort vessels with hulls shaped like a cutter , rather than the more seaworthy but slower ship @-@ sloop . King had for some time specialised in these types of vessels , and the design capitalised on that experience . Speedy was so named to symbolise this new approach , and measured 207 21 ⁄ 94 tons bm with a total length of 78 feet 3 inches ( 23 @.@ 85 m ) . She was armed with fourteen four @-@ pounder and twelve half @-@ pounder swivel guns , and carried a complement of 90 men . Ordered on 23 March 1781 , she was laid down at King 's yard in June that year and launched on 29 June 1782 . She moved to Deptford , Kent , to be fitted @-@ out and have her hull covered with copper plates between 16 July and 25 October 1782 ; at her completion she had cost £ 4 @,@ 200 7s 3d to build .
= = Early career = =
Speedy was commissioned under Commander Josias Rogers in May 1783 and was assigned to serve in the North Sea , operating out of the Humber estuary . After four years on this station she was paid off ( placed in reserve ) in January 1787 and began a refit at Woolwich in April that year . This work was completed by July at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 801 , and she was recommissioned in May that year under Commander John Maude , still on the Humber station .
From November 1790 she was under Commander Richard Lane , who was her captain until she was paid off in October 1791 . Speedy then underwent another refit , this time at Deptford between June and December 1792 , at a cost of £ 3 @,@ 000 , and was recommissioned in November 1792 under Commander Charles Cunningham .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
Cunningham had previously been serving in the East Indies in command of the 16 @-@ gun sloop HMS Ariel . By the time he returned to take up his new command the French Revolutionary Wars had broken out and he was sent to join Lord Hood 's fleet in the Mediterranean , arriving there in April 1793 . He was largely employed in carrying despatches and maintaining communications with other ships scattered throughout the Mediterranean ports . On 5 October 1793 Speedy accompanied HMS Bedford and HMS Captain into Genoa , where they captured a French frigate , Modeste , and two armed tartanes in the Raid on Genoa . In this action , Speedy sent two boats to board the tartanes while Bedford bombarded Modeste . The French crews of the tartanes attempted to resist and two of their crewmembers were wounded , but the British did not suffer any casualties . Captain and Speedy then sailed to the Gulf of Spezia where they caught another French frigate , Imperieuse , at anchor . Imperieuse was scuttled by her crew , but was subsequently salvaged and recommissioned as HMS Imperieuse . Cunningham was promoted to captain and given command of the prize , with his commission backdated to the day of the capture , 12 October 1793 .
Cunningham was replaced by Commander George Cockburn in the command of Speedy , which remained in the Mediterranean . His first duties were limited to carrying despatches and passengers between Toulon and Genoa , after which he was ordered to join Captain Sutherland of HMS Diadem , who was commanding a squadron blockading Genoa . The small fleet was caught in winter storms and several ships were badly damaged , forcing Sutherland and his squadron to seek shelter in nearby ports and to make repairs , with the exception of Speedy , which remained on station . Sutherland put into Hyères Bay and reported the dispersal of his squadron to Lord Hood , also noting that nothing had been heard of Speedy since the gales . Once Diadem had been repaired Sutherland returned to Genoa , and was surprised to discover Speedy still there patrolling the port , not once having left her task . While single @-@ handedly maintaining the blockade , she had managed to capture several vessels . Sutherland ordered Speedy , which was by now running desperately short of water , to Hyères to refit . At the same time , Sutherland sent a complimentary report of Cockburn to Lord Hood . On 20 January 1794 , Cockburn was rewarded with an acting commission as post @-@ captain of the frigate HMS Inconstant , followed a month later by a permanent command of the frigate HMS Meleager .
Commander George Eyre took over command of Speedy in February 1794 . Speedy supported the siege and capture of Bastia , after which Eyre was ordered to join Diadem off Nice . While making his way there on 9 June , he ran into a French fleet under Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Martin , which had sailed from Toulon several days earlier . Eyre attempted to escape , but the wind and sea favoured the larger vessels , and Speedy was chased down and captured . Eyre was brought aboard Admiral Martin 's flagship and was told that the National Convention had recently ordered that no quarter should be given to the English or Hanoverians , and that had Martin 's ship been first alongside , he would have sunk Speedy . The sudden appearance of a British fleet curtailed the interview , and the French hurried back to Gourjean roadstead outside Toulon , taking Speedy and the captured British crew with them .
= = Recapture = =
Speedy spent only a brief time sailing under the French flag . On 25 March 1795 her captain mistook Captain Thomas Fremantle 's Inconstant for a French ship and she was recaptured and taken back into British service .
In early March the following year , Speedy , under the command of Thomas Elphinstone , joined a squadron cruising off Oneglia , Italy , under Commodore Horatio Nelson , consisting of the 64 @-@ gun ships HMS Agamemnon and HMS Diadem , the 32 @-@ gun frigates HMS Meleager and HMS Blanche and the ship @-@ sloop HMS Peterel . On 25 April the squadron steered for Laöna bay , the commodore having received intelligence that a large convoy , laden with stores for the French army , had anchored off the town of Finale . When the squadron arrived , however , they found only four vessels moored under the guns of some batteries . The shore batteries opened fire on Peterel as led the boats of the squadron to the attack . Despite the fire , the British were able to capture the four vessels and suffered only three men wounded .
In an action on 31 May the squadron chased the French ketch Genie , a gunboat of one gun , and five merchant ships , which took refuge near the guns of a shore battery . At 3 p.m. Agamemnon , Blanche , Peterel and Speedy approached them and anchored in 4 fathoms ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) of water . The four British ships fired their cannons , which disabled the shore battery , and then sent in several boats under heavy fire from the guns of Genie and the gunboat ; the British successfully boarded and captured both ships . In the meantime , the merchant ships had beached themselves to avoid capture . Under heavy musket fire from the beach , the British captured and re @-@ floated the four merchant vessels , and destroyed one . Among the British , one man was killed and three were wounded in the operation .
= = Downman and Brenton = =
Elphinstone was succeeded in August 1797 by Commander Hugh Downman , who made several cruises with Speedy . On 3 February 1798 she encountered the large privateer Papillon , mounting 18 guns and carrying 160 men , while sailing off Vigo . The Papillon attacked Speedy , which had a reduced crew ; her master Mr Marshall and 12 men were aboard a Spanish prize Speedy had taken earlier . The two ships fought each other for two days ; by the second day Downman had exhausted his supply of shot , and resorted to firing nails and pieces of iron hoop at his opponent . Having observed his captain 's predicament , Marshall secured the Spanish crew below deck and took the prize crew off in a small boat to go to Downman 's assistance . After a fierce fight the Papillon was driven off ; Speedy suffered losses of five killed and four wounded . Downman then recaptured his prize and returned to Lisbon to carry out repairs . During his time in command of Speedy , Downman captured five privateers , altogether mounting 17 guns and 28 swivels , and carrying 162 men . For his efforts in protecting British trade out of Oporto , the merchants presented him with a letter of thanks , and a piece of plate valued at £ 50 . As a reward for his good service , Downman was advanced to post @-@ captain on 26 December 1798 and appointed commander of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Santa Dorothea , a frigate that had recently been captured from the Spanish in the Action of 15 July 1798 .
Downman was succeeded in January of the following year by Commander Jahleel Brenton , who was based at Gibraltar . While sailing off Gibraltar in company with the British privateer Defender on 9 August 1799 , Brenton came across three small Spanish warships , mounting twenty 6 @-@ pounders in total . The Spanish ran into a small sandy bay and anchored in a line so as to bring their guns to bear simultaneously on the British ships . Speedy and Defender sailed up and down for two hours firing broadsides , but without much effect . Defender only had 22 men on board and decided to sail further out to sea to meet one of her boats . Brenton thought the effort of keeping under sail was aiding the enemy , and anchored Speedy within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of the middle ship . The two exchanged a fierce cannonade for three quarters of an hour , after which the Spanish abandoned their ships and made for the shore . Two of the ships ran ashore and the third was immediately captured . Speedy launched her boats to recover the other two , coming under musket fire from the Spanish on the hillside as they did so . The British got both vessels off and took them into Gibraltar , along with two men wounded during the operation .
On 3 October Speedy , while sailing once again off Gibraltar , spotted ten small ships coming out of Algeciras , gunboats apparently attempting to attack a British convoy that was then passing . Brenton identified the ships as merchantmen , attempting to evade the British at Gibraltar in the bad weather . On Speedy 's approach , they scattered , four sheltering under a fort . Speedy approached and fired on them , causing their crews to abandon their ships . They were driven ashore by the wind , and despite sending boats out , it was impossible to get them off , so they were left to be reduced to wrecks . Three days later , Speedy was standing off Europa Point when twelve gunboats were sighted coming out of Algeciras to attack two merchant ships making their way past Gibraltar . One , the Unity , was carrying wine and spirits for the fleet . Their combined firepower far outweighed that of Speedy , but Brenton turned his ship towards them , covering the escape of one of the merchantmen with his fire . The gunboats were attempting to catch the Unity when Brenton took his ship through the flotilla , close enough to break many of their oars , maintaining a constant fire from his guns and with every spare member of the crew firing muskets . The Spanish flotilla broke and fled . Speedy suffered two men killed and one wounded , and sustained considerable damage to her rigging and below her waterline . She was unable to return to Gibraltar in the rising wind , and was forced to run along the coast to Tétouan Bay , where her shot @-@ holes were plugged to allow her to make her way back . During the engagement with the gunboats , the guns in the fortress of Gibraltar had not fired in support of Speedy . When Brenton asked why , the Governor of Gibraltar , General Charles O 'Hara , replied that he had arranged with the Governor of Algeciras for the guns never to be fired at the gunboats so as not to annoy the inhabitants of the town .
= = Cochrane = =
Brenton was promoted to post @-@ captain , and in March 1800 Commander Lord Cochrane took over . Cochrane was less than impressed with his new command , declaring that Speedy was " little more than a burlesque of a vessel of war " . His cabin had only 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of headroom ; when Cochrane wished to shave he had to open a skylight and set his shaving equipment out on the quarterdeck . On another occasion he walked the quarterdeck with Speedy 's entire broadside , seven pieces of four @-@ pounder shot , in his pockets . In an attempt to increase the firepower of his new command he asked for and was given two 12 @-@ pounder long guns to use as bow and stern chasers , but the scantlings could not support them and they had to be removed . He then requested his 4 @-@ pounders be upgraded to 6 @-@ pounders , but his gunports were not big enough . He had better luck with his mast , taking a spar from HMS Genereux that was considered too large for Speedy , but which Cochrane felt improved her speed .
In early May Cochrane was escorting a convoy from Cagliari to Leghorn . On 11 May a ship which turned out to be the 6 @-@ gun privateer Intrépide was spotted capturing one of the merchant ships in the convoy , at which point Cochrane chased the Intrépide and forced her to surrender . Three days later , as the convoy passed the island of Montecristo , five rowing boats emerged from one of the island 's coves and captured two of the rearmost merchant ships . Cochrane immediately gave chase , and recaptured them early the next morning . He was then given a free hand to raid enemy shipping in the area , and captured seven or eight vessels that June and July , including the 10 @-@ gun privateer Asuncion off Bastia on 25 June and the privateer Constitution off Caprea on 19 July . On 22 September he captured a large Neapolitan vessel and , on bringing her into Port Mahon , discovered that the Spanish had taken notice of his depredations and were preparing a frigate to capture Speedy .
Cochrane prepared for an encounter with this Spanish vessel by painting Speedy to resemble a Danish brig then in the Mediterranean , the Clomer . He also appointed a Dane as quartermaster and found him a Danish naval officer 's uniform . While cruising off Alicante on 21 December , Speedy encountered an enemy frigate , but tricked her into thinking she was a neutral vessel . Cochrane again used this false flag technique to his advantage ; on 22 January he was sailing with a convoy of Danish merchantmen under a Danish flag , pretending to escort them . When a 10 @-@ gun French ship and 8 @-@ gun Spanish brig approached , Cochrane hoisted British colours and attacked , capturing both of them .
Then on 24 February Cochrane captured the French naval brig Caroline , of four guns , which had been carrying ordnance stores from Genoa to Alexandria .
= = = Speedy and Gamo = = =
Speedy was cruising off Barcelona at dawn on 6 May 1801 when she sighted a large enemy frigate . The frigate , a xebec @-@ rigged vessel named Gamo , carrying 319 men , was armed with 8- and 12 @-@ pounder guns and 24 @-@ pounder carronades . This amounted to a total broadside of 190 pounds , more than seven times that of Speedy . Furthermore , Cochrane had only 54 men on board ; the rest were serving as prize crews . Instead of evading the frigate , Cochrane closed on her , and at 9 : 30 a.m. Gamo fired a gun and hoisted Spanish colours . In return Cochrane hoisted American colours . The Spanish hesitated , allowing Cochrane to get closer , hoist British colours , and evade the first broadside . Gamo fired another , which Cochrane again evaded , holding fire until Speedy ran alongside and locked her yards in Gamo 's rigging . Gamo attempted to fire upon her smaller opponent , but her guns were mounted too high and could not be depressed sufficiently , causing their shot to pass through Speedy 's sails and rigging . Cochrane then opened fire with his 4 @-@ pounders double- and treble @-@ shotted , their shots passing up through the sides and decks , killing the Spanish captain and boatswain with the first broadside .
Seeing their disadvantage the Spanish second @-@ in @-@ command assembled a boarding party , at which Cochrane drew off and pounded their massed ranks with shot and musket fire before drawing in close again . After having their attempts to board frustrated three times , the Spanish returned to their guns . Cochrane then decided to board the Gamo , and assembled his entire crew into two parties , leaving only the ship 's doctor aboard . The British rushed the Gamo , some boarding from the bow with faces blackened to look like pirates , the rest boarding from the waist . There was a hard @-@ fought battle between the two crews , until Cochrane called down to the doctor , at the time the only person on Speedy , ordering him to send another 50 men over . At the same time he ordered the Spanish colours to be torn down . Thinking that their officers had surrendered the ship , the remaining Spanish seamen stopped fighting . The British had lost three men killed and nine wounded , while the Spanish had lost 14 killed and 41 wounded , a casualty list exceeding Speedy 's entire complement . The British then secured the Spanish prisoners below deck and made their way back to Port Mahon . Stung that he had been beaten by such an inferior foe , the Spanish second @-@ in @-@ command asked Cochrane for a certificate assuring him that he had done all he could to defend his ship . Cochrane obliged , with the equivocal wording that he had " conducted himself like a true Spaniard " . Cochrane was amused to learn that this certificate had later secured the Spanish officer further advancement . In 1847 the Admiralty awarded the Naval General Service Medal with clasp " Speedy 6 May 1801 " to all surviving claimants from the action .
= = = Later actions and capture = = =
Cochrane returned to the coast off Barcelona in June 1801 , and joined the 16 @-@ gun HMS Kangaroo in attacking a Spanish convoy of 12 merchant ships and 5 armed vessels anchored under the guns of a large tower . After a sharp action fought between the afternoon of 9 June and the morning of 10 June , the two ships sank or drove ashore all of the ships with the exception of three brigs , which they captured . Three weeks later he was cruising off Alicante when he encountered several merchant vessels , which ran ashore . Rather than wasting time trying to get them off , he burnt them , but in doing so attracted the attention of a foe vastly more powerful than the Gamo .
A formidable French squadron under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Léon Durand Linois had left Toulon bound for Cadiz to collect reinforcements for Napoleon 's army in Egypt . On 3 July they sighted and chased Speedy , and Cochrane ordered the guns , boats , and provisions thrown overboard to lighten the ship . The French caught up nonetheless , and after narrowly avoiding the broadside of Desaix , Cochrane struck his colours . He was taken aboard Desaix , where her captain , Christy @-@ Pallière , recognised Cochrane 's accomplishments by refusing to accept his sword . Cochrane was taken along with the fleet and watched the Battle of Algeciras Bay from Desaix . He and the crew of Speedy were later exchanged after the battle . On returning to Gibraltar he was court @-@ martialled for the loss of his ship , and honourably acquitted .
= = French and Papal career = =
The French took Speedy to Toulon with the fleet , where she became a pawn in Napoleon 's efforts at diplomacy with Pope Pius VII , whose presence he wanted at his coronation as emperor . Speedy , by now named Saint Paul and inscribed with the words " Donné par le premier consul Bonaparte au Pape Pie VII " ( " Given by the First Consul Bonaparte to Pope Pius VII " ) in gilt letters on her poop cabin , sailed with an escort from Toulon on 14 December 1802 bound for Civitavecchia as a present to the Pope . She arrived there on 16 December where the Papal Navy took her into service under the name San Paulo . She remained there until being struck c.1806.
= = HMS Sophie = =
Some of Speedy 's later exploits under Cochrane were used in the plot of the novel Master and Commander , part of Patrick O 'Brian 's Aubrey – Maturin series , though the ship described by O 'Brian matches only Speedy 's spar dimensions and armament , and is named HMS Sophie . Cochrane is replaced in the book by the fictional Jack Aubrey , who repeats many of Cochrane 's real @-@ life exploits including the defence of a convoy and the recapture of one of its merchants from a privateer , and the capture of a large Spanish frigate , based on the Gamo , but renamed Cacafuego for the novel .
= Senedd =
The Senedd ( Senate or Parliament ; Welsh pronunciation : [ ˈsɛnɛð ] ) , also known as the National Assembly building , houses the debating chamber and three committee rooms for the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff . The 5 @,@ 308 square metres ( 57 @,@ 100 sq ft ) Senedd building was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 1 March 2006 and the total cost was £ 69 @.@ 6 million , which included £ 49.7M in construction costs . The Senedd is part of the National Assembly estate that includes Tŷ Hywel and the Pierhead Building .
After two selection processes , the decision was taken that the debating chamber would be on a new site , called Site 1E , at Capital Waterside in Cardiff Bay . The Pritzker Prize @-@ winning architect Richard Rogers won an international architectural design competition , managed by RIBA Competitions , to design the building . It was designed to be sustainable with use of renewable technologies and be energy efficient . The building was awarded an " Excellent " certification by the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method ( BREEAM ) , the highest ever awarded in Wales , and was nominated for the 2006 Stirling Prize .
The Senedd was constructed in two phases , the first in 2001 and the second from August 2003 until it was handed over to the National Assembly in February 2006 . Between phases , the National Assembly changed contractors and the project 's management structure , but retained Rogers as the scheme architect . The building was nearly six times over budget and four years and 10 months late , compared to the original estimates of the project in 1997 . Total costs rose due to unforeseen security measures after the 11 September attacks , and because the National Assembly did not have an independent cost appraisal of the project until December 2000 , three years after the original estimate . Phase 2 costs rose by less than 6 % over budget , and that phase was six months late , due to information and communication technology ( ICT ) problems .
= = Architecture = =
The Senedd building is in the former Cardiff Docks , about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Cardiff Castle . Cardiff Docks had been the largest coal @-@ exporting port in the world , but by the 1980s with the decline of the south Wales coalfield , the area had gradually become derelict . By the 1990s the area was being transformed with the construction of the Cardiff Bay Barrage and had been renamed Cardiff Bay .
The building faces south west over Cardiff Bay , it has a glass façade around the entire building and is dominated by a steel roof and wood ceiling . It has three floors , the first and second floors are accessible to the public and the ground floor is a private area for officials . The building was designed to be as open and accessible as possible , the architects , the Richard Rogers Partnership ( RRP ) said " The building was not to be an insular , closed edifice . Rather it would be a transparent envelope , looking outwards to Cardiff Bay and beyond , making visible the inner workings of the Assembly and encouraging public participation in the democratic process . " The main area in the building is the debating chamber , called the Siambr , including a public viewing gallery . Other areas of the building are the Neuadd , which is the main reception area on the first floor and the Oriel on the second floor . The three committee rooms and the Cwrt are on the ground floor .
= = = Environmental features = = =
The design criteria required sustainability , including a design life of 100 years , the use of local Welsh materials , minimal energy consumption and waste , the use of renewable technologies and for it to be an exemplar in terms of sustainability .
In total , 36 % of all materials and labour costs were spent in Wales , with approximately 1 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 157 @,@ 500 stone ) of Welsh slate used . The environmental features of the building have allowed energy savings of between 30 % and 50 % compared to buildings without these features . The features include 27 pipes that were drilled 100m below ground , so that during cold spells , water is pumped through the pipes and heated to 14 ° C by geothermal energy . The hot water is then pumped back up to the slate floor to warm the building to a constant temperature . In warm spells , the same system helps to keep the building cool . A biomass boiler was installed to use wood chips from recycled waste wood to heat the building , and rainwater is collected from the roof to flush the toilets in the building .
= = = Interior and contents = = =
Y Siambr ( Chamber ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈʃambr / ] ) is a 610 m2 ( 6 @,@ 600 sq ft ) debating chamber , which holds all 60 Assembly Members ( AMs ) in a circular configuration under the cowl . The Siambr can be increased to accommodate 80 AMs in the future , by removing temporary walls . On the level above , is the public viewing gallery , which looks down on the debating chamber and is separated by security glass . The public gallery holds 128 people on two rows of seats . The AM 's desks and public gallery seating are made of Welsh oak in a circular configuration so that all AMs can see each other , which , it is claimed , makes debating less confrontational .
In front of the Presiding Officer 's desk is the 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) ceremonial mace . Melbourne goldsmith Fortunato Rocca was commissioned by the Parliament of New South Wales in 2002 to design it . The mace took 300 hours to craft and is made from gold , silver and brass . In 2006 , it was worth around £ 10 @,@ 500 ( A $ 25 @,@ 000 ) and was handed over to the National Assembly during the opening ceremony .
All committee meetings are held in three committee rooms . Each can accommodate 24 people although committee rooms 1 and 2 can both hold 34 when fully opened . Members of the public can access the committee room viewing galleries from the Neuadd , which holds 31 people .
Members of the public enter the building through Y Neuadd ( Hall ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈnəiað / ] ) . This first floor level houses the public reception and information area . The reception desk features a large slate and glass desk and a canopy . Stairs to the left of the desk lead to the Oriel on the second floor .
Yr Oriel ( Gallery from Old French : Oriol ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ɔrjɛl / ] ) is a public sitting and exhibition area with views down to y Siambr and committee rooms . The glass flooring , which surrounds a large funnel feature , enables visitors to look down into the Siambr two floors below . The Swan chairs selected for the Neuadd and Oriel areas were from Fritz Hansen , a Danish company , and originally designed by Arne Jacobsen in 1958 . Y Cwrt ( Courtyard ; Welsh pronunciation : [ / ˈkʊrt / ] ) is an area on the ground floor with a members ' tea room , a media briefing room , and access to the Siambr and committee rooms . It is accessible only to AMs , officials of the National Assembly and members of the press .
An undulating ceiling made of Canadian @-@ sourced Western Redcedar timber spans across the various sections of the building . It was manufactured and installed by BCL Timber Projects ( sub @-@ contracted by Taylor Woodrow ) .
= = = Artwork = = =
Four pieces of art were commissioned by the National Assembly to be both decorative and functional ; they cost £ 300 @,@ 000 in total . The Swansea based artist Alexander Beleschenko designed and created the circular and domed Heart of Wales for the centre of the Siambr . It is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , made out of blue and gold glass , and lit from beneath . Martin Richman designed and created 270 fabric @-@ covered acoustic absorption panels , which were dyed and painted . American sculptor Danny Lane designed and created the wind hedge , Assembly Field . It has five parallel rows of 32 glass plates and was designed to have the practical use of protecting the public from high winds coming off Cardiff Bay . Devon born sculptor Richard Harris created The Meeting Place on the Plinth , which is 45 tonnes of slate machine @-@ cut into 39 slate slabs ; the slate was from Cwt y Bugail Quarry in north Wales . It is an informal seating area south of the building . Harris said of the work , " I wanted to create a space that was to the side of the building , that related closely to the building but was very inviting for people to use – somewhere quieter that people could sit and spend some time . "
= = Background and construction = =
= = = First site selection process = = =
Under the Laws in Wales Act 1536 Wales was fully incorporated into England and administered as a single sovereign state ( the Kingdom of England ) and legal system ( English law ) . It was not until 1964 that a Cabinet post of the Secretary of State for Wales was created , which gave some powers to Wales . After the general election of 1997 , the Labour Government published a white paper in July 1997 , called A Voice for Wales ; in it , the UK Government proposed that , " ( the Welsh Assembly ) headquarters will be in Cardiff ... ( the ) setting up ( of ) the Assembly is likely to cost between £ 12M and £ 17M . Additional running costs should be between £ 15M and £ 20M a year . " On 18 September 1997 , Wales voted in favour of a National Assembly for Wales in the Welsh devolution referendum . The Government of Wales Act 1998 was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , and was granted Royal Assent on 31 July 1998 .
Before the referendum took place , the Welsh Office asked Symonds Facilities Management ( later known as Capita Symonds ) to investigate possible sites for a new Welsh Assembly . The study was carried out in June 1997 , and it considered 20 sites . By August 1997 , the Welsh Office and the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate ( now part of the Office of Government Commerce ) , produced a shortlist of five sites for selection ; the Cathays Park Building ( the existing Welsh Office buildings ) , the Coal Exchange in Cardiff Bay , a site next to County Hall in Cardiff Bay , the former Glamorgan County Hall , Cathays Park and Cardiff City Hall , Cathays Park , owned by Cardiff Council . In making their decision they considered the need for a space of 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) that would be ready to use by May 1999 . The building was to be of appropriate stature , location and quality , and provide good access for the disabled and good staff accommodation that would avoid disruption to existing staff .
From the five on the shortlist , two sites were considered , the Cathays Park Building and Cardiff City Hall . Cardiff City Hall was favoured because the executive and legislative functions would be separated , Cardiff City Hall was more widely recognised by the Welsh public and was a more prestigious building compared with the Cathays Park Building . The move to Cardiff City Hall would have also avoided a disruptive move for Welsh Office staff at the Cathays Park Building . The Welsh Office concluded that Cardiff City Hall would only remain an option if the initial costs were £ 17M or less , which was the top end of the estimate figure given in the white paper . This would only be possible if essential works were carried out immediately and the remainder of the work carried out later . Cardiff Council would need to agree a selling price of £ 5M or less for this to be possible .
Discussions took place between the leader of Cardiff Council , Russell Goodway , and the Secretary of State for Wales , Ron Davies , Member of Parliament ( MP ) . The two disagreed on the valuation of the site , Davies offered what was believed to be the market price of GB £ 3.5M , Goodway demanded £ 14M for the relocation of Council staff . In October 1997 , both the Welsh Office and Cardiff Council agreed to the District Valuer providing an independent assessment of the market value of Cardiff City Hall and the cost of staff relocating to an equivalent standard of accommodation . The District Valuer advised that the open market value of Cardiff City Hall was £ 3.5M. There was not enough information available for the District Valuer to make a decision . A bid of £ 2.5M was made by the Welsh Office on 14 November 1997 , which was rejected on 21 November 1997 . A final offer of £ 3.5M was made on 24 November and this too was rejected by Cardiff County Council . Davies later announced his decision not to go ahead with the Cardiff City Hall site for the National Assembly .
= = = Second site selection process = = =
In December 1997 , the Welsh Office invited proposals from Wales for the National Assembly building . 24 proposals were received , 14 came from the private sector and government @-@ owned corporations including HTV Group , Grosvenor Waterside ( owned by Associated British Ports ) , Tarmac Developments , Cardiff Bay Development Corporation and Cardiff Airport . Nine local authorities in Wales made proposals including the Guildhall proposed by Swansea Council , Cardiff City Hall by Cardiff Council , Margam Castle by Neath Port Talbot Council , Cyfarthfa Castle by Merthyr Tydfil Council , proposals also came from Wrexham Council , Flintshire County Council who proposed two sites at Ewloe and Mold , Rhondda Cynon Taf Council , Powys County Council and five sites from Bridgend Council The Grosvenor Waterside proposal , known as Capital Waterside , included the Pierhead Building , Crickhowell House and Site 1E , which would become the site of the new debating chamber .
All the proposals were reviewed by the Welsh Office , who rejected sites due to poor location , accommodation or cost . A shortlist of ten sites were further reviewed , they were ; Capital Waterside ( now known as Cardiff Waterside ) , Cardiff City Hall , a site next to County Hall , Bute Square ( now known as Callaghan Square ) , Prospect Place , Cardiff Gate Business Park , Kingsway and the Coal Exchange all in Cardiff , with the HTV site at Culverhouse Cross , and the Guildhall in Swansea .
Davies announced on 13 March 1998 that the new National Assembly building would be in Cardiff . He said that the Cardiff proposals were " too compelling to resist " , because " in making this decision , I am mindful that Wales has invested 40 years in promoting Cardiff as our capital city . " The National Assembly building would be either in Bute Square or Capital Waterside . The Welsh Office decided that the Capital Waterside proposal carried less risk and would cost less than the Bute Square proposal . Capital Waterside would cost £ 43.9M , while Bute Square would cost £ 52.5M. On 28 April 1998 , Davies announced that the site of the National Assembly building would be Capital Waterside . The site was acquired by the National Assembly from Grosvenor Waterside Investments Ltd , which was owned by Associated British Ports . The agreement covered extending the lease of Crickhowell House , later known as Tŷ Hywel , until 2023 , renting the Pierhead Building for 15 years and purchasing Site 1E for £ 1 , which would be where the Senedd was built .
= = = Design selection process = = =
Before deciding on Capital Waterside as the site of the National Assembly , Davies announced on 13 March 1998 , that an international competition would be held to select the design of the building for the debating chamber . Royal Institute of British Architects ( RIBA ) Competitions would oversee the competition and a design panel would recommend a design to the Secretary of State for Wales . The Design Competition Advisory Panel was made up of seven members and was chaired by Lord Callaghan of Cardiff , the former MP for Cardiff South and Penarth and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . The chair and four members were appointed by Davies and the remaining two members were appointed by the RIBA . The competition was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Communities on 13 June 1998 .
Davies wanted a building " to capture the imagination of the Welsh people . " The criteria of the competition was that the building should have a functional specification and a price tag of no more than £ 12M including fees . In total , 55 architects had shown interest in the project , nine came from Wales , 38 coming from the rest of the UK and the remaining eight from the rest of the world . The Design Competition Advisory Panel selected 12 architects for interview in August 1998 , from those a shortlist of six architects were chosen to submit concept designs , they were : Benson & Forsyth , Eric Parry Associates , Niels Torp and Stride Treglown Davies , Richard Rogers Partnership ( now known as Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners ) , Itsuko Hasegawa Atelier and Kajima Design Europe , and MacCormac Jamieson Prichard .
Each architect submitted designs by 5 October 1998 , 10 days later the Design Competition Advisory Panel met and unanimously recommended that the Richard Rogers Partnership ( RRP ) design should be selected . Davies announced RRP as the scheme architects on 16 October 1998 . Richard Rogers said " The idea was that steps rise out of the water and there is a whole public domain where people meet each other and look down on the Assembly Members . " Richard Rogers had previously designed the Lloyd 's building in London and the Pompidou Centre in Paris with Renzo Piano . 11 days later , Davies resigned as Secretary of State for Wales .
It was planned that the outline design would be completed by June 1999 , and have a detailed design completed by February 2000 . Construction of the building was due to begin in November 2000 and be completed in April 2001 . On 1 July 1999 , The National Assembly for Wales ( Transfer of Functions ) Order 1999 came into effect , this transferred all powers from the Secretary of State for Wales to the National Assembly for Wales , responsibility for the construction of the debating chamber transferred at the same time . Cardiff Council granted planning permission for the building on 8 November 1999 and by 26 January 2000 the National Assembly voted in favour of progressing the project onto the next stage .
= = = First phase of construction = = =
Rhodri Morgan , Assembly Member ( AM ) replaced Alun Michael AM , to become the First Secretary ( now known as the First Minister ) of the National Assembly on 15 February 2000 . On 22 March , Morgan stopped all work on the project to carry out a complete review . The decision to stop the project was supported by a vote in the National Assembly on 6 April 2000 . The review included the costs and construction risks of the new building , the timetable for the completion of the project and consideration of possible alternatives to the new building .
The review was carried out by the Assembly 's Management Services Division , the Property Advisors to the Civil Estate and Symonds Group Ltd . They considered the following options , cancel the project , continue with the existing design , design a building on Site 1E , improve the existing debating chamber , construct a small one in the courtyard of Crickhowell House , and relocate to Cardiff City Hall . On 21 June 2000 it was agreed that the original proposal using the RRP design should proceed .
An international competition was held to select the main contractor . It was advertised in the Official Journal of the European Community , and in December 2000 Skanska Ltd was selected as the main contractor . Edwina Hart AM , the Minister for Finance , Local Government and Communities , approved the final project design on 18 January 2001 and by 1 March 2001 , the groundbreaking ceremony took place to mark the beginning of construction .
Six months after construction had begun and with only the piling and a temporary road around the site having been completed , Hart announced on 17 July 2001 that the National Assembly had terminated the contract of RRP . She said that despite the termination of the contract , the debating chamber should still be built to RRP 's design . RRP said of the project that " From the outset , RRP has advised that the project could not be built within a construction budget of £ 13.1M due to client changes , the political requirement to use indigenous materials at any cost and exceptional contractor changes . RRP 's advice was consistently ignored . It is plainly untrue for the Finance Minister to assert that RRP underestimated the costs . " Hart said she stopped the project because of the " significant underestimates in the cost plan prepared by RRP " , and that RRP " had hidden costs from the Assembly " .
A legal dispute then arose between RRP claiming £ 529 @,@ 000 in fees , and the National Assembly claiming £ 6.85M in damages . On 10 December 2001 RRP requested an appointment of an adjudicator from the Construction Industry Council to resolve the issue . The adjudication took place in February 2002 , and ruled that RRP was entitled to £ 448 @,@ 000 of its claim , while the National Assembly was not entitled to any of the damages they had claimed .
= = = Second phase of construction = = =
In August 2001 , the National Assembly appointed Francis Graves Ltd as the project managers , to review the whole project up until the termination of the RRP contract and to propose how the project should progress in the future . They reported that the " lines of accountability were complex and insufficiently clear " , that no project costs were obtained by the National Assembly , independent of RRP , until December 2000 , and that the project " was highly susceptible to cost over runs " . The report recommended that the National Assembly appoint project managers , which they did when they appointed Schal International Management Ltd ( part of Carillion ) in May 2002 . Northcroft Group Ltd were appointed as a subcontractor , responsible for cost management and they reported directly to Schal . Schal had full responsibility to manage the main contractor and subcontractors . Schal reported to a Project Board , who reported to the Minister for Finance , Local Government and Communities . The Project Board was made up of National Assembly and Welsh Government officials and a representative from Schal .
The Welsh Government decided that a design and build fixed @-@ price contract would be used for the second phase of construction , while phase one of construction made time the important factor over cost certainty . The overall aim was to " deliver a landmark building … to time , to an appropriate quality and within budget " . On 23 October 2002 an invitation to tender was issued through the Official Journal of the European Community . Eight companies submitted an interest in the tender process , including Taylor Woodrow , David McLean , Laing and Skanska , of these only David McLean and the Taylor Woodrow Strategic Alliance Partnership with RRP as a subcontractor ,
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, having benefited from anthropogenic changes to the landscape . Subsequent to the findings and publication of the report , these three species were declared unprotected by a Governor in Council Order under certain conditions and are allowed to be destroyed where serious damage is being caused by them to trees , vineyards , orchards , recreational reserves and commercial crops . Damage covered by the report included not only that to cereal crops , fruit and nut orchards and some kinds of vegetable crops but also to houses and communications equipment . The little corella is a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia , where it is an aviculturally introduced species . The birds damage sorghum , maize , sunflower , chickpeas and other crops . They also defoliate amenity trees in parks and gardens , dig for edible roots and corms on sports grounds and race tracks , as well as chew wiring and household fittings . In South Australia , where flocks can number several thousand birds and the species is listed as unprotected , they are accused of defoliating red gums and other native or ornamental trees used for roosting , damaging tarpaulins on grain bunkers , wiring and flashing on buildings , taking grain from newly seeded paddocks and creating a noise nuisance .
Several rare species and subspecies , too , have been recorded as causing problems . The Carnaby 's black cockatoo , a threatened Western Australian endemic , has been considered a pest in pine plantations where the birds chew off the leading shoots of growing pine trees , resulting in bent trunks and reduced timber value . They are also known to damage nut and fruit crops , and have learnt to exploit canola crops . The Baudin 's black cockatoo , also endemic to the south @-@ west of Western Australia , can be a pest in apple and pear orchards where it destroys the fruit to extract the seeds . Muir 's corella , the nominate subspecies of the western corella , is also a declared pest of agriculture in Western Australia , as well as being nationally vulnerable and listed under state legislation as being " rare or likely to become extinct " .
= = = Status and conservation = = =
According to the IUCN and BirdLife International , seven species of cockatoo are considered to be vulnerable or worse and one is considered to be near threatened . Of these , two species — the red @-@ vented cockatoo and the yellow @-@ crested cockatoo — are considered to be critically endangered .
The principal threats to cockatoos are habitat loss and the wildlife trade . All cockatoos are dependent on trees for nesting and are vulnerable to their loss ; in addition many species have specialised habitat requirements or live on small islands and have naturally small ranges , making them vulnerable to the loss of these habitats . Cockatoos are popular as pets and the capture and trade has threatened some species ; between 1983 and 1990 , 66 @,@ 654 recorded salmon @-@ crested cockatoos were exported from Indonesia , a figure that does not include the number of birds caught for the domestic trade or that were exported illegally . The capture of many species has subsequently been banned but the trade continues illegally . Birds are put in crates or bamboo tubing and conveyed on boats out of Indonesia and the Philippines . Not only are the rare species smuggled out of Indonesia but also common and rare cockatoos alike are smuggled out of Australia ; birds are sedated , covered in nylon stockings and packed into PVC tubing which is then placed in unaccompanied luggage on international flights . Mortality is significant ( 30 % ) and eggs , more easily hidden on the bodies of smugglers on flights , are increasingly smuggled instead . Trafficking is thought to be run by organised gangs , who also trade Australian species for overseas species such as macaws coming the other way .
All species of cockatoo except the cockatiel are protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , which restricts import and export of wild @-@ caught parrots to special licensed purposes . Five cockatoo species ( including all subspecies ) — the Tanimbar corella ( Cacatua goffiniana ) , red @-@ vented cockatoo ( Cacatua haematuropygia ) , Moluccan cockatoo ( Cacatua moluccensis ) , yellow @-@ crested cockatoo ( Cacatua sulphurea ) and palm cockatoo ( Probosciger aterrimus ) — are protected on the CITES Appendix I list . With the exception of the cockatiel , all remaining cockatoo species are protected on the CITES Appendix II list .
= = = Aviculture = = =
Kept for their appearance , their intelligence and engaging personalities , cockatoos can nonetheless be problematic pets or companion parrots . Generally , they are not good at mimicking human speech , although the little corella is a renowned talker . As social animals , wild cockatoos have been known to learn human speech from ex @-@ captive birds that have integrated into a flock . Their care is best provided by those experienced in keeping parrots . Cockatoos are social animals and their social needs are difficult to cater for , and they can suffer if kept in a cage on their own for long periods of time .
The cockatiel is by far the cockatoo species most frequently kept in captivity . Among U.S. bird keepers that participated in a survey by APPMA in 2003 / 04 , 39 % had cockatiels , as opposed to only 3 % that had ( other ) cockatoo species . The white cockatoos are more often encountered in aviculture than the black cockatoos . Black cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos due to export restrictions on Australian wildlife but birds seized by governments have been loaned .
Cockatoos are often very affectionate with their owner and at times other people but can demand a great deal of attention . Furthermore , their intense curiosity means they must be given a steady supply of objects to tinker with , chew , dismantle and destroy . Parrots in captivity may suffer from boredom , which can lead to stereotypic behaviour patterns , such as feather @-@ plucking . Feather plucking is likely to stem from psychological rather than physical causes . Other major drawbacks include their painful bites , and their piercing screeches . The salmon @-@ crested and white cockatoo species are particular offenders . All cockatoos have a fine powder on their feathers , which may induce allergies in certain people . In general , the smaller cockatoo species such as Goffin 's and quieter Galah 's cockatoos are much easier to keep as pets . The cockatiel is one of the most popular and easiest parrots to keep as a pet , and many colour mutations are available in aviculture .
The larger cockatoos can live 30 – 70 years depending on the species or occasionally longer and cockatiels can live for about 20 years . As pets they require a long @-@ term commitment from their owners . Their longevity is considered a positive trait as it reduces instances of the loss of a pet . The oldest cockatoo in captivity is a Major Mitchell 's cockatoo named ' Cookie ' , residing at Brookfield Zoo in Chicago , which celebrated its 82nd birthday in June 2015 . A salmon @-@ crested cockatoo named ' King Tut ' who resided at San Diego Zoo was nearly 69 when he died in 1990 and a palm cockatoo reached 56 in London Zoo in 2000 . However , anecdotal reports describe birds of much greater ages . ' Cocky Bennett ' of Tom Ugly 's Point in Sydney was a celebrated sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo who was reported to have reached an age of 100 years or more . He had lost his feathers and was naked for much of his life . A palm cockatoo was reported to have reached 80 or 90 years of age in an Australian zoo , and a little corella that was removed from a nest in central Australia in 1904 was reported still alive in the late 1970s . In February 2010 , a white cockatoo named ' Arthur ' was claimed to be 90 years old ; he had lived with a family for generations in Dalaguete , Cebu , before being taken to Cebu City Zoo .
Trained cockatoos are sometimes seen in bird shows in zoos . They are generally less motivated by food than other birds ; some may more respond to petting or praise than food . Cockatoos can often be taught to wear a parrot harness , enabling their owners to take them outdoors . Cockatoos have been used in animal @-@ assisted therapy , generally in nursing homes .
Cockatoos often have pronounced responses to musical sounds and numerous videos exist showing the birds dancing to popular music . Research conducted in 2008 with an Eleonora cockatoo named Snowball had indicated that this particular individual is indeed capable of beat induction — perceiving human @-@ created music and synchronizing his body movements to the beat .
= = = Culture = = =
An early European depiction of a cockatoo is present in the 1496 painting by Andrea Mantegna titled Madonna della Vittoria . Later examples were painted by Hungarian artist Jakob Bogdani ( 1660 – 1724 ) , who resided in Amsterdam from 1683 and then England , and appeared with numerous other birds in the bird pieces of the Dutch painter Melchior d 'Hondecoeter ( 1636 – 1695 ) . A cockatoo is the unlucky subject in An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump by English artist Joseph Wright of Derby , its fate unclear in the painting . Cockatoos were among the many Australian plants and animals which featured in decorative motifs in Federation architecture of the early 20th century . A visit to a Camden Town pet shop in 1958 inspired English painter William Roberts to paint The Cockatoos , in the collection of the Tate Gallery . American artist and sculptor Joseph Cornell was known for placing cutout paper cockatoos in his works .
The ACT Government adopted the gang @-@ gang cockatoo as its official faunal emblem on 27 February 1997 . The short @-@ lived budget airline Impulse Airlines featured a sulphur @-@ crested cockatoo on its corporate livery ( and aeroplanes ) . The palm cockatoo , which has a unique beak and face colouration , is used as a symbol by the World Parrot Trust .
Two 1970s police dramas featured protagonists with pet cockatoos . In the 1973 film Serpico , Al Pacino 's character had a pet white cockatoo and the television show Baretta saw Robert Blake 's character with Fred the Triton cockatoo . The popularity of the latter show saw a corresponding rise in popularity of cockatoos as pets in the late 1970s . Cockatoos have been used frequently in advertising ; a cockatoo appeared in a ' cheeky ' ( and later toned down ) 2008 advertising campaign for Cockatoo Ridge Wineries .
= = = Intelligence = = =
A team of scientists from Oxford University , the University of Vienna and the Max Planck Institute conducted tests on ten untrained Tanimbar corellas ( Cacatua goffini ) , and found that they were able to solve complex mechanical puzzles .
= Duke University =
Duke University is a private research university located in Durham , North Carolina , United States . Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the present @-@ day town of Trinity in 1838 , the school moved to Durham in 1892 . In 1924 , tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established the Duke Endowment , at which time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father , Washington Duke .
The university 's campus spans over 8 @,@ 600 acres ( 3 @,@ 500 hectares ) on three contiguous campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort . Duke 's main campus — designed largely by architect Julian Abele — incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 @-@ meter ) Duke Chapel at the campus ' center and highest point of elevation . The first @-@ year @-@ populated East Campus contains Georgian @-@ style architecture , while the main Gothic @-@ style West Campus 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ) away is adjacent to the Medical Center . Duke is the 7th wealthiest private university in America with $ 11 @.@ 4 billion in cash and investments in fiscal year 2014 .
Duke 's research expenditures in the 2014 fiscal year were $ 1 @.@ 037 billion , the seventh largest in the nation . In 2014 , Thomson Reuters named 32 Duke professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers , making it fourth globally in terms of primary affiliations . Duke also ranks 5th among national universities to have produced Rhodes , Marshall , Truman , Goldwater , and Udall Scholars . Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university . Duke 's sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championships , the most recent in 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Duke started in 1838 as Brown 's Schoolhouse , a private subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present @-@ day town of Trinity . Organized by the Union Institute Society , a group of Methodists and Quakers , Brown 's Schoolhouse became the Union Institute Academy in 1841 when North Carolina issued a charter . The academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church . In 1892 , Trinity College moved to Durham , largely due to generosity from Julian S. Carr and Washington Duke , powerful and respected Methodists who had grown wealthy through the tobacco and electrical industries . Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus , which is now known as East Campus . At the same time , Washington Duke gave the school $ 85 @,@ 000 for an initial endowment and construction costs — later augmenting his generosity with three separate $ 100 @,@ 000 contributions in 1896 , 1899 , and 1900 — with the stipulation that the college " open its doors to women , placing them on an equal footing with men . "
In 1924 Washington Duke 's son , James B. Duke , established The Duke Endowment with a $ 40 million trust fund . Income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals , orphanages , the Methodist Church , and four colleges ( including Trinity College ) . William Preston Few , the president of Trinity at the time , insisted that the institution be renamed Duke University to honor the family 's generosity and to distinguish it from the myriad other colleges and universities carrying the " Trinity " name . At first , James B. Duke thought the name change would come off as self @-@ serving , but eventually he accepted Few 's proposal as a memorial to his father . Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly . Duke 's original campus , East Campus , was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian @-@ style buildings . By 1930 , the majority of the Collegiate Gothic @-@ style buildings on the campus one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west were completed , and construction on West Campus culminated with the completion of Duke Chapel in 1935 .
In 1878 , Trinity ( in Randolph County ) awarded A.B. degrees to three sisters — Mary , Persis , and Theresa Giles — who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men . With the relocation of the college in 1892 , the Board of Trustees voted to again allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students . At the time of Washington Duke 's donation in 1896 , which carried the requirement that women be placed " on an equal footing with men " at the college , four women were enrolled ; three of the four were faculty members ' children . In 1903 Washington Duke wrote to the Board of Trustees withdrawing the provision , noting that it had been the only limitation he had ever put on a donation to the college . A woman 's residential dormitory was built in 1897 and named the Mary Duke Building , after Washington Duke 's daughter . By 1904 , fifty @-@ four women were enrolled in the college . In 1930 , the Woman 's College was established as a coordinate to the men 's undergraduate college , which had been established and named Trinity College in 1924 .
= = = Expansion and growth = = =
Engineering , which had been taught since 1903 , became a separate school in 1939 . In athletics , Duke hosted and competed in the only Rose Bowl ever played outside California in Wallace Wade Stadium in 1942 . During World War II , Duke was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission . In 1963 the Board of Trustees officially desegregated the undergraduate college . Increased activism on campus during the 1960s prompted Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. to speak at the University in November 1964 on the progress of the civil rights movement . Following Douglas Knight 's resignation from the office of university president , Terry Sanford , the former governor of North Carolina , was elected president of the university in 1969 , propelling the Fuqua School of Business 's opening , the William R. Perkins library completion , and the founding of the Institute of Policy Sciences and Public Affairs ( now the Sanford School of Public Policy ) . The separate Woman 's College merged back with Trinity as the liberal arts college for both men and women in 1972 . Beginning in the 1970s , Duke administrators began a long @-@ term effort to strengthen Duke 's reputation both nationally and internationally . Interdisciplinary work was emphasized , as was recruiting minority faculty and students . During this time it also became the birthplace of the first Physician Assistant degree program in the United States . Duke University Hospital was finished in 1980 and the student union building was fully constructed two years later . In 1986 the men 's soccer team captured Duke 's first National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) championship , and the men 's basketball team followed shortly thereafter with championships in 1991 and 1992 , then again in 2001 , 2010 , and 2015 .
The university 's campus spans 8 @,@ 547 acres ( 34 @.@ 59 km2 ) on three contiguous campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort . Duke 's main campus — designed largely by African American architect Julian Abele — incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210 @-@ foot ( 64 m ) Duke Chapel at the campus ' center and highest point of elevation . The forest environs surrounding parts of the campus belie the University 's proximity to downtown Durham . Construction projects have updated both the freshmen @-@ populated Georgian @-@ style East Campus and the main Gothic @-@ style West Campus , as well as the adjacent Medical Center over the past five years .
= = = Recent history = = =
Duke 's growth and academic focus have contributed to continuing the university 's reputation as an academic and research powerhouse .
In summer 2014 , Duke Kunshan University ( DKU ) opened in Kunshan , China . DKU blends liberal education with Chinese tradition in a new approach to elite higher education in China . The DKU will conduct research projects on climate change , health @-@ care policy and tuberculosis prevention and control .
In August 2005 , Duke established a partnership with the National University of Singapore to develop a joint medical program , which had its first entering class in 2007 .
The university is part way through Duke Forward , a seven @-@ year fundraising campaign that aims to raise $ 3 @.@ 25 billion by June 30 , 2017 , to enrich the student experience in and out of the classroom , invest in faculty and support research and initiatives . Every dollar donated to Duke 's ten schools and units , Duke Medicine or university programs and initiatives counts toward the campaign 's goal .
Among academic achievements at Duke , three students were named Rhodes Scholars in both 2002 and 2006 , a number surpassed only by Harvard in 2002 and the United States Military Academy in 2006 . Overall , Duke has produced 45 Rhodes Scholars through 2015 , including 24 between 1990 and 2015 .
Also , the first working demonstration of an invisibility cloak was unveiled by Duke researchers in October 2006 . In 2006 , three men 's lacrosse team members were falsely accused of rape , which garnered significant media attention . On April 11 , 2007 , North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper dropped all charges and declared the three players innocent . Cooper stated that the charged players were victims of a " tragic rush to accuse . "
The university has " historical , formal , on @-@ going , and symbolic ties " with the United Methodist Church , but is a nonsectarian and independent institution .
= = Campus = =
Duke University owns 254 buildings on 8 @,@ 547 acres ( 34 @.@ 59 km2 ) of land , which includes the 7 @,@ 044 acres ( 28 @.@ 51 km2 ) Duke Forest . The campus is divided into four main areas : West , East , and Central campuses and the Medical Center , which are all connected via a free bus service . On the Atlantic coast in Beaufort , Duke owns 15 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) as part of its marine lab . One of the major public attractions on the main campus is the 54 @-@ acre ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) Sarah P. Duke Gardens , established in the 1930s .
Duke students often refer to the campus as " the Gothic Wonderland , " a nickname referring to the Collegiate Gothic architecture of West Campus . Much of the campus was designed by Julian Abele , one of the first prominent African @-@ American architects and the chief designer in the offices of architect Horace Trumbauer . The residential quadrangles are of an early and somewhat unadorned design , while the buildings in the academic quadrangles show influences of the more elaborate late French and Italian styles . The freshmen campus ( East Campus ) is composed of buildings in the Georgian architecture style . In 2011 , Travel + Leisure listed Duke among the most beautiful college campuses in the United States .
The stone used for West Campus has seven primary colors and seventeen shades of color . The university supervisor of planning and construction wrote that the stone has " an older , more attractive antique effect " and a " warmer and softer coloring than the Princeton stone " that gave the university an " artistic look . " James B. Duke initially suggested the use of stone from a quarry in Princeton , New Jersey , but later amended the plans to purchase a local quarry in Hillsborough to reduce costs . Duke Chapel stands at the center of West Campus on the highest ridge . Constructed from 1930 to 1935 , the chapel seats 1 @,@ 600 people and , at 210 feet ( 64 m ) is one of the tallest buildings in Durham County .
A number of construction projects were in progress during 2015 , including renovations to Duke Chapel , Wallace Wade Stadium ( football ) and Cameron Indoor Stadium ( basketball ) .
In early 2014 , the Nicholas School of the Environment opened a new home , Environmental Hall , a five @-@ story , glass @-@ and @-@ concrete building that incorporates the highest sustainable features and technologies , and meets or exceeds the criteria for LEED platinum certification . The School of Nursing in April 2014 opened a new 45 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot addition to the Christine Siegler Pearson Building . In summer 2014 , a number of construction projects were completed or else in full swing , including renovations to the David M. Rubenstein David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library , housed in Duke 's original West Campus library building . The project is part of the final phase of renovations to Duke 's West Campus libraries that will transform one of the university 's oldest and most recognizable buildings into a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research facility . Renovation work began in late 2012 ; opening is scheduled for 2015 .
In 2013 construction projects included transforming buildings like Gross Hall and Baldwin Auditorium , plus new construction such as the Events Pavilion . About 125 @,@ 000 square feet was updated at Gross Hall , including new lighting and windows and a skylight . Baldwin 's upgrades include a larger stage , more efficient air conditioning for performers and audience and enhanced acoustics that will allow for the space to be " tuned " to each individual performance . The 25 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot Events Pavilion opened to students in 2013 and serves as temporary dining space while the West Campus Union undergoes major renovations , expected to be completed in the spring of 2016 . From February 2001 to November 2005 , Duke spent $ 835 million on 34 major construction projects as part of a five @-@ year strategic plan , " Building on Excellence . " Completed projects since 2002 include major additions to the business , law , nursing , and divinity schools , a new library , the Nasher Museum of Art , a football training facility , two residential buildings , an engineering complex , a public policy building , an eye institute , two genetic research buildings , a student plaza , the French Family Science Center , and two new medical @-@ research buildings .
In early 2012 , the Duke Cancer Center opened next to Duke Hospital in Durham , N.C. The patient care facility consolidates nearly all of Duke 's outpatient clinical care services .
= = = West , East , and Central Campuses = = =
West Campus , considered the main campus of the University , houses the majority of the sophomores , along with some juniors and seniors . Most of the academic and administrative centers are located there . Main West Campus , with Duke Chapel at its center , contains the majority of residential quads to the south , while the main academic quad , library , and Medical Center are to the north . The campus , spanning 720 acres ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) , includes Science Drive , which is the location of science and engineering buildings . The residential quads on West Campus are Craven Quad , Crowell Quad , Edens Quad , Few Quad , Keohane Quad , Kilgo Quad , and Wannamaker Quad . Most of the campus eateries and sports facilities — including the historic basketball stadium , Cameron Indoor Stadium — are on West Campus .
East Campus , the original location of Duke after it moved to Durham , functions as a first @-@ year campus as well as the home of several academic departments . Since the 1995 – 96 academic year , all freshmen — and only freshmen , except for upperclassmen serving as Resident Assistants — have lived on East Campus , an effort to build class unity . The campus encompasses 97 acres ( 390 @,@ 000 m2 ) and is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from West Campus . The Art History , History , Cultural Anthropology , Literature , Music , Philosophy , and Women 's Studies Departments are housed on East . Programs such as dance , drama , education , film , and the University Writing Program reside on East . The self @-@ sufficient East Campus contains the freshman residence halls , a dining hall , coffee shop , post office , Lilly Library , Baldwin Auditorium , a theater , Brodie Gym , tennis courts , several disc golf baskets , and a walking track as well as several academic buildings . The East Campus dorms are Alspaugh , Basset , Bell Tower , Blackwell , Brown , East House ( formerly known as Aycock ) , Epworth , Gilbert @-@ Addoms , Giles , Jarvis , Pegram , Randolph , Southgate , and Wilson . Separated from downtown by a short walk , the area was the site of the Women 's College from 1930 to 1972 .
Central Campus , consisting of 122 acres ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) between East and West campuses , houses around 1 @,@ 000 sophomores , juniors , and seniors , as well as around 200 professional students in double or quadruple apartments . There are 26 specific houses , accommodating 22 selective living groups ( sororities and fraternities ) , 3 independent houses and 1 administrative house . Central Campus is home to the Nasher Museum of Art , the Freeman Center for Jewish Life , the Center for Muslim Life , the Duke Police Department , the Duke Office of Disability Management , a Ronald McDonald House , and administrative departments such as Duke Residence Life and Housing Services . Central Campus has several recreation and social facilities such as basketball courts , a sand volleyball court , a turf field , barbecue grills and picnic shelters , a general gathering building called " Devil 's Den " , a restaurant known as " Devil 's Bistro " , a convenience store called Uncle Harry 's , and the Mill Village . The Mill Village consists of a gym and group study rooms .
Since 2005 , there has been a long @-@ term plan in place to restructure Central Campus over the subsequent 20 to 50 years . The idea is to develop an " academic village " as a key center for the Duke community . This academic village will provide living arrangements for undergraduate , graduate , and professional students and some faculty , plus dining , recreation , and academic support spaces while serving as a living laboratory for sustainability .
= = = Key places = = =
Duke Forest , established in 1931 , consists of 7 @,@ 044 acres ( 28 @.@ 51 km2 ) in six divisions , just west of West Campus . The largest private research forest in North Carolina and one of the largest in the nation , the Duke Forest demonstrates a variety of forest stand types and silvicultural treatments . Duke Forest is used extensively for research and includes the Aquatic Research Facility , Forest Carbon Transfer and Storage ( FACTS @-@ I ) research facility , two permanent towers suitable for micrometerological studies , and other areas designated for animal behavior and ecosystem study . More than 30 miles ( 48 km ) of trails are open to the public for hiking , cycling , and horseback riding .
The Duke Lemur Center , located inside the Duke Forest , is the world 's largest sanctuary for rare and endangered strepsirrhine primates . Founded in 1966 , the Duke Lemur Center spans 85 acres ( 34 ha ) and contains nearly 300 animals of 25 different species of lemurs , galagos and lorises .
The Sarah P. Duke Gardens , established in the early 1930s , is situated between West Campus and the apartments of Central Campus . The gardens occupy 55 acres ( 22 ha ) , divided into four major sections : the original Terraces and their surroundings ; the H.L. Blomquist Garden of Native Plants , devoted to flora of the Southeastern United States ; the W.L. Culberson Asiatic Arboretum , housing plants of Eastern Asia , as well as disjunct species found in Eastern Asia and Eastern North America ; and the Doris Duke Center Gardens . There are five miles ( 8 km ) of allées and paths throughout the gardens .
Duke University Medical Center , bordering Duke 's West Campus northern boundary , combines one of the top @-@ rated hospitals and one of the top @-@ ranked medical schools in the U.S. Founded in 1930 , the Medical Center occupies 8 million square feet ( 700 @,@ 000 m ² ) in 99 buildings on 210 acres ( 85 ha ) .
Duke University Marine Laboratory , located in the town of Beaufort , North Carolina , is also technically part of Duke 's campus . The marine lab is situated on Pivers Island on the Outer Banks of North Carolina , 150 yards ( 140 m ) across the channel from Beaufort . Duke 's interest in the area began in the early 1930s and the first buildings were erected in 1938 . The resident faculty represent the disciplines of oceanography , marine biology , marine biomedicine , marine biotechnology , and coastal marine policy and management . The Marine Laboratory is a member of the National Association of Marine Laboratories . In May 2014 , the newly built Orrin H. Pilkey Marine Research Laboratory was dedicated .
= = Administration and organization = =
Duke University has 12 schools and institutes , two of which are for undergraduates : Trinity College of Arts and Sciences and Pratt School of Engineering .
Duke 's endowment had a market value of $ 7 @.@ 0 billion in the fiscal year that ended June 30 , 2014 . The University 's special academic facilities include an art museum , several language labs , the Duke Forest , the Duke Herbarium , a lemur center , a phytotron , a free electron laser , a nuclear magnetic resonance machine , a nuclear lab , and a marine lab . Duke is a leading participant in the National Lambda Rail Network and runs a program for gifted children known as the Talent Identification Program .
= = Academics = =
= = = Admissions = = =
Admission to Duke is defined by U.S. News & World Report as " most selective " ; Duke received over 28 @,@ 000 applications for the Class of 2020 , and admitted 10 @.@ 4 % of applicants . According to The Huffington Post , Duke was one of the ten toughest universities in the United States to get into based on admissions data from 2010 . The yield rate ( the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university ) is approximately 50 % . For the class of 2015 , 90 % of enrolled students ranked in the top 10 % of their high school classes ; 97 % ranked in the top quarter . The middle 50 % range of SAT scores for the prospective students accepted to Trinity College of Arts and Sciences in fall 2014 is 680 – 790 for verbal / critical reading , 700 – 800 for math , and 700 – 790 for writing , while the ACT Composite range is 31 – 35 . For those accepted to the Pratt School of Engineering , the middle 50 % range for the SAT is 700 – 780 for verbal / critical reading , 760 – 800 for math , and 720 – 800 for writing , while the ACT Composite range is 33 – 35 . The average SAT score is 2240 .
From 2001 to 2011 , Duke has had the sixth highest number of Fulbright , Rhodes , Truman , and Goldwater scholarships in the nation among private universities . The University practices need @-@ blind admissions and meets 100 % of admitted students ' demonstrated need . About 50 percent of all Duke students receive some form of financial aid , which includes need @-@ based aid , athletic aid , and merit aid . The average need @-@ based grant for the 2013 – 14 academic year was nearly $ 39 @,@ 275 . Roughly 60 merit @-@ based scholarships are also offered , including the Angier B. Duke Memorial Scholarship , awarded for academic excellence . Other scholarships are geared toward students in North Carolina , African @-@ American students , and high @-@ achieving students requiring financial aid .
= = = Graduate profile = = =
In 2009 , the School of Medicine received 5 @,@ 166 applications and accepted approximately 4 % of them , while the average GPA and MCAT scores for accepted students from 2002 through 2009 were 3 @.@ 74 and 34 , respectively . The School of Law accepted approximately 13 % of its applicants for the Class of 2014 , while enrolling students had a median GPA of 3 @.@ 75 and median LSAT of 170 .
The University 's graduate and professional schools include the Graduate School , the Pratt School of Engineering , the Nicholas School of the Environment , the School of Medicine , the Duke @-@ NUS Graduate Medical School , the School of Nursing , the Fuqua School of Business , the School of Law , the Divinity School , and the Sanford School of Public Policy .
= = = Undergraduate curriculum = = =
Duke offers 46 arts and sciences majors , four engineering majors , 52 Minors ( including two in engineering ) and Program II , which allows students to design their own interdisciplinary major in arts & sciences , and IDEAS , which allows students to design their own engineering major . Twenty @-@ four certificate programs also are available . Students pursue a major , and can pursue a combination of a total of up to three including minors , certificates , and / or a second major . Eighty @-@ five percent of undergraduates enroll in the Trinity College of Arts and Sciences , while the rest are in the Pratt School of Engineering .
Trinity 's curriculum operates under the revised version of " Curriculum 2000 . " It ensures that students are exposed to a variety of " areas of knowledge " and " modes of inquiry . " The curriculum aims to help students develop critical faculties and judgment by learning how to access , synthesize , and communicate knowledge effectively . The intent is to assist students in acquiring perspective on current and historical events , conducting research and solving problems , and developing tenacity and a capacity for hard and sustained work . Freshmen can elect to participate in the FOCUS Program , which allows students to engage in an interdisciplinary exploration of a specific topic in a small group setting .
Pratt 's curriculum is narrower in scope , but still accommodates double majors in a variety of disciplines . The school emphasizes undergraduate research — opportunities for hands @-@ on experiences arise through internships , fellowship programs , and the structured curriculum . More than 27 percent of Pratt undergraduates study abroad , small compared to about half of Trinity undergraduates , but much larger than the recent national average for engineering students ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) .
= = = Libraries and museums = = =
Duke Libraries , one of the nation 's top 10 private research library systems , includes the Perkins , Bostock , and Rubenstein Libraries on West Campus , the Lilly and Music Libraries on East Campus , the Pearse Memorial Library at the Duke Marine Lab , and the separately administered libraries serving the schools of business , divinity , law and medicine .
Duke 's art collections are housed at the Nasher Museum of Art on Central Campus . The museum was designed by Rafael Viñoly and is named for Duke alumnus and art collector Raymond Nasher . The museum opened in 2005 at a cost of over $ 23 million and contains over 13 @,@ 000 works of art , including works by William Cordova , Marlene Dumas , Olafur Eliasson , David Hammons , Barkley L. Hendricks , Christian Marclay , Kerry James Marshall , D Alma Thomas , Hank Willis Thomas , Bob Thompson , Kara Walker , Andy Warhol , Carrie Mae Weems , Ai Weiwei , Fred Wilson and Lynette Yiadom Boakye .
= = = Research = = =
Duke 's research expenditures in the 2014 fiscal year were $ 1 @.@ 037 billion , the seventh largest in the nation . In the 2013 fiscal year , Duke University Medical Center received $ 270 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health ( exclusive of contracts and Economic Stimulus Program awards ) .
Duke 's faculty is among the most productive in the nation . Throughout the school 's history , Duke researchers have made breakthroughs , including the biomedical engineering department 's development of the world 's first real @-@ time , three @-@ dimensional ultrasound diagnostic system and the first engineered blood vessels and stents . In 2015 , Paul Modrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In 2012 , Robert Lefkowitz along with Brian Kobilka , who is also a former affiliate , shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their work on cell surface receptors . In the mechanical engineering department , Adrian Bejan developed the constructal theory , which explains the shapes that arise in nature . Duke has pioneered studies involving nonlinear dynamics , chaos , and complex systems in physics . In May 2006 Duke researchers mapped the final human chromosome , which made world news as the Human Genome Project was finally complete . Reports of Duke researchers ' involvement in new AIDS vaccine research surfaced in June 2006 . The biology department combines two historically strong programs in botany and zoology , while one of the divinity school 's leading theologians is Stanley Hauerwas , whom Time named " America 's Best Theologian " in 2001 . The graduate program in literature boasts several internationally renowned figures , including Fredric Jameson , Michael Hardt , and Rey Chow , while philosophers Robert Brandon and Lakatos Award @-@ winner Alexander Rosenberg contribute to Duke 's ranking as the nation 's best program in philosophy of biology , according to the Philosophical Gourmet Report .
The Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index ranked Duke 's faculty first in the nation in the fields of Oncology and Cancer Biology , Biomedical Engineering and , Applied Economics . The Public Policy , Statistics , Chemistry , Environmental Science , Medicine and Molecular Genetics departments ( among others ) all ranked in the top five . Several other departments including Electrical Engineering , Mechanical Engineering and Nursing ranked in the top ten .
= = = Reputation and rankings = = =
= = = = Undergraduate rankings = = = =
In the 2016 U.S. News & World Report ranking of undergraduate programs at doctoral granting institutions , Duke was ranked 8th . USA Today ranked Duke 3rd in the United States , while Business Insider ranked the university 7th . In the past twenty years , U.S. News & World Report has placed Duke as high as 3rd and as low as 10th . In 2014 , Duke was ranked 1st in the United States for majors in economics and psychology , and 10th overall for computer science and engineering .
In 2015 , Duke was ranked 29th in the world by the QS World University Rankings and 20th in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings . Duke was ranked the 14th @-@ best university in the world by Newsweek and 31st best globally by Shanghai Jiao Tong University 's Academic Ranking of World Universities ( ARWU ) in 2014 , focusing on quality of scientific research and the number of Nobel Prizes . The university also ranks 22nd in the world on the alternative Academic Ranking of World Universities which excludes Nobel Prize and Fields Medal indicators . The Wall Street Journal ranked Duke sixth ( fifth among universities ) in its " feeder " rankings in 2006 , analyzing the percentage of undergraduates that enroll in what it considers the top five medical , law , and business schools . The 2010 report by the Center for Measuring University Performance puts Duke at 6th in the nation .
The 2011 Global Employability Ranking as published by The New York Times surveyed hundreds of chief executives and chairmen from around the world and asked them to select the best universities from which they recruited . Duke placed 13th in the world and 9th in the country .
In 2013 , Duke enrolled 139 National Merit Scholars , the 6th university in rank by number . Duke ranks 5th among national universities to have produced Rhodes , Marshall , Truman , Goldwater , and Udall Scholars . As of 2012 , Duke graduates have received 25 Churchill Scholarships to the University of Cambridge . Only graduates of Princeton and Harvard have received more Churchill awards . Kiplinger 's 50 Best Values in Private Universities 2013 – 14 ranks Duke at 5th best overall after taking financial aid into consideration .
According to a study by Forbes , Duke ranks 11th among universities that have produced billionaires and 1st among universities in the South . A survey by the Journal of Blacks in Higher Education in 2002 ranked Duke as the # 1 university in the country in regard to the integration of African American students and faculty . According to a poll of recruiters conducted by The Wall Street Journal , Duke ranks 2nd in terms of producing the best graduates who have received either a marketing or liberal arts degree . In a corporate study carried out by The New York Times , Duke 's graduates were shown to be among the most valued in the world , and Forbes magazine ranked Duke 7th in the world on its list of ' power factories ' in 2012 . Duke was ranked 17th on Thomson Reuters ' list of the world 's most innovative universities in 2015 . The ranking graded universities based on patent volume and research output among other factors . In 2015 , NPR ranked Duke first on its list of " schools that make financial sense " .Time Magazine ranked Duke third on its list of the " best 50 colleges for african americans " . The ranking was based on representation , affordability and post @-@ graduate earnings . In 2016 , Forbes ranked Duke sixth on its list of " Expensive Schools Worth Every Penny " .
= = = = Graduate school rankings = = = =
In U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Graduate Schools 2017 , " Duke 's medical school ranked tied for 8th in research and 8th in primary care . The School of Law was ranked 11th in the 2017 rankings by the same publication , with Duke 's nursing school ranked tied for 4th while the Sanford School of Public Policy ranked tied for 13th overall for 2017 . Among business schools in the United States , the Fuqua School of Business was ranked tied for 12th overall by U.S. News & World Report for 2017 , while BusinessWeek ranked its full @-@ time MBA program 1st in the nation in 2014 . The graduate program for the Pratt School of Engineering was ranked 30th in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings .
Times Higher Education ranked the mathematics department tenth in the world in 2011 . Duke 's graduate level specialties that are ranked among the top ten in the nation include areas in the following departments : biological sciences , medicine , nursing , engineering , law , business , English , history , physics , statistics , public affairs , physician assistant ( ranked # 1 ) , clinical psychology , political science , and sociology . In 2007 , Duke was ranked 22nd in the world by Wuhan University 's Research Center for Chinese Science Evaluation . The ranking was based on journal article publication counts and citation frequencies in over 11 @,@ 000 academic journals from around the world . A 2012 study conducted by academic analytics ranks Duke fourth in the nation ( behind only Harvard , Stanford , and MIT ) in terms of faculty productivity . In 2013 , Duke Law ranked 6th in Forbes magazine 's ranking of law schools whose graduates earn the highest starting salaries . T In 2013 , Duke 's Fuqua School of Business was ranked 6th in terms of graduate starting salaries by U.S. News & World Report . In the same year , a ranking compiled by the University of Texas at Dallas ranked Fuqua 5th in the world based on the research productivity of its faculty . The MEM ( Masters in Engineering Management ) program has been ranked 3rd in the world by Eduniversal In 2013 , Forbes ranked Duke 4th in the nation in terms of return on investment ( ROI ) . The ranking used alumni giving as a criteria to determine which private colleges offer the best returns . In the same year , Above the Law ranked Duke Law 6th in the nation in its ranking of law schools based on employment outcomes In 2013 , Business Insider ranked Duke 's Fuqua School of Business 5th in the world based on an extensive survey of hiring professionals . In the same year , Forbes magazine ranked Fuqua 8th in the country based on return on investment . In 2014 , Linkedin named Duke the 3rd best undergraduate university in the U.S. for media professionals . Duke also ranked 4th for investment bankers , 7th for finance professional and 8th for software developers . The ranking was based on career outcomes . In 2014 , Duke was named the 20th best global research university according to rankings published by U.S. News & World Report and the University Ranking by Academic Performance published by Middle East Technical University . The U.S. News ranking was based on 10 indicators that measure academic research performance and global reputations . The University Ranking by Academic Performance uses citation data obtained from Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science to rank universities based on research output .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student body = = =
Duke 's student body consists of 6 @,@ 485 undergraduates and 8 @,@ 465 graduate and professional students ( as of fall 2015 ) .
= = = Residential life = = =
Duke requires its students to live on campus for the first three years of undergraduate life , except for a small percentage of second semester juniors who are exempted by a lottery system . This requirement is justified by the administration as an effort to help students connect more closely with one another and sustain a sense of belonging within the Duke community . Thus , 85 % of undergraduates live on campus . All freshmen are housed in one of 14 residences on East Campus . These buildings range in occupancy size from 50 ( Epworth — the oldest residence hall , built in 1892 as " the Inn " ) to 190 residents ( Gilbert @-@ Addoms ) . Most of these are in the Georgian style typical of the East Campus architecture . Although the newer residence halls differ in style , they still relate to East 's Georgian heritage . Learning communities connect the residential component of East Campus with students of similar academic and social interests . Similarly , students in FOCUS , a first @-@ year program that features courses clustered around a specific theme , live together in the same residence hall as other students in their cluster .
Sophomores , juniors and seniors can choose to reside on either West or Central campuses , although the majority of undergraduate seniors choose to live off campus . West Campus contains six quadrangles — the four along " Main " West were built in 1930s , while two newer ones have since been added . Central Campus provides housing for over 1 @,@ 000 students in apartment buildings . All housing on West and Central is organized into about 80 " houses " — sections of residence halls or clusters of apartments — to which students can return each year . House residents create their house identities . There are houses of unaffiliated students , as well as wellness houses and living @-@ learning communities that adopt a theme such as the arts or foreign languages . There are also numerous " selective living groups " on campus for students wanting self @-@ selected living arrangements . SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities , except they are generally co @-@ ed and unaffiliated with any national organization . Many of them also revolve around a particular interest such as entrepreneurship , civic engagement or African @-@ American or Asian culture . Fifteen fraternities and nine sororities also are housed on campus , primarily on Central . Most of the non @-@ fraternity selective living groups are coeducational .
= = = Greek and social life = = =
About 30 % of undergraduate men and about 40 % of undergraduate women at Duke are members of fraternities and sororities . Most of the 17 Interfraternity Council recognized fraternity chapters live in sections within the residence halls . Starting in 2012 , the nine Panhellenic Association sorority chapters decided to live in houses ( clusters of apartments ) on Central Campus . Not all sorority members live with their chapters , though , as membership exceeds house space . Eight National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( historically African American ) fraternities and sororities also hold chapters at Duke . In addition , there are seven other fraternities and sororities that are a part of the Inter @-@ Greek Council , the multicultural Greek umbrella organization . Duke also has Selective Living Groups , or SLGs , on campus for students seeking informal residential communities often built around themes . SLGs are residential groups similar to fraternities or sororities , except they are generally co @-@ ed and unaffiliated with any national organizations . Fraternity chapters and SLGs frequently host social events in their residential sections , which are often open to non @-@ members .
In the late 1990s , a new keg policy was put into effect that requires all student groups to purchase kegs through Duke Dining Services . According to administrators , the rule change was intended as a way to ensure compliance with alcohol consumption laws as well as to increase on @-@ campus safety . Some students saw the administration 's increasingly strict policies as an attempt to alter social life at Duke . As a result , off @-@ campus parties at rented houses became more frequent in subsequent years as a way to avoid Duke policies . Many of these houses were situated in the midst of family neighborhoods , prompting residents to complain about excessive noise and other violations . Police have responded by breaking up parties at several houses , handing out citations , and occasionally arresting party @-@ goers . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 2000s ( decade ) , the administration made a concerted effort to help students re @-@ establish a robust , on @-@ campus social life and has worked with numerous student groups , especially the Duke University Union , to feature a wide array of events and activities . In March 2006 , the university purchased 15 houses in the Trinity Park area that Duke students had typically rented and subsequently sold them to individual families in an effort to encourage renovations to the properties and to reduce off @-@ campus partying in the midst of residential neighborhoods .
Duke athletics , particularly men 's basketball , traditionally serves as a significant component of student life . Duke 's students have been recognized as some of the most creative and original fans in all of collegiate athletics . Students , often referred to as Cameron Crazies , show their support of the men 's basketball team by " tenting " for home games against key Atlantic Coast Conference rivals , especially University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( UNC ) . Because tickets to all varsity sports are free to students , they line up for hours before each game , often spending the night on the sidewalk . For a mid @-@ February game against UNC , some of the most eager students might even begin tenting before spring classes begin . The total number of participating tents is capped at 100 ( each tent can have up to 12 occupants ) , though interest is such that it could exceed that number if space permitted . Tenting involves setting up and inhabiting a tent on the grass near Cameron Indoor Stadium , an area known as Krzyzewskiville , or K @-@ ville for short . There are different categories of tenting based on the length of time and number of people who must be in the tent . At night , K @-@ ville often turns into the scene of a party or occasional concert . The men 's basketball coach , Mike Krzyzewski , occasionally buys pizza for the inhabitants of the tent village .
= = = Activities = = =
= = = = Student organizations = = = =
More than 400 student clubs and organizations operate on Duke 's campus . These include numerous student government , special interest , and service organizations . Duke Student Government ( DSG ) charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups and represents students ' interests when dealing with the administration . The Duke University Union ( DUU ) is the school 's primary programming organization , serving a center of social , cultural , intellectual and recreational life . Cultural groups are provided funding directly from the university via the Multicultural Center as well as other institutional funding sources . One of the most popular activities on campus is competing in sports . Duke has 37 sports clubs , and several intramural teams that are officially recognized . Performance groups such as Hoof ' n ' Horn , the country 's second oldest student @-@ run musical theater organization , a cappella groups , student bands , and theater organizations are also prominent on campus . The Duke University mock trial team won the national championship in 2012 . The Duke University Student Dining Advisory Committee provides guidance to the administration on issues regarding student dining , life , and restaurant choices.ױ
Cultural groups on campus include the Asian Students Association , Blue Devils United ( the student lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender group ) , Black Student Alliance , Diya ( South Asian Association ) , Jewish Life at Duke , Mi Gente ( Latino Student Association ) , International Association / International Council , Muslim Student Association , Native American Student Coalition , Newman Catholic Student Center , Languages Dorm , and Students of the Caribbean .
= = = = Civic engagement = = = =
More than 75 percent of Duke students pursue service @-@ learning opportunities in Durham and around the world through DukeEngage and other programs that advance the university 's mission of " knowledge in service to society . " Launched in 2007 , DukeEngage provides full funding for select Duke undergraduates who wish to pursue an immersive summer of service in partnership with a U.S. or international community . As of summer 2013 , more than 2 @,@ 400 Duke students had volunteered through DukeEngage in 75 nations on six continents . Duke students have created more than 30 service organizations in Durham and the surrounding area . Examples include a weeklong camp for children of cancer patients ( Camp Kesem ) and a group that promotes awareness about sexual health , rape prevention , alcohol and drug use , and eating disorders ( Healthy Devils ) . The Duke @-@ Durham Neighborhood Partnership , started by the Office of Community Affairs in 1996 , attempts to address major concerns of local residents and schools by leveraging university resources . Another community project , " Scholarship with a Civic Mission , " is a joint program between the Hart Leadership Program and the Kenan Institute for Ethics . Another program includes Project CHILD , a tutoring program involving 80 first @-@ year volunteers ; and an after @-@ school program for at @-@ risk students in Durham that was started with $ 2 @.@ 25 million grant from the Kellogg Foundation in 2002 . Two prominent civic engagement pre @-@ orientation programs also exist for incoming freshmen : Project CHANGE and Project BUILD . Project CHANGE is a free weeklong program co @-@ sponsored by the Kenan Institute for Ethics and the Duke Women 's Center with the focus on ethical leadership and social change in the Durham community ; students are challenged in a variety of ways and work closely with local non @-@ profits . Project BUILD is a freshman volunteering group that dedicates 3 @,@ 300 hours of service to a variety of projects such as schools , Habitat for Humanity , food banks , substance rehabilitation centers , homeless shelters . Some courses at Duke incorporate service as part of the curriculum to augment material learned in class such as in psychology or education courses ( known as service learning courses ) .
= = = = Student media = = = =
The Chronicle , Duke 's independent undergraduate daily newspaper , has been continually published since 1905 and now , along with its website , has a readership of about 70 @,@ 000 . Its editors are responsible for selecting the term " Blue Devil " . The newspaper won Best in Show in the tabloid division at the 2005 Associated Collegiate Press National College Media Convention . Cable 13 , established in 1976 , is Duke 's student @-@ run television station . It is a popular activity for students interested in film production and media . WXDU @-@ FM , licensed in 1983 , is the University 's nationally recognized , noncommercial FM radio station , operated by student and community volunteers .
= = Athletics = =
Duke University teams are known as the Blue Devils . They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I level ( Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) sub @-@ level for football ) , primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) for all sports since the 1953 – 54 season . Men 's sports include baseball , basketball , cross country , fencing , football , golf , lacrosse , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and wrestling ; while women 's sports include basketball , cross country , fencing , field hockey , golf , lacrosse , rowing , soccer , swimming & diving , tennis , track & field and volleyball . Duke plans to add softball as its 27th varsity sport in spring 2018 .
Duke 's teams have won 16 NCAA team national championships — the women 's golf team has won six ( 1999 , 2002 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2014 ) , the men 's basketball team has won five ( 1991 , 1992 , 2001 , 2010 , and 2015 ) , the men 's lacrosse team has won three ( 2010 , 2013 , and 2014 ) , and the men 's soccer ( 1986 ) and women 's tennis ( 2009 ) teams have won one each .
Duke consistently ranks among the top in the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( NACDA ) Directors ' Cup , an overall measure of an institution 's athletic success . For Division I in 2013 , Duke finished ninth overall and fifth in the ACC .
Duke has won 126 ACC Championships since claiming football , men 's lacrosse and men 's golf in the league 's first year in 1953 – 54 , including the Blue Devils ACC Championships in football and volleyball in 2013 – 14 .
Since 1999 – 2000 , Duke has captured 52 league crowns , second most in the ACC , and has won at least one ACC Championship each season since 1979 – 80 and at least two every season since 1990 – 91 . Since hiring David Cutcliffe as head football coach in 2007 , the Duke football program has become one of the strongest in the ACC . The Blue Devils won the ACC Coastal Division in 2013 , but lost to No. 1 @-@ ranked Florida State in the conference championship game . Duke then played Texas A & M in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Bowl , losing 52 – 48 to the Aggies , who were led by Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Manziel .
The Blue Devil mascot 's origins are rooted in an elite French alpine fighting unit that garnered accolades and much global attention during World War I and its aftermath for its flowing blue capes and blue berets . Duke 's mascot origin is considered to be military and patriotic rather than anti @-@ religious . Historically , Duke 's major rival has been the Tar Heels of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , especially in basketball . The rivalry has led the fanbases to identify the two differing shades of blue in relation to their respective university — calling the lighter powder blue " Carolina blue " and the darker blue " Duke blue " .
On the academic front , eight Duke varsity athletics programs registered a perfect 1 @,@ 000 score in the NCAA 's multi @-@ year Academic Progress Report ( APR ) released in May 2014 . APR scores for football and men 's basketball were the highest among ACC schools in conference @-@ sponsored sports . Overall Duke totaled the highest APR scores in 10 of the ACC 's 25 sports .
= = = Men 's basketball = = =
Duke 's men 's basketball team is one of the nation 's most successful basketball programs . The team has captured five National Championships ( tied for third place all time ) , while attending 15 Final Fours ( third place overall ) and 10 Championship games ( tied for second ) . Duke has the most Atlantic Coast Conference championships , with 19 , and has the most National Players of the Year in the nation , with 11 . Seventy @-@ two players have been selected in the NBA draft , while 32 players have been honored as All @-@ Americans . Duke 's program is one of only two to have been to at least one Final Four and one National Championship game in each of the past five decades . The program 's home facility is historic Cameron Indoor Stadium , considered one of the top venues in the nation .
The team 's success has been particularly outstanding over the past 30 years under coach Mike Krzyzewski ( often simply called " Coach K " ) , who also has coached the USA men 's national basketball team since 2006 and led the team to Olympic golds in 2008 and 2012 , as well as World Championship gold in 2010 and 2014 . Their successes include becoming the only team to win five national championships since the NCAA Tournament field was expanded to 64 teams in 1985 , 11 Final Fours in the past 25 years , and eight of nine ACC tournament championships from 1999 to 2006 .
= = = Football = = =
The Blue Devils have won seven ACC Football Championships , have had ten players honored as ACC Player of the Year ( the most in the ACC ) , and have had three Pro Football Hall of Famers come through the program ( second in the ACC to only Miami 's four ) . The Blue Devils have produced 11 College Football Hall of Famers , which is tied for the 2nd most in the ACC . Duke has also won 18 total conference championships ( 7 ACC , 9 Southern Conference , and 1 Big Five Conference ) . That total is tied with Clemson for the highest in the ACC .
The most famous Duke football season came in 1938 , when Wallace Wade coached the " Iron Dukes " that shut out all regular season opponents ; only three teams in history can claim such a feat . That same year , Duke made their first Rose Bowl appearance , where they lost 7 – 3 when USC scored a touchdown in the final minute of the game . Wade 's Blue Devils lost another Rose Bowl to Oregon State in 1942 , this one held at Duke 's home stadium due to the attack on Pearl Harbor , which resulted in the fear that a large gathering on the West Coast might be in range of Japanese aircraft carriers . The football program proved successful in the 1950s and 1960s , winning six of the first ten ACC football championships from 1953 to 1962 under coach Bill Murray ; the Blue Devils would not win the ACC championship again until 1989 under coach Steve Spurrier .
David Cutcliffe was brought in prior to the 2008 season , and amassed more wins in his first season than the previous three years combined . The 2009 team won 5 of 12 games , and was eliminated from bowl contention in the next @-@ to @-@ last game of the season . Mike MacIntyre , the defensive coordinator , was named 2009 Assistant Coach of the Year by the American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) .
While the football team has struggled at times on the field , the graduation rate of its players is consistently among the highest among Division I FBS schools . Duke 's high graduation rates have earned it more AFCA Academic Achievement Awards than any other institution .
In 2012 , the football team became bowl @-@ eligible for the first time since the 1994 season . The Blue Devils were invited to play in the Belk Bowl in Charlotte , but lost to Big East Conference co @-@ champion the Cincinnati Bearcats 48 – 34 .
In 2013 , the team posted a school record 10 wins including wins over # 14 Virginia Tech and # 23 Miami . The season culminated in a Coastal Division Championship and a narrow loss to Texas A & M in the Chick @-@ Fil @-@ A Bowl .
For the 2014 season , Duke finished 9 – 3 , 5 – 3 ( ACC ) and earned a trip to the Sun Bowl , where the Blue Devils lost to the Pac 12 's Arizona State 36 – 31 . In spring 2015 , the Detroit Lions drafted Duke offensive guard Laken Tomlinson in the first round of the NFL draft . The Washington Redskins drafted wide receiver Jamison Crowder in the fourth round of the draft .
= = = Track and Field = = =
In 2003 Norm Ogilvie was promoted to Director of Track and Field , and has led athletes to over 60 individual ACC championships , and 81 All @-@ America selections , along with most of the track and field records being broken during his tenure . A new facility , the Morris Williams Track and Field Stadium , opened in 2015 .
= = Notable people = =
Duke 's active alumni base of more than 145 @,@ 000 devote themselves to the university through organizations and events such as the annual Reunion Weekend and Homecoming . There are 75 Duke clubs in the U.S. and 38 such international clubs . For the 2008 – 09 fiscal year , Duke tied for third in alumni giving rate among U.S. colleges and universities according to U.S. News & World Report . Based on statistics compiled by PayScale in 2011 , Duke alumni rank seventh in mid @-@ career median salary among all U.S. colleges and universities . A number of alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government , law , science , academia , business , arts , journalism , and athletics , among others .
= = = Government = = =
Richard Nixon , 37th President of the United States graduated with a law degree in 1937 . Former U.S. Senator and Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole , 33rd President of Chile Ricardo Lagos , former U.S. Secretary of Commerce Juanita M. Kreps , congressman and three @-@ time presidential candidate Ron Paul , U.S. Secretary of Veterans Affairs and former Chief of Staff of the United States Army Eric Shinseki , and the first United States Chief Performance Officer Jeffrey Zients and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Martin Dempsey are among the most notable alumni with involvement in politics and government .
= = = Academia and research = = =
Duke graduates who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics include Hans Dehmelt for his development of the ion trap technique , Robert Richardson for his discovery of superfluidity in helium @-@ 3 , and Charles Townes for his work on quantum electronics . Other alumni in research and academia include Turing Award winners Fred Brooks , Edmund M. Clarke and John Cocke , Templeton Prize winning physicist and religion scholar Ian Barbour , MacArthur Award recipient Paul Farmer , and former Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton Theodore Ziolkowski . Duke professor Robert J. Lefkowitz shared the 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Ingrid Daubechies , currently a James B. Duke professor of mathematics , served as the first woman president of the International Mathematical Union and is known for pioneering work on Wavelets .
= = = Journalism = = =
Prominent journalists include talk show host Charlie Rose , The Washington Post sports writer John Feinstein , Chief Washington Correspondent for CNBC and The Wall Street Journal writer John Harwood , CBS News President Sean McManus , chief legal correspondent for Good Morning America Dan Abrams , and CNN anchor and senior correspondent for The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer Judy Woodruff . Basketball analysts and commentators include Jay Bilas , Mike Gminski , Jim Spanarkel , and Jay Williams . Magazine editors include Rik Kirkland of Fortune and Clay Felker , founder of New York Magazine .
= = = Literature = = =
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The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros , where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets . At the end of the fighting , Hungarian casualties totalled at around 2 @,@ 500 dead with an additional 20 @,@ 000 wounded . Budapest bore the brunt of the bloodshed , with 1 @,@ 569 civilians killed . Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers , and about half of all the casualties were people younger than thirty . On the Soviet side , 699 men were killed , 1 @,@ 450 men were wounded , and 51 men were missing in action . Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of Budapest .
= = = Soviet version of the events = = =
Soviet reports of the events surrounding , during , and after the disturbance were remarkably consistent in their accounts , more so after the Second Soviet intervention cemented support for the Soviet position among international Communist Parties . Pravda published an account 36 hours after the outbreak of violence , which set the tone for all further reports and subsequent Soviet historiography :
On 23 October , the honest socialist Hungarians demonstrated against mistakes made by the Rákosi and Gerő governments .
Fascist , Hitlerite , reactionary , counter @-@ revolutionary hooligans financed by the imperialist west took advantage of the unrest to stage a counter @-@ revolution .
The honest Hungarian people under Nagy appealed to Soviet ( Warsaw Pact ) forces stationed in Hungary to assist in restoring order .
The Nagy government was ineffective , allowing itself to be penetrated by counter @-@ revolutionary influences , weakening then disintegrating , as proven by Nagy 's culminating denouncement of the Warsaw Pact .
Hungarian patriots under Kádár broke with the Nagy government and formed a government of honest Hungarian revolutionary workers and peasants ; this genuinely popular government petitioned the Soviet command to help put down the counter @-@ revolution .
Hungarian patriots , with Soviet assistance , smashed the counter @-@ revolution .
The first Soviet report came out 24 hours after the first Western report . Nagy 's appeal to the United Nations was not reported . After Nagy was arrested outside of the Yugoslav embassy , his arrest was not reported . Nor did accounts explain how Nagy went from patriot to traitor . The Soviet press reported calm in Budapest while the Western press reported a revolutionary crisis was breaking out . According to the Soviet account , Hungarians never wanted a revolution at all .
In January 1957 , representatives of the Soviet Union , Bulgaria , Hungary , and Romania met in Budapest to review internal developments in Hungary since the establishment of the Soviet @-@ imposed government . A communiqué on the meeting " unanimously concluded " that Hungarian workers , with the leadership of the Kádár government and support of the Soviet army , defeated attempts " to eliminate the socialist achievements of the Hungarian people " .
Soviet , Chinese , and other Warsaw Pact governments urged Kádár to proceed with interrogation and trial of former Nagy government ministers , and asked for punitive measures against the " counter @-@ revolutionists " . In addition the Kádár government published an extensive series of " white books " ( The Counter @-@ Revolutionary Forces in the October Events in Hungary ) documenting real incidents of violence against Communist Party and ÁVH members , and the confessions of Nagy supporters . These white books were widely distributed in several languages in most of the socialist countries and , while based in fact , present factual evidence with a colouring and narrative not generally supported by non @-@ Soviet aligned historians .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Hungary = = =
In the immediate aftermath , many thousands of Hungarians were arrested . Eventually , 26 @,@ 000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts , 22 @,@ 000 were sentenced , 13 @,@ 000 imprisoned , and several hundred executed . Hundreds were also deported to the Soviet Union , many without evidence . Approximately 200 @,@ 000 fled Hungary as refugees . Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed . Sporadic armed resistance and strikes by workers ' councils continued until mid @-@ 1957 , causing substantial economic disruption . By 1963 , most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released .
With most of Budapest under Soviet control by 8 November , Kádár became Prime Minister of the " Revolutionary Worker @-@ Peasant Government " and General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party . Few Hungarians rejoined the reorganised Party , its leadership having been purged under the supervision of the Soviet Praesidium , led by Georgy Malenkov and Mikhail Suslov . Although Party membership declined from 800 @,@ 000 before the uprising to 100 @,@ 000 by December 1956 , Kádár steadily increased his control over Hungary and neutralised dissenters . The new government attempted to enlist support by espousing popular principles of Hungarian self @-@ determination voiced during the uprising , but Soviet troops remained . After 1956 the Soviet Union severely purged the Hungarian Army and reinstituted political indoctrination in the units that remained . In May 1957 , the Soviet Union increased its troop levels in Hungary and by treaty Hungary accepted the Soviet presence on a permanent basis .
The Red Cross and the Austrian Army established refugee camps in Traiskirchen and Graz . Imre Nagy along with Georg Lukács , Géza Losonczy , and László Rajk 's widow , Júlia , took refuge in the Embassy of Yugoslavia as Soviet forces overran Budapest . Despite assurances of safe passage out of Hungary by the Soviets and the Kádár government , Nagy and his group were arrested when attempting to leave the embassy on 22 November and taken to Romania . Losonczy died while on a hunger strike in prison awaiting trial when his jailers " carelessly pushed a feeding tube down his windpipe . "
The remainder of the group was returned to Budapest in 1958 . Nagy was executed , along with Pál Maléter and Miklós Gimes , after secret trials in June 1958 . Their bodies were placed in unmarked graves in the Municipal Cemetery outside Budapest .
During the November 1956 Soviet assault on Budapest , Cardinal Mindszenty was granted political asylum at the United States embassy , where he lived for the next 15 years , refusing to leave Hungary unless the government reversed his 1949 conviction for treason . Because of poor health and a request from the Vatican , he finally left the embassy for Austria in September 1971 .
= = = International = = =
Despite Cold War rhetoric by western countries espousing a roll @-@ back of the domination of Europe by the USSR and Soviet promises of the imminent triumph of socialism , national leaders of this period as well as later historians saw the failure of the uprising in Hungary as evidence that the Cold War in Europe had become a stalemate .
The Foreign Minister of West Germany recommended that the people of Eastern Europe be discouraged from " taking dramatic action which might have disastrous consequences for themselves . " The Secretary @-@ General of NATO called the Hungarian revolt " the collective suicide of a whole people " . In a newspaper interview in 1957 , Khrushchev commented " support by United States ... is rather in the nature of the support that the rope gives to a hanged man . "
In January 1957 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Dag Hammarskjöld , acting in response to UN General Assembly resolutions requesting investigation and observation of the events in Soviet @-@ occupied Hungary , established the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary . The Committee , with representatives from Australia , Ceylon ( Sri Lanka ) , Denmark , Tunisia , and Uruguay , conducted hearings in New York , Geneva , Rome , Vienna , and London . Over five months , 111 refugees were interviewed including ministers , military commanders and other officials of the Nagy government , workers , revolutionary council members , factory managers and technicians , Communists and non @-@ Communists , students , writers , teachers , medical personnel , and Hungarian soldiers . Documents , newspapers , radio transcripts , photos , film footage , and other records from Hungary were also reviewed , as well as written testimony of 200 other Hungarians .
The governments of Hungary and Romania refused the UN officials of the Committee entry , and the government of the Soviet Union did not respond to requests for information . The 268 @-@ page Committee Report was presented to the General Assembly in June 1957 , documenting the course of the uprising and Soviet intervention , and concluding that " the Kádár government and Soviet occupation were in violation of the human rights of the Hungarian people . " A General Assembly resolution was approved , deploring " the repression of the Hungarian people and the Soviet occupation " but no other action was taken . The chairman of the Committee was Alsing Andersen , a Danish politician and leading figure of Denmark 's Social Democratic Party . He served in the Buhl government in 1942 during the Nazi German occupation of Denmark . He defended collaboration with the occupation forces and denounced the Resistance . He was appointed Interior Minister in 1947 , but resigned because of scrutiny of his role in 1940 as Defence Minister . He then entered Denmark 's UN delegation in 1948 .
The Committee Report and the motives of its authors were criticised by delegations to the United Nations . The Hungarian representative disagreed with the report 's conclusions , accusing it of falsifying the events , and argued that the establishment of the Committee was illegal . The Committee was accused of being hostile to Hungary and its social system . An article in the Russian journal " International Affairs " , published by the Foreign Affairs Ministry , carried an article in 1957 in which it denounced the report as a " collection of falsehoods and distortions " .
Time magazine named the Hungarian Freedom Fighter its Man of the Year for 1956 . The accompanying Time article comments that this choice could not have been anticipated until the explosive events of the revolution , almost at the end of 1956 . The magazine cover and accompanying text displayed an artist 's depiction of a Hungarian freedom fighter , and used pseudonyms for the three participants whose stories are the subject of the article .
In 2006 , Hungarian Prime Minister Ferenc Gyurcsány referred to this famous Time Man of the Year cover as " the faces of free Hungary " in a speech to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1956 uprising . Prime Minister Gyurcsány , in a joint appearance with British Prime Minister Tony Blair , commented specifically on the Time cover itself , that " It is an idealised image but the faces of the figures are really the face of the revolutionaries "
At the Melbourne Olympics in 1956 , the Soviet handling of the Hungarian uprising led to a boycott by Spain , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . At the Olympic Village , the Hungarian delegation tore down the Communist Hungarian flag and raised the flag of Free Hungary in its place . A confrontation between Soviet and Hungarian teams occurred in the semi @-@ final match of the water polo tournament on 6 December . The match was extremely violent , and was halted in the final minute to quell fighting among spectators . This match , now known as the " blood in the water match " , became the subject of several films . The Hungarian team won the game 4 – 0 and later was awarded the Olympic gold medal . In 1957 , Norway was invited to the first ever Bandy World Championship but declined because the Soviet Union was invited too .
On Sunday , 28 October 1956 , as some 55 million Americans watched Ed Sullivan 's popular television variety show , with the then 21 @-@ year @-@ old Elvis Presley headlining for the second time , Sullivan asked viewers to send aid to Hungarian refugees fleeing from the effects of the Soviet invasion . Presley himself made another request for donations during his third and last appearance on Sullivan 's show on 6 January 1957 . Presley then dedicated a song for the finale , which he thought fit the mood of the time , namely the gospel song " Peace in the Valley " . By the end of 1957 , these contributions , distributed by the Geneva @-@ based International Red Cross as food rations , clothing , and other essentials , had amounted to some SFR 26 million ( US $ 6 million in 1957 dollars ) , the equivalent of $ 50 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars . On 1 March 2011 , István Tarlós , the Mayor of Budapest , made Presley an honorary citizen , posthumously , and a plaza located at the intersection of two of the city 's most important avenues was named after Presley , as a gesture of gratitude .
Meanwhile , as the 1950s drew to a close , the events in Hungary produced ideological fractures within the Communist parties of Western Europe . Within the Italian Communist Party ( PCI ) a split ensued : most ordinary members and the Party leadership , including Palmiro Togliatti and Giorgio Napolitano , regarded the Hungarian insurgents as counter @-@ revolutionaries , as reported in l 'Unità , the official PCI newspaper . However Giuseppe Di Vittorio , chief of the Communist trade union CGIL , repudiated the leadership position , as did the prominent party members Antonio Giolitti , Loris Fortuna , and many other influential Communist intellectuals , who later were expelled or left the party . Pietro Nenni , the national secretary of the Italian Socialist Party , a close ally of the PCI , opposed the Soviet intervention as well . Napolitano , elected in 2006 as President of the Italian Republic , wrote in his 2005 political autobiography that he regretted his justification of Soviet action in Hungary , and that at the time he believed in Party unity and the international leadership of Soviet communism .
Within the Communist Party of Great Britain ( CPGB ) , dissent that began with the repudiation of Stalin by John Saville and E. P. Thompson , influential historians and members of the Communist Party Historians Group , culminated in a loss of thousands of party members as events unfolded in Hungary . Peter Fryer , correspondent for the CPGB newspaper The Daily Worker , reported accurately on the violent suppression of the uprising , but his dispatches were heavily censored . Fryer resigned from the paper upon his return , and was later expelled from the Communist Party
In France , moderate Communists , such as historian Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie , resigned , questioning the French Communist Party 's policy of supporting Soviet actions . The French philosopher and writer Albert Camus wrote an open letter , The Blood of the Hungarians , criticising the West 's lack of action . Even Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , still a determined Communist , criticised the Soviets in his article Le Fantôme de Staline , in Situations VII . Left Communists were particularly supportive of the revolution .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In December 1991 , the preamble of the treaties with the dismembered Soviet Union , under Mikhail Gorbachev , and Russia , represented by Boris Yeltsin , apologised officially for the 1956 Soviet actions in Hungary . This apology was repeated by Yeltsin in 1992 during a speech to the Hungarian parliament .
On 13 February 2006 , the US State Department commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution . Former US Secretary of State Rice commented on the contributions made by 1956 Hungarian refugees to the United States and other host countries , as well as the role of Hungary in providing refuge to East Germans during the 1989 protests against Communist rule . US President George W. Bush also visited Hungary on 22 June 2006 , to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary .
On 16 June 1989 , the 31st anniversary of his execution , Imre Nagy 's body was reburied with full honours . The Republic of Hungary was declared in 1989 on the 33rd anniversary of the Revolution , and 23 October is now a Hungarian national holiday .
In the north @-@ west corner of MacArthur Park in Los Angeles , California , the Hungarian @-@ American community built a commemorative statue to honour the Hungarian freedom fighters . Built in the late 1960s , the obelisk statue stands with an American eagle watching over the city of Los Angeles .
= = More information = =
From the noon bell to the lads of Pest ( MEK )
= Hung Up =
" Hung Up " is a song by American singer Madonna from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna in collaboration with Stuart Price , and released as the lead single from the album . Initially used in a number of television advertisements and serials , the song was released as the album 's lead single on October 17 , 2005 . It has also made an appearance on her 2009 greatest hits album , Celebration . It also became Madonna 's first track to be released to the iTunes Store for digital download .
" Hung Up " prominently features a sample from the instrumental introduction to ABBA 's hit single " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " , for which Madonna personally sought permission from ABBA 's songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus . Musically the song is influenced by 1980s pop , with a chugging groove and chorus and a background element of a ticking clock that suggests the fear of wasting time . Lyrically the song is written as a traditional dance number about a strong , independent woman who has relationship troubles .
" Hung Up " received critical praise from reviewers , who believed that the track would restore the singer 's popularity , which had diminished following the release of her 2003 album American Life . Critics suggested it was her best dance track to date and have compared it favorably to other Madonna tracks in the same genre . They also complimented the effective synchronization of the ABBA sample with the actual song . " Hung Up " became a worldwide commercial success , peaking atop the charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the Guinness Book of World Records . It was Madonna 's 36th top 10 single on the Billboard Hot 100 , tying her with Elvis Presley as the artist with most top ten hits . It also became the most successful dance song of the decade in the United States . " Hung Up " remains one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with sales of over nine million copies worldwide .
The music video is a tribute to John Travolta , his movies and to dancing in general . Directed by Johan Renck , the clip starts with Madonna clad in a pink leotard dancing alone in a ballet studio and concludes at a gaming parlor where she dances with her backup troupe . Interspersed are scenes of people displaying their dancing skills in a variety of settings , including a Los Angeles residential neighborhood , a small restaurant and the London Underground . It also features the physical discipline Parkour . Madonna has performed the song in a number of live appearances , including as the finale number in 2006 's Confessions Tour , a heavy metal @-@ inspired arrangement in the 2008 Sticky & Sweet Tour and during the 2012 MDNA Tour where the singer performed the song while slacklining .
= = Background and release = =
In 2004 , after the release of her ninth studio album American Life , Madonna began working on two different musicals : one tentatively called Hello Suckers and another one with Luc Besson , who previously directed the music video for her single " Love Profusion " , which would portray her as a woman on her deathbed looking back on her life . Madonna collaborated with Patrick Leonard , Mirwais Ahmadzaï and Stuart Price to write new songs , Price being assigned to pen disco songs sounding like " ABBA on drugs " . However , Madonna found herself dissatisfied with the script written by Besson and scrapped it . When she began composing Confessions on a Dance Floor , she decided to rework " Hung Up " and include it in her record .
" Hung Up " was one of the first songs written for the album , along with " Sorry " and " Future Lovers " . It was inspired by the 1970s disco era , notably ABBA , Giorgio Moroder and the film Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) . Madonna imagined it to be a cross between the music played at Danceteria , the New York City night club she frequented in her early days , and the music of ABBA . Their 1979 hit " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " formed the basis of the song . Songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus generally do not allow anyone to sample any of their tracks , an exception being Fugees , who sampled their song " The Name of the Game " for their single " Rumble in the Jungle " . In order to gain the rights to sample " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! " , Madonna had to send her emissary to Stockholm with a letter which begged them to allow her to sample the song and also telling how much she loved their music . To the BBC she explained : " [ T ] hey never let anyone sample their music . Thank God they didn 't say no . [ ... ] They had to think about it , Benny and Björn . They didn 't say yes straight away . " The pair agreed to let Madonna use the sample only after making a copyright agreement that entitled them to a significant share of the royalties from subsequent sales and airplay . Andersson , in an interview with The Daily Telegraph in October 2005 , declared " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! " to be the essence of " Hung Up " while joking that it was his favourite Madonna song thus far . He further said :
" We get so many requests from people wanting to use our tracks but we normally say ' no ' . This is only the second time we have given permission . We said ' yes ' this time because we admire Madonna so much and always have done . She has got guts and has been around for 21 years . That is not bad going . "
The song premiered in September 2005 , during a television advertisement for Motorola 's iTunes compatible ROKR mobile phone . The advertisement featured Madonna and other artists jammed in a phone booth . On October 17 , 2005 , the song made its premiere during a live ten @-@ minute radio interview between Ryan Seacrest and Madonna . It was also made available as a master ringtone with various mobile service providers . " Hung Up " was sent to mainstream radio in the United States on October 18 . The song was added to episodes of CSI : Miami and CSI : NY on November 7 and 9 , 2005 , respectively . While promoting Confessions on a Dance Floor , Madonna played both " Hung Up " and the next single " Sorry " at Luke & Leroy 's nightclub in Greenwich Village , where she was invited by Junior Sanchez to perform briefly as the DJ , mixing the two songs . Regarding her decision to release the song to iTunes , Madonna said : " I 'm a businesswoman . The music industry has changed . There 's a lot of competition , and the market is glutted with new releases – and new ' thises and thats ' . You must join forces with other brands and corporations . You 're an idiot if you don 't . "
= = Music structure and lyrics = =
Musically , " Hung Up " is a dance @-@ pop and disco song . According to The New York Times , the song has vaguely familiar hooks , sustained overlays of the string arrangement and acoustic guitar enfolding the music to create a haze like sound . Billboard described the music as frothy , nonsensical and joyous . The instant familiarity of the sampled music is changed by Stuart Price and Madonna by adding a chugging groove and a chorus which singles it out as an independent song . Besides the ABBA sample , Rolling Stone said that the song also incorporated Madonna 's older songs like " Like a Prayer " and " Holiday " and features fleeting quotes from bands like S.O.S. and the Tom Tom Club .
According to Musicnotes.com , " Hung Up " is set in common time , and has a moderate dance @-@ beat tempo of 120 beats per minute . The key of the song is in D minor with Madonna 's vocal range spanning from G3 to B ♭ 4 . The song progresses in the following chord progressions of Dm – F – C – Dm in the verses and Dm – F – Am – Dm – Dm – F – Am – Dm in the chorus , and changes to B ♭ – F – A – Dm – B ♭ – F – A – Dm for the bridge . " Hung Up " uses the sound of a ticking clock to symbolize fear of wasted time , which was incorporated by composer Stuart Price , from his remix of Gwen Stefani 's 2004 single " What You Waiting For ? " . According to Slant Magazine , the song embodies some of Madonna 's old hits , incorporating them into the song 's pitched @-@ upward vocals while presenting an archetypical key change / tonicization during the bridge .
Lyrically , the song is written from the perspective of a girl who once had nothing and the theme centers around love . About.com compared the lyrics of " Hung Up " and another song " I Love New York " from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album , to the style of the songs in Madonna 's American Life album . According to About.com , the song is written as a very traditional dance number which is rooted in relationship issues . Also present in the lyrics is Madonna 's enduring embrace of strong , independent women . The song 's hook , " Time goes by so slowly for those who wait , " is taken from Madonna 's 1989 collaboration with Prince , " Love Song , " as is the line , " Those who run seem to have all the fun . "
= = Critical reception = =
Keith Caulfield from Billboard , while reviewing Confessions on a Dance Floor , called the song " a fluffier cut " . Chris Tucker from Billboard explained that " Madonna returns with a song that will restore faith among her minions , fans of pop music and radio programmers " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that Madonna kept her pop touch in " Hung Up " and called it a love song which is both happy as well as sad . Alan Light from Rolling Stone called the song candy coated . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly was impressed by the song and said " ' Hung Up ' shows how effortlessly she [ Madonna ] can tap into her petulant inner teen " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine compared the song to the remix of Gwen Stefani 's 2004 single " What You Waiting For ? " . Ed Gonzalez from the same magazine called the song the biggest hit of her career . Margaret Moser from The Austin Chronicle said that the song strobes and pulses along with another album track " Forbidden Love " . Peter Robinson from The Guardian commented that " Hung Up " is Madonna 's " most wonderfully commercial single since the mid Eighties " . Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said that the song could have been more campy by addition of Liza Minnelli inspired vocals in the background and lyrics which talk about Larry Grayson .
Ben Williams from New York magazine described the song as sounding both throbbing as well as wistful . Christian John Wikane from PopMatters called the song a propulsive track . Alan Braidwood of the BBC , noted of the track : " full @-@ on dance , dark , disco , fun , big " and compared it to other Madonna songs like " Vogue " , " Deeper and Deeper " and " Ray of Light " . Tom Bishop from the BBC commented that Madonna has either reinvigorated her career or she is " merely throwing one final dance party for her long @-@ term fans before settling down to record more sedate material " . Jason Shawhan from About.com commented that the song has " way too much Abba in it for its own good . " He went on to elaborate that " [ t ] he only reason I can think of for this to be chosen as the first single was the Motorola ad campaign . It 's not a bad song by far , it has pep and a sense of fun , but it 's not even close to being one of the best songs on the record " . Bill Lamb of About.com said that the ABBA sample sounded completely effortless like much of Madonna 's best dance music . He further elaborated that what " ' Hung Up ' amounts to is a big gushy love note to Madonna 's core fans , those club kids who pack the floor every time they hear the pounding beats of a Madonna classic and the dj 's who can 't get enough of spinning her records . ' Hung Up ' will send those fans into ecstasy , and it sounds good on the radio , too " . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine declared that " Hung Up " and the next single " Sorry " might not have the same sleaze as Madonna 's older songs like " Physical Attraction " or " Burning Up " , but have the same modus operandi of being designed for " sweaty up @-@ all @-@ night dancing " . Rob Harvilla from The Village Voice called the song a triumphant jazz exercise .
= = Recognition = =
" Hung Up " was ranked at number 76 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Best Songs of the 2000s " decade @-@ end list , calling it " One of her [ Madonna 's ] most captivating hits ever — and thanks to those deceptively hard @-@ hitting lyrics , one of her most personal . " NME ranked it at number 39 in their list of the best tracks of 2005 . Slant Magazine 's writers listed the song at number 36 on their list of Best of the Aughts : Singles saying : " ' Hung Up ' employs a ticking clock to represent fear of wasted time , but Madonna isn 't singing about aging or saving the world — she 's talking about love . It had been years since Madge sounded this vapid . With its pitched @-@ upward vocals , infectious arpeggio sample from ABBA 's ' Gimme Gimme Gimme ( A Man After Midnight ) , ' and the bridge 's unironic , archetypical key change , the track decidedly points to the past , and it proved that , 20 years into her career , Madonna was still the one and only Dancing Queen . " The song was also named the 26th best single of 2005 by Pitchfork Media . Stylus Magazine included " Hung Up " on their ranking of the best singles from 2005 at number 11 .
= = Chart performance = =
" Hung Up " was a worldwide commercial success , peaking at number one in charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the 2007 Guinness Book of World Records , as the song topping the charts in most countries . It also remains one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time , with sales of over 9 million copies worldwide . In the United States , " Hung Up " debuted at twenty on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated November 5 , 2005 . It became her highest opening position since " Ray of Light " entered the chart at five in 1998 . The same week the song entered the Hot Digital Songs chart at number six and became the highest debuting single of the week on the Pop 100 Airplay , where it debuted at number 38 . On the issue dated November 21 , 2005 , the song reached a peak of number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 , jumping from number 14 from previous week . The song became the chart 's greatest digital gainer for that week and claimed the top position on the Hot Digital Songs chart . It also tied Madonna with Elvis Presley for 36 top ten hits , which was subsequently broken by Madonna 's 2008 song " 4 Minutes " , which peaked at number three on the Hot 100 . " Hung Up " debuted at numbers 25 and 10 on the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Airplay charts respectively ultimately reaching the top of both . It became the most successful dance song of the 2000s in the United States , by topping the Dance / Club Play Songs Decade @-@ end tally . The song also reached a peak of seven on the Pop 100 chart . In 2008 , the single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling at least a million copies in paid digital downloads . As of April 2010 , the song has sold 1 @.@ 2 million digital units in the United States .
" Hung Up " became the fastest rising single on radio in Canada , according to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems . On the second week itself , the song reached the top of the Contemporary Hit Radio chart of Canada , while reaching the top five of the Adult Contemporary and Canadian Airplay charts . Paul Tuch from Nielsen clarified that " Hung Up " achieved this feat within 10 days only . Consequently , " Hung Up " also peaked atop the Canadian Singles Chart for 15 non @-@ consecutive weeks , and was certified double platinum by Music Canada for sales of 160 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia , the song debuted atop the ARIA Singles Chart on November 20 , 2005 , breaking her tie with Kylie Minogue as the female artist with most number @-@ one singles in Australian chart history . It was present within the top 50 of the chart for 23 weeks . The song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " Hung Up " debuted at number 67 in the French singles chart and jumped to the top next week , remaining there for five non @-@ consecutive weeks . It received a gold certification from Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . " Hung Up " reached a peak position of number two in New Zealand , being kept from the top spot by Kanye West 's single , " Gold Digger " .
In the United Kingdom , " Hung Up " debuted at number one on the issue dated November 13 , 2005 , thus giving Madonna her 11th number one single on this chart . It sold 105 @,@ 619 copies becoming the first single to sell more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in a week since Crazy Frog 's " Axel F " did it 23 weeks earlier . The first week sales of " Hung Up " were a little lower than Madonna 's last UK number one , " Music " ( 2000 ) , which opened with 114 @,@ 925 sales , but exceeded her last single " Love Profusion " , which debuted at number 11 with 15 @,@ 361 sales in December 2003 . The next week the single had a decline in sales of 43 % to 59 @,@ 969 ; copies , but remained on the top as Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted atop the UK Albums Chart . It remained at the top position for three weeks and a total of 40 weeks on the Singles Chart . According to the Official Charts Company , by the end of 2005 , " Hung Up " was Madonna 's biggest selling single with 339 @,@ 285 copies since " Music " sold 390 @,@ 624 copies in 2000 . It was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and has sold 617 @,@ 000 in the UK to date . In Ireland , the song debuted at number two on the chart dated November 10 , 2005 becoming the highest debut of the week . The song also topped Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles chart where it soared from 73 to the top of the chart on the issue dated November 21 , 2005 . The song was able to peak the charts in almost all the European nations including Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Italy , Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception = = =
Originally the video for " Hung Up " was to be directed by photographer David LaChapelle . He wanted the video to have a " documentary " -style look , much like that of his 2005 film , Rize , in which five of the dancers from the " Hung Up " video appeared . LaChapelle and Madonna disagreed on the concept , prompting the project to be reassigned to Johan Renck , who worked with Madonna in her video for " Nothing Really Matters " . According to an interview with MTV , Renck was directing Kate Moss for a H & M commercial when he received a phone call from Madonna who desperately wanted to work with him . The next day he went to Los Angeles to meet the stylist and the choreographer hired by Madonna , who mailed him with her ideas for the video . The director explained that he " kind of liked that we didn 't have time to over @-@ think this and be too clever , I like being out on a limb and not know what we 're doing and why . Just deal with it , the mayhem , you know ? "
Madonna clarified that the video was a tribute to John Travolta and to dance in general . Her dance moves for the video , which were inspired by Travolta 's movies like Saturday Night Fever ( 1977 ) , Grease ( 1978 ) and Perfect ( 1985 ) took three hours to shoot . Madonna had broken eight bones in a horseback @-@ riding accident a few weeks before shooting the video and faced difficulty doing the steps devised by choreographer Jamie King . Renck said ,
" She was such a trooper , [ ... ] She just fell off a horse ! [ Madonna said ] ' If you were a real dance choreographer , you could tell I can 't lift my left arm higher than this ' — and it was like , what , a 20 @-@ centimeter difference ? [ ... ] But when she said it ' hurts like f--- , ' she 'd take a break and sit down for two minutes . [ Madonna ] ' I have broken ribs , remember that ! ' I just can 't imagine dancing like that . Talk about priorities . "
Madonna wanted to use a few performers from her tour , such as Daniel " Cloud " Campos , Miss Prissy from LaChapelle 's Rize crew and traceur Sebastien Foucan , a practitioner of Parkour , a philosophical French sport . Renck said that " It 's not about the music , but the bodily expression , [ ... ] We wanted to show the whole spectrum , be it krumping , breakdancing , jazz or disco . " Since they could not shoot all over the world , Madonna wanted the video to have an " omnipresent feel " , with the middle section of the song generating a sense of congregation . Renck suggested that they include a boombox , used as a means of uniting everyone and everything since it was through listening to songs on a boombox that street dancing started . Though some scenes in the video feature cities like London , Paris , New York , Los Angeles , Shanghai and Tokyo , in reality the actual sets were constructed in Los Angeles and London only . A London suburb was made to look like a Parisian one , where the routine for Parkour takes place , whereas a restaurant in London 's Chinatown was used for the Shanghai sequence and Compton stood in for the Bronx . The dancers ' scenes were shot in early October 2005 within half a day , for a total of six days of shooting .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Madonna was also associated with the editing process of the video . She was Renck 's editing supervisor . Madonna wanted a raw documentary look for the video which allowed her to be portrayed more realistically . Regarding the making of " Hung Up " , Renck said that it was a massive work to undertake , " It 's like you form this little family that 's flourished and prospered for the month , and then you chop it down like a tree , [ ... ] You come out with a sense of yearning and longing , like , ' Can we just do that again ? Please ? ' "
The video starts with Madonna coming to a ballet studio carrying a boombox . She switches it on as the clock ticking sound of the music starts . Wearing a pink leotard , Madonna starts gyrating to the music while doing warm up exercises . The scene interchanges with a group of people on the street who start dancing to the music while listening to a similar boombox . They also display aspects of the physical discipline Parkour , while climbing over buildings and jumping from staircases . As the song starts , Madonna dances to the music in the ballet studio . The second verse shows her continuing dancing while the people from the street take their boombox and board a taxi . Scenes are interspersed with people dancing in a Chinese restaurant and Parisian streets . In the meantime , Madonna finishes her workout in the ballet studio , drops her towel , changes her clothes and comes out on the street . The people on the taxi , leave it and take the Underground instead . After another round of dancing in the train , the intermediate music starts . Madonna is shown mingling with some dancers on a dance floor and riding on a boombox . As the song starts again , Madonna and the people from the street , who act as her background dancers , all dance on a Dance Dance Revolution machine in a gaming parlor . The video ends showing Madonna lying on the ballet studio floor . The video was nominated for five awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards including Best Female Video , Dance Video , Pop Video , Best Choreography and the Video of the Year award although it did not win any of them .
= = Live performances = =
On November 4 , 2005 Madonna opened the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards at the Pavilhão Atlântico in Lisbon , Portugal with her first performance of " Hung Up " . She emerged from a glitterball to perform sing the song while wearing a purple leotard and matching leather boots . During next days , Madonna performed " Hung Up " on TV shows such as Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , Parkinson in England and Star Academy in France , as well as on the Children in Need 2005 telethon in London . She opened her concerts at Koko and G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclubs in London with " Hung Up " , respectively on November 15 and 19 . The performance again saw Madonna emerge from a glitter ball while wearing a purple jacket , velvet pedal pushers and knee @-@ high boots . In December Madonna travelled to Tokyo , Japan , where " Hung Up " was performed on TV show SMAP × SMAP and her concert at Studio Coast . On February 8 , 2006 Madonna opened the 2006 Grammy Awards at the Staples Center in Los Angeles . She sang the song by pairing up with the fictional animated band Gorillaz . The band appeared on the stage via a three dimensional technique which projected their holograms on the stage . They performed their song " Feel Good Inc . " while rappers De La Soul made a guest appearance . Madonna then appeared on the stage and started performing the song while interchanging places with the hologram figures of the band . She was later joined by her own group of dancers and the performance was finished on the main stage rather than the virtual screen . Another performance of " Hung Up " came on April 30 , 2006 during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California .
The song was performed as the last song of her 2006 Confessions Tour . It was performed at the last " disco fever " segment of the tour . During the performance , her dancers displayed the Parkour routine all over the stadium as the familiar ABBA sample played . Madonna changed her aerobics costume for a purple leotard . As the music progressed , she and her dancers appeared on the center stage and she started singing . During the second verse , she left her sunglasses and jacket and proceeded towards the front of the stage . A boombox appeared in the center with Madonna playing with it . The song starts again as balloons fall on the crowd from the top . The finale had Madonna engaging the audience to sing @-@ along with her to the song while making a contest as to which side of the stadium can sing the loudest . Madonna then uttering the line " I 'm tired of waiting for you " while the backdrop showed the phrase " Have You Confessed ? " . The New York Times ' Ginia Belafonte compared this performance with that of Ethel Merman . Slant Magazine commented that the performance reminded Madonna 's ability to encapsulate the audience as a part of her performance . On July 7 , 2007 Madonna closed her set during the Live Earth concert at the Wembley Stadium in London with " Hung Up " .
The song was also added to the six song set list of the Hard Candy Promo Tour in 2008 . Madonna wore a shiny black outfit with black tails , Adidas track pants and high @-@ heeled , lace @-@ up boots . " Hung Up " was the fourth song of the set list . It was re @-@ invented as a heavy @-@ metal version . As the performance of " 4 Minutes " ended , Madonna picked up an electric guitar and played the first few chords of The Rolling Stones single " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " . She then asked the crowd whether they thought they had come to a Rolling Stones concert . When the crowd responded negatively , she started " Hung Up " , while dedicating it to all the people who had waited outside in the queue to watch the show . She declared that the noisy , metallic guitar breakdown of the song symbolised what waiting sounded like in the brain of all those who had waited . The song was performed in the futuristic rave with Japanese influences segment of the 2008 Sticky & Sweet Tour . Madonna wore a futuristic robotic outfit designed by Heatherette , with plates on her shoulder and a wig with long curled hair . The similar heavy @-@ metal version of " Hung Up " was performed but it later gave way to the ABBA music . Before starting the performance , she played a capella versions of her older hit songs on audience demand , mostly " Express Yourself " and " Like a Virgin " . However , after that , the electric guitar was played to make noises , which Madonna dedicated to Republican vice @-@ presidential nominee for the 2008 election , Sarah Palin . She said , " I 'd like to express myself to Sarah Palin right now . [ Playing a screeching note on her guitar ] This is the sound of Sarah Palin thinking . [ ... ] Sarah Palin can 't come to my party . Sarah Palin can 't come to my show . It 's nothing personal . " The performance ended with Madonna playing the guitar riff of " A New Level " by heavy @-@ metal band Pantera . For the second European leg of the tour in 2009 , " Hung Up " was removed from the setlist and was replaced by an up @-@ beat version of " Frozen " .
For The MDNA Tour of 2012 , " Hung Up " was added to the setlist as part of the opening segment , known as Transgression . After performing a fragment of " Papa Don 't Preach " , several dancers wearing tribal masks , surrounded Madonna , tied her up and proceeded to carry her to the center of the main stage just as the song 's opening riffs , underpinned by the dramatic sound of church bells with vocoder vocals , started to play in the background . Dressed in a black skintight outfit with an ample cleavage , gloves of the same color and heeled boots , Madonna and her dancers performed the song while at the same time realizing a slacklining session on some ropes held on the middle of the stage . As Madonna sang the song , her dancers slid under the ropes . This performance received generally mixed reviews , Jon Pareles from The New York Times believed that changing the composition of the song in lieu of the theme for the segment made it " ominous and obsessive " , while making it " a memory of distant innocence " . Jim Farber from the Daily News felt that the introduction of slacklining gave the whole tour " some needed bounce " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was negative on his review of the performance , as he felt it was out of place on the show 's segment , and compared it negatively to the performance of the Sticky & Sweet Tour , concluding that the song " should never be performed in any way other than its original form . "
On April 13 , 2015 , Madonna made a surprise appearance at the Coachella Festival and performed a medley of her 1994 song " Human Nature " and " Hung Up " during Drake 's act , sporting thigh @-@ high boots and a tank top that read " Big as Madonna " . She then went on to kiss Drake ; the kissing becoming an Internet viral .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Writer and Producer – Madonna , Stuart Price
Writer of Sample – Benny Andersson , Björn Ulvaeus
Cover Artwork – Giovanni Bianco
Digital Imaging – Lorenzo Irico ( Pixelway NYC )
Management – Angela Becker , Guy Oseary
Photography – Steven Klein
Hair and makeup – Andy LeCompte
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= David Villa =
David Villa Sánchez ( Spanish pronunciation : [ daˈβið ˈβiʎa ] ; born 3 December 1981 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a striker and is the captain for New York City FC . He is nicknamed El Guaje ( The Kid in Asturian ) because as a youngster he frequently played football with children much older than him .
Despite sustaining a serious injury as a child , Villa started his professional career with Sporting de Gijón . He moved to Real Zaragoza after two seasons , where he made his La Liga debut , winning the Copa del Rey and Supercopa de España . He joined Valencia CF in 2005 for a transfer fee of € 12 million and was part of the Valencia team that won the Copa del Rey in the 2007 – 08 season . Villa hit his La Liga goalscoring peak while at Valencia , scoring 28 league goals in the 2008 – 09 season . In 2010 , he moved to FC Barcelona for € 40 million , where he won his first La Liga and UEFA Champions League titles . He was one of the goalscorers in the 2011 final of the Champions League as Barcelona defeated Manchester United , 3 – 1 . After a € 5 @.@ 1 million transfer , he spent the 2013 – 14 season at Atlético Madrid , winning another La Liga title before leaving to play for New York City .
Villa made his international debut for Spain in 2005 . He has since participated in four major tournaments , becoming an integral member of the Spain teams that won UEFA Euro 2008 and the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He scored three goals at the 2006 World Cup , was the top scorer at Euro 2008 and earned the Silver Boot at the 2010 World Cup . He is the first Spanish player to ever reach 50 international goals and retired from internationals after the 2014 World Cup with 59 in 97 matches , making him Spain 's all @-@ time top goalscorer as well as the country 's top scorer in the World Cup , with nine goals .
= = Childhood and early career = =
Villa was born in Tuilla , a small parish in Langreo , Asturias , a region in northern Spain , the son of José Manuel Villa , a miner . When Villa was four , his chances of becoming a footballer were put in jeopardy when he suffered a fracture to the femur in his right leg , but he made a complete recovery . Due to the injury , he and his father worked on strengthening his left leg and Villa ultimately became ambidextrous . He recalls his father being consistently supportive : " He would be there throwing me the ball over and over , making me kick it with my left leg when my right was in plaster after breaking it , I was four . I can barely remember a single training session when my dad wasn 't there . I have never been alone on a football pitch . "
Villa admitted that he came close to giving up football at the age of 14 after growing disillusioned and falling out with his coach . However , thanks to his parents ' encouragement , he persisted in pursuing his dream , realising his talent could earn him a living . " In those days I was a nobody , not earning a penny and after being made to sit on the bench all season I just wanted to get away and play with my friends " he said . " But my dad always supported me and cheered me up until my career turned round . " He went on to begin his footballing career at UP Langreo and when he turned 17 he joined the Mareo football school .
= = Club career = =
= = = Sporting Gijón = = =
Villa attracted interest from many Asturian teams , but one of the province 's bigger teams , Real Oviedo , declared that he was too short and that they did not believe he had sufficient potential . He subsequently got his professional breakthrough at his local club Sporting de Gijón , following in the footsteps of his childhood idol Quini . Starting out at the team 's youth ranks , he made his first @-@ team debut in the 2000 – 01 season . After scoring 25 goals in two seasons , he became a first team regular . Pepe Acebal , Sporting 's manager at the time , said that Villa initially lacked the stamina to have a real impact and had to be given his chance bit by bit and that Villa 's capacity for work was " unrivalled " .
= = = Real Zaragoza = = =
= = = = 2003 – 04 season = = = =
With his goal tally nearly reaching 40 goals after spending two full seasons in Sporting 's main team , Villa got his chance in Spain 's top @-@ flight when Sporting were in financial difficulty – newly promoted Real Zaragoza signed him for approximately € 3 million in the summer of 2003 . The striker had no trouble adapting to playing at the higher level , netting 17 times in his first season at Zaragoza . His league debut came during Zaragoza 's first La Liga game since his arrival , where the team were defeated 1 – 0 away by Galician side Deportivo de La Coruña while his first goal came two games later , an eighth @-@ minute goal against Real Murcia which put Zaragoza 2 – 0 up in a match which ended 3 – 0 . 4 December 2003 saw him net his first brace ( two goals ) in a 2 – 2 draw against Athletic Bilbao and on 25 April 2004 , he scored his first hat @-@ trick in a tight 4 – 4 draw against Sevilla which saw Villa score all four of Zaragoza 's goals , putting his team ahead on two occasions .
Zaragoza reached the 2004 Copa del Rey final where he played a big part in the team 's victory , scoring a crucial goal to put the Aragonese outfit 2 – 1 up against Real Madrid in a match which eventually ended 3 – 2 . Soon after , he earned his first international call @-@ up and cap , which resulted in Zaragoza fans becoming so proud of his achievements that they invented the football chant " illa illa illa , Villa maravilla " , a play on the words " Villa " and " maravilla " , the latter which translates to " marvel " but can also mean " wonderful " or " great " in that context .
= = = = 2004 – 05 season = = = =
After Zaragoza 's triumph in the Copa del Rey , they were granted a place in the 2004 – 05 UEFA Cup ; this was Villa 's first time playing in a European competition . In the team 's opening group game , against Utrecht , Villa netted a brace in the dying minutes of the game , which ended 2 – 0 in Zaragoza 's favour . In the round of 16 , Zaragoza faced Austria Wien . The first leg ended 1 – 1 , while Villa scored in the second leg in an eventual 2 – 2 draw ; Austria Wien progressed on the away goals rule . Meanwhile , in La Liga , Villa excited Zaragoza fans on 23 September 2004 by putting the team 1 – 0 up against Barcelona at the Camp Nou , although Barcelona came back to win the game 4 – 1 . On 17 April 2005 , Villa scored a brace which helped see off Sevilla in a 3 – 0 victory .
= = = Valencia = = =
= = = = 2005 – 06 season = = = =
After his success at Zaragoza , the team was in need of money , as a result , Villa made his big move to one of Spanish football 's heavyweights , as a new look Valencia under Quique Sánchez Flores parted with € 12 million to secure his services in the summer of 2005 . During his first game in a Valencia shirt , an Intertoto Cup match against Belgian outfit Gent , Villa scored the first goal in a game which Valencia won 2 – 0 . He made his league debut for Valencia coming on as a substitute against Real Betis in a 1 – 0 win on 27 August 2005 . The next match would see his previous team , Zaragoza , leading 2 – 1 for the majority of the match ; however , on the 81st minute , Villa came on as a late substitute for Rubén Baraja and scored the equalizer within the space of a minute , earning Valencia a point in a 2 – 2 draw .
On 21 September , Villa would once again save Valencia a vital point by netting a brace against Barcelona at Camp Nou , actually giving his team the lead at one point after Víctor Valdés ' clearance rebounded off Villa 's back and into the net . On 23 October , Villa scored the winning goal against another Spanish giant , this time Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium , and would once again score against Barcelona on 12 February 2006 , his one @-@ goal proving enough to secure all three points in a 1 – 0 victory . Villa scored a goal against Deportivo La Coruña at the Riazor on 4 February 2006 , later described as " superb " by ESPN and " his best " by Sid Lowe , who went on to credit it even more pointing out he achieved it " on the turn " . Hitting the ball from the half way line ( 50 yards out ) it sailed over the keepers head and into the net .
Villa scored his first hat @-@ trick for Valencia against Athletic Bilbao at San Mamés in La Liga on 23 April 2006 . He managed the hat @-@ trick in just over five minutes ( 80th to the 85th minute ) , making it one of the quickest hat @-@ tricks ever recorded . Valencia won that game 3 – 0 . That season saw him score 25 goals in 35 league matches for Valencia , finishing one goal behind the league 's top scorer Samuel Eto 'o of Barcelona . Villa 's goal tally that year was the best that any Valencia player had ever achieved since Edmundo Suárez over 60 years prior .
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
Villa 's form continued into the 2006 – 07 season , with the striker forming a partnership up front with former Real Madrid star Fernando Morientes . Between them
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Sutton Coldfield is the headquarters of the Professional Golfers ' Association and has hosted the Ryder Cup more times than any other venue . The Forest of Arden Hotel and Country Club near Birmingham Airport is also a regular host of tournaments on the PGA European Tour , including the British Masters and the English Open .
The AEGON Classic is , alongside Wimbledon and Eastbourne , one of only three UK tennis tournaments on the WTA Tour . It is played annually at the Edgbaston Priory Club , which in 2010 announced plans for a multimillion @-@ pound redevelopment , including a new showcase centre court and a museum celebrating the game 's Birmingham origins .
The Alexander Stadium in Perry Barr is the headquarters of UK Athletics , and one of only two British venues to host fixtures in the elite international IAAF Diamond League . It is also the home of Birchfield Harriers , which has many international athletes among its members . The National Indoor Arena hosted the 2007 European Athletics Indoor Championships and 2003 IAAF World Indoor Championships , as well as hosting the annual Aviva Indoor Grand Prix – the only British indoor athletics fixture to qualify as an IAAF Indoor Permit Meeting – and a wide variety of other sporting events . The venue will host the World Indoor Athletics Championships for a second time , when they come to Birmingham in 2018 .
Professional boxing , hockey , skateboarding , stock @-@ car racing , greyhound racing and speedway also takes place within the city .
= = Food and drink = =
Birmingham 's development as a commercial town was originally based around its market for agricultural produce , established by royal charter in 1166 . Despite the industrialisation of subsequent centuries this role has been retained and the Birmingham Wholesale Markets remain the largest combined wholesale food markets in the country , selling meat , fish , fruit , vegetables and flowers and supplying fresh produce to restaurateurs and independent retailers from as far as 100 miles ( 161 km ) away .
Birmingham is the only English city outside London to have five Michelin starred restaurants : Simpson 's in Edgbaston , Turners in Harborne , Carters of Moseley and Purnell 's and Adam 's in the city centre .
Birmingham based breweries included Ansells , Davenport 's and Mitchells & Butlers . Aston Manor Brewery is currently the only brewery of any significant size . Many fine Victorian pubs and bars can still be found across the city , whilst there is also a plethora of more modern nightclubs and bars , notably along Broad Street .
The Wing Yip food empire first began in the city and now has its headquarters in Nechells . The Balti , a type of curry , was invented in the city , which has received much acclaim for the ' Balti Belt ' or ' Balti Triangle ' . Famous food brands that originated in Birmingham include Typhoo tea , Bird 's Custard , Cadbury 's chocolate and HP Sauce .
There is also a thriving independent and artisan food sector in Birmingham , encompassing microbreweries like Two Towers , and collective bakeries such as Loaf . Recent years have seen these businesses increasingly showcased at farmers markets , popular street food events and food festivals including Birmingham Independent Food Fair .
= = Media = =
Birmingham has several major local newspapers – the daily Birmingham Mail and the weekly Birmingham Post and Sunday Mercury , all owned by the Trinity Mirror . Forward ( formerly Birmingham Voice ) is a freesheet produced by Birmingham City Council , which is distributed to homes in the city . Birmingham is also the hub for various national ethnic media , and the base for two regional Metro editions ( East and West Midlands ) .
Birmingham has a long cinematic history ; The Electric on Station Street is the oldest working cinema in the UK , and Oscar Deutsch opened his first Odeon cinema in Brierley Hill during the 1920s . The largest cinema screen in the West Midlands is located at Millennium Point in the Eastside . Birmingham has also been the location for films including Felicia 's Journey of 1999 , which used locations in Birmingham that were used in Take Me High of 1973 to contrast the changes in the city .
The BBC has two facilities in the city . The Mailbox , in the city centre , is the national headquarters of BBC English Regions and the headquarters of BBC West Midlands and the BBC Birmingham network production centre . These were previously located at the Pebble Mill Studios in Edgbaston . The BBC Drama Village , based in Selly Oak , is a production facility specialising in television drama .
Central / ATV studios in Birmingham were the location for the recording of many programmes for ITV including Tiswas and Crossroads , until the complex was closed in 1997 , and Central moved to its current Gas Street studios . These were also the main hub for CITV , until that was moved to Manchester in 2004 . Central 's output from Birmingham now consists of only the West and East editions of the regional news programme Central Tonight .
The city is served by numerous national and regional radio stations , as well as local radio stations . These include Free Radio Birmingham & Free Radio 80s , Capital Birmingham , Heart West Midlands , Absolute Radio , and Smooth Radio . The city also has a community radio scene , with stations including Big City Radio , New Style Radio , Switch Radio , Raaj FM , and Unity FM .
The Archers , the world 's longest running radio soap , is recorded in Birmingham for BBC Radio 4 .
= = Twin cities = =
Birmingham has seven sister cities ;
Birmingham , Alabama , USA , is named after the city and shares an industrial kinship .
= Occupation ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" Occupation " is the third season premiere and 34th episode of the re @-@ imagined American science fiction drama television series Battlestar Galactica . The episode was written by re @-@ imagined creator Ronald D. Moore , and directed by Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . It first aired on October 6 , 2006 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel along with the following episode " Precipice " . In the episode , the Cylons are in their fourth month of a military occupation on New Caprica , where the majority of the human population are residing . A resistance movement is trying to drive the Cylons away . Meanwhile , Admiral William Adama continues his plan to rescue everybody there . Unlike most episodes , it does not include a survivor count .
The story behind the episode was inspired by several wars and occupations in the past , including the Quartering Acts and the Iraq War . Several parts of the episode changed from the script , more predominantly the scenes involving a suicide bombing . The producers were worried that the Sci Fi Channel would not allow the inclusion of the scene . The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers and attracted generally positive reactions from critics . In addition , Moore 's writing of the episode was nominated for an Emmy and a Writers Guild of America award .
= = Plot = =
Four months have passed since the end of " Lay Down Your Burdens " , where Cylons found the majority of the human population on a planet known as New Caprica , which had supposedly been hidden from DRADIS , and commenced their occupation . A few thousand humans had escaped in the remaining spaceships following Battlestars Galactica and Pegasus . Admiral William Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) is continuing to work on a plan to free those trapped on New Caprica . His son and commander of Pegasus Lee " Apollo " Adama ( Jamie Bamber ) confronts his father on pushing his Viper pilots beyond the breaking point , to which Adama says Apollo is becoming " soft . " Apollo 's wife , Anastasia Dualla ( Kandyse McClure ) surprises him by supporting the Admiral .
On New Caprica , Kara " Starbuck " Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) is placed in an elaborate prison cell made to look like her old apartment on Caprica by Leoben Conoy ( Callum Keith Rennie ) , who is attempting to force her to fall in love with him . Starbuck kills him several times , though Leoben always downloads into another body . Saul Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) is in a Cylon detention facility , where his right eye was forcibly removed . He is released when his wife Ellen Tigh ( Kate Vernon ) performs sexual favors for the Cylon Brother Cavil ( Dean Stockwell ) . Tigh returns to Samuel Anders ( Michael Trucco ) and Galen Tyrol ( Aaron Douglas ) , who have been leading a resistance movement against the Cylons , having detonated a bomb in a Cylon docking facility before Tigh 's release . Now free , Tigh resorts to escalating their efforts , by planning suicide bombings against the Cylons and any human collaborators .
The resistance is given intelligence by an unidentified informant from the Cylon command structure , by use of a secret dead drop ; flipping a dog bowl and hiding some documents inside the tent next to it . One piece of intelligence given is information on a Cylon communications blocker ; the resistance makes use of that information to contact a Raptor orbiting the planet . The Raptor returns to Galactica with news they have made contact with the resistance on the planet .
Next , the resistance plans to kill the President of the Colonies , Gaius Baltar ( James Callis ) , who is unwillingly collaborating with the Cylons . They learn he is to attend a graduation ceremony for the New Caprica Police , an unpopular masked police force set up by the Cylons to allow the humans to police the city and do the Cylons ' bidding . Tucker " Duck " Clellan ( Christian Tessier ) , who has access to the ceremony and whose wife had been killed by the Cylons , agrees to suicide bomb the ceremony . Towards the end of the episode it is revealed that Baltar 's aide , Felix Gaeta ( Alessandro Juliani ) is the informant . He learns that Baltar will not be attending the ceremony , but cannot alert the resistance in time . Duck attends the ceremony , and when Number Three ( Lucy Lawless ) comes to shake his hand , Duck detonates the bomb , killing everybody in the room .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Occupation " , and following episode " Precipice " were written by series creator Ronald D. Moore . The Cylon occupation of New Caprica , and the human resistance fighting them , was inspired by wars and military occupations from history , including the Quartering Acts , World War II , and the more recent occupation in Iraq . In the original writing , Moore did not originally consider including Tigh with an eye removed until the final drafts were written . Portraying actor Michael Hogan was initially hesitant with the idea . He recalled that when the producers called him to talk about how his character would be maimed , they suggested having an eye removed . Hogan responded by laughing , and the producers assumed he agreed .
When Anders and Tyrol detonate the bomb at the beginning of the episode , one of the Number Three ( D 'anna ) models was to film a propaganda film in front of Laura Roslin 's ( Mary McDonnell ) school at the time , but that was cut . Also , Jammer ( Dominic Zamprogna ) was originally considered the suicide bomber at the end , but was changed to Duck because he had less to live for after his wife 's death . In the original drafts , the resistance was not planning suicide bombings , but " freaking the Cylons out " by imprisoning many of them in a secret underground prison , torture them for information , and leave them alive instead of killing them , as they would resurrect otherwise . This would make the Cylons worry about their missing comrades . However , Moore later realized that suicide bombings would be " really potent and really powerful . " When writing the scenes involving Duck leading to the suicide bombing , Moore got " emotionally caught up in it , " adding " as I was writing these scenes of him standing in the police ranks , we know he 's got the belt on . What 's he gonna do ? And then , oh my God , he actually does it . I mean , it 's really horrifying stuff . But it 's true . That 's why I want to do it . It really happens . People do this . " The producers were initially worried that the Sci Fi Channel would not allow the inclusion of the bombing scene , but to Moore 's surprise , Sci Fi executive Mark Stern did not object to it .
There was some debate among the writers on when Galactica and the fleet would be brought into the story . Moore decided to reintroduce the space @-@ bound fleet in the beginning of the third act , in order to establish the story on New Caprica , and make the audience happy and more excited to see Galactica . Moore also decided to evolve one of the Number Eight Cylon models , Sharon Agathon ( Grace Park ) imprisoned on board the ship , where a year would allow Sharon and Admiral Adama to form a special relationship , eventually leading to Adama releasing her and allowing her to become a Colonial officer by the next episode . Moore felt " Occupation " was the best season premiere of Battlestar since " 33 " , the first season premiere , believing the writers " never quite matched " the performance on " 33 " in the following episodes . He also felt it was a better premiere than " Scattered " from the second season , as it contained disparate story lines where the characters were not fully reunited with each other until a few episodes in .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
The episode began with one of the most extended recaps in the series , as the producers wanted to bring the audience up to date from the events from " Lay Down Your Burdens " , which covered " quite a bit of ground " because of the large story development behind the finale . The scene where the Cylons meet in Colonial One became very tedious for the crew because several versions of the same Cylon model were used in the same shot , and the crew disliked filming on the set . Moore elaborated ;
The crew had to film different versions of the prayer scene before Duck commits the suicide attack . In making the photograph of him and his late wife , the actress who played Nora in the webisode series The Resistance was not available , so the producers digitally inserted her face onto the photograph . The episode includes a voiceover of Roslin detailing the occupation and resistance . This was not originally added in the final script , but was instead considered during post @-@ production of the episode . The ending for the episode was originally Leoben presenting Starbuck with Kacey Brynn , her " daughter , " but for unspecified reasons , the scene was instead used for " Precipice " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
" Occupation " and " Precipice " was originally meant to be released as two separate episodes , however the producers decided to merge them together to be released as a two @-@ hour broadcast . The reasoning was partly due to the third episode " Exodus " , which became too long and split to a two @-@ part episode , and the producers did not wish to stretch the New Caprica storyline to several weeks . The first 13 minutes of the episode were leaked on the Sci Fi Channel website days prior the broadcast . The two @-@ hour season three premiere was first broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on Friday , October 6 , 2006 between 9 pm and 11 pm . After its original broadcast , the two @-@ hour episode attracted a household rating of 1 @.@ 8 , equalling a total of 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . Ratings were an increase of 2 per cent in total viewing from the average ratings from the second half of the second season .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Occupation " received generally positive reviews from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN rated " Occupation " a " masterful " 10 out of 10 , stating " watching the season premiere of Battlestar Galactica is a great reminder that this is truly still the best show on television . " Ian Berriman of SFX called the episode a " stunning season opener , " citing the similarities of the occupation of Iraq as its greatest strength , but also thought it was the episode 's weakness . Berriman also liked Tigh 's transformation to a " ruthless terrorist " and Starbuck 's part of the episode . " Occupation " was rated five stars out of five .
Patrick Sauriol of UGO started the review stating " After the events of season two 's cliffhanger , there were a hundred questions on the minds of the show 's fans , but the biggest one gets answered with the Season Three double @-@ header premiere : was the start of Season Three worth the wait or has the show jumped the shark ? Answer : You better frakkin ' believe that Battlestar Galactica hasn 't jumped the shark . " Sauriol commented that the time leap of a year was a " gutsy move , " but felt it has " always been the case " for the series . However , he also felt that all doubts the audience might have to harbor " that this show won 't live up to the first two seasons should be wiped away . " Callis ' performance was praised , with Sauriol stating " again Callis proves that he owns this role and again he proves tonight why Gaius Baltar is the best character on this show . " Sauriol graded " Occupation " and the following " Precipice " A- . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B.
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In 2007 , the episode was nominated for a 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " , but lost to HBO 's The Sopranos series finale " Made in America " . It was also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best Episodic Drama . However , the episode lost out to the pilot episode of Big Love .
= Interstate 805 =
Interstate 805 ( I @-@ 805 ) is a major north – south Interstate Highway in Southern California . It is a bypass of I @-@ 5 , running roughly through the center of the Greater San Diego region from San Ysidro ( part of the city of San Diego ) near the Mexico – U.S. border to near Del Mar. The southern terminus of I @-@ 805 at I @-@ 5 in San Ysidro is less than a mile north of the Mexican border . I @-@ 805 then traverses the cities of Chula Vista and National City before reentering San Diego . The freeway passes though the San Diego neighborhoods of North Park , Mission Valley , Clairemont , and University City before terminating at I @-@ 5 in the Sorrento Valley neighborhood near the Del Mar city limit .
Planning for I @-@ 805 began in 1956 , and the route was officially designated in 1959 before it was renumbered in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Starting in 1967 , the freeway was built in phases , with the northern part of the freeway finished before the southern part . I @-@ 805 was completed and open to traffic in 1975 . Named the Jacob Dekema Freeway after the longtime head of the regional division of the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) , I @-@ 805 has been frequently cited for its complex engineering and architecture , including near I @-@ 8 on the Mission Valley Viaduct . Since then , several construction projects have taken place , including the construction of local and express lanes at the northern interchange with I @-@ 5 . High @-@ occupancy toll lanes are under construction on both the northern and southern portions of the route .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at I @-@ 5 near the Mexican border in a far south part of San Ysidro , a neighborhood of San Diego . As it starts its journey northward , it quickly has a junction with State Route 905 ( SR 905 ) before exiting the city of San Diego and entering Chula Vista . Within the past 20 years the freeway has delineated the apparent divide between rich and poor in the city of Chula Vista ; those on the eastern side of the freeway have been more affluent and have better schools compared to those on the western side . Just outside the city , I @-@ 805 meets County Route S17 ( CR S17 ) , also named Bonita Road , before coming to an interchange with SR 54 . The freeway then enters National City , where it intersects Sweetwater Road and Plaza Boulevard , before leaving the city and reentering the city of San Diego .
I @-@ 805 continues northward through San Diego , where it intersects SR 94 , the Martin Luther King Jr . Freeway . As the freeway continues through downtown San Diego , it meets SR 15 , the continuation of I @-@ 15 . It then intersects El Cajon Boulevard before passing under the Hazard Memorial Bridge that carries Adams Avenue . The bridge was named after Roscoe Hazard for his involvement in the construction of several roads and highways in Southern California . I @-@ 805 then travels on the Mission Valley Viaduct , a towering reinforced concrete viaduct built in 1972 , spanning over Mission Valley and the San Diego River . The viaduct is the top stack of the Jack Schrade Interchange over I @-@ 8 , which runs along the south side of Mission Valley and crosses underneath the viaduct perpendicularly , and is San Diego County 's only symmetrical stack interchange . The San Diego Trolley traffic also runs under the viaduct on the valley floor .
After intersecting SR 163 , also known as the Cabrillo Freeway , I @-@ 805 continues through suburban San Diego , where it meets SR 52 in Clairemont Mesa . North of SR 52 , it closely parallels I @-@ 5 near La Jolla , heading northwest . Passing under the Eastgate Mall arch bridge and entering Sorrento Valley , it finally meets its north end at I @-@ 5 . During the widening project which was completed in 2007 , I @-@ 5 at the I @-@ 805 merge was built to be 21 lanes wide . Eastbound SR 56 and Carmel Mountain Road are accessible via a parallel carriageway for local traffic heading northbound from I @-@ 805 ; traffic from SR 56 westbound can merge onto I @-@ 805 from the local bypass .
The route is officially known as the Jacob Dekema Freeway after Jacob Dekema , a pioneering force from California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) who helped shape the San Diego freeway system . It is also part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and the National Highway System , a network of roads that are important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , I @-@ 805 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 41 @,@ 500 at the southern terminus , and 262 @,@ 000 between Bonita Road and SR 54 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
According to Dekema , planning for I @-@ 805 began in 1956 . The original routing for I @-@ 805 was approved as an Interstate Highway in July 1958 . It was added to the state highway system and the Freeway and Expressway System in 1959 as Route 241 . I @-@ 805 was expected to reduce traffic on what was then US 101 between Los Angeles and San Diego , when the former was opened . Route 241 was renumbered to Route 805 in the 1964 state highway renumbering , and I @-@ 5 was designated along the route from Los Angeles to San Diego . Further planning was underway in 1965 , with the goal to have the route built by 1972 , the federal highway funding deadline . This was to be the first freeway in the area with no prior road along its route that it would replace ; the goal was to provide a bypass around San Diego for those traveling to Mexico , and improve access for local residents . By June , houses along the route in the North Park area were being sold , as the land was needed for the first stretch of the freeway to be constructed . The next year , Dekema confirmed that the first portion of what was known as the Inland Freeway to be built would be between Home and Adams avenues .
In May 1967 , bidding began , after construction had been delayed by that of the I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 freeways , both of which had been given higher priority . This first portion would run from Wabash Boulevard to around Madison Avenue ( a distance of 3 @.@ 5 miles or 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ) , and the next portion would include the I @-@ 8 interchange . The R.E. Hazard and W.F. Maxwell Companies won the low bid of $ 11 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ 150 million in 2015 ) in mid @-@ 1967 . The groundbreaking ceremony happened on September 25 at El Cajon Boulevard and Boundary Street . In August 1968 , the portion of I @-@ 805 from just south of I @-@ 8 to north of Friars Road , including the interchange with I @-@ 8 , was put up for bidding ; at a budgeted $ 27 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 327 million in 2015 ) , it was the most expensive job that the Division of Highways had ever put up for bid . The winning bid was $ 20 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 313 million in 2015 ) , and was awarded to R.E. Hazard Contracting Company and W.F. Maxwell Company .
Construction had begun on the viaduct by May 1969 ; in the meantime , National City was making plans for developing the freeway corridor with motels and restaurants , as well as a shopping center . In mid @-@ 1969 , bidding was to begin on 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) of I @-@ 805 from north of Friars Road to north of what was then US 395 , which would become SR 163 . Construction from J Street south to near San Ysidro was underway by September , when there were concerns that an order from President Richard Nixon to reduce federal construction projects by 75 percent might affect funding for the portion north of Friars Road . However , Governor Ronald Reagan lifted the associated freeze in construction at the state level a few weeks later . A month later , the contract for the portion between Friars Road and US 395 had been awarded for $ 15 million ( equivalent to $ 166 million in 2015 ) ; the portions between there and north of Miramar Road were in the planning phases , while construction continued south of I @-@ 8 to Wabash Boulevard . The 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) portion from SR 52 to Miramar Road had been contracted out to O.G. Sansome Company for $ 5 @.@ 6 million ( equivalent to $ 62 @.@ 1 million in 2015 ) by the end of 1969 . Meanwhile , $ 4 million ( equivalent to $ 44 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) of state funding was spent in 1969 to find housing for those who were to be displaced by the freeway in San Ysidro .
By March 1970 , the original section between Home Avenue and near I @-@ 8 was almost finished . The Mission Valley portion extending north of US 395 , as well as from Otay Valley Road and J Street in Chula Vista , were still under construction . The portion immediately north of US 395 was contracted to A.A. Baxter Corporation , E.C. Young , and Young and Sons , Inc. for $ 7 @.@ 9 million ( equivalent to $ 84 million in 2015 ) . On July 6 , the first section to begin construction was dedicated , and was to be opened from El Cajon Boulevard to Wabash Boulevard soon thereafter ; the rest of the section would not open until the Mission Valley interchange with I @-@ 8 was finished .
A second border crossing in the San Ysidro area was proposed near the Playas de Tijuana area , that would be accessible from I @-@ 805 , although another alternative was considered near Brown Field . A formal study on the matter was commissioned in August . However , this would have added $ 10 million ( equivalent to $ 106 million in 2015 ) to the cost of the freeway , and possibly delay it by up to 10 years ; furthermore , most traffic crossing the border was found to head to Tijuana and not Ensenada . Following this , the city of Chula Vista asked that the state proceed with the original plans to construct the freeway , even though it would pass through a San Ysidro neighborhood .
In September 1970 , bidding began for the final portion of the northern half of I @-@ 805 between Miramar Road and I @-@ 5 ; a month later , the segments between Home Avenue and SR 94 , and SR 54 to 12th Street had funding allocated . By the end of the year , Hazard , Maxwell , and Matich had submitted the low bid of around $ 7 @.@ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 76 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) for the northernmost portion . The Chula Vista portion of the freeway from Main Street to L Street was completed in February 1971 ; by then , the estimated date for completing the entire freeway had slipped to 1975 from 1972 . By March , the projected completion date for the Mission Valley bridge was revised to July 1972 . A 102 @-@ home mobile home park was approved by the City Council a few weeks later to house those who were displaced by the freeway construction .
The portion of the freeway from Otay Valley Road to Telegraph Canyon Road opened during 1972 . On October 22 , several unconstructed portions of I @-@ 805 were partially funded , including from Chula Vista south past SR 75 , north of the completed Chula Vista portion to SR 54 , from SR 54 to Plaza Boulevard in National City , from there to SR 94 ( including the interchange with SR 252 ) , and from there to Home Avenue . Before the end of the year , the portion from SR 94 to Home Avenue entered the bidding phase ; Guy F. Atkinson Company won the contract for roughly $ 9 @.@ 96 million ( equivalent to $ 90 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) in early 1972 . Following a request from the El Cajon City Council , March 19 was set aside as a Community Cycle Day for bicyclists to travel the newly finished freeway from El Cajon Boulevard to SR 52 , just before the freeway was to be dedicated the next day ; the entire Mission Valley Viaduct was open to traffic that month .
By the beginning of 1974 , I @-@ 805 was open north of Home Avenue , and from Otay Valley Road to Telegraph Canyon Road in Chula Vista ; five segments remaining were under construction , and the last segment was funded . The Imperial Avenue section of I @-@ 805 remained in the budget , despite revisions in response to the 1973 oil crisis . In late January , I @-@ 805 between SR 15 and SR 94 was opened to traffic , though not all of the ramps at the SR 94 interchange were operational . The connectors to SR 94 east were completed in March . The entire portion between SR 94 and Home Avenue cost $ 10 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 80 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) . Construction between SR 94 and Imperial Avenue was well under way by December , at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 65 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) .
As the scheduled completion of the freeway neared , Mayor Tom Hamilton of Chula Vista expressed concerns regarding the predicted development of the I @-@ 805 corridor , and the decisions that the City Council would need to make regarding such plans . The portion south of Otay Valley Road cost $ 15 million ( equivalent to $ 107 million in 2015 ) , and the portion between Telegraph Canyon Road and Sweetwater Road cost $ 12 million ( equivalent to $ 85 @.@ 6 million in 2015 ) . The portion from there to Imperial Avenue was projected to cost $ 10 @.@ 2 million ( equivalent to $ 72 @.@ 7 million in 2015 ) . The dedication of the freeway took place on July 23 , 1975 , even though the freeway was not entirely finished , due to the desire to hold the ceremony during the summer . I @-@ 805 from Plaza Boulevard to Telegraph Canyon Road opened to traffic on July 28 , leaving the freeway complete except for the portion between Plaza Boulevard and SR 94 . While portions of the freeway were nearly ready for traffic , there were reports of motorists driving on the closed freeway , which the California Highway Patrol warned was illegal . On September 3 , Dekema announced that the entirety of the freeway would open the next day as he made a final inspection of the unopened portion ; the total cost of the construction was $ 145 million ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 03 billion in 2015 ) . However , Dekema announced that there was no more state funding available to construct further roads for the short @-@ term .
= = = Recognition , artwork , and architecture = = =
The Mission Valley Viaduct was recognized by the American Society of Civil Engineers ( ASCE ) as the " Outstanding Civil Engineering Project for 1973 in the San Diego Area " ; it was designed to match the close @-@ by Mission San Diego de Alcalá with its columns that look similar to cathedral windows , and arch @-@ like shapes etched into the textured concrete . The viaduct was designed to span 3 @,@ 900 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and use squared @-@ off support columns instead of traditional cylindrical supports . Octagonal columns were to be used on the ramps and the ends of the bridge . Over 600 tons of steel bars were to be used , and the bridge was constructed as high as 98 feet ( 30 m ) above I @-@ 8 . The Adams Avenue Bridge over I @-@ 805 was also recognized for its 439 @-@ foot ( 134 m ) span and two tapered supports on the ends of the bridge ; in 1968 , a Princeton University engineering professor asked for a copy of the design from Caltrans for educational purposes . The construction supervisor , in fact , compared the construction of this bridge to building a boat , and it was constructed from the middle outward rather than the conventional method of building from the ends inward . The span was designed to be 268 feet ( 82 m ) long , and 100 feet ( 30 m ) high .
Awards for the Eastgate Mall ( or Old Miramar Bridge ) came from the Federal Highway Administration , San Diego Highway Development Association , and Prestressed Concrete Institute Awards Program ; at the time , it was one of the first arch bridges in the state , and did not use traditional concrete pillars . The San Diego Union ( predecessor to the Union @-@ Tribune ) published a few freelance articles in 1984 about I @-@ 805 , complimenting the four @-@ level interchange with I @-@ 8 and the arch bridge at Eastgate Mall , while mentioning that subsequent inflation after their completion would have made such structures more difficult to build if they had been constructed later . Other artwork and architecture that was mentioned included the Wateridge development in Sorrento Valley , and the " Stargazer " building by Alexander Liberman that was lit with fluorescent colors at night .
However , not all forms of artwork along the highway were uncontroversial . In 1977 , there were several complaints regarding new billboards that were installed at the northern terminus of the highway , since they blocked the view of the coast . In 1981 , an illegal mural that was determined to be incomplete was discovered at the I @-@ 8 interchange ; while Caltrans discouraged the painting of such murals , they were impressed with the portion that had already been completed . Art Cole , the artist , stepped forward to the department , and was allowed to finish the mural of a desert highland sunrise ; following this , Caltrans made efforts to have other murals commissioned .
The San Ysidro Chamber of Commerce attempted to have I @-@ 805 named as the San Ysidro Freeway in 1976 . However , I @-@ 805 was named after Jacob Dekema in August 1981 , and ceremonies to mark the occasion occurred in February 1982 . The plaque honoring Dekema was installed in November at the Governor Drive interchange . Because of his efforts in designing I @-@ 805 , Ed Settle of Caltrans was given the Outstanding Civil Engineering Award from the ASCE ; he designed several other regional freeways , including SR 163 through Balboa Park and I @-@ 5 through San Diego .
= = = Expansion = = =
The construction of a " dual freeway " at the northern end of I @-@ 805 was discussed as early as 1989 , referring to the two carriageways needed for each direction of the freeway , resulting in four total . It would require drivers to use the new local lanes to access eastbound SR 56 from I @-@ 5 or I @-@ 805 . The project would allow for trucks to use the new lanes to assist in merging with traffic . However , it faced opposition from local residents , concerned about the loss of the view from their homes , as well as environmentalists concerned about nearby wetlands . Further objections espoused the view that the congestion would continue to increase , regardless of what was done , and that the new road would be at capacity in a few years . The San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) funded the construction with $ 110 million ( equivalent to $ 168 million in 2015 ) in mid @-@ 2000 .
Construction of the " dual freeway " began in early 2002 , at a cost of $ 182 million ( equivalent to $ 266 million in 2015 ) . The northbound lanes were scheduled to open in February 2006 . The southbound lanes were completed in early 2007 . That year , a three @-@ year project began to allow robot controlled vehicles , including buses and trucks , to use a special lane . The intention is to allow the vehicles to travel at shorter following distances and thereby allow more vehicles to use the lanes . The vehicles will still have drivers since they need to enter and exit the special lanes . The system was designed by Swoop Technology , based in San Diego County .
Two years later , construction began on two auxiliary lanes on I @-@ 805 southbound from SR 54 to Bonita Road , to improve traffic flow at the SR 54 interchange . In 2010 , Caltrans proposed adding high @-@ occupancy toll express lanes between SR 15 and East Palomar Street in Chula Vista . The California Transportation Commission ( CTC ) awarded $ 100 million for the work in June 2011 , which would be split into two phases at the interchange with SR 54 . Work is also underway to add two HOV lanes between SR 52 and Mira Mesa Boulevard ; this project also received $ 59 @.@ 5 million from the CTC in September 2011 . Meanwhile , SANDAG made arrangements to purchase the SR 125 toll road and reduce the tolls , which was hoped to encourage commuters to take that road instead of I @-@ 805 and reduce congestion ; this would then enable Caltrans to construct two managed lanes instead of the original four .
In February 2013 , construction began on the northern HOV lanes ; the project is expected to cost $ 86 million . By May , construction on the Palomar Street direct access ramps had begun , and the Carroll Canyon Road ramps were almost finished . The northern project is expected to be complete in 2015 , and the southern express lanes opened in March 2014 at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 4 billion , with an option to expand them into two lanes in each direction , and a proposed direct ramp to the express lanes . A 2012 Caltrans report proposed adding four managed lanes along the entire length of the highway . Construction on HOV lanes from SR 905 to SR 15 is planned for 2016 .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego County .
= Nefertiti Bust =
The Nefertiti Bust is a 3 @,@ 300 @-@ year @-@ old painted stucco @-@ coated limestone bust of Nefertiti , the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten . The work is believed to have been crafted in 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose , because it was found in his workshop in Amarna , Egypt . It is one of the most copied works of ancient Egypt . Owing to the work , Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world , and an icon of feminine beauty .
A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the Nefertiti bust in 1912 in Thutmose 's workshop . It has been kept at various locations in Germany since its discovery , including the cellar of a bank , a salt mine in Merkers @-@ Kieselbach , the Dahlem museum , the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and the Altes Museum . It is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin , where it was originally displayed before World War II .
The Nefertiti bust has become a cultural symbol of Berlin as well as ancient Egypt . Nefertiti herself has become quite an icon . Nefertiti is widely known for her beauty and versatility . It has also been the subject of an intense argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation . It was dragged into controversy by the Body of Nefertiti art exhibition and also by doubts over its authenticity . However various testing and analysis of the bust have proved it to be authentic .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Nefertiti ( meaning " the beautiful one has come " ) was the 14th @-@ century BC Great Royal Wife ( chief consort ) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt . Akhenaten initiated a new monotheistic form of worship called Atenism dedicated to the Sun disc Aten . Little is known about Nefertiti . Theories suggest she could have been an Egyptian royal by birth , a foreign princess or the daughter of a high government official named Ay , who became pharaoh after Tutankhamun . She may have been the co @-@ regent of Egypt with Akhenaten , who ruled from 1352 BC to 1336 BC . Nefertiti bore six daughters to Akhenaten , one of whom , Ankhesenpaaten ( renamed Ankhesenamun after the suppression of the Aten cult ) , married Tutankhamun , Nefertiti 's stepson . Nefertiti was thought to have disappeared from history in the twelfth year of Akhenaten 's reign , though whether this is due to her death or because she took a new name is not known . She may also have later become a pharaoh in her own right , ruling alone for a short time after her husband 's death . However , it is now known that she was still alive in the sixteenth year of her husband 's reign from a limestone quarry inscription found at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis . Dayr Abū Ḥinnis is located " on the eastern side of the Nile , about ten kilometres north of Amarna . "
The bust of Nefertiti is believed to have been crafted about 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose . The bust does not have any inscriptions , but can be certainly identified as Nefertiti by the characteristic crown , which she wears in other surviving ( and clearly labelled ) depictions ( see for instance the ' house altar ' , right ) .
= = = Discovery = = =
The Nefertiti bust was found on 6 December 1912 at Amarna by the German Oriental Company ( Deutsche Orient @-@ Gesellschaft – DOG ) , led by German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt . It was found in what had been the sculptor Thutmose 's workshop , along with other unfinished busts of Nefertiti . Borchardt 's diary provides the main written account of the find ; he remarks , " Suddenly we had in our hands the most alive Egyptian artwork . You cannot describe it with words . You must see it . "
A 1924 document found in the archives of the German Oriental Company recalls the 20 January 1913 meeting between Ludwig Borchardt and a senior Egyptian official to discuss the division of the archeological finds of 1912 between Germany and Egypt . According to the secretary of the German Oriental Company ( who was the author of the document and who was present at the meeting ) , Borchardt " wanted to save the bust for us " . Borchardt is suspected of having concealed the bust 's real value , although he denied doing so .
While Philipp Vandenberg describes the coup as " adventurous and beyond comparison " , Time magazine lists it among the " Top 10 Plundered Artifacts " . Borchardt showed the Egyptian official a photograph of the bust " that didn 't show Nefertiti in her best light " . The bust was wrapped up in a box when Egypt 's chief antiques inspector Gustave Lefebvre came for inspection . The document reveals that Borchardt claimed the bust was made of gypsum to mislead the inspector . The German Oriental Company blames the negligence of the inspector and points out that the bust was at the top of the exchange list and says the deal was done fairly .
= = Description and examinations = =
The bust of Nefertiti is 48 centimetres ( 19 in ) tall and weighs about 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) . It is made of a limestone core covered with painted stucco layers . The face is completely symmetrical and almost intact , but the left eye lacks the inlay present in the right . The pupil of the right eye is of inserted quartz with black paint and is fixed with beeswax . The background of the eye @-@ socket is unadorned limestone . Nefertiti wears her characteristic blue crown known as the " Nefertiti cap crown " with a golden diadem band looped around like horizontal ribbons and joining at the back , and an Uraeus ( cobra ) over her brow – which is now broken . She also wears a broad collar with a floral pattern on it . The ears also have suffered some damage . Gardner 's Art Through the Ages suggests that " With this elegant bust , Thutmose may have been alluding to a heavy flower on its slender sleek stalk by exaggerating the weight of the crowned head and the length of the almost serpentine neck . "
According to David Silverman , the Nefertiti bust reflects the classical Egyptian art style , deviating from the " eccentricities " of the Amarna art style , which was developed in Akhenaten 's reign . The exact function of the bust is unknown , though it is theorized that the bust may be a sculptor 's modello to be used as a basis for other official portraits , kept in the artist 's workshop . Surviving royal portraits are normally wholly in stone , though originally painted on a thin plaster layer , but not largely made up of stucco plaster as this piece is .
= = = Colors = = =
Ludwig Borchardt commissioned a chemical analysis of the colored pigments of the head . The result of the examination was published in the book Portrait of Queen Nofretete in 1923 :
Blue : powdered frit , colored with copper oxide
Skin color ( light red ) : fine powdered lime spar colored with red chalk ( iron oxide )
Yellow : orpiment ( arsenic sulfide )
Green : powdered frit , colored with copper and iron oxide
Black : coal with wax as a binding medium
White : chalk
= = = Missing left eye = = =
When the bust was first discovered , no piece of quartz to represent the iris of the left eyeball was present , as in the other eye , and none was found despite an intensive search and a then significant reward of £ 5 being put up for information regarding its whereabouts . Borchardt assumed that the quartz iris of the left eye had fallen out when the sculptor Thutmose 's workshop fell into ruin . The missing eye led to speculation that Nefertiti may have suffered from an ophthalmic infection , and actually lost her left eye , though the presence of an iris in other statues of her contradicted this possibility .
Dietrich Wildung proposed that the bust in Berlin was a model for official portraits and was used by the master sculptor for teaching his pupils how to carve the internal structure of the eye , and thus the left iris was not added . Gardner 's Art Through the Ages and Silverman presents a similar view that the bust was deliberately kept unfinished . Hawass suggested that Thutmose had created the left eye , but it was later destroyed .
= = = CT scans = = =
The bust was first CT scanned in 1992 , with the scan producing cross sections of the bust every 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) . In 2006 , Dietrich Wildung , the director of Berlin 's Egyptian Museum , while trying a different lighting at the Altes Museum — where the bust was then displayed — observed wrinkles on Nefertiti 's neck and bags under her eyes , suggesting the sculptor had tried to depict signs of aging . A CT scan confirmed Wildung 's findings ; Thutmose had added gypsum under the cheeks and eyes in an attempt to perfect his sculpture , Wildung explained .
The CT scan in 2006 , led by Alexander Huppertz , the director of the Imaging Science Institute in Berlin , revealed a wrinkled face of Nefertiti carved in the inner core of the bust . The results were published in the April 2009 Radiology journal . The scan revealed that Thutmose placed layers of varying thickness on top of the limestone core . The inner face has creases around her mouth and cheeks and a swelling on the nose . The creases and the bump on the nose are leveled by the outermost stucco layer . According to Huppertz , this may reflect " aesthetic ideals of the era " . The 2006 scan provided greater detail than the 1992 one , revealing subtle details just 1 – 2 mm under the stucco .
= = Later history = =
The bust of Nefertiti has become " one of the most admired , and most copied , images from ancient Egypt " , and the star exhibit used to market Berlin 's museums . It is seen as an " icon of international beauty " . " Showing a woman with a long neck , elegantly arched brows , high cheekbones , a slender nose and an enigmatic smile played about red lips , the bust has established Nefertiti as one of the most beautiful faces of antiquity . " It is described as the most famous bust of ancient art , comparable only to the mask of Tutankhamun .
Nefertiti has become an icon of Berlin 's culture . Some 500 @,@ 000 visitors see Nefertiti every year . The bust is described as " the best @-@ known work of art from ancient Egypt , arguably from all antiquity " . Her face is on postcards of Berlin and 1989 German postage stamps .
= = = Locations in Germany = = =
The Nefertiti bust has been in Germany since 1913 , when it was shipped to Berlin and presented to James Simon , a wholesale merchant and the sponsor of the Amarna excavation . It was displayed at Simon 's residence until 1913 , when Simon loaned the bust and other artifacts from the Amarna dig to the Berlin Museum . Although the rest of the Amarna collection was displayed in 1913 – 14 , Nefertiti was kept secret at Borchardt 's request . In 1918 , the Museum discussed the public display of the bust , but again kept it secret on the request of Borchardt . It was permanently donated to the Berlin Museum in 1920 . Finally , in 1923 , the bust was first unveiled to the public in Borchardt 's writing and later in 1924 , displayed to the public as part of the Egyptian Museum of Berlin . The bust created a sensation , swiftly becoming a world @-@ renowned icon of feminine beauty , and one of the most universally @-@ recognised artifacts to survive from Ancient Egypt . The Nefertiti bust was displayed in Berlin ’ s Neues Museum on Museum Island until the museum was closed in 1939 ; with the onset of World War II , the Berlin museums were emptied and the artifacts moved to secure shelters for safekeeping . Nefertiti was initially stored in the cellar of the Prussian Governmental Bank and then , in the autumn of 1941 , moved to the tower of a flak bunker in Berlin . The Neues Museum suffered bombings in 1943 by the Royal Air Force . On 6 March 1945 , the bust was moved to a German salt mine at Merkers @-@ Kieselbach in Thuringia .
In March 1945 , the bust was found by the American Army and given over to its Monuments , Fine Arts and Archives branch . It was moved to the Reichsbank in Frankfurt and then , in August , shipped to the U.S. Central Collecting Point in Wiesbaden where it was displayed to the public in 1946 . In 1956 , the bust was returned to West Berlin . There it was displayed at the Dahlem Museum . As early as 1946 , East Germany ( German Democratic Republic ) insisted on the return of Nefertiti to Museum Island in East Berlin , where the bust had been displayed before the war . In 1967 , Nefertiti was moved in the Egyptian Museum in Charlottenburg and remained there until 2005 , when it was moved to the Altes Museum . The bust returned to the Neues Museum as its centerpiece when the museum reopened in October 2009 .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Requests for repatriation to Egypt = = =
Ever since the official unveiling of the bust in Berlin in 1924 , the Egyptian authorities have been demanding its return to Egypt . In 1925 , Egypt threatened to ban German excavations in Egypt unless Nefertiti was returned . In 1929 , Egypt offered to exchange other artifacts for Nefertiti , but Germany declined . In the 1950s , Egypt again tried to initiate negotiations but there was no response from Germany . Although Germany had previously strongly opposed the repatriation , in 1933 Hermann Göring considered returning the bust to King Farouk Fouad of Egypt as a political gesture . Hitler opposed the idea , and told the Egyptian government that he would build a new Egyptian museum for Nefertiti : " In the middle , this wonder , Nefertiti , will be enthroned , ... I will never relinquish the head of the Queen . " While the bust was under American control , Egypt requested the United States to hand it over ; the USA refused and advised Egypt to take up the matter with the new German authorities . In 1989 , the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak viewed the bust and announced that Nefertiti was " the best ambassador for Egypt " in Berlin .
Dr. Zahi Hawass , the former Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities , believes that Nefertiti belongs to Egypt and that the bust was taken out of Egypt illegally and should therefore be returned . Dr. Hawass has maintained the stance that Egyptian authorities were misled over the acquisition of Nefertiti in 1913 . He has demanded that Germany prove that it was exported legally . According to Kurt G. Siehr , another argument in support of repatriation is that " Archeological finds have their ' home ' in the country of origin and should be preserved in that country . " The Nefertiti repatriation issue sprang up again in 2003 over the Body of Nefertiti sculpture ( see Controversy ) . In 2005 , Hawass requested UNESCO to intervene to return the bust .
In 2007 , Hawass threatened to ban exhibitions of Egyptian artifacts in Germany if Nefertiti was not lent to Egypt , but to no avail . Hawass also requested a worldwide boycott of loans to German museums to initiate what he calls a " scientific war " . Hawass wanted Germany to at least lend the bust to Egypt in 2012 for the opening of the new Grand Egyptian Museum near the Great Pyramids of Giza . Simultaneously , a campaign called " Nefertiti Travels " was launched by cultural association CulturCooperation , based in Hamburg , Germany . They distributed postcards depicting the bust of Nefertiti with the words " Return to Sender " and wrote an open letter to the German Culture Minister , Bernd Neumann , supporting the view that Egypt should be given the bust on loan . In 2009 , when Nefertiti moved back to the Neues Museum – her old home , the appropriateness of Berlin as the bust 's location was questioned .
Several German art experts have attempted to refute all the claims made by Hawass , pointing to the 1924 document discussing the pact between Borchardt and the Egyptian authorities , though , as discussed earlier , Borchardt has been accused of foul play in the deal . The German authorities have also argued the bust is too fragile to transport and that the legal arguments for the repatriation were insubstantial . According to The Times , Germany may be concerned that lending the bust to Egypt would mean its permanent departure from Germany .
In December 2009 Friederike Seyfried , the director of Berlin 's Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection , presented to the Egyptians documents held by the museum regarding the discovery of the bust which include a protocol signed by the German excavator of the bust and the Egyptian Antiquities Service . In the documents , the object was listed as a painted plaster bust of a princess . But in the diary of Ludwig Borchardt he clearly referred to it as the head of Nefertiti . " This proves that Borchardt wrote this description so that his country can get the statue , " Hawass commented " These materials confirm Egypt 's contention that ( he ) did act unethically with intent to deceive . " However , Hawass said Egypt didn 't consider the Nefertiti bust to be a looted antiquity . Still , it is one of a handful of truly singular Egyptian antiquities still in foreign hands . " I really want it back , " he said . Hawass ' statement quoted the director of the museum as saying the authority to approve the return of the bust to Egypt lies with the Prussian Cultural Heritage and the German culture minister .
= = = Allegations over authenticity = = =
The French book , Le Buste de Nefertiti – une Imposture de l 'Egyptologie ? ( The Bust of Nefertiti – a Fraud in Egyptology ? ) by Swiss art historian Henri Stierlin and the book Missing Link in Archaeology by Berlin author and historian Edrogan Ercivan both claimed that the Nefertiti bust was a modern fake . Stierlin claims that Borchardt may have created the bust to test ancient pigments and that when the bust was admired by Prince Johann Georg of Saxony , Borchardt pretended it was genuine to avoid offending the prince . Stierlin argues that the missing left eye of the bust would have been a sign of disrespect in ancient Egypt , that no scientific records of the bust appear until 11 years after its supposed discovery , and while the paint pigments are ancient , the inner limestone core has never been dated . Ercivan suggests Borchardt 's wife was the model for the bust , and both authors argue that it was not revealed to the public until 1924 because it was a fake . Another theory suggested that the existing Nefertiti bust was crafted in the 1930s on Hitler 's orders , and that the original was lost in World War II .
Dietrich Wildung dismissed the claims as a publicity stunt , as radiological tests , detailed computer tomography , and material analysis have proved its authenticity . The pigments used on the bust have been matched to those used by ancient Egyptian artisans . The 2006 CT scan that discovered the " hidden face " of Nefertiti proved without doubt – according to Science News – that the bust was genuine .
Egyptian authorities also dismissed Stierlin 's theory . Dr Zahi Hawass said " Stierlin is not a historian . He is delirious . " Although Stierlin had argued " Egyptians cut shoulders horizontally " and Nefertiti had vertical shoulders , Hawass said that the new style seen in the Nefertiti bust is part of the changes introduced by Akhenaten , the husband of Nefertiti . Hawass also claimed that the sculptor Thutmose had created the eye , but it was later destroyed .
= = = The Body of Nefertiti = = =
In 2003 , the Egyptian Museum in Berlin allowed the Hungarian artist duo Little Warsaw , Andras Galik and Balint Havas , to place the bust atop a nearly nude female bronze for a video installation to be shown at the Venice Biennale modern art festival . The project called the Body of Nefertiti was , according to the artists , an attempt to pay homage to the bust . According to Wildung , it showed " the continued relevance of the ancient world to today 's art . " However , Egyptian cultural officials took offense and proclaimed it to be a disgrace to " one of the great symbols of their country 's history " . As a consequence , they also banned Wildung and his wife from further exploration in Egypt . The Egyptian Minister for Culture , Farouk Hosny , declared that Nefertiti was " not in safe hands " , and although Egypt had not renewed their claims for restitution " due to the good relations with Germany , " this " recent behaviour " was unacceptable .
= = Cultural significance = =
In 1930 , the German press described the Nefertiti bust as their new monarch , personifying it as a queen . As the " ' most precious ... stone in the setting of the diadem ' from the art treasures of ' Prussia Germany ' " , Nefertiti would re @-@ establish the imperial German national identity after 1918 . Hitler described the bust as " a unique masterpiece , an ornament , a true treasure " , and pledged to build a museum to house it . By the 1970s , the bust had become an issue of national identity to both German states — East Germany and West Germany — created after World War II . In 1999 , Nefertiti appeared on an election poster for the green political party Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen as a promise for cosmopolitan and multi @-@ cultural environment with the slogan " Strong Women for Berlin ! " According to Claudia Breger , another reason that the Nefertiti bust became associated with a German national identity was its place as a rival to the Tutankhamun find by the British , who then ruled Egypt .
The bust became an influence on popular culture with Jack Pierce 's make @-@ up work on Elsa Lanchester 's iconic hair style in the film Bride of Frankenstein being inspired by it . In the
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Martinique as either a strong Category 1 or a weak Category 2 hurricane . The storm entered the Caribbean Sea shortly thereafter . Around 12 : 00 UTC , the cyclone intensified into a Category 3 hurricane . Between 06 : 00 UTC and 12 : 00 UTC on August 11 , it struck Jamaica near Morant Point with winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . At 06 : 00 UTC on August 12 , while brushing Grand Cayman , the hurricane peaked with maximum sustained winds of the same intensity and a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) , observed by the Governor Blake . The system weakened to a Category 2 around the time of landfall near Playa del Carmen , Quintana Roo , early on August 13 , with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . By 12 : 00 UTC , the storm further weakened to a Category 1 . After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula and emerging into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 14 , the hurricane failed to re @-@ strengthen . Around 00 : 00 UTC on August 16 , it made landfall north of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The hurricane soon weakened to a tropical storm and dissipated over San Luis Potosí late on August 16 .
In Martinique , hundreds of homes were deroofed in Fort @-@ de @-@ France , while about 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the villages of Fond , Fourniols , La Haye , Recluce , and Tivoli , all of which were established after the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 . The hurricane also left extensive damage to crops and eight fatalities . In Jamaica , several communities were completely or nearly destroyed , including Manchioneal , Port Antonio , and Port Maria . Thousands of homes also suffered damage in the capital city of Kingston . Banana crops were devastated so severely that many growers were forced into bankruptcy . Numerous ships were wrecked , particularly on the north coast of the island . There were at least 65 deaths and about $ 10 million in damage . At the Cayman Islands , more than 200 houses and seven of eight churches on Grand Cayman were destroyed or heavily damaged . Of the 23 ships in the harbor , only the Governor Blake survived . Most of the crews on board those ships were reported killed , but loss of life on shore was minimal . The storm also caused heavy damage on the Yucatán Peninsula . Many ships were wrecked and communications were cutoff in several places . In the Tampico area , there was considerable damage to the port and many ships being sunk or driven ashore . Much of the land between Tampico and Cárdenas in San Luis Potosí was submerged due to flooding . In all , the storm is believed to have killed at least 149 people .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Reanalysis indicates that a 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm originated near Mayaguana in the Bahamas around 06 : 00 UTC on September 9 , though lack of data suggests that this system likely developed earlier . Moving northwestward , the cyclone became a Category 1 hurricane around 12 : 00 UTC on the following day . Late on September 10 and early on September 11 , the storm passed near Nassau . The hurricane then turned to the west @-@ northwest on September 11 and moved just north of the Bimini Islands . As it crossed the Bahamas , the system produced hurricane @-@ force winds on some islands , with an estimated wind speed as high as 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) in Nassau . Damage to crops and buildings occurred , but no deaths were reported over the island chain .
Late on September 11 , the storm made landfall near Fort Lauderdale , Florida , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The Inchulva capsized near Delray Beach , drowning nine of her crew members . The cyclone caused severe wind damage in present @-@ day Broward and Palm Beach counties , although most of the losses were to crops such as sugarcane . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm while crossing Florida , but re @-@ intensified into a hurricane over the Gulf of Mexico on September 12 . Peaking with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , the storm made landfall near Panama City around 23 : 00 UTC on September 13 . In Northwest Florida , Alabama , and Georgia , the cyclone produced widespread rainfall , causing some crop damage . Additionally , a storm surge caused boats to be blown ashore in the Florida Panhandle . In all , the storm killed 14 people in Florida and produced $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . After falling to tropical storm intensity early on September 14 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 16 , several hours before dissipating over South Carolina .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
A 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) tropical storm was first observed about 550 mi ( 885 km ) northeast of Antigua early on September 12 . The storm moved relatively quickly to the northwest . Late on September 14 , it strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . On the following day , the storm began curving to the north @-@ northwest . Intensifying further , the cyclone became a Category 2 hurricane late on September 15 , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . At the time , it was situated about 110 mi ( 190 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The storm weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on September 16 . About 11 hours later , the hurricane made landfall near Avalon , New Jersey , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . In 1992 , Jerry Jarrell , later director of the National Hurricane Center , estimated a barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) at landfall , which would be the lowest in association with the hurricane . After moving inland , the system quickly weakened to a tropical storm late on September 16 . The storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over New York near Lake Ontario at 12 : 00 UTC on September 17 . The extratropical remnants soon dissipated over Ontario .
In North Carolina and Virginia , the storm brought near @-@ hurricane force winds and rough surf . Some boats were beached along the coast of Virginia . Near Chincoteague , the schooner Beatrice capsized , drowning 28 people . Hundreds of birds were killed and fell to the ground near Old Point Comfort , many stripped of their feathers . The outer rainbands of the storm produced heavy rainfall near Washington , D.C. , canceling a Major League Baseball game between the Detroit Tigers and the Washington Senators after the field was flooded . Along the Delaware coast , the schooner Hattie A. Marsh was smashed against the rocks , killing five people . The hurricane caused severe damage in New Jersey , especially in Atlantic City . Throughout the coastal regions , strong winds downed all telephone and telegraph wires . Additionally , the winds destroyed the roofs of an estimated 50 to 60 cottages . Several streets were flooded , with severe transportation delays reported . One indirect death occurred in Cape May when a man , unable to see owing to the hurricane , drove into a train . Damage in New Jersey was approximately $ 8 million . In New York City , high winds swayed buildings , spires , and bridges , overturning wagons on the Brooklyn Bridge . At least a few buildings were deroofed and many homes were flooded or damaged , especially in Brooklyn . One death occurred in the city . On Long Island , President Theodore Roosevelt directly experienced the effects of the hurricane while on a yacht . The life of the president was briefly threatened due to the rough conditions , though none on board of the yacht suffered any problems from the hurricane . Overall , the storm caused 57 fatalities .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
Historical weather maps indicated that a tropical depression developed just south of the Turks and Caicos Islands early on September 19 . The depression trekked generally northward and remained weak for the next few days . By September 22 , the system intensified into a tropical storm . Turning east @-@ northeastward on September 24 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 003 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , which was observed by a ship . Thereafter , it accelerated and slowly weakened , falling to tropical depression intensity early on September 26 . The system dissipated by 18 : 00 UTC while situated about 450 mi ( 720 km ) southeast of Sable Island .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
Historical weather maps note that a tropical storm was first observed about 415 mi ( 670 km ) northeast of Anguilla early on September 26 . Initially , the storm moved west @-@ northwestward , but curved northwestward late the following day . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 28 , the cyclone intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and then a Category 2 hurricane 12 hours later while curving to the northeast . While passing near Bermuda late on September 28 , the storm attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) , which was observed in Hamilton . The system then began to accelerate and weaken , falling to Category 1 intensity at 00 : 00 UTC on September 30 . Six hours later , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located about 495 mi ( 700 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The remnants moved continued rapidly northeastward and dissipated later that day .
In Bermuda , the strongest observed wind speed was 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) . The winds uprooted a number of cedar trees and broke off large palmettos off palm trees . Several buildings and homes were damaged . A newly constructed extension on the Princess Hotel " collapsed like a pack of cards " . In St. George 's , a wall that collapsed near the Royal Engineers quarters killed a former soldier . Heavy rainfall on the island washed out many roads . A landslide occurred , shearing off a portion of the cliff at Deep Bay . The resulting earth trembling and noise created from the slide resembled an earthquake . Along the coast , rough seas wrecked a number of boats , while several stone docks and seawalls were severely damaged or destroyed . Another death occurred after an engineer on Ireland Island was swept out to sea and drowned .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
A strong tropical storm was first observed about 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Barbuda early on October 1 , according to historical weather maps and ship data . Moving northwestward , it intensified into a Category 1 hurricane about 24 hours later . The storm then curved north @-@ northeastward late on October 2 . Strengthening into a Category 2 hurricane around 12 : 00 UTC on October 4 , the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . It then briefly turned east @-@ northeastward , before recurving east @-@ southeastward . Late on October 5 , the hurricane weakened back to the Category 1 . The storm began to decelerate and execute a cyclonic loop late on October 6 . After about 24 hours , it began moving east @-@ northeastward to northeastward . Early on October 9 , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm . Late that day , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) south @-@ southwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
A tropical storm was first observed by ships early on October 5 , while situated about 160 mi ( 260 km ) northeast of San Salvador Island in the Bahamas . The storm nearly drifted northeastward while strengthening slowly over the next few days . Early on October 8 , the cyclone curved north @-@ northeastward . The storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) on October 9 while passing west of Bermuda ; both were based observations from a ship . Reanalysis also resulted in the eighth cyclone being downgraded from a Category 2 hurricane to a tropical storm Thereafter , the system began weakening and transitioned into extratropical cyclone around 12 : 00 UTC on October 10 , while located about 255 mi ( 410 km ) north of Bermuda .
Although the remnant system became indistinguishable by late on October 10 , the remnants contributed to severe flooding along the East Coast of the United States . In North Carolina , poor weather conditions in Kitty Hawk prevented the Wright brothers from flying their glider or assembling the untested airplane . In Virginia , strong winds toppled trees and knocked out communications in cities such as Richmond and Norfolk , where a tree brought from Napoleon Bonaparte 's grave in Paris , France , was uprooted . Wires were downed , completely disrupting communication . One death occurred inland when a man in Leesburg drowned while walk across a log on the Little River . Rough seas capsized nine vessels offshore Virginia , resulting in three deaths . Waves lashing the Back River Light caused the stones on its structure to move out of place .
The storm caused severe flooding states such as New Jersey , New York , and Pennsylvania . In New Jersey , some areas experienced rainfall totals of about 14 in ( 360 mm ) over the course of four days . In Paterson , seven bridges were destroyed and two others were severely damaged . Approximately 10 @.@ 3 mi ( 16 @.@ 6 km ) of streets in the city were inundated . About 1 @,@ 200 people fled their homes and took refuge at Paterson Armory . About 20 % and 20 % of the land in Passaic and Wallington were inundated , respectively . Damage in New Jersey reached about $ 7 million . Twenty deaths occurred , with two from drowning incidents , one from a heart attack , and seventeen others from a flood @-@ related train crash near Trenton . Along the Delaware River , nine bridges connecting New Jersey and Pennsylvania were destroyed . In Pennsylvania , houses in Easton were swept into the river and destroyed after colliding with bridges . The Lehigh River overflowed into West Easton , damaging all businesses in the city . In New York , about 10 in ( 250 mm ) fell in New York City over a 48 @-@ hour period . A number of businesses and homes were flooded , while some areas of the city were inundated with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . Transportation by ferry , trolley , and railroad were also disrupted . A flooded conduit damaged 70 telegraph lines . In Poughkeepsie , two deaths occurred due to a landslide .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A westward moving disturbance was first noted between Barbados and Grenada on October 19 and later Hispaniola . By early October 21 , the system developed into a tropical depression near Turks and Caicos Islands . The depression initially moved north @-@ northwestward across the eastern Bahamas , remaining weak during its passage . After reaching the open Atlantic , the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm by 12 : 00 UTC on October 23 . Strengthening continued , and by early on October 24 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) , both of which were observed by ships . However , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by 18 : 00 UTC while situated about 190 mi ( 310 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout in North Carolina . The remnants accelerated ahead of a cold front and later struck Newfoundland , before dissipating over the Labrador Sea on October 27 .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
Historical weather maps indicated the final storm on the season beginning early on November 17 , while located about 780 mi ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) west @-@ northwest of Santo Antão island in Cape Verde . The storm strengthened slowly and moved northwestward for the next few days , until curving northeastward late on November 19 . At 06 : 00 UTC on the following day , the cyclone intensified into a Category 1 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane turned eastward and then north @-@ northeastward by November 22 . On the following day , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , which was observed by a ship . The hurricane continued moving north @-@ northeastward for a few days , until transitioning into an extratropical cyclone while located about 480 mi ( 770 km ) northwest of Corvo Island in the Azores late on November 25 .
= = = Printed Media = = =
Terry Tucker . Beware the Hurricane ! Hamilton Press : Bermuda , 1966 .
= Guillain – Barré syndrome =
Guillain – Barré syndrome ( GBS ) is a rapid @-@ onset muscle weakness caused by the immune system damaging the peripheral nervous system . Many experience changes in sensation or develop pain , followed by muscle weakness beginning in the feet and hands . The symptoms develop over half a day to two weeks . During the acute phase , the disorder can be life @-@ threatening with about a quarter developing weakness of the breathing muscles and requiring mechanical ventilation . Some are affected by changes in the function of the autonomic nervous system , which can lead to dangerous abnormalities in heart rate and blood pressure .
This autoimmune disease is caused by the body 's immune system mistakenly attacking the peripheral nerves and damaging their myelin insulation . Sometimes this immune dysfunction is triggered by an infection . The diagnosis is usually made based on the signs and symptoms , through the exclusion of alternative causes , and supported by tests such as nerve conduction studies and examination of the cerebrospinal fluid . Various classifications exist , depending on the areas of weakness , results of nerve conduction studies , and the presence of antiganglioside antibodies . It is classified as an acute polyneuropathy .
In those with severe weakness , prompt treatment with intravenous immunoglobulins or plasmapheresis , together with supportive care , will lead to good recovery in the majority . Some may experience ongoing difficulty with walking , painful symptoms , and some require long @-@ term breathing support . Guillain – Barré syndrome is rare , at one or two cases per 100 @,@ 000 people every year . The syndrome is named after the French neurologists Georges Guillain and Jean Alexandre Barré , who described it with André Strohl in 1916 .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The first symptoms of Guillain – Barré syndrome are numbness , tingling , and pain , alone or in combination . This is followed by weakness of the legs and arms that affects both sides equally and worsens over time . The weakness can take half a day to over two weeks to reach maximum severity , and then becomes steady . In one in five people , the weakness continues to progress for as long as four weeks . The muscles of the neck may also be affected , and about half experience involvement of the cranial nerves which supply the head and face ; this may lead to weakness of the muscles of the face , swallowing difficulties and sometimes weakness of the eye muscles . In 8 % , the weakness affects only the legs ( paraplegia or paraparesis ) . Involvement of the muscles that control the bladder and anus is unusual . In total , about a third of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome continue to be able to walk . Once the weakness has stopped progressing , it persists at a stable level ( " plateau phase " ) before improvement occurs . The plateau phase can take between two days and six months , but the most common duration is a week . Pain @-@ related symptoms affect more than half , and include back pain , painful tingling , muscle pain and pain in the head and neck relating to irritation of the lining of the brain .
Many people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have experienced the signs and symptoms of an infection in the 3 – 6 weeks prior to the onset of the neurological symptoms . This may consist of upper respiratory tract infection ( rhinitis , sore throat ) or diarrhea .
In children , particularly those younger than six years old , the diagnosis can be difficult and the condition is often initially mistaken ( sometimes for up to two weeks ) for other causes of pains and difficulty walking , such as viral infections , or bone and joint problems .
On neurological examination , characteristic features are the reduced power and reduced or absent tendon reflexes ( hypo- or areflexia , respectively ) . However , a small proportion has normal reflexes in affected limbs before developing areflexia , and some may have exaggerated reflexes . In the " Miller Fisher variant " subtype of Guillain – Barré syndrome ( see below ) , weakness of the eye muscles ( ophthalmoplegia ) is more pronounced and may occur together with abnormalities in coordination ( ataxia ) . The level of consciousness is normally unaffected in Guillain – Barré syndrome , but the Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis subtype may feature drowsiness , sleepiness , or coma .
= = = Respiratory failure = = =
A quarter of all people with Guillain – Barré syndrome develop weakness of the breathing muscles leading to respiratory failure , the inability to breathe adequately to maintain healthy levels of oxygen and / or carbon dioxide in the blood . This life @-@ threatening scenario is complicated by other medical problems such as pneumonia , severe infections , blood clots in the lungs and bleeding in the digestive tract in 60 % of those who require artificial ventilation .
= = = Autonomic dysfunction = = =
The autonomic or involuntary nervous system , which is involved in the control of body functions such as heart rate and blood pressure , is affected in two thirds of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome , but the impact is variable . Twenty percent may experience severe blood @-@ pressure fluctuations and irregularities in the heart beat , sometimes to the point that the heart beat stops and requiring pacemaker @-@ based treatment . Other associated problems are abnormalities in perspiration and changes in the reactivity of the pupils . Autonomic nervous system involvement can affect even those who do not have severe muscle weakness .
= = Causes = =
Two thirds of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have experienced an infection before the onset of the condition . Most commonly these are episodes of gastroenteritis or a respiratory tract infection . In many cases , the exact nature of the infection can be confirmed . Approximately 30 % of cases are provoked by Campylobacter jejuni bacteria , which cause diarrhea . A further 10 % are attributable to cytomegalovirus ( CMV , HHV @-@ 5 ) . Despite this , only very few people with Campylobacter or CMV infections develop Guillain – Barré syndrome ( 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 65 per 1000 and 0 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 2 per 1000 episodes , respectively ) . The strain of Campylobacter involved may determine the risk of GBS ; different forms of the bacteria have different lipopolysaccharides on their surface , and some may induce illness ( see below ) while others will not .
Links between other infections and GBS are less certain . Two other herpesviruses ( Epstein – Barr virus / HHV @-@ 4 and varicella zoster virus / HHV @-@ 3 ) and the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae have been associated with GBS . The tropical viral infection dengue fever and Zika virus have also been associated with episodes of GBS . Previous hepatitis E virus infection has been found to be more common in people with Guillain – Barré syndrome .
Some cases may be triggered by the influenza virus and potentially influenza vaccine . An increased incidence of Guillain – Barré syndrome followed influenza immunization that followed the 1976 swine flu outbreak ( H1N1 A / NJ / 76 ) ; 8 @.@ 8 cases per million recipients developed the complication . Since then , close monitoring of cases attributable to vaccination has demonstrated that influenza itself can induce GBS . Small increases in incidence have been observed in subsequent vaccination campaigns , but not to the same extent . The 2009 flu pandemic vaccine ( against pandemic swine flu virus H1N1 / PDM09 ) did not cause a significant increase in cases . It is considered that the benefits of vaccination in preventing influenza outweigh the small risks of GBS after vaccination . Even those who have previously experienced Guillain – Barré syndrome are considered safe to receive the vaccine in the future . Other vaccines , such as those against poliomyelitis , tetanus or measles , have not been associated with a risk of GBS .
= = Mechanism = =
The nerve dysfunction in Guillain – Barré syndrome is caused by an immune attack on the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system and their support structures . The nerve cells have their body ( the soma ) in the spinal cord and a long projection ( the axon ) that carries electrical nerve impulses to the neuromuscular junction where the impulse is transferred to the muscle . Axons are wrapped in a sheath of Schwann cells that contain myelin . Between Schwann cells are gaps ( nodes of Ranvier ) where the axon is exposed . Different types of Guillain – Barré syndrome feature different types of immune attack . The demyelinating variant ( AIDP , see below ) features damage to the myelin sheath by white blood cells ( T lymphocytes and macrophages ) ; this process is preceded by activation of a group of blood proteins known as complement . In contrast , the axonal variant is mediated by IgG antibodies and complement against the cell membrane covering the axon without direct lymphocyte involvement .
Various antibodies directed at nerve cells have been reported in Guillain – Barré syndrome . In the axonal subtype , these antibodies have been shown to bind to gangliosides , a group of substances found in peripheral nerves . A ganglioside is a molecule consisting of ceramide bound to a small group of hexose @-@ type sugars and containing various numbers of N @-@ acetylneuraminic acid groups . The key four gangliosides against which antibodies have been described are GM1 , GD1a , GT1a , and GQ1b , with different anti @-@ ganglioside antibodies being associated with particular features ; for instance , GQ1b antibodies have been linked with Miller Fisher variant GBS and related forms including Bickerstaff encephalitis . The production of these antibodies after an infection is probably the result of molecular mimicry , where the immune system is reacting to microbial substances but the resultant antibodies also react with substances occurring naturally in the body . After a Campylobacter infection , the body produces antibodies of the IgA class ; only a small proportion of people also produce IgG antibodies against bacterial substance cell wall substances ( e.g. lipooligosaccharides ) that crossreact with human nerve cell gangliosides . It is not currently known how this process escapes central tolerance to gangliosides , which is meant to suppress the production of antibodies against the body 's own substances . Not all antiganglioside antibodies cause disease , and it has recently been suggested that some antibodies bind to more than one type of epitope simultaneously ( heterodimeric binding ) and that this determines the response . Furthermore , the development of pathogenic antibodies may depend on the presence of other strains of bacteria in the bowel .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of Guillain – Barré syndrome depends on findings such as rapid development of muscle paralysis , absent reflexes , absence of fever , and a likely cause . Cerebrospinal fluid analysis ( through a lumbar spinal puncture ) and nerve conduction studies are supportive investigations commonly performed in the diagnosis of GBS . Testing for antiganglioside antibodies is often performed , but their contribution to diagnosis is usually limited . Blood tests are generally performed to exclude the possibility of another cause for weakness , such as a low level of potassium in the blood . An abnormally low level of sodium in the blood is often encountered in Guillain – Barré syndrome . This has been attributed to the inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone , leading to relative retention of water .
In many cases , magnetic resonance imaging of the spinal cord is performed to distinguish between Guillain – Barré syndrome and other conditions causing limb weakness , such as spinal cord compression . If an MRI scan shows enhancement of the nerve roots , this may be indicative of GBS . In children , this feature is present in 95 % of scans , but it is not specific to Guillain – Barré syndrome , so other confirmation is also needed .
= = = Spinal fluid = = =
Cerebrospinal fluid envelops the brain and the spine , and lumbar puncture or spinal tap is the removal of a small amount of fluid using a needle inserted between the lumbar vertebrae . Characteristic findings in Guillain – Barré syndrome are an elevated protein level , usually greater than 0 @.@ 55 g / L , and fewer than 10 white blood cells per cubic millimeter of fluid ( " albuminocytological dissociation " ) . This combination distinguishes Guillain – Barré syndrome from other conditions ( such as lymphoma and poliomyelitis ) in which both the protein and the cell count are elevated . Elevated CSF protein levels are found in approximately 50 % of patients in the first 3 days after onset of weakness , which increases to 80 % after the first week .
Repeating the lumbar puncture during the disease course is not recommended . The protein levels may rise after treatment has been administered .
= = = Neurophysiology = = =
Directly assessing nerve conduction of electrical impulses can exclude other causes of acute muscle weakness , as well as distinguish the different types of Guillain – Barré syndrome . Needle electromyography ( EMG ) and nerve conduction studies may be performed . In the first two weeks , these investigations may not show any abnormality . Neurophysiology studies are not required for the diagnosis .
Formal criteria exist for each of the main subtypes of Guillain – Barré syndrome ( AIDP and AMAN / AMSAN , see below ) , but these may misclassify some cases ( particularly where there is reversible conduction failure ) and therefore changes to these criteria have been proposed . Sometimes , repeated testing may be helpful .
= = = Clinical subtypes = = =
A number of subtypes of Guillain – Barré syndrome are recognized . Despite this , many people have overlapping symptoms that can make the classification difficult in individual cases . All types have partial forms . For instance , some people experience only isolated eye @-@ movement or coordination problems ; these are thought to be a subtype of Miller Fisher syndrome and have similar antiganglioside antibody patterns .
Other diagnostic entities are often included in the spectrum of Guillain – Barré syndrome . Bickerstaff 's brainstem encephalitis , for instance , is part of the group of conditions now regarded as forms of Miller Fisher syndrome ( anti @-@ GQ1b antibody syndrome ) , as well as a related condition labelled " acute ataxic hypersomnolence " where coordination problems and drowsiness are present but no muscle weakness can be detected . BBE is characterized by the rapid onset of ophthalmoplegia , ataxia , and disturbance of consciousness , and may be associated with absent or decreased tendon reflexes and as well as Babinski 's sign . The course of the disease is usually monophasic , but recurrent episodes have been reported . MRI abnormalities in the brainstem have been reported in 11 % .
Whether isolated acute sensory loss can be regarded as a form of Guillain – Barré syndrome is a matter of dispute ; this is a rare occurrence compared to GBS with muscle weakness but no sensory symptoms .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Immunotherapy = = =
Plasmapheresis and intravenous immunoglobulins ( IVIg ) are the two main immunotherapy treatments for GBS . Plasmapheresis attempts to reduce the body 's attack on the nervous system by filtering antibodies out of the bloodstream . Similarly , administration of IVIg neutralizes harmful antibodies and inflammation . These two treatments are equally effective and a combination of the two is not significantly better than either alone . Plasmapheresis speeds recovery when used within four weeks of the onset of symptoms . IVIg works as well as plasmapheresis when started within two weeks of the onset of symptoms , and has fewer complications . IVIg is usually used first because of its ease of administration and safety . Its use is not without risk ; occasionally it causes liver inflammation , or in rare cases , kidney failure . Glucocorticoids alone have not been found to be effective in speeding recovery and could potentially delay recovery .
= = = Respiratory failure = = =
Respiratory failure may require intubation of the windpipe and breathing support through mechanical ventilation , generally on an intensive care unit . The need for ventilatory support can be anticipated by measurement of two spirometry @-@ based breathing tests : the forced vital capacity ( FVC ) and the negative inspiratory force ( NIF ) . An FVC of less than 15 ml per kilogram body weight or an NIF of less than 60 cmH2O are considered markers of severe respiratory failure .
= = = Pain = = =
While pain is common in people with Guillain – Barré syndrome , studies comparing different types of pain medication are insufficient to make a recommendation as to which should be used .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
Following the acute phase , around 40 % of people require intensive rehabilitation with the help of a multidisciplinary team to focus on improving activities of daily living ( ADLs ) . Studies into the subject have been limited , but it is likely that intensive rehabilitation improves long @-@ term symptoms . Teams may include physical therapists , occupational therapists , social workers , psychologists , other allied health professionals and nurses . The team usually works under the supervision of a neurologist or rehabilitation physician directing treatment goals .
Physiotherapy interventions include strength , endurance and gait training with graduated increases in mobility , maintenance of posture and alignment as well as joint function . Occupational therapy aims to improve everyday function with domestic and community tasks as well as driving and work . Home modifications , gait aids , orthotics and splints may be provided . Speech @-@ language pathology input may be required in those with speech and swallowing problems , as well as to support communication in those who require ongoing breathing support ( often through a tracheostomy ) . Nutritional support may be provided by the team and by dietitians . Psychologists may provide counseling and support . Psychological interventions may also be required for anxiety , fear and depression .
= = Prognosis = =
Guillain – Barré syndrome can lead to death as a result of a number of complications : severe infections , blood clots , and cardiac arrest likely due to autonomic neuropathy . Despite optimum care this occurs in about 5 % of cases .
There is a variation in the rate and extent of recovery . The prognosis of Guillain – Barré syndrome is determined mainly by age ( those over 40 may have a poorer outcome ) , and by the severity of symptoms after two weeks . Furthermore , those who experienced diarrhea before the onset of disease have a worse prognosis . On the nerve conduction study , the presence of conduction block predicts poorer outcome at 6 months . In those who have received intravenous immunoglobulins , a smaller increase in IgG in the blood two weeks after administration is associated with poorer mobility outcomes at six months than those whose IgG level increased substantially . If the disease continues to progress beyond four weeks , or there are multiple fluctuations in the severity ( more than two in eight weeks ) , the diagnosis may be chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy which is treated differently .
In research studies , the outcome from an episode of Guillain – Barré syndrome is recorded on a scale from 0 – 6 , where 0 denotes completely healthy , 1 very minor symptoms but able to run , 2 able to walk but not to run , 3 requiring a stick or other support , 4 confined to bed or chair , 5 requiring long @-@ term respiratory support , 6 death .
The health @-@ related quality of life ( HRQL ) after an attack of Guillain – Barré syndrome can be significantly impaired . About a fifth are unable to walk unaided after six months , and many experience chronic pain , fatigue and difficulty with work , education , hobbies and social activities . HRQL improves significantly in the first year .
= = Epidemiology = =
In Western countries , the number of new episodes per year has been estimated to be between 0 @.@ 89 and 1 @.@ 89 cases per 100 @,@ 000 people . Children and young adults are less likely to be affected than the elderly : the risk increases by 20 % for every decade of life . Men are more likely to develop Guillain – Barré syndrome than women ; the relative risk for men is 1 @.@ 78 compared to women .
The distribution of subtypes varies between countries . In Europe and the United States , 60 – 80 % of people with Guillain – Barré syndrome have the demyelinating subtype ( AIDP ) , and AMAN affects only a small number ( 6 – 7 % ) . In Asia and Central and South America , that proportion is significantly higher ( 30 – 65 % ) . This may be related to the exposure to different kinds of infection , but also the genetic characteristics of that population . Miller Fisher variant is thought to be more common in Southeast Asia .
= = History = =
French physician Jean @-@ Baptiste Octave Landry first described the disorder in 1859 . In 1916 , Georges Guillain , Jean Alexandre Barré , and André Strohl diagnosed two soldiers with the illness and described the key diagnostic abnormality — albuminocytological dissociation — of increased spinal fluid protein concentration but a normal cell count .
Canadian neurologist C. Miller Fisher described the variant that bears his name in 1956 . British neurologist Edwin Bickerstaff , based in Birmingham , described the brainstem encephalitis type in 1951 with Philip Cloake , and made further contributions with another paper in 1957 . Guillain had reported on some of these features prior to their full description in 1938 . Further subtypes have been described since then , such as the form featuring pure ataxia and the type causing pharyngeal @-@ cervical @-@ brachial weakness . The axonal subtype was first described in the 1990s .
Diagnostic criteria were developed in the late 1970s after the series of cases associated with swine flu vaccination . These were refined in 1990 . The case definition was revised by the Brighton Collaboration for vaccine safety in 2009 , but is mainly intended for research . Plasma exchange was first used in 1978 and its benefit confirmed in larger studies in 1985 . Intravenous immunoglobulins were introduced in 1988 , and its non @-@ inferiority compared to plasma exchange was demonstrated in studies in the early 1990s .
= = Research directions = =
The understanding of the disease mechanism of Guillain – Barré syndrome has evolved in recent years . Development of new treatments has been limited since immunotherapy was introduced in the 1980s and 1990s . Current research is aimed at demonstrating whether some people who have received IVIg might benefit from a second course if the antibody levels measured in blood after treatment have only shown a small increase . Studies of the immunosuppressive drug mycophenolate mofetil , brain @-@ derived neurotrophic factor and interferon beta ( IFN @-@ β ) have not demonstrated benefit to support their widespread use .
An animal model ( experimental autoimmune neuritis in rats ) is often used for studies , and some agents have shown promise : glatiramer acetate , quinpramine , fasudil ( an inhibitor of the Rho @-@ kinase enzyme ) , and the heart drug flecainide . An antibody targeted against the anti @-@ GD3 antiganglioside antibody has shown benefit in laboratory research . Given the role of the complement system in GBS , it has been suggested that complement inhibitors ( such as the drug eculizumab ) may be effective .
= Penshurst Airfield =
Penshurst Airfield was an airfield in operation between 1916 – 36 and 1940 – 46 . Initially a military airfield , after the First World War it was used as an alternate destination to Croydon Airport , with some civil flying taking place . The airfield closed following the crash of a Flying Flea at an air display in 1936 , and was converted to a polo ground .
It re @-@ opened during the Second World War as an Emergency Landing Ground , RAF Penshurst . As well as serving in this role , it was mainly used by Air Observation Post ( AOP ) squadrons of the Royal Air Force . The airfield finally closed in May 1946 .
= = Location = =
The airfield was located south of Charcott , on the western edge of Leigh , and eastern edge of Chiddingstone , at 51 ° 12 ′ N 0 ° 11 ′ E ( TQ 525 468 ) . The parish boundary running through the site . It was named Penshurst as it was considered that name was more up @-@ market than Chiddingstone Causeway or Leigh . The airfield was some 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Penshurst . Nearby Penshurst railway station lies within the parish of Chiddingstone .
= = History = =
= = = 1910s = = =
An airfield was established at Penshurst in December 1916 . The airfield had a grass runway . The site measured 800 yd ( 730 m ) from north to south and 400 yd ( 370 m ) from east to west . In total it extended to 72 acres ( 29 ha ) . Facilities included two hangars of 130 ft × 60 ft ( 40 m × 18 m ) , and a 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) long grass runway , aligned east @-@ west . A large house , Knotley Hall , which stood to the south of the airfield was requisitioned for use as the officer 's accommodation . During 1917 , Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.12 aircraft of No. 78 Squadron RFC were based at Penshurst .
On 8 November 1917 , No. 2 Wireless School was formed at Penshurst . It operated a variety of aircraft , including Airco DH.6 , Avro 504K , Avro 504N , Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c and B.E.2e , Sopwith Camel and Sopwith Snipe . Aircrew attended the school for a one @-@ week @-@ long course in wireless telephony procedures . The school was disbanded on 23 March 1919 . Knotley Hall was offered for sale in May 1919 . In September 1919 , it was announced that Penshurst had been disposed of by the Royal Air Force , and that it could be considered as an emergency landing ground for civil aircraft .
= = = 1920s = = =
In February 1920 , a Notice to Airmen was issued advising pilots that had made emergency landings at Penshurst that they could use the War Office telephone to inform the police of their arrival and to obtain conveyances for their passengers to take them to Penshurst station . On 5 June 1920 , the first air mail flight between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom was made . Bert Hinchcliffe departed from Schiphol in a hired Airco DH.9 with 300 letters on board . Despite the bad weather , Hinchcliffe decided not to land at Lympne and pressed on towards Croydon . He was eventually forced to land at Penshurst due to a combination of the weather and running low on fuel . A taxi was hired to take Hinchcliffe and the letters on to London . A linen windsock was installed at Penshurst in November 1920 . The War Office telephone was notified as having been discontinued in January 1921 . On 24 September 1921 , a de Havilland DH.18 aircraft diverted to Penshurst as Croydon was fogbound .
From February 1922 the airfield , which was in use as an emergency landing ground , had an illuminated T as part of the illumination of the London @-@ Paris airway . Also at the airfield were coloured lamps connected to an anemometer to indicate wind strength , green for no wind , white for moderate wind and red to indicate strong wind .
On 10 June 1922 , Alan Cobham was forced to land his de Havilland DH.9 at Penshurst owing to poor weather conditions at Stag Lane Aerodrome , Edgware . He was attempting a 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) flight from Belgrade , Yugoslavia bringing photographs of the Royal Wedding between King Alexander and Princess Maria for publication by the Daily Mirror . The photographs were taken on to London by road . On 7 July 1922 , two Farman Goliaths diverted to Penshurst during a gale . One aircraft belonged to Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes and the other to Compagnie des Grands Express Aériens . Both aircraft were picketed overnight as there was no hangar large enough to accommodate them . A gust of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) was recorded .
In 1925 , runway lights were installed at Penshurst . In 1926 , a telephone was again made available to airmen at Penshurst . On 27 August 1927 , Tunbridge Wells Air Pageant was held . The site originally chosen , a field about a mile outside Tunbridge Wells was deemed unsuitable as there were obstacles surrounding it . It was decided to continue the pageant at Penshurst . Five civil de Havilland Moths and three Armstrong Whitworth Siskins from No. 56 Squadron RAF , based at nearby RAF Biggin Hill attended . The pageant was to promote the proposed Tunbridge Wells Flying Club , whose President was to be Sir Robert Gower . It was reported that part of Penshurst Airfield had been rented by the club . Sir Robert entertained Sir Sefton Brancker at Penshurst on 5 December 1927 when Brancker called in on his way to Lympne Aerodrome where he was to visit the East Kent Flying Club .
= = = 1930s = = =
In 1930 , Home Counties Aircraft Services were based at Penshurst . A de Havilland DH.60 Gipsy Moth was exhibited at a car showroom in Tunbridge Wells , causing severe traffic congestion due to the number of people visiting the town to see it . Home Counties Aircraft Service Ltd was registered later that year . By October 1930 , Mr Waters , the manager of Home Counties Aircraft Service Ltd had formed the Surrey Aero Club , based at Gatwick Racecourse Aerodrome .
The airfield served as an alternative destination for Imperial Airways when Croydon was fogbound . The runway was just long enough for this purpose . Using Penshurst as an alternate destination caused delays to the passengers as there were no Customs facilities . On 18 February 1932 , both Croydon and Penshurst were fogbound , and Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXE Hengist diverted to Heston Aerodrome . As Customs facilities existed there , passengers were on their way in 10 minutes , as opposed to the three hour or longer delay when using Penshurst . The practice of having a Customs Officer attend Penshurst on a daily basis was instigated , but it was discontinued in February 1935 . On 24 October 1932 , a German and a French airliner diverted to Penshurst due to smog over London .
By 1933 , Penshurst was being operated by Air Travel Ltd , who were agents for Brooklands Airways . In 1935 , Air Travel Ltd were employing 25 staff . On 1 March , 15 aircraft and 26 engines were being worked upon . Air Travel Ltd increased its capital from £ 500 to £ 7 @,@ 000 in January 1936 . In that year , Penshurst marked the south eastern corner of Croydon 's controlled zone which came into effect during conditions of bad visibility .
On 22 July 1936 , Charles Lindbergh departed Penshurst for Staaken Airfield , Berlin , which was a Luftwaffe airfield closed to civil aircraft . Lindbergh had been invited to Berlin by Hermann Göring . A press blackout was imposed on the orders of Adolf Hitler . Lindbergh made a speech to the Aero Club in Berlin which was reported in Der Volkische Beobachter .
As a result of the expiry of the lease on the land , Penshurst Airfield closed on 28 July 1936 . Air Travel Ltd moved to Gatwick . In 1938 , the land was converted for use as a Polo ground by the Eridge Polo Club . Civil aircraft that were based at Penshurst include the Avro Avian III , Avro Avian IVM , Avro 504K and Avro 504N , de Havilland DH.60 Moth ( various models ) , and Spartan Three @-@ Seater .
= = = From 1940 = = =
In 1940 , the airfield was occupied by the Royal Air Force , who erected Nissen huts and cleared the area of obstacles as it was intended to use the area as an Emergency Landing Ground . Three pillboxes were erected around the airfield 's perimeter . Between March and June 1940 the airfield was used by No. 15 Elementary Flying Training School at RAF Redhill as a relief landing ground . Knotley Hall was again requisitioned for use as the officers ' quarters , although the tennis courts were off @-@ limits .
During the Battle of Britain , on 27 October 1940 , a Messerschmitt Me 109E flown by Fw Lothar Schieverhofer , of 3 Gruppe , Jagdgeschwader 52 , was damaged in a dogfight with Supermarine Spitfire IIa P7494 of No. 74 Squadron RAF , flown by Plt Off Peter Chesters . The Messerschmitt made a wheels @-@ up landing at RAF Penshurst , where Chesters also landed a few minutes later as he was short of fuel . Chesters dragged the German from his aircraft . Schieverhofer spat in his face , and a fist @-@ fight developed with both contestants swearing at each other in German . The fight was broken up by the arrival of an ARP Warden , a policeman and a soldier . Chesters was forced to hand back Schieverhofer 's Iron Cross , which he had snatched as a souvenir , and instead took the first aid kit from the Messerschmitt . Schieverhofer was taken away from RAF Penshurst as a Prisoner of War .
On 4 August 1941 No. 268 Squadron RAF were deployed to RAF Penshurst from RAF Snailwell . They were based here for four days before they returned to RAF Snailwell on 8 August . At the time , 268 Squadron were operating the Curtiss Tomahawk IIA . On 7 September 1942 , No. 653 Squadron RAF was deployed to RAF Penshurst , bringing their Auster AOP.5 aircraft with them . The squadron departed on 17 August 1943 but returned again on 17 September . On 13 January 1944 , an Auster was presented to 653 Squadron in memory of Scottish aviation pioneer Bertram Dickson . Another was presented to the squadron that day by a Mrs Law in memory of her son . 653 Squadron departed Penshurst on 27 June 1944 . LB264 , one of 653 Squadron 's Austers which operated from RAF Penshurst , is preserved at the Royal Air Force Museum , Hendon . On 27 June 1944 , 653 Squadron relocated to Normandy . Another Auster squadron , No. 661 Squadron , moved into Penshurst the day 653 Squadron left , like 653 Squadron , 661 followed them to France on 7 August 1944 .
On 6 July 1944 , Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress 43 @-@ 37527 N7 @-@ X The Prowler of the 603d Bombardment Squadron , USAAF made an emergency wheels @-@ up landing at RAF Penshurst . The aircraft was returning to RAF Nuthampstead from a raid on Saint @-@ Omer , France . Eight of the eleven crew bailed out before the aircraft landed . Although a Leigh resident recalled that the aircraft was later repaired and flown out at a light load and taking advantage of favourable winds , official records show that the aircraft was written off . In December 1944 , personnel based at Penshurst numbered 26 officers and 166 other ranks . On 2 February 1945 , No. 664 Squadron RAF was deployed to Penshurst . They also flew Austers . On 23 March 1945 , 664 Squadron were transferred to the Netherlands . On 10 July 1945 Douglas C @-@ 47A Dakota 42 @-@ 108872 of the 23d Fighter Squadron USAAF crashed on landing at RAF Penshurst . The aircraft was written off . RAF Penshurst closed on 13 May 1946 . The control tower was demolished in the 1970s . The crewroom was demolished in 1990 . A hangar survived until 1991 , when it blew down in a storm .
= = Civil accidents and incidents = =
On 20 August 1922 , an aircraft flown by Thomas Baden Powell of Tunbridge Wells on a flight from Croydon crashed on landing at Penshurst . Baden Powell was subsequently convicted of flying an unregistered aircraft and flying without a valid pilot 's licence . He was fined £ 40 .
On 2 October 1926 , Blériot 155 F @-@ AICQ Clement Ader of Air Union crashed at Southwood , Leigh following an in @-@ flight fire , killing all seven people on board . The pilot was trying to make an emergency landing at Penshurst . This was the first in @-@ flight fire on a civil airliner . The Coroner recorded a verdict of " accidental death " against all seven victims .
On 2 May 1930 , Farman F.63 Goliath F @-@ ADCA of Air Union crashed in Penshurst after encountering a heavy squall during a flight from Le Bourget to Croydon .
On 4 May 1936 , Mignet HM.14 " Flying Flea " G @-@ AEEW crashed at an airshow held at Penshurst , killing the pilot . As a result of this accident , Air Commodore Chamier , secretary of the Air League , called for the Flying Flea to be grounded pending an enquiry .
= Delaware Route 5 =
Delaware Route 5 ( DE 5 ) is a 19 @.@ 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 31 @.@ 35 km ) state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route runs north from River Road on the Indian River Bay in Oak Orchard north to DE 1 , north of Milton . Along the way , DE 5 passes through rural areas along with the communities of Long Neck , Harbeson , and Milton . The route has concurrencies with DE 23 and DE 24 in the Long Neck area . DE 5 features one alternate route , DE 5 Alternate ( DE 5 Alt . ) , which provides a bypass of Milton . DE 5 was built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s , receiving its designation by 1938 . DE 5 Alt. was designated by 2001 .
= = Route description = =
DE 5 heads northwest on two @-@ lane undivided Oak Orchard Road from the intersection with River Road on the shore of the Indian River Bay , passing through the residential areas of Oak Orchard . The road continues through a mix of farms and woods with some housing developments , coming to an intersection with DE 24 . At this point , DE 5 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 24 on John J. Williams Highway . The road heads north through residential and commercial development with some fields as it enters the Long Neck area , where it intersects DE 23 .
At the DE 23 intersection , DE 5 splits from DE 24 and turns northwest onto DE 23 , which is called Indian Mission Road . The road heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with some housing subdivisions . In Fairmount , DE 23 branches off to the northeast , and DE 5 continues to the northwest through more rural areas . At the intersection with DE 24 Alt. in Hollyville , the name changes to Harbeson Road . The route turns north and reaches Harbeson . In Harbeson , DE 5 crosses a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line and intersects US 9 / DE 404 near Beaverdam Cemetery .
Past this intersection , the road runs north through more rural land before curving northwest . The route turns north again and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of the DE 5 Alt. bypass to the west of Milton , which heads west on Sand Hill Road . Also at this intersection , the name changes from Harbeson Road to Federal Street . DE 5 continues northeast into Milton , encountering the Milton Rail @-@ Trail and passing several homes . At the intersection with Front Street , the route turns northwest onto Union Street , running through the downtown and crossing the Broadkill River . The road continues through residential areas in the northern part of Milton . At the north end of town , DE 5 intersects DE 16 along with the northern terminus of DE 5 Alt . , which heads west on DE 16 . DE 5 continues north on Union Street Extended , passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . The route turns northeast and comes to its northern terminus at DE 1 .
DE 5 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 18 @,@ 803 vehicles at the intersection with DE 23 and DE 24 to a low of 2 @,@ 170 vehicles at south end of the DE 24 concurrency . None of DE 5 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 5 existed as an unimproved county road . The road was upgraded to a state highway between Harbeson and Milton by 1924 . The following year , the road was proposed as a state highway north of Milton and from Oak Orchard to the present @-@ day north end of the DE 24 concurrency . The entire length of the present DE 5 was completed as a state highway by 1931 . DE 5 was assigned to its current alignment by 1938 , running between Oak Orchard and DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) north of Milton . By 1994 , DE 23 was designated to run concurrent with a portion of DE 5 in the Long Neck area .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 5 Alternate ( DE 5 Alt . ) is a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) alternate route of DE 5 that bypasses the town of Milton . The route travels west from DE 5 south of Milton along two @-@ lane undivided Sand Hill Road through areas of farms and woods with some homes . The route turns north to join DE 30 on Gravel Hill Road , crossing an abandoned railroad line just east of the terminus of a Delaware Coast Line Railroad branch . DE 5 Alt. splits from DE 30 by turning east onto DE 16 , following that route through more rural areas on Beach Highway . The route ends at an intersection with DE 5 north of Milton . In some locations , the route is signed as " DE 5 Truck Alt " . The route was designated by 2001 .
Major intersections
The entire route is in Milton , Sussex County .
= Pennsylvania Route 343 =
Pennsylvania Route 343 ( PA 343 ) is an 8 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 13 km ) route between Lebanon and Fredericksburg in Lebanon County , Pennsylvania . It begins at PA 72 and ends at Exit 6 of Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) . PA 343 heads mostly through urbanized areas near Lebanon before continuing into rural areas further north . There is a concurrency with U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) near the northern terminus .
PA 343 has had a number of different realignments , most of them relating to the northern terminus of the highway . The highway originally terminated at an intersection with PA 443 in Lickdale , moved to end in the community of Bordnersville soon after . The highway was then extended along the local continuation to end at US 22 in Harper Tavern . In 1963 , PA 343 was moved back to Lickdale , and seven years after , moved to its northern terminus , thirteen years after the construction of I @-@ 78 .
= = Route description = =
PA 343 begins at an intersection with PA 72 , near the Northwest Elementary School , in the city of Lebanon in Lebanon County . PA 343 heads eastward along Maple Street , a two @-@ lane undivided street maintained by the city , past urbanized homes and businesses . The route turns north onto North 7th Street and passes more development . PA 343 leaves Lebanon for North Lebanon Township , where it becomes state @-@ maintained and passes through the residential community of Reindeldville . The road runs north @-@ northeast past more homes and businesses as it heads through the community of Eustontown . The route leaves the urbanized areas and heads into agricultural areas with some trees and homes . PA 343 turns northwest at the Heffelfinger Road intersection and enters Bethel Township , where it heads north as South Pine Grove Street through a patch of woods before running through more farmland . The road runs to the west of Little Swatara Creek and passes to the east of Pine Meadows Golf Course before it crosses the creek . The route continues through rural areas and passes through the residential community of Shirksville . PA 343 heads north through more farmland before it comes to an intersection with US 22 ( William Penn Highway ) south of the community of Fredericksburg .
At this point , South Pine Grove Street continues to Fredericksburg and PA 343 turns northeast to become concurrent with US 22 on four @-@ lane divided William Penn Highway . The road runs through agricultural areas with some commercial development , passing to the south of a warehouse . PA 343 splits from US 22 by heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Pine Grove Road , passing to the west of a park . The route continues near rural commercial development before it reaches its northern terminus at a partial interchange with I @-@ 78 , with access to westbound I @-@ 78 and access from eastbound I @-@ 78 . Past this interchange , Pine Grove Road continues north as SR 1007 toward the Berks County line .
= = History = =
PA 343 was assigned in the numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania during 1928 . The highway then ran from the southern terminus in Lebanon , which was at the time , an intersection with US 22 ( now US 422 ) . At Fredericksburg , the route reached an intersection with PA 43 ( now US 22 ) . At Fredericksburg , highway turned to the northwest and headed to Lickdale . There it terminated at an intersection with PA 443 . The highway stayed intact for two years , until 1930 , when the highway was extended a few miles to the community of Bordnersville , where the road then continued as a local highway .
The highway was paved from Fredericksburg to an intersection with Lancaster Street and from Lickdale to Bordnersville in 193
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its position on top of the equine body , the legs of which have fin like appendages . The torso has a large head – possibly as much as 3 feet ( 90 centimetres ) in diameter – that rolls back and forth . The monster described by Tammas has two heads ; the equine head has an enormous gaping mouth that exudes a smelly toxic vapour , and a single giant eye like a burning red flame . A particularly gruesome detail is that the nuckelavee has no skin ; black blood courses through yellow veins , and the pale sinews and powerful muscles are visible as a pulsating mass . Other reports state that the creature resembles a centaur ; narratives are inconsistent in the finer details of the demon 's description however . Traill Dennison only describes a man 's head with a " mouth projected like that of a pig " . Marwick also only mentions one head with a single red eye , and he borrows some of Tammas 's characterisation by recording the creature 's mouth as " like a whale 's " .
The nuckelavee 's breath was thought to wilt crops and sicken livestock , and it was considered responsible for epidemics and drought . Seaweed burning to create what was known at the time as kelp began on Stronsay in 1722 . The product – soda ash – was an alkali mainly used to treat acidic soil , although as time went on its commercial importance in soap and glass manufacture increased . The pungent smoke emitted during the process was believed to enrage the nuckelavee , resulting in a wild rampage of plague , the deaths of cattle and the destruction of crops . The nuckelavee was said to have infected horses on Stronsay with the deadly disease known as mortasheen , to demonstrate its fury and exact its revenge against the islanders for burning seaweed ; the infection subsequently spread to all the other islands involved in the industry . The creature was also blamed for prolonged periods of abnormally low rainfall , leading to water shortages and poor harvests .
= = Confinement = =
The nuckelavee is the most malevolent of the demons in and around the Scottish islands , without any redeeming characteristics . The only entity able to control it is the Mither o ' the Sea , an ancient spirit in Orcadian mythology who keeps the nuckelavee confined during the summer months . In common with other mythical sea monsters , with the possible exception of kelpies and the nuggle of Shetland , it is unable to wade through fresh flowing water , therefore those it is chasing have only to cross a stream to be rid of it . Tammas managed to escape from the nuckelavee after he inadvertently splashed it with water from the loch he was alongside ; this briefly distracted the monster , allowing Tammas to run over to a nearby channel of fresh water and jump to safety on the opposite bank .
= = Origins = =
Malevolent creatures possibly served to provide explanations for incidents that islanders from bygone times were otherwise unable to account for ; many ancient myths were based upon the natural elements of the turbulent and ever changing sea around Orkney . Established Orcadian tales were strongly influenced by Scandinavian mythology with a blending of traditional Celtic stories , so the nuckelavee may have its roots in a mythical creature imported by the Norsemen fused with a traditional Celtic water horse .
= Lassie ( 1954 TV series ) =
Lassie is an American television series that follows the adventures of a female Rough Collie dog named Lassie and her companions , both human and animal . The show was the creation of producer Robert Maxwell and animal trainer Rudd Weatherwax and was televised from September 12 , 1954 , to March 25 , 1973 . The fourth longest @-@ running U.S. primetime television series after The Simpsons , Gunsmoke , and Law & Order , the show chalked up 17 seasons on CBS before entering first @-@ run syndication for its final two seasons . Initially filmed in black and white , the show transitioned to color in 1965 .
The show 's first 10 seasons follow Lassie 's adventures in a small farming community . Fictional eleven @-@ year @-@ old Jeff Miller , his mother , and his grandfather are Lassie 's first human companions until seven @-@ year @-@ old Timmy Martin and his adoptive parents take over in the fourth season . When Lassie 's exploits on the farm end in the eleventh season , she finds new adventures in the wilderness alongside United States Forest Service Rangers . After traveling on her own for a year , Lassie finally settles at a children 's home for her final two syndicated seasons .
Lassie received critical favor at its debut and won two Emmy Awards in its first years . Stars Jan Clayton and June Lockhart were nominated for Emmys . Merchandise produced during the show 's run included books , a Halloween costume , clothing , toys , and other items . Campbell 's Soup , the show 's lifelong sponsor , offered two premiums ( a ring and a wallet ) , and distributed thousands to fans . A multi @-@ part episode was edited into the feature film Lassie 's Great Adventure and released in August 1963 . Selected episodes have been released to DVD .
= = Production = =
= = = Concept and development = = =
Between 1943 and 1951 , the fictional collie , Lassie , was the inspiration for seven MGM feature films . With completion of the seventh film in 1951 , the studio planned no further films for the Lassie character or Pal , the dog actor who portrayed the fictional canine . In lieu of $ 40 @,@ 000 back pay owed him by MGM , Pal 's owner and trainer Rudd Weatherwax took all rights to the Lassie trademark and name , and hit the road with Pal to perform at fairs , rodeos , and other venues .
Needing material for the relatively new medium of television , producer Robert Maxwell sold Weatherwax on the concept of a Lassie television series with a boy and his dog theme . The two men developed a scenario about a struggling war widow , her young son , and her father @-@ in @-@ law set on a weather @-@ beaten , modern day American farm . Two pilots were filmed in Calgary , Alberta , Canada with the first telling the story of the bond forged between boy and dog , and the second filmed to give potential sponsors and network buyers an idea of a typical episode . After viewing the pilots , CBS put the show on its fall 1954 schedule . Campbell 's Soup Company signed on early as the show 's sole sponsor and remained so for the show 's entire run . Filming for the series began in the summer of 1954 , and Lassie made its début Sunday , September 12 , 1954 , at 7 : 00 p.m. EST , a time slot the show would call home on CBS for the next seventeen years .
In 1957 , Jack Wrather , owner of the hit television series The Lone Ranger and Sergeant Preston of the Yukon purchased all rights to the Lassie television show for $ 3 @.@ 25 million , and guided the show through its next several seasons . As 1964 and the show 's eleventh season approached , the decision was made to completely rework the show ; the boy and his dog theme was dropped and Lassie was teamed with a succession of United States Forest Service workers . The show focused on conservation and environmentalism , but its relevance in a time of social change was questioned . The show began a steady decline in ratings . In 1971 , new rulings regarding network prime time scheduling were handed down from the Federal Communications Commission , and CBS canceled the show . Lassie then entered first @-@ run syndication for two seasons before televising its last new episode on Sunday March 25 , 1973 .
= = = Casting = = =
The show 's title character is portrayed in the two pilots by Pal , the MGM film Lassie . Thereafter , five of his male descendants played the role . His son Lassie Junior performed through the Jeff years and first two Timmy years before retiring in 1959 to battle cancer . Though he recovered , Lassie Junior never worked the show again . His son Spook was rushed into the series while his brother Baby was in training for the role . Spook was inadequately prepared and never became comfortable on the set after an overhead light crashed to the floor on his first day . Weatherwax , however , coaxed a natural and seemingly confident performance from the frightened dog , and , for some , Spook 's portrayal represents Weatherwax 's finest work . Spook played the role in the spring and fall of 1960 . Baby , son of Lassie Junior and brother to Spook , worked the show for six years . He appeared in the last Timmy years , and two of the Forest Service seasons . Baby died at eight years of age , the only Lassie not to live at least seventeen years . He was followed in the role by Mire who played Lassie for five years . Hey Hey portrayed the fictional collie in the syndicated seasons .
Broadway star and quiz show panelist Jan Clayton was hired to play farm widow Ellen Miller with septuagenarian George Cleveland playing her father @-@ in @-@ law , George " Gramps " Miller . Child actor Tommy Rettig was hired to portray Ellen ’ s eleven @-@ year @-@ old son Jeff Miller , and Donald Keeler ( the professional name used at the time by Joey D. Vieira ) was cast as Jeff 's friend , Sylvester " Porky " Brockway . Porky 's basset hound Pokey became a recurring animal character through the first several seasons .
In 1957 , Clayton and Rettig wanted to leave the show . Producers decided to find a new boy and ease the Miller family out of the show . Two hundred boys were interviewed , and six @-@ year @-@ old film veteran Jon Provost was hired and made his début as Timmy in the fourth season opener , " The Runaway . " In July 1957 , George Cleveland died unexpectedly , and producers were forced to overhaul the show . The plot was extensively reworked and Clayton and Rettig were dropped . Cloris Leachman and Jon Shepodd were quickly hired as Timmy ’ s adoptive parents Ruth and Paul Martin . In the fourth season , George Chandler was hired to play Petrie Martin , Paul 's uncle , but was later dropped . As fourth season shooting progressed , Leachman grew unhappy playing a tired farm woman , feuded on @-@ set with co @-@ workers , and proved unpopular with viewers . Ratings dropped . When filming was completed for the 1957 – 58 season in February 1958 , Wrather severed ties with producer Maxwell and dropped Leachman and Shepodd . Film veteran June Lockhart and Broadway stage star Hugh Reilly replaced the two at the top of the fifth season . Todd Ferrell played Timmy 's friend Ralph " Boomer " Bates with his dog Mike a recurring character but both were dropped in 1959 .
Former Keystone Kop Andy Clyde , also a co @-@ star of The Real McCoys , became a regular in 1959 as neighbor Cully Wilson .
Guest stars during the Timmy years included " The Lone Ranger " , Roy Campanella , Olympian Rafer Johnson , Stacy Keach , Marie Windsor , Dick Foran , Tod Griffin , Jane Darwell , Denver Pyle , Fuzzy Knight , Harry Carey , Jr . , William Schallert , and Karl Swenson .
During its first four years , Lassie received very decent ratings . However , at the end of the 1958 @-@ 1959 season , the ratings had fallen out of the top 30 due to the constant turnover in the cast . Once viewers began to warm to Lockhart and Reilly as Timmy 's parents , the Martin family was accepted and embraced by the public . As a result , between 1960 and 1964 , Lassie 's ratings greatly improved and by the spring of 1964 , it received its highest rating ever , ranking at # 13 .
In 1964 , Provost declined to renew his contract . Producers decided to broaden the show 's demographics to appeal to older viewers , and , to that end , dropped the boy and his dog theme for a plot featuring a Forest Service Ranger . Robert Bray , a former Marine and Gary Cooper look @-@ alike was cast as Corey Stuart . During Bray 's first year , the show transitioned to color filming and spectacular scenic locations across America were exploited as settings for the show . Eventually , Bray 's alcoholism forced him from the show , and Jack De Mave and Jed Allan were hired to replace him .
Guest stars during the Ranger years included Ken Osmond , Paul Petersen , Suzanne Somers , Victor French , and Morgan Brittany . When the Forest Service years came to an end , Lassie wandered on her own for a season then settled at the Holden ranch for her final two syndicated seasons with costars Ron Hayes , Larry Pennell , Skip Burton , Larry Wilcox , Sherry Boucher , and Pamelyn Ferdin .
= = = = Narration = = = =
Wrather 's wife , and series associate producer Bonita Granville Wrather narrated numerous episodes throughout the run of the series , usually the beginning and / or ending of multi @-@ part episodes .
= = = Writers = = =
Novelist Inez Asher was among those who wrote for the series , while other scripts were produced by writers blacklisted during the heyday of McCarthyism and the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . These writers included Robert Lees ( credited as J. E. Selby ) and Adrian Scott , one of the Hollywood Ten who went to prison for contempt of the United States Congress . His wife , Joan Scott writing as Joanne Court , attended story conferences and gave her husband notes so he could do rewrites .
= = = Filming = = =
The show 's first studio was Stage One of KTTV in Los Angeles , California , with the production moving to Desilu in 1957 . Franklin Canyon Reservoir and Vasquez Rocks saw location shootings . During the Timmy seasons , episodes were filmed at the Grand Canyon and in the High Sierra , and , during the Forest Service seasons , the Forest Service and the Department of the Interior offered Alaska , Puerto Rico , the Washington Monument and other sites for location shoots .
Fifteen pages were filmed per day , six days a week , with three shows completed per week . Shooting in order was not possible . Several barn segments might be filmed at a particular time with the crew then moving on to film an equal number of kitchen scenes . The shots may have then been used in four or five different episodes . Rettig was allowed to bond with the dog and often groomed the dog at the studio or spent weekends at Weatherwax 's home playing with the animal . The bond translated to film , making the boy and dog scenes more believable , but , eventually the dog developed divided loyalties ( looking to Rettig for direction rather than Weatherwax ) and the trainer was forced to curtail the amount of time boy and dog spent together .
Typically , there were two dog trainers on the set , each teetering on a stepladder only Lassie could see and waving a chunk of meat at the dog . " It would look as though Lassie was looking at Jon ( Provost ) , but he was really looking past Jon at the piece of beef " , Lockhart recalled in 2004 . When Provost delivered his line , the trainer behind Lockhart would whisper " Lassie ! " and wave another piece of meat . Lassie 's head would turn to Lockhart who would deliver her line . Then the trainer behind Provost would get Lassie 's attention again , and Provost would deliver his next line . " The sound editor would cut out all that , " Lockhart said , " You finally got to where you never heard the trainers . Often , if the scene had gone well , and maybe we hadn 't gotten the dialogue quite right , if the dog was right , they 'd print it . " In addition to the main Lassie , three other Lassies might be involved in an episode shoot : a stand @-@ in for rehearsals , a stunt double , and a " fighter " for scenes involving battles with other animals .
= = = Theme music = = =
Lassie used several pieces of theme music during its long broadcast history . For the first season , " Secret of the Silent Hills ( Theme from the Lassie TV series ) " , is used for both the opening and ending theme . Composed by William Lava , the orchestral theme was originally created for the 1940 radio show The Courageous Dr. Christian .
For the second and third season a variation of this theme , titled simply " Lassie Main & End Title " , was used for the opening and ending theme . Raoul Kraushaar , the music director for the series , is the listed composer for the theme ; however the changes he made to the original are so slight that only a trained ear can tell the difference . The third theme used for the series is an orchestral rendition of the aria , " Dio Possente " ( Even Bravest Hearts May Swell ) from Charles Gounod 's opera , Faust . The exact time this theme started being used is uncertain due to conflicting records ; however it is agreed that it was the third series , and was used for at least part of season four for the change of ownership of Lassie .
The most famous of the Lassie theme songs appeared at the start of the fifth season . Copyrighted as " Lassie Main & End Title " , the song was created by Les Baxter , with the whistling itself performed by Muzzy Marcellino . Nicknamed " The Whistler , " it remained the series theme for the rest of the " Martin years " . With the coming of the " Ranger years " , the opening and ending theme was changed to Nathan Scott 's arrangement of the traditional folk tune Greensleeves . An orchestral " Whistler " returned for the series theme during the thirteenth season for the seven @-@ part " Voyager " episode , and would remain the series theme for the rest of its run . Television composer Nathan Scott scored the music to nearly every episode between 1963 and 1973 , except for four episodes .
= = = Sponsor = = =
Campbell 's Soup Company sponsored the entire nineteen @-@ year run off Lassie . In one of the first instances of product placement , the company asked that their products be visible on the set and so , in episode after episode , Campbell 's products are seen in background shots . Campbell 's also contractually required the show 's stars to avoid appearing in any film or theatrical production that undermined their All @-@ American images .
In 1956 , the company held a " Name Lassie 's Puppies " contest with the grand prizes being Lassie 's pups and $ 2 @,@ 000 . Company executives hand @-@ delivered puppies to the winner 's homes . In 1958 , for twenty @-@ five cents and a label from a Swanson 's frozen dinner , viewers could receive a Lassie portrait friendship ring based on one Uncle Petrie fashions for Timmy . The company mailed 77 @,@ 715 rings to viewers . In 1959 , the company offered a wallet " made of rich brown plastic " emblazoned with a picture of Lassie ; 1 @,@ 343 @,@ 509 wallets were mailed to viewers who sent in five different labels from Campbell products . The labels represented 6 @.@ 5 million cans of Campbell 's products sold . Campbell 's paid the Wrather Company $ 7 million a year to air its commercials . The soup company 's profits rose seventy percent over its pre @-@ Lassie days .
Lassie was spokesdog for Recipe Dog Food , a Campbell 's product introduced in 1969 , which was reportedly based on the homemade stew mixture Weatherwax prepared for Lassie . Printed advertisements for the product announced , " Now all dogs can come home to the dinner Lassie comes home to . " In its first year , Recipe earned $ 10 million for Campbell 's , and , in its third year , $ 40 million . To help boost sales , Campbell 's paid Weatherwax to write a dog @-@ training manual called The Lassie Method which the company used as a premium offer .
= = Plot and themes = =
Plots during the first ten " boy and his dog " seasons were similar : the boy ( Jeff or Timmy ) got into some sort of trouble . Lassie then dashed off to get help or rushed in to save her master 's life herself . After being reunited with family and breathing a sigh of relief , the boy received a light lecture on why he should not have done what he had done . In 2004 , June Lockhart described the show as " ... a fairy tale about people on a farm in which the dog solves all the problems in 22 minutes , in time for the last commercial . "
Two Timmy and Lassie episodes launched Campbell 's Soup premiums , while two others promoted a UNICEF Halloween project and the Peace Patrol , a children 's savings bond program spearheaded by Lassie and The Lone Ranger . The same seasons saw several Christmas episodes , while conservation and environmentalism were brought center stage . Some scripts dealt with race and ethnicity with both Jeff and Timmy championing Hispanics , Native Americans , and Asian Americans . Aging Americans were presented in a positive light during the years when Andy Clyde was featured as Martin family friend / neighbor Cully Wilson .
Seasons 11 @-@ 16 were the " Ranger years " of the series , as Lassie ( due to not being able to travel to Australia with the Martins after Paul had gotten a job offer to teach agriculture there ) was taken in by U.S. Forest Ranger Corey Stuart ( who appeared in a few episodes of season 10 ) and began to work with the U.S. Forest Service . Color filming was exploited during the Ranger years with Lassie and her friends sent to exotic locations such as Sequoia National Forest and Monument Valley , creating miniature travelogues for viewers . Other rangers would be featured during the latter part of this era when Robert Bray ( who played Stuart ) left the series .
For season 17 , the program shifted gears again and became somewhat of an anthology series , with Lassie traveling on her own , getting into to different adventures each week ( similar in format to The Littlest Hobo ) . No explanation was given as to why Lassie was no longer with the Forest Service . Some episodes during this final CBS season were animals @-@ only .
During seasons 18 and 19 ( with the series having moved to first run syndication ) , Lassie was taken in by Garth Holden ( played by Ron Hayes ) who was in charge of the Holden Ranch – a home for orphaned boys – which he ran with his college @-@ age son and his friend . This became Lassie 's home for the final two years of the series .
Lassie themes explored the relationship between boys and their dogs with the show helping to shape the viewer 's understanding of mid @-@ twentieth century American boyhood . Lassie was associated with the wholesome family values of its period but some parents ' groups monitoring television content found cliffhanger plots showing children in danger too intense for very young viewers and objected to some of Timmy 's actions which were believed to encourage children to disobey parents . However , Lassie was consistently depicted as caring , nurturing , and responsible with a commitment to family and community , often rescuing those in peril and righting wrongs . She was the perfect ' mother ' within the American ideology of the 1950s and 1960s .
= = Characters and cast = =
= = = Human leads = = =
= = = = 1954 – 1957 : Miller Family ( Jeff 's Collie ) = = = =
Ellen Miller - war @-@ widowed farm woman ( Jan Clayton )
Jeff Miller - Ellen 's eleven @-@ year @-@ old son ( Tommy Rettig )
George " Gramps " Miller - Ellen 's father @-@ in @-@ law and Jeff 's paternal grandfather ( George Cleveland )
Sylvester " Porky " Brockway - a farm boy and Jeff 's friend ( Joey D. Vieira - using the stage name " Donald Keeler " )
= = = = 1957 – 1964 : Martin Family ( Timmy & Lassie ) = = = =
Timmy Martin - a foster boy on the Miller farm ( Jon Provost )
Paul Martin - a young farmer , Ruth 's husband and Timmy 's adoptive father ( Jon Shepodd 1957 – 1958 ; Hugh Reilly 1958 – 1964 )
Ruth Martin - Paul 's wife and Timmy 's adoptive mother ( Cloris Leachman 1957 – 1958 ; June Lockhart 1958 – 1964 )
Petrie J. Martin - Paul 's uncle ( George Chandler ) ( 1957 – 1959 )
Cully Wilson - a neighbor of the Martins , who was a farmer and nature lover ( Andy Clyde ) ( 1959 – 1964 )
Ralph " Boomer " Bates - a neighbor of the Martins who owned a dog named Mike and was Timmy 's best friend ( Todd Ferrell ) ( 1958 – 1959 )
= = = = 1964 – 1970 : U.S. Forest Service = = = =
Forest Ranger Corey Stuart ( Robert Bray ) ( 1964 @-@ 1968 )
Forest Ranger Bob Erickson ( Jack De Mave ) ( 1968 @-@ 1970 )
Forest Ranger Scott Turner ( Jed Allan ) ( 1968 @-@ 1970 )
= = = = 1970 – 1971 : Traveling on her own = = = =
No human leads
= = = = 1971 – 1973 : Holden Ranch = = = =
Garth Holden - director of the Holden Ranch ( Ron Hayes )
Ron Holden - Garth 's son ( Skip Burton )
Dale Mitchell - Ron 's friend ( Larry Wilcox )
Keith Holden - Garth 's brother ( Larry Pennell )
Lucy Baker - a deaf child living near the Holden Ranch ( Pamelyn Ferdin )
= = = Dog actors as Lassie = = =
Pal ( Pilot episodes )
Lassie Junior ( 1954 – 59 )
Spook ( 1960 )
Baby ( 1960 – 66 )
Mire ( 1966 – 1971 )
Hey Hey ( 1971 – 73 )
= = Media information = =
= = = Broadcast history = = =
First @-@ run Lassie was televised September 12 , 1954 to March 24 , 1973 with its first 17 seasons airing on CBS Sundays at 7 : 00 p.m. EST . In 1971 , in order to promote community @-@ related programming among local affiliates , the Federal Communications Commission moved primetime Sundays to 8 : 00 P.M. EST with the institution of the Prime Time Access Rule . CBS executives felt Lassie would not be well received in a time slot other than its traditional 7 : 00 p.m. slot , and , with the network 's other family programs set , the show was canceled . ( Lassie was among several shows that CBS canceled during this time period as part of a change in its target demographics . ) Lassie then entered first @-@ run syndication with Jack Wrather and Campbell 's Soup still on board , and remained on the air for another two years with its final episode airing in March 1973 . All totaled , 591 episodes were produced .
The Miller years were sold into syndication in 1958 under the title of Jeff 's Collie . In rerun syndication , the Martin family episodes aired under the title of Timmy & Lassie . Re @-@ runs of the series aired on Nickelodeon from 1984 until 1996 .
= = = Current airings = = =
Classic Media currently owns the rights to the entire Lassie television series , as well as the Lassie trademark .
Timmy & Lassie episodes air Saturdays at noon on Trinity Broadcasting Network ( TBN ) , and throughout the week on its children 's channel Smile of a Child . The NBC owned classic TV network Cozi TV airs Miller / Martin farm era episodes daily , while the action / adventure / western oriented GRIT classic TV / movie network airs Forest Service era episodes weekday mornings .
FETV ( Family Entertainment Television ) airs the show weeknights during the overnight hours .
= = = Later series = = =
While the original series had no direct spinoffs , a few subsequent productions would use the Lassie character .
In 1973 , ABC created an animated Saturday @-@ morning animated program called Lassie 's Rescue Rangers produced by Filmation .
In 1989 , what was essentially a sequel series , The New Lassie - featuring Jon Provost as Steve McCullough - aired in first @-@ run syndication . In its seventh episode ( " Roots " ) , June Lockhart reprised her Ruth Martin role when Steve McCullough is revealed to be the adult Timmy Martin . It is revealed that Timmy was never properly adopted by the Martins and consequently was forced to remain in the U.S. when Ruth and Paul emigrated to Australia . Timmy was then subsequently adopted by the McCullough family and began going by his middle name Steven . In 1991 , Tommy Rettig made a guest appearance in the episode " The Amazing Lassie " . This would be his final television appearance prior to his death in 1996 .
In 1997 , a modified remake - also called Lassie - debuted , airing in the U.S. on the then new Animal Planet cable network . This show ( which was filmed in Canada and set in Vermont ) also revolved around a boy named Timmy and his dog , though differences in setting and character circumstances precluded it from being an exact remake of the original series .
= = = Feature film = = =
During Thanksgiving week 1962 , a five @-@ part color episode called " The Journey " . was filmed in the High Sierra . First telecast in February and March 1963 , the episode follows Timmy and Lassie , as the two are swept away in a carnival hot air balloon that eventually comes to rest in the Canadian wilderness . The voyagers face many perils before being rescued by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police . Richard Simmons , star of another Jack Wrather property , Sergeant Preston of the Yukon , made an appearance , while Lassie star Jon Provost performed whitewater stunts . Lassie sponsor Campbell 's Soup objected to multi @-@ part episodes , believing viewers would not want to tune in week after week to find out what happened from one segment to the next , but three of the five segments of " The Journey " hit the Nielsen top ten for the weeks in which they aired . The five segments were later edited into a feature @-@ length film and released in August 1963 through 20th Century Fox as Lassie 's Great Adventure .
= = = DVD releases = = =
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Every year of its 17 @-@ year run on CBS , Lassie placed first in its time slot , Sunday 7 : 00 P.M. EST , and often ranked among the top 25 shows on television . The show 's highest ranking years in the Nielsen ratings were the Martin years when the show placed # 24 in 1957 , # 22 in 1958 , # 15 in 1959 , # 15 in 1961 , # 21 in 1962 , # 13 in 1963 , and # 17 in 1964 . The only Martin year Lassie did not climb into the top twenty @-@ five was 1960 , when it ran opposite Walt Disney Presents on ABC and Shirley Temple Theater on NBC . However , Lassie still ran opposite Disney when the Disney anthology television series moved to NBC in 1961 , and still managed to climb into the Top 25 . With the advent of the Forest Service seasons , the show began a steady decline in ratings .
From 1959 through 1967 ( with the exception of 1963 ) , the show was regularly pre @-@ empted by CBS 's annual two @-@ hour fall telecast of The Wizard of Oz , which was always shown on a Sunday from 6 : 00 to 8 : 00 P.M. E.S.T. Because the 1939 film always drew such a huge TV audience , CBS 's Nielsen ratings in the 7 : 00 P.M. time slot remained high .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
( All awards listed given during the time of , or specifically related to the TV series )
Two @-@ time Emmy Award winner for Best Children 's Program ( 1955 , 1956 )
1956 Peabody Award
Three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame ( Lassie - 1960 , June Lockhart - 1960 for television , Jon Provost - 1994 )
1967 U.S. Department of Agriculture Conservation Award ( awarded to Lassie for promoting conservation during the series ' Forest Service era )
Timmy Martin 's shirt , jeans , and Keds displayed at the Smithsonian Institution
= = = Cultural impact = = =
In 1960 , the Lassie character became one of only three live canine characters to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Jon Provost 's Keds sneakers are in the collections of the Smithsonian Institution . Lassie and the show 's stars have appeared on the covers of Parade , Life , Look , and TV Guide .
Ancillary merchandise produced during the show 's first @-@ run includes Halloween costumes , Viewmaster reels , comic books , and other items . In 2005 , Karen Pfeiffer released The Legacy of Lassie : An Unauthorized Information and Price Guide on Lassie Collectibles ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0975887066 ) .
In 1967 , in conjunction with Lassie 's association with the United States Forest Service and environmentalism , Lassie was welcomed to the White House by Lady Bird Johnson . In January 1968 , President Lyndon Johnson signed into a law a bill targeting soil and water pollution that many called " the Lassie program " . Lassie and her sponsors were honored with a luncheon in the Senate Dining Room on March 19 , 1968 , and presented with a plaque by senators Edmund Muskie and George Murphy , recognizing their commitment to the environment .
Jon Provost called his autobiography Timmy 's in the Well ! because a well was the one place Timmy never fell into — abandoned mine shafts , off cliffs , into rivers , lakes , and quicksand , but never a well .
Mad parodied the show as " Lizzy " .
In an episode of The Flintstones ( " Dino Goes Hollyrock " ) , the character Dino wins an appearance on the smash hit TV show " Sassie " starring a heavily made @-@ up and snobby girl dinosaur and her Lassie @-@ like adventures .
= Colonel Sun =
Colonel Sun is a novel by Kingsley Amis published by Jonathan Cape on 28 March 1968 under the pseudonym " Robert Markham " . Colonel Sun is the first James Bond continuation novel published after Ian Fleming 's 1964 death . Before writing the novel , Amis wrote two other Bond related works , the literary study The James Bond Dossier and the humorous The Book of Bond . Colonel Sun centres on the fictional British Secret Service operative James Bond and his mission to track down the kidnappers of M , his superior at the Secret Service . During the mission he discovers a communist Chinese plot to cause an international incident . Bond , assisted by a Greek spy working for the Russians , finds M on a small Aegean island , rescues him and kills the two main plotters : Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan and a former Nazi commander , Von Richter .
Amis drew upon a holiday he had taken in the Greek islands to create a realistic Greek setting and characters . He emphasised political intrigue in the plot more than Fleming had done in the canonical Bond novels , also adding revenge to Bond 's motivations by including M 's kidnapping . Despite keeping a format and structure similar to Fleming 's Bond novels , Colonel Sun was given mixed reviews .
Colonel Sun was serialised in the Daily Express newspaper in 1968 and adapted as a comic strip in the same newspaper in 1969 – 1970 . Elements from the story have been used in the Eon Productions Bond series : The 1999 instalment The World Is Not Enough used M 's kidnapping , whilst the villain of 2002 film Die Another Day , Colonel Tan @-@ Sun Moon , owes his name to Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan . Chapter 19 ( ' The Theory and Practice of Torture ' ) was adapted for the torture scene in Spectre ( 2015 ) . Though Blofeld replaced Sun as Bond 's tormentor , much of Blofeld 's dialogue in the scene was written by Amis for Sun , resulting in an acknowledgement to Amis ' estate in the end title credits , though no mention of the book itself .
= = Plot = =
Kidnappers violently take the Secret Service chief M from his house and almost capture James Bond , who is visiting . Intent on rescuing M , Bond follows the clues to Vrakonisi , one of the Aegean Islands . In the process , Bond discovers the complex military @-@ political plans of Colonel Sun of the Chinese People 's Liberation Army . Sun had been sent to sabotage a Middle East détente conference which the Soviet Union is hosting . He intends to attack the conference venue and use M and Bond 's bodies to blame Great Britain for the disaster , leading to a world war . Bond meets Soviet agents in Athens and they realise that not only is a third country behind the kidnap , but that there is a traitor in the organisation . An attack on the Soviet headquarters kills all the agents except Ariadne Alexandrou , a Greek Communist . As he is dying , the Soviet leader encourages Bond and Ariadne to work together to prevent an international incident .
Ariadne persuades Litsas , a former Second World War resistance fighter and friend of her late father to help them by telling him about the involvement in the plot of former Nazi , Von Richter . Trying to find M and Colonel Sun , Bond is nearly captured by the Russians , but is saved by Litsas . Finally , Bond finds Sun 's headquarters , but is knocked out by one of Sun 's men ; Bond learns that Von Richter will use a mortar to destroy the conference venue and that Bond will be tortured by Sun , before his inevitable demise . Sun tortures him brutally , until one of the girls at the house is ordered by Sun to caress Bond fondly . In the process she cuts one of Bond 's hands free and provides him with a knife . She tells Sun that Bond is dead : when examined Bond stabs Sun . He then frees other captives who help Bond stop Von Richter . However Sun survives the stab wound and kills several of the other escapees . Bond tracks down Sun and kills him in the confrontation . The Soviets thank Bond for saving their conference , offering him a medal for his work , which he politely turns down .
= = Characters and themes = =
The main character of the novel is James Bond . Continuation Bond author Raymond Benson described Amis 's Bond as a humourless interpretation of the character that Fleming used in his earlier novels . Benson describes this personality as a natural continuation of the Bond developed in the final three Fleming novels . In all three novels , the events take a toll on Bond : he loses his wife in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ; he loses his memory in Japan in You Only Live Twice ; and he is brainwashed in Russia , is de @-@ programmed by MI6 and almost dies from Francisco Scaramanga 's poisoned bullet in The Man with the Golden Gun . Benson identifies Bond 's desire for revenge as a central theme to the novel . The plot centres on Bond 's need to avenge the death of the Hammonds and M 's kidnapping . Benson describes this as particularly striking : " Bond is particularly brutal in achieving his goal ... The revenge is very satisfying . This is Bond at his toughest . "
Benson considered that M 's character evokes an emotional response from the reader because of the change from his usual , business like @-@ manner to a semi @-@ catatonic state upon being kidnapped . However , Amis envisaged something different for the character : he did not like M and , as one reviewer pointed out that in The James Bond Dossier , he had " spent a chapter running him down . " The main villain of the novel is Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan . Sun is a member of the Special Activities Committee of the Chinese People 's Liberation Army as well as a sadist and skilled torturer . Raymond Benson called him " very worthy of inclusion in the Bond saga " .
Raymond Benson notes increased political intrigue in the novel compared to earlier Bond novels . In Colonel Sun , Bond acts in concert with the Russians against the Chinese , which demonstrates one of the main themes of the book : a peacekeeping between nations . Military historian Jeremy Black describes the novel reflecting a shift in the balance of world power away from two party Cold War politics . To accentuate this idea of Oriental threat , the novel demonstrates a disregard by the Chinese for human life , a position similar to the treatment of the East in Fleming 's Dr. No . Black also notes an emotional and social sadness throughout Colonel Sun . The social sadness is a reaction to the culture of modernity and mourning what was being lost in its place . This treatment by Amis is similar to Fleming 's nostalgia in describing Paris in " From a View to a Kill " .
= = Background = =
The original creator of James Bond , Ian Fleming , died in the early morning of 12 August 1964 , eight months before the posthumous publication of The Man with the Golden Gun . After his death , Glidrose Productions ( now Ian Fleming Publications ) held the rights to Fleming 's works . The company decided to publish two short stories , " Octopussy " and " The Living Daylights " , on 23 June 1966 .
As the Bond character could not be copyrighted , and to retain rights in the Bond product , Glidrose decided to commission a sequel . Initially the company approached author James Leasor to write a continuation novel , but he declined . Glidrose then commissioned Amis , who wrote Colonel Sun . Critic and future novelist Sally Beauman noted that it was " unusual , not to say unprecedented , for an established author to pick up the torch in this way , " though she admits that " Bond [ is ] too big , and too profitable , a property to be placed in the hands of an unknown . "
Fleming 's wife , Ann , did not endorse any further Bond works and disliked Amis , saying that he would create " a petit bourgeois red brick Bond " .
In 1965 , Amis produced The James Bond Dossier — a critical analysis of the Bond books under his own name — and The Book of Bond , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek manual for prospective agents , using the pseudonym Lt.-Col. William ( " Bill " ) Tanner . Amis followed these books with the 1966 novel , The Anti @-@ Death League which had a plot filled with popular fiction elements and helped Amis prepare for Colonel Sun .
Amis and his wife Jane spent September 1965 holidaying on the Greek island of Spetses and Amis used his experiences as the background to the novel . Amis followed a tradition set by Fleming of using the names of people he knew or had met during the researches for his book and Amis drew on the names of people he met in Greece for Colonel Sun . The boat Bond uses — The Altair — was the name of the boat Amis and his wife used on holiday , whilst the Bond girl 's fictitious colleagues , " Legakis " and " Papadogonas " were friends who helped Amis in Greece , whilst the doctor who treats Bond in Chapter two was named after Amis and Jane 's own doctor .
In a 21 May 1967 letter to Philip Larkin , Amis mentioned that he had already finished writing the Bond novel .
= = Release and reception = =
Jonathan Cape published Colonel Sun on 28 March 1968 ; the book was 255 pages long and priced at a guinea . The novel sold well – journalist and author Eric Hiscock claims that by 1980 it had sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies worldwide – and was listed second best seller in the " Books in demand " list of the Financial Times for March and April 1968 . Harper & Row published the novel in the US on 1 May 1968 ; the United States edition ran to 244 pages .
= = = Reviews = = =
Colonel Sun was broadly welcomed by the critics , although a number noted that despite Amis 's abilities as a writer , Fleming 's own persona was missing from the novel . Roger Baker , writing in The Times noted that from one angle Colonel Sun is a " neat , not over @-@ inventive thriller , low on sex , high on violence and more than usually improbable " ; however , he noted that once the elements of the re @-@ incarnation of Bond and the writing of Kingsley Amis were taken into account , things were different . Baker thought that with Amis writing the story , " one might , justifiably , have expected a joyous rejuvenation or at least a devastating detour from the Fleming pattern . We get neither . It is a pale copy . " D. J. Enright , writing in The Listener , considered that , in literary terms , Fleming 's " inheritance has been well and aptly bestowed . " He said that " Colonel Sun offers apt literary pabulum for Bond 's fish @-@ and @-@ chip culture , for his neurotics , alcoholics and suicides . Good dirty fun , once read and soon forgotten " .
Writing in The Times Literary Supplement , Simon Gray , unimpressed with the novel , called the Bond in Colonel Sun " a chuckle @-@ headed imposter whose arthritic thought processes would be a liability in a ' physical tussle ' down at the pub . " He went on to comment that the novel only " offers the frustrated Bond addict ... a small academic problem , of swiftly passing interest . " The Daily Mirror 's reviewer , Alexander Muir considered the book to be " an exciting , violent , sadistic and sexy piece of reading matter " , although , partly because of Amis ' abilities as a writer , Colonel Sun " is altogether too meticulous and well written – Fleming was a hypnotic but slapdash writer . And , at times , I sensed parody . This could be fatal . "
Writing in The Guardian , Malcolm Bradbury called the novel " a reasonable read but no more : neither vintage Fleming nor vintage Amis . " Bradbury also noted that " it lacks a convincing rhetoric ... and the traditional Fleming frissons emerge only in muted form . " Maurice Richardson , reviewing Colonel Sun for The Observer , wrote that when being judged as a thriller , the novel " is vigorous , quite exciting , rather disorderly , a bit laboured " . He went on to say that " Some of the action is quite well done and little more preposterous than in the later Flemings . The real trouble is the absence of spontaneous élan .
The reviewer for the Los Angeles Times , Charles Champlin , noted that the novel " lacks the garish , outrageous , ridiculous , symbol @-@ witted touch of the original article " ; despite that , he still enjoyed the novel , commenting that it left " intact the reputations of both Messrs. Amis and Fleming . " Donald Stanley , writing in Life magazine praised the villain Sun , saying he " is the kind of villain to make a Bondophile salivate . " In general Stanley praised Amis for emulating " the celebrated Fleming Effect " . Stanley is less convinced with Bond , observing that his " essential swinishness is being replaced by some kind of dilute humanism " .
The reviewer for The New York Times noted the reduced numbers of gadgets employed in the book , when compared with the films , that they felt had " overshadowed the personality of the secret agent " ; overall the reviewer felt that " Mr. Amis has now given Bond back to the readers . " Oberbeck commented that Bond " has become a sensitive man @-@ of @-@ ethics who suffers pangs of doubt and remorse over the ' senseless ' violence of his profession " . Oberbeck went on to say that Amis " never quite captures the bizzare beat of a Fleming pace " ; most telling , according to Oberbeck , was that " the greatest flaw in Amis ' conception of Bond is that he has attempted to transform the consummate spy @-@ hero into something he was never meant to have been : a man with a job " .
Sally Beauman writing for New York believed that " Amis has all the obvious ingredients for success " including " an exotic troubled international setting , a beautiful girl , frequent imbibings , and even more frequent killings ; and , most imperative , a villain . Yet the book drags and becomes a bore . " Beauman complains that the story lacks suspense and that Bond is far too gloomy : he 's more like Ingmar Bergman 's creations than Ian Fleming 's hero . Beauman attributes the novel 's failure to the " differing characters of the authors . "
= = Adaptations = =
Serialisation ( 1968 )
Colonel Sun was serialised on a daily basis in the Daily Express newspaper from 18 March 1968 to 30 March 1968 .
Comic strip ( 1969 – 1970 )
Colonel Sun is the only non @-@ Fleming Bond novel adapted as a comic strip by the Daily Express newspaper . It was adapted by Jim Lawrence and drawn by Yaroslav Horak and published in the Daily Express from 1 December 1969 to 20 August 1970 and was subsequently syndicated worldwide . In December 2005 , Titan Books reprinted Colonel Sun and included River of Death , another original James Bond comic strip story published before the Colonel Sun strip in 1969 .
The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 )
The kidnap of M was borrowed from Colonel Sun and used as a plot device in the 1999 Bond film The World Is Not Enough .
Die Another Day ( 2002 )
For the 2002 film Die Another Day , Eon Productions wanted to use the name Colonel Sun Liang @-@ tan for the main villain , but when the Fleming estate insisted on royalties for the use of the name , they changed the name to Colonel Tan @-@ Sun Moon .
Spectre ( 2015 )
The 2015 film Spectre features a torture scene which was lifted from Colonel Sun .
= Parallels ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" Parallels " is the 11th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 163rd overall . It was originally released on November 29 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . The episode was written by Brannon Braga , and directed by Robert Wiemer . Executive producer Jeri Taylor wrote the final scene of the episode , but was uncredited .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) returns from a bat 'leth tournament and slowly discovers that he is being moved across parallel universes . The crew of an alternative Enterprise realise what is happening and seek to return him to his own reality , but , after an attack by a Bajoran ship , a space @-@ time fissure explodes , causing hundreds of thousands of alternative versions of the Enterprise to enter the same universe . After Worf reverses the course through the fissure , he and all the versions of the Enterprise are returned to their respective universes .
Braga intended to focus the " Parallels " on Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) , but this was changed to Worf . The change was made in order to make the differences more obvious across the timelines , as Braga worried that Picard 's relationships could not significantly differ across near @-@ universes . The producers were concerned with the confusing nature of the initial proposal , but felt that further changes greatly improved it . Wil Wheaton appeared as Wesley Crusher , replacing the initial plan to include Tasha Yar , after Braga was concerned about copying " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . " Parallels " received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent , one of the highest for the season , but some fans were upset at a Worf / Deanna Troi romance . Critics responded favorably to the episode , with praise directed at both Dorn and Marina Sirtis .
= = Plot = =
After competing in a bat 'leth tournament on the planet Forcas III , Lieutenant Worf returns to the Enterprise and is treated to a surprise birthday party , much to his annoyance . As he attends the party , he starts to notice subtle changes , such as the flavor of the cake changing , and a painting given to him by Data appearing on a different wall . The changes start to become more pronounced ; as a Cardassian vessel attacks the Enterprise , unfamiliar controls result in Worf failing to raise the shields , leading to the death of Geordi La Forge . Despite retaining his initial memories , Worf has no evidence that reality has changed , and his own personal logs support the stories given by the other crew members . Other major changes occur : Riker is Captain of the Enterprise in a reality wherein Picard was killed by the Borg , the Bajorans became the oppressors of the Cardass
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ians and enemies of the Federation , Wesley Crusher is a lieutenant on the Enterprise , Alyssa Ogawa is the Chief Medical Officer , and Worf finds himself married to Deanna Troi .
Upon investigation , the crew find that Worf 's RNA has an unusual quantum signature and confirm that he is from a different universe . The crew theorizes that Worf , on his original return from the bat 'leth tournament , passed through a time @-@ space fissure , with the shuttlecraft 's engines causing Worf to quantum flux between several parallel universes . Data determines that Worf 's proximity to La Forge 's VISOR caused Worf to shift between universes , and that each universe covers a different possibility . In effect , anything that could possibly happen has done so in a parallel universe , hence the believable changes in the reality that Worf is experiencing . The Enterprise returns to the location of the fissure , attempting to return Worf to his original universe . The Enterprise is then attacked by a Bajoran ship , which causes the fissure to destabilize and the various realities to merge , resulting in over 285 @,@ 000 versions of the Enterprise appearing in the same area of space .
Data determines that the only way to restore the realities is to send Worf via shuttlecraft to the Enterprise of his universe , passing through the fissure and using the shuttlecraft 's engines to reseal it . After locating the correct ship , Worf begins to travel back but is attacked by another Enterprise that has come from a Borg @-@ overrun universe , its crew refusing to return . The Enterprise that he left fires upon the hostile ship and destroys it . Worf safely passes through the fissure , finding himself back in normality with a single Enterprise in front of him . After boarding , Worf finds that no time has passed since he initially entered the fissure . When he returns to his room expecting a surprise party , he finds only Troi waiting to give him a single present and , knowing that the two are married in many alternate universes , he invites her to share dinner with him .
= = Production = =
Writer Brannon Braga initially conceived of the episode as centered on Captain Picard , rather than Worf . It was only when planning out the story that he realised that there would not be a great deal of personal differences across realities with Picard . As such , he decided to include Worf as the main character , and chose to place him in a romance with Troi as he felt that most people would not have expected it . Braga considered writing Tasha Yar into the episode , but he felt that this would have copied " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , so he replaced her with Wesley Crusher , played by Wil Wheaton . Further changes were made to the script as Braga had intended for Worf to be sung " Happy Birthday to You " in the Klingon language , but the cost for the rights to the song would have been prohibitive and so the idea was dropped .
Executive producer Jeri Taylor approved the initial outline but was concerned that it might be potentially confusing . She was happy with the outcome and described it as having " worked like gangbusters " . She felt that the Worf / Troi romance had been subtly played by the writers on the show since the fifth season episode " Ethics " and had been an ambition on the show since " A Fistful of Datas " in the sixth season . After being included in " Parallels " , the relation was featured several times during the final season of The Next Generation . Michael Piller was not enthused with the initial idea , but Taylor felt that the means by which it evolved saved it .
Braga thought in hindsight that Crusher 's appearance could have been explained more but at the time he felt it was most intriguing if he was " just there " . He also wanted to avoid suggesting that Worf was going insane , since that theme had been covered in the previous season in the episode " Frame of Mind " . Director Robert Wiemer sought to have a conclusive ending to the episode to state Worf 's future intentions . Worf 's suggestion of champagne to Troi was written by Taylor to accommodate this .
" Parallels " re @-@ used a number of previously seen props and costumes , including Troi 's entire uniform wardrobe with the exception of the first season outfits . Other elements such as the Argus Array ( a space station model ) had appeared in other episodes , and alternative comm badges used in the episode had been seen in the " Future Imperfect " . The space station Deep Space 5 was a re @-@ dress of Regula One from Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . Modifications were made to the bridge set in one reality ; these would later be re @-@ used for the future Enterprise in the series finale " All Good Things ... " . The effect shot with multiple Enterprise 's was achieved by photographing the same model from multiple angles , resulting more than 100 appearing on screen , while the scene with multiple Worfs was produced through the use of split screens and stand @-@ ins .
This simultaneous portrayal of numerous different universes was cited by Roberto Orci , one of the screenwriters for the 2009 film Star Trek , as proof that , despite the movie 's creation of a secondary timeline , the " regular " Trek universe was unaffected and everything from The Original Series onward still went on as it had before . He said that " Parallels " was using the many @-@ worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics in which a new timeline does not overwrite a previous one , unlike previous episodes in the franchise such as " The City on the Edge of Forever " and " Yesterday 's Enterprise " .
= = Themes = =
The multiverse idea featured in " Parallels " has been discussed by commentators . Theoretical physicist Lawrence M. Krauss praised the episode for the inclusion of the idea in his book The Physics of Star Trek , although added that it incorrectly explained measurement in quantum mechanics . This quantum mechanics theory explained during the episode was called " a little sketchy " by Michelle and Duncan Barrett in their book Star Trek : The Human Factor . They based this on mathematical physicist Roger Penrose 's theory that there is no identified physics for bridging the gap between physics and quantum physics . The Barretts noted the use that the Star Trek franchise has had out of the idea of the multiverse , and different timelines .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode aired during the week commencing November 27 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent . This means that it was watched by 12 @.@ 8 percent of all households watching television during its timeslot . This placed it as the second most watched syndicated show for that week , and it was the fourth most viewed episode of the season behind part two of " Descent " , " Eye of the Beholder " and " All Good Things ... " . Some fans were upset at the introduction of a romance between Worf and Troi , as they felt that Riker and Troi was the correct paring . Taylor said that some of the fans felt that the Riker / Troi relationship was so inevitable that the show simply should have " got it over with " and not introduced a new romance for Troi instead .
Zack Handlen , in his review for the A.V. Club , gave the episode a grade of A- . He said that it was a " nicely balanced " episode , and that Sirtis and Dorn had good chemistry . Handlen further praised Dorn 's comic timing . He enjoyed the image of the other versions of the Enterprise appearing in the same universe , but criticised the level of technobabble during the second half of the episode . IGN writer Scott Colura released a podcast asking whether " Parallels " was the most underrated episode of the series .
Keith DeCandido gave the episode a rating of 10 out of 10 in his review for Tor.com. He expressed his love for the episode , praising the centering of " Parallels " on Worf " partly because no one does frustrated befuddlement better than Michael Dorn " . He enjoyed the increasing changes to each universe , but his highlight of the episode was the Enterprise from the Borg invasion timeline which fired on the shuttle at the end . DeCandido said that this kept the episode memorable after 19 years , and " cemented this as one of TNG 's top episodes " . In a list of the top 100 episodes of the Star Trek franchise , " Parallels " was placed in 89th place by Charlie Jane Anders at io9 .
The first release on home media for " Parallels " within the United States was on VHS cassette as part of a single episode release , which took place on January 1 , 2000 . " Parallels " was released on DVD in 2002 as part of the season box set . It was later released as part of the season set on Blu Ray within the United States on December 2 , 2014 . This included an audio commentary from Braga .
= Hurricane Nora ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Nora was only the third tropical cyclone on record to reach Arizona as a tropical storm . Nora was the fourteenth named tropical cyclone and seventh hurricane of the 1997 Pacific hurricane season . The September storm formed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , and aided by waters warmed by El Niño , eventually peaked at Category 4 intensity on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale .
Nora intensified and weakened quickly before taking an unusual path , which led it to make landfall twice as a hurricane in Baja California . After landfall , its remnants affected the Southwestern United States with tropical storm @-@ force winds , torrential rain and flooding . Nora is blamed for two direct casualties in Mexico , as well as substantial beach erosion on the Mexican coast , flash flooding in Baja California , and record precipitation in Arizona . Nora persisted far inland and eventually dissipated near the Arizona – Nevada border .
= = Meteorological history = =
Nora formed early on September 16 , 1997 , while located 290 miles ( 460 km ) southwest of the Mexican port of Acapulco , Guerrero , from the same tropical wave that had earlier created Hurricane Erika . Due to favorable conditions associated with El Niño , the tropical disturbance quickly achieved deep convection and became well @-@ organized . By 6 a.m. UTC , the U.S. National Hurricane Center had designated the disturbance as Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E. Half a day later , it had gained enough strength to be named Tropical Storm Nora .
A high pressure area over northern Mexico forced the storm to move west @-@ northwest for the first few days . During that time , Nora kept intensifying , becoming a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale by noon UTC on September 18 . Nora slowed and became stationary for two days from September 18 . The eye vanished , and convection began to decrease . This was presumed to have happened because of a drop in sea @-@ surface temperatures . The cool waters temporarily weakened Nora 's winds to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) down from a maximum of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . After leaving the area of cool waters , the storm began moving nearly parallel to Mexico 's western coast . There was a period of rapid intensification and the eye reappeared . Cloud tops cooled and at midday UTC on September 21 , Nora reached its peak intensity of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) and 135 mph ( 210 km / h ) winds , a Category 4 hurricane . The peak was brief as the cyclone encountered cool waters in the wake of Hurricane Linda , weakening the storm 's winds to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by September 23 and broke its eyewall .
Nora crossed an area of abnormally warm water near the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula . It restrengthened slightly before making its first landfall near Bahía Tortugas , Baja California Sur on September 25 . When Nora was inland , the area of the storm located in the Gulf of California began to reintensify . Hurricane Nora then made a second landfall about 60 miles ( 95 km ) south @-@ southeast of San Fernando , Baja California . Nora was one of the few hurricanes to make landfall in Northern Baja .
At landfall , a trough was accelerating Nora northwards , causing it to reach a forward speed of 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) . Late on September 25 ( UTC ) , still a tropical storm , it entered the continental United States at the California @-@ Arizona state line . Nora began to weaken rapidly , and was downgraded to a tropical depression three hours later , while located between Blythe and Needles , California . Nora reached Arizona while still tropical , becoming the third known system to do so . Nora degenerated over land , and the low @-@ level center moved towards the north @-@ northeast . A remnant circulation aloft persisted , however , and was likely responsible for a period of near hurricane @-@ force winds observed at the NWS Cedar City , Utah Doppler weather radar . The remnants gradually became more diffuse over the following two days while moving generally northeastward , through portions of Utah , Colorado , Idaho and Wyoming .
= = Preparations = =
While Nora stayed off the Pacific coast of Mexico , the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( National Meteorological Service ) issued a hurricane watch for the coast between Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , and Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco , and several major ports in the shoreline closed to navigation . As the storm moved away from the mainland coast and towards the Baja California Peninsula , about 500 people were evacuated from their homes near Cabo San Lucas , Baja California Sur , and placed in shelters to prepare for the storm 's impact . At the same time , in Sonora , another 50 were evacuated from a fishing camp in Guaymas . Meanwhile , the SMN issued tropical storm warnings along the Baja California coast , as well as hurricane watches and warnings around the entire Gulf of California between Santa Rosalía , Baja California Sur , and Bahía Kino , Sonora .
On September 24 , Arizona Governor Jane Dee Hull activated an emergency response center to prepare the state 's response to the flash flooding the storm would cause on the dry desert floor , and Yuma residents began to fill approximately 55 @,@ 000 sandbags to contain the possible flooding . Hull also activated the state 's National Guard , and sent drinking water and electric generators to Yuma . Further inland , the National Weather Service issued flash flood watches for western Arizona , southeastern California , southwestern Colorado , southern Nevada and southern Utah on September 26 .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Nora caused two direct deaths in Mexico and three or four indirect fatalities in the United States . Although the total cost of damage is not known , Nora caused up to several hundred millions of dollars of damage . The system also dropped heavy rain in the United States and Mexico , which caused flooding and power outages .
= = = Mexico = = =
Nora killed two in Mexico : an electrocution by a downed power line in Mexicali , Baja California , and a diver caught in strong underwater currents created by Nora off the coast of the San Quintin Valley .
Although Nora 's center of circulation remained well offshore from southwestern mainland Mexico , the Associated Press reported that waves up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) hit that coastline , destroying dozens of homes . Nora 's winds also produced rough seas and high waves , which caused substantial beach erosion , particularly around Acapulco , where the Pie de la Cuesta beaches were washed away . In the states of Guerrero and Jalisco , Nora brought down trees and washed away the foundations of homes , although no injuries were reported there .
Heavy rains also fell along the storm 's northeast periphery , with the highest amounts of 20 @.@ 94 inches ( 532 mm ) falling at La Cruz / Elota and 16 @.@ 79 inches ( 426 mm ) being measured at Ligui / Loreto . About 350 – 400 people were left homeless by floodwaters in the town of Arroyo de Santa Catarina in northern Baja California . Heavy damage and flooding was reported in San Felipe , on the northwestern shore of the Gulf of California , as well as extensive beach erosion . Local roads and highways were destroyed and the town 's dock was severely damaged . On the northeastern shore , at Puerto Peñasco , Nora blew down trees , billboards , electric wires , taco stands , and ripped sheet @-@ metal from homes . Waves of 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) were reported there .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , there were no direct deaths blamed on the hurricane . However , the California Highway Patrol attributed three or four traffic fatalities in southern California to the weather .
Damage totals in the United States are not fully known , although media summaries of Nora included a loss to agriculture preliminarily estimated at several hundred million dollars , and at least one study places the figure at $ 150 – 200 million ( 1997 USD ) . It is estimated that $ 30 – 40 million ( 1997 USD ) in damage to lemon trees occurred . Although Nora was significantly weakened , near hurricane @-@ force winds were observed at the Dixie National Forest in southwestern Utah , where strong gusts sheared off the tops of large trees .
The Yuma radar indicated a small area of 10 inches ( 250 mm ) rainfall totals along the northern Gulf of California coast of Baja California . In the United States , the largest total rainfall was recorded at the Harquahala Mountains in Arizona , where 11 @.@ 97 inches ( 304 mm ) of rainfall were recorded as a result of Nora , causing flash floods in western Arizona .
Near Phoenix , rainfall from the storm caused the Narrows Dam , a small earthen dam , to fail . In other locations in Arizona , California , Nevada , and Utah , more than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) occurred in a few localized areas , sometimes with precipitation comparable to the entire local yearly average rainfall . Flooding was also reported in Somerton , San Diego , El Centro , Palm Springs and Indio , while 12 @,@ 000 people lost power in Yuma , as well as Los Angeles and southwestern Utah .
= Corporate Crush =
" Corporate Crush " is the nineteenth episode of the first season of the American television series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 12 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown , Grizz Chapman , John Lutz , Emily Mortimer , Maulik Pancholy , Jason Sudeikis , Rip Torn and Akira Yamaguchi .
In this episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , who is now in a happy relationship with Floyd DeBarber ( Sudeikis ) , becomes annoyed when Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) seemingly becomes obsessed with Floyd . Jack begins a relationship with Phoebe ( Mortimer ) , after being demoted . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) pitches his movie , Jefferson , to General Electric CEO Don Geiss ( Torn ) .
" Corporate Crush " received generally positive reviews from television critics , with Robert Canning of IGN describing it as " solid " . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 1 million households during its original broadcast . Griffin Richardson , the episode 's sound mixer , received a Creative Arts Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .
= = Plot = =
Liz ( Tina Fey ) has become very happy since dating Floyd ( Jason Sudeikis ) , and their relationship together is going strong . Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , the CEO of General Electric , speaks to Jack ( Alec Baldwin ) about his career , and points out that Jack is the only executive at his level to be unmarried . Geiss takes away Jack 's role as the head of the Microwave Oven division , which makes Jack become extremely depressed . Liz decides that she wants Jack to meet Floyd at dinner , although Jack becomes obsessed with Floyd and becomes a third wheel in Liz and Floyd 's relationship . Liz , extremely bothered by Jack 's obsession , tells Jack to leave Floyd alone . Jack agrees , and he tells Liz that he has begun a relationship with Phoebe ( Emily Mortimer ) , a Christie 's auction house art dealer who has Avian Bone Syndrome and on their third meeting still greets Liz with " Hi , I 'm Phoebe , I don 't know if you remember me ... " Jack asks Liz 's approval in his relationship with Phoebe , and when Liz grants it , he immediately proposes to Phoebe .
Meanwhile , Tracy ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to get Don Geiss to finance his film , Jefferson , which is based on Thomas Jefferson 's life . However , Geiss is not interested in Tracy 's $ 35 million project , even after Tracy uses NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) and " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) to put together a trailer for the film . After failing to convince Geiss , who would rather see him do a sequel to one of Tracy 's previous films , Fat Bitch , Tracy decides that he will make Jefferson on his own .
= = Production = =
" Corporate Crush " was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Don Scardino . This was Riggi 's third writing credit , having written the episodes " Blind Date " and " The Head and the Hair " , and was Scardino 's fifth directed episode . " Corporate Crush " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 12 , 2007 as the nineteenth episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series .
Comedian actor Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd DeBarber in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . This episode was Sudeikis ' fifth appearance on 30 Rock . This was actress Emily Mortimer 's first appearance as the character Phoebe . She would later guest star in the episodes " Cleveland " and " Hiatus " , the latter being her final guest spot . In regards to her appearance on the show , Mortimer told The Philadelphia Inquirer , " It was amazing doing telly . I 'd never done a sitcom before and it was so fast . You 're given dialogue as you 're walking onto the set and it 's kind of hairy . There are 10 people standing around watching the monitor and if they don 't laugh – then instead of having another chance to do it – someone writes another line . " Actor Rip Torn made his second appearance as GE CEO Don Geiss in " Corporate Crush " . Torn previously appeared in the February 15 , 2007 , episode " The C Word " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Corporate Crush " was watched by an average of 5 @.@ 1 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Fireworks " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 4 million American viewers . " Corporate Crush " achieved a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old in the United States , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old watching television at the time of the broadcast in the United States . Since airing , the episode has received generally positive reviews .
IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that " Corporate Crush " was a " solid episode " , and that 30 Rock seemed " to have hit its storytelling stride " . He added that " as we near the season finale , we 're happy to see that 30 Rock has begun their drive towards a big finish . " Canning rated this episode an 8 out of 10 . TV Guide 's Matt Webb Mitovich opined that " though the ' My guy friend is dating my boyfriend ' gag has been done to death on TV sitcoms , 30 Rock is to be forgiven if only because the same episode gave us a preview of , no , not The Real Wedding Crashers [ Groan ] , but Jefferson , starring ... Tracy Jordan . " Julia Ward of TV Squad awarded this episode with 5 out of 7 , and said that Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) absence was upside to the episode , explaining , " I actually like Jane Krakowski , but I can 't say that I 've missed her " . Regarding Jack and Liz 's relationship in the episode , Ward thought it was an " uneasy mutual respect thing " , which she thought let " Alec Baldwin exercise his thespian prowess " . However , Ward said that she did not watch 30 Rock for the continuing storylines , rather , she watched the series for the " wacky " .
Griffin Richardson , the series ' sound mixer , was nominated for a Creative Arts Primetime Emmy in the category for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( half @-@ hour ) and Animation . Richardson , however , lost to Steve Morantz of Entourage , and Joe Foglia of Scrubs .
= Spongiforma squarepantsii =
Spongiforma squarepantsii is a species of fungus in the Boletaceae family , genus Spongiforma . Found in Malaysia , it was described as new to science in 2011 . It produces sponge @-@ like , rubbery orange fruit bodies that have a fruity or musky odour . The fruit bodies reach dimensions of 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide by 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall . Like a sponge , they will resume their original shape if water is squeezed out . The spores , produced on the surfaces of the hollows of the sponge , are almond @-@ shaped with rough surfaces , and measure 10 – 12 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 micrometers . The name of the fungus is derived from the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants . S. squarepantsii is one of two species in Spongiforma ; it differs from S. thailandica in its colour , odour , and spore structure .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described scientifically online in May 2011 in the journal Mycologia , authored by American mycologists Dennis E. Desjardin , Kabir Peay , and Thomas Bruns . The description was based on two specimens collected by Bruns in 2010 in Lambir Hills National Park , in Sarawak , Malaysia . The species had first appeared in the literature in 2010 in a study of the ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in a tropical dipterocarp rainforest in Lambir Hills , although it was not formally described in this publication . Because of its unusual form , Desjardin and colleagues were initially uncertain whether the new species was a member of the Basidiomycota or the Ascomycota . Further analysis showed that the species was aligned with Spongiforma , a genus that was newly described from dipterocarp forests of Thailand in 2009 . The similarity between the species collected in Borneo and Spongiforma thailandica was confirmed with molecular analysis , which showed a 98 % match between ribosomal DNA sequences of the two .
The genus name Spongiforma refers to the sponge @-@ like nature of the fruit body , while the specific epithet squarepantsii is a Latinisation of the well @-@ known cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants , whose shape shares a resemblance to the fungus . Additionally , the authors note that the spore @-@ bearing surface ( the hymenium ) , when viewed with scanning electron microscopy , somewhat resembles a " seafloor covered with tube sponges , reminiscent of the fictitious home of SpongeBob " . Although the epithet was originally rejected by the editors of Mycologia as " frivolous " , Desjardin and colleagues insisted that " we could name it whatever we liked " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Spongiforma squarepantsii is bright orange coloured , roughly spherical to oval , and measures 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide by 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) tall . Although it lacks a stipe , it has a rudimentary columella — a small cord of sterile tissue that extends to the center of the fruit body . The surface of the fruit body has deep ridges and folds somewhat resembling a brain . It is sponge @-@ like and rubbery — if water is squeezed out , it will resume its original shape . The surface has irregular , relatively large cavities ( locules ) , lined with fertile ( spore @-@ producing ) tissue . The locules are between 2 and 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 and 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . The ridges of the locules are pale orange or lighter and ciliate ( having hairlike projections ) . Fruit bodies have a strong odour described as " vaguely fruity or strongly musty " . The mushroom tissue turns purple when a drop of 3 % potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) is applied . In mass , the spores are a reddish @-@ brown or deep mahogany colour . The edibility of the fruit body is unknown .
The almond @-@ shaped spores are typically 10 – 12 @.@ 5 by 6 – 7 μm with thick walls measuring between 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 2 μm . They have a small central apiculus ( a depressed area when the spore was once attached to the basidium via the sterigma ) . When mounted in distilled water , they have a coarsely warty surface and appear rusty brown in colour . When mounted in a 3 % KOH solution , the spores are pale lilac grey , and the surface ornamentation forms swollen pustules that loosen and dissolve . Spores are dextrinoid ( meaning they turn reddish @-@ brown when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) and cyanophilic ( red in acetocarmine ) . The basidia are club @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored with sterigmata up to 9 @.@ 5 μm long . The ridges of the locules comprise erect cystidia mixed with chains of erect cylindrical hyphae measuring 4 – 6 μm in diameter . The cystidia are roughly cylindrical , and have dimensions of 20 – 60 by 4 – 9 μm . There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae of the fungus .
= = = Similar species = = =
The related species Spongiforma thailandica , newly described in 2009 , differs from S. squarepantsii in several ways : it has larger fruit bodies , 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide by 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) tall ; its gleba is initially pale greyish @-@ orange to brownish @-@ grey before darkening to reddish @-@ brown or dark brown ; and it smells of coal tar . Microscopically , S. thailandica has spores with less prominent surface warts .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Spongiforma squarepantsii was found growing on the ground in Lambir Hills National Park ( Sarawak State , Malaysia ) , northern Borneo ( 4 ° 20 ′ N 113 ° 50 ′ E ) . This tropical rainforest receives about 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) of rain yearly , with average temperatures ranging from 24 to 32 ° C ( 75 to 90 ° F ) . The structure of the fruit body allows it to quickly revive when dry by absorbing moisture from the air . The distinctive odour of the species may indicate that spore dispersal is mediated by animals .
= Deckham =
Deckham is a residential suburb in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead in Tyne and Wear , England . It is bordered by Gateshead to the north , Sheriff Hill to the south , Felling and Carr Hill to the east and Shipcote to the west . It lies on the B1296 , the route of the old Great North Road , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Gateshead town centre , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne and 13 miles ( 21 km ) north of the city of Durham . In 2011 , Deckham had a population of 9 @,@ 938 .
Deckham 's history is sparsely documented but suggests that the settlement was established at the junction of Carr Hill Road and the Old Durham Road in the early 19th century alongside the estate of Deckham Hall , built several centuries earlier and inhabited at one time by Thomas Deckham . The village grew , and at the turn of the 20th century was enveloped by urban spawl when neighbouring Gateshead absorbed its outlying villages and settlements . Deckham is largely distinguished from other areas by a commercial area on Old Durham Road which is the principal route through the suburb . Historically , Deckham was a village in County Durham and was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 .
Deckham has steep topography which has shaped the character of the suburb . Residents can enjoy striking views towards Newcastle upon Tyne and across the Team Valley . The settlement is governed locally by a Parliamentary Labour council and elects a Labour MP .
Deckham is an area of social and economic deprivation , in the top ten per cent of such areas according to the Index of Multiple Deprivation . Housing stock is predominantly council housing and is , in many places , outdated and in need of modernisation . Whilst once the site of a coal mine , there is today no major employer in Deckham , which is considered a residential suburb of Gateshead . The main economic activity is in a commercial development on Old Durham Road . Deckham has a number of public houses , one of which , the Plough Inn , is more than 150 years old . The only education provision is at South Street Primary School , which is a good school according to OFSTED . There are two churches , one of which , the Church of St George , is a Grade II listed building , and community facilities are provided by Deckham Community Centre and the Elgin Centre in Carr Hill .
= = History = =
Unlike Sheriff Hill , Carr Hill and Low Fell , Deckham 's history is sparsely recorded . It indicates that , by the middle of the 19th century , there was a small settlement which was part of Gateshead Fell ; a wild and treacherous area of common land notable for the criminality of the tinkers and hawkers who lived there . Ordnance survey mapping illustrates the sparsity of buildings in 1860 ; the area contained little except Deckham Hall , a few other dwellings and two public houses at the point where the old turnpike road branched off towards Carr 's Hill . The two public houses were the ' Speed the Plough ' and ' The Ship ' .
The Deckham Hall estate was on the east side of Old Durham Road , 1 @.@ 25 miles from the Tyne Bridge . It is evidenced in 1614 and belonged to Thomas Deckham , who died the same year and bequeathed it to his granddaughter with " three pounds for the bringing home of water " to the poor people of the area . It changed hands regularly between the families Wooler , James and Bowker , in the centuries after Deckham 's death and varied in size whilst doing so . Alderman Benjamin Biggar , Mayor of Gateshead 1861 – 2 , is thought to have lived at Deckham Hall .
By the turn of the 20th century Deckham 's rural aspect had changed . Whilst there remained large areas of grass and woodland between Deckham and Gateshead , there was a period of extensive building ; several dozen dwellings were erected by 1895 in the Mount Pleasant area as Gateshead expanded southwards . A public house was built at the junction of Taylor Terrace and Split Crow Road . Two years later , a tract of Tyneside flats was built on the west side of the Old Durham Road and many streets in the area , such as Chandos Street , Shipcote Terrace , Raby Street and Northborne Street , are evidenced , along with an unnamed school . By 1919 , some rural scenes could still be enjoyed but the fields were " rapidly encroached upon " in the 1920s and 1930s and replaced with more terraced housing at Caris Street , Fullerton Place and Methuen Street and large tracts of council houses . By this time , Deckham Hall was in a state of disrepair and was notable to residents for its resemblance to a haunted house " because of its air of gloom and the strange echoes to be heard on windy nights " . The hall was demolished in 1930 and more council houses were erected on the site .
Since the intensive period of house building , little has changed . At the west end of the suburb , the Tyneside flats at Northborne Street and surrounding streets remain in situ and here there is " housing and little else " . Much of this housing is in poor condition , some is in " crumbling disrepair " and requires substantial investment . Old Durham Road has developed into the focal point of the neighbourhood and is the sole commercial area , with small , independent shops running along the western end of the road backing onto the streets from Inskip Terrace and Shipcote Terrace . Whilst many retail units are in a state of deterioration , and despite a report describing recent housing development on the east side of Old Durham Road as " poorly handled and unsightly " , the area remains " interesting and lively " . By contrast , the central and eastern areas of Deckham are affected by a more marked decline . At the western edge there are stone remnants of an old , rural settlement , but the remainder , grouped around Edgeware and Kingston Roads , consists of bland , repetitive social housing arranged on long , curved streets which combine to create an environment which is anonymous , claustrophobic and disorientating . One source describes the environment as one where " eyesores become landmarks ( lock – up workshops on Kingston Road ) , any slight change in materials becomes significant ( system – built housing on Kingston Road ) , and any attempt to do something different becomes a relief ( a corner garden on Mayfair Gardens ) " .
The net result is that , in Deckham today :
There is something of a sense of isolation in parts of Deckham , especially further up the hill as development densities drop , commercial and social facilities disappear and activity levels on the street fall away . Around the Old Durham Road the surviving mix of small shops and meeting places generate some impression of communal spirit , but the poor condition of many properties and the dominance of the public realm by traffic serve to stunt it .
= = Economy = =
Unlike Sheriff Hill , Deckham was not founded on heavy industry . It developed primarily for its ease of access to the turnpike road , the principle route between Durham and Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne which ran through it . There is evidence of coal mining ; the Durham Mining Museum has a record for ' Deckham Hall Colliery ' . Few records of the colliery survive , and it is difficult to ascertain when it opened , but the colliery was located 1 @.@ 5 miles south from Newcastle and was in the hands of Hopper , Hughes and Company in 1886 . By December 1893 the colliery had been abandoned as being " not workable to a profit " .
In common with most suburbs of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , its economy is dominated by the economies of Newcastle – upon – Tyne and Gateshead town centre . This is reflected in terms of independent commercial space ; retail floor space in the suburb totals 1 % of that available in the whole metropolitan borough . There are 33 retail units concentrated on Old Durham Road , which provide some employment , though these are at the lower end of the spectrum and provide little choice . There is a good provision of hardware stores , fast – food outlets and hairdressers , a butcher 's shop , a greengrocer and a supermarket , but there is no bakery , bank nor building society and the Post Office has closed . The retail units were domestic properties , so many are too small for retail purposes and around 20 % are vacant .
Deckham suffers from high levels of unemployment ; in 2011 the mean percentage of the population claiming Jobseekers Allowance was 7 % . This compares to Gateshead 's 5 % average over the same period . Youth unemployment is 10 % , compared to Gateshead 's 9 % .
= = Geography and topography = =
Deckham , at latitude 54 @.@ 95 ° N and longitude 1 @.@ 59 ° W , lies less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south and east of Gateshead town centre between two main transport corridors ; Sunderland Road to the east and Old Durham Road to the west . The distance from Deckham to London is 255 miles ( 410 km ) . Deckham occupies an elevated position , especially at its north end which sits on a ridge , and some parts are steeply sloped – notably those which border Sheriff Hill to the south .
In the urban expansion of Gateshead , Deckham was enveloped so that its exact boundaries are difficult to define . The estate had boundaries at Split Crow Road , Old Durham Road , Hendon Road and Carr Hill Road but documents indicate that Deckham stretches to Durham Road in the west and the streets adjoining Hendon Road as far north as the Bankies open space at Mount Pleasant . In 1974 Deckham was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 . Until its implementation , Deckham was part of County Durham . It is now bordered by settlements which are part of the metropolitan borough . These are Sheriff Hill to the south , Low Fell and Shipcote to the west , Gateshead to the north and Felling and Carr Hill to the east .
Deckham has distinctive , steep topography which " shapes the character " of the suburb . Though the urbanisation of Gateshead has detracted from panoramic views that were once enjoyed by residents , the topography ensures that residents continue to have excellent views towards Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne and the Team Valley .
= = Governance = =
Deckham is a council ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead . It is approximately 1 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 58 sq mi ) in area and has a population of 9 @,@ 228 . It is represented by three councillors . In June 2012 , they were Brian Coates , Martin Gannon and Bernadette Oliphant .
Deckham is part of the Westminster parliamentary constituency of Gateshead . It was previously in the Gateshead East and Washington West constituency which was abolished by boundary changes before the 2010 UK General Election . For many years the MP was Joyce Quin , who retired on 11 April 2005 and was awarded a life peerage into the House of Lords on 13 June 2006 and is now Baroness Quin .
The present MP Ian Mearns , is a member of the Labour party and his office is in Gateshead . He replaced Sharon Hodgson who successfully campaigned in the newly formed constituency of Washington and Sunderland West . In the 2010 UK General Election , Mearns was elected with a majority of 12 @,@ 549 over Frank Hindle . The swing from Labour to the Liberal Democrats was 3 @.@ 9 % .
Deckham is in a safe Labour seat . Mearns ' success in 2010 followed of Sharon Hodgson , who in the 2005 UK General Election polled over 60 % of the votes cast whilst in 2001 , Joyce Quin was returned with a majority of 53 @.@ 3 % .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Deckham has a population of 9 @,@ 228 – 51 @.@ 5 % of the population are female , slightly above the national average , whilst 48 @.@ 5 % are male . Only 2 % of the population are from a black or other minority ethnic group ( BME ) , as opposed to 9 @.@ 1 % of the national population . Of the BME group , 35 % are from the Asian or Asian – British ethnic group . Deckham has a high proportion of lone parent households at some 15 % of all households . This is the third highest figure in Gateshead and compares with a borough average of 11 @.@ 5 % . Some 31 % of households have dependent children , as opposed to 29 @.@ 5 % nationally and 28 @.@ 4 % in Gateshead . The Index of Multiple Deprivation , which divides England into 32 @,@ 482 areas and measures quality of life to indicate deprivation , splits Deckham into halves and lists the western half , along with Carr Hill and Sheriff Hill , in the top 10 % of all deprived areas in England in 2012 . The eastern half is in the top 5 % of deprived areas .
In 2011 however , the ethnic minority population increased rapidly . In 2001 , 96 @.@ 8 % of Deckham 's population were white British , this figure reduced to 92 @.@ 3 % white British in 2011 . Also , the population increased massively too , from 7 @,@ 886 in 2001 to 9 @,@ 938 in 2011 . 88 @.@ 8 % of adults in lone parent households with independent children were women .
In 2011 , 7 @.@ 7 % of Deckham 's population were non white British . This is above average for the Metropolitan borough of Gateshead , but below average for the town of Gateshead which Deckham forms a part of .
Deckham is situated to the east of Gateshead town centre . It is also split into three sub districts , Central Deckham , Mount Pleasant and Carr Hill .
= = Culture = =
= = = Notable buildings = = =
Deckham has three buildings listed by English Heritage . They are 33 and 35 Fife Street and the Church of St George .
The flats at 33 and 35 Fife Street , in Mount Pleasant , are Grade II Listed buildings . Described by English Heritage as " perhaps the last surviving example of an unspoilt , 2 – flat dwelling of high quality but modest size " , they were built in the latter part of the 19th century from sandstone ashlar and slate . The Church of St George is an Anglican church at the corner of Inskip Terrace and Durham Road built in 1896 by Stephen Piper of Newcastle . This " bold and remarkably simple " church consists of a nave , vestry , bell tower and porch , is built in sandstone and remains in very good condition . Access to the bell tower is by spiral staircase and the staircase and bells are in good order . Of particular note is the church organ ; a Father Willis built organ which has been described as " an utter gem " and " exceptional " .
Deckham 's other church is the Emmanuel Pentecostal Church , a plain , stone building located in a prominent position on the corner of Caris Street and Old Durham Road . Little is documented regarding this church , and the date of building is difficult to ascertain , though the Pentecostal movement in Britain dates to 1907 and the church was certified for the solomnising of marriages as recently as 21 October 1959 . The Church is a member of the Assembly of God denomination of Pentecostalism and hold weekly Sunday worship , a prayer service on Mondays and a children 's group on Wednesdays .
Two more buildings were locally listed as places of special interest by Gateshead Council . These are Carr Hill Clinic at Carr Hill Road / Ilford Place and St Mark 's Methodist Church at Shipcote Terrace .
= = = Venues = = =
Deckham has several public houses . The Plough Inn on Old Durham Road and is evidenced on the ordnance survey map in 1862 where it is shown as ' Speed the Plough ' . The Shakespeare Inn is on Split Crow Road and Mount Pleasant Working Mans Club is described by one official document as " intrusive " though it hosts several local housing discussion groups . The Deckham Inn at the junction of Split Crow Road and Old Durham Road , was closed in the early 21st century and an application to demolish it to make way for residential flats was approved in 2004 . After objections were raised planning approval was rescinded but it was demolished in 2011 .
= = Community facilities = =
There are no libraries in Deckham , though Gateshead Central Library , the largest library in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , is nearby . Gateshead Leisure Centre in Shipcote and Saltwell Park are close by .
= = = Deckham Community Centre = = =
The Deckham Community Association was formed in 1979 as a focal point for resident representation within the community . In 1983 , the association moved into its permanent home , the Deckham Community Centre , on Split Crow Road . The centre was gutted by fire in 2002 in an arson attack and was closed for a year for repairs . An open day was held to mark the reopening in May 2003 .
Residents have access to activities such as youth clubs , music tuition and pilates . The association is a registered charity and though fundraising has been a problem the centre is the sole beneficiary of the ' Lee Adamson Memorial Fund ' ; a fundraising trust set up when Adamson , a Deckham resident and volunteer at the centre , died of meningitis in 1998 . By 2011 , the fund had raised around £ 15 @,@ 000 and a plaque was installed in his honour at the centre . It works collaboratively with Route 26 Community Project at the Elgin Centre in Carr Hill , as part of the ' Deckham Cluster ' arrangement .
= = = The Elgin Centre = = =
The Elgin Centre is on Elgin Road at the south – east boundary between Deckham and Carr Hill . Whilst geographically outside Deckham , the centre provides " the key cluster " of community provisions for its residents . These facilities contribute to the regeneration of the suburb .
The facilities are utilized by the Route 26 Community Project ; a registered charity based at the centre which aims to work towards the betterment of lives in Deckham and neighbouring wards . The project works with Gateshead Council and the Gateshead Housing Company to provide a community cafe promoting healthy eating ( the ' T – Junction ' ) , a gymnasium , indoor sports hall , outdoor Five @-@ a @-@ side football pitches and a meeting place for resident groups . The project has education provision for young children as a registered day – care provider and it also offers adult education and training . The project hosts the ' Carnival on the Hill / Deckham Festival ' ; a collaborative enterprise between Route 26 , Gateshead Council and Home Group which offers free activities , such as go @-@ karting and children 's soft play , against the backdrop of a steel band . The second Deckham Festival was held on 3 September 2011 and attracted over one thousand visitors , including Mayor of Gateshead and BBC local weatherman Paul Mooney .
= = Transport = =
The suburb is crossed by the B1296 Old Durham Road , a commuter road and route of the Great North Road before it was diverted through Low Fell on the route of the A167 . Journey time by car or bus to Gateshead town centre is approximately 5 minutes , and 10 – 12 minutes into the centre of Newcastle upon Tyne .
Deckham is in a " metro corridor " so that it is broadly equidistant from Gateshead Metro station and Gateshead Stadium Metro station .
Deckham is on a major bus route into Gateshead ; and Old Durham Road is a " bus priority route " . The suburb is served by several bus services , such as the Fab 56 which continues into Sunderland , the Citylink 57 which terminates at Wardley and the CityLink 58 . It is also part of the Qualyink Q1 / Q2 network . Services to intu MetroCentre and Chester @-@ le @-@ Street also run through and stop in the area . All buses serving Deckham are operated by Go North East under the administration of Nexus .
= = Education = =
South Street Community Primary School at the northern end of Deckham in Cramer Street and caters for pupils in the 3 – 11 age range . The number of pupils eligible for free school meals is well above the national average . In the most recent OFSTED inspection , the nursery provision was praised for enabling children who enter the school with skills below that expected of similarly – aged children nationwide to achieve well through a stimulating and engaging curriculum and the nursery provision was good overall . The primary provision was praised for providing a safe and engaging learning environment in which children are able to progress to a level broadly comparable with children nationally and where pupils are extremely well behaved . In all inspection categories , the primary provision was judged good .
South Street Primary is the only school in Deckham . Some children of primary – school age , particularly those living in the east of Deckham , attend nearby Carr Hill Primary School instead and the majority of children aged 11 – 16 will attend Thomas Hepburn Community Academy in Felling .
Deckham compares unfavourably with the wider Gateshead area in respect of adults with educational qualifications . 43 % of adults have no educational qualifications , compared to 38 @.@ 4 % across the whole of Gateshead and the England average of 28 @.@ 9 % . Only 17 % of adults have five or more GCSE 's or equivalent at A * – C ( compared to 36 @.@ 9 % across Gateshead and 47 @.@ 6 % nationally ) whilst 6 % of adults in the suburb have two or more A @-@ Level 's ( or equivalent ) .
= = = Academic texts = = =
= WarioWare : Smooth Moves =
WarioWare : Smooth Moves , known in Japan as Odoru Made in Wario ( おどるメイド イン ワリオ , lit . " Dancing Made in Wario " ) , is a party video game developed by Nintendo SPD and Intelligent Systems . The game was published by Nintendo for its Wii video game system in Japan in December 2006 , and in Europe , North America , and Australia in January 2007 . It was re @-@ released in 2011 in Europe as part of the Nintendo Selects program . It is the fifth game in the WarioWare series of games , and the only game in the series to be released for the Wii ( not including WarioWare D.I.Y. Showcase , another WarioWare game for the Wii ) . Like its predecessors , WarioWare : Smooth Moves is built around a collection of microgames that last about five seconds each , and which require that the player hold the Wii Remote in specific positions . The game offers the microgames to the player in rapid succession , by first instructing the player to hold the Wii Remote in a specific manner , and then showing them the microgame . The microgames are divided into several stages , each of which loosely connects the microgames with the help of a story .
Smooth Moves was given generally favorable reviews , receiving aggregated scores of 83 % from Metacritic and 81 @.@ 82 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on the game 's entertainment value , especially at parties , while criticism targeted its length . WarioWare : Smooth Moves received a ToyAward in the Trend and Lifestyle category from the 2007 Nuremberg International Toy Fair . It was also given the award for Best Action Game at IGN 's Wii Best of E3 2006 Awards ; the website later named it their Game of the Month for January 2007 . WarioWare : Smooth Moves was the United States ' 4th best @-@ selling game in its debut month of January 2007 . In Japan , it sold 63 @,@ 954 copies in its debut week of November 27 – December 3 , 2006 , making it the 4th best @-@ selling launch game for the Wii after Wii Sports , Wii Play , and The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to previous games in the WarioWare series , WarioWare : Smooth Moves is a puzzle game focusing on microgames , which are short games that last for about five seconds . Each microgame requires that the player position the Wii Remote in a specific way , such as holding it vertically , or placing the bottom end of the device against the nose . The player is required to use the Nunchuk attachment for the Wii Remote in certain microgames . Before each microgame begins , the required position for the Wii Remote is shown to the player , to allow them time to position the device . The game is broken up into stages , each represented by a WarioWare character and loosely connected by a story , with the microgames divided among the stages . After the player completes a stage 's microgames , they advance to the boss stage , which is a microgame that is longer and more complex than the others . After the player completes all of the single @-@ player stages , the game unlocks a multiplayer mode , in which only one Wii Remote is used and shared by up to 12 players . While a player plays a microgame in this mode , other players watch , and after the microgame is completed , the player passes the Wii Remote to the next person .
= = Development = =
Nintendo first revealed WarioWare : Smooth Moves for the Wii at the 2006 E3 convention . The game was co @-@ developed by Intelligent Systems and the Software Planning Development department of Nintendo . Development on the game began in late 2005 with a team of 20 people , directed by Goro Abe and produced by Yoshio Sakamoto . Abe first came up with the idea for the game when the Wii Remote was revealed to him . Since the developers believed that holding the controller in only one way limited the game 's entertainment value , they decided to introduce new positions and motions to the game for the Remote to be held . The software used to register the Remote 's movements was written from scratch because of the unique movements required for the game . Similar to previous games in the WarioWare series , the game 's subtitle , " Smooth Moves " , was used to represent the basic movement that players perform in the game . The developers wanted players to move as if they were dancing when playing the game , so they decided that Smooth Moves was the best phrase to use to describe the game 's actions . Because of its party genre , the developers made the game 's multiplayer mode its " best point " .
There are about 200 minigames included in WarioWare : Smooth Moves , an amount similar to previous WarioWare titles . Abe determined which minigames were included after each team member wrote down an idea on a piece of paper and sent it to him . The minigames were inspired by " very original , everyday life issues " . To offer a different visual style for each minigame , developers were asked to make their own design for the minigame that they were working on . During development , one of the game 's basic concepts was to " make a different taste for every single game " . The only rule that Abe imposed on the minigame designs was for the developers to make it instantly obvious as to what is happening in the minigames . The Wii Remote 's speaker is used in the game to " add a greater sense of feel " . For example , in one microgame , the player must bounce a tennis ball on a racquet . When the ball touches the racquet , the Wii Remote 's speaker emits a bouncing sound and a rumble to " add a very strong reality to the game " . The game mostly forgoes the Wii nunchuk attachment and functions strictly with the Wii Remote . Its visual presentation is similar to WarioWare , Inc . : Mega Party Games ! for the Nintendo GameCube , and it does not run in widescreen mode .
= = Reception = =
WarioWare : Smooth Moves was released by Nintendo for the Wii in Japan on December 2 , 2006 , in Europe on January 12 , 2007 , in North America on January 15 , 2007 , and in Australia on January 25 , 2007 . The game was given generally favorable reviews , receiving aggregated scores of 83 % from Metacritic and 82 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on the game 's entertainment value , especially at parties , while criticism targeted its length . WarioWare : Smooth Moves received a ToyAward in the Trend and Lifestyle category from the 2007 Nuremberg International Toy Fair . It was also given the award for Best Action Game at IGN 's Wii Best of E3 2006 Awards ; the website later named the game their Game of the Month for January 2007 . WarioWare : Smooth Moves was the United States ' 4th best @-@ selling game in its debut month of January 2007 . It dropped to 8th the following month , selling 109 @,@ 000 units . In Japan , WarioWare : Smooth Moves sold 63 @,@ 954 copies in its debut week of November 27 – December 3 , 2006 , making it the 4th best @-@ selling launch game for the Wii after Wii Sports , Wii Play , and The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess . It dropped to 20th for the week of December 18 – 24 , 2006 .
Several reviews praised the game as one of the Wii 's best . The Official Nintendo Magazine said that Wario should " now take his place alongside Mario and Link as a true Nintendo great " . Appreciating the game 's " terrific use of the Wii 's unique control features " , GameSpot remarked that the game also had " amazing " graphics , concluding that it belongs in the game libraries of Wii owners . This sentiment was shared by GameTrailers , which said that WarioWare : Smooth Moves was " without a doubt " the best collection of minigames for the Wii . GameSpy found that the game had " a lot of value " , especially for people who host parties or have groups of friends or family who already enjoy games such as Wii Sports or Rayman Raving Rabbids . Naming WarioWare : Smooth Moves the Game of the Week from January 28 – February 4 , 2007 , The Observer gave particular praise to the game 's graphics , stating , " There are nicely colourful cartoon intros to each level , and the microgames utilise a plethora of visual styles . You 'll notice snippets of favourites from yesteryear , whether it be pulling the Master Sword out of the stone in the Nintendo 64 's The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time or jumping to collect coins as NES @-@ era Mario . " Australia 's The Age found the game " as entertaining to watch as it is to play " , rating it four stars out of five . The Sunday Age newspaper predicted that WarioWare : Smooth Moves , which is " totally unlike anything else out there " , could convert non @-@ gamers into fans of video games .
Computer and Video Games predicted that the game " will be the one you come back to when you 've got a full house " , and appreciated its " crazy genius " gameplay . Nintendo World Report was pleased with the game 's variety , but found the small number of unlockable items and lack of high scores disappointing . Although video game review website IGN noted that the game was not the best in the Wario series of video games , they still considered it an " essential piece of the Wii collection " . The website was also entertained by the single @-@ player mode as well as the multiplayer , especially when " shov [ ing ] the controller off on unsuspecting houseguests or non @-@ gamers months and years down the road " . They considered the game 's use of the Wii Remote to be " slick and intuitive " , the graphics to be " nearly inexplicable " , and the sound to be " totally off the wall " . GameZone called the game " original and addictive " , but noted that it would not appeal to everyone . The Courier @-@ Mail praised the game 's use of the Wii 's motion @-@ sensitive controllers as one of its best features , which helps push it " over @-@ the @-@ top " as " one of the most inventive games designed for the Wii 's interactive controls " . Canada 's Toronto Sun also appreciated its " novel use " of the Wiimote .
A lack of " eye @-@ popping unpredictability [ like ] its predecessors " and difficult controller positions disappointed 1UP.com , but the website still called WarioWare : Smooth Moves a " welcome addition to any Wii library " . Described as a " certifiably insane party game that is a must buy for any Wii owner " , GamePro felt that the game further proves that the Wii is the " must @-@ have " console when playing with friends . GamesRadar shared this sentiment , noting that although the game 's single @-@ player mode is only several hours long , its multiplayer mode is the " definite Wii party experience " for up to 12 people . Game Informer felt excited , surprised , and a " little stupid " when waving the Wii remote with the game , concluding that the game will make " friends laugh pretty much non @-@ stop for an hour or two , and that may very well be worth the price of admission " . Despite writing positively about how the game utilizes the Wii remote , Eurogamer was disappointed with its weak long @-@ term appeal because " it never really dares to test players " .
= Architecture of Leeds =
The architecture of Leeds , a city and metropolitan borough in West Yorkshire , England , encompasses a wide range of architectural styles and notable buildings . As with most northern industrial centres , much of Leeds ' prominent architecture is of the Victorian era . However , the City of Leeds also contains buildings from as early as the Middle Ages such as Kirkstall Abbey , one of Britain 's best preserved ruined Cistercian monasteries , as well as examples of 20th century industrial architecture , particularly in the districts of Hunslet and Holbeck .
Most of the current buildings in Leeds are the product of the Industrial Revolution and post war regeneration in the 20th century , as many new buildings were provided in the city 's commuter towns and villages to house the increasing suburban population . Leeds city centre is currently undergoing much redevelopment , with a number of skyscrapers such as Bridgewater Place . Many buildings in Leeds have won awards for their architecture : examples are the renovation projects for the Corn Exchange and the Henry Moore Institute , which have won RIBA awards .
= = Pre 1600 = =
The earliest evidence of civilisation in the area of Leeds is at Seacroft and dates to 3500 BC . The oldest existent man @-@ made structure in the Leeds metropolitan district is the earthworks of the Iron Age fort at Barwick in Elmet . Leeds is thought to have been the site of the Roman town of Cambodunum , abandoned when the Romans left Britain in around 400 AD . The first church in Leeds is thought to have been built around 600 AD .
Leeds , like many industrial cities , has little remaining medieval architecture . The lack of Medieval architecture in central Leeds may be attributed to the small size of the town during the majority of the period , the population usually being around 1 @,@ 000 . At the time there were several larger settlements in Yorkshire such as Wakefield and York .
The Church of St John the Baptist at Adel is one of the earliest remaining buildings in Leeds . It was built between 1150 and 1170 . It has been described as " one of the best and most complete Norman village churches in Yorkshire " .
Kirkstall Abbey is the most noteworthy piece of architecture from this period in Leeds . The abbey , which is a Cistercian foundation , was begun on the banks of the River Aire in 1152 . The abbey was disbanded and the buildings ruined during the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII . Although Cistercian abbeys were numerous in England , many were located in remote areas and , unlike several Benedictine and Augustinian abbeys , did not survive the Dissolution by being reused as parish churches . At Kirkstall Abbey , the ruins are particularly well preserved and show an austere form of Norman architecture with some later Gothic additions and embellishments . The remnants of most of the monastic buildings are sufficiently intact to display the domestic arrangement and function of the monastery . The Abbey House Museum keeps records and displays artefacts from the abbey as well as from other eras across Leeds . Paintings of the Abbey have come from artists as renowned as J. M. W. Turner and Thomas Girtin . In 1889 the abbey was purchased by Colonel John North and presented to Leeds City Council . The council restored parts of the abbey and made it safe for public enjoyment before opening it in 1895 .
Although central Leeds has few buildings from the Middle Ages , there are examples within the City of Leeds boundaries , including two at Wetherby . Wetherby Bridge dates from the Medieval period , but has been considerably altered , the pointed Gothic arches of different heights being replaced by semi @-@ circular arches . It is said that the Bishop of York granted absolution of sins to local residents in return for building the bridge .
The building of a castle was commenced in Wetherby in 1140 , but it was demolished in 1155 , because it was the King had not granted
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permission for its construction . The remains of its foundations can still be seen , and it is remembered in the street name " Castle Gate " . Harewood Castle is a 14th @-@ century stone hall house and courtyard fortress , in the grounds of Harewood House . It is a Grade I listed and is currently undergoing conservation .
= = 1600 to 1800 = =
By Tudor times , Leeds had become a market town of about 3 @,@ 000 people , which grew to about 6 @,@ 000 by the mid @-@ 17th century , however successive redevelopments of the city centre in the following centuries have destroyed almost all visible evidence of this period . The earliest building remaining in the city centre is a late 16th- or early 17th @-@ century house in Lambert 's Yard , off Briggate . It is a timber framed building with a gable and three jettied storeys , " possibly the cross @-@ wing of a larger hall house " . It is in a state of disrepair and is not generally accessible to the public .
The church of St John the Evangelist , New Briggate , is the oldest church in central Leeds , consecrated in 1634 . It was founded by John Harrison . It is described as " something of an architectural rarity : a virtually intact 17th century church " . In 1865 there were plans to demolish it , but Norman Shaw came to its defence and argued successfully for its restoration . Its interior is unusual in having two naves , and it has a large amount of Jacobean woodwork . It is no longer used for regular services but is in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust and is regularly open for visitors and also used for occasional public events .
A major example of 18th century architecture lies just outside the city ( although within the City of Leeds boundaries ) in the Grade I listed Harewood House . This was built between 1759 and 1771 and funded from the proceeds of the West Indian Slave Trade . The architect was John Carr of York , with extensions by Robert Adam who also designed the interiors .
The opening of a trade hall in Wetherby in 1710 brought about further industrial development , most of this was still on a small scale until the 19th century , but Leeds like Manchester began to show growing industrialisation before many other towns and cities across the industrial belts of Yorkshire and Lancashire did , providing Leeds with a few rare examples of industry from before the period that is generally accepted as the beginning of the industrial revolution ( late 18th century ) had begun .
Armley Mills was built in 1788 and is currently the largest woollen mill museum . There are several examples of industrial architecture from the latter part of this era in Holbeck , Hunslet , Armley and areas surrounding Leeds city centre .
The main infirmary was originally on Infirmary Street ( near City Square and Quebec Street ) . Designed by John Carr , it was built in 1768 – 1771 and demolished in 1893 to make way for the Yorkshire Penny Bank .
Holy Trinity Church on Boar Lane was constructed between 1721 and 1727 , built to a design by William Etty . It is a Grade I listed building . The building has not changed much ( although a new steeple was built in 1839 by R D Chantrell ) , but developments such as the Burton Arcade and the Leeds Shopping Plaza have been built so close that it is difficult to see the full exterior of the building as was once possible .
In 2007 it was reported in the Yorkshire Evening Post that the remains of a 17th @-@ century cottage in Alwoodley had been demolished after controversial approval from Leeds City Council .
= = Nineteenth century = =
It was in the 19th century that Leeds began to grow into one of Britain 's largest cities . This led to widespread building across the city . Leeds ' wool and cloth trades resulted in the building of many industrial buildings during this era . The resulting workforce which migrated to the city from rural areas brought about the building of many houses . Leeds has perhaps the most surviving examples of back @-@ to @-@ back terrace housing in the UK , particularly in Holbeck and Harehills .
Headingley Castle , also known for a good deal of the 19th century as The Elms , was designed in about 1841 on land that had been owned by Barbara Marshall . It was built between 1843 and 1846 by the local architect John Child for the corn merchant Thomas England . The estate was originally 22 acres . While the exterior of Headingley Castle is Victorian Gothic in style , the architect employed modern building techniques and materials including cast iron in its construction .
Leeds city centre has many examples from this era , such as Leeds Town Hall , the Leeds Kirkgate Market , the Hotel Metropole , the Leeds City Varieties , the Central Post Office , Calls Landings and the Corn Exchange to name a few .
Leeds Town Hall ( pictured top ) was designed by Cuthbert Brodrick and was opened by Queen Victoria in 1858 . The Hotel Metropole was built in the 1890s and was inspired by French architecture of the time . The Leeds Corn Exchange was also designed by Cuthbert Brodrick and was built between 1861 and 1864 . The building lay derelict for many years until 1985 when it was converted into a shopping centre . Harehills , Burley , Holbeck , Chapeltown , Woodhouse and East End Park contain many houses from this era , while Cross Gates has a 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) column guided gasholder from this era .
The 19th century saw the construction of most of Leeds ' railway infrastructure , including architecturally notable viaducts in Holbeck and Leeds city centre . None of the major railway stations from this era have survived , in fact most of Leeds railway station was rebuilt as recently as 2002 .
As well as industrial architecture Hunslet has a history for some notable churches . The main steeple on Church Lane was once part of a large church . All but the steeple were demolished in the 1970s and a smaller church building attached . Meadow Lane in Hunslet was also home to Christ Church , an architecturally notable Gothic church , which has since been demolished .
Leeds Parish Church was constructed in 1841 and at 115 feet ( 35 m ) tall it held the record as Leeds ' tallest building until the building of the town hall in 1858 .
= = = Housing = = =
Leeds ' growth in the 19th century led to mass migration to the city ; this resulted in many areas of the city becoming overcrowded and many new houses being built . The industrial revolution led to the increase in both working and middle classes , leading to the building of many new houses , aimed at both classes . The most common form of housing to be built for the working classes was the ' back to back ' . Back to back terrace houses were built in the largely working class districts of Harehills , Holbeck , Hunslet , Beeston and Armley , whilst larger through terrace houses were built for the middle classes in Headingley and Kirkstall . Chapeltown developed as an affluent district of Leeds , and boasts many large Victorian villas , however the popularity of outer suburbs such as Roundhay towards the late 20th century brought land values down in Chapeltown and the area fell into decline .
In 1830 the cost of building a small back to back house in Leeds was between seventy and eighty pounds . The average weekly rent was between two and four shillings ( around a fifth of the average wages at the time ) .
= = Twentieth century = =
Leeds has a wide variety of buildings from this era . Chapel Allerton has many art deco semi detached houses from the 1930s while large parts of the city centre contain many commercial buildings from this era . Seacroft has many examples of 20th century residential architecture .
= = = Early era = = =
For the first decade of the 20th century many areas of Leeds saw a continuation of Victorian style architecture , particularly in areas like Beeston .
The Hyde Park Picture House , Hyde Park was originally built in 1908 as a hotel and in 1914 it was converted into a picture house . The cinema has gas lighting , the original organ and piano . It is a grade II listed building and one of the few surviving picture palaces in the UK . The picture house is regarded by many to be one of the finest examples of Edwardian architecture in Leeds .
= = = Art deco = = =
Chapel Allerton and to a lesser extent Headingley boast many art deco houses . Parts of the Leeds General Infirmary were built in art deco styles . Chapel Allerton also boasted the former Dominion Cinema , which was built in art deco style , however this closed in the late 1960s and became a bingo hall ; which was later demolished in the 1990s .
= = = 1920s and 1930s = = =
Leeds Civic Hall was designed by E. Vincent Harris in 1926 and built between 1931 and 1933 to provide the unemployed with work during the Great Depression . The Quarry Hill Estate was designed in 1933 but not completed until 1941 They were designed by Leeds ' Director of Housing RAH Livett ( 1898 – 1959 ) and utilised a monolithic modernist design based on European examples , in particular the Karl Marx @-@ Hof in Vienna . This was revolutionary at a time when most mass Council housing was based on a weak Neo @-@ Georgian design . They were demolished throughout the 1970s and 80s after poor maintenance .
It provided the backdrop for Yorkshire Television sitcom , Queenie 's Castle .
The Queens Hotel on City Square was constructed in 1937 .
The following year , Shaftesbury House , a large five @-@ storey brick hostel for working men and woman opened . It was designed in 1936 by George Clark Robb , senior architectural assistant to Livett , and after its closure , was converted in 2006 @-@ 7 to the sustainable Green House .
= = = Brutalism = = =
Leeds has limited examples of Brutalism , one such being the Leeds International Swimming Pool ( designed by disgraced architect John Poulson ) . until the commencement of its demolition in Autumn 2009 , following its closure in October 2007 . The Leeds International Pool was not without its design flaws , the pool size was miscalculated and was less than an inch too narrow to qualify for Olympic Standard meaning that it never held the competitions the council had hoped for and it spent much of the 1960s closed while problems with its construction were rectified .
Parts of the Merrion Centre have brutalist undertones , particularly around the office blocks constructed as part of it and the former outdoor escalators to the rear .
Hunslet Grange Flats ( more commonly known as the Leek Street Flats ) displayed brutalism . They replaced run down back to back houses . It is unusual that Leek Street was chosen as their informal name as they replaced many other streets , including longer streets such as Alton Street . The flats were popular at first ; however , they were so poorly designed and constructed that in 1983 they were demolished only thirteen years after being constructed . Smaller shops on the site had been demolished even earlier .
For a picture of the flats see the Leodis Database : ( picture in 1975 ) and a ( picture in 1973 ) .
Often unseen parts of the University of Leeds display elements of brutalism , with large areas of exposed concrete . From the A660 however , only older parts of the university are visible . To view these parts of the university it is necessary to walk through the main campus .
= = = 1960s to 1980s = = =
Many areas of Leeds such as Seacroft were almost entirely built in this era . There are many high @-@ rise council flats in Leeds as well as office buildings such as West Riding House . Many Victorian slums were demolished during this era and replaced with council housing . There was also widespread private residential developments . Holt Park was a joint effort between the Leeds City Council and Norman Ashton . There were many Ashtons homes built during this time , particularly in Holt Park and Wetherby .
West Riding House was completed in 1973 and was the tallest building in Leeds until the completion of Bridgewater Place in 2007 . In 2008 it was knocked into third position with the opening of Opal Tower .
The Inner Ring Road was constructed over the course of the 1960s . This was the most ambitious scheme of its kind in the UK with Leeds City Council subsequently promoting the city with the slogan Motorway City of the Seventies . The works involved the construction of many flyovers and tunnels and the Motorway construction is notable in itself .
Another council plan during the 1960s was to separate pedestrians and traffic , and it was proposed that any new buildings in City Square would be built with an overhead walkway – this never came to fruition , with only a short section ever being built .
The growth of the financial and business services sector from the mid @-@ 1980s onwards resulted in a boom in office developments in the city centre . Many of the buildings constructed at this time are in the style known as the " Leeds Look " , which is typified by the use of dark red brickwork and steeply pitched grey slate roofs .
= = = 1990s = = =
The 1990s saw further residential development , such as that around Colton . Schofields Department Store was demolished and replaced by the Schofield Centre ( later the Headrow Centre and now The Core ) and the White Rose Centre was constructed . The 1990s also saw Tesco redevelop Seacroft town centre , which had previously been architecturally notable for 1960s architecture .
Quarry House was constructed on the site of the former Quarry Hill Flats ( see 1920s and 1930s ) at Quarry Hill . The building houses the Department of Health and the Department for Work and Pensions and is their main regional offices . The building is controversial . Its imposing design has often been regarded as being domineering and self @-@ important and has led the building to be nicknamed The Kremlin and The Ministry of Truth .
= = = Housing = = =
As in much of the UK , Leeds ' housing stock had fallen into disrepair by the middle of the 20th century . The city was overcrowded , and the Victorian terraces were unsuitable for modern inhabitation . Leeds had one of the most Labour orientated councils and in the 1930s pledged to replace 30 @,@ 000 slums . The older houses relied mainly on heating from open coal fires , which led to problems with smog ( in 1962 , 24 deaths in Leeds were attributed to this ) , although this problem was partially relieved in the 1950s with the introduction of the Clean Air Act 1956 . Although a slum clearance scheme was under way in the 1930s , it took until after the Second World War , for the scheme to get well under way . In the 1950s , the largest social housing project began with the building of the Seacroft Estate . Seacroft was planned at the time to be a ' Satellite town within the city limits ' . The building of new council estates was most prevalent in the city 's east end and because of this the city expanded much further East in the latter part of the 20th century then it did any other direction . The Langbar Gardens Estate ( completed 1966 ) in Swarcliffe lay right on the eastern fringes of the city sprawl until it was demolished in the early 21st century , including the high profile implosions of Langbar Towers , Langbar Grange and Ash Tree Grange . By the 1960s and 1970s land for social housing was becoming scarcer and the council started looking towards building ' high rise ' , with such estates as Cottingley sporting prominent tower blocks . By the 1970s less land was available for such developments and the particularly large estates were becoming unpopular , however faced with a need for a larger social housing stock , Leeds City Council built smaller estates such as Holt Park ( in partnership with Norman Ashton ) , replaced the prefabricated ' war houses ' in Cottingley with newer prefabs and redeveloped areas such as Beckhill in Meanwood .
Perhaps the most obvious housing incarnation of this era has been the council house . These have been a subject of some controversy since they were built . On the one hand some people argue they vastly improved Britain 's housing stock , and provided their occupants with modern luxuries such as central heating , an inside lavatory and a modern kitchen , while others criticise the way they were built , the disruption to communities , the build quality of certain batches of houses and the policy of housing problem tenants in them . Certain estates in Leeds have suffered from high crime and poverty and thus had low house prices ( such as Seacroft , Gipton , Belle Isle and Halton Moor ) , while others have maintained a lower crime rate and enjoy buoyant house prices ( such as Moor Grange , the Lincombe estate in Gledhow , Ireland Wood , Holt Park and Tinshill ) .
= = Post Millennium = =
So far during this period , Leeds has seen much development , particularly in the city centre , most notably the highrise developments such as Bridgewater Place , the developments around Clarence Dock , K2 ( albeit a conversion from an older building ) as well as many developments incorporating student accommodation . The 2002 redevelopment of Leeds railway station incorporated a notable steel and glass roof covering the main platform hall and providing panoramic views to the south west from the mezzanine level .
= = = Bridgewater Place = = =
Bridgewater Place is currently the tallest building in Leeds and the second tallest structure in Yorkshire after the Emley Moor Television Transmitter ( near Huddersfield ) . The building comprises offices , flats , shops and restaurants . Bridgewater Place is 361 feet ( 110 m ) tall and has 32 storeys . The original design included a spire , but this was never added . In 2008 , Building Design , the architectural journal , shortlisted Bridgewater Place for the Carbuncle Cup , which is awarded to ' buildings so ugly they freeze the heart ' .
= = = Opal 3 = = =
Opal 3 is a skyscraper in Leeds situated to the north of the city centre on Wade Lane , adjacent to the Merrion Centre and Tower House . The building was officially completed in September 2008 and at 269 feet ( 82 m ) with 27 storeys Opal 3 is Leeds ' third tallest building after Bridgewater Place and Sky Plaza . The building consists solely of student accommodation for the University of Leeds and Leeds Metropolitan University as well as Leeds ' other further education institutions . The building was built on the former site of the Little Londoner ( later The Londoner ) public house , as well as some former car parking in the Lovell Park area of the city . Opal 3 was fully booked for the 2008 academic year . It contains 542 students flats ( all which are en @-@ suite ) as well as a gym for student use .
= = = Plaza Tower = = =
The Plaza Tower is a skyscraper in the city centre . When completed in 2009 the Plaza overtook Opal 3 as Leeds ' second tallest building . The tower contains 572 student flats and stands at 338 feet ( 103 m ) . It has 37 storeys ( making it the building with the most storeys in Leeds , as the Bridgewater Place has commercial height ceilings . These are particularly high for the first eight storeys ) .
= = = Leeds Dock = = =
Leeds Dock was originally a large timber dock , situated between the city centre and Hunslet . Decades of industrial decline left the dock obsolete . The opening of the Royal Armouries Museum in 1996 began the regeneration of the area , however little else was undertaken , until the wider redevelopment began in 2001 . This was completed in 2007 ( at a cost of £ 260 million ) and includes flats , offices , bars , restaurants , a hotel and a casino . The development centres on the dock itself as well as around ' Armouries Boulevard ' and ' Armouries Square ' , two pedestrianised thoroughfares . The main office block on the development is Livingston House which has not yet attracted a tenant . The smaller dock incorporates six residential berths for house boats , while a passenger boat service to Granary Wharf runs from here .
The development has not been without criticism , with many people in the city commenting on the lack of people in the area , while architect Maxwell Hutchinson described them as the " slums of the future " . and described the development as a " mundane collection " of buildings and an " incredibly soulless place " and claimed that " in two or three decades these shiny new buildings will be following Quarry Hill down the spiral of decay " . These claims were explored on the BBC television programme Inside Out . While at a fashion show at Leeds Dock , Gok Wan claimed he thought the development would be a huge success .
= = = Leeds Arena = = =
Leeds Arena is a 13 @,@ 500 seat ' super @-@ theatre ' style venue , the first in the UK to be built in a ' fan ' orientation . Construction began in 2011 after decades of calls for a venue to replace the Queens Hall , which was demolished in 1989 and represented the city 's only large concert hall . In the intervening period Leeds was the only major city in the UK without such a venue .
The building itself is based around a striking honeycomb frontage , modelled on close @-@ up images of an insect 's eye , and is illuminated at night in a variety of colours that reflect the mood of whichever show is playing at the time .
= = Future = =
Two major developments in Leeds city centre were planned for completion around the beginning of the new decade , but were put on hold due to the prevailing economic conditions and subsequently cancelled . These buildings were Criterion Place and Lumiere , both of which would have been the tallest residential buildings in the UK at the time of their completion .
Planning permission has been approved for a 200 @-@ room five star Hilton hotel opposite the new Leeds Arena site which was due to be completed around 2015 , although the project is currently on hiatus following the collapse of the main contractor involved . The development was relocated from Clarence Dock following the refusal of its planning permission for that site .
= = Critical reception on Leeds ' architecture = =
In 1968 John Betjeman made a television film called A Poet Goes North in which he gave his opinion on the changing architecture of Leeds . Betjeman described the constant sound of falling Victorian architecture . Betjeman also lambasted British Railways House ( now City House ) saying it blocked all the light out to City Square and was only a testament to money and had no architectural merit of its own . Betjeman also praised Leeds Town Hall in the film . The film , which was never broadcast at the time , was preserved by Leeds Civic Trust and has been restored by the Yorkshire Film Archive . It was screened as part of the Leeds International Film Festival in 2008 .
Architect and critic Maxwell Hutchinson has attracted controversy in his criticism of recent architectural developments in Leeds , most notably Clarence Dock . In referring to Leeds ' plans for the future , Hutchinson said " there are worrying signs that Yorkshire is about to make the same mistakes that we have made in London over 20 years ago " . Hutchinson also criticised the dearth of services in the city centre , referring to its lack of schools and health @-@ care facilities . Hutchinson also described the Clarence Dock development as " the slums of the future " . These claims were explored on the BBC television programme , Inside Out . Hutchinson claimed that Leeds needed an iconic building like Manchester 's The Lowry or Gateshead 's The Sage . However he claimed that the redevelopment of older buildings around The Calls " could compete with anywhere in Europe for the quality and sensitivity of its design . "
The Guardian architecture critic Owen Hatherley lamented post @-@ millennium architecture in Leeds and bemoaned the weak planning system for allowing a wave of " astoundingly cheap @-@ looking architecture " in the city . Hatherley points to Sky Plaza as a prime example .
= = Public space = =
Leeds city centre has four main public squares being Park Square , City Square , Armouries Square and Millennium Square .
Smaller squares do exist , including Dortmund Square , St Peters Square , Queen Square , Woodhouse Square and Hanover Square . While the rest of Leeds has large open parks , this is something the city centre lacks and most free recreational space is contained within these squares . Since 2000 , both City Square and Millennium Square have been redeveloped with hard landscaping . In an interview with Martin Wainwright , the northern editor of The Guardian , architect Irena Bauman , praised City Square for being a well designed and well used public space , however she criticised The Plaza Tower development for its lack of public space , stating that the only space made available was for service vehicles .
= = Awards = =
Many buildings in Leeds have been shortlisted for or won architecture awards .
= = = RIBA = = =
The following buildings have a RIBA award :
The Corn Exchange
The Henry Moore Institute
Granary Wharf – Waterman 's Place , Mint Hotel and Candle House http : / / www.architecture.com / Awards / RIBAAwards / Winners2011 / Yorkshire / Yorkshirewinners2011.aspx
= = = The Peoples Award = = =
The short listed buildings for the People 's Award of the Leeds Architecture Awards in 2003 were :
The School of Music , Cavendish Road , Leeds city centre
House Extension , 31 Westgate , Wetherby
The BT Headquarters , Neville Street , Leeds city centre
Ask , formerly the Rendezvous Café , Market Place , Wetherby
The Chapel , Martin House , Boston Spa
K2 Development , Albion Street , Leeds city centre
Foxwood Flats , West Avenue , Roundhay
Mixed Development , 1 Dock Street , Leeds city centre
BBC Headquarters , Quarry Hill
= = Leeds Civic Trust = =
Leeds Civic Trust is a voluntary , non @-@ profit body whose aims and objectives are :
To stimulate public interest in and care for the beauty , history and character of the City and locality
To encourage high standards of design , architecture and town planning
To encourage the development and improvement of features of general public amenity
To promote and organise co @-@ operation in the achievement of these objectives
The Trust works to preserve Leeds ' architectural heritage and to ensure that new developments are of suitable quality for the city . It also organises the local Heritage Open Days in conjunction with the Civic Trust .
= 2015 Tour de Yorkshire =
The 2015 Tour de Yorkshire was a cycling stage race that took place in Yorkshire in May 2015 . It was the first edition of the Tour de Yorkshire and was organised by Welcome to Yorkshire and the Amaury Sport Organisation , who also organised the Yorkshire stages of the 2014 Tour de France . The race started in Bridlington on 1 May and ended in Leeds on 3 May . It included three stages and was rated as a 2 @.@ 1 event as part of the 2015 UCI Europe Tour .
The first stage of the race was won by Lars Petter Nordhaug ( Team Sky ) in a sprint from a small group . He kept his lead through the second stage , which ended in a bunch sprint , and was able to extend it slightly in the third and final stage of the race . He won the general classification in the race by eleven seconds . Samuel Sánchez ( BMC Racing Team ) was second and Thomas Voeckler ( Team Europcar ) was third . Nordhaug also won the points classification and Team Sky won the teams classification . The mountains classification was won by Nicolas Edet ( Cofidis )
= = Race route = =
The race was first discussed publicly in July 2014 , after the first stages of the 2014 Tour de France that took place in Yorkshire . It was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation , the organisers of the Tour de France , and Welcome to Yorkshire , who had been the organisers of the Yorkshire stages of the 2014 Tour de France . On 22 December 2014 , the start and finish locations for the event were released , these were Bridlington , Leeds , Scarborough , Selby , Wakefield and York . On 21 January 2015 , details of the three stages of the route were unveiled at the Bridlington Spa . The first two stages ( especially the second ) were expected to suit the sprinters , while the third stage was described as the " queen stage " . It included several roads and climbs that had been part of the second stage of the 2014 Tour de France between York and Sheffield . The stage was rated as a 2 @.@ 1 event .
There was also a women 's race that took place as part of the Tour de Yorkshire event . This took place on the second day of the men 's race over four laps of the 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) route around York that was also the final part of the men 's racing that day . Lizzie Armitstead , who did not compete in the event due to a conflicting event in Europe , expressed a hope that the women 's race in future would be a three @-@ day event like the men 's race . The women 's race was won by Louse Mahé ( Ikon @-@ Mazada ) in a sprint finish .
= = Teams = =
18 teams were selected to take part in the inaugural Tour de Yorkshire . Five of these were UCI WorldTeams ; six were UCI Professional Continental teams ; six were UCI Continental teams ; one was the Great Britain national team . Teams could enter between five and eight riders . Fourteen teams selected eight riders and four teams selected seven ; 140 riders were therefore entered into the race . One rider ( Caleb Fairly of Giant – Alpecin ) pulled out before the start , so the race began with a peloton of 139 riders .
= = Pre @-@ race expectations = =
Much of the pre @-@ race media focused on the presence of Bradley Wiggins , Britain 's first ever winner of the Tour de France , who was riding his first race for his new team , WIGGINS . Wiggins was controversially not selected for Team Sky in the previous year 's Tour de France ; the race organisers expected his presence in the Tour de Yorkshire to be one of the principal attractions for British cycling fans . Wiggins was not , however , expected to attempt to win the overall classification in the race ; his main objective was preparing for his hour record attempt in June .
Cycling Weekly expected that the race would be dominated by " punchy all @-@ rounders " . The riders expected to perform strongly over the three days included Ben Swift ( Team Sky ) , Moreno Hofland and Steven Kruijswijk ( both LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) , Thomas Voeckler ( Team Europcar ) and Erick Rowsell ( Madison Genesis ) . The second stage appeared most likely to end in a sprint , with Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) the favourite to take victory , although he had suffered an illness and had not raced since the Tour of Qatar in February . Other prominent sprinters included Swift and Hofland , as well as Matteo Pelucchi ( IAM Cycling ) , Rick Zabel ( BMC Racing Team ) , Gerald Ciolek ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Steele Von Hoff ( NFTO ) .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
1 May — Bridlington to Scarborough , 174 km ( 108 mi )
The first stage of the race began in Bridlington on the North Sea coast . The riders first travelled north @-@ east to Flamborough , where they turned to the north @-@ west . Initially this kept them along the coast , but soon took them into the North York Moors , where the first climb was the Côte de Dalby Forest . This came after 51 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 32 @.@ 0 mi ) ; the categorised portion of the climb was 0 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) at 8 @.@ 9 % . The riders then turned to the south @-@ west and descended to Pickering , where the first intermediate sprint was positioned . The route turned north , back onto the Moors , where they reached the Côte de Rosedale Abbey after 92 kilometres ( 57 mi ) . This was the longest climb of the day : 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) at 7 % . The riders continued north as far as Castleton , where they turned east . After 123 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 76 @.@ 7 mi ) , the riders climbed the Côte de Grosmont ( 0 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 25 mi ) at 16 @.@ 9 % ) , then the Côte de Briggswath ( 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) at 6 @.@ 2 % ) . From here , they returned to the coast at Whitby , where there was another intermediate sprint ; the riders then turned south . The final climb of the day came after 146 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 91 @.@ 0 mi ) ; it was the Côte de Robin Hood 's Bay ( 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) at 10 @.@ 3 % ) . The riders then continued south to the finish line in Scarborough , doing a loop around the town before finishing on the sea front . In total the day included 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) of climbing , although the highest point was just 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) above sea level . Thomas Voeckler ( Team Europcar ) described the stage as " much tougher than we thought " due to the small roads .
An initial breakaway was formed by Mark Christian ( WIGGINS ) , Loïc Chetout ( Cofidis ) , Eddie Dunbar ( NFTO ) , Mark Stewart ( Madison Genesis ) and Rasmus Quaade ( Cult Energy Pro Cycling ) . They built up a five @-@ minute lead but Team Sky chased hard ; the break 's lead was reduced to a few seconds by the Côte de Rosedale Abbey . A new breakaway was formed here by Perrig Quéméneur ( Team Europcar ) and Tim Declercq ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , while Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) was dropped and abandoned the race shortly afterwards . With 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) remaining , the peloton descended into Egton in wet conditions . Team Sky were riding at the front of the peloton . Sky 's Ben Swift and Ian Boswell and NFTO 's Eddie Dunbar crashed . Dunbar suffered a broken clavicle and Swift a shoulder injury : both were forced to abandon the race .
The crucial move of the race came with 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) remaining as the race went through Whitby . A 15 @-@ man group formed here . This was reduced to five riders on the Côte de Robin Hood ’ s Bay . Philip Deignan ( Team Sky ) rode hard on the climb , with only Stéphane Rossetto ( Cofidis ) , Samuel Sánchez ( BMC Racing Team ) , Voeckler , and Deignan 's teammate Lars Petter Nordhaug able to follow him . Despite attacks on the way into Scarborough , these five riders came to the finish line together . Nordhaug won the sprint ahead of Voeckler and Rossetto . The peloton was more than a minute behind ; the sprint was won by Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) .
Thanks to bonus seconds , Nordhaug led the race by four seconds ahead of Voeckler . He also led the points classification . The mountains classification was led by Quéméneur . Quéméneur was also awarded the combativity prize after the online vote : Dunbar won the vote , but was unable to receive the prize because he had been hospitalised due to his crash .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
2 May — Selby to York , 174 km ( 108 mi )
The second stage of the race , which was much flatter than the first and third stages , began in Selby , North Yorkshire . The stage began with an 8 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 1 mi ) neutralised section , which included a loop around the town centre ; the racing started as the riders headed east for 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) towards Market Weighton . Here they turned south and climbed the first of the day 's two categorised climbs ; this was the Côte de North Newbald ( 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) at 5 @.@ 3 % ) . The route again turned east and the riders reached Beverley after 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) . From here the route turned north and entered the Yorkshire Wolds ; there was an intermediate sprint as the route passed through Wetwang . Immediately after the intermediate sprint came the second climb of the day , the Côte de Fimber ( 1 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) at 6 @.@ 2 % ) . At the summit of the climb , there were 78 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 48 @.@ 8 mi ) to the finish line . The riders continued north as far as Malton , then turned south @-@ west towards York . The race concluded in York with a 20 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 12 @.@ 7 mi ) finishing circuit . The riders entered the circuit with 52 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 32 @.@ 6 mi ) to the end of the stage and rode the 11 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) to the finishing line , where the second intermediate sprint of the day took place . They then rode two complete laps of the circuit ; the race finished with the third crossing of the finish line , after 174 kilometres ( 108 mi ) .
An early breakaway of 18 riders formed . This included Philip Deignan ( Team Sky ) , who had been in the winning break in the first stage and was 10 seconds off the race lead . The other
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teams in the peloton were not willing to let a breakaway that included Deignan go ; eventually he and nine others dropped back to the main peloton . Eight riders were therefore left in the lead group : Andy Tennant ( WIGGINS ) , Bert De Backer ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Stijn Steels ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Giovanni Bernaudeau ( Team Europcar ) , Matt Brammeier ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Nicolas Edet ( Cofidis ) , Ivar Slik ( Team Roompot ) and Mark McNally ( Madison Genesis ) . McNally won both categorised climbs . The break 's lead was nearly seven minutes with 78 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 48 @.@ 8 mi ) remaining ; Sky and IAM Cycling began chasing hard and reduced the gap sharply ; the breakaway had less than two minutes ' lead as they entered the laps around York .
The breakaway split up ; McNally and De Backer remained alone in the lead with 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) left . McNally was voted as the day 's most combative rider through a Twitter vote , but he was unable to stay with De Backer in the final 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) . De Backer continued alone ; he was briefly joined by Loic Chetout ( Cofidis ) but the pair were unable to stay away from the chasing pack . As they were caught , with 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) remaining , Greg Van Avermaet attacked . Although he appeared to have a lead large enough to secure the stage victory , he ran out of energy shortly before the line and was caught by the sprinters . The first of these was Moreno Hofland ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , who won his team 's first victory of the year , with Matteo Pelucchi ( IAM Cycling second and Ramon Sinkeldam ( Giant – Alpecin ) third .
Because of a split in the peloton , Voeckler and Rossetto both lost six seconds . Samuel Sánchez therefore moved up into second place overall , while Nordhaug 's lead increased to ten seconds .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
3 May — Wakefield to Leeds , 167 km ( 104 mi )
The third stage was the queen stage of the race and included several of the roads used in stage 2 of the 2014 Tour de France . The stage began in Wakefield , West Yorkshire , outside the city 's cathedral ; there was a neutralised lap of the city centre before the riders left the city to the south . The route passed through Sandal and reached Barnsley after 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) . Here the roads turned west and entered the Pennines . The first climb of the day came after 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) : this was the Côte de Holmfirth ( 2 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 8 mi ) at 5 @.@ 5 % ) . From here the route was twisting , though it generally travelled north as it passed to the west of Huddersfield and Halifax . The next climb , the Côte de Scapegoat Hill ( 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) at 8 @.@ 3 % ) , came after 55 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 5 mi ) of racing . The riders briefly left Yorkshire for the only time in the race ( the route entered Greater Manchester but immediately returned to West Yorkshire ) . The roads were hilly throughout , with barely any flat road . The next categorised climb was the Côte de Hebden Bridge ( 4 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) at 5 @.@ 5 % ) after 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) with the Côte de Goose Eye ( 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 81 mi ) at 10 % ) shortly afterwards . After 129 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 80 @.@ 5 mi ) , there was an intermediate sprint in Ilkley , then the Côte de Cow and Calf ( 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) at 8 % ) . At the top of the climb , there were 35 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 22 @.@ 1 mi ) to the finish line . The final categorised climb of the race , the Côte de The Chevin ( 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) at 10 @.@ 3 % ) , was 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the finish ; there was also a slight climb to the second intermediate sprint in Arthington . There was then a fairly flat 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) section to the finish line in Leeds , with the finish line in Roundhay Park .
The day 's main breakaway was formed by Lawson Craddock ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Sondre Holst Enger ( IAM Cycling ) , Reinardt Janse van Rensburg ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Nicolas Edet ( Cofidis ) , James McLoughlin ( Madison Genesis ) , Ian Bibby ( NFTO and Rasmus Quaade ( Cult Energy Pro Cycling ) . They built a lead of around five minutes ahead of the peloton , which was led by Sky . Bibby won the first three climbs of the day ; the group then split apart on the Côte de Goose Eye . Craddock was the first to cross the summit with only Edet able to follow him . With less than 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) to the finish line , the two riders had a lead of nearly five minutes . Edet won the next two climbs and secured victory in the mountains classification .
With 35 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 22 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining , the gap was about 90 seconds as Sky 's David López , Ian Boswell and Philip Deignan led the remaining part of the peloton . Josh Edmondson ( Great Britain ) made an unsuccessful attack from this group . On the uncategorised climb leading up to the final sprint of the day , Craddock dropped Edet and continued alone . In the peloton , Samuel Sánchez also attacked on the climb . Nordhaug followed him and won the final bonus second , putting him more than ten seconds ahead of Sánchez . Steve Cummings ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Steven Kruijswijk ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) attacked together after the climb ; they too were unsuccessful . The final attack of the day came from Ben Hermans ( BMC Racing Team ) with approximately 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) to the finish line . He caught and passed Craddock 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) later ; meanwhile Sky led the group without making any particular effort to chase Hermans down .
Hermans won a solo victory ; the 17 @-@ man group was nine seconds behind . Greg Van Avermaet won the sprint for second , with Julien Simon third . Nordhaug finished in fifth to secure victory overall and in the points classification . Sky also won the teams classification . Edet won the mountains classification . The final combativity prize was won by Bibby .
= = Classifications = =
The race included three individual classifications and a team classification . The most important of these was the general classification . This was calculated by adding up each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Bonus seconds were awarded for top @-@ three placings in each stage ( 10 seconds for the first rider , 6 seconds for the second , 4 seconds for the third ) and for placings in intermediate sprints ( 3 seconds for the first rider , 2 seconds for the second , 1 second for the third ) . The rider with the lowest cumulative time after taking bonus seconds into account was the leader of the classification and was awarded a blue and yellow jersey . ( Blue and yellow are colours traditionally associated with Yorkshire . ) The winner of the general classification was considered the winner of the race .
The second classification was points classification . On each stage of the race , points were awarded to the top 10 riders . The winner won 15 points , with 12 for the second @-@ placed rider , 9 for the third @-@ placed rider , 7 for the sixth @-@ placed rider and then one point fewer for each place down to tenth place . Points were also awarded to the top three riders at intermediate sprints , with five points for the winner of the sprint and three , and one points for the riders in second and third places respectively . The rider with the most points was the leader of the classification and was awarded a green jersey . There was also a mountains classification . Over the three stages , there were 13 categorised climbs . On each of these climbs , the first four riders to the summit were awarded points , with 5 for the first rider , 3 for the second , 2 for the third and 1 for the fourth . The rider with the most accumulated points was the leader of the classification and was awarded a dark pink jersey .
The final classification was a team classification . The team 's time on each was calculated by taking the best three riders from that team and adding their times together ; the team with the lowest cumulative time was the leader of the classification .
Another jersey was awarded at the end of each stage . This was a combativity prize and was to be awarded to the rider who " made the greatest effort and [ ... ] demonstrated the best qualities in terms of sportsmanship " . A jury selected a list of riders to be eligible for the prize ; the winner of the prize was then decided by a vote on Twitter . The rider was awarded a grey jersey .
= = Classification Standings = =
= Hurricane Alberto ( 2000 ) =
Hurricane Alberto was among the longest @-@ lived tropical cyclones on record in the Atlantic Ocean . The third tropical cyclone , first named storm , and first hurricane of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season , Alberto developed near the western coast of Africa from a tropical wave on August 3 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Alberto early on August 4 . While briefly turning westward on August 6 , Alberto attained hurricane status . The cyclone continued to track west @-@ northwestward , and by early the following day , reached an initial peak with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , Alberto re @-@ curved northwestward and began encountering increased wind shear . As a result , Alberto weakened back to a tropical storm on August 9 . However , the system quickly re @-@ strengthened as winds became more favorable , and early on August 10 , Alberto became a hurricane again . The storm gradually curved northward and north @-@ northeastward between August 11 and August 12 ; Alberto attained its peak intensity with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) during that time .
Increasing upper @-@ level westerlies caused Alberto to weaken as it moved east @-@ northeastward , with the cyclone losing most of its convection . Early on August 14 , Alberto was downgraded to a tropical storm . A westerly trough that had been guiding Alberto outran the storm , and strong ridging developed to the north and west . As a result , Alberto turned southward on August 15 , southwestward on August 16 , and then to the west on August 17 . While curving northwestward and then northward , Alberto began to re @-@ strengthen , and was upgraded to a hurricane for a third time on August 18 . Alberto reached a third peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 205 km / h ) on August 20 . After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane , Alberto conducted an unusually large cyclonic loop , spanning approximately 5 degrees latitude and 8 degrees longitude . The cyclone was downgraded to a tropical storm on August 23 , shortly before completing its extratropical transition . Although it did not effect land while tropical , the precursor tropical wave caused light rainfall in Senegal . The remnant extratropical cyclone also likely produced tropical storm force winds in Iceland and Jan Mayen .
= = Meteorological history = =
A mesoscale convective complex , or large circular area of thunderstorms , developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of Africa on July 28 . The complex moved west @-@ southwestward through the continent , waxing and waning until persisting along a tropical wave on August 2 . The next day , the wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from Guinea . Once over the open Atlantic Ocean , the wave quickly developed and became Tropical Depression Three later that day . The depression moved to the west @-@ northwest and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Alberto early on August 4 . Alberto continued to strengthen , but moved to cooler waters late on August 5 and weakened briefly . However , the storm strengthened again early on August 6 , and it was upgraded to hurricane status as an eye became visible . The upgrade was accompanied with a brief westward turn . However , Alberto continued to move to the west @-@ northwest later that day , reaching its first peak intensity of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on August 7 .
A vigorous upper @-@ level low developed west of Alberto on August 7 and August 8 . This caused an increase in vertical shear , weakening the hurricane down to a tropical storm on August 9 . The low also caused the storm to turn to the northwest . However , on August 10 , Alberto became better organised and was upgraded to hurricane status again . It then moved in a gradual curve towards the north and northeast through a break in a subtropical ridge between August 11 and August 12 . Alberto made its closest approach to Bermuda on August 11 , passing about 345 mi ( 555 km ) east of the island . The strong storm became a Category 3 major hurricane on August 12 and reached its second and highest peak intensity of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , and a 60 mi ( 95 km ) wide eye was observed . Alberto was an unusual storm in that it reached its peak intensity at a high latitude , north of 35 ˚ N , after it had re @-@ curved . The hurricane began to weaken due to increasing upper @-@ level westerlies on August 13 and August 14 , while moving east @-@ northeastward . Alberto was downgraded to a tropical storm on August 14 .
As early as August 10 , computer models anticipated the hurricane to accelerate to the northeast and become extratropical within three days , but this did not materialize . A westerly trough that had been influencing Alberto ’ s motion outran the storm , and a strong ridge developed to the north and west , causing the storm to turn abruptly to the south on August 15 , and to complete a large loop over the open Atlantic . Alberto turned to the southwest on August 16 and to the west on August 17 . The storm then took a sharp turn toward the northwest as a large , slow @-@ moving mid @-@ level trough was carving out over the eastern United States . Alberto began to strengthen , and reached hurricane status for the third time on August 18 . The hurricane continued to turn to the north on August 19 and to the northeast on August 20 and August 21 . During this time , Alberto reached a third peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on August 20 , and a 70 mi ( 110 km ) wide eye was observed . Operationally , Alberto reached a peak intensity of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , but after reanalysis , it was reduced to 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .
Hurricane Alberto began to weaken on August 22 as it accelerated into higher latitudes . It was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 23 . Initially , it was forecast to become extratropical on August 22 , but a little burst of colder cloud tops enabled Alberto to remain tropical for a longer time , persisting into August 23 , while it moved into a very high latitude at 53 ˚ N. The weakening storm finally became extratropical late on August 23 , while accelerating to the north @-@ northeast , passing near Iceland on August 24 . Winds dropped below gale @-@ force , as the centre turned to the east @-@ northeast on August 25 . Alberto dissipated about 85 mi ( 140 km ) east of Jan Mayen later that day .
= = Impact , records , and naming = =
Very minimal impact occurred as a result from Hurricane Alberto . Dakar , Senegal , received 25 mm ( 1 in ) of rain as the pre @-@ Alberto tropical wave passed over the city . A discussion was issued on August 9 advising residents in Bermuda to monitor the progress of the storm until it safely passed . Also , from August 12 to August 14 , public advisories were issued advising people from Azores to monitor the progress of Hurricane Alberto . This stopped when Alberto began to slow its motion and began to turn to the south , away from the Azores . Some swells were reported along the east coast of the United States a few days after the storm 's recurvature . No reports were available on the impact of Alberto on Iceland , but it was estimated that winds of at least tropical storm force were experienced there . Otherwise , there were no known reports of damage or casualties as a result of Hurricane Alberto .
Hurricane Alberto completed the largest loop ever observed over the Atlantic Ocean , spanning approximately 5 degrees latitude by 8 degrees longitude . The storm is currently the ninth longest @-@ lived storm in the Atlantic Ocean ( lasting 19 @.@ 75 days ) , and is also the second longest @-@ lived Atlantic storm during August ( the longest lived is the 1899 Hurricane San Ciriaco ) . Also , Alberto is the third farthest @-@ travelling in the Atlantic ( travelling 6 @,@ 500 miles ) , only behind Hurricane Faith and Hurricane Carrie , being able to retain tropical characteristics at an unusually high latitude , up to 53 ˚ N. The last storm to do so was Hurricane Frances in 1980 .
= St Cuthbert Gospel =
The St Cuthbert Gospel , also known as the Stonyhurst Gospel or the St Cuthbert Gospel of St John , is an early 8th @-@ century pocket gospel book , written in Latin . Its finely decorated leather binding is the earliest known Western bookbinding to survive , and both the 94 vellum folios and the binding are in outstanding condition for a book of this age . With a page size of only 138 by 92 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 in × 3 @.@ 6 in ) the St Cuthbert Gospel is one of the smallest surviving Anglo @-@ Saxon manuscripts . The essentially undecorated text is the Gospel of John in Latin , written in a script that has been regarded as a model of elegant simplicity .
The book takes its name from Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , North East England , in whose tomb it was placed , probably a few years after his death in 687 . Although it was long regarded as Cuthbert 's personal copy of the Gospel , to which there are early references , and so a relic of the saint , the book is now thought to date from shortly after Cuthbert 's death . It was probably a gift from Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow Abbey , where it was written , intended to be placed in St Cuthbert 's coffin when his remains were placed behind the altar at Lindisfarne in 698 , or in the next few decades . It presumably remained in the coffin through its long travels after 875 , forced by Viking invasions , ending at Durham Cathedral . The book was found inside the coffin and removed in 1104 when the burial was once again moved within the cathedral . It was kept there with other relics , and important visitors were able to wear the book in a leather bag around their necks . It is thought that after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England by Henry VIII between 1536 and 1541 , the book passed to collectors . It was eventually given to Stonyhurst College , the Jesuit school in Lancashire .
From 1979 it was on long @-@ term loan from the British province of the Jesuit order to the British Library , catalogued as Loan 74 . On 14 July 2011 the British Library launched a fundraising campaign to buy the book for £ 9 million , and on 17 April 2012 announced that the purchase had been completed and the book was now British Library Additional MS 89000 .
The library plans to display the Gospel for equal amounts of time in London and Durham . They describe the manuscript as " the earliest surviving intact European book and one of the world 's most significant books " . The Cuthbert Gospel returned to Durham to feature in exhibitions in 2013 and 2014 and will next be on display in the British Library in the summer of 2015 . A new book on the gospel was published in 2015 , incorporating the results of research since the purchase ; among other things this pushed the likely date from the late 7th to the early 8th century .
= = Description = =
The St Cuthbert Gospel is a pocket @-@ sized book , 138 by 92 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 4 × 3 @.@ 6 in ) , of the Gospel of St John written in uncial script on 94 vellum folios . It is bound in wooden cover boards , covered with tooled red leather .
= = = Context = = =
The St Cuthbert Gospel is significant both intrinsically as the earliest surviving European book complete with its original binding and by association with the 7th century Anglo @-@ Saxon saint , Cuthbert of Lindisfarne . A miniature in the Codex Amiatinus , of the Prophet Ezra writing in his library , shows several books similarly bound in red decorated with geometric designs . This miniature was probably based on an original in the Codex Grandior , a lost imported Italian Bible at Jarrow , which showed Cassiodorus and the nine volumes he wrote of commentary on the Bible . Whether the bindings depicted , which were presumably of leather , included raised elements cannot be detected , but the books are stored singly flat in a cupboard , which would reduce the wear on any raised patterns .
Early medieval treasure bindings with a structure in precious metal , and often containing gems , carved ivory panels or metal reliefs , are perhaps better known today than leather bindings , but these were for books used in church services or as " book @-@ icons " rather than for use in libraries . Of treasure bindings from this period , only the lower cover of the Lindau Gospels ( 750 – 800 , Morgan Library ) now survives complete , though there are several references to them , most famously to that of the Book of Kells , which was lost after a theft in 1007 . Various metal fragments of what were probably book @-@ mounts have survived , usually adapted as jewellery by Vikings . In the context of the cult of Cuthbert , the lavishly illuminated Lindisfarne Gospels were made at Lindisfarne , probably shortly after the St Cuthbert Gospel , with covers involving metalwork , perhaps entirely made in it , which are also now lost . Plainer very early bindings in leather are almost as rare as treasure bindings , as the bindings of books in libraries usually wore out and needed to be renewed , and earlier collectors did not consider most historical bindings worth retaining .
= = = Text = = =
The text is a very good and careful copy of the single Gospel of John from what has been called the " Italo @-@ Northumbrian " family of texts , other well @-@ known examples of which are several manuscripts from Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow , including the Codex Amiatinus , and in the British Library the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Gospel Book MS Royal 1 . B. VII . This family is presumed to have derived from a hypothetical " Neapolitan Gospelbook " brought to England by Adrian of Canterbury , a companion of Theodore of Tarsus who Bede says had been abbot of Nisida , an equally hypothetical monastery near Naples . In the rubrics of the Lindisfarne Gospels are several that are " specifically Neapolitan " , including festivals which were celebrated only in Naples such as The Nativity of St. Januarius and the Dedication of the Basilica of Stephen . The Neapolitan manuscript was probably at Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow .
Apart from enlarged and sometimes slightly elaborated initials opening the Ammonian sections ( the contemporary equivalent of the modern division into verses ) , and others in red at the start of chapters , the text has no illumination or decoration , but Sir David Wilson , historian of Anglo @-@ Saxon art and Director of the British Museum , used it as his example in writing " some manuscripts are so beautifully written that illumination would seem only to spoil them " . Julian Brown wrote that " the capitular uncial of the Stonyhurst Gospel owes its beauty to simple design and perfect execution . The decorative elements in the script never interfere with the basic structure of the letter @-@ forms ; they arise naturally from the slanted angle at which the pen was held " .
The pages with the text have been ruled with a blind stylus or similar tool , leaving just an impression in the vellum . It can be shown that this was done for each gathering with just two sets of lines , ruled on the outermost and innermost pages , requiring a very firm impression to carry the marks through to the sheets behind . Impressed lines mark the vertical edges of the text area , and there is an outer pair of lines . Each line of text is ruled , only as far as the inner vertical lines , and there are prick marks where the horizontal lines meet the verticals . The book begins with 19 lines on a page , but at folio 42 changes to 20 lines per page , requiring the re @-@ ruling of some pages . This change was evidently a departure from the original plan , and may have been caused by a shortage of the very fine vellum , as two different sorts are used , though the change does not coincide exactly with the change in the number of lines .
Four passages are marked in the margin , which correspond to those used as readings in Masses for the Dead in the Roman lectionary of the mid @-@ 7th century . This seems to have been done hastily , as most left offset marks on the opposite pages from the book being closed before the ink was dry . This seems to indicate that the book was used at least once as the gospel book for a Mass for the Dead , perhaps on the occasion of Cuthbert 's elevation in 698 . In the example illustrated at left , the start of the reading at line 10 is marked with a cross , and de mortuorum ( " for the dead " ) written beside . The reading ends on the next page , which is also marked .
= = = Binding = = =
The original tooled red goatskin binding is the earliest surviving intact Western binding , and the virtually unique survivor of decorated Insular leatherwork . The decoration of the front cover includes colour , and the main motif is raised , which is unique among the few surviving Early Medieval bindings . The panels of geometrical decoration with two @-@ stranded interlace closely relate to Insular illuminated manuscripts , and can be compared to the carpet pages found in these . Elements of the design also relate to Anglo @-@ Saxon metalwork in the case of the general origin of interlace in manuscripts , and Coptic and other East Mediterranean designs .
The decoration of the covers includes three pigments filling lines engraved with a sharp pointed instrument , which now appear as two shades of yellow , one bright and the other pale , and a dark colour that now appears as blue @-@ grey , but was recorded as blue in the earliest descriptions . The front cover includes all three colours , but the pale yellow is not used on the back cover . The pigments have been analysed for the first time , as one benefit of the purchase of the manuscript by the British Library , and identified by Raman spectroscopy as orpiment ( yellow ) and indigo ( grey @-@ blue ) . The balance of the designs on both covers is now affected by what appears to be the greater fading of the dark blue @-@ grey pigment . The bookbinder Roger Powell speculated that the " pale lemon @-@ yellow ... may once have been green " , giving an original colour scheme of blue , green and yellow on the red background , although the recent testing suggests this was not the case .
Given the lack of surviving objects , we cannot know how common the techniques employed were , but the quality of the execution suggests that the binder was experienced in them . At the same time an analysis by Robert Stevick suggests that the designs for both covers were intended to follow a sophisticated geometric scheme of compass and straightedge constructions using the " two true measures of geometry " , the ratio between Pythagoras ' constant and one , and the golden section . However slips in the complicated process of production , some detailed below , mean that the finished covers do not quite exhibit the intended proportions , and are both slightly out of true in some respects .
Although it seems clear from the style of the script that the text was written at Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow , it is possible that the binding was then added at Lindisfarne ; the form of the plant scrolls can be compared to those on the portable altar also found in Cuthbert 's coffin , presumed to have been made there , though also to other works of the period , such as the shaft of an Anglo @-@ Saxon cross from Penrith and the Vespasian Psalter . Small holes in the folds of each gathering seem to represent a " temporary sewing " together of the pages , one explanation of which is a journey made by the unbound pages .
= = = = Front cover = = = =
The decoration of the front cover is divided into fields bordered by raised lines . The central field contains a plant motif representing a stylised chalice in the centre with a bud and scrolling vine stems leading from it , fruit and several small leaves . Above and below the central motif are fields containing interlace ornament in finely incised lines . The three motifs are enclosed within a border containing further interlacing .
Continuous vine scrolls in a great variety of designs of the same general type as the central motif , with few leaves and round fruits , were very common in slightly later religious Anglo @-@ Saxon art , and are often combined with interlace in the same work , especially on Anglo @-@ Saxon crosses , for example the Bewcastle Cross and the Easby Cross now in the Victoria and Albert Museum . One face of the fragmentary silver cover of the portable altar also recovered from Cuthbert 's coffin has a similar combination of elements , with both areas of interlace and , in the four corners , a simple plant motif with a central bud or leaf and a spiral shoot on either side . The combination of different types of ornament within a panelled framework is highly typical of Northumbrian art , above all the Lindisfarne Gospels . Interlace may well have still been believed to have some quasi @-@ magical protective power , which seems to have been its function in pre @-@ Christian Germanic art . The vine motif here differs from the common continuous scroll type in that the stems cross over each other twice on each side , but crossing stems are also seen on the upper north face of the Bewcastle Cross and a cross in the church at Hexham . Meyer Schapiro compares the motif with one in an initial in the later Book of Kells . It was suggested by Berthe van Regemorter that in the St Cuthbert Gospel this design represents Christ ( as the central bud ) and the Four Evangelists as the grapes , following John 15 : 5 , " I am the vine , ye are the branches " , but this idea has been treated with caution by other scholars .
The two panels of interlace use the same design , of what David H. Wright describes as the " alternating pair thin @-@ line type " which he calls " perhaps the most sophisticated of Insular interlace types " . The panels are symmetrical about a vertical axis , except for the left end of the upper panel , which is different . Whereas the other ends of the pattern finish in a flat line parallel with the vertical framing line , part of a shape like an incomplete D , the top left finishes in two ellipses pointing into the corners . The lines forming the interlace patterns are coloured in the dark blue / black and the bright yellow , but differently . In the lower panel the yellow colours the left half of the design , but the upper panel begins at the ( deviant ) left in the dark colour , then switches to yellow once the pattern changes to that used for the rest of the panels . It continues in yellow until the central point , then changes to the dark colour for the right hand side of the design .
The transition between the top left , perhaps where the artist began , and the standard pattern , is somewhat awkward , leaving a rather bald spot ( for an interlace pattern ) to the left of the first curving yellow vertical . The change in pattern pushes the halfway point of the upper panel rather off @-@ centre to the right , whereas in the lower panel it falls slightly to the left of dead centre . These vagaries in the design suggest that it was done freehand , without marking @-@ out the pattern using compasses for example . The lowest horizontal raised line is not straight , being higher at the left , probably because of an error in the marking or drilling of the holes in the cover board through which the ends of the cord run . The simple twist or chain border in yellow between the two raised frames resembles an element in an initial in the Durham Gospel Book Fragment , an important earlier manuscript from Lindisfarne .
= = = = Back cover = = = =
The back cover is decorated more simply , with no raised elements and purely geometric decoration of engraved lines , which are filled in with two pigments which now appear as the bright yellow and the dark colour , once apparently blue . Within several framing lines making rectangles of similar proportions to the cover itself , a central rectangular panel is marked with pricks to make a grid of 3mm squares , 21 tall and 10 wide . Lines on the grid are engraved and coloured in yellow to form two stepped " crosses " , or squares standing on one corner , with additional stepped elements in the four corners and half @-@ way up the vertical sides , between the two " crosses " . The vertical axial line down the grid and the two horizontal axes through the crosses are also coloured in the yellow pigment right to the edges of the grid . The remaining lines on the grid and all the lines along the edges of the grid are coloured in the dark colour . This is a simple version of the sort of design found on Insular carpet pages , as well as in Coptic manuscript decoration and textiles , and small stepped crosses decorate the main panels of the famous Sutton Hoo shoulder @-@ clasps . The alignment of the various outer framing lines with the innermost frame and the panel with the grid is noticeably imperfect , as the top framing line was extended too far to the left . Traces of an uncoloured first attempt at this line can be seen on the right hand side , above the coloured line .
= = = = Construction = = = =
Although the binding has never been taken apart for examination , a considerable amount can be said about its construction . A combination of looseness through wear and tear , damage in certain places , and the failure of the paste that glued the pages to the inside of the covers , now allow non @-@ intrusive inspection of much of the binding construction , including the rear of the actual wooden front cover board , and some of the holes made through it .
The raised framing lines can be seen from the rear of the front cover to have been produced by gluing cord to the board and tooling the leather over it , in a technique of Coptic origin , of which few early examples survive – one of the closest is a 9th- or 10th @-@ century Islamic binding found in the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan , Tunisia . There are holes in the board in which the cut @-@ off ends can be seen from behind .
The chalice and plant motif on the front , of which there is no trace from behind , has been built up using some clay @-@ like material underneath the leather , as shown by CT @-@ scans since the purchase . In the 2015 book Nicholas Pickwoad suggests that this raised decoration was formed using a matrix which was pressed into the damp leather over the clay @-@ like substance and the wooden board . Previous authors had suggested that the material under the relief decoration might have been built up in gesso as well as cord and leather scraps before applying the cover leather . A broadly similar plant motif in similar technique is found on a later Middle Eastern pouch in the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore .
The boards of the covers , previously assumed to be limewood , are now thought to be birch , an unusual wood in later bindings , but one easily available in northern England . Both have four holes where the binding threads were laced through ; the two threads were run round the inner edges of the cover and knotted back at the holes . The front cover has an additional 12 holes where the ends of the cords for the raised framing lines went through , at the four corners of the two main frames , and the ends of the horizontal bars between the interlace panels and the central vine motif .
The stitching of the binding uses " Coptic sewing " , that is " flexible unsupported sewing ( produced by two needles and thread looping round one another in a figure @-@ of @-@ eight sewing pattern ) " Coptic sewing uses small threads both to attach the leaves together and , knotted together , to attach the pages to the cover boards . Normal Western binding uses thread for the former and thicker cord running across the spine of the book for the latter , with the thread knotted onto the cords . Coptic sewing is also found in the earliest surviving leather bookbindings , which are from Coptic libraries in Egypt from the 7th and 8th centuries ; in particular the design of the cover of one in the Morgan Library ( MS M.569 ) has been compared to the St Cuthbert Gospel . In the techniques used in the binding , apart from the raised decoration , the closest resemblance is to an even smaller Irish pocket gospel book from some 50 years later , the Cadmug Gospels at Fulda , which is believed to have belonged to Saint Boniface . This is also in red goatskin , with coloured incised lines , and uses a similar unsupported or cordless stitching technique . The first appearance of the cords or supports that these " unsupported " bindings lack is found in two other books at Fulda , and they soon became universal in , and characteristic of , Western bookbinding until the arrival of modern machine techniques . The cords run horizontally across the spine , and are thicker than the threads that hold the pages together . They are attached , typically by lacing through holes or glue , to the two boards of the cover , and the threads holding the gatherings are knotted to them , resulting in a stronger binding .
= = Dating = =
The manuscript itself carries no date but a rather precise dating has been given to it , based mainly on its palaeography or handwriting , and also the known facts of Cuthbert 's burial . The dating was revised after the acquisition by the British Library , who added to their online catalogue entry :
Previously dated to the end of the 7th century ( The Stonyhurst Gospel , ed . T. J. Brown ( 1969 ) , pp. 12 – 13 ) , R. Gameson dates the script to c . 710 – c . 730 and L. Webster dates the decoration on the covers to c . 700 – c . 730 ( The St Cuthbert Gospel , eds C. Breay and B. Meehan ( 2015 ) , pp. 33 , 80 ) .
The script is the " capitular " form of uncial , with just a few emphasized letters at the start of sections in " text " uncial . Close analysis of the changing style of details of the forms of letters allows the manuscript to be placed with some confidence within a chronological sequence of the few other manuscripts thought to have been produced at Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow . The Northumbrian scribes " imitate very closely the best Italian manuscripts of about the sixth century " , but introduced small elements that gave their script a distinct style , which has always been greatly admired . However , there were several scribes , seven different ones working on the Codex Amiatinus , whose scripts may not all have developed at the same pace .
Key to this sequence is the Codex Amiatinus , an almost complete Bible for which we have a very precise terminus ante quem , and within which , because of its size , developments in style can be seen in a single manuscript . The Codex Amiatinus can be precisely located as leaving Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow with a party led by Abbot Ceolfrith on 4 June 716 , bound for Rome . The codex was to be presented to the pope , a decision only announced by Ceolfrith very shortly before the departure , allowing the dedication page to be dated with confidence to around May 716 , though the rest of the manuscript was probably already some years old , but only begun after Ceolfrith succeeded as abbot in 689 . The script of the dedication page differs slightly from that of the main text , but is by the same hand and in the same " elaborated text uncial " style as some pages at Durham ( MS A II 17 , part ii , ff 103 @-@ 11 ) . At the end of the sequence , it may be possible to date the Saint Petersburg Bede to 746 at the earliest , from references in memoranda in the text , although this remains a matter of controversy .
There survive parts of a gospel book , by coincidence now bound up with the famous Utrecht Psalter , which are identifiable as by the same scribe as the Cuthbert Gospel , and where " the capitular uncial of the two manuscripts is indistinguishable in style or quality , so they may well be very close to each other in date " . Since the Utrecht pages also use Rustic capital script , which the Cuthbert Gospel does not , it allows another basis for comparison with further manuscripts in the sequence .
From the palaeographical evidence , T. Julian Brown concluded that the Cuthbert manuscript was written after the main text of the Codex Amiatinus , which was finished after 688 , perhaps by 695 , though it might be later . Turning to the historical evidence for Cuthbert 's burial , this placed it after his original burial in 687 but possibly before his elevation to the high altar in 698 . If this is correct , the book was never a personal possession of Cuthbert , as has sometimes been thought , but was possibly created specifically to be placed in his coffin , whether for the occasion of his elevation in 698 or at another date . The less precise hints about dating that can be derived from the style of the binding compared to other works did not conflict with these conclusions , though in the new 2015 study , Leslie Webster now dates the cover to " c . 700 – c . 730 " , and Richard Gameson " dates the script to c . 710 – c . 730 " , as quoted above .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Cuthbert was an Anglo @-@ Saxon , perhaps of a noble family , born in the Kingdom of Northumbria in the mid @-@ 630s , some ten years after the conversion of King Edwin to Christianity in 627 , which was slowly followed by that of the rest of his people . The politics of the kingdom were violent , and there were later episodes of pagan rule , while spreading understanding of Christianity through the kingdom was a task that lasted throughout Cuthbert 's lifetime . Edwin had been baptised by Paulinus of York , an Italian who had come with the Gregorian mission from Rome , but his successor Oswald also invited Irish monks from Iona to found the monastery at Lindisfarne where Cuthbert was to spend much of his life . This was around 635 , about the time Cuthbert was born .
The tension between the Roman and Irish traditions , often exacerbated by Cuthbert 's near @-@ contemporary Saint Wilfrid , an intransigent and quarrelsome supporter of Roman ways , was to be a major feature of Cuthbert 's lifetime . Cuthbert himself , though educated in the Irish tradition , followed his mentor Eata in accepting the Roman forms without apparent difficulty after the Synod of Whitby in 664 . The earliest biographies concentrate on the many miracles that accompanied even his early life , but he was evidently indefatigable as a travelling priest spreading the Christian message to remote villages , and also well able to impress royalty and nobility . Unlike Wilfrid , his style of life was austere , and when he was able to he lived the life of a hermit , though still receiving many visitors .
He grew up near the new Melrose Abbey , an offshoot from Lindisfarne which is today in Scotland , but was then in Northumbria . He had decided to become a monk after seeing a vision on the night in 651 that St Aidan , the founder of Lindisfarne , died , but seems to have seen some military service first . He was quickly made guest @-@ master at the new monastery at Ripon , soon after 655 , but had to return with Eata to Melrose when Wilfrid was given the monastery instead . About 662 he was made prior at Melrose , and around 665 went as prior to Lindisfarne . In 684 he was made Bishop of Lindisfarne but by late 686 resigned and returned to his hermitage as he felt he was about to die , although he was probably still only in his early 50s . After a few weeks of illness he died on the island on 20 March 687 , and his body was carried back to Lindisfarne and buried there the same day .
= = = Lindisfarne = = =
Although first documented in 1104 , the book is presumed to have been buried with Cuthbert at Lindisfarne either in 687 or more likely in 698 , and to have stayed with the body during the wanderings forced by the Viking invasions two centuries later . Bede 's Life recounts that Cuthbert was initially buried in a stone sarcophagus to the right of the altar in the church at Lindisfarne ; he had wanted to be buried at the hermitage on Inner Farne Island where he died , but before his death was persuaded to allow his burial at the main monastery . His burial was first disturbed eleven years after his death , when his remains were moved to behind the altar to reflect his recognition , in the days before a formal process of canonisation , as a saint . The sarcophagus was opened and his body was said to have been found perfectly preserved , or incorrupt . This apparent miracle led to the steady growth of Cuthbert 's posthumous cult , to the point where he became the most popular saint of Northern England .
Numerous miracles were attributed to his intercession and to intercessory prayer near his remains . In particular , Alfred the Great , King of Wessex , was inspired and encouraged in his struggle against the Danes by a vision or dream he had of Cuthbert . Thereafter the royal house of Wessex , who became the kings of England , made a point of devotion to Cuthbert , which also had a useful political message , as they came from opposite ends of the united English kingdom . Cuthbert was " a figure of reconciliation and a rallying point for the reformed identity of Northumbria and England " after the absorption of the Danish populations into Anglo @-@ Saxon society , as Michelle Brown puts it . The 8th @-@ century historian Bede wrote both a verse and a prose life of St Cuthbert around 720 . He has been described as " perhaps the most popular saint in England prior to the death of Thomas Becket in 1170 . " Cuthbert was reburied in the decorated oak coffin now usually meant by St Cuthbert 's coffin , though he was to have many more coffins , and it is thought likely that the book was produced for this occasion , and may well have been placed in his coffin at this point .
= = = Fleeing the Danes = = =
In 793 Lindisfarne was devastated by the first serious Viking raid in England , but Cuthbert 's shrine seems to have escaped damage . In 875 the Danish leader Halfdene ( Halfdan Ragnarsson ) , who shared with his brother Ivar the Boneless the leadership of the Great Heathen Army that had conquered much of the south of England , moved north to spend the winter there , as a prelude to settlement and further conquest . Eardulf , the Bishop of Lindisfarne , decided the monastery must be abandoned , and orderly preparations were made for the whole community , including lay people and children , to evacuate .
It was possibly at this point that a shelf or inner cover was inserted some way under the lid of Cuthbert 's coffin , supported on three wooden bars across the width , and probably with two iron rings fixed to it for lifting it off . Eardulf had decided to take the most important remains and possessions of the community with them , and whether new or old , the shelf in Cuthbert 's coffin was probably loaded with the St Cuthbert Gospel , which was found there in 1104 . It may also have held the Lindisfarne Gospels , now also in the British Library , and other books from Lindisfarne that were , and in several cases still are , at Durham Cathedral . Other bones taken by the party were those remains of St Aidan ( d . 651 ) , the founder of the community , that had not been sent to Melrose , and the head of the king and saint Oswald of Northumbria , who had converted the kingdom and encouraged the founding of Lindisfarne . These and other relics were reverently packaged in cloth and labelled , as more recent relics are . The community also took a stone Anglo @-@ Saxon cross , and although they had a vehiculum of some sort , probably a cart or simple wagon , Cuthbert 's coffin was carried by seven young men who had grown up in the community .
They set off inland and spent the first months at an unknown location in west Cumberland , near the River Derwent , probably in the modern Lake District , and according to Symeon of Durham 's Libellus de exordio , the main source for this period , Eardulf tried to hire a ship on the west coast to take them to Ireland . Then they left the more remote west side of the country and returned to the east , finding a resting @-@ place at Craike near Easington , County Durham , close to
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the coast , well south of Lindisfarne , but also sufficiently far north of the new Viking kingdom being established at York .
Over the next century the Vikings of York and the north became gradually Christianized , and Cuthbert 's shrine became a focus of devotion among them also . The community established close relations with Guthred ( d . 895 ) , Halfdene 's successor as king , and received land from him at Chester @-@ le @-@ Street . In 883 they moved the few miles there , where they stayed over a century , building St Cuthbert 's Church , where Cuthbert 's shrine was placed . In 995 a new Danish invasion led the community to flee some 50 miles south to Ripon , again taking the coffin with them . After three or four months it was felt safe to return , and the party had nearly reached Chester @-@ le @-@ Street when their wagon became definitively stuck close to Durham , then a place with cultivated fields , but hardly a settlement , perhaps just an isolated farm . It was thought that Cuthbert was expressing a wish to settle where he was , and the community obeyed . A new stone church — the so @-@ called White Church — was built , the predecessor of the present Durham Cathedral .
= = = Durham Cathedral = = =
In 1104 , early in the bishopric of Ranulf Flambard , Cuthbert 's tomb was opened again and his relics translated to a new shrine behind the main altar of the half @-@ built Norman cathedral . According to the earlier of the two accounts of the event that survive , known as " Miracles 18 – 20 " or the " anonymous account " , written by a monk of the cathedral , when the monks opened the decorated inner coffin , which was for the first time in living memory , they saw " a book of the Gospels lying at the head of the board " , that is on the shelf or inner lid . The account in " Miracle 20 " adds that Bishop Flambard , during his sermon on the day the new shrine received Cuthbert 's body , showed the congregation " a Gospel of Saint John in miraculously perfect condition , which had a satchel @-@ like container of red leather with a badly frayed sling made of silken threads " . In addition the book itself has an inscription on folio 1r " written in a modest book @-@ hand apparently of the later twelfth century " recording that it was found in the translation .
As far as is known the book remained at Durham for the remainder of the Middle Ages , until the Dissolution , kept as a relic in three bags of red leather , normally resting in a reliquary , and there are various records of it being shown to visitors , the more distinguished of which were allowed to hang it round their neck for a while . According to Reginald of Durham ( d. c 1190 ) " anyone approaching it should wash , fast and dress in an alb before touching it " , and he recorded that a scribe called John who failed to do this during a visit by the Archbishop of York in 1153 – 54 , and " held it with unwashed hands after eating was struck down with a chill " . Books treated as relics are especially characteristic of Celtic Christianity ; several of the surviving Irish book @-@ shrines were worn in this way .
Another recorded copy of the Gospel of John has also been associated with Cuthbert , and sometimes thought to be the St Cuthbert Gospel . Saint Boisil ( d . 664 ) of Melrose Abbey was Cuthbert 's teacher . Bede 's prose life of Cuthbert records that during Boisil 's last illness , he and Cuthbert read daily one of the seven gatherings or quaternions of Boisil 's manuscript of the Gospel of John . The sermon in Miracle 20 identifies this manuscript with the one at Durham , and says that both saints had worn it round their necks , ignoring that it has twelve gatherings rather than seven . There are further references from Durham to Boisil 's book , such as a list of relics in the cathedral in 1389 , and some modern scholars were attracted to the idea that they were the same , but Brown 's palaeographical evidence seems to remove the possibility of Boisil 's book being the St Cuthbert Gospel . In the 11th century Boisil 's remains had also been brought to Durham , and enshrined next to those of Cuthbert . Around the same time Bede 's own remains were stolen from Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow for Durham , by a " notably underhand trick " , and placed in Cuthbert 's coffin , where they remained until 1104 .
= = = After the Reformation = = =
It is thought likely that the book remained at Durham until the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII , although the various late medieval records of books and relics held there do not allow it to be identified with certainty . Durham Cathedral Priory closed in 1540 , and some decades later the book was recorded by Archbishop Ussher in the library of the Oxford scholar , antiquary and astrologer , Thomas Allen ( 1542 – 1632 ) of Gloucester Hall ( now Worcester College , Oxford ) . However it is not in a catalogue of Allen 's library of 1622 , and was not in the collection of Allen 's manuscripts that was presented to the Bodleian Library by Sir Kenelm Digby in 1634 . Nothing is then known of its whereabouts for a century or so .
According to an 18th @-@ century Latin inscription pasted to the inside cover of the manuscript , the St Cuthbert Gospel was given by the 3rd Earl of Lichfield ( 1718 – 1772 ) to the Jesuit priest Thomas Phillips S.J. ( 1708 – 1774 ) who donated it to the English Jesuit College at Liège on 20 June 1769 . Lichfield was an Anglican , but knew Phillips as the latter was chaplain to his neighbour in Oxfordshire , the recusant George Talbot , 14th Earl of Shrewsbury ( 1719 – 1787 ) . The manuscript was owned between 1769 and 2012 by the British Province of the Society of Jesus , and for most of this period was in the library of Stonyhurst College , Lancashire , successor to the Liège college .
The manuscript was first published when in 1806 it was taken to London and displayed when a letter on it by the Rev. J. Milner , presumably Bishop John Milner , Catholic Vicar Apostolic of the Midland District , was read to a meeting of the London Society of Antiquaries , which was subsequently printed in their journal Archaeologia . Milner followed the medieval note in relating the book to Cuthbert , and compared its script to that of the Lindisfarne Gospels , by then in the British Museum , examining the two side by side . However he thought that " the binding seems to be of the time of Queen Elizabeth " ! After the lecture it took some years to return to Stonyhurst as an intermediary forgot to forward it . That the binding was original , and the earliest European example , was realised during the 19th century , and when exhibited in 1862 it was described in the catalogue as " In unique coeval ( ? ) binding " . The whole appearance and feel of the book , and the accuracy of the text and beauty of the script was highly praised by scholars such as Bishop Christopher Wordsworth ( 1807 – 1885 ) , nephew of the poet and an important New Testament textual scholar , who described the book as " surpassing in delicate simplicity of neatness every manuscript that I have seen " .
= = = From 1950 = = =
From 1950 onwards the binding was examined several times , but not altered , at Stonyhurst and the British Museum by Roger Powell , " the leading bookbinder of his day " , who had rebound both the Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow , and also fully photographed by Peter Walters . Powell contributed chapters on the binding to the two major works covering the book , the first being The Relics of St Cuthbert in 1956 , a large work with chapters on Cuthbert 's coffin and each of the objects recovered from it . The main chapter on the St Cuthbert Gospel was by Sir Roger Mynors , and Powell 's chapter incorporated unpublished observations by the leading bindings expert Geoffrey Hobson . The second came in 1969 , when T.J. ( Julian ) Brown , Professor of Palaeography at King 's College , London , published a monograph on the St Cuthbert Gospel with another chapter by Powell , who had altered his views in minor respects . Brown set out arguments for the dating of the manuscript to close to 698 , which has been generally accepted . The book was placed on loan to the British Library in 1979 where it was very regularly on display , first in the British Museum building , and from 1999 in the Ritblat Gallery at the new St Pancras site of the Library , usually displaying the front cover . Despite minor damages , some of which appear to have occurred during the 20th century , the book is in extremely good condition for its age .
In 2011 an agreement was reached with the Jesuit British Province for the British Library to buy the book for £ 9 million . This required the purchase money to be raised by 31 March 2012 , and a public appeal was launched . In the early stages the emphasis was on raising large individual donations , which included £ 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 from the National Heritage Memorial Fund , which distributes some of the money from the profits of the National Lottery , £ 250 @,@ 000 pledged by the Art Fund , and " a similar sum " by The Garfield Weston Foundation , and a large gift from the Foyle Foundation . By early March 2012 the British Library reported that there was " only £ 1.5M left to raise " , and on 17 April announced that the purchase had been completed , after their largest ever public appeal . The purchase " involved a formal partnership between the Library , Durham University and Durham Cathedral and an agreement that the book will be displayed to the public equally in London and the North East . " There was a special display at the British Library until June 2012 , and after coming off display for detailed investigation the book is planned to go on display in Durham in July 2013 in Durham University ’ s Palace Green Library . All the pages are accessible on the British Library website .
= = The Gospel of John as an amulet = =
There was a long and somewhat controversial tradition of using manuscripts of the gospel of John , or extracts such as the opening verse , as a protective or healing amulet or charm , which was especially strong in early medieval Britain and Ireland . Manuscripts containing the text of one gospel only are very rare , except for those with lengthy explanatory glosses , and all the examples known to Julian Brown were of John . Disapproving references to such uses can be found in the writings of Saints Jerome and Eligius , and Alcuin , but they are accepted by John Chrysostom , Augustine , who " expresses qualified approval " of using manuscripts as a cure for headaches , and Gregory the Great , who sent one to Queen Theodelinda for her son . Bede 's prose Life mentions that Cuthbert combated the use of amulets and charms in the villages around Melrose . However , like many other leading figures of the church , he may have distinguished between amulets based on Christian texts and symbols and other types .
The size of the Cuthbert Gospel places it within the Insular tradition of the " pocket gospels " , of which eight Irish examples survive , including the Book of Dimma , Book of Mulling , and Book of Deer , although all the others are or were originally texts of all four gospels , with the possible exception of a few pages from the Gospel of John enshrined with the Stowe Missal in its cumdach or book @-@ reliquary . There was a tradition of even smaller books , whose use seems to have been often amuletic , and a manuscript of John alone , with a page size of 72 x 56 mm , was found in a reliquary at Chartres Cathedral in 1712 . It is probably Italian from the 5th or 6th century , and the label it carried in 1712 saying it was a relic of St Leobinus , a bishop of Chartes who died in about 556 , may be correct . The other examples are mostly in Greek or the Coptic language and contain a variety of biblical texts , especially psalters . Julian Brown concludes that the three Latin manuscripts of John " seem to attest an early medieval practice of placing a complete Gospel of St. John in a shrine , as a protective amulet ; and it seems reasonable to conclude that our manuscript was placed in St. Cuthbert 's coffin to protect it " .
= = Exhibitions = =
Apart from being usually on display at the British Museum and British Library ( see above ) , the book has been in the following exhibitions ( * denotes that there was a detailed published catalogue ) :
1862 , Victoria & Albert Museum , Loan Exhibition
1930 , Victoria & Albert Museum , Medieval English Art *
1987 , Durham Cathedral Treasury , An exhibition of manuscripts brought together at Durham to celebrate the saint 's 1300th anniversary and the work of his early community
1991 , British Museum , The Making of England : Anglo @-@ Saxon Art and Culture AD 600 – 900 *
1996 , Laing Art Gallery , Newcastle upon Tyne , Treasures from the Lost Kingdom of Northumbria
1997 , British Museum , The Heirs of Rome : The Shaping of Britain AD 400 – 900 , part of the series The Transformation of the Roman World Ad 400 – 900 *
2003 , British Library , Painted Labyrinth : The World of the Lindisfarne Gospels *
2007 , British Library , Sacred : Discover What We Share
2013 Palace Green Library , Durham University , in an exhibition which also included the Lindisfarne Gospels , items from the Staffordshire Hoard , the Yates Thompson 26 Life of Cuthbert ( from which several illustrations here are taken ) , and the gold Taplow belt buckle .
2014 , Palace Green Library , Durham , " Book binding from the Middle Ages to the modern day " .
Additionally , a digital version of the manuscript was produced to run on an Apple iPad , which was exhibited in April 2012 at the British Library .
= Titanium =
Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22 . It is a lustrous transition metal with a silver color , low density and high strength . It is highly resistant to corrosion in sea water , aqua regia , and chlorine .
Titanium was discovered in Cornwall , Great Britain , by William Gregor in 1791 and named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology . The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits , principally rutile and ilmenite , which are widely distributed in the Earth 's crust and lithosphere , and it is found in almost all living things , rocks , water bodies , and soils . The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll and Hunter processes . The most common compound , titanium dioxide , is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments . Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride ( TiCl4 ) , a component of smoke screens and catalysts ; and titanium trichloride ( TiCl3 ) , which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene .
Titanium can be alloyed with iron , aluminium , vanadium , and molybdenum , among other elements , to produce strong , lightweight alloys for aerospace ( jet engines , missiles , and spacecraft ) , military , industrial process ( chemicals and petro @-@ chemicals , desalination plants , pulp , and paper ) , automotive , agri @-@ food , medical prostheses , orthopedic implants , dental and endodontic instruments and files , dental implants , sporting goods , jewelry , mobile phones , and other applications .
The two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and the highest strength @-@ to @-@ density ratio of any metallic element . In its unalloyed condition , titanium is as strong as some steels , but less dense . There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element , 46Ti through 50Ti , with 48Ti being the most abundant ( 73 @.@ 8 % ) . Although they have the same number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table , titanium and zirconium differ in many chemical and physical properties .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A metallic element , titanium is recognized for its high strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratio . It is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile ( especially in an oxygen @-@ free environment ) , lustrous , and metallic @-@ white in color . The relatively high melting point ( more than 1 @,@ 650 ° C or 3 @,@ 000 ° F ) makes it useful as a refractory metal . It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity .
Commercial ( 99 @.@ 2 % pure ) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa ( 63 @,@ 000 psi ) , equal to that of common , low @-@ grade steel alloys , but are less dense . Titanium is 60 % denser than aluminium , but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061 @-@ T6 aluminium alloy . Certain titanium alloys ( e.g. , Beta C ) achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa ( 200000 psi ) . However , titanium loses strength when heated above 430 ° C ( 806 ° F ) .
Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat @-@ treated steel , is non @-@ magnetic and a poor conductor of heat and electricity . Machining requires precautions , because the material might gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used . Like those made from steel , titanium structures have a fatigue limit that guarantees longevity in some applications . Titanium alloys have less stiffness than many other structural materials such as aluminium alloys and carbon fiber .
The metal is a dimorphic allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body @-@ centered cubic ( lattice ) β form at 882 ° C ( 1 @,@ 620 ° F ) . The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the β form regardless of temperature . Similar to zirconium and hafnium , an additional omega phase exists , which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures , but is metastable at ambient pressures . This phase is usually hexagonal ( ideal ) or trigonal ( distorted ) and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of ( 111 ) planes of atoms .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Like aluminium and magnesium , titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air . Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 2 @,@ 190 ° F ) in air , and at 610 ° C ( 1 @,@ 130 ° F ) in pure oxygen , forming titanium dioxide . It is , however , slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation . When it first forms , this protective layer is only 1 – 2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly ; reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years .
Atmospheric passivation gives titanium excellent resistance to corrosion , almost equivalent to platinum , capable of withstanding attack by dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acids , chloride solutions , and most organic acids . However , titanium is corroded by concentrated acids . As indicated by its negative redox potential , titanium is thermodynamically a very reactive metal that burns in normal atmosphere at lower temperatures than the melting point . Melting is possible only in an inert atmosphere or in a vacuum . At 550 ° C ( 1 @,@ 022 ° F ) , it combines with chlorine . It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen .
Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas , reacting at 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) to form titanium nitride , which causes embrittlement . Because of its high reactivity with oxygen , nitrogen , and some other gases , titanium filaments are applied in titanium sublimation pumps as scavengers for these gases . Such pumps inexpensively and reliably produce extremely low pressures in ultra @-@ high vacuum systems .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Titanium is the ninth @-@ most abundant element in Earth 's crust ( 0 @.@ 63 % by mass ) and the seventh @-@ most abundant metal . It is present as oxides in most igneous rocks , in sediments derived from them , in living things , and natural bodies of water . Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey , 784 contained titanium . Its proportion in soils is approximately 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 % .
It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the minerals anatase , brookite , ilmenite , perovskite , rutile and titanite ( sphene ) . Of these minerals , only rutile and ilmenite have economic importance , yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations . About 6 @.@ 0 and 0 @.@ 7 million tonnes of those minerals were mined in 2011 , respectively . Significant titanium @-@ bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western Australia , Canada , China , India , Mozambique , New Zealand , Norway , Ukraine and South Africa . About 186 @,@ 000 tonnes of titanium metal sponge were produced in 2011 , mostly in China ( 60 @,@ 000 t ) , Japan ( 56 @,@ 000 t ) , Russia ( 40 @,@ 000 t ) , United States ( 32 @,@ 000 t ) and Kazakhstan ( 20 @,@ 700 t ) . Total reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnes .
The concentration of Ti is about 4 picomolar in the ocean . At 100 ° C , the concentration of titanium in water is estimated to be less than 10 − 7 M at pH 7 . The identity of titanium species in aqueous solution remains unknown because of its low solubility and the lack of sensitive spectroscopic methods , although only the 4 + oxidation state is stable in air . No evidence exists for a biological role , although rare organisms are known to accumulate high concentrations of titanium .
Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the Sun and in M @-@ type stars ( the coolest type ) with a surface temperature of 3 @,@ 200 ° C ( 5 @,@ 790 ° F ) . Rocks brought back from the Moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12 @.@ 1 % TiO2 . It is also found in coal ash , plants , and even the human body . Native titanium ( pure metallic ) is very rare .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable isotopes : 46Ti , 47Ti , 48Ti , 49Ti , and 50Ti , with 48Ti being the most abundant ( 73 @.@ 8 % natural abundance ) . Eleven radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being 44Ti with a half @-@ life of 63 years ; 45Ti , 184 @.@ 8 minutes ; 51Ti , 5 @.@ 76 minutes ; and 52Ti , 1 @.@ 7 minutes . All the other radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives less than 33 seconds and the majority , less than half a second .
The isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39 @.@ 99 u ( 40Ti ) to 57 @.@ 966 u ( 58Ti ) . The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope , 48Ti , is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta emission . The primary decay products before 48Ti are element 21 ( scandium ) isotopes and the primary products after are element 23 ( vanadium ) isotopes .
Titanium becomes radioactive upon bombardment with deuterons , emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays .
= = Compounds = =
The + 4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry , but compounds in the + 3 oxidation state are also common . Commonly , titanium adopts an octahedral coordination geometry in its complexes , but tetrahedral TiCl4 is a notable exception . Because of its high oxidation state , titanium ( IV ) compounds exhibit a high degree of covalent bonding . Unlike most other transition metals , simple aquo Ti ( IV ) complexes are unknown .
= = = Oxides , sulfides , and alkoxides = = =
The most important oxide is TiO2 , which exists in three important polymorphs ; anatase , brookite , and rutile . All of these are white diamagnetic solids , although mineral samples can appear dark ( see rutile ) . They adopt polymeric structures in which Ti is surrounded by six oxide ligands that link to other Ti centers .
Titanates usually refer to titanium ( IV ) compounds , as represented barium titanate ( BaTiO3 ) . With a perovskite structure , this material exhibits piezoelectric properties and is used as a transducer in the interconversion of sound and electricity . Many minerals are titanates , e.g. ilmenite ( FeTiO3 ) . Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism ( star @-@ forming shine ) from the presence of titanium dioxide impurities .
A variety of reduced oxides of titanium are known . Ti3O5 , described as a Ti ( IV ) -Ti ( III ) species , is a purple semiconductor produced by reduction of TiO2 with hydrogen at high temperatures , and is used industrially when surfaces need to be vapour @-@ coated with titanium dioxide : it evaporates as pure TiO , whereas TiO2 evaporates as a mixture of oxides and deposits coatings with variable refractive index . Also known is Ti2O3 , with the corundum structure , and TiO , with the rock salt structure , although often nonstoichiometric .
The alkoxides of titanium ( IV ) , prepared by reacting TiCl4 with alcohols , are colourless compounds that convert to the dioxide on reaction with water . They are industrially useful for depositing solid TiO2 via the sol @-@ gel process . Titanium isopropoxide is used in the synthesis of chiral organic compounds via the Sharpless epoxidation .
Titanium forms a variety of sulfides , but only TiS2 has attracted significant interest . It adopts a layered structure and was used as a cathode in the development of lithium batteries . Because Ti ( IV ) is a " hard cation " , the sulfides of titanium are unstable and tend to hydrolyze to the oxide with release of hydrogen sulfide .
= = = Nitrides , carbides = = =
Titanium nitride ( TiN ) has a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum ( 9 @.@ 0 on the Mohs Scale ) , and is often used to coat cutting tools , such as drill bits . It is also used as a gold @-@ colored decorative finish and as a barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication . Titanium carbide , which is also very hard , is found in cutting tools and coatings .
= = = Halides = = =
Titanium tetrachloride ( titanium ( IV ) chloride , TiCl4 ) is a colorless volatile liquid ( commercial samples are yellowish ) that , in air , hydrolyzes with spectacular emission of white clouds . Via the Kroll process , TiCl4 is produced in the conversion of titanium ores to titanium dioxide , e.g. , for use in white paint . It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid , for example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation . In the van Arkel process , titanium tetraiodide ( TiI4 ) is generated in the production of high purity titanium metal .
Titanium ( III ) and titanium ( II ) also form stable chlorides . A notable example is titanium ( III ) chloride ( TiCl3 ) , which is used as a catalyst for production of polyolefins ( see Ziegler @-@ Natta catalyst ) and a reducing agent in organic chemistry .
= = = Organometallic complexes = = =
Owing to the important role of titanium compounds as polymerization catalyst , compounds with Ti @-@ C bonds have been intensively studied . The most common organotitanium complex is titanocene dichloride ( ( C5H5 ) 2TiCl2 ) . Related compounds include Tebbe 's reagent and Petasis reagent . Titanium forms carbonyl complexes , e.g. ( C5H5 ) 2Ti ( CO ) 2 .
= = History = =
Titanium was discovered as an inclusion of a mineral in Cornwall , Great Britain , in 1791 by the clergyman and amateur geologist William Gregor , then vicar of Creed parish . He recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite when he found black sand by a stream in the nearby parish of Manaccan and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet . Analyzing the sand , he determined the presence of two metal oxides : iron oxide ( explaining the attraction to the magnet ) and 45 @.@ 25 % of a white metallic oxide he could not identify . Realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match any known element , Gregor reported his findings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal Crell 's Annalen .
Around the same time , Franz @-@ Joseph Müller von Reichenstein produced a similar substance , but could not identify it . The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by Prussian chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Boinik ( German name of unknown place ) village of Hungary ( now in Slovakia ) . Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology . After hearing about Gregor 's earlier discovery , he obtained a sample of manaccanite and confirmed it contained titanium .
The currently known processes for extracting titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly ; it is not possible to reduce the ore by heating with carbon ( as in iron smelting ) because titanium combines with the carbon to produce titanium carbide . Pure metallic titanium ( 99 @.@ 9 % ) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by heating TiCl4 with sodium at 700 – 800 ° C under great pressure in a batch process known as the Hunter process . Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll proved that it could be produced by reducing titanium tetrachloride ( TiCl4 ) with calcium . Eight years later he refined this process with magnesium and even sodium in what became known as the Kroll process . Although research continues into more efficient and cheaper processes ( e.g. , FFC Cambridge , Armstrong ) , the Kroll process is still used for commercial production .
Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide , or crystal bar , process in 1925 , by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal .
In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications ( Alfa class and Mike class ) as part of programs related to the Cold War . Starting in the early 1950s , titanium came into use extensively in military aviation , particularly in high @-@ performance jets , starting with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A @-@ 12 and SR @-@ 71 .
Recognizing the strategic importance of titanium the U.S. Department of Defense supported early efforts of commercialization .
Throughout the period of the Cold War , titanium was considered a strategic material by the U.S. government , and a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center , which was finally depleted in the 2000s . According to 2006 data , the world 's largest producer , Russian @-@ based VSMPO @-@ Avisma , was estimated to account for about 29 % of the world market share . As of 2015 , titanium sponge metal was produced in six countries : China , Japan , Russia , Kazakhstan , the USA , Ukraine and India . ( in order of output ) .
In 2006 , the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) awarded $ 5 @.@ 7 million to a two @-@ company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal powder . Under heat and pressure , the powder can be used to create strong , lightweight items ranging from armor plating to components for the aerospace , transport , and chemical processing industries .
= = Production and fabrication = =
The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps : reduction of titanium ore into " sponge " , a porous form ; melting of sponge , or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot ; primary fabrication , where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet , bar , plate , sheet , strip , and tube ; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products .
Because it cannot be readily produced by reduction of its dioxide , titanium metal is obtained by reduction of TiCl4 with magnesium metal in the Kroll Process . The complexity of this batch production in the Kroll process explains the relatively high market value of titanium , despite the Kroll process is less expensive than the Hunter process . To produce the TiCl4 required by the Kroll process , the dioxide is subjected to carbothermic reduction in the presence of chlorine . In this process , the chlorine gas is passed over a red @-@ hot mixture of rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon . After extensive purification by fractional distillation , the TiCl4 is reduced with 800 ° C molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere . Titanium metal can be further purified by the van Arkel – de Boer process , which involves thermal decomposition of titanium tetraiodide .
A more recently developed batch production method , the FFC Cambridge process , consumes titanium dioxide powder ( a refined form of rutile ) as feedstock and produces titanium metal , either powder or sponge . The process involves fewer steps than the Kroll process and takes less time . If mixed oxide powders are used , the product is an alloy .
Common titanium alloys are made by reduction . For example , cuprotitanium ( rutile with copper added is reduced ) , ferrocarbon titanium ( ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric furnace ) , and manganotitanium ( rutile with manganese or manganese oxides ) are reduced .
2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C → 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO ( 900 ° C )
TiCl4 + 2 Mg → 2 MgCl2 + Ti ( 1100 ° C )
About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designed and currently used , although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially . The ASTM International recognizes 31 Grades of titanium metal and alloys , of which Grades 1 through 4 are commercially pure ( unalloyed ) . Those four vary in tensile strength as a function of oxygen content , with Grade 1 being the most ductile ( lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0 @.@ 18 % ) , and Grade 4 the least ductile ( highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0 @.@ 40 % ) . The remaining grades are alloys , each designed for specific properties of ductility , strength , hardness , electrical resistivity , creep resistance , specific corrosion resistance , and combinations thereof .
In addition to the ASTM specifications , titanium alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and Military specifications ( SAE @-@ AMS , MIL @-@ T ) , ISO standards , and country @-@ specific specifications , as well as proprietary end @-@ user specifications for aerospace , military , medical , and industrial applications .
Titanium powder is manufactured using a flow production process known as the Armstrong process that is similar to the batch production Hunter process . A stream of titanium tetrachloride gas is added to a stream of molten sodium metal ; the products ( sodium chloride salt and titanium particles ) is filtered from the extra sodium . Titanium is then separated from the salt by water washing . Both sodium and chlorine are recycled to produce and process more titanium tetrachloride .
All welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases ( oxygen , nitrogen , and hydrogen ) . Contamination causes a variety of conditions , such as embrittlement , which reduces the integrity of the assembly welds and leads to joint failure .
Commercially pure flat product ( sheet , plate ) can be formed readily , but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a " memory " and tends to spring back . This is especially true of certain high @-@ strength alloys . Titanium cannot be soldered without first pre @-@ plating it in a metal that is solderable . The metal can be machined with the same equipment and the same processes as stainless steel .
= = Applications = =
Titanium is used in steel as an alloying element ( ferro @-@ titanium ) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer , and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content . Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium ( to refine grain size ) , vanadium , copper ( to harden ) , iron , manganese , molybdenum , and other metals . Titanium mill products ( sheet , plate , bar , wire , forgings , castings ) find application in industrial , aerospace , recreational , and emerging markets . Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright @-@ burning particles .
= = = Pigments , additives and coatings = = =
About 95 % of all titanium ore is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide ( TiO
2 ) , an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints , paper , toothpaste , and plastics . It is also used in cement , in gemstones , as an optical opacifier in paper , and a strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs .
TiO
2 powder is chemically inert , resists fading in sunlight , and is very opaque : it imparts a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics . In nature , this compound is found in the minerals anatase , brookite , and rutile . Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures and marine environments . Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher than diamond . In addition to being a very important pigment , titanium dioxide is also used in sunscreens .
= = = Aerospace and marine = = =
Because of their high tensile strength to density ratio , high corrosion resistance , fatigue resistance , high crack resistance , and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping , titanium alloys are used in aircraft , armor plating , naval ships , spacecraft , and missiles . For these applications , titanium is alloyed with aluminium , zirconium , nickel , vanadium , and other elements to manufacture a variety of components including critical structural parts , fire walls , landing gear , exhaust ducts ( helicopters ) , and hydraulic systems . In fact , about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames . The SR @-@ 71 " Blackbird " was one of the first aircraft frames where titanium was used , paving the way for much wider use in modern military and commercial aircraft . An estimated 59 metric tons ( 130 @,@ 000 pounds ) are used in the Boeing 777 , 45 in the Boeing 747 , 18 in the Boeing 737 , 32 in the Airbus A340 , 18 in the Airbus A330 , and 12 in the Airbus A320 . The Airbus A380 may use 77 metric tons , including about 11 tons in the engines . In engine applications , titanium is used for rotors , compressor blades , hydraulic system components , and nacelles . The titanium 6AL @-@ 4V alloy accounts for almost 50 % of all alloys used in aircraft applications .
Because it is highly resistant to corrosion by sea water , titanium is used to make propeller shafts , rigging , and heat exchangers in desalination plants ; heater @-@ chillers for salt water aquariums , fishing line and leader , and divers ' knives . Titanium is used in the housings and components of ocean @-@ deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for science and the military . The former Soviet Union developed techniques for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys forging titanium in huge vacuum tubes .
= = = Industrial = = =
Welded titanium pipe and process equipment ( heat exchangers , tanks , process vessels , valves ) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance . Specific alloys are used in downhole and nickel hydrometallurgy for their high strength ( e. g . : titanium Beta C alloy ) , corrosion resistance , or both . The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media , such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas ( in the bleachery ) . Other applications include : ultrasonic welding , wave soldering , and sputtering targets .
Titanium tetrachloride ( TiCl4 ) , a colorless liquid , is important as an intermediate in the process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the Ziegler – Natta catalyst . Titanium tetrachloride is also used to iridize glass and , because it fumes strongly in moist air , it is used to make smoke screens .
= = = Consumer and architectural = = =
Titanium metal is used in automotive applications , particularly in automobile and motorcycle racing where low weight and high strength and rigidity are critical . The metal is generally too expensive for the general consumer market , though some late model Corvettes have been manufactured with titanium exhausts , and the new Corvette Z06 's LT4 supercharged engine uses lightweight , solid titanium intake valves for greater strength and resistance to heat .
Titanium is used in many sporting goods : tennis rackets , golf clubs , lacrosse stick shafts ; cricket , hockey , lacrosse , football helmet grills , and bicycle frames and components . Although not a mainstream material for bicycle production , titanium bikes have been used by racing teams and adventure cyclists .
Titanium alloys are used in spectacle frames that are rather expensive but highly durable , long lasting , light weight , and cause no skin allergies . Many backpackers use titanium equipment , including cookware , eating utensils , lanterns , and tent stakes . Though slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives , titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength . Titanium horseshoes are preferred to steel by farriers because it is lighter and more durable .
Titanium has occasionally been used in architecture . The 40 m ( 131 foot ) memorial to Yuri Gagarin , the first man to travel in space , ( 55 ° 42 ′ 29 @.@ 7 ″ N 37 ° 34 ′ 57 @.@ 2 ″ E ) , as well as the 110 m ( 360 @.@ 9 feet ) Monument to the Conquerors of Space on top of the Cosmonaut Museum in Moscow are made of titanium for the metal 's attractive color and association with rocketry . The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North America , respectively , to be sheathed in titanium panels . Titanium sheathing was used in the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver , Colorado .
Because of its superior strength and light weight relative to other metals ( steel , stainless steel , and aluminium ) , and because of recent advances in metalworking techniques , titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of
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firearms . Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders . For the same reasons , it is used in the body of laptop computers ( for example , in Apple 's PowerBook line ) .
Some upmarket lightweight and corrosion @-@ resistant tools , such as shovels and flashlights , are made of titanium or titanium alloys .
= = = Jewelry = = =
Because of its durability , titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry ( particularly , titanium rings ) . Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools . Titanium is also alloyed with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as 24 @-@ carat gold because the 1 % of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark . The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14 @-@ carat gold and is more durable than pure 24 @-@ carat gold .
Titanium 's durability , light weight , dent and corrosion resistance makes it useful for watch cases . Some artists work with titanium to produce sculptures , decorative objects and furniture .
Titanium may be anodized to vary the thickness of the surface oxide layer , causing optical interference fringes and a variety of bright colors . With this coloration and chemical inertness , titanium is a popular metal for body piercing .
Titanium has a minor use in dedicated non @-@ circulating coins and medals . In 1999 , Gibraltar released world 's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration . The Gold Coast Titans , an Australian rugby league team , award a medal of pure titanium to their player of the year .
= = = Medical = = =
Titanium biocompatibility : Because it is biocompatible ( non @-@ toxic and not rejected by the body ) , titanium has many medical uses , including surgical implements and implants , such as hip balls and sockets ( joint replacement ) and dental implants that can stay in place for up to 20 years . The titanium is often alloyed with about 4 % aluminium or 6 % Al and 4 % vanadium .
Titanium has the inherent ability to osseointegrate , enabling use in dental implants that can last for over 30 years . This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications . These benefit from titanium 's lower modulus of elasticity ( Young 's modulus ) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair . As a result , skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant , leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures , which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants . However , titanium alloys ' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone , so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate .
Because titanium is non @-@ ferromagnetic , patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with magnetic resonance imaging ( convenient for long @-@ term implants ) . Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high @-@ temperature plasma arc which removes the surface atoms , exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized .
Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image @-@ guided surgery , as well as wheelchairs , crutches , and any other products where high strength and low weight are desirable .
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles are widely used in electronics and the delivery of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics .
= = = Nuclear waste storage = = =
Because of its excellent corrosion resistance , titanium containers have been studied for the long @-@ term storage of nuclear waste . Containers lasting more than 100 @,@ 000 years are possible with manufacturing conditions that minimize material defects . A titanium " drip shield " could also be installed over containers of other types to enhance their longevity .
= = Bioremediation = =
The fungal species Marasmius oreades and Hypholoma capnoides can bio convert titanium in titanium polluted soils .
= = Precautions = =
Titanium is non @-@ toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body . An estimated quantity of 0 @.@ 8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day , but most passes through without being absorbed in the tissues . It does , however , sometimes bio @-@ accumulate in tissues that contain silica . One study indicates a possible connection between titanium and yellow nail syndrome . An unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth . This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million ( ppm ) of titanium , food plants have about 2 ppm , and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm .
As a powder or in the form of metal shavings , titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and , when heated in air , an explosion hazard . Water and carbon dioxide are ineffective for extinguishing a titanium fire ; Class D dry powder agents must be used instead .
When used in the production or handling of chlorine , titanium should not be exposed to dry chlorine gas because it may result in a titanium / chlorine fire . Even wet chlorine presents a fire hazard when extreme weather conditions cause unexpected drying .
Titanium can catch fire when a fresh , non @-@ oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid oxygen . Fresh metal may be exposed when the oxidized surface is struck or scratched with a hard object , or when mechanical strain causes a crack . This poses a limitation to its use in liquid oxygen systems , such as those in the aerospace industry . Because titanium tubing impurities can cause fires when exposed to oxygen , titanium is prohibited in gaseous oxygen respiration systems . Steel tubing is used for high pressure systems ( 3 @,@ 000 p.s.i. ) and aluminium tubing for low pressure systems .
= British Engineerium =
The British Engineerium ( originally named Goldstone Pumping Station , then Brighton and Hove Engineerium , before taking its present name in 1981 ) is an engineering and steam power museum in the West Blatchington area of Hove , part of the English city of Brighton and Hove , located just north of the Brighton & Hove Greyhound Stadium . It is housed in a 19th @-@ century High Victorian Gothic complex of brick buildings which were erected in 1866 as a pumping station for the local water supply company . The Goldstone Pumping Station supplied water to the local area for more than a century before it was converted to its present use .
At its greatest extent , between 1884 and 1952 , the complex consisted of two boiler houses with condensing engines , a chimney , coal cellars , workshop , cooling pond , leat and underground reservoir . Situated on top of a naturally fissured chalk hollow , it provided vast quantities of water to the rapidly growing towns of Hove and its larger neighbour , the fashionable seaside resort of Brighton , for more than a century . As new sources of water were found elsewhere and more modern equipment installed to exploit them , the pumping station 's importance declined , and by 1971 the Brighton Water Department had closed it and threatened the complex with demolition . An industrial archaeologist offered to restore the buildings and machinery in return for a lease from the Brighton Water Corporation , and a charitable trust was formed to enable this . Expertise developed by the Engineerium 's employees and volunteers was exploited across the world : they founded museums , undertook restoration projects and trained young people in engineering heritage conservation . Another enthusiast subsequently bought the complex , and as of 2016 it is closed to the public while more restoration and extension work takes place .
The High Victorian Gothic buildings are a landmark in Hove , and are a good example of the 19th @-@ century ethos that " utility definitely does not equal dullness " in industrial buildings . Polychrome brickwork , moulded dressings and facings , decorative gables and elaborate windows characterise all the structures – even the 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) chimney , which stands apart from the main buildings like a campanile . English Heritage has listed the complex for its architectural and historical importance , giving its structures five separate listings : the former boiler house and the chimney are both listed at Grade II * – the second @-@ highest designation – and the former coal shed , the cooling pond and leat and the tall flint and brick wall surrounding the site each have the lower Grade II status .
As well as the restored pumping station equipment , the complex has a wide range of exhibits : more than 1 @,@ 500 were in place less than a year after it opened . These include a 19th @-@ century horse @-@ drawn fire engine , traction engines , veteran motorcycles , Victorian household equipment and old tools . A French @-@ built horizontal steam engine dating from 1859 is the principal exhibit . The Engineerium has always used its exhibits to educate and promote the study of industrial history : it has been called " the world 's only centre for the teaching of engineering conservation " , and was central to the activities of the English Industrial Heritage Year in 1993 . For many years , the larger and indigenous exhibits were fully operational and in steam at weekends .
= = History = =
Brighton and neighbouring Hove , on the English Channel coast between the South Downs and the sea , were built on top of a vast aquifer of chalk . A regular supply of naturally pure water was always available from this natural reservoir , and in the settlements ' early days many wells were sunk to exploit it . The rapid growth of Brighton in the 18th and early 19th century , followed by similar expansion in Hove , put pressure on the local authorities to provide more sources and a better supply system , though : wells became increasingly contaminated by sewage from cesspits , and some had to be blocked because they were so polluted , reducing the two towns ' water supply further . The first local water company — the Brighton , Hove and Preston Waterworks Company — was founded on 16 June 1834 by means of an Act of Parliament ; it built a waterworks on the road to Lewes and provided piped water for two hours per day to a few wealthy customers . This facility had two 20 @-@ horsepower beam engines .
By the 1850s , more water was needed for the continually expanding population : the intermittent supply from the Lewes Road waterworks was the only alternative to wells and boreholes . In 1853 , a new company was formed with the aim of introducing a large @-@ scale , consistent supply to Brighton , Hove and surrounding villages . The Brighton , Hove and Preston Constant Water Service Company bought its predecessor , the Waterworks Company , in 1854 . By the time it was in turn acquired by Brighton Corporation in 1872 ( by means of another Act of Parliament ) , it was pumping 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 l ) per day to 18 @,@ 000 houses in Brighton , Hove and the surrounding villages of Falmer , Hangleton , Ovingdean , Patcham , Preston and Rottingdean .
The company employed eminent civil engineer Thomas Hawksley to find a suitable site for a new pumping station . Hawksley built more waterworks than any of his Victorian counterparts : he oversaw more than 150 schemes in Britain and abroad . In 1858 , he advised the company that the shallow chalk valley at Goldstone Bottom , at the south end of West Blatchington village just outside Hove , would be a good candidate for exploratory drilling . Test wells were sunk , and confirmed his impression . The company bought the 3 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 ha ) of land in 1862 , and in 1865 it was granted permission to build a pumping station on the site . By this stage , the Lewes Road facility was suffering from pollution , and the opening of another pumping station at Falmer and the building of more reservoirs had not been sufficient to satisfy demand .
Work took place during 1866 , and the facility opened in that year with the name Goldstone Pumping Station . The Brighton , Hove and Preston Constant Water Service Company operated it until their acquisition by Brighton Corporation . In its original form , the complex consisted of a boiler house and adjacent engine room , coal cellars and a chimney described by one historian as " truly monumental " , all built of polychrome brick . The engine room housed a 120 @-@ horsepower beam engine made by Charles Amos of London @-@ based manufacturer Easton and Amos . It was a compound engine of the type patented by engineer Arthur Woolf . Water was drawn from a 160 @-@ foot ( 49 m ) well which started immediately below the engine , which was known as the " Number 1 Engine " . It was driven by three Lancashire boilers with twin furnaces , which were fed by two coal cellars . Up to 130 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 590 @,@ 000 l ) of water could be pumped per hour .
In 1872 , ownership of Goldstone Pumping Station and all other water facilities in the Brighton area passed to Brighton Corporation , who formed a new committee called the Brighton Water Corporation to operate them . Demand for water continued to rise , so in 1876 the Corporation undertook a major expansion of the pumping station . A second engine room was added , and a separate coal storage shed was built in the grounds . Workshop facilities were also provided , with a range of machine tools , forge , lathe and planer and a separate Easton and Amos steam engine ( apparently left over from The Great Exhibition ) . The new engine house was equipped with the " Number 2 Engine " — a 250 @-@ horsepower Woolf compound unit built by the firm of Easton and Anderson and with a pumping capacity of 150 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 680 @,@ 000 l ) per hour . It was powered by three more Lancashire boilers . Mayor of Brighton Henry Abbey fired up the engine for the first time on 26 October 1876 ; his visit , with members of the Water Corporation committee , was recorded on a plaque in the engine room . A network of arched tunnels were built to link the new coal shed , the workshop and the firing platform of the boiler room . The subterranean passages were used by coal trucks .
The next extension took place in 1884 . A cooling pond and a leat ( an artificial waterway ) were built on land behind the pumping station , and a new 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 l ) underground reservoir was built by J.T. Chappell . It ran for 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) westwards from the complex . Brighton Water Corporation spent £ 11 @,@ 000 on this work and on the building of two other reservoirs in Brighton , at Dyke Road and Race Hill . All three were built of tile , brick and Portland cement . They were constantly replenished by a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 4 @,@ 500 l ) -per @-@ minute inflow from numerous natural fissures in the chalk .
Because the surrounding area became substantially urbanised in the interwar period , the water was treated with ozone from 1937 to disinfect it . Meanwhile in 1934 , the boilers powering the Number 2 Engine were replaced by four new models of the same type , built by the Blackburn @-@ based Yates and Thom company . Their capacity was greater : they could each generate 6 @,@ 000 pounds @-@ force ( 27 @,@ 000 N ) of steam per hour . The pumping station soon went into decline , though . Electric pumps became available in the 1940s , and one was installed in the Number 1 Engine room ; the engine itself was decommissioned at that time . The four new Lancashire boilers were in full @-@ time use for only 18 years : Number 2 Engine was taken out of service in 1952 , although it was maintained for a further two years in case it was required . Several pumping stations had been newly built or rebuilt since World War II — at Aldrington , Falmer , Mile Oak , Newmarket Down ( near Lewes ) , Patcham and Sompting — and the old Lewes Road source , closed in 1903 because of pollution , came back into use . The Corporation increased its supplies further by acquiring waterworks in Peacehaven and Lewes in the 1950s . The Goldstone Pumping Station was considered outdated and no longer required , and in 1971 the Corporation announced plans to build a small electric pumphouse on the site , demolish the 19th @-@ century buildings and scrap the steam @-@ era equipment .
Jonathan Minns , a London @-@ based steam and engineering expert , immediately set about trying to save the buildings and their contents . He applied to the Historic Buildings Council for England ( the forerunner of the present English Heritage body ) for listed status to be granted to the buildings in the complex . This was granted on 17 June 1971 , and in the following year the Department of the Environment issued a preservation order preventing demolition or significant alteration of the buildings . Minns acquired the lease of the complex in 1974 , and planned to restore it from its derelict state and establish an industrial museum and educational centre . He also set up a trust to run it . By this time , the complex had a new owner : the Water Act 1973 restructured the water industry in England and Wales , transferring ownership of water infrastructure from local authorities to ten government @-@ controlled regional companies . Brighton Water Corporation became part of the Southern Water Authority . It was this entity which granted the lease to Minns .
Minns had only £ 350 when he started work on the Engineerium , but more money soon arrived in the form of grants and donations . The Southern Water Authority gave the Trust £ 22 @,@ 000 , the Department of the Environment granted £ 40 @,@ 000 , and the Trust received the largest historic buildings grant awarded in Sussex up to that point in 1975 . In October of that year , Minns and eight volunteers began to restore the complex and its machinery , which were in a state of disrepair . The boiler house and Number 2 Engine were the priority , but before they could be started the workshop had to be repaired so that its equipment could be used to carry out the necessary work elsewhere .
The boiler house and Number 2 Engine were in a particularly bad condition : the roof was wrecked , the metal fixtures were corroded , moss was growing on exposed surfaces and the boilers were not operational . Number 2 Engine had not been steamed since 1954 , and had to be taken apart and rebuilt while the building was restored around it . Every moving part was cleaned by hand , and the exterior was repainted in its correct colour after the original paintwork was discovered under layers of mould and rust . The eight men worked for about six months on these tasks ; Number 2 Engine was successfully fired up again on 14 March 1976 after the two renovated Lancashire boilers were tested and inspected by safety officials ( the other two were left in their unrestored state ) .
The complex was first opened to the public on Good Friday 1976 . The official reopening , on 26 October 1976 ( exactly 100 years after Number 2 Engine was first fired up ) , came after the coal store was converted into an exhibition and educational area . At this time , it was named the Brighton and Hove Engineerium ; the complex was given its present name on 30 May 1981 . By this time , about 1 @,@ 500 exhibits were on display , and the boilers and Number 2 Engine were fired up every weekend . The cost of running the Engineerium and employing 18 people ( including six professional engineers ) was running at about £ 250 @,@ 000 per year . Although the Southern Water Authority , which still owned the site , paid for improvements in 1983 , and grants came in from East Sussex County Council and Hove Borough Council , there was no financial backing from central government — although the Engineerium was acknowledged as a national and international leader in industrial heritage and " the world 's only centre for the teaching of engineering conservation " . ( Employees of the Engineerium have helped to set up or renovate more than 20 similar institutions across the world , and it was designated as England 's South East Regional Centre during Industrial Heritage Year in 1993 . ) The centre 's second royal visit , by the Duke of Kent in 1993 , coincided with a fundraising plea for £ 4 million , to be spent on extensions to the exhibition space and workshop ; Minns also applied unsuccessfully for a National Lottery grant . Vodafone paid for the right to attach a mobile phone mast to the chimney , though .
Ongoing funding problems caused the Engineerium to close in 2006 , and the complex and its contents were put up for auction by Bonhams . The inventory was split into hundreds of separate lots , and the buildings themselves were valued at £ 1 @.@ 25 million . Just before the auction was due to begin , a local businessman and enthusiast offered £ 2 million for the buildings and more than £ 1 million for the contents conditional on his being donated half of the Minns Collection . This was accepted , and on 10 May 2006 the Engineerium Trust assets passed into Mike Holland 's ownership .
The Engineerium stayed shut while its new owner invested in improvements and extensions . In February 2010 , he stated that he expected the Engineerium to reopen within a year . On 10 October 2010 , it was opened for a day to raise money for charity ; the Number 2 Engine was demonstrated and many steam engines and other exhibits from the museum 's own collection and from outside were on display . In August 2011 , Brighton and Hove City Council approved a planning application for some renovation and remodelling work , including an extension . Structural engineers found that part of the building was in poor condition , and in January 2012 a further application was submitted to seek permission to demolish and rebuild part of the machine room . General restoration work began in October 2012 , supported by a second open day .
Jonathan Minns died on 13 October 2013 , aged 75 .
= = Architecture = =
The Engineerium has been described by Brighton historian Clifford Musgrave as an " unusually fine asset " for Brighton and Hove and by fellow historian Ken Fines " a splendid example of Victorian industrial engineering " . The buildings have intricately patterned polychrome brickwork , and the 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) chimney to the south is also finely detailed and is a landmark in Hove . Both the buildings and the machinery inside demonstrate the widespread belief among Victorian designers and architects that every object and building , no matter how commonplace or humble , should be elaborately and expansively embellished .
On the main buildings , the walls consist of bands of red , yellow and purplish @-@ blue brick with moulded layers and coping . The ground floor has red brickwork with a rusticated appearance . The cast @-@ iron windows are set in round @-@ arched openings below a string course which runs around the whole building and consists of alternate patterns of red and black brick . The slate roof has flat @-@ topped gables set above pediments at the top of each engine room . The two engine rooms are two @-@ storey and have a three @-@ bay , three @-@ window range ; they flank the single @-@ storey boiler room which also has three bays . The left- and right @-@ hand bays are recessed ; all have windows that are similar to those of the engine rooms .
The chimney stands about 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) south of the engine rooms and boiler house . The rectangular , campanile @-@ style structure stands on a rusticated base with a tapering plinth below it . Above this is a moulded cornice . The chimney itself tapers slightly and has tall arched panels on each face , forming slight recesses . An entablature runs all the way round , linking these . The brickwork is of the same colours and detailing as the other buildings .
The former coal shed ( now the exhibition hall ) and its attached workshops are of red and brown brick with coping on the walls and a shallow slate roof . The workshops , which do not contribute to the architectural interest of the building , are a perpendicular adjunct to the rear of the coal shed , so the building has an overall L @-@ shape . Sloping land gives the building a single storey at the front ( north ) end and a second lower storey towards the rear . The three @-@ bay north façade has three arched entrances ; the smaller flanking pair have replacement doors .
Standing in the grounds behind the complex , the cooling pond measures 1 @,@ 100 square feet ( 100 m2 ) and has a leat around three sides ; it opens out on the southwest side . It is surrounded by small walls of red brick and terracotta . Pipework connects the leat to the boiler house , from which hot water flows ; heat exchange takes place in the cooling pond ; and cold water is returned to be used in the boilers .
Tall flint and brick walls , dating from 1866 , surround the complex on all sides . Small flints laid in courses form the main building material on three sides . Other parts have red brickwork with inset flints , and the main entrance has red @-@ brick piers with knapped flintwork . There are also iron railings and gates with the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis emblem . The walls have recesses on the inside and outside at irregular intervals ; one on the outside of the south wall contains a drinking fountain with a panel imploring users to commit no nuisance . Flints are prevalent in this downland area ; so many were found when the pumping station was built that the contractors fashioned them into a deliberately ancient @-@ looking folly on the southwest corner of the engine rooms .
= = Exhibits = =
The Engineerium has hundreds of exhibits relating to the history of engineering and steam power . Many are on display in the exhibition hall , which occupies the former coal storage shed . The central feature of the hall is a Corliss steam engine built in France in 1859 . American inventor George Henry Corliss patented the design in 1849 and became president of The Corliss Steam Engine Company . The valve gear he invented improved the efficiency of horizontal reciprocating engines more than any other innovation . The Engineerium 's example was assembled in 1859 by the Lille @-@ based company Crepelle & Grand . It was shown at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1889 , where it won first prize . It was then used for more than 50 years at L 'Hôpital Émile @-@ Roux in Limeil @-@ Brévannes . It was bought by Jonathan Minns , taken apart , brought to the Engineerium and reassembled in 1975 . The engine can generate 91 horsepower ; its 13 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) , 4 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 4 @.@ 1 t ) flywheel turns 80 times a minute ; and the whole machine weighs 16 long tons ( 16 @.@ 3 t ) .
The Engineerium also has a horse @-@ drawn fire engine dating from 1890 . Originally owned by the local authority in Barnstaple , Devon , the Shand Mason & Company vehicle was bought and restored by the museum 's employees . It is a vertical steam engine with two cylinders and a pair of pistons flanking a central crank . A steam traction engine built in 1886 by Marshall , Sons & Company has also been restored . A range of veteran motorcycles are on display ; the oldest is an Ariel Motorcycles vehicle built in 1915 .
Elsewhere in the complex , smaller steam engines are on display , alongside Victorian tools and domestic equipment such as stoves . Much of the equipment in the workshop is also original , such as the main forge and a heavy @-@ duty metal lathe . The single @-@ cylinder Easton and Amos steam engine used to power the belts which drive the machine tools in the workshop was already several years old when the Goldstone Pumping Station acquired it in 1875 .
From the beginning , the overriding purpose of the collection of exhibits was to portray and explain the history and development of civil and mechanical engineering and British industry , through both the restoration of the pumping station 's original equipment and the acquisition of other pieces associated with industrial pioneers such as James Watt , Michael Faraday and George Stephenson . An example is a model of Stephenson 's Locomotion No 1 engine , which was valued at £ 75 @,@ 000 by Bonhams when the Engineerium was up for auction in 2006 .
= = Heritage status = =
When Jonathan Minns , who later bought the complex , found in 1971 that it was threatened with demolition , he successfully sought to get it listed by the Historic Buildings Council for England ( the predecessor of English Heritage ) . The organisation granted listed status in five separate parts on 7 June 1971 , covering the pumping station 's five main structures . The boiler rooms and engine house were jointly listed at Grade II * , as was its free @-@ standing chimney . Three more structures were listed at Grade II : the cooling pond and leat , the coal storage shed and the flint and brick walls surrounding the complex . Grade II * is the second highest of the three designations awarded to listed buildings ; such buildings are defined as being " particularly important ... [ and ] of more than special interest " . As of February 2001 , the boiler house and chimney represented two of the 70 Grade II * -listed buildings and structures , and 1 @,@ 218 listed buildings of all grades , in the city of Brighton and Hove . Grade II is the lowest status , given to " nationally important buildings of special interest " . In February 2001 , there were 1 @,@ 124 such buildings in the city .
In 1982 , an 8 @.@ 89 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 60 ha ) zone incorporating the whole Engineerium complex became a conservation area — one of 34 such areas in the city of Brighton and Hove .
= 1995 – 96 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1995 – 96 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a moderately active season that included Cyclone Bonita , which was the first known tropical cyclone to cross from the southern Indian Ocean into the southern Atlantic Ocean . Tropical activity lasted for about six months from the middle of November 1995 to early May 1996 . The first storm , Intense Tropical Cyclone Agnielle , formed in the adjacent Australian basin on November 16 and later reached peak winds in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . The next named storm after Agnielle was Bonita , which formed in early January and killed 42 people . The basin was most active in February , with two tropical cyclones , or the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , as well as a severe tropical storm . The first of these three was Doloresse , which killed 67 people due to a shipwreck in the Comoros . The next storm was Cyclone Edwige , which caused heavy crop damage on Mauritius before looping along the east coast of Madagascar . In March , both Cyclone Flossy and Tropical Storm Guylianne passed near the Mascarene Islands , producing heavy rainfall and gusty winds .
Tropical activity continued through April and May , with two tropical cyclones in the former month . In early April , Tropical Cyclone Hansella moved over the island of Rodrigues , dropping more rainfall in 24 hours than the average monthly total . Later , Itelle became a rare April intense tropical cyclone , but weakened before it approached St. Brandon island . The final storm of the season , Jenna , formed in the Australian region , briefly intensified into a minimal tropical storm in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and proceeded to exit the basin on May 4 to end the season . In addition to the named storms , several tropical depressions were tracked , one of which in December dropped heavy rainfall on Réunion .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the season , the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean .
The season was fairly active with ten tropical storms , one greater than average , although most storms were short @-@ lived . Six of the storms reached tropical cyclone status , or maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , which is two more than average . Most cyclones dissipated within the tropics , in contrast to the norm of storms accelerating into higher latitudes . Throughout the season there were 82 days in which there was tropical activity . Based on a list contributed by the nation of Seychelles , the storms were named in sequential order , starting with Agnielle . The rest of the names on the list were Jenna , Ketty , Lucia , Molly , Nadege , Odette , Paquerette , Rolina , Sylvianne , Talla , Vivienne , Walya , and Yoline .
In addition to the named storms , the MFR tracked 11 tropical depressions or disturbances that did not intensify into a tropical storm . The agency did not issue any bulletins on eight of them . Of the remaining three , two formed in late December , and the other formed in mid @-@ February . Tropical Depression B2 , the longest @-@ lasting of the depressions , formed after a month of activity . An area of convection developed in the Mozambique Channel , and the MFR believed it to be connected to the depression that formed on December 28 east of Madagascar . With a ridge to the east , the system tracked southward , but failed to intensify due to strong wind shear . While passing west of Réunion , the depression dropped heavy rainfall , totaling 350 mm ( 14 in ) along the northern coast and about twice that amount in the mountainous interior . On December 31 , the depression dissipated to the southwest of Réunion . On February 10 , the JTWC tracked Tropical Cyclone 12S into the basin as a weakening tropical depression , which quickly dissipated . A few days later , the JTWC also tracked Tropical Cyclone 15S from February 14 – 17 , which briefly intensified into a minimal tropical storm in the eastern portion of the basin .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Daryl @-@ Agnielle = = =
In the middle of November 1995 , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) spawned an area of convection to the southwest of the Indonesian island of Sumatra . Located within the Australian region in an area of low wind shear , a tropical low developed west of Sumatra on November 16 . It gradually intensified while moving southward , before turning sharply westward on November 18 due to a ridge to the south . That day , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) office in Perth upgraded the low to Tropical Cyclone Daryl , or to minimal tropical storm status . Designated Tropical Cyclone 01S by the JTWC , Daryl continued to intensify , and the BoM upgraded it to winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The system crossed into the basin on November 19 , and was renamed Daryl as Agnielle at that time .
On November 20 , the ridge to the south weakened , allowing Agnielle to turn to the southwest . A well @-@ defined eye developed , which persisted for about three days . Late on November 20 , Agnielle attained peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , making it an intense tropical cyclone , a rarity for November storms . On November 21 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 280 km / h ( 175 mph ) , the strongest storm estimated by the agency in the Indian Ocean , tied with Cyclone Fantala . Although the eye briefly became less organized , accompanied by a decrease in winds , Agnielle re @-@ intensified despite moving over colder waters . The ridge to the south rebuilt , forcing the cyclone to slow and turn to the west . Increasing wind shear caused rapid weakening ; within 30 hours , the winds decreased from tropical cyclone to tropical depression status on November 25 . That day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , although the MFR continued tracking the circulation until Agnielle 's dissipation on November 27 .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Bonita = = =
As Tropical Depression B2 was dissipating near Réunion , another tropical depression formed east of the Chagos Archipelago on January 3 . It moved southwestward , initially without development , but conditions gradually became more favorable . On January 5 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Bonita , and three days later reached tropical cyclone status as it developed a well @-@ defined eye . Later that day , Bonita quickly intensified to its 10 ‑ minute peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , making it the strongest storm of the season . A ridge to the south turned the cyclone more to the west . On January 9 , the JTWC estimated Bonita attained peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , and the next day , the cyclone made landfall about 50 km ( 30 mi ) north of Foulpointe in eastern Madagascar . Bonita quickly weakened into a tropical storm while crossing the country , but re @-@ intensified slightly after reaching the Mozambique Channel on January 12 . Late on January 13 , Bonita made a second landfall in eastern Mozambique between Pebane and Quelimane . Although the MFR ceased issuing advisories on January 15 , the remnants of Bonita continued across Africa , and emerging into the southern Atlantic Ocean on January 19 and dissipating the next day . Bonita was considered by the Zambia Meteorological Department to have been the first tropical cyclone known to have traversed southern Africa from the South @-@ West Indian Ocean to the South Atlantic .
In eastern Madagascar , 24 ‑ hour rainfall totals included 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) at Toamasina , while gusts exceeded 230 km / h ( 140 mph ) on the offshore island of Île Sainte @-@ Marie . Bonita caused widespread flooding of rice crops , as well as heavy infrastructure and crop damage along the northeastern coastline . The cyclone killed 25 people in Madagascar and left 5 @,@ 000 people homeless . In Mozambique , Bonita dropped heavy rainfall and produced flooding , killing as many as 17 people . Floodwaters destroyed 2 @,@ 500 ha ( 6 @,@ 200 acres ) of crops and demolished many buildings , including about 12 schools . The remnants of Bonita dropped the heaviest rainfall in 80 years in eastern Zimbabwe , and heavy rainfall also spread into Zambia .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Hubert @-@ Coryna = = =
In the Australian basin , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance near Christmas Island on January 3 . With a ridge to the south , the system tracked to the west @-@ southwest , developing into a tropical low on January 6 and being named Hubert the next day by the BoM . It quickly intensified to reach peak 10 ‑ minutes winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on January 9 to the north of the Cocos Islands , but later that day began weakening due to increasing wind shear . At around 1800 UTC on January 9 , Hubert crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean with 10 ‑ minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , and at that time , was renamed the cyclone Coryna . The wind shear quickly tore the convection away from the center , leaving the circulation exposed by January 10 . The next day , Coryna weakened to tropical depression status , and on January 12 the circulation dissipated in the central Indian Ocean .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Doloresse = = =
After about a month in which there were no named storms in the basin , a tropical disturbance formed within the ITCZ to the southwest of Seychelles on February 12 . It moved slowly to the southwest with a well @-@ defined center and a broad area of convection . For several days , the system remained weak until reaching more favorable conditions on February 16 , and the next day it intensified into Tropical Storm Doloresse . The storm slowed while reaching the western extent of a ridge , drifting for nearly 24 hours about 160 km ( 99 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Grande Comore . On February 17 , an approaching trough turned Doloresse to the south @-@ southeast , bringing the storm about 55 km ( 35 mi ) southwest of Grande Comore ; this made it the first cyclone to directly affect the nation since Cyclone Elinah 13 years prior . On February 17 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , and on the next day , the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Increasing shear caused Doloresse to rapidly weaken to tropical depression status on February 19 . Although the JTWC assessed the storm as continuing to the southeast and striking northwestern Madagascar , the MFR estimated the system turned to a southwest drift and dissipated on February 20 .
In the Comoros , Doloresse produced strong wind gusts , damaging crops and houses on Grande Comore . Heavy rainfall caused landslides , and the cyclone caused a shipwreck , killing 67 people on the island of Mohéli . The western periphery of the circulation dropped heavy rainfall in Tanzania .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Edwige = = =
On February 18 , a tropical disturbance began forming about 700 km ( 430 mi ) southwest of Diego Garcia , becoming a tropical depression the next day . A trough steered the new system to the southeast , but also prevented significant strengthening due to wind shear . Late on February 21 , the MFR upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Edwige , and the next day the JTWC began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 16S . When the trough weakened , Edwige turned to the south and later southwest , reaching an initial peak of 75 km / h ( 50 mph ) on February 23 . That day , increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken to minimal tropical storm status , and the JTWC briefly discontinued advisories on February 24 . The strengthening ridge caused Edwige to accelerate to the west , bringing it south of Rodrigues without any effects on February 24 . On the next day , the storm passed north of Mauritius and Réunion , where it produced wind gusts of 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) and 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , respectively , as well as heavy rainfall . Due to crop damage caused by Edwige , as well as a drought later in the year , Mauritius failed to reach its quota for sugar outputs .
After passing north of Réunion , Edwige began reintensifying due to decreasing wind shear , and the JTWC reissued advisories on February 25 . With warm waters , the storm developed increasing outflow as well as an eye . On February 26 , Edwige intensified into a tropical cyclone and reached peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) while approaching eastern Madagascar . On the same day , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . For unknown reasons , Edwige executed a counterclockwise loop along the Malagasy coast near Mananjary . Due to land interaction , the cyclone rapidly weakened and turned to the north @-@ northeast off the coast , although the JTWC assessed the storm as turning inland again . On February 29 , Edwige dissipated just off the coast of Toamasina . The storm dropped 369 mm ( 14 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in Mananjary , with wind gusts of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) , but damage was limited .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Flossy = = =
On February 25 , a tropical disturbance developed along a cold front about 500 km ( 310 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . With a ridge to the south , the system tracked southwestward and intensified into Tropical Storm Flossy on February 27 . That day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 17S . The storm quickly developed an eye , intensifying to tropical cyclone status on February 28 . That day , the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Late on February 29 , Flossy passed about 80 km ( 50 mi ) northwest of Rodrigues , producing wind gusts of 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) there . Increased wind shear weakened Flossy , beginning on March 1 , although the storm restrengthened slightly on March 2 . That day , the cyclone rounded the ridge and turned to the south and southeast , and weakened again due to an approaching cold front . On March 4 , Flossy became extratropical after all of the convection was sheared away from the circulation . Two days later , the front absorbed the remnants of Flossy .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Guylianne = = =
The ITCZ spawned a tropical disturbance on March 17 about 500 km ( 310 mi ) south of Diego Garcia . Due to ongoing wind shear , the system initially failed to intensify while moving westward . An approaching cold front turned the disturbance southward on March 20 into an area of low wind shear , allowing the convection to increase and for the system to be upgraded to tropical depression status . While the system was moving toward Mauritius on March 22 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Guylianne . Later that night , the storm passed about 50 km ( 31 mi ) east of Mauritius , bringing beneficial rainfall . Both MFR and JTWC only estimated peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , and Guylianne began weakening on March 23 due to increased wind shear . The storm turned to a southwest drift , dissipating on March 25 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Hansella = = =
Toward the end of March , the ITCZ was active with several low pressure areas , and an area of convection consolidated south of the Chagos Archipelago in early April . On April 2 , a large tropical disturbance formed , and the next day , it was named Hansella despite only being a tropical depression . The system moved westward initially , but curved southward on April 4 due to a trough , by which time it had intensified into a tropical storm . After developing a 50 km ( 31 mi ) wide eye , Hansella intensified to tropical cyclone status on April 6 and moved over Rodrigues . Gusts on the island reached 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) , which caused heavy damage to crops and houses . Hansella dropped 182 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall on Rodrigues in a 24 ‑ hour period , greater than the island 's monthly average total .
According to the MFR , Hansella failed to intensify beyond 10 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , although the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . The cyclone looped to the west after passing over Rodrigues , influenced by a building ridge to the south . Due to upwelling after moving slowly over the same waters , Hansella weakened quickly and passed about 100 km ( 62 mi ) south of Rodrigues as a minimal tropical storm . On April 9 , the storm passed just south of Mauritius , and the next day spawned a large area of convection over Réunion , dropping heavy rainfall . On April 10 , Hansella dissipated just northwest of Réunion .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Itelle = = =
A low @-@ pressure area persisted east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia on April 6 , developing into a tropical disturbance that day . With a ridge to the south , the system moved generally westward , slowly intensifying . Convection gradually increased , and the system intensified into Tropical Storm Itelle on April 9 . An eye developed the next day , signaling that the storm had strengthened into a tropical cyclone as it turned more to the west @-@ southwest . Developing a large 90 km ( 56 mi ) wide eye , Itelle intensified further , and the MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on April 12 . This made it an unusual April intense tropical cyclone . On April 14 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . That day , increasing wind shear weakened Itelle , and the cyclone was downgraded to severe tropical storm status by April 15 when it passed about 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of St. Brandon . Wind gusts on the island reached 150 km / h ( 93 mph ) . Itelle slowed on April 16 while passing about 400 km ( 250 mi ) north of Réunion , which was followed by increased shear and weakening . On April 19 , Itelle dissipated about 100 km ( 62 mi ) east of the eastern Madagascar coastline .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Jenna = = =
In early May , a westerly wind burst associated with the Madden – Julian oscillation produced disturbances on both sides of the equator in the eastern Indian Ocean . The BoM estimated that a tropical low formed west of Sumatra at the low latitude of 4 @.@ 8 ° S , near the boundary between the Australian and the south @-@ west Indian basins ; this caused difficulty with regard to tropical cyclone warnings . On May 3 , the JTWC upgraded the system to tropical storm status . On the next day , the low crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , intensifying into Tropical Storm Jenna . The MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) on May 5 . Soon after , an approaching trough turned the storm to the southeast , bringing Jenna back into the Australian region , and absorbing the storm on May 6 .
= Barfi ! =
Barfi ! is a 2012 Indian period film co @-@ produced , written and directed by Anurag Basu . Set in the 1970s , the film depicts the story of Murphy " Barfi " Johnson ( a mute and deaf Nepali boy from Darjeeling ) and his relationships with two women , Shruti and Jhilmil ( who is autistic ) . The film stars Ranbir Kapoor , Priyanka Chopra , and Ileana D 'Cruz in the lead roles , with Saurabh Shukla , Ashish Vidyarthi , Jisshu Sengupta and Roopa Ganguly in supporting roles .
Made on a budget of approximately ₹ 30 crore ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) , Barfi ! opened worldwide on 14 September 2012 . The film was a box office success , becoming one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of 2012 in India and overseas . The film went on to gross ₹ 1 @.@ 75 billion ( US $ 26 million ) worldwide .
The film was selected as India 's official entry for the Best Foreign Language Film nomination for the 85th Academy Awards . Barfi won several awards and nominations at various award ceremonies across India . At the 58th Filmfare Awards , the film received thirteen nominations including Best Actress for Chopra and won seven ( more than any other film ) including Best Film , Best Actor for Kapoor and Best Music Director for Pritam .
= = Plot = =
Murphy " Barfi " Johnson ( Ranbir Kapoor ) is an optimistic , street @-@ wise , charming young man who was born deaf @-@ mute to a Nepali couple in Darjeeling . His mother died when he was a baby and his father raised him alone , while working as a chauffeur . Barfi is known as a troublemaker – he cuts lampposts , plays practical jokes on innocent people , and is chased by Sudhanshu Dutta ( Saurabh Shukla ) , a local police officer . Barfi meets Shruti Ghosh ( Ileana D 'Cruz ) , who has just arrived in Darjeeling ; she is engaged to Ranjit Sengupta ( Jisshu Sengupta ) , and is due to get married in three months , and Barfi is immediately smitten with Shruti . She also falls in love with Barfi but her mother dissuades her from pursuing him because he could not take care of her with his disabilities and lack of money . Shruti takes her mother 's advice , gets married , and moves to Kolkata , breaking all contact with Barfi .
Meanwhile , Barfi 's father falls ill and Barfi must somehow raise the money for his treatment . After an unsuccessful attempt to rob a local bank , he tries to kidnap Jhilmil Chatterjee ( Priyanka Chopra ) – Barfi 's autistic childhood friend and wealthy heiress of her grandfather 's fortune – for a ransom . Upon arriving , Barfi finds she has already been kidnapped . He sees her in a van , sneaks inside and drives Jhilmil away from the ransom delivery . He hides her in his apartment with the police in pursuit . Barfi collects the ransom but finds that his father has died just as he makes the payment . Dejected , Barfi tries to leave Jhilmil at the village of her caretaker , but she refuses to leave him and they soon move to Kolkata , where Barfi assumes responsibility for Jhilmil and takes care of her .
Six years later , Barfi and Shruti meet by chance . Shruti is unhappy with her marriage and she and Barfi rekindle their friendship , much to the chagrin of the lovestruck Jhilmil , who then goes missing . Shruti files a missing person report for Jhilmil . The Darjeeling police learn about the report , resume their pursuit of Barfi and arrest him . As he is being interrogated , another ransom demand for Jhilmil is made and she is apparently killed in the process of the exchange , though her body is never found . In order to conclude the case , the police try to frame Barfi for Jhilmil 's murder . Policeman Sudhanshu Dutta , who grew fond of Barfi after investigating him for his nuisances , asks Shruti to take him away , offering him a second chance at life . She agrees and hopes that now Jhilmil is gone , she can finally be with Barfi .
Barfi is deeply affected by Jhilmil 's loss and finds living with Shruti unfulfilling . He finds the location of Jhilmil 's childhood home and takes Shruti to look for her . They find that Jhilmil is still alive , and that both kidnappings were fabricated by her father so he could embezzle money from Jhilmil 's trust fund . In the second attempt , second time , they faked her death so that she could return to her special @-@ care home , away from her alcoholic mother . Barfi has a happy reunion with Jhilmil and the two are married , while Shruti spends the rest of her days alone , regretting the loss of her chance to be with Barfi .
Several years later , Barfi is shown to be gravely ill in a hospital and is close to death . Jhilmil arrives and lies with Barfi in his hospital bed as Shruti narrates that the two died peacefully together , not wanting to leave each other behind in life or death . The film closes showing the happy days of Barfi and Jhilmil as credits roll .
= = Cast = =
Ranbir Kapoor as Murphy Johnson
Priyanka Chopra as Jhilmil Chatterjee
Ileana D 'Cruz as Shruti Ghosh Sengupta
Saurabh Shukla as Assisttant Sub @-@ Inspector Sudhanshu Dutta
Akash Khurana as Jung Bahadur , Barfi 's father
Ashish Vidyarthi as Mr. Chatterjee
Roopa Ganguly as Shruti 's mother
Haradhan Bandopadhyay as Daju
Uday Tikekar as Shruti 's father
Arun Bali as Jhilmil 's grandfather
Bholaraj Sapkota as Barfi 's friend .
Jisshu Sengupta in a special appearance as Ranjit Sengupta
Sumona Chakravarti as Shruti 's friend
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
During the production of his previous directorial venture Kites ( 2010 ) , the director Anurag Basu wrote a two @-@ page short story which was later developed to the script of Barfi ! . The film script that Basu wrote alternated between two time periods , and he retained the nonlinear narrative structure . He said that the script required a 30 @-@ year time span for the characters ' love to grow and thus set the backdrop of the film in the 1970s .
In June 2010 , Anurag Basu confirmed that his film would feature three lead roles , a deaf and mute man , a mentally challenged girl , and a narrator . With former titles like Khamoshi or Silence , media reports said the story was grim or dark . However , Basu stated that on the contrary , the film was happy . According to Basu , he paid homage to Buster Keaton and Charlie Chaplin by adding scenes inspired by the era of silent cinema and using physical comedy in the film , involving silent portions .
= = = Casting = = =
Ranbir Kapoor was the first choice of director Anurag Basu and Katrina Kaif was the first choice for the role of the narrator . In March 2010 , The Times of India reported that Ranbir Kapoor and Katrina Kaif were signed to play lead roles in the film , then titled Khamoshi and later Silence , which Basu confirmed . Basu wanted to cast a new girl from Kolkata for the autistic character . Basu 's wife , Tani suggested Chopra 's name for the role . However , Basu feared that audience would see " the Priyanka Chopra " and not the character due to Chopra 's stardom . Basu explained " I had the fear that I would see Priyanka Chopra in the character and Jhilmil wouldn ’ t work . This has happened in many films where known faces have harmed the character . " Priyanka Chopra was cast to play the part but , the development was not announced as Basu wanted to workshop first and see how it goes . After three days of workshop , Basu was convinced that Chopra could play the autistic part and reflected that he was glad that he chose Chopra for the role . Later , Basu revealed that he did not approach any actress other than Chopra for the autistic part . After Chopra was cast in the film , Kaif left the project for unknown reasons . Media reported that she may have opted out of the film because Chopra had been given a stronger role . Later , media reported that Asin was approached to play the role of the narrator , replacing Kaif . However , Asin was never signed to the project . Media reported that no other actress wanted to sign for the film because according to them , the autistic part was stronger . In July 2010 , Mumbai Mirror reported that Chopra was ready to play the role of narrator and leave the autistic role , so that another actress could be cast in the film ; Chopra did not want the film to stall . Basu confirmed this development and said , " It ’ s true we ’ ve been unable to cast the other part . " After facing several casting problems , Basu chose to cast a completely new fresh face to play the second female role . In early December 2010 , Ileana D 'Cruz from south Indian films , was finalised for the second female lead , featuring as narrator and Kapoor 's first love interest in the film .
= = = Characters = = =
Ranbir Kapoor played the role of a deaf and mute man in the film . According to Kapoor , he took inspiration from screen legends such as the Academy Award winning actor , Roberto Benigni , Charlie Chaplin and his grandfather Raj Kapoor . Due to the protagonist 's physical disability , Basu did not want to use any sign @-@ language but , some behavioral patterns in the film . Kapoor described his character as a regular , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky and good hearted guy .
Priyanka Chopra played the role of Jhilmil . Basu described Chopra 's role as the " toughest " in the film . In order to prepare for the role , Chopra visited several mental institutions and spent time with autistic people . She said she had to research a little for the role because in India awareness about autism is very low . Chopra told that she had to let go of every inhibition probably that she had as a Hindi film heroine and play Jhilmil without thinking of it . She explained that she needed two moments to become Jhilmil because she didn 't identify with her character due to difference between her thought and behavior .
D 'cruz , who portrayed the narrator and first love interest of the protagonist said " Shruti , is such a sensitive role to play as she goes to different phases in the film . " According to Basu , after Kapoor , Chopra and D 'cruz 's character Saurabh Shukla 's character as Inspector Dutta was the most important . Basu described the role as " amazing " character , who makes others cry when he laughs .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography commenced in March 2011 . Barfi ! was shot between June 2011 and February 2012 , mostly in Darjeeling . In March 2011 , Basu visited Kolkata to finalize the locations within the city . Filming in Mumbai began on 20 March 2011 and continued until May 2011 . In June 2011 , the cast and crew shot in Darjeeling . In December 2011 , some scenes were filmed on the outskirts of Coimbatore , especially Pollachi and Ooty . The scenes in which Kapoor 's character is chased by policemen over the roof tops were shot in Kolkata at the end of January 2012 . Shooting was completed by April 2012 , except for some scenes featuring Chopra . The producers postponed the release from 13 July to 31 August 2012 as the September 2011 shooting schedule was cancelled and was waiting to be shot . However , Basu began working on Ileana 's dubbing portions by end of April 2012 , because D 'Cruz was unfamiliar with the Hindi language and wanted to learn it whilst filming .
= = Soundtrack = =
Pritam composed the music and background score of the film , and Swanand Kirkire , Ashish Pandit , Neelesh Misra and Sayeed Quadri wrote the lyrics . The soundtrack album has six original songs . The soundtrack was influenced by Brazilian Bossa nova . Priyanka Chopra was supposed to sing a track for the film , but her contract with Universal Music prevented her from taking the offer . The soundtrack album also contains a song titled Fatafati , sung by Pritam , which was not be used in the film , but was released as a promotional single on YouTube on 10 September 2012 with a video containing behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . Some additional vocals are sung by Ranbir Kapoor . " Fatafati " also has some Bengali lyrics written by Amitabh Bhattacharya .
Barfi ! ' s soundtrack received positive reviews by critics . Hindustan Times rated the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated , " [ o ] verall , the soundtrack is a joyride sans flaws . Pritam has given many hits , but like his tunes in Life in a ... Metro , this one will be remembered for breaking the monotony in his sound . There are no foot @-@ tapping numbers or remixes here , but the simplicity that makes this album a winner . " Koimoi gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated , " In simple words , Barfi ! is excellent music on all counts . Very rarely does one get to hear an album where you can hear a complete soundtrack without skipping tracks ; this is one of them . So , just play , enjoy the music and the world of Barfi ! " . Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama rated the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and stated " Barfi ! ' s soundtrack is quite good and is easily one of the best quality creations by Pritam . He has totally reinvented himself with this album which defies Bollywood norms and boasts of a sound of its own . "
= = Marketing and release = =
The official trailer of the film was launched on 2 July 2012 featuring all the actors . It included no dialogue , portraying comedy through gestures and actions , and was well received by critics and audiences . Chopra 's character was kept under wraps in the trailers as the makers were not willing to reveal much about her character to increase curiosity among the audiences and was only revealed around the release of the film . Shikha Kapur , the executive director ( marketing ) of UTV explained " Priyanka plays a very special character in Barfee , so we want to keep her mystery intact . In the first trailer , Barfi – played by Ranbir – will be unveiled . We don ’ t plan to reveal Priyanka until the film releases . "
UTV Motion Pictures created a YouTube application called The Flavour of Barfi , designed for the marketing the film . The application features Ranbir Kapoor as his character from the movie and allows users to type actions , which Kapoor acts out . The application features two zones : one asks users to change Barfi 's mood and the other gives users the chance to watch him flirt . The film was promoted in various cities across India . While promoting the film at the Phoenix Mall , Bangalore , the crowds broke through the barricades .
Barfi ! was released on 14 September 2012 on 1300 screens in 700 theatres in India . Reliance Home Entertainment released Barfi ! on DVD and Blu @-@ Ray in mid @-@ November 2012 across all regions in a one @-@ disc pack complying with the NTSC format . The DVD and the Blu @-@ Ray discs contained bonus content , including Making of the film , " Fatafati – Behind The Scenes " and Deleted Scenes . The Video CD version was released at the same time . The exclusive right to broadcast the film was bought by Zee Network and UTV Movies . The deal includes premiere rights of the film along with the several other UTV productions . The rights are for a period of seven @-@ year , consisting the premiere ( for both channels ) of the film . Zee Network will have selected runs while UTV Movies will have multiple runs rights . The price of the deal was not revealed by the production company .
= = = Controversies = = =
On 12 September 2012 , British manufacturer Murphy Radio claimed that its trademark Murphy baby logo from its 1970s print advertisements has been used in Barfi ! without permission . Producer Siddharth Roy Kapur said that he had received a legal notice from Murphy but said that there is nothing wrong in the intention , as the brand in question has been shown in a " very positive light " .
After the film 's release , several blogs and users of social media websites Twitter , Facebook and YouTube accused the director of plagiarism . Media further alleged that Basu had not tried to credit the original sources . Several videos were uploaded to YouTube showing side @-@ by @-@ side comparisons with Hollywood films like Cops , The Adventurer , City Lights , Singin ' in the Rain , Project A , The Notebook and Benny & Joon . They also accused Barfi ! ' s music director Pritam of copying the background music from the French film Amélie .
Basu defended the film by saying that he was inspired by these works and that Barfi ! contains an original plot , screenplay , characters and situations . He said that he was paying homages to Keaton and Chaplin . Barfi ! ' s Oscar selection for Best Foreign Language Film was criticised because of plagiarism , but Oscar selection committee chief Manju Borah defended the film by saying , " Barfi ! deserves to be sent outside . The selection was a very open process with three to four rounds of severe discussions and came down to the best film of the final three . "
= = Reception = =
= = = India = = =
The film received critical acclaim , with critics praising the performances , the direction , the screenplay , the cinematography , the music and the positive portrayal of physically disabled people . Zee News gave the film 5 out of 5 stars and said , " [ a ] ll in all , Anurag Basu ’ s Barfi ! is a perfect sweet treat for his audience . Like it has been discussed , those film makers who have been portraying the handicapped as dull and boring in their films must take a lesson from Barfi ! . Madhureeta Mukherjee of The Times of India gave the film a 4 / 5 rating and said , " Ranbir , in the most challenging performance of his career leaves us ' dumbstruck ' . Without use of conventional crutches of cool @-@ catchphrases , dhamaakedar @-@ dialogbaazi , bare @-@ bodies , and other ' items ' ; he stuns you in every single frame . For Priyanka , there 's only one word – Bravo ! In a role where she needs to under @-@ emote , she does so brilliantly ( delivering an incredible performance ) . "
Roshni Devi of Koimoi said , " Barfi ! leaves you with that warm , cuddly , magical feeling with a few tears to match . It ’ s really worth a watch " and gave it an overall score of 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said , " Barfi is akin to a whiff of fresh air . Its foremost triumph is that it leaves you with a powerful emotion : Happiness ! " Indo @-@ Asian News Service gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said , " Barfi ! comes as close to being a modern masterpiece as cinematically possible . To miss it would be a crime . To embrace it is to serenade the sublime " . Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis rated the film 4 out of 5 and remarked that movie " engages you at a personal level " , and further added that , " Barfi cannot be missed . It demands patience , but the payoff is incredible " .
Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph said , " The brilliance of Barfi ! is that it ’ s no story and all storytelling . It ’ s about a director at the top of his game orchestrating terrific talent into a bravura crescendo . Only someone who has showed death the door can open windows to life like this . " Filmfare gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and stated , " Barfi ! is that rare film that can make you smile and make you cry in the same scene . Its technical brilliance is only outdone by its emotional complexity and depth . Pritam 's music adds a nice silent @-@ era charm to this already fantastic story , making it an occasion when words simply aren ’ t enough . " Raja Sen of Rediff.com has given 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars and wrote , " Barfi ! is a well @-@ crafted script with an intriguing back @-@ and @-@ forth narrative but it all goes south towards the end . "
Anupama Chopra writing for Hindustan Times gave it 3 out 5 stars and wrote , " [ t ] his is a film made with love , bolstered by wonderfully etched vignettes , Ranbir Kapoor 's stupendous performance and a gorgeous soundtrack by Pritam . And yet , for me , Barfi was a singularly frustrating experience there was so much to like , but the film never became more than the sum of its parts " . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN gave 3 out of 5 stars and said , " Barfi had the potential to be great cinema , but as it stands it 's a respectable film that 's still better than a lot else you 're likely to see . " On the contrary , Namrata Joshi of Outlook felt that " The flashback within flashback narrative gets way too clumsy and turgid , the thriller twist absolutely pointless [ .... ] appears much too crafted and self @-@ consciously gorgeous , and feels eminently facile and plastic " .
= = = Overseas = = =
The movie received critical acclaim overseas as well . It holds
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the north , it is approximately 230 miles ( 370 km ) northeast of Los Angeles . Manzanar ( which means " apple orchard " in Spanish ) was identified by the United States National Park Service as the best @-@ preserved of the former camp sites , and is now the Manzanar National Historic Site , which preserves and interprets the legacy of Japanese American incarceration in the United States .
Long before the first incarcerees arrived in March 1942 , Manzanar was home to Native Americans , who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area . Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910 , but abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area . As different as these groups were , their histories displayed a common thread of forced relocation .
Since the last incarcerees left in 1945 , former incarcerees and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a National Historic Site to ensure that the history of the site , along with the stories of those who were unjustly incarcerated there , are remembered by current and future generations . The primary focus is the Japanese American incarceration era , as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site . The site also interprets the former town of Manzanar , the ranch days , the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute , and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley .
= = Terminology = =
Since the end of World War II , there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar , and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents , were incarcerated by the United States Government during the war . Manzanar has been referred to as a " War Relocation Center , " " relocation camp , " " relocation center , " " internment camp " , and " concentration camp " , and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day .
Dr. James Hirabayashi , Professor Emeritus and former Dean of Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University , wrote an article in 1994 in which he stated that he wonders why euphemistic terms used to describe camps such as Manzanar are still being used .
Let us review the main points of the debate . Over 120 @,@ 000 residents of the U.S.A. , two thirds of whom were American citizens , were incarcerated under armed guard . There were no crimes committed , no trials , and no convictions : the Japanese Americans were political incarcerees . To detain American citizens in a site under armed guard surely constitutes a " concentration camp . " But what were the terms used by the government officials who were involved in the process and who had to justify these actions ? Raymond Okamura provides us with a detailed list of terms . Let 's consider three such euphemisms : " evacuation , " " relocation , " and " non @-@ aliens . " Earthquake and flood victims are evacuated and relocated . The words refer to moving people in order to rescue and protect them from danger . The official government policy makers consistently used " evacuation " to refer to the forced removal of the Japanese Americans and the sites were called " relocation centers . " These are euphemisms ( Webster : " the substitution of an inoffensive term for one considered offensively explicit " ) as the terms do not imply forced removal nor incarceration in enclosures patrolled by armed guards . The masking was intentional .
Hirabayashi went on to describe the harm done by the use of such euphemisms and also addressed the issue of whether or not only the Nazi camps can be called " concentration camps . "
The harm in continuing to use the government 's euphemisms is that it disguises or softens the reality which subsequently has been legally recognized as a grave error . The actions abrogated some fundamental principles underlying the Constitution , the very document under which we govern ourselves . This erosion of fundamental rights has consequences for all citizens of our society and we must see that it is never repeated . Some have argued that the Nazi Germany camps during the Holocaust were concentration camps and to refer to the Japanese American camps likewise would be an affront to the Jews . It is certainly true that the Japanese Americans did not suffer the harsh fate of the Jews in the terrible concentration camps or death camps where Nazi Germany practiced a policy of genocide . Although the loss of life was minimal in America 's concentration camps , it does not negate the reality of the unconstitutional incarceration of Japanese American citizens . Michi and Walter Weglyn 's research concerning Nazi Germany 's euphemisms for their concentration camps revealed such phrases as " protective custody camps , " " reception centers , " and " transit camps . " Ironically , two Nazi euphemisms were identical to our government 's usage : " assembly centers " and " relocation centers . " It might be well to point out , also , that the Nazis were not operating under the U.S. Constitution . Comparisons usually neglect to point out that Hitler was operating under the rules of the Third Reich . In America all three branches of the U.S. government , ostensibly operating under the U.S. Constitution , ignored the Bill of Rights in order to incarcerate Japanese Americans .
In 1998 , use of the term " concentration camps " gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at Ellis Island . Initially , the American Jewish Committee ( AJC ) and the National Park Service , which manages Ellis Island , objected to the use of the term in the exhibit . However , during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City , leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term . After the meeting , the Japanese American National Museum and the AJC issued a joint statement ( which was included in the exhibit ) that read in part :
A concentration camp is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they have committed , but simply because of who they are . Although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history , the term ' concentration camp ' was first used at the turn of the [ 20th ] century in the Spanish American and Boer Wars . During World War II , America 's concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from Nazi Germany 's . Nazi camps were places of torture , barbarous medical experiments and summary executions ; some were extermination centers with gas chambers . Six million Jews were slaughtered in the Holocaust . Many others , including Gypsies , Poles , homosexuals and political dissidents were also victims of the Nazi concentration camps . In recent years , concentration camps have existed in the former Soviet Union , Cambodia and Bosnia . Despite differences , all had one thing in common : the people in power removed a minority group from the general population and the rest of society let it happen .
The New York Times published an unsigned editorial supporting the use of " concentration camp " in the exhibit . An article quoted Jonathan Mark , a columnist for The Jewish Week , who wrote , " Can no one else speak of slavery , gas , trains , camps ? It 's Jewish malpractice to monopolize pain and minimize victims . " AJC Executive Director David A. Harris stated during the controversy , " We have not claimed Jewish exclusivity for the term ' concentration camps . ' "
On July 7 , 2012 , at their annual convention , the National Council of the Japanese American Citizens League unanimously ratified the Power of Words Handbook , calling for the use of " ... truthful and accurate terms , and retiring the misleading euphemisms created by the government to cover up the denial of Constitutional and human rights , the force , oppressive conditions , and racism against 120 @,@ 000 innocent people of Japanese ancestry locked up in America 's World War II concentration camps . "
According to the Power Of Words Handbook :
From government documents and propaganda , to public discourse and newspapers , many euphemisms have been used to describe the experiences of Japanese Americans who were forced from their homes and communities during World War II . Words like evacuation , relocation , and assembly centers imply that the United States Government was trying to rescue Japanese Americans from a disastrous environment on the West Coast and simply help them move to a new gathering place . These terms strategically mask the fact that thousands of Japanese Americans were denied their rights as US citizens , and forcibly ordered to live in poorly constructed barracks on sites that were surrounded by barbed wire and guard towers . Although the use of euphemisms was commonplace during World War II , and in many subsequent years , we realize that the continued use of these inaccurate terms is highly problematic .
= = Before World War II = =
= = = Owens Valley Paiute = = =
Manzanar was first inhabited by Native Americans nearly 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 years ago , the area was settled by the Owens Valley Paiute , who ranged across the Owens Valley from Long Valley on the north to Owens Lake on the south , and from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the west to the Inyo Mountains on the east . Other Native American nations in the region included the Miwok , Western Mono , and Tubatulabal to the west , the Shoshone to the south and east , and the Mono Lake Paiute to the north . The Owens Valley Paiute hunted and fished , collected pine nuts , and raised crops utilizing irrigation in the Manzanar area . They also traded brown @-@ ware pottery for salt from the Saline Valley , and traded other wares and goods across the Sierra Nevada during the summer and fall .
The Owens Valley had received scant attention from European Americans before the early 1860s , as it was little more than a crossroads of the routes through the area . When gold and silver were discovered in the Sierra Nevada and the Inyo Mountains , the resulting sudden influx of miners , farmers , cattlemen and their hungry herds brought conflict with the Owens Valley Paiute , whose crops were being destroyed . The Owens Valley Indian War of 1861 – 1863 ensued ; at the end , the Owens Valley Paiute , along with other native peoples in the region , were forced at gunpoint by the United States Army to walk almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) to Fort Tejon , in one of the many forced relocations or " Trails of Tears " inflicted upon Native Americans in the United States .
Approximately one @-@ third of the Native Americans in the Owens Valley were forcibly relocated to Fort Tejon . After 1863 , many returned to their permanent villages that had been established along creeks flowing down from the Sierra Nevada mountains . In the Manzanar area , the Owens Valley Paiute had established villages along Bairs , Georges , Shepherds , and Symmes creeks . Evidence of Paiute settlement in the area is still present .
= = = Ranchers = = =
When European American white settlers first arrived in the Owens Valley in the mid – 19th century , they found a number of large Paiute villages in the Manzanar area . John Shepherd , one of the first of the new settlers , homesteaded 160 acres ( 65 ha ) of land 3 miles ( 5 km ) north of Georges Creek in 1864 . With the help of Owens Valley Paiute field workers and laborers , he expanded his ranch to 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) .
In 1905 , George Chaffey , an agricultural developer from Southern California , purchased Shepherd 's ranch and subdivided it , along with other adjacent ranches . He founded the town of Manzanar in 1910 . Chaffey 's Owens Valley Improvement Company built an irrigation system and planted thousands of fruit trees . By 1920 , the town had more than twenty @-@ five homes , a two @-@ room school , a town hall , and a general store . Also at that time , nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of apple , pear , and peach trees were under cultivation ; along with crops of grapes , prunes , potatoes , corn and alfalfa ; and large vegetable and flower gardens .
" Manzanar was a very happy place and a pleasant place to live during those years , with its peach , pear , and apple orchards , alfalfa fields , tree @-@ lined country lanes , meadows and corn fields , " said Martha Mills , who lived at Manzanar from 1916 to 1920 .
Some of the early orchards , along with remnants of the town and ranches , are still present at Manzanar today .
= = = Quenching Los Angeles ' thirst = = =
As early as March 1905 , the City of Los Angeles began secretly acquiring water rights in the Owens Valley . In 1913 , it completed construction of its 233 @-@ mile ( 375 km ) Los Angeles Aqueduct , But it did not take long for Los Angeles water officials to realize that Owens River water was not enough to supply the rapidly growing metropolis . In 1920 , they began to purchase more of the water rights on the Owens Valley floor . As the decade went on , the City of Los Angeles bought out one Owens Valley farmer after another , and extended its reach northward into Mono County , including Long Valley . By 1933 , the City owned 85 % of all town property and 95 % of all ranch and farm land in the Owens Valley , including Manzanar .
Although some residents sold their land for prices that made them financially independent and relocated , a significant number chose to stay . In dry years , Los Angeles pumped ground water and drained all surface water , diverting all of it into its aqueduct and leaving Owens Valley ranchers without water . Without water for irrigation , the holdout ranchers were forced off their ranches and out of their communities ; that included the town of Manzanar , which was abandoned by 1929 .
'There was so much water during those early years , that when a horse pulled a buggy , the water frequently came up to the horse 's knees , ' said Lucille DeBoer , who lived on a ranch at Manzanar . ' When this happened , the children took off their shoes and socks to walk home . In the early 1900s the City of Los Angeles started to purchase ranches in the Owens Valley for the sole purpose of supplying water to the people in Los Angeles . People started to sell their land to the City ; the City put in wells to drain the water out of the ground ; the trees began to die ; and the land finally turned to vacant dirt . This ended the Land of the Big Red Apples.'
Manzanar remained uninhabited until the United States Army leased 6 @,@ 200 acres ( 2 @,@ 500 ha ) from the City of Los Angeles for the Manzanar War Relocation Center .
= = Wartime : 1942 – 45 = =
After the December 7 , 1941 , attack on Pearl Harbor , the United States Government swiftly moved to begin solving the " Japanese Problem " on the West Coast of the United States . In the evening hours of that same day , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) arrested selected " enemy " aliens , including 2 @,@ 192 who were of Japanese descent . The California government pressed for action by the national government , as many citizens were alarmed about potential activities by people of Japanese descent .
On February 19 , 1942 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , which authorized the Secretary of War to designate military commanders to prescribe military areas and to exclude " any or all persons " from such areas . The order also authorized the construction of what would later be called " relocation centers " by the War Relocation Authority ( WRA ) to house those who were to be excluded . This order resulted in the forced relocation of over 120 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans , two @-@ thirds of whom were native @-@ born American citizens . The rest had been prevented from becoming citizens by federal law . Over 110 @,@ 000 were incarcerated in the ten concentration camps located far inland and away from the coast .
Manzanar was the first of the ten concentration camps to be established . Initially , it was a temporary " reception center " , known as the Owens Valley Reception Center from March 21 , 1942 , to May 31 , 1942 . At that time , it was operated by the US Army 's Wartime Civilian Control Administration ( WCCA ) .
The Owens Valley Reception Center was transferred to the WRA on June 1 , 1942 , and officially became the " Manzanar War Relocation Center . " The first Japanese American incarcerees to arrive at Manzanar were volunteers who helped build the camp . By mid – April , up to 1 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans were arriving daily , and by July , the population of the camp neared 10 @,@ 000 . Over 90 percent of the incarcerees were from the Los Angeles area , with the rest coming from Stockton , California ; and Bainbridge Island , Washington . Many were farmers and fishermen . Manzanar held 10 @,@ 046 incarcerees at its peak , and a total of 11 @,@ 070 people were incarcerated there .
= = = Climate = = =
The weather at Manzanar caused suffering for the incarcerees , few of whom were accustomed to the extremes of the area 's climate . The temporary buildings were not adequate to shield people from the weather . The Owens Valley lies at an elevation of about 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) . Summers on the desert floor of the Owens Valley are generally hot , with temperatures exceeding 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) not uncommon . Winters bring occasional snowfall and daytime temperatures that often drop into the 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) range . At night , temperatures are generally 30 to 40 ° F ( -1 to 4 ° C ) lower than the daytime highs , and high winds are common day or night . The area 's mean annual precipitation is barely five inches ( 12 @.@ 7 cm ) . The ever @-@ present dust was a continual problem due to the frequent high winds ; so much so that incarcerees usually woke up in the morning covered from head to toe with a fine layer of dust , and they constantly had to sweep dirt out of the barracks .
" In the summer , the heat was unbearable , " said former Manzanar incarceree Ralph Lazo ( see Notable Manzanar incarcerees section , below ) . " In the winter , the sparsely rationed oil didn 't adequately heat the tar paper @-@ covered pine barracks with knotholes in the floor . The wind would blow so hard , it would toss rocks around . "
= = = Camp layout and facilities = = =
The camp site was situated on 6 @,@ 200 acres ( 2 @,@ 500 ha ) at Manzanar , leased from the City of Los Angeles , with the developed portion covering approximately 540 acres ( 220 ha ) . The residential area was about one square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) , and consisted of 36 blocks of hastily constructed , 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tarpaper barracks , with each incarceree family living in a single 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) " apartment " in the barracks . These apartments consisted of partitions with no ceilings , eliminating any chance of privacy . Lack of privacy was a major problem for the incarcerees , especially since the camp had communal men 's and women 's latrines .
" ... One of the hardest things to endure was the communal latrines , with no partitions ; and showers with no stalls , " said former Manzanar incarceree Rosie Kakuuchi .
Each residential block also had a communal mess hall , a laundry room , a recreation hall , an ironing room , and a heating oil storage tank , although Block 33 lacked a recreation hall . In addition to the residential blocks , Manzanar had 34 additional blocks that had staff housing , camp administration offices , two warehouses , a garage , a camp hospital , and 24 firebreaks . The camp also had school facilities , a high school auditorium , staff housing , chicken and hog farms , churches , a cemetery , a post office , a cooperative store , other shops , a camp newspaper , and other necessary amenities that one would expect to find in most American cities .
Manzanar also had a camouflage net factory , an experimental plantation for producing natural rubber from the Guayule plant , and an orphanage called Children 's Village , which housed 101 Japanese American orphans . The camp perimeter had eight watchtowers manned by armed Military Police , and it was enclosed by five @-@ strand barbed wire . There were sentry posts at the main entrance .
= = = Life behind the barbed wire = = =
After being uprooted from their homes and communities , the incarcerees found themselves having to endure primitive , sub @-@ standard conditions , and lack of privacy . They had to wait in one line after another for meals , at latrines , and at the laundry room . Each camp was intended to be self @-@ sufficient , and Manzanar was no exception . Cooperatives operated various services , such as the camp newspaper , beauty and barber shops , shoe repair , and more . In addition , incarcerees raised chickens , hogs , and vegetables , and cultivated the existing orchards for fruit . Incarcerees made their own soy sauce and tofu .
Food at Manzanar was based on military requirements . Meals usually consisted of hot rice and vegetables , since meat was scarce due to rationing . In early 1944 , a chicken ranch began operation , and in late April of the same year , the camp opened a hog farm . Both operations provided welcome meat supplements to the incarcerees ' diet .
Most incarcerees were employed at Manzanar to keep the camp running . Unskilled workers earned US $ 8 per month ( $ 115 @.@ 9 per month as of 2016 ) , semi @-@ skilled workers earned $ 12 per month ( $ 174 per month as of 2016 ) , skilled workers made $ 16 per month ( $ 232 per month as of 2016 ) , and professionals earned $ 19 per month ( $ 275 per month as of 2016 ) . In addition , all incarcerees received $ 3 @.@ 60 per month ( $ 52 per month as of 2016 ) as a clothing allowance .
The incarcerees made Manzanar more livable through recreation . They participated in sports , including baseball and football , and martial arts . They also personalized and beautified their barren surroundings by building elaborate gardens , which often included pools , waterfalls , and rock ornaments . There was even a nine @-@ hole golf course . Remnants of some of the gardens , pools , and rock ornaments are still present at Manzanar .
= = = Resistance = = =
Although most incarcerees quietly accepted their fate during World War II , there was some resistance in the camps . Poston , Heart Mountain , Topaz , and Tule Lake each had civil disturbances about wage differences , black marketing of sugar , intergenerational friction , rumors of " informers " reporting to the camp administration or the FBI , and other issues . However , the most serious incident occurred at Manzanar on December 5 – 6 , 1942 , and became known as the Manzanar Riot .
After several months of tension between incarcerees who supported the Japanese American Citizens League ( JACL ) and a group of Kibei ( Japanese Americans educated in Japan ) , rumors spread that sugar and meat shortages were the result of black marketing by camp administrators . To make matters worse , incarceree and JACL leader Fred Tayama was beaten by six masked men . Harry Ueno , the leader of the Kitchen Workers Union , was suspected of involvement and was arrested and removed from Manzanar . Soon after , 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 incarcerees gathered and marched to the administration area , protesting Ueno 's arrest . After Ueno 's supporters negotiated with the camp administration , he was returned to the Manzanar jail . A crowd of several hundred returned to protest , and when the people surged forward , military police threw tear gas to disperse them . As people ran to avoid the tear gas , some in the crowd pushed a driverless truck toward the jail . At that moment , the military police fired into the crowd , killing a 17 @-@ year – old boy instantly . A 21 @-@ year – old man who was shot in the abdomen died days later . Nine other prisoners were wounded , and a military police corporal was wounded by a ricocheting bullet .
= = = Closure = = =
On November 21 , 1945 , the WRA closed Manzanar , the sixth camp to be closed . Although the incarcerees had been brought to the Owens Valley by the United States Government , they had to leave the camp and travel to their next destinations on their own . The WRA gave each person $ 25 ( $ 329 today ) , one @-@ way train or bus fare , and meals to those who had less than $ 600 ( $ 7 @,@ 887 today ) . While many left the camp voluntarily , a significant number refused to leave because they had no place to go after having lost everything when they were forcibly uprooted and removed from their homes . As such , they had to be forcibly removed once again , this time from Manzanar . Indeed , those who refused to leave were generally removed from their barracks , sometimes by force , even if they had no place to go .
146 incarcerees died at Manzanar . Fifteen incarcerees were buried there , but only five graves remain , as most were later reburied elsewhere by their families .
The Manzanar cemetery site is marked by a monument that was built by incarceree stonemason Ryozo Kado in 1943 . An inscription in Japanese on the front of the monument reads , 慰靈塔 ( Soul Consoling Tower ) . The inscription on the back reads " Erected by the Manzanar Japanese " on the left , and " August 1943 " on the right . Today , the monument is often draped in strings of origami , and sometimes survivors and other visitors leave offerings of personal items as mementos . The National Park Service periodically collects and catalogues such items .
After the camp was closed , the site eventually returned to its original state . Within a couple of years , all the structures had been removed , with the exception of the two sentry posts at the entrance , the cemetery monument , and the former Manzanar High School auditorium , which was purchased by the County of Inyo . The County leased the auditorium to the Independence Veterans of Foreign Wars , who used it as a meeting facility and community theater until 1951 . After that , the building was used as a maintenance facility by the Inyo County Road Department .
As of 2007 , the site also retains numerous building foundations , portions of the water and sewer systems , the outline of the road grid , remains of the landscaping constructed by incarcerees , and much more . Despite four years of use by the incarcerees , the site also retains evidence of the ranches and of the town of Manzanar , as well as artifacts from the days of the Owens Valley Paiute settlement .
= = = Notable incarcerees = = =
Sue Kunitomi Embrey , born on January 6 , 1923 , was an editor of the Manzanar Free Press , the camp newspaper , and wove camouflage nets to support the war effort . She left Manzanar in late 1943 for Madison , Wisconsin and one year later moved to Chicago , Illinois . Returning to California in 1948 , she went on to become a schoolteacher and a labor and community activist . In 1969 , Embrey was one of approximately 150 people who attended the first organized Manzanar Pilgrimage ( see Manzanar Pilgrimage section , below ) and was one of the founders of the annual event . She also went on to become the primary force behind the preservation of the site and its gaining National Historic Site status until her death in May , 2006 .
'Embrey took her pain and anger from the unjust internment and turned it into a life dedicated to making certain that would never happen again , ' said Rose Ochi , legal counsel for the Manzanar Committee , after Embrey died on May 15 , 2006 . ' She was just tireless and as a teacher she was making certain that our history books did talk about the tragic episode.'
'The reason [ that the Manzanar National Historic Site has ] been accepted by Japanese Americans , local Owens Valley residents and general visitors is in large part because of [ Embrey 's ] knowledge and her personal experience , ' said Alisa Lynch , Chief of Interpretation , Manzanar National Historic Site . ' She had the insight to help us be able to be truthful , to be accurate . She was a historian and an internee , she could wear many different hats.'
Aiko Herzig @-@ Yoshinaga , born in 1925 in Los Angeles , was 17 years old when she was incarcerated at Manzanar . Later , she was incarcerated at Jerome and Rohwer , Arkansas . Yoshinaga @-@ Herzig later moved to New York , where she became a community activist in the 1960s and was a member of Asian Americans for Action ( AAA ) , the first Asian American political organization on the East Coast . It included Asian American activists Bill and Yuri Kochiyama . Although she was not trained to be an archival researcher , Yoshinaga @-@ Herzig decided to find out what historical documents about her and her family might exist at the National Archives .
Herzig @-@ Yoshinaga and her husband , John " Jack " Herzig , pored over mountains of documents from the War Relocation Authority , a task that " was roughly equivalent to indexing all the information in a library , working from a card catalog that only gave a subject description by shelf , without giving individual book titles or authors . " Their efforts resulted in the discovery of evidence that the US Government perjured itself before the United States Supreme Court in the 1944 cases Korematsu v. United States , Hirabayashi v. United States , and Yasui v. United States which challenged the constitutionality of the relocation and incarceration . The government had presented falsified evidence to the Court , destroyed evidence , and had withheld other vital information . This evidence provided the legal basis Japanese Americans needed to seek redress and reparations for their wartime imprisonment . The Herzigs ' research was also valuable in their work with the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress ( NCJAR ) , which filed a class @-@ action lawsuit against the US Government on behalf of the incarcerees . The US Supreme Court ruled against the plaintiff .
Henry Fukuhara , who was born in Fruitland , California , in 1913 , was incarcerated with his family in April 1942 . An artist and watercolorist , Fukuhara would later teach a series of annual artistic workshops at Manzanar beginning in 1998 . His workshops , which usually had about 80 students a year , including Milford Zornes , used outdoor structures at Manzanar to teach water color painting .
William Hohri ( 1927 – 2010 ) , was incarcerated at Manzanar when he was 15 years old . His family entered Manzanar on April 3 , 1942 , and remained behind the barbed wire until August 25 , 1945 . Hohri became a civil rights and anti @-@ war activist after World War II . In the late 1970s he became the chair of the National Coalition for Japanese American Redress ( NCJAR ) , which brought a class action lawsuit against the US Government on March 16 , 1983 , asserting that it had unjustly incarcerated Japanese Americans during World War II . The lawsuit stated 22 causes of action , including fifteen alleged violations of constitutional rights , and sought $ 27 billion in damages . Despite the fact the US Supreme Court eventually ruled against the class action plaintiffs , the lawsuit helped bring the Japanese American case for redress and reparations to public awareness . It showed the Congress and the Executive Branch that the US Government would have far greater exposure in the still @-@ pending lawsuit than by legislation under consideration in Congress for reparations . The proposed bill called for $ 20 @,@ 000 reparations payments to each former incarceree or their immediate relatives , along with money for a civil liberties education fund ( see Civil Liberties Act of 1988 ) .
... ( The class action lawsuit ) remained active until after Congress had passed the redress legislation . While it remained alive , it played a significant part in publicizing the issues . The NCJAR lawsuit demanded $ 220 @,@ 000 for each individual whose liberties had been denied . This was more than 20 times greater than the $ 20 @,@ 000 per surviving incarcerated person that the redress bills proposed , allowing proponents to portray the legislative solution as a moderate alternative .
Ralph Lazo , born in 1924 in Los Angeles , was of Mexican American and Irish American descent , but when at age 16 he learned that his Japanese American friends and neighbors were being forcibly removed and incarcerated at Manzanar , he was outraged . Lazo was so incensed that he joined friends on a train that took hundreds to Manzanar in May 1942 . Manzanar officials never asked him about his ancestry .
" Internment was immoral , " Lazo told the Los Angeles Times . " It was wrong , and I couldn 't accept it . " " These people hadn 't done anything that I hadn 't done except to go to Japanese language school . "
In 1944 , Lazo was elected president of his class at Manzanar High School . He remained at Manzanar until August of that year , when he was inducted into the US Army . He served as a Staff Sergeant in the South Pacific until 1946 , helping liberate the Philippines . Lazo was awarded the Bronze Star for heroism in combat . After the war , he was a strong supporter of redress and reparations for Japanese Americans incarcerated during the war . The film , Stand Up for Justice : The Ralph Lazo Story , documents his life story , particularly his stand against the incarceration .
Toyo Miyatake , who was born in Kagawa , Shikoku , Japan , in 1896 , immigrated to the United States in 1909 . He settled in the Little Tokyo section of Los Angeles , and was incarcerated at Manzanar along with his family . A photographer , Miyatake smuggled a lens and film holder into Manzanar and later had a craftsman construct a wooden box with a door that hid the lens . He took many now @-@ famous photos of life and the conditions at Manzanar . His contraband camera was eventually discovered by the camp administration and confiscated . However , camp director Ralph Merritt later allowed Miyatake to photograph freely within the camp , even though he was not allowed to actually press the shutter button , requiring a guard or camp official to perform this simple task . Merritt finally saw no point to this technicality , and allowed Miyatake to take photos .
Togo Tanaka ( 1916 – 2009 ) , editor of the Rafu Shimpo newspaper , was sent to the Manzanar , where he used his journalism experience to document conditions in the camp . A supporter of cooperation with the authorities , he was labeled a collaborator and was transferred to Death Valley after being the target of riots before the first anniversary of Pearl Harbor .
Harry Ueno , born in Hawaii in 1907 , was a Kibei ( native @-@ born Japanese American educated in Japan ) who was incarcerated at Manzanar with his wife and children . After volunteering for mess hall work , Ueno discovered that Manzanar camp staff were stealing rationed sugar and meat and selling them on the black market . Ueno exposed the thefts , and worked to organize incarcerees to deal with them . This led to his arrest , which resulted in Ueno becoming the focal point of the Manzanar Riot . Ueno was one of the incarcerees featured in Emiko Omori 's Emmy Award @-@ winning film Rabbit in the Moon .
" Ueno made us aware there was opposition in the camps , " said Omori . " He made us feel that people did fight back and made us realize that one person can make a difference . "
Karl Yoneda was born in Glendale , California , on July 15 , 1906 , but his family moved back to Japan in 1913 . He became an activist early in his life . With Japan on a path towards war , Yoneda returned to the United States rather than be drafted into the Japanese Army . He arrived in San Francisco on December 14 , 1926 . He was taken to the Immigration Detention House on Angel Island , where he was detained for two months , despite having his California birth certificate . Yoneda later moved to Los Angeles , where he found work organizing with the Trade Union Educational League , and later the Japanese Workers ' Association . Yoneda arrived at Manzanar on March 22 , 1942 , one of the first Japanese Americans to arrive as a volunteer to build the camp . Yoneda later distinguished himself in service to the US , volunteering to serve in the Military Intelligence Service . After the war , Yoneda continued to support progressive causes and civil and human rights issues .
Other notable Manzanar incarcerees are : Koji Ariyoshi , Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston , Isao Kikuchi , Tura Satana , Gordon H. Sato , Tak Shindo , Larry Shinoda , Iwao Takamoto , Takuji Yamashita and Wendy Yoshimura .
= = Preservation and remembrance = =
= = = Manzanar Pilgrimage = = =
On December 21 , 1969 , about 150 people departed Los Angeles by car and bus , headed for Manzanar . It was the " first " annual Manzanar Pilgrimage . But as it turned out , two ministers , the Reverend Sentoku Mayeda and the Reverend Shoichi Wakahiro , had been making annual pilgrimages to Manzanar since the camp closed in 1945 .
The non @-@ profit Manzanar Committee , formerly led by Sue Kunitomi Embrey , has sponsored the Pilgrimage since 1969 . The event is held annually on the last Saturday of April with hundreds of visitors of all ages and backgrounds , including some former incarcerees , gathering at the Manzanar cemetery to remember the incarceration . The hope is that participants can learn about it and help ensure that what is generally accepted to be a tragic chapter in American History is neither forgotten nor repeated . The program traditionally consists of speakers , cultural performances , an interfaith service to memorialize those who died at Manzanar , and Ondo dancing .
" My mother was a very staunch Buddhist and she would always say , ' Those poor people that are buried over there at Manzanar in the hot sun — they must be so dry . Be sure to take some water [ as offerings ] , ' " said Embrey . " She always thought it was important to go back and remember the people who had died . "
In 1997 , the Manzanar At Dusk program became a part of the Pilgrimage . The program attracts local area residents , as well as descendants of Manzanar 's ranch days and the town of Manzanar . Through small group discussions , the event gives participants the opportunity to hear directly about the experiences of former incarcerees first @-@ hand , to share their experiences and feelings about what they learned , and talk about the relevance of what happened at Manzanar to their own lives .
Since the September 11 attacks , American Muslims have participated in the Pilgrimage to promote and increase awareness of civil rights protections in the wake of widespread suspicions harbored against them post @-@ 9 / 11 .
= = = California Historical Landmark and Los Angeles Historic @-@ Cultural Monument = = =
The Manzanar Committee 's efforts resulted in the State of California naming Manzanar as California Historical Landmark # 850 in 1972 , with an historical marker being placed at the sentry post on April 14 , 1973 .
Manzanar , which had been historically owned by the City of Los Angeles , was registered as a Los Angeles Historic @-@ Cultural Monument in 1976 .
= = = National Historic Landmark and National Historic Site = = =
The Manzanar Committee also spearheaded efforts for Manzanar to be listed in the National Register of Historic Places , and in February 1985 , Manzanar was designated a National Historic Landmark . Embrey and the Committee also led the effort to have Manzanar designated a National Historic Site , and on March 3 , 1992 , President George H. W. Bush signed House Resolution 543 into law ( Pub.L. 102 – 248 ; 106 Stat . 40 ) . This act of Congress established the Manzanar National Historic Site " to provide for the protection and interpretation of the historical , cultural , and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II . " Five years later , the National Park Service acquired 814 acres ( 329 ha ) of land at Manzanar from the City of Los Angeles .
The site features an Interpretive Center housed in the historically restored Manzanar High School Auditorium , which has a permanent exhibit that tells the stories of the incarcerees at Manzanar , the Owens Valley Paiute , the ranchers , the town of Manzanar , and water in the Owens Valley .
' ... Stories like this need to be told , and too many of us have died without telling our stories , ' Embrey said during her remarks at the Grand Opening ceremonies for the Manzanar National Historic Site Interpretive Center on April 24 , 2004 . ' The Interpretive Center is important because it needs to show to the world that America is strong as it makes amends for the wrongs it has committed , and that we will always remember Manzanar because of that.'
The site , which has seen 1 @,@ 144 @,@ 316 people visit from 2000 through August 2015 , features restored sentry posts at the camp entrance , a replica of a camp guard tower built in 2005 , a self @-@ guided tour road , and informational markers . Staff offer guided tours and other educational programs , including a Junior Ranger educational program for children between four and fifteen years of age .
The National Park Service is reconstructing one of the 36 residential blocks as a demonstration block . One barrack appears as it would have when Japanese Americans first arrived at Manzanar in 1942 , while another has been reconstructed to represent barracks life in 1945 . Exhibits in these barracks opened on April 16 , 2015 . A restored World War II mess hall , moved to the site from Bishop Airport in 2002 , was opened to visitors in late 2010 .
In late 2008 , historically appropriate vegetation was planted near the Interpretive Center . The Manzanar National Historic Site also unveiled its virtual museum on May 17 , 2010 and continues to collect oral histories of former incarcerees and others from all periods of Manzanar 's history .
= = = Opposition to the creation of the Manzanar National Historic Site = = =
After Congress named Manzanar a National Historic Site and gave the National Park Service the job of restoring the site in 1992 , protests against its creation emerged . Letters flooded the National Park Service , demanding that Manzanar be portrayed as a guest housing center for the Japanese Americans . William Hastings , of Bishop , California , wrote to the National Park Service , saying that the portrayal of Manzanar as a concentration camp amounts to " treason . " Protesters threatened to start dismissal campaigns against Bill Michael , a member of the Manzanar Advisory Commission who was the Director of the Eastern California Museum in Independence , California , and Superintendent Ross Hopkins , the National Park Service employee assigned to the site . They also threatened to destroy any buildings erected or restored at Manzanar . Further , Lillian Baker , and others in California , objected to the words , " concentration camp " on the California State historical marker , which has been hacked and stained , with the first " C " of " concentration camp " having been ground off . Further , a man , who described himself as a World War II veteran , called Hopkins to say that he had driven 200 miles to urinate on the marker .
= = In popular culture = =
A made @-@ for @-@ television movie , Farewell to Manzanar , directed by John Korty , aired on March 11 , 1976 , on NBC . It was based on the 1973 memoir of the same name , written by Jeanne Wakatsuki Houston , who was incarcerated at Manzanar as a child , and her husband James D. Houston . The book and the movie tell the story of the Wakatsuki family and their experiences behind the barbed wire through young Jeanne 's eyes . On October 7 , 2011 , the Japanese American National Museum ( JANM ) announced that they had negotiated the rights to the movie , and that they would make it available for purchase on DVD .
Come See The Paradise was a feature film about how forced relocation and imprisonment at Manzanar affected a Japanese American family from Los Angeles and a European American union organizer . The film , released in 1990 , starred Dennis Quaid and Tamlyn Tomita , and was written and directed by Alan Parker .
Folk / country musician Tom Russell wrote " Manzanar " , a song about the Japanese American internment , that was released on his album Box of Visions ( 1993 ) . Laurie Lewis covered the song on her album Seeing Things ( 1998 ) , adding the Japanese string instrument , the koto , to her performance .
The 1994 award @-@ winning novel , Snow Falling on Cedars by David Guterson , contains many scenes and details relating to Japanese Americans from the Puget Sound , Washington , area and their incarceration experiences at Manzanar . The 2000 film based on the book also details that connection .
The Asian American jazz fusion band Hiroshima has a song entitled " Manzanar " on its album The Bridge ( 2003 ) . It is an instrumental song inspired by Manzanar and the Japanese American incarceration . Also , its song " Living In America " , on its album titled East ( 1990 ) , contains the phrase " I still remember Manzanar . "
Fort Minor 's song " Kenji " , from the album The Rising Tied ( 2005 ) , tells the true story of Mike Shinoda 's family and their experiences before , during , and after World War II , including their imprisonment at Manzanar .
Channel 3 's song titled " Manzanar " is about the incarceration .
In the 1984 movie The Karate Kid , Kesuke Miyagi 's wife and new @-@ born son die during child birth on November 2 , 1944 while in the Manzanar Relocation Camp . Mr. Miyagi is fighting for the US against the Germans in Europe when he received the news .
A 2007 episode of the CBS television crime drama Cold Case , titled " Family 8108 " , dealt with the 1945 murder of a Japanese American man in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania after he and his family were released from Manzanar . The episode originally aired on December 9 , 2007 .
= = = Owens Valley resources = = =
Burton , Jeff ( 1998 ) . The Archeology of Somewhere : Archeological Testing Along U.S. Highway 395 , Manzanar National Historic Site . Western Archeological Center , National Park Service , United States Department of the Interior . Publications in Anthropology 72 ( Covers archeological finds at Manzanar from the pre @-@ World War II , wartime and post @-@ war periods ) .
Chalfant , William A. ( 1980 ) . Story Of Inyo . Chalfant Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 912494 @-@ 34 @-@ 4 .
Ewan , Rebecca Fish ( 2000 ) . A Land Between : Owens Valley , California . The Johns Hopkins University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 6461 @-@ 5 .
Hoffman , Abraham ( 1992 ) . Vision or Villainy : Origins of the Owens Valley @-@ Los Angeles Water Controversy . Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89096 @-@ 509 @-@ 9 .
Kahri , William L. ( 1983 ) . Water and Power : The Conflict Over Los Angeles Water Supply in the Owens Valley . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 05068 @-@ 1 .
Nadeau , Remi A. ( 1997 ) . The Water Seekers . Crest Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 9627104 @-@ 5 @-@ 8 .
Steward , Julian ( 1933 ) . " Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute " . University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 33 ( 3 ) : 233 – 250 .
Steward , Julian ( 2007 ) [ 1934 ] . Myths of the Owens Valley Paiute . Kessinger Publishing , LLC . ISBN 1 @-@ 4325 @-@ 6538 @-@ 9 .
Wehrey , Jane ( 2006 ) . Voices From This Long Brown Land : Oral Recollections of Owens Valley Lives and Manzanar Pasts . Palgrave Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 29541 @-@ 3 .
= = = Wartime @-@ related resources = = =
Armor , John and Wright , Peter . ( 1989 ) . Manzanar ; Photographs by Ansel Adams . Vintage Books . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Adams Ansel , Benti , Wynne ( ed . ) , Embrey , Sue Kunitomi ( contributor ) , Michael , William H. ( contributor ) . ( 2001 ) . Born Free And Equal : The Story of Loyal Japanese Americans . Spotted Dog Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 893343 @-@ 05 @-@ 7 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Bunting , Eve , Soentpiet , Chris K. ( 1998 ) . So Far from the Sea . Clarion Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 72095 @-@ 8 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cooper , Michael . ( 2002 ) . Remembering Manzanar : Life In A Japanese Relocation Camp . Clarion Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 06778 @-@ 7 .
Denenberg , Barry . ( 1999 ) . The Journal of Ben Uchida : Citizen 13559 , Mirror Lake Internment Camp , California , 1942 . Scholastic . ISBN 0 @-@ 590 @-@ 48531 @-@ 8 .
Embrey , Sue Kunitomi . ( 1972 ) . The Lost Years : 1942 – 1946 . Moonlight Publications . ISBN 0 @-@ 930046 @-@ 07 @-@ 2 .
Garrett , Jessie A. , Larson , Ronald C. ( ed ) . ( 1977 ) . Camp and Community : Manzanar and the Owens Valley . Japanese American Oral History Program : California State University , Fullerton . ISBN 0 @-@ 930046 @-@ 00 @-@ 5 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Howser , Huell ( 2002 @-@ 01 @-@ 08 ) . " Manzanar ( 4012 ) " . California 's Gold ( Chapman University Huell Howser Archive ) . Retrieved 2013 @-@ 06 @-@ 16 .
Inada , Lawson Fusao ( ed . ) ( 2000 ) . Only What We Could Carry : The Japanese American Internment Experience . Heyday Books and the California Historical Society . ISBN 1 @-@ 890771 @-@ 30 @-@ 9 .
Peterson , Robert ( November – December 1999 ) . " Scouting in World War II Detention Camps " . Scouting Magazine : the Way It Was ( Boy Scouts of America ) . Retrieved September 28 , 2007 .
Weglyn , Michi ( 1996 ) [ 1976 ] . Years Of Infamy : The Untold Story Of America 's Concentration Camps . University of Washington Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 295 @-@ 97484 @-@ 2 .
= = = Post @-@ War @-@ related resources = = =
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians . ( 1997 ) . Personal Justice Denied : Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians . Civil Liberties Public Education Fund and University of Washington Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 295 @-@ 97558 @-@ X.
Bahr , Diana Myers ( 2007 ) . The Unquiet Nisei : An Oral History Of The Life Of Sue Kunitomi Embrey . Palgrave MacMillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 230 @-@ 60067 @-@ 0 .
Daniels , Roger , Kitano , Harry H.L. , Taylor , Sandra C ( 1986 ) . Japanese Americans From Relocation To Redress . University of Utah Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87480 @-@ 258 @-@ X. CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Irons , Peter ( 1983 ) . Justice At War . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 503273 @-@ X.
Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California ( 1998 ) . Nanka Nikkei Voices : Resettlement Years , 1945 – 1955 . Japanese American Historical Society of Southern California .
Maki , Mitchell T. , Kitano , Harry H.L. , Berthold , S. Megan ( 1999 ) . Achieving The Impossible Dream : How Japanese Americans Obtained Redress . University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 02458 @-@ 3 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Silber , Rebecca R ( March 15 , 1998 ) . " Lexicon of Genocide ( Letter to the Editor ) " . New York Times . Retrieved January 1 , 2008 .
Takei , Barbara , Tachibana , Julie ( 2001 ) . Tule Lake Revisited . T & T Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9711676 @-@ 0 @-@ 5 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Tse , Joyce ( May 2 , 2007 ) . " Manzanar Pilgrimage Begins A New Era " . The Rafu Shimpo . Retrieved January 19 , 2009 .
= Douglas Bruce =
Douglas Edward Bruce ( born August 26 , 1949 ) is a conservative activist and former legislator in the U.S. state of Colorado . He is also known for being the author of Colorado 's Taxpayer Bill of Rights ( TABOR ) .
A strict advocate for limited government , Bruce wrote and promoted TABOR , a spending limitation measure approved by Colorado voters in 1992 ; his name is so associated with the measure that attempts to bypass its restrictions are known as " de @-@ Brucing . " After two unsuccessful campaigns for the Colorado State Senate in 1996 and 2000 , Bruce was eventually elected to the El Paso County , Colorado county commission in 2004 . While a county commissioner , Bruce was noted for frequently falling on the losing sides of 4 @-@ 1 votes , and for disputes with county staff and fellow commissioners on numerous occasions .
Bruce was appointed to a vacant seat in the Colorado House of Representatives in December 2007 and represented House District 15 , which encompasses eastern Colorado Springs . After kicking a Rocky Mountain News photographer on the day he was sworn in , Bruce became the first legislator in Colorado history to be formally censured ; he was later removed from a House committee overseeing veterans affairs after refusing to sponsor a ceremonial resolution honoring veterans . Although defeated for election to a full term in the August 2008 Republican Party primary , Bruce has continued his activism to reduce government expenditures and taxes in Colorado and in Colorado Springs in particular before being indicted for a decades @-@ worth of criminal activity for " cheating " Colorado out of millions under the guise of charity and anti @-@ tax activism . In 2011 , Douglas Bruce was convicted of all counts in the indictment , including four counts of felony criminal activity including money laundering , attempted improper influence of a public official , and tax fraud after he was discovered to be using a small @-@ government charity he founded to hide millions of dollars from the state department of revenue . He was sentenced on February 13 , 2012 to a total of 180 days in jail , ordered to pay a total of $ 49 @,@ 000 in fines , and subject to six months of probation which includes extensive disclosure requirements .
= = Early career = =
Born in Los Angeles , California , Bruce graduated from Hollywood High School , at the age of 16 and then from Pomona College with a double major in history and government . He completed a law degree from the University of Southern California 's Gould School of Law in 1973 , and worked as a Los Angeles County deputy district attorney from 1973 to 1979 , resigning amid frustration with the court system .
In 1980 , Bruce ran a largely self @-@ financed campaign for the California State Assembly , running in the Democratic Primary for the 38th Assembly district , which , at that time , centered on Pacific Palisades and Malibu . Running with the campaign slogan " Specifics , Not Safe Generalities , " Bruce ran what a local newspaper described as " something of an anomaly — a law and order primary campaign by a Democrat . " Bruce lost by five percentage points in a high @-@ turnout primary ; his opponent , Steven Afriat , narrowly lost the general election to Republican Marian la Follette .
= = = Move to Colorado and rental properties = = =
During the late 1970s , Bruce acquired a number of rental properties in the Los Angeles area , which he managed full @-@ time after leaving the district attorney 's office . During the late 1970s and early 1980s , Bruce was embroiled in several protracted tax disputes with the Internal Revenue Service . In 1986 , Bruce acquired several properties in Colorado Springs and moved to Colorado permanently . Shortly before moving to Colorado , Bruce changed his political party affiliation from Democrat to Republican .
In addition to his Colorado Springs properties , Bruce acquired rental properties in Denver and Pueblo , Colorado . He has been cited repeatedly by law and code enforcement officials regarding the upkeep of his properties , although most of the dozens of citations brought against him have been overturned . In connection with charge of operating an unsafe building , Bruce spent eight days in jail in 1995 on a contempt of court citation . In response to the numerous complaints filed against him , Bruce has questioned the constitutionality of city code provisions , and accused city officials of selective prosecution and carrying out a " vendetta " against him personally .
In 2003 , Bruce announced that he intended to sell his rental properties in order to devote more time to political activism , but was cited by Colorado Springs for keeping dilapidated properties as recently as 2007 . In 2008 , Bruce was cited by Colorado Springs for two properties they considered " dilapidated , " in part because of windows boarded up under orders from the city , but the charges were ultimately dropped when Bruce sold the buildings . Shortly before his August 2008 legislative primary , Colorado Springs declared a four @-@ plex owned by Bruce as " dilapidated ; " Bruce responded that he had put money into repairing the building and readying it for sale . In early 2010 , Colorado Springs told Bruce that it would charge him $ 40 @,@ 000 to restart water service at seven of his rental properties , a charge that Bruce said amounted to political retaliation , but that city staff justified by noting of the properties had been abandoned .
= = = Taxpayer 's Bill of Rights = = =
Although similar tax @-@ limitation measures had been rejected by voters over the previous decades , in 1988 , Bruce authored and led the campaign that was eventually successful in enacting TABOR , a " Taxpayer Bill of Rights , " in Colorado . Among other provisions , TABOR mandated voter approval of any tax increases and constrained state government spending to grow at a rate no greater than the rates of population growth and inflation . Although TABOR did not pass in 1988 , garnering only 42 % of the vote in a statewide reference , Bruce revised the measure and it was placed on the ballot again in 1990 , when it received 49 % support . A third attempt in 1992 was successful , and TABOR was passed with 54 % of the vote and became part of Colorado 's constitution . In 1997 , TABOR 's restrictions on state spending were triggered for the first time , resulting in refunds to taxpayers .
During these campaigns , Bruce was the primary spokesperson for TABOR , often trading barbs with TABOR opponent and Colorado governor Roy Romer . In one frequently @-@ cited incident , Romer likened the TABOR proposal to " economic terrorism ; " in response , Bruce printed personal business cards reading " Douglas Bruce : Terrorist . " The passage of TABOR was Bruce 's most prominent political accomplishment ; years later , Bruce 's personalized license plate read " MRTABOR . " Bruce also wrote and successfully passed a similar spending limitation measure in Colorado Springs in 1991 . The statewide and local effects of TABOR on government finances led Colorado College political science professor Bob Loevy , in 2009 , to call Bruce " the most influential Colorado politician of his time . "
Since the passage of TABOR in 1992 , hundreds of local jurisdictions in Colorado have sought voter approval to temporarily or permanently exceed the spending limitations of TABOR , measures which became known as " de @-@ Brucing , " in reference to TABOR 's author . By 2007 , over half of Colorado 's school district and counties had " de @-@ Bruced , " as had many municipalities . TABOR 's budget restrictions were frequently cited by officials in Bruce 's native El Paso County as resulting in deficiencies in health , law enforcement , and administrative services , and on the state level , creating financial difficulties for higher education .
In 2005 , after several years of tight budgets brought about by recession , the spending limitations of TABOR , and other budgetary obligations , the Colorado General Assembly referred Referendum C , a statewide " de @-@ Brucing " measure , to Colorado voters . Bruce was a vocal opponent of Referendum C , facing off against supporters including Gov. Bill Owens , who had supported the original passage of TABOR . Referendum C , which was ultimately passed by voters , authorized a five @-@ year " time @-@ out " from some of TABOR 's spending restrictions . Although Bruce threatened a lawsuit against the state of Colorado if the referendum passed , the measure was ultimately enacted into law , raising state revenue by several billion dollars .
In 2008 , following his term in the state legislature , Bruce argued against a measure to reverse some of the spending restrictions of the Taxpayer 's Bill of Rights . The initiative , known as the Savings Account for Education , would divert refunds given to taxpayers under TABOR to a special fund for K @-@ 12 education . Bruce opposed the measure in legislative hearings and then filed a legal challenge once House Speaker Andrew Romanoff , its primary proponent , sought to place the measure on the Colorado ballot as a citizen initiative . The measure was ultimately placed on the November 2008 statewide ballot as Amendment 59 , and Bruce launched a website opposing it .
= = = State Senate campaigns = = =
Bruce 's first attempt to seek elected office in Colorado came in 1996 , when Bruce challenged incumbent Republican state senator Ray Powers in the Republican Party primary . Bruce lost to Powers , who went on to become the Colorado State Senate President . Because of the negativity of Bruce 's campaign against Powers , Bruce was the only person banned from Powers ' ranch , a frequent site for Colorado Springs Republican fundraisers .
Bruce also ran unsuccessfully for the Colorado State Senate in 2000 , losing a hotly contested Republican party primary to Ron May in the solidly Republican district . Running with the slogan " Ron May , but Bruce will , " Bruce faced institutional opposition from statewide Republican leaders , including Governor Bill Owens , who had once supported Bruce 's TABOR initiatives . May ultimately won by only 112 votes .
= = = El Paso County Commissioner = = =
= = = = 2004 election = = = =
Bruce sought election to the El Paso County , Colorado , county commission in 2004 , winning the Republican Party nomination by defeating Colorado Springs councilwoman Maraget Radford in the party primary . In the general election , Bruce defeated Democrat Stanley Hildahl and two Republicans who ran as write @-@ in candidates with the backing of some party leaders . Bruce won the general election with 58 % of the vote . Bruce self @-@ funded his campaign , refusing to accept outside donations .
= = = = Policy positions = = = =
While serving on the El Paso County Commission , Bruce was frequently the only opposition to measures supported by the other four county commissioners . He cast the only vote against implementing mail ballot elections , against county interference in the proposed incorporation of Falcon , Colorado ( although he also opposed the incorporation ) , against a package of road improvement projects recommended by the Colorado Department of Transportation , against the appointment of County Administrator Jeff Greene , against stricter building codes for mobile homes , and against awarding a county grant to an anti @-@ poverty agency , calling it handouts for " deadbeats . "
He was unsuccessful in attempting to reduce the number of paid holidays taken by county employees , but was instrumental in lowering property tax rates and in negotiating the expansion of a gravel pit operation . He also spoke in favor of turning over management of the county fair to a volunteer organization and called for the number of volunteer boards and commissions to be reduced . Bruce was also outspoken in support of deportation for illegal immigrants , and went against his normal practice of refusing to support ceremonial resolutions to support a resolution in favor of the creation of an Immigration and Customs Enforcement office in El Paso County .
= = = = Conflicts with county staff and commissioners = = = =
When Bruce joined the commission , he sought to have his salary of over $ 60 @,@ 000 per year directed to charity , per a campaign promise . Designating Active Citizens Together , an educational non @-@ profit he helped found , as the recipient , Bruce sought to have the county not withhold income tax from his checks , as the money would go directly to charity and he would receive no direct personal benefit . After ten months of disputing arrangements with county staff , Bruce agreed to accept checks with taxes and deductions withheld . In 2007 , Bruce attempted to use the non @-@ profit group to donate copies of the U.S. Constitution for local school districts to distribute to graduating seniors ; several districts refused his donation on logistical grounds or policies forbidding distribution of external material . The nonprofit group has purchased tens of thousands of copies of the constitution , with the goal of giving one to every graduating high school senior in Colorado .
He also refused to accept a VIP pass from the Colorado Springs Airport , characterizing it as a " bribe ; " he also objected to the introduction of public prayer during county commission meetings . Bruce also objected to the inclusion of his name ( alongside other county commissioners ) on a plaque marking county support of a new courthouse expansion , threatening to physically remove his name from the plaque ; his opposition to financing methods for the courthouse had been a driving factor behind his 2004 county commission campaign .
Bruce 's debating and speaking style during county commission meetings led to occasional conflicts with county staff and other commissioners . During his first year , an escalating series of disputes with Commissioner Sallie Clark led to her ruling , at a meeting which she chaired , that Bruce was not allowed to discuss Colorado Springs city politics . In 2006 , Bruce was also accused of intervening in a county bidding process for a copying contract in favor of a campaign supporter .
In 2006 , El Paso County Attorney Bill Louis denounced Bruce as a " narcissist , sociopath and crackpot enabler " for supporting Colorado 's Amendment 38 , a referendum designed to ease rules for petitioning measures onto election ballots . Bruce and Louis verbally tangled after Louis called Bruce 's tactics " guerrilla " and Louis announced : " I plan to do everything in my limited power to make sure that [ Bruce 's tenure in elected office ] comes to an end at some point for the good not only of this community but for all of Colorado and the nation . "
Tensions also rose during Bruce 's final weeks on the county commission , as he sought a vacancy committee 's appointment to the state legislature . Bruce criticized county staff for being unresponsive to his inquiries , and Sheriff Terry Maketa responded by accusing Bruce of harming the morale of county staff , and told Bruce that he supported his bid for the legislature in order " to put you in an environment that will match your ineffectiveness , " a statement applauded by other county staff . During his final commission meetings , Bruce was also repeatedly cut off by other commissioners during his comments ; other members of the commission described his behavior as an increase in " grandstanding " prior to the vacancy committee 's meeting .
= = = Activism in Colorado Springs = = =
In June 2000 , Bruce was called to appear as a potential juror for a sexual assault trial in Colorado Springs . During the jury selection process , Bruce distributed leaflets written by the Fully Informed Jury Association in support of jury nullification . After defense attorneys objected to Bruce 's actions , the presiding judge dismissed Bruce and 50 other potential jurors who had received the fliers , resulting in a two @-@ week delay for the trial .
Bruce authored two measures , Issues 200 and 201 , which appeared on the November 2006 Colorado Springs election ballot , and would have reduced the city 's sales tax rate ,
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eliminated its property tax , and restricted the city 's ability to borrow money . The legality of the measures was challenged by city officials ; the dispute rose to the Colorado Court of Appeals , which ruled in favor of the measures ' placement on the ballot . Bruce also unsuccessfully contested both the editing of statements of support for the measures in ballot summaries mailed to voters , and what he claimed was deceptive wording in other taxation measures that election .
Bruce was also the subject of several criminal citations — first in May 2006 , stemming from charges that he campaigned against a tax increase for the Falcon Fire Protection District at a polling place closer than the legal 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) limit , and then in August 2009 , when he and another man were charged with trespassing after being asked by police to stop soliciting signatures outside a Costco for the second time in a year . Bruce alleged that the City of Colorado Springs attempted to " bully " him and violate his First Amendment rights , a charge city officials denied . A trial was eventually held after paperwork errors , a tainted jury pool , and claims by Bruce of selective prosecution ; after a three @-@ day trial , both were acquitted . Bruce later filed an unsuccessful complaint alleging professional misconduct by the case 's prosecutor and judge .
= = Colorado House of Representatives = =
= = = Appointment , swearing @-@ in , and censure = = =
In October 2007 , Bruce was chosen over two other Republican contenders for the state house seat vacated by Rep. Bill Cadman , following a short but contentious battle for the appointment . Bruce received two @-@ thirds of the votes from the 66 @-@ member vacancy committee . Although eligible to be sworn in immediately after his appointment was certified , Bruce postponed the oath of office in order to be eligible to serve a full four terms beyond the partial term under Colorado 's term limits rules , an action which was criticized by both Republican and Democratic lawmakers . His delay led to the enactment of legislation requiring legislators to be sworn in within 14 days of their selection . Bruce cast the only dissenting vote on the measure .
Bruce also demanded to be sworn in in front of the full house , a request denied by both Republican and Democratic leadership . He acquiesced to an individual swearing @-@ in ceremony on January 14 after House Republicans voted 22 @-@ 1 to call for a representative to be named for District 15 if Bruce did not take the oath of office by the end of the day .
On the morning before he was sworn in , Bruce kicked a Rocky Mountain News photographer who took Bruce 's picture during the prayer ; Bruce accused the photographer of " violating the order and decorum " of the house , and refused to apologize , describing his action instead as a " nudge or a tap . " A six @-@ member legislative panel recommended 6 @-@ 0 that Bruce be censured by the House for his actions . On January 24 , the full House of Representatives voted 62 @-@ 1 to censure Bruce . He became the first representative in the recorded history of the state house to be formally censured .
= = = Legislative agenda = = =
For the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Bruce was named to seats on the House Finance Committee and the House State , Veterans , and Military Affairs Committee . Before the session began , Bruce denounced much of the House Republican caucus ' legislative agenda as " streamlining socialism . " Bruce was similarly critical of the proposed state budget debated during the 2008 legislative session ; however , his budget amendment proposals were unsuccessful .
All of the legislation introduced by Bruce died in House committees , including proposals to distribute copies and require instruction on the Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution to high school seniors , to prohibit counties from assessing any charges other than property taxes on property tax bills , to raise legislative pay and index pay to inflation , and to create a bipartisan panel to draw up Colorado 's congressional and legislative districts .
Bruce routinely objected to the practice of attaching a " safety clause " to bills , the inclusion of which declares the bill an " necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace , health or safety , " enacting it into law sooner and prohibiting challenges to the legislation via the petition process . He offered amendments to a number of bills to remove the safety clause , which often failed on account of legislators ' personal hostility towards him ; however , in 2008 , 41 % of bills passed had no safety clause , up from 25 % the previous year . Bruce also opposed proposals to raise signature requirements for citizen @-@ initiated constitutional amendments , and opposed a bill to impose new requirements on landlords , despite criticism that voting on the measure constituted a conflict of interest .
= = = Removal from committee = = =
Consistent with Bruce 's practice as a county commissioner , Bruce opposed ceremonial resolutions in the legislature , and on February 13 , was the lone legislator who refused to sign on as a cosponsor to a resolution recognizing Military and Veterans Appreciation Day . Other Republican legislators denounced Bruce in a public letter for " callous indifference " towards veterans , and Republican Minority Leader Mike May removed Bruce from the House State , Veterans and Military Affairs Committee . Bruce offered as evidence of his support for veterans his successful amendment to a house bill to include interest in a state repayment to the Colorado Veterans Trust Fund , a move which resulted in an additional $ 636 @,@ 000 repaid to the fund . Bruce would later cite this as one of his major accomplishments during the 2008 session .
= = = " Illiterate peasants " comments = = =
On April 21 , 2008 , Bruce voiced opposition during house debate on a bill sponsored by Rep. Marsha Looper to create a guest worker program to facilitate temporary employment visas for agricultural workers from Mexico . After speaking against illegal immigration and being advised to restrict comments to the bill by debate chair Rep. Kathleen Curry , Bruce took the floor a second time and commented :
Bruce was immediately gavelled to order by Rep. Kathleen Curry , who ruled that he would no longer be recognized during debate on the bill . Bruce 's comments were denounced by legislators on both sides of the aisle , as well the Mexican consulate in Denver . Bruce proudly defended his remarks as being factually accurate , citing dictionary definitions of " illiterate " and " peasant . " Legislators responded to Bruce 's propensity for generating controversy by declaring that they would " start ignoring him . " The following weekend , Bruce 's comments were the target of a local protest in Colorado Springs .
= = = 2008 election = = =
Bruce announced in November 2007 that he would stand in the 2008 general election for the House District 15 seat . He faced a challenge for the Republican nomination from attorney and Iraq War veteran Mark Waller . Bruce funded his own campaign with over $ 30 @,@ 000 of personal funds , refusing to accept private campaign donations ; Waller , however , received endorsements or contributions from at least five sitting state representatives , and Colorado Attorney General John Suthers . Waller received 57 % of the vote at the Republican assembly in March , claiming the top line on the August Republican primary ballot ; he did not differ publicly with Bruce on political positions , but argued that Bruce 's temperament caused him to be an ineffective legislator .
Both Bruce and Waller accused each other of inappropriate conduct while campaigning ; Bruce was accused of inappropriately distributing campaign flyers to Republican representatives on the House floor , of mailing flyers promoting his charity shortly before the primary , and of inappropriately listing endorsements on his web site . In turn , Bruce filed several campaign finance complaints against Waller , one of which resulted in Waller 's campaign being fined for failing to properly disclose a campaign contribution . Ultimately , Bruce was defeated for the Republican nomination in the August 12 party primary , taking 48 percent of the vote to Waller 's 52 percent .
= = Post @-@ legislative activism = =
= = = Colorado Springs = = =
In 2007 , Bruce began a series of challenges to the City of Colorado Springs ' creation of a Stormwater Enterprise Fee , which he contended amounted to an illegal tax collected by a government entity . After his first attempt at a ballot measure to end the fee was held to violate Colorado 's single subject rule , Bruce gained permission for a second petition following a year @-@ long battle over wording , and placed the measure on the November 2008 ballot following struggles to collect the necessary number of signatures but were rejected by voters .
Bruce was again successful at placing a measure targeting the Stormwater Enterprise on the ballot in 2009 , despite challenges from the city that signatures were not submitted in time , but not after Bruce lost disputes over the wording of the ballot measures . Bruce 's Issue 300 was passed by voters with about 55 percent of the vote , and mandated that enterprise payments to Colorado Springs be phased out over eight years . Bruce and city officials disputed , even before the election , as to whether his measure would apply to the city 's Stormwater Enterprise Fee ; and after threatening to launch a ballot initiative to cut property taxes after an initial 5 @-@ 4 vote by the city council over two years , the city council then voted 5 @-@ 4 to phase out the authority immediately . Bruce , however , objected to the city council 's proposed implementation of the initiative , which would allow the city to collect payments from the authority in exchange for services rendered . Bruce claimed that this would " undo the plain meaning of issue 300 , " and made similar claims regarding a local government restructuring proposal made by Colorado Springs mayor Lionel Rivera .
In March 2010 , Bruce filed suit against the city of Colorado Springs and its city council , charging that they had illegally hired outside legal counsel . He also accused the council members of receiving benefits greater than that authorized by law .
In June 2010 , Bruce filed a ballot measure to dramatically expand the powers of the city 's mayor , including eliminating the positions of city manager , chief financial officer , and communications staff , as well as giving the mayor power to veto ordinances , lower taxes , and excuse city code violations .
= = = Statewide ballot measures = = =
Although Bruce attempted to distance himself from three statewide ballot measures aimed at limiting Colorado governments ' power to raise and borrow money , several petitioners for the measures were linked to Bruce through records showing that they temporarily resided at one of his Colorado Springs apartment buildings , and through their past work on TABOR initiatives in other states and petitioning for Bruce 's Issue 300 in Colorado Springs . The three measures — Amendment 60 , Amendment 61 and Proposition 101 — would impose restrictions or tax cuts , eliminate governments ' ability to borrow money without voter approval , cut the state income tax from 4 @.@ 63 to 3 @.@ 5 percent , and eliminate vehicle ownership taxes .
Opponents of the ballot measures filed a complaint alleging the backers violated Colorado campaign finance laws by failing to disclose contributions and expenditures . Bruce was subpoenaed to testify in a hearing related to the case in March , but contested the summons unsuccessfully . During the month of May 2010 , the state attempted 29 times to serve a notice of a court order testify to Bruce at his Colorado Springs residence ; Bruce stated that he was out of town at the time , although both notices and delivered newspapers were removed during that period .
At a hearing in late May , one of the ballot measures ' sponsors , Michelle Northrup , testified that she had met with Bruce before the measures were filed and that he provided advice on submitting the initiates and other legal matters . In early June , an administrative law judge ruled that the evidence showed Bruce was behind the three measures and imposed fines on their proponents , and state attorney general John Suthers ' office stated that they would seek a contempt citation against Bruce in district court .
= = Crime , trial , conviction and sentence = =
In 2010 , Douglas Bruce was charged with money laundering , attempted bribery of a public official , and tax fraud after he was discovered to be using a small @-@ government charity he founded to hide millions of dollars from the state taxman , pocketing interest and using the funds to further his political agenda . The case went to trial during which Bruce acted as his own attorney and , after eight days of trail , on Dec 22 , 2011 , after only four hours of deliberation , jurors convicted Bruce on four counts . On 13 February 2012 he was sentenced to two consecutive 90 @-@ day jail terms and six months of probation , during which he will have to make extensive financial disclosures to the court aimed to ensure he does not become a repeat offender . This was less than the two years of prison the District Attorney had asked for . He was also ordered to pay around $ 21 @,@ 000 to cover the cost of prosecution and about $ 29 @,@ 000 to cover the taxes that were owed .
State Assistant Attorney General Robert Shapiro said , " Mr. Bruce , for personal , selfish and narcissistic reasons , took advantage of our charitable @-@ giving process . He was able to cheat Colorado for the better part of a decade . " Douglas Bruce defiantly denounced the trial , saying without contrition , " This was the dirtiest trial I have seen in 38 years , regardless of the outcome . " On February 13 , 2012 , Denver District Judge Anne Mansfield sentenced Bruce to six months in jail and six years on probation , imposing strict conditions that will require him to disclose in detail his financial life , even allowing the government access to his personal computers . Mansfield said she doubts Bruce will successfully complete his probation as Bruce himself would show up tardy to trial and introduced evidence by throwing documents onto the floor , the judge said . “ The defendant has absolutely no regard for the rule of law . His behavior during trial was reprehensible , ” Manfield said . Assistant Attorney General Robert Shapiro said the outcome was fair , “ Mr. Bruce ’ s life is going to be extremely transparent . That ’ s all we ever wanted , ” he said . Bruce remained defiant , saying , “ They will be able to have my body , but they cannot have my soul , ” he said . Bruce began serving his sentence 17 February 2012 . Bruce spent 104 days in jail , and was paroled with 20 terms and conditions required for his release . After a year , the probation department of the Denver District Court brought two complaints against Bruce , claiming that he failed to submit financial disclosures and tax filings , didn 't disclose a financial deal with Colorado Springs Councilwoman Helen Collins and didn 't report code violations and court cases related to six properties he owns in Ohio , Wisconsin and Illinois nor nearly $ 22 @,@ 000 in delinquent taxes on three Ohio properties . On March 11 , 2016 , Douglas Bruce was found in violation of his probation and sentenced to two years . He is currently serving his sentence in the Colorado Territorial Correctional Facility in Cañon City , Colorado .
= Architecture of Scotland =
The architecture of Scotland includes all human building within the modern borders of Scotland , from the Neolithic era to the present day . The earliest surviving houses go back around 9500 years , and the first villages 6000 years : Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney being the earliest preserved example in Europe . Crannogs , roundhouses , each built on an artificial island , date from the Bronze Age and stone buildings called Atlantic roundhouses and larger earthwork hill forts from the Iron Age . The arrival of the Romans from about 71 AD led to the creation of forts like that at Trimontium , and a continuous fortification between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde known as the Antonine Wall , built in the second century AD . Beyond Roman influence , there is evidence of wheelhouses and underground souterrains . After the departure of the Romans there were a series of nucleated hill forts , often utilising major geographical features , as at Dunadd and Dunbarton .
Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of feudalism in the twelfth century . Initially these were wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , but many were replaced by stone castles with a high curtain wall . In the late Middle Ages new castles were built , some on a grander scale , and others , particularly in the borders , simpler tower houses . Gunpowder weaponry led to the use of gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls adapted to resist bombardment . Medieval parish church architecture was typically simpler than in England , but there were grander ecclesiastical buildings in the Gothic style . From the early fifteenth century the introduction of Renaissance styles included the selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture , as in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral , followed more directly influenced Renaissance palace building from the late fifteenth century , beginning at Linlithgow . The private houses of aristocrats adopted some of these features and incorporated features of Medieval castles and tower houses into plans based on the French Château to produce the Scots Baronial style . From about 1560 , the Reformation led to the widespread destruction of church furnishings , ornaments and decoration and in post @-@ Reformation period a unique form of church emerged based on the " T " -shaped plan .
After the Restoration in 1660 , there was a fashion for grand private houses influenced by the Palladian style and associated with the architects Sir William Bruce and James Smith . Scotland produced some of the most significant British architects of the eighteenth century , including : Colen Campbell , James Gibbs , William Chambers and particularly Robert Adam . They looked to classical models and Edinburgh 's New Town was the focus of a classical building boom . The Industrial Revolution transformed Scottish towns , leading to urban sprawl , exemplified by tenements like those of the Gorbals in Glasgow . New towns , of designed communities like New Lanark , developed from 1800 by Robert Owen , were one solution . Sociologist Patrick Geddes ( 1854 – 1932 ) preferred " conservative surgery " : retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst . There was a revival of the baronial style , particularly after the rebuilding of Abbotsford House for Walter Scott from 1816 , and a parallel revival of the Gothic in church architecture . Neoclassicism was pursued by William Henry Playfair , Alexander ' Greek ' Thomson and David Rhind . The late nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including the Forth Bridge , a cantilever bridge and one of the first major all steel constructions in the world .
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century , Charles Rennie Mackintosh , developed a unique and internationally influential " Glasgow style " . Architects who continued to employ styles informed by the past included James Robert Rhind and James Miller . From the mid @-@ twentieth century , architecture in Scotland became increasingly utilitarian and influenced by modernism . Key Scottish architects in this movement included Thomas S. Tait , James Stirling and James Gowan . The introduction of brutalism led to urban clearances and extensive use of the tower block . The style was also used in new towns like Glenrothes and Cumbernauld , but has received considerable criticism . More recent major architectural projects include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre , Glasgow , the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde and the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh .
= = Prehistoric era = =
Groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on what is now Scottish soil around 9500 years ago , and the first villages around 6000 years ago . The stone building at Knap of Howar at Papa Westray , Orkney is one of the oldest surviving houses in north @-@ west Europe , making use of locally gathered rubble in a dry @-@ stone construction . Skara Brae on the Mainland of Orkney also dates from this period and is Europe 's most complete Neolithic village . Neolithic habitation , burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well @-@ preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles , where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone . From the Early and Middle Bronze Age we have evidence of the occupation of crannogs , roundhouses partially or entirely built on an artificial island , usually in lakes , rivers and estuarine waters . The peoples of early Iron Age Scotland , particularly in the north and west , lived in substantial stone buildings called Atlantic roundhouses . The remains of hundreds of these houses exist throughout the country , some merely piles of rubble , others with impressive towers and outbuildings . They date from about 800 BC to AD 300 with the most imposing structures having been created circa 200 – 100 BC . In the south and east larger earthwork hill forts survive . There is evidence for about 1 @,@ 000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland , most located below the Clyde @-@ Forth line . They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period , but some seem to have been reoccupied after their departure . Most are circular , with a single palisade around an enclosure .
= = Roman and post @-@ Roman constructions = =
The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 AD . In the summer of AD 78 Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of expeditions to Scotland . Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose . He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the " River Taus " ( usually assumed to be the River Tay ) and established forts there , including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil . Agricola 's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge were abandoned within the space of a few years . By AD 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . Elginhaugh fort , in Midlothian , dates to about this period as may Castle Greg in West Lothian . The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England , building the fortification known as Hadrian 's Wall from coast to coast . Around 141 A.D. the Romans undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland , moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde . The Antonine Wall is the largest Roman construction inside Scotland . It is a sward @-@ covered wall made of turf circa 7 metres ( 20 ft ) high , with nineteen forts . It extended for 60 km ( 37 mi ) . Having taken twelve years to build , the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after AD 160 . The Romans retreated to the line of Hadrian 's Wall , with occasional expeditions that involved the building and reoccupation of forts , until their departure in the fifth century .
Beyond the area of Roman occupation , wheelhouses , a round house with a characteristic outer wall within which a circle of stone piers ( bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel ) were constructed , with over sixty sites identified in the west and north . Over 400 souterrains , small underground constructions , have been discovered in Scotland , many of them in the south @-@ east , and although few have been dated those that have suggest a construction date in the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD . They are usually found close to settlements ( whose timber frames are much less well @-@ preserved ) and may have been for storing perishable agricultural products . After the departure of the Romans we have evidence of a series of forts , often smaller " nucleated " constructions compared with Iron Age constructions , sometimes utilising major geographical features , as at Dunadd and Dumbarton .
= = Middle Ages = =
Medieval vernacular architecture made use of local materials and styles . As in England , cruck construction was used , employing pairs of curved timbers to support the roof , however they were usually hidden from view . In rural areas there was extensive use of turf to fill in the walls , sometimes on a stone base , but they were not long lasting and had to be rebuilt perhaps as often as every two or three years . In some regions , including the south @-@ west and around Dundee , solid clay walls were used , or combinations of clay , turf and stray , rendered with clay or lime to make them weatherproof . With a lack of long span structural timber , the most common building material was stone , employed in both mortared and dry stone construction . Different regions used broom , heather , straw , turfs or reeds for roofing .
The introduction of Christianity into Scotland from Ireland , from the sixth century , led to the construction of basic masonry @-@ built churches beginning on the west coast and islands . Medieval parish church architecture in Scotland was typically much less elaborate than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . In the Highlands they were often even simpler , many built of rubble masonry and sometimes indistinguishable from the outside from houses or farm buildings . However , from the eighth century , more sophisticated buildings emerged . Early Romanesque ashlar masonry produced block @-@ built stone buildings , like the eleventh century round tower at Brechin Cathedral and the square towers of Dunblane Cathedral and The Church of St Rule . After the eleventh century , as masonry techniques advanced , ashlar blocks became more rectangular , resulting in structurally more stable walls that could incorporate more refined architectural moulding and detailing that can be seen in corbelling , buttressing , lintels and arching . At the same time there was increasing influences from English and continental European designs , such as the Romanesque chevron pattern detailing on the piers in the nave of Dunfermline Abbey ( 1130 – 40 ) , which were modelled on details from Durham Cathedral , and the thirteenth century East @-@ end of Elgin Cathedral , which incorporated typical European Gothic mouldings and tracery . In the fifteenth century continental builders are known to have been working in Scotland . French master @-@ mason John Morrow was employed at the building of Glasgow Cathedral and the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey , both considered fine examples of Gothic architecture . The interiors of churches were often elaborate before the Reformation , with highly decorated sacrament houses , like the ones surviving at Deskford and Kinkell . The carvings at Rosslyn Chapel , created in the mid @-@ fifteenth century , elaborately depicting the progression of the seven deadly sins , are considered some of the finest in the Gothic style . Late Medieval Scottish churches also often contained elaborate burial monuments , like the Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . The early sixteenth century saw crown steeples built on churches with royal connections , symbolising imperial monarchy , as at St. Giles Cathedral , Edinburgh .
Scotland is known for its dramatically placed castles , many of which date from the late medieval era . Castles , in the sense of a fortified residence of a lord or noble , arrived in Scotland as part of David I 's encouragement of Norman and French nobles to settle with feudal tenures , particularly in the south and east , and were a way of controlling the contested lowlands . These were primarily wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , of a raised mount or motte , surmounted by a wooden tower and a larger adjacent enclosure or bailey , both usually surrounded by a fosse ( a ditch ) and palisade , and connected by a wooden bridge . They varied in size from the very large such as the Bass of Inverurie , to more modest designs like Balmaclellan . In England many of these constructions were converted into stone " keep @-@ and @-@ bailey " castles in the twelfth century , but in Scotland most of those that were in continued occupation became stone castles of " enceinte " , with a high embattled curtain wall . The need for thick and high walls for defence forced the use of economic building methods , often continuing the tradition of dry @-@ stone rubble building , which were then covered with a lime render , or harled for weatherproofing and a uniform appearance . In addition to the baronial castles there were royal castles , often larger and providing defence , lodging for the itinerant Scottish court and a local administrative centre . By 1200 these included fortifications at Ayr and Berwick . In the wars of Scottish Independence Robert I adopted a policy of castle destruction , rather than allow fortresses to be easily retaken and then held by the English , beginning with his own castles at Ayr and Dumfries , and including Roxburgh and Edinburgh .
After the Wars of Independence , new castles began to be built , often on a grander scale as " livery and maintenance " castles , to house retained troops , like Tantallon , Lothian and Doune near Stirling , rebuilt for Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany in the fourteenth century . The largest number of late medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles , about 800 , were of the tower house design . Smaller versions of tower houses in southern Scotland were known as peel towers , or pele houses . The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault , leading historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as " defensible rather than defensive " . They were typically a tall , square , stone @-@ built , crenelated building ; often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn , a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely , but not necessarily intended for serious defence . They were built extensively on both sides of the border with England and James IV 's forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an immediate burst of castle building across the region . Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture , with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of " keyhole " gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment . Ravenscraig , Kirkcaldy , begun about 1460 , is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an Artillery fort , incorporating " D @-@ shape " bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted .
= = Early modern = =
= = = Renaissance = = =
The impact of the Renaissance on Scottish architecture has been seen as occurring in two distinct phases . First , from the early fifteenth century the selective use of Romanesque forms in church architecture , to be followed by a second phase of more directly influenced Renaissance palace building from the late fifteenth century . The re @-@ adoption of low @-@ massive church building with round arches and pillars , in contrast to the Gothic perpendicular style that was particularly dominant in England in the late Medieval era , may have been influenced by close contacts with Rome and the Netherlands , and may have been a conscious reaction to English forms in favour of continental ones . It can be seen in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral , begun in 1406 , the facade of St Mary 's , Haddington from the 1460s and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone 's Kings College , Aberdeen ( 1500 – 9 ) . About forty collegiate churches were established in Scotland in late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries . Many , like Trinity College , Edinburgh , showed a combination of Gothic and Renaissance styles .
The extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under James III , accelerated under James IV , reaching its peak under James V. These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country , from 1429 . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace of a palatium ad moden castri ( a castle @-@ style palace ) , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery . There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV , in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions . James V encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences . Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style adopted in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European , beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow . This was followed by re @-@ buildings at Holyrood , Falkland , Stirling and Edinburgh , described as " some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain " . Rather than slavishly copying continental forms , most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns , adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials ( particularly stone and harl ) . Work undertaken for James VI demonstrated continued Renaissance influences , with the Chapel Royal at Stirling having a classical entrance built in 1594 and the North Wing of Linlithgow , built in 1618 , using classical pediments . Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats , as in Mar 's Wark , Stirling ( c . 1570 ) and Crichton Castle , built for the Earl of Bothwell in 1580s .
= = = Reformation = = =
From about 1560 , the Reformation revolutionised church architecture in Scotland . Calvinists rejected ornamentation in places of worship , with no need for elaborate buildings divided up by ritual , resulting in the widespread destruction of Medieval church furnishings , ornaments and decoration . There was a need to adapt and build new churches suitable for reformed services , particularly putting the pulpit and preaching at the centre of worship . Many of the earliest buildings were simple gabled rectangles , a style that continued to be built into the seventeenth century , as at Dunnottar Castle in the 1580s , Greenock ( 1591 ) and Durness ( 1619 ) , but often with windows on the south wall ( and none on the north ) , which became a unique feature of Reformation kirks . There were continuities with pre @-@ Reformation materials , with some churches using rubble , as at Kemback in Fife ( 1582 ) . Others employed stone and a few added wooden steeples , as at Burntisland ( 1592 ) . The church of Greyfriars , Edinburgh , built between 1602 and 1620 , used a rectangular layout with a largely Gothic form , but that at Dirleton ( 1612 ) , had a more sophisticated classical style . A variation of the rectangular church that developed in post @-@ Reformation Scotland was the " T " -shaped plan , often used when adapting existing churches , which allowed the maximum number of parishioners to be near the pulpit . They can be seen at Kemback and Prestonpans after 1595 . It continued to be used into the seventeenth century as at Weem ( 1600 ) , Anstruther Easter , Fife ( 1634 – 44 ) and New Cumnock ( 1657 ) . In the seventeenth century a Greek cross plan was used for churches such as Cawdor ( 1619 ) and Fenwick ( 1643 ) . In most of these cases one arm of the cross would have been closed off as a laird 's aisle , meaning that they were in effect " T " -plan churches .
The unique style of great private house in Scotland , later known as Scots baronial , has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s . It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been largely made obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces . It drew on the tower houses and peel towers , retaining many of their external features , but with a larger ground plan , classically a stone built " Z @-@ plan " of a rectangular block with towers , as at Colliston Castle ( 1583 ) and Claypotts Castle ( 1569 – 88 ) . Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace , the king 's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631 . He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618 , Winton House for George Seton , 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot 's Hospital , Edinburgh . He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d 'Ancy @-@ le @-@ Franc . This style can be seen in lords houses built at Caerlaverlock ( 1620 ) , Moray House , Edinburgh ( 1628 ) and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1675 – 89 ) , and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century .
= = = Restoration = = =
During the turbulent era of Civil Wars and the English occupation of Scotland , significant building in Scotland was largely confined to military architecture , with polygonal fortresses with triangular bastions at Ayr , Inverness and Leith in the style of the trace italienne . After the Restoration in 1660 , large scale building began again , often incorporating more comprehensive ideas of reviving classicism . Sir William Bruce ( 1630 – 1710 ) , considered " the effective founder of classical architecture in Scotland " , was the key figure in introducing the Palladian style into Scotland , following the principles of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio ( 1508 – 80 ) . Palladio 's ideas were strongly based on the symmetry , perspective and values of the formal classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans , and associated in England with the designs of Inigo Jones . Bruce popularised a style of country house amongst the nobility that encouraging the move towards a more continental , leisure @-@ oriented architecture . He built and remodelled country houses , including Thirlestane Castle and Prestonfield House . Among his most significant work was his own Palladian mansion at Kinross , built on the Loch Leven estate which he had purchased in 1675 . As the Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works he undertook the rebuilding of the Royal Palace of Holyroodhouse in the 1670s , which gave the palace its present appearance . After the death of Charles II , Bruce lost political favour , and later , following the Glorious Revolution , he was imprisoned more than once as a suspected Jacobite . These houses were predominantly built using well @-@ cut ashlar masonry on the façades , while rubble stonework was used only for internal walls .
James Smith worked as a mason on the Bruce 's rebuilding of Holyrood Palace . In 1683 he was appointed to be Surveyor and Overseer of the Royal Works , and was responsible for maintenance of Holyrood Palace , and refurbished the former Holyrood Abbey as a chapel royal for King James VII . With his father @-@ in @-@ law , the master mason Robert Mylne , Smith worked on Caroline Park in Edinburgh ( 1685 ) , and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1680s ) . Smith 's country houses followed the pattern established by William Bruce , with hipped roofs and pedimented fronts , in a plain but handsome Palladian style . His Canongate Kirk ( 1688 – 90 ) is a basilica @-@ plan , with a baroque facade . In 1691 Smith designed the mausoleum of Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh , in Greyfriars Kirkyard , a circular structure modelled on the Tempietto di San Pietro , designed by Donato Bramante ( 1444 – 1514 ) . Hamilton Palace ( 1695 ) was fronted by giant Corinthian columns , and a pedimented entrance , although was otherwise restrained . Dalkeith Palace ( 1702 – 10 ) was modelled after William of Orange 's palace at Het Loo in the Netherlands .
= = Industrial revolution = =
= = = Eighteenth century = = =
After the Act of Union , growing prosperity in Scotland led to a spate of new building , both public and private . The threat of Jacobite insurrection or invasion meant that Scotland also saw more military building than England in this period , relying on the strength of inclined and angled engineered masonry work combined with the ability of earthen toppings that could deflect and absorb artillery fire . This culminated in the construction of Fort George , near Inverness ( 1748 – 69 ) , with its projecting bastions and redoubts . Scotland produced some of the most significant architects of this era , including : Colen Campbell ( 1676 – 1729 ) , James Gibbs ( 1682 – 1754 ) , James ( 1732 – 94 ) , John ( 1721 – 92 ) and Robert Adam ( 1728 – 92 ) and William Chambers ( 1723 – 96 ) , who all created work that to some degree looked to classical models . Edinburgh 's New Town was the focus of this classical building boom in Scotland . From the mid @-@ eighteenth century it was laid out according to a plan of rectangular blocks with open squares , drawn up by James Craig and built in strong Craigleith sandstone which could be precisely cut by masons . Most residences were built as tenement flats , where , in contrast to contemporary building in England where buildings were divided vertically into different houses , they were divided horizontally , with different occupants sharing a common staircase . The smallest might have only one room , the largest several bedrooms and drawing rooms . This classicism , together with its reputation as a major centre of the Enlightenment , resulted in the city being nicknamed " The Athens of the North " . The gridiron plan , building forms and the architectural detailing would be copied by many smaller towns , although rendered in locally quarried materials . Despite this building boom , the centralisation of much of the government administration , including the king 's works , in London , meant that a number of Scottish architects spent most of all of their careers in England , where they had a major impact on Georgian architecture .
Colen Campbell was influenced by the Palladian style and has been credited with founding Georgian architecture . Architectural historian Howard Colvin has speculated that he was associated with James Smith and that Campbell may even have been his pupil . He spent most of his career in Italy and England and developed a rivalry with fellow Scot James Gibbs . Gibbs trained in Rome and also practised mainly in England . His architectural style did incorporate Palladian elements , as well as forms from Italian baroque and Inigo Jones , but was most strongly influenced by the interpretation of the Baroque by Sir Christopher Wren .
William Adam , was the foremost architect of his time in Scotland , designing and building numerous country houses and public buildings . Among his best known works are Hopetoun House near Edinburgh , and Duff House in Banff . His individual , exuberant , style was built on the Palladian style , but with Baroque details inspired by Vanbrugh and Continental architecture . After his death , his sons Robert and John took on the family business , which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance . Robert emerged as leader of the first phase of the neo @-@ classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death . He rejected the Palladian style as " ponderous " and " disgustful " . However , he continued their tradition of drawing inspiration directly from classical antiquity , influenced by his four @-@ year stay in Europe . An interior designer as well as an architect , with his brothers developing the Adam style , he influenced the development of architecture , not just in Britain , but in Western Europe , North America and in Russia , where his patterns were taken by Scottish architect Charles Cameron . Adam 's main rival was William Chambers , another Scot , but born in Sweden . He did most of his work in London , with a small number of houses in Scotland . He was appointed architectural tutor to the Prince of Wales , later George III , and in 1766 , with Robert Adam , as Architect to the King . More international in outlook than Adam , he combined Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions and his influence was mediated through his large number of pupils .
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
= = = = Urban growth and planning = = = =
Vernacular architecture of this period continued to depend on local materials and styles , increasing making use of locally mined stone . While Edinburgh made extensive use of yellow sandstone , the commercial centre and tenements of Glasgow were built in distinctive red sandstone . After a major fire in the largely wooden Aberdeen in the 1740s , the city fathers decreed that major buildings should be in the locally abundant granite , beginning a new phase in large scale mining and leading to the " granite city " , as a port , becoming a centre of a major industry in the nineteenth century , which supplied Scotland and England with faced stone , pavement slabs and pillars .
Often built by groups of friends and family , the homes of the poor were usually of very simple construction . Contemporaries noted that cottages in the Highlands and Islands tended to be cruder , with single rooms , slit windows and earthen floors , often shared by a large family . In contrast many Lowland cottages had distinct rooms and chambers , were clad with plaster or paint and even had glazed windows . Urban settings also included traditional thatched houses , beside the larger , stone and slate roofed town houses of merchants and urban gentry . The Industrial Revolution transformed the scale of Scottish towns , making Glasgow the " second city of the Empire " . The other side of growing wealth and planned architecture for the aristocracy and middle classes was the growth of urban sprawl , exemplified by sub @-@ urban tenements like those of the Gorbals in Glasgow , where overcrowding , lack of sanitation and general poverty contributed to disease , crime , and very low life expediency .
The sometimes utopian concept of the new town , aimed at improving society through the foundation of architecturally designed communities , was an important part of Scottish thinking from the mid @-@ eighteenth to the twentieth century . In addition to the New Town of Edinburgh these included the complete rebuilding of Inverary for John Campbell , 5th Duke of Argyll by John Adam and Robert Mylne , between 1772 and 1800 . From 1800 , Robert Owen 's New Lanark , designed as a self @-@ contained community , combining industry with ordered and improved living conditions , was an important milestone in the historical development of urban planning . Scotland also produced one of the major figures in urban planning in sociologist Patrick Geddes ( 1854 – 1932 ) , who developed the concept of conurbation , and discarded the idea of " sweeping clearances " to remove existing housing and the imposition of the gridiron plan , in favour of " conservative surgery " : retaining the best buildings in an area and removing the worst . He put this into practice , purchasing and improving slum tenements in James Court , and in new developments at Ramsay Garden , Edinburgh .
= = = = Gothic revival = = = =
The Gothic revival in architecture has been seen as an expression of Romanticism and according to Alvin Jackson , the Scots baronial style was " a Caledonian reading of the gothic " . Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland . Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam displays the incorporation of turrets . These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some external features of the Scots baronial style . Robert Adam 's houses in this style include Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian , but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , remodelled by Adam from 1777 .
Important for the adoption of the style in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House , the residence the novelist and poet , Sir Walter Scott . Re @-@ built for him from 1816 , it became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style . Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth @-@ century houses included battlemented gateways , crow @-@ stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn ( 1789 – 1870 ) , David Bryce ( 1803 – 76 ) , Edward Blore ( 1787 – 1879 ) , Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) and in urban contexts , including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh ( from the 1850s ) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling ( 1859 – 69 ) . The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 – 8 confirmed the popularity of the style .
In ecclesiastical architecture , a style with more in common to that in England was adopted . Important figures included Frederick Thomas Pilkington ( 1832 – 98 ) , who developed a new style of church building which accorded with the fashionable High Gothic , but which adapted it for the worship needs of the Free Church of Scotland , as at Barclay Viewforth Church , Edinburgh ( 1862 – 4 ) . Robert Rowand Anderson ( 1834 – 1921 ) , who trained in the office of George Gilbert Scott in London before returning to Edinburgh , worked mainly on small churches in the ' First Pointed ' ( or Early English ) style that is characteristic of Scott 's former assistants . By 1880 his practice was designing some of the most prestigious public and private buildings in Scotland , such as the Scottish National Portrait Gallery ; the Dome of Old College , Medical Faculty and McEwan Hall , Edinburgh University ; the Central Hotel at Glasgow Central station , the Catholic Apostolic Church in Edinburgh and Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute .
= = = = Neo @-@ classicism = = = =
Neoclassicism continued to be a major style into the nineteenth century . William Henry Playfair ( 1790 – 1857 ) was the designer of many of Edinburgh 's neoclassical landmarks in the New Town . Two of his finest works are the National Gallery of Scotland and the Royal Scottish Academy , which are situated in the centre of Edinburgh . However , the figure most associated with the classical style was Alexander ' Greek ' Thomson ( 1817 – 75 ) . Working mainly in Glasgow , he turned away from the Gothic style toward that of the ancient Greeks and Egyptians , as can be seen in the temple and columns that were part of the Caledonia Road Church ( 1856 ) .
David Rhind ( 1808 – 83 ) employed both neoclassical and Baronial styles and his work included many branches of the Commercial Bank of Scotland , including their headquarters in Edinburgh . He also designed a number of churches , local government buildings , and houses . One of his grandest schemes was Daniel Stewart 's Hospital , now Stewart 's Melville College , Edinburgh . In 1849 , he was commissioned to design the lay @-@ out of the Pollokshields area of Glasgow , in what until then had been farmland 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the city centre . Rhind formed a partnership with Robert Hamilton Paterson ( 1843 – 1911 ) who executed major works for brewers , malters and warehouse @-@ men ( for which Edinburgh was a centre ) , including design of the Abbey , James Calder & Co . , Castle , Holyrood , Drybrough 's , Caledonian and Clydesdale Breweries ; and also work for McVitie and Price . The partnership was to execute important projects such as the Queen Victoria Memorial at Liverpool and the Royal Scots War Memorial in St Giles ' Cathedral , Edinburgh .
= = = = New engineering = = = =
The nineteenth century saw some major engineering projects including Thomas Telford 's stone Dean Bridge and iron Craigellachie Bridge . The most important was the Forth Bridge , a cantilever railway bridge over the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland , 14 kilometres ( 9 mi ) west of central Edinburgh . Construction of a suspension bridge designed by Thomas Bouch , was stopped after the collapse of another of his works , the Tay Bridge . The project was taken over by John Fowler and Benjamin Baker , who designed a structure that was built by Glasgow @-@ based company Sir William Arrol & Co. from 1883 . It was opened on 4 March 1890 , and spans a total length of 2 @,@ 528 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @,@ 296 ft ) . It was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel ; its contemporary , the Eiffel Tower was built of wrought iron .
= = Twentieth century to the present = =
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century , having a considerable influence on European architecture , was Charles Rennie Mackintosh ( 1868 – 1928 ) . He mixed elements of the Scots baronial , Arts and Crafts Movement and the Art Nouveau to produce elegant modern buildings . His major work included The Willow Tearooms in Sauchiehall Street , Glasgow ( 1903 ) , Glasgow School of Art ( 1897 – 1909 ) and Hill House , Helensburgh ( 1902 – 04 ) . The influence of Mackintosh 's Glasgow style can be seen in the work of architects like James Salmon ( 1873 – 1924 ) , whose designs included the heavily glass @-@ fronted , Art Nouveau " Hatrack " ( 1899 – 1902 ) on Vincent Street and the Lion Chambers , Hope Street ( 1904 – 05 ) , an early example of reinforced concrete construction .
In the twentieth century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as Portland cement , concrete , and mass @-@ production brick . Stone would however be retained as a material for some housing stock in Edinburgh , Aberdeen and Dumfries , and would undergo revivals . In the twentieth century private architecture was increasingly client driven . James Robert Rhind ( 1854 – 1918 ) , the son of David Rhind , was successful in the competition for new libraries to be constructed in Glasgow following Andrew Carnegie 's gift of £ 100 @,@ 000 to the city in 1901 . His designs were selected for seven libraries , allowing him to demonstrate his individual interpretation of Edwardian Baroque architecture . Rhind 's libraries were all built with locally quarried sandstone , which blended in with the existing tenement neighbourhoods . His landmark buildings were greatly enhanced by his liberal use of columns , domes and sculpted features . James Miller ( 1860 – 1947 ) is noted for his Scottish railway stations , such as his 1901 – 05 extensions to Glasgow Central railway station , and the spectacular Wemyss Bay railway station on the Firth of Clyde .
After the First World War , Miller and his chief designer Richard Gunn ( 1889 – 1933 ) along with others , adapted to the growing needs of the office block . In Glasgow , with its central gridiron plan , this followed the practice in the United States of filling up entire blocks and building steel framed buildings as high as the fire marshal would allow , as in the heavily American @-@ influenced Union Bank building ( 1924 ) at St Vincent Street . From the mid @-@ twentieth century , public architecture became more utilitarian , as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive welfare state . Thomas S. Tait ( 1882 – 1954 ) was among the most important modernist architects of the era , using pyramidal stepped designs for buildings like the St Andrew 's House , Edinburgh ( 1935 – 9 ) built for the Scottish Office , and the 1939 " Tower of Empire " for the Empire Exhibition , Scotland 1938 , held in Bellahouston Park .
During World War I the government became increasingly aware of Scotland 's housing problems , particularly after the Glasgow rent strike of 1915 . A royal commission of 1917 reported on the " unspeakably filthy privy @-@ middens in many of the mining areas , badly constructed incurably damp labourers ' cottages on farms , whole townships unfit for human occupation in the crofting counties and islands ... groups of lightless and unventilated houses in the older burghs , clotted masses of slums in the great cities " . The result was a massive programme of council house building . Many early council houses were built on greenfield sites away from the pollution of the city , often constructed of semi @-@ detached homes or terraced cottages . Knightswood , north @-@ west of Glasgow , was built as a show piece from 1923 – 9 , with a library , social centre and seven shopping " parades " . In the 1930s schemes tended to be more cheaply built , like Blackhill , Glasgow , with a thousand houses built as two and three story tenements . These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance , by which thousands of tenements were demolished . However , often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks , they soon became notorious . A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland 's houses were still inadequate .
In the post @-@ war period Scotland continued to produce important architects , including James Stirling ( 1926 – 92 ) , who with James Gowan ( 1923 – ) designed the Flats at Ham Common , London ( 1955 – 8 ) , considered a landmark in the development of modernist , brutalist residential planning , which would have a profound impact in Scotland . Their later work , almost all of it outside Scotland , would be highly influential on an international scale . The post @-@ war desire for urban regeneration would focus on the tower block , championed in Glasgow by David Gibson , convener of the city housing committee . Projects like the brutalist Red Road Flats originally offered hope of a new beginning and an escape from the overcrowded nineteenth @-@ century tenements of the city , but lacked a sufficient infrastructure and soon deteriorated . Robert Matthew ( 1906 – 75 ) and Basil Spence ( 1907 – 76 ) were responsible for redeveloping the Gorbals in Glasgow , for demolitions at the University of Edinburgh and the stark rebuilding typified by the David Hume Tower ( 1960 – 63 ) . Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like Glenrothes ( 1948 ) and Cumbernauld ( 1956 ) , designed to take excess population from the cities . Cumbernauld was praised for its architecture when first built , but the uncompleted centre and the layout of the town in general , were receiving heavy criticism by the twenty @-@ first century : its modernist architecture described by one resident as " the lego fantasy of an unhappy child " .
From the 1980s Scottish architecture began to recover its reputation with works such as the building to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow ( 1981 ) . Recent major public buildings include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre , Glasgow ( 1997 ) , designed by Norman Foster ( 1935 – ) and known for its segmented , curving roof as " the Armadillo " , and the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde , including the Glasgow Science Centre , IMAX Cinema and Glasgow Tower ( 2001 ) , which is the highest in Scotland . The most important building of the early twentieth century is the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh , designed by Enric Miralles ( 1955 – 2000 ) and opened in 2004 , with a design that recalls upturned fishing boats . There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland 's architectural heritage , including the great buildings and monuments , but also the classically influenced houses of towns like Edinburgh and Glasgow and the surviving tenements , many of which have been renovated , restored to their original pink and honeyed sandstone from the black fronts created by pollution and brought up to modern standards of accommodation . Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post @-@ industrial decline , like the Merchant City in Glasgow , which was returned to housing from the 1980s , with warehouse loft conversions and more recently the waterfront in Edinburgh , resulting in a return of populations to major urban centres .
= = List of Scottish architects = =
Robert Adam ( 1728 – 92 )
William Adam ( 1689 – 1748 ) Father of Robert and architect and builder
Robert Rowand Anderson ( 1834 – 1921 )
Sir William Bruce ( c . 1630 – 1710 )
Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 )
Charles Cameron ( 1743 – 1812 )
Colen Campbell ( 1676 – 1729 )
Alan Dunlop ( 1958 – )
James Leslie Findlay ( 1868 – 1952 )
James Gibbs ( 1682 – 1754 )
Ian G Lindsay ( 1906 – 66 )
Robert Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 )
Charles Rennie Mackintosh ( 1868 – 1928 ) , architect , designer and watercolourist , husband of Margaret Macdonald ( 1864 – 1933 ) , artist and designer
Robert Matthew ( 1906 – 75 )
James Miller ( 1860 – 1947 )
Gordon Murray ( 1954 – )
Robert Hamilton Paterson ( 1843 – 1911 )
James Playfair ( 1755 – 94 ) , father of William Henry
William Henry Playfair ( 1790 – 1857 )
David Rhind ( 1808 – 83 )
James Robert Rhind ( 1854 – 1918 )
Archibald Simpson ( 1790 – 1847 )
John Smith ( 1781 – 1852 )
William Smith ( 1817 – 1891 )
Basil Spence ( 1907 – 76 )
James Stirling ( 1926 – 92 )
Thomas S. Tait ( 1882 – 1954 )
Alexander ' Greek ' Thomson ( 1817 – 75 )
Frederick Thomas Pilkington ( 1832 – 98 )
= Operation Peppermint =
Operation Peppermint was the codename given during World War II to preparations by the Manhattan Project and the European Theater of Operations United States Army ( ETOUSA ) to counter the danger that the Germans might disrupt the June 1944 Normandy landings with radioactive poisons .
In response , the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and the Victoreen Instrument Company in Cleveland developed portable radiation detection devices suitable for use in the field . In 1944 , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , director of the Manhattan Project , sent Major Arthur V. Peterson to brief General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his senior staff officers at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) .
In response , ETOUSA initiated Operation Peppermint . Special equipment was prepared . Eleven survey meters and a Geiger counter were shipped to England in early 1944 , along with 1 @,@ 500 film packets , which were used to measure radiation exposure . Another 25 survey meters , 5 Geiger counters and 1 @,@ 500 film packets were held in storage in the United States , but in readiness to be shipped by air with the highest priority . Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use , and Signal Corps personnel in its maintenance . The equipment was held in readiness , but the preparations were not needed , because the Germans had not developed such weapons .
= = Background = =
When the Manhattan Project assumed responsibility for the development of nuclear weapons in September 1942 , it also assumed responsibility for the development of suitable countermeasures . At the time , the threat posed by the German nuclear energy project was taken very seriously . Consideration was given to issuing a public warning of the danger of a German nuclear attack on the United States , but the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , considered the likelihood of this to be sufficiently remote that he rejected the notion of taking so drastic a step .
A subcommittee of the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee , chaired by James B. Conant , and consisting of himself , Arthur Compton and Harold Urey , was appointed to look into the issue , and it similarly assessed the danger as low , but still sufficient to warrant taking some precautions . A program was initiated by the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago and the Victoreen Instrument Company in Cleveland to develop radiation detection devices suitable for use in the field . Some 48 portable detection meters were built in 1943 , half of which were capable of detecting 0 to 10 roentgens per day , while the other half could detect from 0 to 100 roentgens per day . Instruments sets were stored at Manhattan District offices in Boston , Chicago , New York , San Francisco and Washington , D.C. , and the area engineer and some other officers were instructed in their use . A special team of scientists was created at the Metallurgical Laboratory who could respond to any reports of the use of nuclear weapons or radioactive poisons .
It was considered more likely that Germany might employ such weapons against the United Kingdom , so four officers from the European Theater of Operations United States Army ( ETOUSA ) were summoned to Chicago where they were given a top secret briefing by the Manhattan District 's Chicago area engineer , Major Arthur V. Peterson . They were told about possible forms such an attack might take , and what the effects and symptoms of them were , and they were given survey instruments and shown how to use them . They were enjoined to tell other officers in the theater to report unexplained fogging of film or illnesses with symptoms corresponding to the effects of radiation sickness .
= = Preparations = =
As the date for the Normandy landings ( codenamed Operation Overlord ) drew near in early 1944 , Groves considered that risk was sufficient to send an officer to brief the Supreme Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower of the possible use of radioactive poisons , particularly plutonium and fission products that might be created in their nuclear reactors . On 8 April 1944 , Peterson reported to the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) and met with Eisenhower , his Chief of Staff , Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith , Assistant Chief of Staff ( G @-@ 2 ) ( Intelligence ) , Major General John Whiteley , and his Assistant Chief of Staff ( G @-@ 3 ) ( Operations ) , Major General Harold R. Bull .
They considered creating an Allied plan to counter the danger , but Whiteley said that he would have to consult with the British command before this could be approved . Colonel G. S. Eyster from G @-@ 3 was then ordered to prepare an American plan , under the codename Operation Peppermint . Further briefings were given to Admiral Harold Stark , and Lieutenant Generals Carl Spaatz and John C. H. Lee , and Eisenhower also wrote to Lieutenant General Hastings Ismay , the Chief of Staff of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Winston Churchill to inform the British Chiefs of Staff , but no British or American commanders actually participating in Operation Overlord were informed . The British subsequently adopted a similar plan to Operation Peppermint , and SHAEF assumed responsibility for coordinating the British and American efforts . Scientific assistance was provided by the Cavendish Laboratory .
Operation Peppermint provided for :
Centralization of all detection equipment and knowledge of its operation under ETOUSA ;
Establishment of a means of detecting the use of radioactive substances ; and
Channels for the reporting of such incidents to G @-@ 3 ETOUSA for immediate action .
Under Operation Peppermint , orders went out for medical personnel to report the details of any fogging or blackening of photographic or X @-@ ray film , and medical officers were ordered to report diseases of unknown etiology involving fatigue , nausea , leukopenia or erythema . Eleven survey meters and a Geiger counter were shipped to England in early 1944 , along with 1 @,@ 500 film packets , which were used to measure radiation exposure . Another 25 survey meters , 5 Geiger counters and 1 @,@ 500 film packets were held in storage in the United States , but in readiness to be shipped by air with the highest priority . Peterson instructed Chemical Warfare Service personnel in the use of the equipment , and Signal Corps personnel in its maintenance .
In the weeks leading up to D @-@ Day , full @-@ scale rehearsals of Operation Peppermint were carried out in order to test the plan and the equipment . Ground and aerial surveys were also carried out to detect the presence of radioactive substances in troop concentration areas , and at sites in the United Kingdom that had been bombed , but none were detected .
= = Outcome = =
The Germans had not developed , and did not employ radioactive poisons , so Operation Peppermint was never put into effect . After VE @-@ Day , the
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equipment and all the documents relating to Operation Peppermint were collected , returned to the United States , and handed over to the Manhattan Project . However , the effort put into developing portable radiation detection equipment was not wasted . Survey teams from the Manhattan Project used the equipment to assess the fallout from the Trinity nuclear test , the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and Operation Crossroads , during which 10 @,@ 000 film badges were used .
= Thored =
Thored ( Old English : Ðoreð or Þoreð ; fl . 979 – 992 ) was a 10th @-@ century ealdorman of York , ruler of the southern half of the old Kingdom of Northumbria on behalf of the king of England . He was the son of either Gunnar or Oslac , northern ealdormen . If he was the former , he may have attained adulthood by the 960s , when a man of his name raided Westmorland . Other potential appearances in the records are likewise uncertain until 979 , the point from which Thored 's period as ealdorman can be accurately dated .
Although historians differ in their opinions about his relationship , if any , to Kings Edgar the Peaceable and Edward the Martyr , it is generally thought that he enjoyed a good relationship with King Æthelred II . His daughter Ælfgifu married Æthelred . Thored was ealdorman in Northumbria for much of his reign , disappearing from the sources in 992 after being appointed by Æthelred to lead an expedition against the Vikings .
= = Origins = =
Thored appears to have been of at least partially Scandinavian origin , suggested by the title applied to him in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle entry for 992 . Here , the ealdorman of Hampshire is called by the English title " ealdorman " , while Thored himself is styled by the Scandinavian word eorl ( i.e. Earl ) .
Two accounts of Thored 's origins have been offered by modern historians . The first is that he was a son of Oslac , ealdorman of York from 966 until his exile in 975 . This argument is partly based on the assertion by the Historia Eliensis , that Oslac had a son named Thorth ( i.e. " Thored " ) . The other suggestion , favoured by most historians , is that he was the son of a man named Gunnar . This Gunnar is known to have held land in the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire .
If the latter suggestion is correct , then Thored 's first appearance in history is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recension D ( EF ) ' s entry for 966 , which recorded the accession of Oslac to the ealdormanry of southern Northumbria :
In this year , Thored , Gunnar 's son , harried Westmoringa land , and , in this same year , Oslac succeeded to the office of ealdorman .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon scholar Frank Stenton believed that this was an act of regional faction @-@ fighting , rather than , as had been suggested by others , Thored carrying out the orders of King Edgar the Peaceable . This entry is , incidentally , the first mention of Westmoringa land , that is , Westmorland . Gunnar seems to have been ealdorman earlier in the decade , for in one charter ( surviving only in a later cartulary ) dated to 963 and three Abingdon charters dated to 965 , an ealdorman ( dux ) called Gunnar is mentioned .
Thored may be the Thored who appears for the first time in charter attestations during the reign of King Edgar ( 959 – 75 ) , his earliest possible appearance being in 964 , witnessing a grant of land in Kent by King Edgar to St Peter 's , Ghent . This is uncertain because the authenticity of this particular charter is unclear . A charter issued by Edgar in 966 , granting land in Oxfordshire to a woman named Ælfgifu , has an illegible ealdorman witness signature beginning with Þ , which may be Thored .
= = Ealdorman = =
Thored 's governorship as ealdorman , based on charter attestations , cannot be securely dated before 979 . He did attest royal charters during the reign of Æthelred II , the first in 979 , six in 983 , one in 984 , three in 985 , one in 988 , appearing in such attestations for the last time in 989 . It is possible that such appearances represent more than one Thored , though that is not a generally accepted theory . His definite predecessor , Oslac , was expelled from England in 975 . The historian Richard Fletcher thought that Oslac 's downfall may have been the result of opposing the succession of Edward the Martyr , enemy and brother of Æthelred II . What is known about Thored 's time as ealdorman is that he did not have a good relationship with Oswald , Archbishop of York ( 971 – 92 ) . In a memorandum written by Oswald , a group of estates belonging to the archdiocese of York was listed , and Oswald noted that " I held them all until Thored came to power ; then was St Peter [ to whom York was dedicated ] robbed " . One of the estates allegedly lost was Newbald , an estate given by King Edgar to a man named Gunnar , suggesting to historian Dorothy Whitelock that Thored may just have been reclaiming land " wrongly alienated from his family " .
His relationship with King Edgar is unclear , particularly given the uncertainty of Thored 's paternity , Oslac being banished from England in 975 , the year of Edgar 's death . Richard Fletcher , who thought Thored was the son of Gunnar , argued that Thored 's raid on Westmorland was caused by resentment derived from losing out on the ealdormanry to Oslac , and that Edgar thereafter confiscated various territories as punishment . The evidence for this is that Newbald , granted by Edgar to Gunnar circa 963 , was bought by Archbishop Osketel from the king sometime before 971 , implying that the king had seized the land .
Thored 's relationship with the English monarchy under Æthelred II seems to have been good . Ælfgifu , the first wife of King Æthelred II , was probably Thored 's daughter . Evidence for this is that in the 1150s Ailred of Rievaulx in his De genealogia regum Anglorum wrote that the wife of Æthelred II was the daughter of an ealdorman ( comes ) called Thored ( Thorth ) . Historian Pauline Stafford argued that this marriage was evidence that Thored had been a local rather than royal appointment to the ealdormanry of York , and that Æthelred II 's marriage was an attempt to woo Thored . Stafford was supported in this argument by Richard Fletcher .
= = Death = =
The date of Thored 's death is uncertain , but his last historical appearance came in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , recension C ( D , E ) , under the year 992 , which reported the death of Archbishop Oswald and an expedition against a marauding Scandinavian fleet :
In this year the holy Archbishop Oswald left this life and attained the heavenly life , and Ealdorman Æthelwine [ of East Anglia ] died in the same year . Then the king and all his counsellors decreed that all the ships that were any use should be assembled at London . And the king then entrusted the expedition to the leadership of Ealdorman Ælfric ( of Hampshire ) , Earl Thored and Bishop Ælfstan [ .of London or of Rochester . ] and Bishop Æscwig [ of Dorchester ] , and they were to try if they could entrap the Danish army anywhere at sea . Then Ealdorman Ælfric sent someone to warn the enemy , and then in the night before the day on which they were to have joined battle , he absconded by night from the army , to his own disgrace , and then the enemy escaped , except that the crew of one ship was slain . And then the Danish army encountered the ships from East Anglia and from London , and they made a great slaughter there and captured the ship , all armed and equipped , on which the ealdorman was .
Scandinavians led by Óláfr Tryggvason had been raiding England 's coast since the previous year , when they killed Ealdorman Brihtnoth of Essex at the Battle of Maldon .
Historians think that Thored was either killed fighting these Scandinavians , or else survived , but became disgraced through defeat or treachery . Fletcher speculated that Thored was removed from office and replaced by the Mercian Ælfhelm as a result of his failure against the Scandinavians . Another historian , William Kapelle , believed Thored was removed because of his Scandinavian descent , an argument based on the Worcester Chronicle 's claim , added to the text borrowed from the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , that Fræna , Godwine and Frythegyst fled a battle against the Danes in the following year because " they were Danish on their father 's side " .
A man named Æthelstan who died at the Battle of Ringmere in 1010 , " the king 's aþum " , was probably Thored 's son . The term aþum means either " son @-@ in @-@ law " or " brother @-@ in @-@ law " , so this Æthelstan could also have been Thored 's grandson by an unknown intermediary . Thored 's immediate successor was Ælfhelm , who appears witnessing charters as ealdorman from 994 .
= Bombing of Yawata ( June 1944 ) =
The Bombing of Yawata on the night of 15 / 16 June 1944 was the first air raid on the Japanese home islands conducted by United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) strategic bombers during World War II . The raid was undertaken by 75 B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bombers staging from bases in China . Only 47 of these aircraft bombed the raid 's primary target , the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata in northern Kyūshū , and little damage was caused . Five B @-@ 29s were lost in accidents during the operation and two were destroyed by Japanese aircraft .
While the raid did not achieve its aims , it had other effects . It raised Japanese civilians ' awareness that their country was being defeated and received unduly positive media coverage in the United States . Intelligence gathered by the B @-@ 29s also revealed weaknesses in Japan 's air defenses and the raid was the first of many on Japan . Yawata was attacked again by B @-@ 29s operating from China on 20 August 1944 and much of the city was destroyed in a fire bombing raid conducted by B @-@ 29s based in the Mariana Islands on 8 August 1945 .
= = Background = =
The first United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) raid on Japan took place on 18 April 1942 when 16 B @-@ 25 Mitchell medium bombers flying from an aircraft carrier attacked several cities during the Doolittle Raid . Although this raid caused little damage , it boosted morale in the United States . The Japanese government responded to the attack by both increasing the number of fighter units based in the home islands and conducting an offensive in the Pacific Ocean which ended in defeat during the Battle of Midway . The USAAF was not able to mount further attacks on the Japanese home islands after this raid , however , as none of its combat aircraft had sufficient range to reach this area from bases in China or the Pacific until the B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bomber was ready for combat .
The B @-@ 29 Superfortress had a difficult introduction into service . Work began on designing the bomber in early 1940 and the first prototype flew on 21 September 1942 . The Superfortress was the largest combat aircraft of World War II and boasted a heavy maximum bomb load , long range and powerful defensive armament . The B @-@ 29 also incorporated a number of new features such as a pressurized cabin and remote @-@ controlled turrets . While 1 @,@ 664 B @-@ 29s had been ordered by the USAAF before the aircraft first flew , its development was set back by several months after the second prototype crashed on 18 February 1943 and problems with the design were gradually solved . The 58th Bombardment Wing was formed in June 1943 to operate the USAAF 's first B @-@ 29s but it did not begin receiving these aircraft until October . The slow delivery of B @-@ 29s and mechanical problems with the aircraft meant that the wing lagged behind its training schedule , and only became capable of deployment in March 1944 after the so @-@ called " Battle of Kansas " program began to produce combat @-@ ready aircraft .
In late 1943 the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff approved a proposal to begin the strategic air campaign against the Japanese home islands and East Asia by basing B @-@ 29s in India and establishing forward airfields in areas of China . This strategy , which was designated Operation Matterhorn , required the construction of large airstrips near Chengdu in inland China which would be supplied by Allied cargo aircraft and be used to refuel B @-@ 29s traveling from bases in Bengal en route to bombing targets in Japan . XX Bomber Command was assigned responsibility for this effort and its ground crew began to leave the United States for India by sea in December 1943 . The Twentieth Air Force was formed in April 1944 to oversee all B @-@ 29 operations . In an unprecedented move , the commander of the USAAF , General Henry H. Arnold , took personal command of this unit and ran it from the Pentagon . The 58th Bombardment Wing was XX Bomber Command 's main combat unit , and its movement from Kansas to India took place from April to mid @-@ May . While the wing had not completed training at the time it left for India , its combat groups were more experienced than most newly deployed USAAF bomber units .
= = Preparations = =
= = = United States = = =
After establishing itself in India , XX Bomber Command under the command of Brigadier General Kenneth Wolfe undertook various tasks to prepare for raids against Japan . Foremost among these was stockpiling fuel at the airfields in China . Until late 1944 , USAAF Air Transport Command aircraft did not transport fuel for XX Bomber Command , and this task was instead undertaken by the B @-@ 29s . This arrangement proved inefficient , however , as 12 B @-@ 29 sorties between India and China were needed to transport enough fuel and other supplies to enable one of the heavy bombers to fly a round trip between China and Japan . As a result , it took longer than expected to build up sufficient stockpiles in China to allow B @-@ 29 operations to commence . Moreover , continued technical problems with the Superfortress , and particularly their Wright R @-@ 3350 engines , resulted in many of XX Bomber Command 's aircraft being unserviceable and in need of modification at all times .
XX Bomber Command conducted its first combat operation on 5 June 1944 . On this day 98 B @-@ 29s were dispatched from bases in India to attack targets in Bangkok , Thailand , as a ' dress rehearsal ' for more ambitious operations against Japan and targets in South East Asia . Although little damage was done and five B @-@ 29s were lost due to flying accidents and technical faults , the operation was rated a success by XX Bomber Command as it provided useful combat experience for the bomber crews as well as data on how the B @-@ 29 performed in action .
On 6 June , Wolfe received a message from Arnold informing him that the Joint Chiefs of Staff wanted a raid to be conducted against Japan as soon as possible . The goals of this operation were to relieve pressure on Chinese forces which were being attacked by the Japanese and to support the invasion of Saipan . Arnold 's message also asked how many B @-@ 29s could be dispatched on 15 and 20 June . At the time , the first raid on Japan was tentatively scheduled for 23 June , when sufficient supplies were expected to be available in China to support 100 B @-@ 29 sorties . Wolfe replied stating that 50 B @-@ 29s could be used on 15 June and 55 if the operation was conducted on the 20th of the month . Arnold regarded these numbers as too low , and directed that a raid by at least 70 B @-@ 29s be conducted against Japan on 15 June . Following this order , XX Bomber Command 's B @-@ 29s and transport aircraft embarked on an intensive effort to move fuel to China . Further fuel supplies were made available to the heavy bombers by reducing the activities of USAAF fighter units based in China . During the same period the command 's ground crews reconditioned as many B @-@ 29s as possible to improve their reliability .
The target selected for the first raid on Japan was the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata , an industrial city about 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) from Chengdu . This was the single most important facility in Japan 's steel industry as it produced 24 percent of the country 's total output of rolled steel . The facility was dependent on three coke plants and the largest of these was selected as the designated aiming point for the B @-@ 29s . Nearby Laoyao harbor , which was an important industrial port , was designated as the raid 's secondary target . The selection of Yawata 's steel works as the first target to be attacked was in accordance with a decision made by the Twentieth Air Force on 1 April 1944 which assigned the highest priority to attacking Japan 's steel and coke industry . It was decided to conduct the raid at night with each B @-@ 29 bombing individually as the aircraft lacked the range needed to conduct a more fuel @-@ intensive formation flight between the forward air bases and Yawata .
= = = Japanese = = =
Despite an elaborate deception plan , which included planted news stories claiming that B @-@ 29s would be deployed as bombers in Europe but only be used as armed transports in the China Burma India Theater , the Japanese military detected the preparation of B @-@ 29 bases in India and China . Moreover , Japanese agents in China reported on all B @-@ 29 movements , giving hours of warning time before raids on the home islands . Japanese intelligence services deduced that once logistical preparations were complete the heavy bombers would attack factories in northern Kyūshū and that the first raid would be made at night . On 26 April Japanese fighters encountered a B @-@ 29 for the first time when two Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscars " attacked and damaged a lone B @-@ 29 flying near the China – India border .
The Japanese military began transferring fighter aircraft from China and the Pacific to the home islands in early 1944 in anticipation of B @-@ 29 raids . In June 1944 Yawata lay within the Western District of Japan 's four regional defense commands . The 19th Air Brigade was formed in June 1944 to command fighter units in the Western District , and comprised the 4th and 59th Air Regiments . The 4th Air Regiment was stationed at Ozuki Airfield and was equipped with 35 Kawasaki Ki @-@ 45 Toryu twin @-@ engined heavy fighters , of which 25 were operational in mid @-@ June , and had the brigade 's best trained pilots . The inexperienced 59th Air Regiment was based at Ashiya Fukuoka Airfield and operated 25 Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 Hien single @-@ engined fighters , though only about seven or eight were operational . ( I ) In addition , Yawata and northern Kyūshū were defended by anti @-@ aircraft artillery units and barrage balloons . Radar stations and a network of lookout posts provided early warning of raids .
The 19th Air Brigade 's primary mission was to defend the industrial facilities in northern Kyūshū , and particularly the iron works at Yawata . The brigade 's plans for the defense of the Western District called for its interceptor aircraft to be concentrated over Yawata and not move far from the area . While this inflexible deployment was considered unsatisfactory by the 19th Air Brigade , it was deemed necessary as few aircraft were available , the only searchlight units needed to facilitate night operations were stationed near Yawata and northern Kyūshū was regarded by the Army as being the most important region in the Western District . Prior to the raid on Yawata the 19th Air Brigade undertook joint planning with anti @-@ aircraft units and implemented a training program which included practice in responding to alerts and night flying .
= = Raid = =
The 58th Bombardment Wing 's B @-@ 29s began moving from India to the forward bases in China on 13 June . By 15 June , 83 Superfortresses had reached the four forward airfields around Chengdu , though at least 12 turned back before reaching China and another crashed causing the death of its entire crew . Each of the aircraft had departed India carrying the 2 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 kg ) of 500 @-@ pound bombs they would use in the raid . A large number of staff officers , including eight generals , also traveled to Chengdu to observe the operation but were not allowed to participate in the raid . The bomber crews were joined by eight journalists and three news photographers , however . At the time the USAAF had few recent photos of Japanese industrial areas and the bomber crews were briefed on Yawata using maps and photos from the late 1920s and early 1930s .
The Superfortresses began to depart their bases at 16 : 16 local time on 15 June . The raiding force was led by the 58th Bombardment Wing 's commander , Brigadier General Laverne G. Saunders . Of the 75 aircraft dispatched one crashed immediately after taking off with no casualties and a further four turned back suffering mechanical problems . The remaining aircraft proceeded on a direct course to Okino Island where they turned for the run @-@ in to Yawata . Each of the 58th Bombardment Wing 's four groups sent two aircraft ahead to mark the target and the other aircraft flew in a long bomber stream ; both of these tactics had been adopted from those used by the British Royal Air Force 's Bomber Command in Europe . The raiders were detected by Japanese Army and Army Air Force units in China . These reports were passed onto the 19th Air Brigade , which estimated that the bombers were bound for northern Kyūshū and would arrive there at about midnight local time . A radar station and lookout posts on Cheju @-@ Do subsequently detected the bombers from 23 : 31 to 00 : 30 local time . An air raid alarm was issued at 00 : 24 and 24 aircraft of the 4th Air Regiment began to take off three minutes later to patrol over northern Kyūshū . The 59th Air Regiment was not scrambled as its pilots had not worked with those of the 4th Air Regiment in night operations , its aircraft were suffering from mechanical problems and it was feared that the B @-@ 29s would sight and attack the base at Ashiya .
B @-@ 29s began to arrive over Yawata at 00 : 38 local time and the attack on the city lasted almost two hours . Only 15 of the American aircraft were able to aim their bombs visually as the city was blacked out and obscured by smoke or haze ; the other 32 bombed by radar . Two further B @-@ 29s bombed Laoyao harbor and another five struck targets of opportunity ; overall 107 tons of bombs were dropped during the raid . After the first bombs were released regular updates on the operation were transmitted to the Twentieth Air Force 's headquarters in Washington , from where they were relayed to Arnold who was in London at the time . The raiders were met with heavy but inaccurate anti @-@ aircraft fire and the searchlights stationed around Yawata were not effective . The 4th Air Regiment achieved the only kill of the night when one of its fighters shot down a B @-@ 29 . The Regiment 's other aircraft struggled to make contact with the bombers and achieved few interceptions .
The B @-@ 29s ' return flight to China was largely uneventful . One of the Superfortresses was strafed and destroyed by Japanese aircraft after landing at Neihsiang with engine trouble and a further two aircraft crashed with the loss of their entire crews and a correspondent from the magazine Newsweek . Overall American losses in the raid were seven B @-@ 29s destroyed and a further six damaged by anti @-@ aircraft guns ; 57 airmen and one journalist were killed aboard these aircraft . Many of the B @-@ 29s were stranded in China for several days after the raid due to fuel shortages there , and only returned to India after Wolfe borrowed 15 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 57 @,@ 000 l ) of fuel from the 312th Fighter Wing 's supplies . During this period the bombers were highly vulnerable to Japanese retaliatory raids , but none came about .
= = Aftermath = =
Little damage was caused by the raid on Yawata . On 18 June a USAAF Fourteenth Air Force aircraft overflew the city and photographed the target area . These photos showed that only a single bomb had landed within the Imperial Iron and Steel Works complex , and it had hit a power house 3 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) from the nearest coke oven . Light damage had also been inflicted on Kokura Arsenal and other industrial and civilian buildings in the area . Despite a USAAF policy of encouraging factual reportage of B @-@ 29 operations , the raid 's results were overstated in the U.S. media . The light combat losses suffered by the raiders and electronic intelligence collected by the B @-@ 29s revealed the ineffectiveness of Japanese radar and air defenses . As a result , the USAAF dispatched a single photo reconnaissance B @-@ 29 to overfly much of Japan and Korea on 21 June . This sortie was successful , and greatly improved U.S. intelligence holdings on these areas .
The Yawata raid revealed serious shortcomings in Japan 's air defenses . While the 19th Air Brigade initially claimed to have shot down eight B @-@ 29s and damaged a further four , it was soon determined that only two of the bombers had been destroyed . This loss ratio was considered too low to defeat attacks on the home islands . The raid demonstrated that Japan had too few air bases and not enough aircraft were available for night operations . It was also found that the Toryu fighter was not well suited to intercepting B @-@ 29s as it was slower than the bombers , too lightly armed and most aircraft lacked radar . While the air raid alert system had proved successful in this instance , the radars which detected the American aircraft had been unable to determine their altitude and it was decided that there was a need to further expand radar coverage . The performance of the 131st Anti Aircraft Regiment during the raid was judged to be so poor that its commander was transferred to Manchuria . News reports of the Yawata raid and successful U.S. landing at Saipan on the same day also indicated to Japanese civilians that the war was not going well . In response to the raid Japanese Government ministers urged families living the country 's four major cities to evacuate their children to rural areas .
The 15 / 16 June 1944 raid on Yawata marked the beginning of the USAAF 's strategic bombing campaign against Japan . The city was struck again by B @-@ 29s during daylight and night raids on 20 August , but no serious damage was caused . XX Bomber Command conducted 49 raids from its bases in China and India between June 1944 and March 1945 , of which nine were made on targets in the Japanese home islands , but Operation Matterhorn did not achieve its goals . Despite initial problems , XXI Bomber Command 's operations from the Mariana Islands , which began on 28 October 1944 , proved much more effective . As a result , XX Bomber Command was transferred to the Mariana Islands in early 1945 . Yawata was targeted again by B @-@ 29s on 8 August 1945 , two days after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima . On this day the city was attacked by 221 B @-@ 29s escorted by three groups of P @-@ 47N Thunderbolt fighters including the 318th fighter group based on Ie Shima off the coast of Okinawa . The bombers were armed with incendiary bombs and the resulting firestorm destroyed 21 percent of Yawata 's urban area .
= PJ Haarsma =
Philip @-@ Jon Haarsma / ˈhɑːrzmɑː / , more commonly known as PJ Haarsma , is a Canadian born science fiction author best known for his creation of the Rings of Orbis universe , which encompasses The Softwire series of books . Haarsma created a free , online role @-@ playing game , also called the Rings of Orbis , set in the same universe . Both the book @-@ series and the game target young , often reluctant readers in an attempt to encourage them by rewarding them for reading .
Haarsma developed a school presentation program in which he discusses The Softwire books , astronomy , and other science fiction and science fact topics . He is also one of the co @-@ founders of Kids Need to Read , a United States Internal Revenue Code 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax exempt public charity that purchases books to donate to underfunded schools and libraries .
= = Personal life = =
Philip @-@ Jon Haarsma was born on June 5 , 1964 , in Georgetown , Ontario . Though he was named after his grandfathers , Philip and Jon , he went simply by " Jon " while growing up . Later , while attending McMaster University in Hamilton , Ontario , where he received a Bachelor of Science degree , he began to use his initials , " PJ " , and his books are published under the name " PJ Haarsma " .
After he moved to the United States in 1989 , Haarsma worked as a fashion and commercial photographer in New York City and Miami . He received many photography awards , including an honorable mention at the Cannes Lion Awards in 1996 . Haarsma owned a small production company called Redbear Films , Inc . The company produced one movie ( Devious Beings , 2002 ) , and a digital series called Con Man starring Alan Tudyk and Nathan Fillion and several corporate ads for clients such as Hewlett Packard and Nokia . For 15 years , Redbear Films focused on the production of advertisements .
Haarsma lives in Los Angeles with his wife , sci @-@ fi fantasy artist Marisa Grieco , and their daughters Skylar and Zoe .
= = Con Man ( web series ) = =
PJ Haarsma is the producer of the Con Man created by Alan Tudyk and co @-@ produced by Nathan Fillion .
= = Rings of Orbis = =
At the age of 38 , Haarsma was not satisfied with his professional life . He began to keep a daily journal , writing about anything ( and everything ) that came to his mind — until eventually " Johnny T came onto [ his ] page . " Johnny T is the main character , Johnny Turnbull , of Haarsma 's The Softwire series . Haarsma chose to give The Softwire a sci @-@ fi setting due to a love of science fiction , and to target a young adult audience with his novels so that children could discover and learn to enjoy the genre .
The Softwire is actually a story that Haarsma began imagining in his childhood . As a teenager , he worked at his parents ' ceramic factory during the summers , hauling fifty pound molds around in the extreme heat of a kiln room . To Haarsma , it felt similar to what the children of his books might feel as slaves . In addition to these experiences , there is a more prominent influence on the premise of The Softwire — that is , there is a mystery of a journey to a new , unknown place to start a new life . Growing up , Haarsma dreamed of moving to the United States ; and in his twenties , he actually did . While there , living in New York , Miami , San Francisco and Los Angeles , Haarsma witnessed immigrants struggling to get by . He tried to imagine what caused them to risk everything , and to move to another country , and to have a chance at something better . It is this journey ( and struggle ) that is prevalent in The Softwire .
In The Softwire , a group of human children are orphaned in outer space . They are forced into indentured servitude on the Rings of Orbis , four planet @-@ like rings around a wormhole . They must spend four years as slaves or knudniks before they are eligible to become Citizens . Each year they are the property of a new owner on a separate ring : Orbis 1 , Orbis 2 , Orbis 3 , and Orbis 4 . They are forced into labor to do whatever task their new owner requires .
When the children arrive , they soon discover that thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Turnbull ( JT ) , is the first human softwire , a boy who has the ability to enter any computer with just his mind . To the older Citizens , a slave who can enter at will the massive computer which controls the Rings of Orbis makes JT very valuable and drives the Rings to the brink of war . As the central computer begins to malfunction , the Citizens connive , conspire , and even kill to own JT and his sister .
While there are other humans besides the children on the Rings , the majority of the inhabitants are of alien species . The Keepers are an intelligent species of two @-@ headed beings who act as the overseers . Other species encountered include Belarans , Choi , Solinns , and Trefaldoors , all of which become interesting roles for young players to choose from in the game , Rings of Orbis .
= = = Rings of Orbis game = = =
Haarsma 's novels are accompanied by a free , online , role @-@ playing game called Rings of Orbis which acts as a visual companion to the books and is set in the same universe . Players are sometimes required to use information from the books in order to solve puzzles and to unlock areas within the game . Pairing a video game with a novel for young readers , Haarsma says , “ brings the book into their world , as opposed to going the other way around . ”
Haarsma and a team of artists also created many different alien races specifically for the game . The team includes Haarsma 's wife Marisa Grieco , Igor Knezevic , Stephan Martinière , Dwayne Harris , and Neil Blevins .
The game works to encourage reluctant readers , especially boys , by giving them an interactive game through which to relate to the mysteries found within the books themselves . Players complete quests and earn in @-@ game currency which they can then spend on in @-@ game items designed by Haarsma , all the while they compete to become the best Citizen of the Rings of Orbis . In 2008 , the game was featured in a front page New York Times article about encouraging reluctant readers with video games .
= = Promotion of literacy = =
= = = Kids Need to Read = = =
While speaking at schools across the United States , Haarsma noticed how some school librarians were having trouble finding funds to purchase The Softwire books after a demand had been created by Haarsma 's visit . Many of the librarians were struggling to fill their shelves with books . In June 2007 , Haarsma and a friend , actor Nathan Fillion , approached a group of Fillion 's fans with the idea for a project that would work to purchase books for underfunded schools , as well as nonprofit institutions which gave books directly to children . The group took to the idea and focused their energies into getting the project off the ground . The Kids Need to Read project went public in August 2007 .
In January 2008 , the process to transform the project into a legal foundation began , and the fan group was separated from the developing organization . On May 22 , 2008 , The Kids Need to Read Foundation ( KNTR ) was incorporated in the state of California . KNTR became an Internal Revenue Code 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax exempt public charity on September 18 , 2008 , with a retroactive exemption date of May 22 , 2008 . The organization is supported by a global volunteer base .
Funds were initially raised through eBay auctions of Firefly and Serenity autographed memorabilia , and The Softwire books and items , and other science fiction and literary themed items . Fundraising efforts have since expanded and all funds are used to purchase books from the foundation 's official book list , a list which is continually updated by a professional children 's book buyer . The titles chosen are well @-@ reviewed and many are recommended for children who are reluctant readers .
KNTR has made book donations to forty @-@ one schools and libraries in addition to three multiple library systems . KNTR facilitated a substantial donation of three thousand books by the Phoenix Book Company to the Friends of the New Orleans Public Library , to help with recuperation after Hurricane Katrina . The Odessa Brown Children 's Clinic in Seattle was the recipient of a donation amounting to four hundred forty books in February 2008 . This clinic , as well as the North Public Health Clinic in Seattle , have received recurring donations from KNTR .
Haarsma remains on the KNTR Advisory Board as founder and consultant for literacy @-@ based activities . By using his position as a young @-@ adult fiction author , Haarsma helps bring attention , support , and funds to the organization .
= = = School visits = = =
PJ captures any audience with his energy . He begins a presentation on Earth and everyone in the audience lands on Orbis with him . Students and teachers continue to ask questions long afterwards . Priceless reading motivation !
Haarsma takes part in school visits to promote his book and encourage imagination and reading in the school children . His presentation lasts fifty minutes , and discussions center around space travel , exploration , The Rings of Orbis universe , and other interactive topics , thus allowing for questions from the students at the conclusion . To help illustrate the scientific topics , NASA supplied Haarsma with space related information to present . " PJ Haarsma was inspirational . He visited my school and made my imagination soar . I 've already filled up a couple notebooks of stories thanks to him ! " Says one child whose school Haarsma visited .
During his presentation , Haarsma involves the children in various interactive activities . These include a Hollywood @-@ style acting audition , an alien ghost story , and a demonstration of the vast distances in space . The activities are designed to engage the children 's imaginations and to make them feel a part of the presentation .
The responses to his visits from both students and teachers are positive . The majority of the feedback involves praise and thanks . Haarsma has received many stories of previously reluctant readers being observed reading The Softwire books during school recess .
The author visit by PJ Haarsma was a lot of fun . He knows astronomy , technology , and how to get young adults interested in what he ’ s talking about . Librarians , a warning — you ’ ll need to order more books . Mine are all checked out and on hold .
= = Awards = =
The Softwire series : ABC ( Association of Booksellers for Children ) New Voices in Children 's Literature Award 2008
Virus on Orbis 1 : 2006 Cybil Award nominee , Flamingnet Top Choice Award , SCASL Junior Book Award nominee , ALA ( American Library Association ) Quick Picks for Reluctant Young Adult Readers Nomination 2008 , Great Stone Face Children ’ s Book Award Nomination ( Children 's Librarians of New Hampshire ) 2008 @-@ 2009 , Hal Clement Award for Young Adult Finalist 2007
Betrayal on Orbis 2 : 2008 Cybil Award nominee , ALA ( American Library Association ) Quick Picks for Reluctant Young Adult Readers Nomination 2009
= = Works = =
Books in The Softwire series scheduled for publication by Candlewick Press ( Each book corresponds to one year on each ring that the children must endure as slaves ) .
The Softwire Series
Virus on Orbis 1 , Candlewick Press , 2006 hardcover ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7636 @-@ 2709 @-@ 6 paperback ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7636 @-@ 3638 @-@ 8
Betrayal on Orbis 2 , Candlewick Press , 2008 hardcover ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7636 @-@ 2710 @-@ 2
Wormhole Pirates on Orbis 3 , Candlewick Press , 2009 hardcover ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7636 @-@ 2711 @-@ 9
Awakening on Orbis 4 , Candlewick Press , March 2010 hardcover ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7636 @-@ 2712 @-@ 6
= Suleiman the Magnificent =
Suleiman I ( Ottoman Turkish : سلطان سليمان اول ; Turkish : I. Süleyman , Kanunî Sultan Süleyman or Muhteşem Süleyman ) or simply Solomon as a Biblical name ; 6 November 1494 – 7 September 1566 ) , commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and " Kanuni " ( the Lawgiver ) in the East , was the tenth and longest @-@ reigning Great Sultan of the Ottoman Empire , from 1520 to his death in 1566 . Under his administration , the Ottoman state ruled over 20 to 30 million people .
Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th @-@ century Europe , presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire 's economic , military and political power . Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529 . He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Persian Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria . Under his rule , the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf .
At the helm of an expanding empire , Suleiman personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society , education , taxation and criminal law . His canonical law ( or the Kanuns ) fixed the form of the empire for centuries after his death . He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith ; he also became a great patron of culture , overseeing the " Golden " age of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic , literary and architectural development .
Breaking with Ottoman tradition , Suleiman married Roxelana , a former Christian girl converted to Islam from his harem , who became subsequently known and influential as Hürrem Sultan . Their son Selim II succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule , thus beginning a long state of stagnation and decline during Selim II 's reign . Suleiman 's previous heirs apparent Mehmed and Mustafa had died , the former from smallpox and the latter had been strangled to death 13 years previously at the sultan 's order . His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on the Sultan 's orders , along with his four sons , after a rebellion .
= = Alternative names and titles = =
Suleiman the Magnificent ( محتشم سليمان Muḥteşem Süleymān ) , as he was known in the West , was also called Suleiman the First ( سلطان سليمان أول Sulṭān Süleymān @-@ ı Evvel ) , and Suleiman the Lawgiver ( قانونی سلطان سليمان Ḳānūnī Sulṭān Süleymān ) for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system .
= = Early life = =
Suleiman was born in Trabzon along the east coast of the Black Sea , probably on 6 November 1494 . His mother was Ayşe Hafsa Sultan ( she was possibly the daughter of Meñli I Giray , a descendant of Genghis Khan , through Jochi ) ; little is known of her other than that she died in 1534 .
= = = Education = = =
At the age of seven , Suleiman was sent to study science , history , literature , theology and military tactics in the schools of the imperial Topkapı Palace in Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ) . As a young man , he befriended Pargalı Ibrahim , a slave who later became one of his most trusted advisers .
= = = Viceroy in Anatolia = = =
From the age of seventeen
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and truth will bear unto you , our Sovereign Lord [ Lady ] , King [ Queen ] of this Realm and Defender of the Faith , and unto your heirs and successors according to law . So help me God . " The peers then proceed to pay their homage , saying " I , N. , Duke [ Marquess , Earl , Viscount , Baron or Lord ] of N. , do become your liege man of life and limb , and of earthly worship ; and faith and truth will I bear unto you , to live and die , against all manner of folks . So help me God . " The clergy pay homage together , led by the Archbishop of Canterbury . Next , members of the Royal Family pay homage individually . The peers are led by the premier peers of their rank : the Dukes by the Premier Duke , the Marquesses by the Premier Marquess , and so forth .
If there is a queen consort , she is anointed and crowned in a simple ceremony immediately after homage is paid . The Communion service interrupted earlier is resumed and completed .
= = = Closing procession = = =
The Sovereign then exits the Coronation Theatre , entering St Edward 's Chapel ( within the Abbey ) , preceded by the bearers of the Sword of State , the Sword of Spiritual Justice , the Sword of Temporal Justice and the blunt Sword of Mercy . St Edward 's Crown and all the other regalia are laid on the High Altar ; the Sovereign removes the Robe Royal and Stole Royal , exchanges the crimson surcoat for the purple surcoat and is enrobed in the Imperial Robe of purple velvet . He or she then wears the Imperial State Crown and takes into his or her hands the Sceptre with the Cross and the Orb and leaves the chapel while all present sing the national anthem .
= = Music = =
The music played at coronations has been primarily classical and religiously inspired . Much of the choral music uses texts from the Bible which have been used at coronations since King Edgar 's coronation at Bath in 973 and are known as coronation anthems . In the coronations following the Reformation , court musicians , often the Master of the King 's Music , were commissioned to compose new settings for the traditional texts . The most frequently used piece is Zadok the Priest by George Frideric Handel ; one of four anthems commissioned from him for George II 's coronation in 1727 . It has featured in every coronation since , an achievement unparalleled by any other piece . Previous settings of the same text were composed by Henry Lawes for the 1661 coronation of Charles II and Thomas Tomkins for Charles I in 1621 .
In the 19th century , works by major European composers were often used , but when Sir Frederick Bridge was appointed Director of Music for the 1902 coronation of King Edward VII , he decided that it ought to be a celebration of four hundred years of British music . Compositions by Thomas Tallis , Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell were included alongside works by contemporary composers such as Arthur Sullivan , Charles Villiers Stanford and John Stainer . Hubert Parry 's I was glad was written as the entrance anthem for the 1902 coronation , replacing an 1831 setting by Thomas Attwood ; it contains a bridge section partway through so that the King 's or Queen 's Scholars of Westminster School can exercise their right to be the first commoners to acclaim the sovereign , shouting their traditional " vivats " as he or she enters the coronation theatre . This anthem and Charles Villiers Stanford 's Gloria in excelsis ( 1911 ) have also been used regularly in recent coronations , as has the national anthem , God Save the Queen ( or King ) . Other composers whose music featured in Elizabeth II 's coronation include Sir George Dyson , Gordon Jacob , Sir William Henry Harris , Herbert Howells , Sir William Walton , Samuel Sebastian Wesley , Ralph Vaughan Williams and the Canadian @-@ resident but English @-@ born Healey Willan . Ralph Vaughan Williams suggested that a congregational hymn be included . This was approved by the Queen and the Archbishop of Canterbury , so Vaughan Williams recast his 1928 arrangement of Old 100th , the English metrical version of Psalm 100 , the Jubilate Deo ( " All people that on earth do dwell " ) for congregation , organ and orchestra : the setting has become ubiquitous at festal occasions in the Anglophone world .
= = After @-@ celebrations = =
Since the 20th century it has been traditional for the newly crowned monarch and other members of the royal family to sit for official portraits at Buckingham Palace and appear on the balcony , from where in 1953 they watched a flypast by the Royal Air Force . During the appearance , the monarch wears the Imperial State Crown and , if there is one , the queen consort wears her consort crown . In the evening , a fireworks display is held nearby , usually in Hyde Park . In 1902 , Edward VII 's illness led to the postponement of a fourteen @-@ course banquet at Buckingham Palace . In 1953 , two state banquets were held in the ballroom there , and classical music was provided by the Royal Horse Guards .
Historically , the coronation was immediately followed by a banquet held in Westminster Hall in the Palace of Westminster ( which is also the home to the Houses of Parliament ) . The King or Queen 's Champion ( the office being held by the Dymoke family in connection with the Manor of Scrivelsby ) would ride into the hall on horseback , wearing a knight 's armour , with the Lord High Constable riding to his right and the Earl Marshal riding to his left . A herald would then make a proclamation of the readiness of the Champion to fight anyone denying the monarch . After 1800 , the form for this was as follows :
If any person , of what degree soever , high or low , shall deny or gainsay our Sovereign Lord ... , King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , son and next heir unto our Sovereign Lord the last King deceased , to be the right heir to the Imperial Crown of this Realm of Great Britain and Ireland , or that he ought not to enjoy the same ; here is his Champion , who saith that he lieth , and is a false traitor , being ready in person to combat with him ; and in this quarrel will adventure his life against him , on what day soever he shall be appointed .
The King 's Champion would then throw down the gauntlet ; the ceremony would be repeated at the centre of the hall and at the High Table ( where the Sovereign would be seated ) . The Sovereign would then drink to the Champion from a gold cup , which he would then present to the latter . This ritual was dropped from the coronation of Queen Victoria and was never revived . The offices of Chief Butler of England , Grand Carver of England and Master Carver of Scotland were also associated with the coronation banquet .
Banquets have not been held at Westminster Hall since the coronation of George IV in 1821 . His coronation was the most elaborate in history ; his brother and successor William IV eliminated the banquet on grounds of economy , ending a 632 @-@ year @-@ old tradition .
= = Enthronement as Emperor of India = =
Queen Victoria assumed the title Empress of India in 1876 . A durbar ( court ) was held in Delhi , India on 1 January 1877 to proclaim her assumption of the title . The queen did not attend personally , but she was represented there by the Viceroy , Lord Lytton . A similar durbar was held on 1 January 1903 to celebrate the accession of Edward VII , who was represented by his brother the Duke of Connaught . In 1911 , George V also held a durbar which he and his wife Queen Mary attended in person . Since it was deemed inappropriate for a Christian anointing and coronation to take place in a largely non @-@ Christian nation , George V was not crowned in India ; instead , he wore an imperial crown as he entered the Durbar . Tradition prohibited the removal of the Crown Jewels from the United Kingdom ; therefore , a separate crown , known as the Imperial Crown of India , was created for him . The Emperor was enthroned , and the Indian princes paid homage to him . Thereafter , certain political decisions , such as the decision to move the capital from Calcutta to Delhi , were announced at the Durbar . The ceremony was not repeated , and the imperial title was abandoned by George VI in 1948 , a year after Indian gained independence .
= New York State Route 120A =
New York State Route 120A ( NY 120A ) is a state highway in southern Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It serves as an alternate route to the southern half of NY 120 running along the New York – Connecticut state line . The southern terminus of route is at NY 120 in Harrison . Its northern terminus is at NY 120 in North Castle . Most of the 8 @.@ 55 @-@ mile ( 13 @.@ 76 km ) route straddles the New York – Connecticut state line , and part of the route is physically located in Connecticut . However , this part of the highway is not recognized by Connecticut as " Route 120A " , and is considered to be part of NY 120A by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 120A begins at an intersection with NY 120 next to I @-@ 287 ( the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ) in the village of Harrison . Although the route is signed north – south , it initially heads east along Westchester Avenue , overlapping with the northbound direction of NY 120 for 0 @.@ 08 miles ( 0 @.@ 13 km ) as the road passes under I @-@ 287 . East of the freeway overpass , NY 120 leaves to the northwest while NY 120A continues eastward on the four @-@ lane Westchester Avenue . It serves residential areas until it crosses into Rye Brook , where the street makes a turn to the southeast and soon enters more commercialized neighborhoods . In the center of Rye Brook , the route meets Ridge Street ( unsigned County Route 54 or CR 54 ) . The businesses give way to homes east of the junction , and NY 120A passes into the village of Port Chester just three blocks from Ridge Street near an intersection with Bowman Avenue ( CR 104 ) .
Inside the village limits , maintenance of NY 120A shifts from the state to Westchester County , which inventories the route as CR 112 . Continuing on , the road narrows to two lanes ahead of Port Chester 's central business district , where NY 120A passes the Port Chester Public Library and the village 's post office ahead of a junction with Pearl Street three blocks west of U.S. Route 1 and two blocks west of the Metro @-@ North Railroad . Here , NY 120A turns off Westchester Avenue and onto North Pearl Street , becoming a village @-@ maintained route in the process . The route 's northeastward run on North Pearl Street is brief , however , as NY 120A turns northwest onto King Street after just two blocks .
As the route heads away from Pearl Street and Port Chester 's commercial center , the blocks of businesses are gradually replaced with the residential neighborhoods that comprise most of northern Port Chester . About 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) north of Pearl Street , NY 120A passes Lyon Park and reverts to a state @-@ maintained road at an intersection with Putnam Avenue ( unsigned NY 982C ) . Continuing on , the highway serves King Street School before crossing from Port Chester to Rye Brook several blocks later . In the latter village , the route slowly bends northward toward the Connecticut state line . It eventually reaches the boundary , at which point NY 120A begins to run northwestward along the state line , with the southbound lane in New York and the northbound lane in Connecticut . A short distance later , the route connects to the Hutchinson River Parkway and its Connecticut continuation , the Merritt Parkway ( Route 15 ) , by way of a modified cloverleaf interchange .
Not far from the interchange , the highway bends northward to fully enter Connecticut . Although the road is located outside of New York , it is maintained by NYSDOT and considered by the DOT to be part of NY 120A . In Connecticut , NY 120A travels generally northwestward through the town of Greenwich , intersecting several streets of local importance , including Greenwich 's locally maintained continuation of Anderson Hill Road ( CR 18 ) . The foray into Connecticut ends soon afterward , and the route proceeds to straddle the state line for another 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) . Along this stretch , the route passes a series of commercial buildings in an otherwise residential area . Another New York @-@ maintained stretch in Greenwich , Connecticut , soon follows as the route veers north to bypass the grounds of Westchester County Airport . As the route heads past the airport , it meets Rye Lake Road , Greenwich 's connection to both the airport and Airport Road ( CR 135 ) .
Past Rye Lake Road , NY 120A serves the Griffith E. Harris Golf Club and several mansions on its way back to the New York – Connecticut state line . Just north of the airport , NY 120A turns westward onto Gateway Lane , a small east – west street leading back into New York and the town of North Castle . Gateway Lane and NY 120A both end just inside the state line at an intersection with NY 120 . Here , NY 120 changes names from Purchase Street to King Street as the route continues NY 120A 's course along the state line .
= = History = =
The portion of Westchester Avenue from Purchase Street in Harrison to North Pearl Street in Port Chester was originally designated as part of NY 119 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . By the following year , a spur route connecting NY 119 to NY 120 in North Castle was assigned the NY 120A designation . It began at Westchester Avenue and went north to the Connecticut state line via Ridge Street , where it turned northwest to follow King Street to NY 120 . The section of King Street between Ridge Street and Port Chester was designated as NY 120B by 1932 .
NY 120A was truncated c . 1938 to consist only of the Ridge Street portion of its alignment while NY 120B was extended northwest along King Street to NY 120 in North Castle and southward along NY 119 and Ridge Street to a terminus at NY 120 in Rye . The NY 120B designation was eliminated by the following year , at which time NY 120A was reextended along King Street to North Castle and realigned east of Ridge Street to follow old NY 120B into Port Chester . NY 119 was truncated on its east end to NY 22 in White Plains c . 1961 while NY 120 was rerouted to follow what had been NY 119A south to Rye along Purchase Street . The former routing of NY 119 and NY 120 from Purchase Street to downtown Port Chester became an extension of NY 120A . The routing of NY 120A in Port Chester was modified slightly by 1990 to follow North Pearl Street between Westchester Avenue and King Street .
On September 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) section of NY 120A leading southeast from the northwestern crossing into Connecticut was transferred from Westchester County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The road was one of 10 highways exchanged during the swap .
= = Major intersections = =
= Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment =
" Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . The 26th episode overall , it originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 7 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer gets an illegal cable hook @-@ up . Despite the family 's enjoyment of the new channels , Lisa becomes suspicious that they are stealing cable . Her suspicions are confirmed by Reverend Lovejoy and she protests by no longer watching television . Meanwhile , Bart manages to tune into a sexually explicit adult movie channel , and Homer invites his friends over to watch a boxing match , but Lisa 's protest gets to him . He decides not to watch the fight and cuts the cable .
The episode was written by freelance writer Steve Pepoon and directed by Rich Moore . It is based on the Eighth Commandment ( " Thou shalt not steal " ) . The episode marks the debut of Troy McClure who was voiced by Phil Hartman and based on the typical " washed up " Hollywood actor . The character Drederick Tatum , one of the boxers in the boxing match Homer and his friends watch , also makes his first appearance on the show in this episode .
In its original broadcast , " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " received a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 2 , finishing 25th the week it aired . It received favorable reviews from critics and became the second episode of The Simpsons to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) .
= = Plot = =
The first scene is Homer dreaming on the hammock that he is a Hebrew in the time of Moses , breaking one of the Ten Commandments by stealing . When he wakes up he sees Ned Flanders angrily reject an offer from a dim @-@ witted man to get an illegal cable hook @-@ up for $ 50 , Homer chases after the cable man , who agrees to hook up the Simpsons ' television for free . Homer likes the new channels and spends a lot of time watching the television along with his family . Lisa , however , feels suspicious about the cable hook @-@ up . Following a Sunday School lesson regarding the existence and nature of Hell , Lisa becomes terrified of violations of the Ten Commandments , the adherence to which she is assured will keep one 's soul safe from Hell . She fears that because Homer violated the Eighth Commandment , he will go to Hell when he dies .
Lisa additionally opposes other examples of common thievery all around her . She even convinces Marge to pay the cost on two grapes she sampled in a grocery store . Lisa pays a visit to Reverend Lovejoy at church , where he suggests that Lisa cannot turn her father in to the police for the illegal hook @-@ up , since she must continue to " Honour Thy Father and Thy Mother " , according to the Fifth Commandment . He instead encourages Lisa to not watch anything on Homer 's cable hook @-@ up , setting a good example that he hopes others will follow . Marge pleads with Homer to either cut the cable or pay for it , but he refuses to do either , saying that the cable will stay as long as he desires . Meanwhile , Bart sets up posters on the back door for his showing of an adult channel for 50 cents , but he is caught a few seconds later by Homer , who then forbids him from doing it .
Homer sees a commercial for " The Bout to Knock the Other Guy Out ! " , a much @-@ anticipated boxing match in which Drederick Tatum will fight for the World Heavyweight Championship . Homer decides to have a party and invites all of his friends to come over and watch the fight . Lisa tries to boycott the party , and this results in Homer making her stay outside on the lawn . Homer ’ s conscience eventually bothers him , more in the form of his daughter 's distress than a moral objection to stealing cable due to a hallucination that he is in prison for stealing cable . He finally gives in to Lisa 's protests , begrudgingly choosing not to watch the last minutes of the fight , and Marge and Maggie join them as well . Bart , on the other hand , does not care , wanting to see the fight , but Homer drags him outside by force . The family sits the fight out and when everyone has left , Homer hesitantly cuts his cable hook @-@ up despite Bart 's objection ; he accidentally ends up cutting the power to the whole neighborhood which causes the screen to become static for a few seconds before cutting to credits .
= = Production = =
" Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " was written by freelance writer Steve Pepoon and directed by Rich Moore . It was originally going to be named " Homer vs. the 8th Commandment " , but the writers decided to include Lisa in the title because they wanted the cast to feel as if all their characters were equally represented on the show . The episode is based on the Eighth Commandment ( " thou shall not steal " ) , which is one of the Ten Commandments . The Simpsons writer Al Jean said that " whenever people come up to me and say that The Simpsons is just sort of this outrageous show that has no moral center , I always point them to this [ episode ] , where Homer gets an illegal cable hook @-@ up ( which many people have done in real life ) and suffers enormous consequences . "
The Simpsons writer Mike Reiss feels that episodes such as " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " are his favorite episodes to write because they have a " solid theme or an issue " ( in this case , religion and theft ) , that one can " discuss endlessly and just have it present itself in so many different ways . " Producer Jeff Martin said that the writers tried to use a " very strict construction of the Eighth Commandment , " considering cable theft to be " essentially a victimless crime . " " Homer vs. the 8th Commandment " was produced at a time when illegal cable hookups were becoming commonplace in many homes . This episode later inspired the season four episode " Homer the Heretic " , in which Homer stops going to church on Sundays . Based on the Fourth Commandment , " remember the Sabbath and keep it holy " , that episode originated when Jean commented to Reiss , " We had a lot of luck with Homer stealing cable , so maybe we could look to other commandments ? "
The episode marks the debut appearance of the character Troy McClure , voiced by Phil Hartman . McClure was based on the typical " washed up " Hollywood actor , and B movie actors Troy Donahue and Doug McClure served as inspiration for his name and certain character aspects . According to show creator Matt Groening , Hartman was cast in the role due to his ability to pull " the maximum amount of humor " out of any line he was given . McClure 's visual appearance is similar to that of Hartman himself . McClure became a recurring character on the show after " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " , but was retired in 1998 after Hartman 's death . In addition to McClure , Hartman also provided the voice of the cable guy . The character Drederick Tatum , one of the boxers in the boxing match Homer and his friends watch , also makes his first appearance on the show in this episode . His physical appearance was based on the American boxer Mike Tyson , and he was named after a real boxer Simpsons writer George Meyer had seen .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in which Homer stands in front of and is struck by the cable man 's truck resembles a scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's film North by Northwest . Drederick Tatum is based on Mike Tyson . In a joke about Mr. Burns ' age , Burns recalls watching a bare @-@ knuckle match between Gentleman Jim Corbett and " an Eskimo fellow . " The films that are watched by the family on the new cable are Jaws , Die Hard , and Wall Street . One of the X @-@ rated films Bart and his friends watch on cable is called Broadcast Nudes . The title parodies Broadcast News , which was written by Simpsons executive producer James L. Brooks .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " finished 25th in ratings for the week of February 4 – 10 , 1991 with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 2 , and was viewed in approximately 14 million homes . It did better than the show 's season average rank of 32nd , and was the highest rated program on Fox that week . The episode finished second in its timeslot to The Cosby Show , which aired at the same time on NBC and had a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 8 .
In The Gospel According to The Simpsons , Mark I. Pinsky writes that the episode has " the structure of an exquisitely crafted twenty @-@ two minute sermon . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson felt that " [ The episode ] helped establish the show ’ s reputation as a master lampooner of pop culture . The introduction of cable into the home allowed [ the writers ] to mock many different movies and other media outlets , and this helped make the episode very entertaining . It also worked in many other ways and offered a fine show . " Writing for MacLean 's magazine , Jaime J. Weinman described " Homer vs. Lisa and the Eighth Commandment " as " the first truly great episode — the one that established The Simpsons as the funniest and most multi @-@ layered sitcom around . The story of Homer stealing cable was an excuse for dozens of parodies of early 90s cable TV , but it was also a story about Homer and his daughter and an examination of how we rationalize little acts of theft in our daily lives . "
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called the episode a " skilful demonstration of a moral dilemma that must have plagued millions since the inception of cable TV . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , wrote that " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " is " one of the many demonstrations that while [ The Simpsons ] may have pushed the censorship envelope for its day , it remained moral to its core . The running satire of cable programs is also quite amusing . "
The episode won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) . It was the second episode of the show to win the award . It was also nominated in the " Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " category .
= Harvey Milk =
Harvey Bernard Milk ( May 22 , 1930 – November 27 , 1978 ) was an American politician who became the first openly gay person to be elected to public office in California , when he won a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Politics and gay activism were not his early interests ; he was not open about his homosexuality and did not participate in civic matters until around the age of 40 , after his experiences in the counterculture of the 1960s .
Milk moved from New York City to settle in San Francisco in 1972 amid a migration of gay men to the Castro District . He took advantage of the growing political and economic power of the neighborhood to promote his interests , and ran unsuccessfully for political office three times . His theatrical campaigns earned him increasing popularity , and Milk won a seat as a city supervisor in 1977 .
Milk served almost 11 months in office and was responsible for passing a stringent gay rights ordinance for the city . On November 27 , 1978 , Milk and Mayor George Moscone were assassinated by Dan White , another city supervisor who had recently resigned but wanted his job back . Milk 's election was made possible by and was a key component of a shift in San Francisco politics .
Despite his short career in politics , Milk became an icon in San Francisco and a martyr in the gay community . In 2002 , Milk was called " the most famous and most significantly open LGBT official ever elected in the United States " . Anne Kronenberg , his final campaign manager , wrote of him : " What set Harvey apart from you or me was that he was a visionary . He imagined a righteous world inside his head and then he set about to create it for real , for all of us . " Milk was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Milk was born in Woodmere , New York , to William Milk and Minerva Karns . He was the younger son of Lithuanian Jewish parents and the grandson of Morris Milk , a department store owner who helped to organize the first synagogue in the area . As a child , Harvey was teased for his protruding ears , big nose , and oversized feet , and tended to grab attention as a class clown . He played football in school , and developed a passion for opera ; in his teens , he acknowledged his homosexuality to himself , but kept it a closely guarded secret . Under his name in the high school yearbook , it read , " Glimpy Milk — and they say WOMEN are never at a loss for words " .
Milk graduated from Bay Shore High School in Bay Shore , New York , in 1947 and attended New York State College for Teachers in Albany ( now the State University of New York at Albany ) from 1947 to 1951 , majoring in mathematics . He also wrote for the college newspaper . One classmate remembered , " He was never thought of as a possible queer — that 's what you called them then — he was a man 's man " .
= = = Early career = = =
After graduation , Milk joined the United States Navy during the Korean War . He served aboard the submarine rescue ship USS Kittiwake ( ASR @-@ 13 ) as a diving officer . He later transferred to Naval Station , San Diego to serve as a diving instructor . In 1955 , he was discharged from the Navy at the rank of lieutenant , junior grade .
Milk 's early career was marked by frequent changes ; in later years he would take delight in talking about his metamorphosis from a middle @-@ class Jewish boy . He began teaching at George W. Hewlett High School on Long Island . In 1956 , he met Joe Campbell , at the Jacob Riis Park beach , a popular location for gay men in Queens . Campbell was seven years younger than Milk , and Milk pursued him passionately . Even after they moved in together , Milk wrote Campbell romantic notes and poems . Growing bored with their New York lives , they decided to move to Dallas , Texas , but they were unhappy there and moved back to New York , where Milk got a job as an actuarial statistician at an insurance firm . Campbell and Milk separated after almost six years ; it would be his longest relationship .
Milk tried to keep his early romantic life separate from his family and work . Once again bored and single in New York , he thought of moving to Miami to marry a lesbian friend to " have a front and each would not be in the way of the other " . However , he decided to remain in New York , where he secretly pursued gay relationships . In 1962 Milk became involved with Craig Rodwell , who was 10 years younger . Though Milk courted Rodwell ardently , waking him every morning with a call and sending him notes , Milk was uncomfortable with Rodwell 's involvement with the New York Mattachine Society , a gay @-@ rights organization . When Rodwell was arrested for walking in Riis Park , and charged with inciting a riot and with indecent exposure ( the law required men 's swimsuits to extend from above the navel to below the thigh ) , he spent three days in jail . The relationship soon ended as Milk became alarmed at Rodwell 's tendency to agitate the police .
Milk abruptly stopped working as an insurance actuary and became a researcher at the Wall Street firm Bache & Company . He was frequently promoted despite his tendency to offend the older members of the firm by ignoring their advice and flaunting his success . Although he was skilled at his job , co @-@ workers sensed that Milk 's heart was not in his work . He started a romantic relationship with Jack Galen McKinley , and recruited him to work on conservative Republican Barry Goldwater 's 1964 presidential campaign . Their relationship was troubled . When McKinley first began his relationship with Milk in late 1964 , he was 16 years old . He was prone to depression and sometimes threatened to commit suicide if Milk did not show him enough attention . To make a point to McKinley , Milk took him to the hospital where Milk 's ex @-@ lover , Joe Campbell , was himself recuperating from a suicide attempt , after his lover Billy Sipple left him . Milk had remained friendly with Campbell , who had entered the avant @-@ garde art scene in Greenwich Village , but Milk did not understand why Campbell 's despondency was sufficient cause to consider suicide as an option .
= = = Rise of Castro Street = = =
The Eureka Valley of San Francisco , where Market and Castro Streets intersect , had for decades been a blue @-@ collar Irish Catholic neighborhood synonymous with the Most Holy Redeemer Parish ( a few Lutherans of Scandinavian ancestry also lived in the neighborhood ) . Beginning in the late 1960s , however , young families left the neighborhood and moved to Bay Area suburbs , and the city 's economic base eroded as factories moved to cheaper locations nearby and blue @-@ collar port jobs relocated to Oakland . Mayor Joseph Alioto , proud of his working @-@ class background and supporters , based his political career on welcoming developers to provide construction jobs and attracting a Roman Catholic Cardinal to the city . Many blue @-@ collar workers — often Alioto supporters — lost their jobs as large corporations with service industry positions replaced factory and dry dock jobs . San Francisco , which had been " a city of villages " , a decentralized city with ethnic enclaves that each surrounded its own main street , began a demographic change .
As the downtown area developed , neighborhoods suffered , including Castro Street . The Most Holy Redeemer Parish shops shut down , and houses were abandoned and shuttered . In 1963 , real estate prices plummeted when most of the working @-@ class families tried to sell their houses quickly after a gay bar opened in the neighborhood . Hippies , attracted to the free love ideals of the Haight @-@ Ashbury area but repulsed by its crime rate , bought some of the cheap Victorian houses . Beginning in the late 1960s , many San Francisco gays who were affluent began to move from the small apartments of the Polk Gulch area , San Francisco 's primary gayborhood since the end of World War II , to the large cheap Victorians in the Castro neighborhood .
Since the end of World War II , the major port city of San Francisco had been home to a sizable number of gay men expelled from the military who had decided to stay rather than return to their hometowns and face ostracism . By 1969 the Kinsey Institute believed San Francisco had more gay people per capita than any other American city ; when the National Institute of Mental Health asked the Institute to survey homosexuals , the Institute chose San Francisco as its focus . Milk and McKinley were among the thousands of gay men attracted to San Francisco . McKinley was a stage manager for Tom O 'Horgan , a director who started his career in experimental theater , but soon graduated to much larger Broadway productions . They arrived in 1969 with the Broadway touring company of Hair . McKinley was offered a job in the New York City production of Jesus Christ Superstar , and their tempestuous relationship came to an end . The city appealed to Milk so much that he decided to stay , working at an investment firm . In 1970 , increasingly frustrated with the political climate after the U.S. invasion of Cambodia , Milk let his hair grow long . When told to cut it , he refused and was fired .
Milk drifted from California to Texas to New York , without a steady job or plan . In New York City he became involved with O 'Horgan 's theater company as a " general aide " , signing on as associate producer for Lenny and for Eve Merriam 's Inner City . The time he had spent with the cast of flower children wore away much of Milk 's conservatism . A contemporary New York Times story about O 'Horgan described Milk as " a sad eyed man — another aging hippie with long , long hair , wearing faded jeans and pretty beads " . Craig Rodwell read the description of the formerly uptight man and wondered if it could be the same person . One of Milk 's Wall Street friends worried that he seemed to have no plan or future , but remembered Milk 's attitude : " I think he was happier than at any time I had ever seen him in his entire life . "
Milk met Scott Smith , 18 years his junior , and began another relationship . Milk and Smith returned to San Francisco , where they lived on money they had saved . In March 1973 , after a roll of film Milk left at a local shop was ruined , he and Smith opened a camera store on Castro Street with their last $ 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = Changing politics = = =
In the late 1960s , the Society for Individual Rights ( SIR ) and the Daughters of Bilitis ( DOB ) began to work against police persecution of gay bars and entrapment in San Francisco . Oral sex was still a felony , and in 1970 , nearly 90 people in the city were arrested for having sex in public parks at night . Mayor Alioto asked the police to target the parks , hoping the decision would appeal to the Archdiocese and his Catholic supporters . In 1971 , 2 @,@ 800 gay men were arrested for public sex in San Francisco . By comparison , New York City recorded only 63 arrests for the same offense that year . Any arrest for a morals charge required registration as a sex offender .
Congressman Phillip Burton , Assemblyman Willie Brown , and other California politicians recognized the growing clout and organization of homosexuals in the city , and courted their votes by attending meetings of gay and lesbian organizations . Brown pushed for legalization of sex between consenting adults in 1969 but failed . SIR was also pursued by popular moderate Supervisor Dianne Feinstein in her bid to become mayor , opposing Alioto . Ex @-@ policeman Richard Hongisto worked for 10 years to change the conservative views of the San Francisco Police Department , and also actively appealed to the gay community , which responded by raising significant funds for his campaign for sheriff . Though Feinstein was unsuccessful , Hongisto 's win in 1971 showed the political clout of the gay community .
SIR had become powerful enough for political maneuvering . In 1971 SIR members Jim Foster , Rick Stokes , and Advocate publisher David Goodstein formed the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club , known as simply " Alice " . Alice befriended liberal politicians to persuade them to sponsor bills , proving successful in 1972 when Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon obtained Feinstein 's support for an ordinance outlawing employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation . Alice chose Stokes to run for a relatively unimportant seat on the community college board . Though Stokes received 45 @,@ 000 votes , he was quiet , unassuming , and did not win . Foster , however , shot to national prominence by being the first openly gay man to address a political convention . His speech at the 1972 Democratic National Convention ensured that his voice , according to San Francisco politicians , was the one to be heard when they wanted the opinions , and especially the votes , of the gay community .
Milk became more interested in political and civic matters when he was faced with civic problems and policies he disliked . One day in 1973 , a state bureaucrat entered Milk 's shop Castro Camera and informed him that he owed $ 100 as a deposit against state sales tax . Milk was incredulous and traded shouts with the man about the rights of business owners ; after he complained for weeks at state offices , the deposit was reduced to $ 30 . Milk fumed about government priorities when a teacher came into his store to borrow a projector because the equipment in the schools did not function . Friends also remember around the same time having to restrain him from kicking the television while Attorney General John N. Mitchell gave consistent " I don 't recall " replies during the Watergate hearings . Milk decided that the time had come to run for city supervisor . He said later , " I finally reached the point where I knew I had to become involved or shut up " .
= = Campaigns = =
Milk 's reception by the gay political establishment in San Francisco was icy . Jim Foster , who had by then been active in gay politics for 10 years , resented the newcomer 's asking for his endorsement for a position as prestigious as city supervisor . Foster told Milk , " There 's an old saying in the Democratic Party . You don 't get to dance unless you put up the chairs . I 've never seen you put up the chairs . " Milk was furious at the patronizing snub , and the conversation marked the beginning of an antagonistic relationship between the " Alice " Club and Harvey Milk . Some gay bar owners , still battling police harassment and unhappy with what they saw as a timid approach by Alice to established authority in the city , decided to endorse him .
Though he had drifted through his life thus far , Milk found his vocation , according to journalist Frances FitzGerald , who called him a " born politician " . At first , his inexperience showed . He tried to do without money , support , or staff , and instead relied on his message of sound financial management , promoting individuals over large corporations and government . He supported the reorganization of supervisor elections from a city @-@ wide ballot to district ballots , which was intended to reduce the influence of money and give neighborhoods more control over their representatives in city government . He also ran on a culturally liberal platform , opposing government interference in private sexual matters and favoring the legalization of marijuana . Milk 's fiery , flamboyant speeches and savvy media skills earned him a significant amount of press during the 1973 election . He earned 16 @,@ 900 votes — sweeping the Castro District and other liberal neighborhoods and coming in 10th place out of 32 candidates . Had the elections been reorganized to allow districts to elect their own supervisors , he would have won .
= = = Mayor of Castro Street = = =
Milk displayed an affinity for building coalitions from early in his political career . The Teamsters wanted to strike against beer distributors — Coors in particular — who refused to sign the union contract . An organizer asked Milk for assistance with gay bars ; in return , Milk asked the union to hire more gay drivers . A few days later , Milk canvassed the gay bars in and surrounding the Castro District , urging them to refuse to sell the beer . With the help of a coalition of Arab and Chinese grocers the Teamsters had also recruited , the boycott was successful . Milk found a strong political ally in organized labor , and it was around this time that he began to style himself " The Mayor of Castro Street " . As Castro Street 's presence grew , so did Milk 's reputation . Tom O 'Horgan remarked , " Harvey spent most of his life looking for a stage . On Castro Street he finally found it . "
Tensions between the older citizens of the Most Holy Redeemer Parish and the gays entering the Castro District were growing , however , and in 1973 , when two gay men tried to open an antique shop , the Eureka Valley Merchants Association ( EVMA ) attempted to prevent them from receiving a business license . Milk and a few other gay business owners founded the Castro Village Association , with Milk as the president . He often repeated his philosophy that gays should buy from gay businesses . Milk organized the Castro Street Fair in 1974 to attract more customers to the area . More than 5 @,@ 000 attended , and some of the EVMA members were stunned ; they did more business at the Castro Street Fair than on any previous day .
= = = Serious candidate = = =
Although he was a newcomer to the Castro District , Milk had shown leadership in the small community . He was starting to be taken seriously as a candidate and decided to run again for supervisor in 1975 . He reconsidered his approach and cut his long hair , swore off marijuana , and vowed never to visit another gay bathhouse again . Milk 's campaigning earned the support of the teamsters , firefighters , and construction unions . Castro Camera became the center of activity in the neighborhood . Milk would often pull people off the street to work his campaigns for him — many discovered later that they just happened to be the type of men Milk found attractive .
Milk favored support for small businesses and the growth of neighborhoods . Since 1968 , Mayor Alioto had been luring large corporations to the city despite what critics labeled " the Manhattanization of San Francisco " . As blue @-@ collar jobs were replaced by the service industry , Alioto 's weakened political base allowed for new leadership to be voted into office in the city . George Moscone was elected mayor . Moscone had been instrumental in repealing the sodomy law earlier that year in the California State Legislature . He acknowledged Milk 's influence in his election by visiting Milk 's election night headquarters , thanking Milk personally , and offering him a position as a city commissioner . Milk came in seventh place in the election , only one position away from earning a supervisor seat . Liberal politicians held the offices of the mayor , district attorney , and sheriff .
Despite the new leadership in the city , there were still conservative strongholds . One of Moscone 's first acts as mayor was appointing a police chief to the embattled San Francisco Police Department ( SFPD ) . He chose Charles Gain , against the wishes of the SFPD . Most of the force disliked Gain for criticizing the police in the press for racial insensitivity and alcohol abuse on the job , instead of working within the command structure to change attitudes . By request of the mayor , Gain made it clear that gay police officers would be welcomed in the department ; this became national news . Police under Gain expressed their hatred of him , and of the mayor for betraying them .
= = = Race for State Assembly = = =
Keeping his promise to Milk , newly elected Mayor George Moscone appointed him to the Board of Permit Appeals in 1976 , making him the first openly gay city commissioner in the United States . Milk , however , considered seeking a position in the California State Assembly . The district was weighted heavily in his favor , as much of it was based in neighborhoods surrounding Castro Street , where Milk 's sympathizers voted . In the previous race for supervisor , Milk received more votes than the currently seated assemblyman . However , Moscone had made a deal with the assembly speaker that another candidate should run — Art Agnos . Furthermore , by order of the mayor , neither appointed nor elected officials were allowed to run a campaign while performing their duties .
Milk spent five weeks on the Board of Permit Appeals before Moscone was forced to fire him when he announced he would run for the California State Assembly . Rick Stokes replaced him . Milk 's firing , and the backroom deal made between Moscone , the assembly speaker , and Agnos , fueled his campaign as he took on the identity of a political underdog . He railed that high officers in the city and state governments were against him . He complained that the prevailing gay political establishment , particularly the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club , were shutting him out ; he referred to Jim Foster and Stokes as gay " Uncle Toms " . He enthusiastically embraced a local independent weekly magazine 's headline : " Harvey Milk vs. The Machine " .
Milk 's role as a representative of San Francisco 's gay community expanded during this period . On September 22 , 1975 , President Gerald Ford , while visiting San Francisco , walked from his hotel to his car . In the crowd , Sara Jane Moore raised a gun to shoot him . A former Marine who had been walking by grabbed her arm as the gun discharged toward the pavement . The bystander was Oliver " Bill " Sipple , who had left Milk 's ex @-@ lover Joe Campbell years before , prompting Campbell 's suicide attempt . The national spotlight was on him immediately . On psychiatric disability leave from the military , Sipple refused to call himself a hero and did not want his sexuality disclosed . Milk , however , took advantage of the opportunity to illustrate his cause that public perception of gay people would be improved if they came out of the closet . He told a friend : " It 's too good an opportunity . For once we can show that gays do heroic things , not just all that ca @-@ ca about molesting children and hanging out in bathrooms . " Milk contacted a newspaper .
Several days later Herb Caen , a columnist at The San Francisco Chronicle , exposed Sipple as gay and a friend of Milk 's . The announcement was picked up by national newspapers , and Milk 's name was included in many of the stories . Time magazine named Milk as a leader in San Francisco 's gay community . Sipple , however , was besieged by reporters , as was his family . His mother , a staunch Baptist in Detroit , now refused to speak to him . Although he had been involved with the gay community for years , even participating in Gay Pride events , Sipple sued the Chronicle for invasion of privacy . President Ford sent Sipple a note of thanks for saving his life . Milk said that Sipple 's sexual orientation was the reason he received only a note , rather than an invitation to the White House .
Milk 's continuing campaign , run from the storefront of Castro Camera , was a study in disorganization . Although the older Irish grandmothers and gay men who volunteered were plentiful and happy to send out mass mailings , Milk 's notes and volunteer lists were kept on scrap papers . Any time the campaign required funds , the money came from the cash register without any consideration for accounting . The campaign manager 's assistant was an 11 @-@ year @-@ old neighborhood girl . Milk himself was hyperactive and prone to fantastic outbursts of temper , only to recover quickly and shout excitedly about something else . Many of his rants were directed at his lover , Scott Smith , who was becoming disillusioned with the man who was no longer the laid @-@ back hippie he had fallen in love with .
If the candidate was manic , he was also dedicated and filled with good humor , and he had a particular genius for getting media attention . He spent long hours registering voters and shaking hands at bus stops and movie theater lines . He took whatever opportunity came along to promote himself . He thoroughly enjoyed campaigning , and his success was evident . With the large numbers of volunteers , he had dozens at a time stand along the busy thoroughfare of Market Street as human billboards , holding " Milk for Assembly " signs while commuters drove into the heart of the city to work . He distributed his campaign literature anywhere he could , including among one of the most influential political groups in the city , the Peoples Temple . Milk 's volunteers took thousands of brochures there , but came back with feelings of apprehension . Because the Peoples Temple leader , Jim Jones , was politically powerful in San Francisco ( and supported both candidates ) , Milk allowed Temple members to work his phones , spoke at the Temple and later wrote a letter to President Jimmy Carter defending Jones character , despite private misgivings about the group . But to his volunteers , he said : " Make sure you 're always nice to the Peoples Temple . If they ask you to do something , do it , and then send them a note thanking them for asking you to do it . They 're weird and they 're dangerous , and you never want to be on their bad side . "
The race was close , and Milk lost by fewer than 4 @,@ 000 votes . Agnos , however , taught Milk a valuable lesson when he criticized Milk 's campaign speeches as " a downer ... You talk about how you 're gonna throw the bums out , but how are you gonna fix things — other than beat me ? You shouldn 't leave your audience on a down . " In the wake of his loss , Milk , realizing that the Toklas Club would never support him politically , co @-@ founded the San Francisco Gay Democratic Club .
= = Broader historical forces = =
The fledgling gay rights movement had yet to meet organized opposition in the U.S. In 1977 a few well @-@ connected gay activists in Miami , Florida were able to pass a civil rights ordinance that made discrimination based on sexual orientation illegal in Dade County . A well @-@ organized group of conservative fundamentalist Christians responded , headed by singer Anita Bryant . Their campaign was titled Save Our Children , and Bryant claimed the ordinance infringed her right to teach her children Biblical morality . Bryant and the campaign gathered 64 @,@ 000 signatures to put the issue to a county @-@ wide vote . With funds raised in part by the Florida Citrus Commission , for which Bryant was the spokeswoman , they ran television advertisements that contrasted the Orange Bowl Parade with San Francisco 's Gay Freedom Day Parade , stating that Dade County would be turned into a " hotbed of homosexuality " where " men ... cavort with little boys " .
Jim Foster , then the most powerful political organizer in San Francisco , went to Miami to assist gay activists there as election day neared , and a nationwide boycott of orange juice was organized . The message of the Save Our Children campaign was influential , and the result was an overwhelming defeat for gay activists ; in the largest turnout in any special election in the history of Dade County , 70 % voted to repeal the law .
= = = Just politics = = =
Christian conservatives were inspired by their victory , and saw an opportunity for a new , effective political cause . Gay activists were shocked to see how little support they received . An impromptu demonstration of over 3 @,@ 000 Castro residents formed the night of the Dade County ordinance vote . Gay men and lesbians were simultaneously angry , chanting " Out of the bars and into the streets ! " , and elated at their passionate and powerful response . The San Francisco Examiner reported that members of the crowd pulled others out of bars along Castro and Polk Streets to " deafening " cheers . Milk led marchers that night on a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) course through the city , constantly moving , aware that if they stopped for too long there would be a riot . He declared , " This is the power of the gay community . Anita 's going to create a national gay force . " Activists had little time to recover , however , as the scenario replayed itself when civil rights ordinances were overturned by voters in Saint Paul , Minnesota ; Wichita , Kansas ; and Eugene , Oregon , throughout 1977 and into 1978 .
California State Senator John Briggs saw an opportunity in the Christian fundamentalists ' campaign . He was hoping to be elected governor of California in 1978 , and was impressed with the voter turnout he saw in Miami . When Briggs returned to Sacramento , he wrote a bill that would ban gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools throughout California . Briggs claimed in private that he had nothing against gays , telling gay journalist Randy Shilts , " It 's politics . Just politics . " Random attacks on gays rose in the Castro . When the police response was considered inadequate , groups of gays patrolled the neighborhood themselves , on alert for attackers . On June 21 , 1977 , a gay man named Robert Hillsborough died from 15 stab wounds while his attackers gathered around him and chanted " Faggot ! " Both Mayor Moscone and Hillsborough 's mother blamed Anita Bryant and John Briggs . One week prior to the incident , Briggs had held a press conference at San Francisco City Hall where he called the city a " sexual garbage heap " because of homosexuals . Weeks later , 250 @,@ 000 people attended the 1977 San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade , the largest attendance at any Gay Pride event to that point .
In November 1976 , voters in San Francisco decided to reorganize supervisor elections to choose supervisors from neighborhoods instead of voting for them in city @-@ wide ballots . Harvey Milk quickly qualified as the leading candidate in District 5 , surrounding Castro Street .
= = = Last campaign = = =
Anita Bryant 's public campaign opposing homosexuality and the multiple challenges to gay rights ordinances across the United States fueled gay politics in San Francisco . Seventeen candidates from the Castro District entered the next race for supervisor ; more than half of them were gay . The New York Times ran an exposé on the veritable invasion of gay people into San Francisco , estimating that the city 's gay population was between 100 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 out of a total 750 @,@ 000 . The Castro Village Association had grown to 90 businesses ; the local bank , formerly the smallest branch in the city , had become the largest and was forced to build a wing to accommodate its new customers . Milk biographer Randy Shilts noted that " broader historical forces " were fueling his campaign .
Milk 's most successful opponent was the quiet and thoughtful lawyer Rick Stokes , who was backed by the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club . Stokes had been open about his homosexuality long before Milk had , and had experienced more severe treatment , once hospitalized and forced to endure electroshock therapy to ' cure ' him . Milk , however , was more expressive about the role of gay people and their issues in San Francisco politics . Stokes was quoted saying , " I 'm just a businessman who happens to be gay , " and expressed the view that any normal person could also be homosexual . Milk 's contrasting populist philosophy was relayed to The New York Times : " We don 't want sympathetic liberals , we want gays to represent gays ... I represent the gay street people — the 14 @-@ year @-@ old runaway from San Antonio . We have to make up for hundreds of years of persecution . We have to give hope to that poor runaway kid from San Antonio . They go to the bars because churches are hostile . They need hope ! They need a piece of the pie ! "
Other causes were also important to Milk : he promoted larger and less expensive child care facilities , free public transportation , and the development of a board of civilians to oversee the police . He advanced important neighborhood issues at every opportunity . Milk used the same manic campaign tactics as in previous races : human billboards , hours of handshaking , and dozens of speeches calling on gay people to have hope . This time , even The San Francisco Chronicle endorsed him for supervisor . On election day , November 8 , 1977 , he won by 30 % against sixteen other candidates , and after his victory became apparent , he arrived on Castro Street on the back of his campaign manager 's motorcycle — escorted by Sheriff Richard Hongisto — to what a newspaper story described as a " tumultuous and moving welcome " .
Milk had recently taken a new lover , a young man named Jack Lira , who was frequently drunk in public , and just as often escorted out of political events by Milk 's aides . Since the race for the California State Assembly , Milk had been receiving increasingly violent death threats . Concerned that his raised profile marked him as a target for assassination , he recorded on tape his thoughts , and whom he wanted to succeed him if he were killed , adding : " If a bullet should enter my brain , let that bullet destroy every closet door " .
= = Supervisor = =
Milk 's swearing @-@ in made national headlines , as he became the first non @-@ incumbent openly gay man in the United States to win an election for public office . He likened himself to pioneering African American baseball player Jackie Robinson and walked to City Hall arm in arm with Jack Lira , stating " You can stand around and throw bricks at Silly Hall or you can take it over . Well , here we are . " The Castro District was not the only neighborhood to promote someone new to city politics . Sworn in with Milk were also a single mother ( Carol Ruth Silver ) , a Chinese American ( Gordon Lau ) , and an African American woman ( Ella Hill Hutch ) — all firsts for the city . Daniel White , a former police officer and firefighter , was also a first @-@ time supervisor , and he spoke of how proud he was that his grandmother was able to see him sworn in .
Milk 's energy , affinity for pranking , and unpredictability at times exasperated Board of Supervisors President Dianne Feinstein . In his first meeting with Mayor Moscone , Milk called himself the " number one queen " and dictated to Moscone that he would have to go through Milk instead of the Alice B. Toklas Memorial Democratic Club if he wanted the city 's gay votes — a quarter of San Francisco 's voting population . However , Milk also became Moscone 's closest ally on the Board of Supervisors . The biggest targets of Milk 's ire were large corporations and real estate developers . He fumed when a parking garage was slated to take the place of homes near the downtown area , and tried to pass a commuter tax so office workers who lived outside the city and drove into work would have to pay for city services they used . Milk was often willing to vote against Feinstein and other more tenured members of the board . In one controversy early in his term , Milk agreed with fellow Supervisor Dan White , whose district was located two miles south of the Castro , that a mental health facility for troubled adolescents should not be placed there . After Milk learned more about the facility , he decided to switch his vote , ensuring White 's loss on the issue — a particularly poignant cause that White championed while campaigning . White did not forget it . He opposed every initiative and issue Milk supported .
Milk began his tenure by sponsoring a civil rights bill that outlawed discrimination based on sexual orientation . The ordinance was called the " most stringent and encompassing in the nation " , and its passing demonstrated " the growing political power of homosexuals " , according to The New York Times . Only Supervisor White voted against it ; Mayor Moscone enthusiastically signed it into law with a light blue pen that Milk had given him for the occasion .
Another bill Milk concentrated on was designed to solve the number one problem according to a recent citywide poll : dog excrement . Within a month of being sworn in , he began to work on a city ordinance to require dog owners to scoop their pets ' feces . Dubbed the " pooper scooper law " , its authorization by the Board of Supervisors was covered extensively by television and newspapers in San Francisco . Anne Kronenberg , Milk 's campaign manager , called him " a master at figuring out what would get him covered in the newspaper " . He invited the press to Duboce Park to explain why it was necessary , and while cameras were rolling , stepped in the offending substance , seemingly by mistake . His staffers , however , knew he had been at the park for an hour before the press conference looking for the right place to walk in front of the cameras . It earned him the most fan mail of his tenure in politics and went out on national news releases .
Milk had grown tired of Lira 's drinking and considered breaking up with him when Lira called a few weeks later and demanded Milk come home . When Milk arrived , he found Lira had hanged himself . Already prone to severe depression , Lira had attempted suicide previously . One of the longest notes he left for Milk indicated he was upset about the Anita Bryant and John Briggs campaigns .
= = = Briggs Initiative = = =
John Briggs was forced to drop out of the 1978 race for California governor , but received enthusiastic support for Proposition 6 , dubbed the Briggs Initiative . The proposed law would have made firing gay teachers — and any public school employees who supported gay rights — mandatory . Briggs ' messages supporting Proposition 6 were pervasive throughout California , and Harvey Milk attended every event Briggs hosted . Milk campaigned against the bill throughout the state as well , and swore that even if Briggs won California , he would not win San Francisco . In their numerous debates , which toward the end had been honed to quick back @-@ and @-@ forth banter , Briggs maintained that homosexual teachers wanted to abuse and recruit children . Milk responded with statistics compiled by law enforcement that provided evidence that pedophiles identified primarily as heterosexual , and dismissed Briggs ' assertions with one @-@ liner jokes : " If it were true that children mimicked their teachers , you 'd sure have a helluva lot more nuns running around " .
Attendance at Gay Pride marches during the summer of 1978 in Los Angeles and San Francisco swelled . An estimated 250 @,@ 000 to 375 @,@ 000 attended San Francisco 's Gay Freedom Day Parade ; newspapers claimed the higher numbers were due to John Briggs . Organizers asked participants to carry signs indicating their hometowns for the cameras , to show how far people came to live in the Castro District . Milk rode in an open car carrying a sign saying " I 'm from Woodmere , N.Y. " He gave a version of what became his most famous speech , the " Hope Speech " , that The San Francisco Examiner said " ignited the crowd " :
On this anniversary of Stonewall , I ask my gay sisters and brothers to make the commitment to fight . For themselves , for their freedom , for their country ... We will not win our rights by staying quietly in our closets ... We are coming out to fight the lies , the myths , the distortions . We are coming out to tell the truths about gays , for I am tired of the conspiracy of silence , so I 'm going to talk about it . And I want you to talk about it . You must come out . Come out to your parents , your relatives .
Despite the losses in battles for gay rights across the country that year , he remained optimistic , saying " Even if gays lose in these initiatives , people are still being educated . Because of Anita Bryant and Dade County , the entire country was educated about homosexuality to a greater extent than ever before . The first step is always hostility , and after that you can sit down and talk about it . "
Citing the potential infringements on individual rights , former governor of California Ronald Reagan voiced his opposition to the proposition , as did Governor Jerry Brown and President Jimmy Carter , the latter in an afterthought following a speech he gave in Sacramento . On November 7 , 1978 , the proposition lost by more than a million votes , astounding gay activists on election night . In San Francisco , 75 percent voted against it .
= = Assassination = =
On November 10 , 1978 , 10 months after being sworn in , White resigned his position on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors ,
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claiming that his annual salary of $ 9 @,@ 600 was not enough to support his family . Milk was also feeling the pinch of the decrease in income when he and Scott Smith were forced to close Castro Camera a month before . Within days , White requested that his resignation be withdrawn and he be reinstated , and Mayor Moscone initially agreed . However , further consideration — and intervention by other supervisors — convinced the mayor to appoint someone more in line with the growing ethnic diversity of White 's district and the liberal leanings of the Board of Supervisors . On November 18 , news broke of the murder of California Representative Leo Ryan , who was in Jonestown , Guyana to check on the remote community built by members of the Peoples Temple who had relocated from San Francisco . The next day came news of the mass suicide of members of the Peoples Temple . Horror came in degrees as San Franciscans learned more than 400 Jonestown residents were dead . Dan White remarked to two aides who were working for his reinstatement , " You see that ? One day I 'm on the front page and the next I 'm swept right off . " Soon the number of dead in Guyana topped 900 .
Moscone planned to announce White 's replacement days later , on November 27 , 1978 . A half hour before the press conference , White entered City Hall through a basement window to avoid metal detectors , and made his way to Moscone 's office . Witnesses heard shouting between White and Moscone , then gunshots . White shot the mayor in the shoulder and chest , then twice in the head after Moscone had fallen on the floor . White then quickly walked to his former office , reloading his police @-@ issue revolver with hollow @-@ point bullets along the way , and intercepted Milk , asking him to step inside for a moment . Dianne Feinstein heard gunshots and called the police . She found Milk face down on the floor , shot five times , including twice in the head at close range . After identifying both bodies , Feinstein was shaking so badly she required support from the police chief . It was she who announced to the press , " Today San Francisco has experienced a double tragedy of immense proportions . As President of the Board of Supervisors , it is my duty to inform you that both Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk have been shot and killed , " then adding after being drowned out by shouts of disbelief , " and the suspect is Supervisor Dan White . " Milk was 48 years old . Moscone was 49 .
Within an hour , White called his wife from a nearby diner ; she met him at a church and escorted him to the police , where White turned himself in . Many residents left flowers on the steps of City Hall . That evening , a spontaneous gathering began to form on Castro Street , moving toward City Hall in a candlelight vigil . Their numbers were estimated between 25 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 , spanning the width of Market Street , extending the mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from Castro Street . The next day , the bodies of Moscone and Milk were brought to the City Hall rotunda where mourners paid their respects . Six thousand mourners attended a service for Mayor Moscone at St. Mary 's Cathedral . Two memorials were held for Milk ; a small one at Temple Emanu @-@ El and a more boisterous one at the Opera House .
= = = " City in agony " = = =
Moscone had recently increased security at City Hall in the wake of the Jonestown suicides . Survivors from Guyana recounted drills for suicide preparations that Jones called " White Nights " . Rumors about Moscone 's and Milk 's murders were fueled by the coincidence of Dan White 's name and Jones ' suicide preparations . A stunned District Attorney called the assassinations so close to the news about Jonestown " incomprehensible " , but denied any connection . Governor Jerry Brown ordered all flags in California to be flown at half staff , and called Milk a " hard @-@ working and dedicated supervisor , a leader of San Francisco 's gay community , who kept his promise to represent all his constituents " . President Jimmy Carter expressed his shock at both murders and sent his condolences . Speaker of the California Assembly Leo McCarthy called it " an insane tragedy " . " A City in Agony " topped the headlines in The San Francisco Examiner the day after the murders ; inside the paper stories of the assassinations under the headline " Black Monday " were printed back to back with updates of bodies being shipped home from Guyana . An editorial describing " A city with more sadness and despair in its heart than any city should have to bear " went on to ask how such tragedies could occur , particularly to " men of such warmth and vision and great energies " . Dan White was charged with two counts of murder and held without bail , eligible for the death penalty owing to the recent passage of a statewide proposition that allowed death or life in prison for the murder of a public official . One analysis of the months surrounding the murders called 1978 and 1979 " the most emotionally devastating years in San Francisco 's fabulously spotted history " .
The 32 @-@ year @-@ old White , who had been in the Army during the Vietnam War , had run on a tough anti @-@ crime platform in his district . Colleagues declared him a high @-@ achieving " all @-@ American boy " . He was to have received an award the next week for rescuing a woman and child from a 17 @-@ story burning building when he was a firefighter in 1977 . Though he was the only supervisor to vote against Milk 's gay rights ordinance earlier that year , he had been quoted as saying , " I respect the rights of all people , including gays " . Milk and White at first got along well . One of White 's political aides ( who was gay ) remembered , " Dan had more in common with Harvey than he did with anyone else on the board " . White had voted to support a center for gay seniors , and to honor Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin 's 25th anniversary and pioneering work .
After Milk 's vote for the mental health facility in White 's district , however , White refused to speak with Milk and only communicated with one of Milk 's aides . Other acquaintances remembered White as very intense . " He was impulsive ... He was an extremely competitive man , obsessively so ... I think he could not take defeat , " San Francisco 's assistant fire chief told reporters . White 's first campaign manager quit in the middle of the campaign , and told a reporter that White was an egotist and it was clear that he was antigay , though he denied it in the press . White 's associates and supporters described him " as a man with a pugilistic temper and an impressive capacity for nurturing a grudge " . The aide who had handled communications between White and Milk remembered , " Talking to him , I realized that he saw Harvey Milk and George Moscone as representing all that was wrong with the world " .
When Milk 's friends looked in his closet for a suit for his casket , they learned how much he had been affected by the recent decrease in his income as a supervisor . All of his clothes were coming apart ; all of his socks had holes . He was cremated and his ashes were split , most of them scattered in San Francisco Bay by his closest friends . Some of them were encapsulated and buried beneath the sidewalk in front of 575 Castro Street , where Castro Camera had been located . Harry Britt , one of four people Milk listed on his tape as an acceptable replacement should he be assassinated , was chosen to fill that position by the city 's acting mayor , Dianne Feinstein .
= = = Trial = = =
Dan White 's arrest and trial caused a sensation , and illustrated severe tensions between the liberal population and the city police . The San Francisco Police were mostly working @-@ class Irish descendants who intensely disliked the growing gay immigration , as well as the liberal direction of the city government . After White turned himself in and confessed , he sat in his cell while his former colleagues on the police force told Harvey Milk jokes ; police openly wore " Free Dan White " T @-@ shirts in the days after the murder . An undersheriff for San Francisco later stated : " The more I observed what went on at the jail , the more I began to stop seeing what Dan White did as the act of an individual and began to see it as a political act in a political movement . " White showed no remorse for his actions , and only exhibited vulnerability during an eight @-@ minute call to his mother from jail .
The seated jury for White 's trial consisted of white middle @-@ class San Franciscans who were mostly Catholic ; gays and ethnic minorities were excused from the jury pool . The jury was clearly sympathetic to the defendant : some of the members cried when they heard White 's tearful recorded confession , at the end of which the interrogator thanked White for his honesty . White 's defense attorney , Doug Schmidt , argued that he was not responsible for his actions , using the legal defense known as diminished capacity : " Good people , fine people , with fine backgrounds , simply don 't kill people in cold blood . " Schmidt tried to prove that White 's anguished mental state was a result of manipulation by the politicos in City Hall who had consistently disappointed and confounded him , finally promising to give his job back only to refuse him again . Schmidt said that White 's mental deterioration was demonstrated and exacerbated by his junk food binge the night before the murders , since he was usually known to have been health @-@ food conscious . Area newspapers quickly dubbed it the Twinkie defense . White was acquitted of the first degree murder charge on May 21 , 1979 , but found guilty of voluntary manslaughter of both victims , and he was sentenced to serve seven and two @-@ thirds years . With the sentence reduced for time served and good behavior , he would be released in five . He cried when he heard the verdict .
= = = White Night riots = = =
Acting Mayor Feinstein , Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver , and Milk 's successor Harry Britt condemned the jury 's decision . When it was announced over the police radio in the city , someone sang " Danny Boy " on the police band . A surge of people from the Castro District walked again to City Hall , chanting " Avenge Harvey Milk " and " He got away with murder " . Pandemonium rapidly escalated as rocks were hurled at the front doors of the building . Milk 's friends and aides tried to stop the destruction , but the mob of more than 3 @,@ 000 ignored them and lit police cars on fire . They shoved a burning newspaper dispenser through the broken doors of City Hall , then cheered as the flames grew . One of the rioters responded to a reporter 's question about why they were destroying parts of the city : " Just tell people that we ate too many Twinkies . That 's why this is happening . " The chief of police ordered the police not to retaliate , but to hold their ground . The White Night riots , as they became known , lasted several hours .
Later that evening , May 21 , 1979 , several police cruisers filled with officers wearing riot gear arrived at the Elephant Walk Bar on Castro Street . Harvey Milk 's protégé Cleve Jones and a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle , Warren Hinckle , watched as officers stormed into the bar and began to beat patrons at random . After a 15 @-@ minute melee , they left the bar and struck out at people walking along the street . The chief of police finally ordered the officers out of the neighborhood . By morning , 61 police officers and 100 rioters and gay residents of the Castro had been hospitalized . City Hall , police cruisers , and the Elephant Walk Bar suffered damages in excess of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
After the verdict , the District Attorney Joseph Freitas faced a furious gay community to explain what had gone wrong . The prosecutor admitted to feeling sorry for White before the trial , and neglected to ask the interrogator who had recorded White 's confession ( and who was a childhood friend of White 's and his police softball team coach ) about his biases and the support White received from the police because , he said , he did not want to embarrass the detective in front of his family in court . Nor did Freitas question White 's frame of mind , lack of a history of mental illness , or bring into evidence city politics , suggesting that revenge may have been a motive . Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver testified on the last day of the trial that White and Milk were not friendly , yet she had contacted the prosecutor and insisted on testifying . It was the only testimony the jury heard about their strained relationship . Freitas blamed the jury whom he claimed had been " taken in by the whole emotional aspect of [ the ] trial " .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Milk 's and Moscone 's murders and White 's trial changed city politics and the California legal system . In 1980 San Francisco ended district supervisor elections , fearing that a Board of Supervisors so divisive would be harmful to the city , and that they had been a factor in the assassinations . A grassroots neighborhood effort to restore district elections in the mid @-@ 1990s proved successful , and the city returned to neighborhood representatives in 2000 . As a result of Dan White 's trial , California voters changed the law to reduce the likelihood of acquittals of accused who knew what they were doing but claimed their capacity was impaired . Diminished capacity was abolished as a defense to a charge , but courts allowed evidence of it when deciding whether to incarcerate , commit , or otherwise punish a convicted defendant . The " Twinkie defense " has entered American mythology , popularly described as a case where a murderer escapes justice because he binged on junk food , simplifying White 's lack of political savvy , his relationships with George Moscone and Harvey Milk , and what San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen described as pandemic police " dislike of homosexuals " .
Dan White served a little more than five years for the double murder of Moscone and Milk . On October 21 , 1985 , a year and a half after his release from prison , White was found dead in a running car in his ex @-@ wife 's garage . He was 39 years old . His defense attorney told reporters that he had been despondent over the loss of his family , and the situation he had caused , adding " This was a sick man . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Politics = = =
Harvey Milk 's political career centered on making government responsive to individuals , gay liberation , and the importance of neighborhoods to the city . At the onset of each campaign , an issue was added to Milk 's public political philosophy . His 1973 campaign focused on the first point , that as a small business owner in San Francisco — a city dominated by large corporations that had been courted by municipal government — his interests were being overlooked because he was not represented by a large financial institution . Although he did not hide the fact that he was gay , it did not become an issue until his race for the California State Assembly in 1976 . It was brought to the fore in the supervisor race against Rick Stokes , as it was an extension of his ideas of individual freedom .
Milk strongly believed that neighborhoods promoted unity and a small @-@ town experience , and that the Castro should provide services to all its residents . He opposed the closing of an elementary school ; even though most gay people in the Castro did not have children , Milk saw his neighborhood having the potential to welcome everyone . He told his aides to concentrate on fixing potholes and boasted that 50 new stop signs had been installed in District 5 . Responding to city residents ' largest complaint about living in San Francisco — dog feces — Milk made it a priority to enact the ordinance requiring dog owners to take care of their pets ' droppings . Randy Shilts noted , " some would claim Harvey was a socialist or various other sorts of ideologues , but , in reality , Harvey 's political philosophy was never more complicated than the issue of dogshit ; government should solve people 's basic problems . "
Karen Foss , a communications professor at the University of New Mexico , attributes Milk 's impact on San Francisco politics to the fact that he was unlike anyone else who had held public office in the city . She writes , " Milk happened to be a highly energetic , charismatic figure with a love of theatrics and nothing to lose ... Using laughter , reversal , transcendence , and his insider / outsider status , Milk helped create a climate in which dialogue on issues became possible . He also provided a means to integrate the disparate voices of his various constituencies . " Milk had been a rousing speaker since he began campaigning in 1973 , and his oratory skills only improved after he became City Supervisor . His most famous talking points became known as the " Hope Speech " , which became a staple throughout his political career . It opened with a play on the accusation that gay people recruit impressionable youth into their numbers : " My name is Harvey Milk — and I want to recruit you . " A version of the Hope Speech that he gave near the end of his life was considered by his friends and aides to be the best , and the closing the most effective :
And the young gay people in the Altoona , Pennsylvanias and the Richmond , Minnesotas who are coming out and hear Anita Bryant in television and her story . The only thing they have to look forward to is hope . And you have to give them hope . Hope for a better world , hope for a better tomorrow , hope for a better place to come to if the pressures at home are too great . Hope that all will be all right . Without hope , not only gays , but the blacks , the seniors , the handicapped , the us 'es , the us 'es will give up . And if you help elect to the central committee and other offices , more gay people , that gives a green light to all who feel disenfranchised , a green light to move forward . It means hope to a nation that has given up , because if a gay person makes it , the doors are open to everyone .
In the last year of his life , Milk emphasized that gay people should be more visible to help to end the discrimination and violence against them . Although Milk had not come out to his mother before her death many years before , in his final statement during his taped prediction of his assassination , he urged others to do so :
I cannot prevent anyone from getting angry , or mad , or frustrated . I can only hope that they 'll turn that anger and frustration and madness into something positive , so that two , three , four , five hundred will step forward , so the gay doctors will come out , the gay lawyers , the gay judges , gay bankers , gay architects ... I hope that every professional gay will say ' enough ' , come forward and tell everybody , wear a sign , let the world know . Maybe that will help .
However , Milk 's assassination has become entwined with his political efficacy , partly because he was killed at the zenith of his popularity . Historian Neil Miller writes , " No contemporary American gay leader has yet to achieve in life the stature Milk found in death . " His legacy has become ambiguous ; Randy Shilts concludes his biography writing that Milk 's success , murder , and the inevitable injustice of White 's verdict represented the experience of all gays . Milk 's life was " a metaphor for the homosexual experience in America " . According to Frances FitzGerald , Milk 's legend has been unable to be sustained as no one appeared able to take his place in the years after his death : " The Castro saw him as a martyr but understood his martyrdom as an end rather than a beginning . He had died , and with him a great deal of the Castro 's optimism , idealism , and ambition seemed to die as well . The Castro could find no one to take his place in its affections , and possibly wanted no one . " On the 20th anniversary of Milk 's death , historian John D 'Emilio said , " The legacy that I think he would want to be remembered for is the imperative to live one 's life at all times with integrity . " For a political career so short , Cleve Jones attributes more to his assassination than his life : " His murder and the response to it made permanent and unquestionable the full participation of gay and lesbian people in the political process . "
= = = Tributes and media = = =
The City of San Francisco has paid tribute to Milk by naming several locations after him . Where Market and Castro streets intersect in San Francisco flies an enormous Gay Pride flag , situated in Harvey Milk Plaza . The San Francisco Gay Democratic Club changed its name to the Harvey Milk Memorial Gay Democratic Club in 1978 ( it is currently named the Harvey Milk Lesbian , Gay , Bisexual , Transgender Democratic Club ) and boasts that it is the largest Democratic organization in San Francisco . In New York City , Harvey Milk High School is a school program for at @-@ risk youth that concentrates on the needs of gay , lesbian , bisexual , and transgender students and operates out of the Hetrick Martin Institute .
In 1982 , freelance reporter Randy Shilts completed his first book : a biography of Milk , titled The Mayor of Castro Street . Shilts wrote the book while unable to find a steady job as an openly gay reporter . The Times of Harvey Milk , a documentary film based on the book 's material , won the 1984 Academy Award for Documentary Feature . Director Rob Epstein spoke later about why he chose the subject of Milk 's life : " At the time , for those of us who lived in San Francisco , it felt like it was life changing , that all the eyes of the world were upon us , but in fact most of the world outside of San Francisco had no idea . It was just a really brief , provincial , localized current events story that the mayor and a city council member in San Francisco were killed . It didn 't have much reverberation . "
Milk 's life has been the subject of a musical theater production ; an eponymous opera ; a children 's picture book ; a French @-@ language historical novel for young @-@ adult readers ; and the biopic Milk , released in 2008 after 15 years in the making . The film was directed by Gus Van Sant and starred Sean Penn as Milk and Josh Brolin as Dan White , and won two Academy Awards for Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor . It took eight weeks to film , and often used extras who had been present at the actual events for large crowd scenes , including a scene depicting Milk 's " Hope Speech " at the 1978 Gay Freedom Day Parade .
Milk was included in the " Time 100 Heroes and Icons of the 20th Century " as " a symbol of what gays can accomplish and the dangers they face in doing so " . Despite his antics and publicity stunts , according to writer John Cloud , " none understood how his public role could affect private lives better than Milk ... [ he ] knew that the root cause of the gay predicament was invisibility " . The Advocate listed Milk third in their " 40 Heroes " of the 20th century issue , quoting Dianne Feinstein : " His homosexuality gave him an insight into the scars which all oppressed people wear . He believed that no sacrifice was too great a price to pay for the cause of human rights . "
In August 2009 , President Barack Obama posthumously awarded Milk the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contribution to the gay rights movement stating " he fought discrimination with visionary courage and conviction " . Milk 's nephew Stuart accepted for his uncle . Shortly after , Stuart co @-@ founded the Harvey Milk Foundation with Anne Kronenberg with the support of Desmond Tutu , co @-@ recipient of 2009 Presidential Medal of Freedom and now a member of the Foundation 's Advisory Board . Later in the year , California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger designated May 22 as " Harvey Milk Day " , and inducted Milk in the California Hall of Fame .
Since 2003 , the story of Harvey Milk has been featured in three exhibitions created by the GLBT Historical Society , a San Francisco – based museum , archives , and research center , to which the estate of Scott Smith donated Milk 's personal belongings that were preserved after his death . On May 22 , 2014 , the United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp honoring Harvey Milk , the first openly LGBT political official to receive this honor . The stamp features a photo taken in front of Milk 's Castro Camera store and was unveiled on what would have been his 84th birthday .
Harry Britt summarized Milk 's impact the evening Milk was shot in 1978 : " No matter what the world has taught us about ourselves , we can be beautiful and we can get our thing together ... Harvey was a prophet ... he lived by a vision ... Something very special is going to happen in this city and it will have Harvey Milk 's name on it . "
In 2012 , Milk was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display which celebrates LGBT history and people .
= = Archival Resources = =
The Gay , Lesbian , Bisexual , Transgender Historical Society Holds artifacts of Milk , including the suit he was wearing when shot by Dan White
Harvey Milk Archives--Scott Smith Collection , 1930 @-@ 1995 , held at the San Francisco Public Library , James C. Hormel LGBTQIA Center .
= Fort Dansborg =
Fort Dansborg , a locally called Danish Fort , is a Danish fort located in the shores of Bay of Bengal in Tharangambadi in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Fort Dansborg was built in the land ceded by Thanjavur king Ragunatha Nayak in an agreement with Danish Admiral Ove Gjedde in 1620 and acted as the base for Danish settlement in the region during the early 17th century . The fort is the second largest Danish fort after Kronborg . The fort was sold to the British in 1845 and along with Tharangambadi , the fort lost its significance as the town was not an active trading post for the British . After India 's independence in 1947 , the fort was used as an inspection bungalow by the state government till 1978 when the Department of Archaeology , Government of Tamil Nadu took over the control of the fort . The fort is now used as a museum where the major artifacts of the fort and the Danish empire are displayed .
The fort was renovated twice in modern times , once by Tranquebar Association with the help of the Danish royal family and the State Archaeology Department in 2001 and secondly by a project named Destination Development of Tranquebar by the Department of Tourism of the Government of Tamil Nadu in 2011 . The fort is one of the prominent tourist destinations in the region .
= = History = =
Coramandel was an active international trading coast from the 3rd century BCE . The European colonial empires like British , French , Dutch and Portuguese established maritime trade with India during the early 17th century . The Danish East India Company was established in the capital of Denmark , Copenhagen in 1616 and a mission was sent with Admiral Ove Gjedde ( 1594 – 1660 CE ) . Ove Gjedde signed a deal with the Thanjavur ruler king Raghunatha Nayak ( 1600 – 34 ) in 1620 in spite of resistance from the Portuguese . The rent was fixed as ₹ 3111 per annum and a total of 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) by 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) area was ceded to the Danish mission . The treaty signed during November 1620 also allowed the Danes to collect taxes from the neighbouring villages of Tranquebar . The treaty signed in a golden leaf manuscript is maintained in the Danish royal archives in Copenhagen .
The fort is the second largest Danish fort after Kronborg , the inspiration for Shakespeare 's Hamlet . It was built by Ove Gjedde with the help of local laborers in Danish style . The lower compartment in the basement adjoining the fort was used as a store room , prison and a rest room for the soldiers , while the governor and priests resided in the second level . Fort Dansborg was the base for Danish settlement in the region during the early 17th century . Originally a fishing village , Tharangambadi ( referred as Tranquebar ) was fortified by the Danish , who used the port as the main trading post for the colony , with the major export of the colony being cotton textiles . During the middle of the 18th century , the commercial importance of the town declined and the centre of textile production moved to Serampore in the state of Bengal . But Tranquebar still remained the headquarters of the Colony . The fort and the town was sold to the British in 1845 and , along with Tharangambadi , the fort lost its significance as the town was not a trading post anymore .
= = Architecture = =
Fort Dansborg is located in the southern part of Tharangambadi , located 283 km ( 176 mi ) from the state capital Chennai . It is built in Danish style , characterized by large halls , columned structures , high ceilings and projecting drapery . The length of the fort in the side facing the sea is 60 m ( 200 ft ) and the width is about 11 m ( 36 ft ) . The fort is trapezoidal in shape with three rooms in the left wing , originally used as the governor 's residence , a kitchen with an open fireplace and chimney in the top left hand corner , and a church room , now a museum , located in the centre of the building . The original rectory and the northern part of it , which are now the store rooms , are located in the right wing . The corner room on the right side was the residence of the commercial director . In modern times , it is used as a store room . The core of the building is made of brick . The main door of the fort faces north , while an additional door faces the east . The second storey of the fort has a set of guard rooms . The staircase leading to it are built with bricks . The central part of the fort has four camel hump shaped domes . The central pillar of the hall holds the entire weight of the domes .
The citadel encloses a set of buildings , the notable ones being the fort built in 1620 , the Masilamaninathar Temple built in the 13th century , the Zion Church built in 1701 , New Jerusalem Church built in 1718 , the Town Gateway built in 1792 , the Danish Governor Bungalow built in 1784 and a series of tomb stones built during the 17th and 18th centuries . The settlement inside the citadel is modeled like a small European town with a land gate and wooden doors leading to the main street , namely , the King 's Street . Some of the notable buildings in the King 's street are the Gate House , Muhldorff 's House , Port Master 's Bungalow and Rehling 's House . There were originally citadel walls towards the sea , which eroded with time on account of the salty nature of the environment . The fortification could not withstand an attack by regular military forces , but acted as a protection for the citizens of the settlement against predatory cavalry raids . The bastions of the fort are constructed with black stone .
= = Renovation in modern times = =
The Tranquebar Association , formed in 2001 , with the help of the Tamil Nadu State Archaeological Department and the Danish Royal family , restored the South end of the fort with the same kind of material like brick and black stone , used during the original construction . The renovation was completed in 2005 , with contributions from local artisans , Danish volunteers , Danish and Indian experts . In 2001 , chemists from the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) restored the portrait of Raja Ragunatha Naik , Tranquebar site map , pottery , portrait of Christian IV , the Danish King . Metal Halide lamps , which provide a uniform green @-@ coloured lighting , were used for illuminating the exteriors . The restored complex was opened by the Collector of the Nagapattinam District in 2002 .
There was a project planned by the Government of Tamil Nadu to lay stones along the shores to protect the fort and the Masilamaninathar Temple in Tharangambadi from erosion . While the project was planned much before the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2005 , it was implemented only in 2007 . Before the tsunami , there was stiff resistance from the local villages citing impact to fishery in the region . Post tsunami , the resistance from the locals receded and the project was extended to accommodate additional areas of the shore .
The Department of Tourism Development of Tamil Nadu initiated a project named " Destination Development of Tranquebar " . The project was started in 2011 , with an estimated budget of ₹ 3 @,@ 730 @,@ 800 ( US $ 55 @,@ 000 ) and planned a phased re @-@ creation of the fort and the environs around it . As a part of the first phase of the project , cobble @-@ stoned pathways were laid and ornamental cast iron street lamps were installed in the path around the fort . The cobble @-@ stone pathways were laid for a total of 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) around the facade and for 100 m ( 330 ft ) on Goldsmith street . The first phase was completed at an expense of ₹ 2 @,@ 430 @,@ 000 ( US $ 36 @,@ 000 ) . The second phase of the project involved the laying of cobble @-@ stone pathways from the Tranquebar Arch to the river promenade . The second phase was completed at an expense of ₹ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ( US $ 19 @,@ 000 ) . Environmental protection measures , like restraining movement of heavy vehicles around the fort to maintain the highest atmospheric ozone concentration , were also implemented .
= = Culture = =
A factory was established soon after the fort was constructed and it minted coins that bore the initials TB or DB , indicating Dansborg . The fort acted as the important gateway in the trade route from Europe to Coramandel . Protestant missionaries were sent from Denmark by king Fredric IV , who was also the head of Lutheran Church of Denmark . Two of them , namely , Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plutschua came to Tranquebar on 9 July 1706 , established the Tranquebar Mission , learnt Tamil in a few years and were the first to translate and print The New Testament of the Bible in Tamil in the printing press inside the fort . The Danish mission was the first Protestant mission in India and from its inception , was staffed by German missionaries trained at Pietist schools and seminary founded by Francke at the end of 17th century . A Tamil @-@ Latin dictionary containing 9000 words was compiled there by a medical missionary named Friedrich Koenig in 1778 , whose source letters are stored in the royal archives . The fort is featured in a large number of videos , films and commercials . After India 's independence in 1947 , the fort was used as an inspection bungalow by the state government till 1978 when the State Department of Archaeology of the Government of Tamil Nadu took over the control of the fort . The fort is now used as a museum , housing a collection of major artifacts of the fort and the Danish empire . The fort is one of the most visited tourist landmarks in the region .
= Timema =
Timema is a genus of relatively short @-@ bodied , stout stick insects native to the far western United States . The genus was first described in 1895 by Samuel Hubbard Scudder , based on observations of the species Timema californicum .
Compared to other stick insects ( order Phasmatodea ) , the genus Timema is considered basal ; that is , the earliest " branch " to diverge from the phylogenetic tree that includes all Phasmatodea . To emphasize this outgroup status , all stick insects not included in Timema are sometimes described as " Euphasmatodea . "
Five of the twenty @-@ one species of Timema are parthenogenetic , including two species that have not engaged in sexual reproduction for one million years , the longest known asexual period for any insect .
= = Description = =
Timema spp. differ from other Phasmatodea in that their tarsi have three segments rather than five . For stick insects , they have relatively small , stout bodies , so that they look somewhat like earwigs ( order Dermaptera ) .
= = = Cryptic coloration and camouflage = = =
Timema walking sticks are night @-@ feeders who spend daytime resting on the leaves or bark of the plants they feed on . Timema colors ( primarily green , gray , or brown ) and patterns ( which may be stripes , scales , or dots ) match their typical background , a form of crypsis .
In 2008 , researchers studying the presence or absence of a dorsal stripe suggested that it has independently evolved several times in Timema species and is an adaptation for crypsis on needle @-@ like leaves . All of the eight Timema species with a dorsal stripe have at least one host plant with needle @-@ like foliage . Of the thirteen unstriped species , seven feed only on broadleaf plants . Four ( T. ritensis , T. podura , T. genevieve , and T. coffmani ) rest during the day on the host plant 's trunk rather than its leaves and have bodies that are brown , gray , or tan . Only two species ( T. nakipa and T. boharti ) have green unstriped morphs that feed on needle @-@ like foliage ; both are generalist feeders that also feed on broadleaf hosts .
The species Timema cristinae exhibits both striped and unstriped populations depending on the host plant , a form of polymorphism that clearly illustrates the camouflage function of the stripe . The earliest ancestors of this species were generalists that fed on plants belonging to both the genera Adenostoma and Ceanothus . They eventually diverged into two distinct ecotypes with a more specialist host plant preference . One ecotype prefers to feed on Adenostoma while the other ecotype prefers to feed on Ceanothus . The Adenostoma ecotype possesses a white dorsal stripe , an adaptation to blend in with the needle @-@ like leaves of the plant , while the Ceanothus ecotype does not ( Ceanothus spp. have broad leaves ) . The Adenostoma ecotype is also smaller , with a wider head , and shorter legs .
These characteristics are genetically inherited and has been interpreted as the early stages of the speciation process . The two ecotypes will eventually become separate species once reproductive isolation is achieved . At the moment , both ecotypes are still capable of interbreeding and producing viable offspring , as such they are still considered a single species .
= = = Life cycle and reproduction = = =
Timema eggs are soft , ellipsoidal , and about two mm long , with a lid @-@ like structure at one end ( the operculum ) through which the nymph will emerge . Timema females use particles of dirt , which they have previously ingested , to coat their eggs .
The eggs of many stick insects , including Timema , are attractive to ants , who carry them away to their burrows to feed on the egg 's capitulum , while leaving the rest of the egg intact to hatch . The emerging nymph passes through six or seven instars before reaching adulthood .
Timema males , in sexual species of Timema , show a consistent pattern of courting behavior . The male climbs onto the back of the female and , after a short display of vibrating and waving , they proceed to mate . ( Rejection by the female is possible but uncommon . ) The male then rides on the female 's back for up to five days , a behavior often referred to as " guarding " the female .
Several species of Timema are parthenogenetic : that is , females can reproduce asexually , producing viable eggs without male participation .
According to Tanja Schwander of Simon Fraser University , " Timema are indeed the oldest insects for which there is good evidence that they have been asexual for long periods of time . " She heads a team of researchers who found that five Timema species ( T. douglasi , T. monikensis , T. shepardi , T. tahoe and T. genevieve ) have used only asexual reproduction for more than 500 @,@ 000 years , with T. tahoe and T. genevieve reproducing asexually for over one million years .
= = Habitat = =
The geographic range of Timema is limited to mountainous regions of western North America between 30 ° and 42 ° N. They are found primarily in California , as well as in a few other neighboring states ( Oregon , Nevada , Arizona ) and in northern Mexico . All are herbivores , primarily feeding on host plants found in chaparral .
Host plants of the different Timema species include Pseudotsuga menziesii ( Douglas fir ) , Sequoia sempervirens ( Californian redwood ) , Arctostaphylos spp . ( manzanita ) , Ceanothus spp . , Adenostoma fasciculatum ( chamise ) , Abies concolor ( white fir ) , Quercus spp . ( oak ) , Heteromeles arbutifolia ( toyon ) , Cercocarpus spp . ( mountain @-@ mahogany ) , Eriogonum sp . ( buckwheat ) , and Juniperus spp . ( juniper ) .
= = Phylogeny = =
General phylogenetic relationships within Timema ( Law & Crespi , 2002 ) . Species marked with ♀ are parthenogenetic ( female only ) .
= = Classification = =
Timema is the only member of the family Timematidae and the suborder Timematodea . Their clade is considered basal to the order Phasmatodea ; that is , many scientists believe that Timema @-@ type stick insects represent the earliest " branch " to diverge from the phylogenetic tree that gave rise to all the stick insects of Phasmatodea . This primal distinction is referenced by the name " Euphasmatodea " , which is given to all the clades of Phasmatodea other than the suborder Timematodea .
Twenty @-@ one species have been described ; in addition there is at least one undescribed species known to exist :
= Bill Brown with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Bill Brown was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 . Bradman 's men went through their 34 matches without defeat ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
An experienced right @-@ handed opening batsman , Brown was on his third visit to England , having first toured in 1934 before World War II . However , Brown 's best years were lost to the war and by 1948 Sid Barnes and Arthur Morris had superseded him in the pecking order to become Australia 's first @-@ choice opening pair . Brown was selected as a reserve opener ; this decision generated controversy among critics who believed he was past his best .
Bradman rotated the three openers in the tour matches , but Morris and Barnes were preferred in the Tests . Bradman accommodated Brown in his first @-@ choice team by playing him out of position in the middle order in the Tests . However , Brown appeared uncomfortable in the unfamiliar role , and was dropped after making 73 runs at a batting average of 24 @.@ 33 in the first two Tests .
Despite his struggles in the Test arena , Brown had success in the tour matches as an opener . He scored 1 @,@ 448 runs at 57 @.@ 92 in all first @-@ class matches , ranking fourth in both the aggregates and averages . He scored eight centuries , second only to Bradman , including 200 against Cambridge University . However , Brown gained criticism for his slow batting . Following his omission from the Test team , Brown batted in a highly circumspect manner to increase the reliability and volume of his scoring . A very occasional off spin bowler , Brown took his career first @-@ class best of 4 / 16 in his only stint with the ball , against the South of England .
= = Background = =
Brown had been a regular member of the Australian Test team since his debut in 1934 , and immediately after World War II , he captained Australia in the inaugural Test against New Zealand . However , he was sidelined by injury in 1946 – 47 and Sid Barnes and Arthur Morris opened in the Tests , averaging 73 @.@ 83 and 71 @.@ 85 respectively . Brown resumed his Test career in the following season , replacing Barnes , but he was dropped after scoring 29 runs in two Tests . Barnes then came in and made 139 runs in the next two Tests , including a 112 in the Fourth Test . Morris was then rested for the Fifth Test to allow Brown another chance to show his ability and make a case for continued national selection , and he made 99 . In the Tests against India during the season , Barnes , Morris and Brown had shared the opening duties ; their batting averages were 43 @.@ 00 , 52 @.@ 25 and 42 @.@ 66 respectively . In any case , Brown had done enough to tour England with The Invincibles in 1948 , his third trip there , although Barnes and Morris were the first @-@ choice opening combination .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire . Brown gained selection , although Bradman batted him out of position in the middle order while Barnes and Morris opened . Brown came in 6 / 335 and scored 25 at a typically placid pace , accumulating his runs at a lower strike rate than the other recognised batsmen . He was out with the score at 6 / 402 as Australia went on to declare at 8 / 462 and win by an innings .
In the next match against Leicestershire , Bradman rested Morris , so Brown opened with Barnes . Brown scored 26 in an opening stand of 46 , as Australia amassed 448 and won by an innings .
The Australians proceeded to play Yorkshire at Bradford , on a damp pitch suitable for slower bowling . In the first innings , Brown took three catches from the bowling of Keith Miller — who had resorted to bowling off spin — as Yorkshire were bowled out for 71 in difficult batting conditions . Opening with Morris while Barnes was rested , Brown made 13 as the match remained finely balanced after Australia was bowled out for 101 . Brown took another catch from Miller in the second innings as the hosts were bowled out for 89 . Chasing 60 for victory , Brown fell to Frank Smailes for two as the Australian top order collapsed to 6 / 31 — effectively seven wickets down with the injured Sam Loxton unable to bat — before scraping home by four wickets .
Brown was rested for the next match against Surrey , which Australia won by an innings . After the first four matches , five Australians hade made centuries , and another had passed fifty . Brown had scored only 66 runs with a highest score of 26 , while Morris and Barnes , the incumbent openers , had scored 223 and 298 runs with a century and fifty apiece .
Brown was recalled for the match against Cambridge University , opening with Morris while Barnes rested . After putting on 64 for the opening wicket with Morris , Brown added 176 for the second wicket with Ron Hamence . He added a further 140 for the fourth wicket with Lindsay Hassett , who was captaining the team while Bradman rested himself . Brown top @-@ scored with 200 and Hassett declared when his double @-@ centurion was out with the score at 4 / 414 . Australia went on to win by an innings . In the following match against Essex , Brown opened with Barnes while Morris was rested . The pair put on 145 in 97 minutes — the highest opening stand by the Australians on the tour to that point — before Barnes was out hit wicket . In the meantime , Brown had reached 50 in 90 minutes . Bradman came in and he and Brown accelerated to put on a second @-@ wicket partnership of 219 in 90 minutes , before the latter was out for 153 from three hours of batting with the score at 2 / 364 . Brown had scored his last 100 runs in less than 90 minutes . Australia went on to score 721 runs on the first day , the highest number of runs amassed in one day of first @-@ class cricket , before completing victory by an innings and 451 runs , their largest winning margin for the tour . Opening with Morris while Barnes was rested , Brown completed his third century in as many innings with 108 against Oxford University , after putting on an opening stand of 139 . This meant that he had scored 461 runs in eight days of cricket , and put him atop the batting aggregates , ahead of Bradman . Australia went on to complete their fourth successive innings victory .
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . Bradman installed Barnes and Morris as his preferred opening pair , while Brown batted out of position at No. 6 . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team lined up in the First Test , with the top six batsmen in the same positions . It was a chance for players from both sides to gain a psychological advantage , but Brown failed to capitalise . He came to the crease with the score at 4 / 280 to join Keith Miller and scored 26 in a stand of 63 before being dismissed as Australia amassed 552 and won by an innings . This was followed by Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour , against Lancashire , a draw for which Brown was rested .
Brown returned for the following match , which was against Nottinghamshire , and added 122 to register his fourth century in less than three weeks . Australia made 400 but the hosts hung on for a draw in the second innings . In the next match against Hampshire , Brown opened with Barnes and made a duck as Australia were dismissed for 117 on a damp pitch in reply to the home side 's 195 . It was the first time the tourists had conceded a first innings during the summer . Hampshire were subsequently bowled out in their second innings for 103 to leave Australia a target of 182 . This time Barnes fell for a duck , and Brown anchored Australia to an eight @-@ wicket win with an unbeaten 81 after a century second @-@ wicket partnership with Ian Johnson . The final match before the First Test was against Sussex . Opening with Morris , Brown played second fiddle , accumulating 44 as the pair put on an opening stand of 153 . Morris went on to 184 and Australia declared at 5 / 549 before completing another innings victory .
= = First Test = =
Up to this point , Brown — who was on his third tour of England — had scored 800 runs on tour at an average of 72 @.@ 72 , with a double century , three other centuries and 81 not out , In contrast , middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey struggled in the initial stages of his first tour of England . Harvey failed to pass 25 in his first six innings , and although he had scored an unbeaten 100 against Sussex , he had totalled only 296 runs at 42 @.@ 29 . As a result , Brown gained selection in the First Test at Trent Bridge , batting out of position in the middle order while Barnes and Morris opened , whereas Harvey was dropped despite making a century in Australia 's most recent Test against India .
England batted first and made 165 , with Brown prominent in the field . Early on the first day of play , Brown caught England opener Cyril Washbrook on the run at the fine leg boundary after the batsman had attempted to hook a Ray Lindwall bouncer , leaving England at 2 / 15 after 41 minutes of play . He later made a series of one @-@ handed stops in the field , helping to keep the pressure on the batsmen . Brown took his second catch of the innings to remove Alec Bedser , who had featured in a rearguard fightback to help take England to 165 after they had fallen to 8 / 74 .
On the second day , Barnes and Bradman took the score to 1 / 121 before Barnes and Miller were dismissed without further addition to the score . All the while , Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would throughout the day . Brown came in at No. 5 to join Bradman , but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman and he looked uncomfortable in the middle order , but Bradman brought him in ahead of Hassett as the new ball was due and Brown was used to starting his innings against pace bowlers and a new ball . English captain Norman Yardley removed Jim Laker from the attack and took the second new ball . Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes and the run rate picked up somewhat , prompting England to revert to slower bowling . Australia passed England 's total before Yardley brought himself on to bowl and trapped Brown — who was attempting to push the ball to mid @-@ on — leg before wicket ( lbw ) with an off cutter in his first over . This ended a 64 @-@ run stand in 58 minutes and left Australia at 4 / 185 . Following the departure of Brown , the scoring slowed as Bradman changed the team strategy to one of attempting to bat only once . Australia eventually reached 509 , and after England compiled 441 in their second innings , Brown was not needed as Australia made the 98 runs required victory for the loss of only two wickets .
Between Tests , Brown was rested for the match against Northamptonshire , which Australia won by an innings . He returned for the second fixture against Yorkshire . Opening with Barnes , Brown made 19 as Australia took a 43 @-@ run first innings lead . In the second innings , Brown top @-@ scored with 113 . He combined with Bradman to add 154 runs for the second wicket as the match petered into a draw . In a patient and restrained display , Brown took four hours to make his century . Following his controversial selection for the tour , Brown was attempting to justify his position in the team by accumulating a large amount of runs , but earned criticism for being too dour . However , the century was enough to see him retain his middle @-@ order position for the Second Test at Lord 's , where Australia fielded an unchanged team . Former Test leg spinner and teammate Bill O 'Reilly — who was in England as a journalist — criticised the selection of Brown , who had appeared to be noticeably uncomfortable in the unfamiliar role . He said that despite Brown 's unbeaten double century in his previous Test at Lord 's in 1938 , Sam Loxton and Neil Harvey had better claims to selection .
= = Second Test = =
Australia won the toss and batted first at the home of cricket . Centurion Morris fell at 3 / 166 and new batsman Miller was trapped lbw for four shortly after . Brown came in at 4 / 173 and helped Lindsay Hassett rebuild the innings after the two quick wickets . Both men scored slowly , averaging more than three and half minutes for each run . After putting on a partnership of 43 , Hassett was bowled by Yardley , who then trapped Brown for 24 to leave Australia stumbling at 6 / 225 . Brown had hit two consecutive half @-@ volleys off his pads through the leg side for four , and attempted a third boundary in a row to a similar delivery . However , this third delivery came off the pitch more quickly and beat Brown for pace . Australia managed to avoid further collapse a counterattack from the tail saw them to 350 before they bowled England out for 215 . The tourists batted much more productively in the second innings in ideal weather on the third day . Brown joined Miller after Bradman fell at 4 / 329 ; Australia had lost 3 / 33 but steadied to reach stumps at 343 without further loss , with Brown on seven . After the rest day , Australia resumed with a lead of 478 runs and six wickets in hand . The morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages . Just ten minutes after the start , heavy rain intervened . The weather cleared and Miller and Brown moved to lunch on 63 and 32 respectively , with Australia at 4 / 409 . In 88 minutes of play , Australia had added 117 runs . Brown was caught behind from Alec Coxon after lunch without adding to his score for 32 , after an 87 @-@ run partnership with Miller , with the score at 5 / 416 . Bradman eventually declared at 7 / 460 , 595 runs ahead . It would take a world record chase from England to win the match . The home team lost wickets regularly and fell for 186 to lose by 409 runs . Although part of a successful team , Brown was unable to replicate the centuries he made in each of his two previous Tests at Lord ’ s on the preceding tours , and it was to be the last Test of his career .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Test . Brown injured a finger while fielding in the first innings , so he was unable to bat in Australia 's first innings . In the second innings , Australia 's makeshift openers Harvey and Sam Loxton chased down the 122 runs for victory to complete a 10 @-@ wicket win in less than an hour .
= = Dropped = =
Brown was rested for the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test . Loxton scored 159 not out , featuring in two century partnerships and propelling Australia to 7 / 774 declared , which was its highest score of the tour and laid the foundation for an innings victory . Loxton ’ s effort was enough to oust Brown from his middle @-@ order position for the Third Test at Old Trafford . According to O ’ Reilly , Brown had appeared out of place in the middle @-@ order because he was used to the opener ’ s classical role of defending against and wearing down the opening bowlers , rather than attacking . During the Test , which was drawn , Barnes was injured and off spinner Ian Johnson was used as a makeshift opener as Morris was the only specialist left after Brown ’ s omission . Afterwards , Brown managed only eight as Australia defeated Middlesex by ten wickets in their only county match between Tests .
Barnes was still unavailable for the Fourth Test , but Brown was not recalled to open with Morris ; instead , Hassett was promoted to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order . Although Hassett failed with only 13 and 17
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in his two innings , Harvey struck 112 in the first innings , before Australia chased down 404 on the final day to set a world record for the highest successful run @-@ chase in Test cricket and won by seven wickets .
Brown partnered the recovered Barnes and patiently scored 140 , before being the fifth man out with the score at 344 , as Australia amassed 456 and defeated Derbyshire by an innings immediately after the Fourth Test . Looking to regain his Test position by sheer weight of runs , Brown started slowly ; Barnes made 24 of the first 29 runs . He took 185 minutes to reach 50 , much to the displeasure of the restless spectators , before accelerating and scoring his next 50 runs in 37 minutes .
In the next match against Glamorgan , Brown scored 16 in a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . He scored 33 and seven in the following match , falling both times to the leg spin of Eric Hollies as Australia defeated Warwickshire by nine wickets . Brown was then rested as Australia faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . He returned for the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , scoring 49 out of Australia 's 282 in a weather @-@ affected draw that failed to reach the second innings . Brown was overlooked for selection in the Fifth Test at The Oval . Barnes returned to the team and Australia crushed England by an innings and 149 runs to take the series 4 – 0 after cutting them down for only 52 in the first innings .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Australia batted first against Kent and Brown top @-@ scored with 106 . After putting on 64 with Morris for the first wicket , he put on 104 each for the next two partnerships with Bradman and Harvey respectively , before falling at 3 / 272 . Brown again batted slowly ; he took 255 minutes to reach triple figures and was greeted by ironic clapping as he slowly accumulated runs while his partners attacked . Brown 's dismissal triggered a collapse ; Australia lost their last seven wickets for 89 to end at 361 . Despite this , they completed another innings victory . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England , which was held at Lord 's , Brown scored 120 , featuring in a 180 @-@ run second wicket partnership with Bradman , as Australia amassed 5 / 610 and won by an innings . Former Australian Test opener and batting partner Jack Fingleton said " Brown has always looked the class batsman that he is when playing at Lord 's , and this superb century , so different in conception and execution to the one at Canterbury [ against Kent ] , made one reflect what a grand opening batsman this series of Tests had done without " . Fingleton made a duck in the next match but Australia nevertheless defeated Somerset by an innings and 374 runs . He then made 13 against the South of England in his last first @-@ class match of the season . The match was washed out , but not before Brown took 4 / 16 from 4 @.@ 1 overs in his only first @-@ class bowling effort of the tour , cleaning up the tail .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last Australian tour in 1938 , the team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted only six England players from the season 's Tests be allowed to compete . After his opponents had finalised their team , Bradman fielded a full @-@ strength team , and Brown missed out . The match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . In the first match , Brown was rested as the Australians claimed an innings victory . In the second match , Brown scored 24 not out batting at No. 8 and took a wicket in the second innings as Australia ended the tour with another innings victory .
= = Role = =
An experienced right @-@ handed opening batsman , Brown was on his third campaign in England , having first toured in 1934 before the World War II . However , Brown 's best years were lost to the war and by 1948 , Barnes and Morris had risen above him in the pecking order and become Australia 's first @-@ choice opening pair . Brown was selected as the reserve opener , a decision that generated controversy among pundits who believed he was past his best .
During the tour matches , which were usually played consecutively with only one or no days between fixtures , Bradman rotated the trio of openers , so one would generally be rested while the other two opened , N- but in the Tests , Morris and Barnes were preferred . Bradman accommodated Brown in his first @-@ choice team by playing him out of position in the middle order in the first two Tests and against Worcestershire and the MCC , when he fielded the strongest XI . However , Brown appeared uncomfortable in the unfamiliar role , and after making 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in the first two Tests , he was dropped .
Nevertheless , Brown was successful in the tour matches when he played as an opener . He ended the tour with eight centuries and a total of 1 @,@ 448 first @-@ class runs at an average of 57 @.@ 92 , behind only Bradman , Hassett and Morris in the runs and averages , with a highest score of 200 against Cambridge University . Brown 's tally of eight centuries was second only to Bradman , and took his tally on English soil to 18 first @-@ class tons . Excluding the matches against Worcestershire , the MCC and the first two Tests , in which Brown had scored 25 , 26 , 17 , 24 and 32 batting in the middle order while Barnes and Morris opened , Brown scored 1 @,@ 324 runs at 66 @.@ 20 while opening in the other matches , which would have put him in a clear fourth place on the batting averages . Following his omission from the Test team midway through the tour , Brown batted in a slow and conservative manner in order to score more runs and regain his position , much to the chagrin of the crowds .
A very occasional off spinner , Brown took 4 / 16 against the South of England in his only first @-@ class bowling assignment of the tour . It was his best career bowling figures — he accumulated only six wickets in his first @-@ class career . He also took 18 catches in the first @-@ class fixtures .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
= Hensley Henson =
Herbert Hensley Henson ( 8 November 1863 – 27 September 1947 ) was an Anglican priest , scholar and controversialist . He was Bishop of Hereford , 1918 – 20 and Bishop of Durham , 1920 – 39 .
The son of a zealous member of the Plymouth Brethren , Henson was not allowed to go to school until he was fourteen , and was largely self @-@ educated . He was admitted to the University of Oxford , and gained a first @-@ class degree in 1884 . In the same year he was elected as a Fellow of All Souls , where he began to make a reputation as a speaker . He was ordained as a priest in 1888 .
Feeling a vocation to minister to the urban poor , Henson served in the East End of London and Barking before becoming chaplain of an ancient hospice in Ilford in 1895 . In 1900 he was appointed to the high @-@ profile post of vicar of St Margaret 's , Westminster and canon of Westminster Abbey . While there , and as Dean of Durham ( 1913 – 18 ) , he wrote prolifically and sometimes controversially . The Anglo @-@ Catholic wing of the Church took exception to his liberal theological views , which some regarded as heretical , and sought unsuccessfully in 1917 to block his appointment as Bishop of Hereford .
In 1920 , after two years in the largely rural diocese of Hereford , Henson returned to Durham as its bishop . The industrial north @-@ east of England , including County Durham , was badly affected by an economic depression . Henson was opposed to strikes , trade unions and socialism , and for a time his forthright expression of his views made him unpopular in the diocese . His opinions about some Church matters changed radically during his career : at first a strong advocate of the Church of England 's continued establishment as the country 's official church , he came to believe that politicians could not be trusted to legislate properly on ecclesiastical matters , and he espoused the cause of disestablishment . He campaigned against efforts to introduce prohibition , exploitation of foreign workers by British companies , and fascist and Nazi aggression , and supported reform of the divorce laws , a controversial revision of the Book of Common Prayer and ecumenism .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Henson was born in London , the fourth son and sixth child of eight of Thomas Henson ( 1812 – 96 ) , a businessman , and his second wife , Martha , née Fear . The family moved to Broadstairs on the coast of Kent when Henson was two years old . Thomas Henson was a zealous evangelical Christian who had renounced the Church of England and joined the Plymouth Brethren . Martha Henson shielded her children from the worst excesses of what the biographer Matthew Grimley describes as Thomas 's " bigotry " , but in 1870 she died , and , in Henson 's words , " with her died our happiness " . From an early age the young Henson was a dedicated Christian and felt a vocation for the Anglican priesthood ; his father 's fundamentalist views were anathema , and left him with what Grimley calls " an enduring hatred of protestant fanaticism " . In 1873 Thomas Henson remarried ; Emma Parker , widow of a Lutheran pastor , filled the role of stepmother with sympathy and kindness , mitigating the father 's grimness and ensuring that the children were properly educated . In Henson 's phrase , " she recreated the home " .
Henson was fourteen before his father allowed him either to be baptised or to attend a school . The Rector of Broadstairs conducted the baptism ; there were no godparents , and Henson undertook their functions himself . He took religious instruction from the rector leading to his confirmation as a communicant member of the Church of England in 1878 . At Broadstairs Collegiate School he derived little educational benefit , having already educated himself widely and deeply from books in his father 's library . He rose to be head boy of the school , but after a dispute with the headmaster during which Henson expressed " with more passion than respect " his opinion of the head , he ran away from the school in 1879 . He gained employment as an assistant master at Brigg grammar school in Lincolnshire ; the headmaster there recognised his talent and recommended that he should apply for admission to the University of Oxford . Thomas Henson was against the idea , partly because his financial means had declined , but was talked round by his wife and gave his consent . Thomas agreed to fund his son 's studies , but the sum he allowed was too little to pay the substantial fees for residence at any of the colleges of the university . In 1881 Henson applied successfully for admission as an " unattached " student , a member of none of the Oxford colleges , but eligible for the full range of university tuition . Cut off from the camaraderie of college life , Henson felt seriously isolated . He concentrated on his studies , and gained a first class honours degree in Modern History in June 1884 .
= = = All Souls = = =
Such was the quality of Henson 's scholarship that his history tutor encouraged him to enter the annual competition for appointment as a Fellow of All Souls , the university 's post @-@ graduate research college . He was appointed in November 1884 , at the age of twenty . Membership of the college offered an annual stipend of £ 200 ; for the first time , Henson was in reasonably comfortable financial circumstances . At All Souls , he later wrote , " I was welcomed with a generous kindness which made me feel immediately at home . I formed friendships which have enriched my life . " His biographer John Peart @-@ Binns suggests that Henson may nonetheless have remained something of an outsider , his arrival at All Souls " akin to that of an alien " . The college was headed by the Warden , Sir William Anson , who became something of a father figure to Henson , and encouraged his researches . Henson 's first paper , on William II of England , marked him out as not only a fine scholar but a gripping speaker when he delivered it to an audience . Aware that his quick tongue could lead him into indiscretion , he adopted and maintained all his life the practice of writing out his lectures and sermons in full beforehand rather than improvising or speaking from concise notes . He preferred a quill pen , and wrote in a fine clear hand ; he considered illegible writing to be a form of bad manners as tiresome as inaudible talking . He gained a reputation as a controversialist . In a biographical sketch , Harold Begbie wrote that at Oxford Henson was nicknamed " Coxley Cocksure " ; he added :
Never was any man more certain he was right ; never was any man more inclined to ridicule the bare idea that his opponent could be anything but wrong ; and never was any man more thoroughly happy in making use of a singularly trenchant intellect to stab and thrust its triumphant way through the logic of his adversary .
In 1885 , in tandem with his work at All Souls , Henson acted as tutor to Lyle Rathbone , son of the philanthropic businessman William Rathbone . The family lived in Birkenhead , where for six months Henson stayed with them . He had ample leisure time , much of which he spent in visiting local churches and nonconformist chapels . This process left him struggling with doctrinal questions , but sure of a religious vocation . The day after his return to Oxford in October 1885 he went into St Mary 's , Iffley , and with his hand on the altar vowed to dedicate himself to God and the Church .
Henson 's beliefs on doctrine were still forming , but he inclined to high @-@ churchmanship and was influenced by Charles Gore and the Puseyites , though he was unattracted by more extreme Anglo @-@ Catholic forms of ritualism . With his suspicion of nonconformism he was a proponent of the principle of establishment – the maintenance of Anglicanism as the official state religion – and in 1886 he became secretary of the new Oxford Laymen 's League for Defence of the National Church , to counter the threat of disestablishment proposed by politicians such as Joseph Chamberlain and Charles Dilke .
= = = Ordination and east London = = =
The poverty Henson had seen during his six months in Birkenhead gave him a strong impetus to minister to the poor . In 1887 , after being ordained deacon , he took charge of the Oxford House Settlement , a high @-@ church mission in Bethnal Green , a poor area of the East End of London . While in this post he honed his speaking skills in public debates with atheist orators , many from the National Secular Society 's Bethnal Green office .
In 1888 Henson was ordained priest . Shortly afterwards All Souls appointed him vicar of a church in its gift : St Margaret 's , Barking , east of London , a large , working class parish , with a population of 12 @,@ 000 , and increasing . At twenty @-@ five he was the youngest vicar in the country , and had a large staff of curates to manage . An All Souls colleague Cosmo Lang , himself on the brink of a Church career , visited Henson at Barking and noted , " He came six months ago to a parish dead – 250 a good congregation in the church ; and now , when he preaches , every seat is filled – 1100 ! "
With the energy and impetuosity noted by Lang , Henson worked continually over the next seven years to improve the parish , restoring the fabric of the church , opening clubs for his parishioners , and holding popular open @-@ air services in the vicarage grounds . At Barking his high @-@ church leanings were welcomed , and he was invited to preach from time to time at St Alban 's Holborn , a central London bastion of Anglo @-@ Catholicism . He was never physically strong , and his relentless work at Barking put a strain on his physique . In 1895 he accepted an offer from Lord Salisbury of a less arduous post , the chaplaincy of St Mary 's Hospital , Ilford , which he held until 1900 . In 1895 and 1896 , Henson was select preacher at Oxford , and from 1897 he served as chaplain to John Festing , Bishop of St Albans . He had time for writing ; between 1897 and 1900 he published four books , ranging from purely theological studies to analyses of Church politics . His beliefs had changed from his early high @-@ churchmanship to a broad @-@ church latitudinarianism ; his 1899 Cui bono ? set out his concerns about the strict ritualists in the Anglo @-@ Catholic wing of the Church .
= = = Westminster = = =
The Ilford appointment had been in Salisbury 's personal gift ; in his official capacity as prime minister he was responsible for Henson 's next appointment : rector of St Margaret 's , Westminster and canon of Westminster Abbey in 1900 . St Margaret 's , the parish church of the British parliament , was a high @-@ profile appointment ; Henson followed predecessors as willing as he was to court controversy including Henry Hart Milman and Frederic Farrar . His eventual successor as Bishop of Durham , Alwyn Williams wrote that at St Margaret 's , Henson 's brilliance as a speaker and independence of thought attracted large congregations and " his increasingly liberal churchmanship " appealed to a wide range of public opinion , though some of his views offended the orthodox .
In 1902 Henson married Isabella ( Ella ) Caroline ( 1870 – 1949 ) , the only daughter of James Wallis Dennistoun of Dennistoun , Scotland . Grimley comments that it was in keeping with Henson 's usual impulsiveness that he proposed within four days of meeting her . The marriage was lifelong ; there were no children .
From his pulpit , Henson spoke against the view that ecumenism was , in W E Gladstone 's words , " a moral monster " , and criticised schools that failed to provide adequate religious instruction . Preaching at Westminster Abbey in 1912 he attracted international attention for naming and denouncing three British directors of the Peruvian @-@ Amazon Company for the " Putumayo atrocities " – the mass enslavement and brutal treatment of indigenous Peruvians in the company 's rubber factories . During his time at St Margaret 's Henson published nine books , some of them collected sermons and lectures , others on the role of Christianity in modern society and theological questions .
Henson 's uncompromising character brought him into frequent conflict with old friends and colleagues . In 1909 he offended Charles Gore , now Bishop of Birmingham , by defying Gore 's order not to preach in the institute of a Congregational church in the diocese . His confrontational style and liberal theology caused delay in his promotion , despite his obvious abilities . An apocryphal story circulated in 1908 that the prime minister , Herbert Asquith , suggested Henson 's name to Edward VII when the see of York became vacant , and the king replied , " Damn it all , man , I am Defender of the Faith ! " In 1910 the post of Dean of Lincoln fell vacant . Asquith considered appointing Henson , but decided , as he told the Archbishop of Canterbury , Randall Davidson , that " it would be rather like sending a destroyer into a land @-@ locked pool " .
= = = Dean and bishop = = =
In 1912 the Dean of Durham , George Kitchin , died . The Bishop , Handley Moule , hoped the prime minister would appoint Henry Watkins , the Archdeacon of Durham , but Asquith chose Henson . On 2 January 1913 Moule presided over Henson 's formal installation at Durham Cathedral .
The five years Henson spent as Dean of Durham were marked by further controversy , including his objection to the existing divorce laws as too favourable to men and unfair to women . He was hostile to changes aimed at giving the Church more control over its own affairs ; he regarded establishment and parliamentary control as safeguards against extremism . He opposed William Temple 's " Life and Liberty movement " , which campaigned for synodical and democratic government of the Church , and he was against the establishment of the National Assembly of the Church of England in 1919 . To Henson , the essence of Anglicanism rested on parliamentary enforcement of the rights of the laity of the Church against the bishops and priests , and the inclusion of both clergy and laity in all matters under the rule of the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church .
Among other views for which Henson was known were his disapproval of teetotalism campaigners and of socialism , and for his disbelief in social reform as an ally of religion . When the Kikuyu controversy erupted in 1913 Henson once again found himself at odds with Gore . The question was whether two colonial bishops had committed heresy by taking part in an ecumenical service . Gore and his ally Bishop Weston of Zanzibar led the charge , and appear in Henson 's journal as " devoted , unselfish , indefatigable , eminently gifted , but ... also fanatical in temper , bigoted in their beliefs , and reckless in their methods . " Together with Bishop Moule , Dean Wace of Canterbury and other leaders , Henson strongly , and successfully , supported the accused bishops : " The Church owes a deep debt of gratitude to the Bishops of Uganda and Mombasa . "
Henson spoke out strongly , and ultimately unsuccessfully , against the proposed disestablishment of the Anglican Church in Wales . In doing so he addressed many nonconformist gatherings ; the historian Owen Chadwick suggests that this may have commended him to David Lloyd George , who became prime minister in 1916 . A serious doctrinal row within the Church seemed to many to put Henson out of the running for elevation to a bishopric . He had defended the right of clergy to express doubts about the virgin birth and bodily resurrection . He was , as most of his critics failed , or refused , to notice , doctrinally orthodox on the resurrection , and content to accept the tradition of the virgin birth , but his contention that other priests had the right to question them was intolerable to the Anglo @-@ Catholic wing of the Church , led by Gore .
Archbishop Davidson had no doubts about Henson 's doctrinal soundness , and persuaded him to issue a statement of faith to silence his critics . Davidson stated publicly that no fair @-@ minded man could read consecutively a series of Henson 's sermons without feeling that they had in him a brilliant and powerful teacher of the Christian faith . Gore and his followers were obliged to call off their protests . Against Davidson 's advice for caution , Lloyd George appointed Henson to the vacant see of Hereford in 1917 . Gore and others , including Cosmo Lang , now the Archbishop of York , failed to attend the consecration service . Their attitude hurt Henson , offended lay opinion in the Church , and was sharply criticised in The Times . Henson was consecrated bishop in Westminster Abbey on 4 February 1918 by Davidson , assisted by twelve supporting bishops . He was enthroned at Hereford Cathedral eight days later .
Although Henson 's elevation was controversial chiefly among factions of the clergy – in general lay people supported his appointment – it nevertheless gave fresh impetus to the idea of taking away from the prime minister the power to choose bishops . Gore attempted to promote the idea at the Convocation of Clergy in May 1918 ; Henson abandoned restraint and in Chadwick 's words " stripped Gore 's arguments bare " . He argued from historical examples that appointments made at the Church 's instigation were partisan and disastrous , and that the Crown and prime minister were able to take an unbiased view in the national interest . Despite the public support for him , the controversy revived Henson 's feelings of isolation .
The appointment was described as " sending an armoured car into an orchard of apple trees " and Henson had doubts about accepting a mainly rural diocese rather than ministering to the urban poor . Nevertheless , the clergy and laity of Hereford gave him a warm welcome , and he enjoyed working with the incumbents of country parishes . They appreciated his delicacy in not intruding unduly into local church concerns , and it was remarked that " he treated all the world as his equals " . During his brief time at Hereford he published only one book , Christian Liberty ( 1918 ) , a collection of sermons . There was regret in the diocese that his tenure there was brief . In 1920 the see of Durham became vacant on the death of Bishop Moule . Davidson wanted Thomas Strong , Dean of Christ Church , to be appointed and pressed his claims on Lloyd George , but the prime minister took the view that the area needed Henson 's practical skills and common touch rather than Strong 's academic scholarship .
= = = Durham = = =
Henson was translated to Durham – England 's most senior diocese after Canterbury , York and London – in October 1920 . The appointment was challenging : the area was in grave economic difficulty , with the important coal @-@ mining industry in a crisis caused by falling industrial demand for coal in the years after the war . Ecclesiastically there was potential for friction , as the Dean of Durham , James Welldon , who had once been a bishop himself , was temperamentally and politically at odds with his new superior , given to making public statements that Henson found infuriating . Welldon , in Henson 's view , " could neither speak with effect nor be silent with dignity " . They clashed on several occasions , most conspicuously when Welldon , a strong admirer of prohibition , publicly criticised Henson 's tolerant views on the consumption of alcohol . Relations between the Deanery and Auckland Castle , the bishop 's official residence , improved markedly in April 1933 when Cyril Alington , the Head Master of Eton from 1917 to 1933 , succeeded Welldon . Alington was almost universally loved , and though he and Henson differed on points of ecclesiastical practice , they remained warm friends .
At the beginning of Henson 's episcopate the Durham miners were on strike . He got on well with miners individually and conversed with many of them as they walked through the extensive grounds of Auckland Castle . It was said of him that he got on easily with everyone " except other dignitaries in gaiters " . Friction arose from Henson 's belief that strikes were morally wrong because of the harm they did to other working people , and he had , in Grimley 's words , " a violent , almost obsessional " , dislike of trade unions . His early concern for the welfare of the poor remained unchanged , but he regarded socialism and trade unionism as negations of individuality . For the same reason he was against state provision of social welfare , though a strong advocate of voluntary spending on it . Later in his bishopric Henson denounced the Jarrow March in 1936 as " revolutionary mob pressure " and condemned the action of his subordinate , the suffragan Bishop of Jarrow , who had given the march his blessing . He loathed class distinction , and was not antipathetic to social reformers , but he was strong in his criticism of Christian campaigners who maintained that the first duty of the Church was social reform . To Henson , the Church 's principal concern was each individual man or woman 's spiritual welfare .
The best @-@ known anecdote of Henson , according to Chadwick , comes from his time at Durham . Cosmo Lang complained that his portrait by Orpen " makes me look proud , pompous and prelatical " , to which Henson responded , " And to which of those epithets does your Grace take exception ? " Grimley remarks that on occasion each of those unflattering adjectives applied just as much to Henson . Nonetheless , Henson ranked Lang " among the greater figures of ecclesiastical history " .
The most conspicuous cause with which Henson was involved during his time at Durham was , in Anglican terms , of national , and even international , rather than diocesan concern . As a broad churchman he gave strong support in the mid @-@ 1920s to a major revision and modernising of the Book of Common Prayer , the Church 's prescribed forms of worship , used at all services . The evangelical wing of the Church opposed the revision , which some low @-@ church factions dubbed " popish " . Henson , now on the same side as the Anglo @-@ Catholics with whom he had early been in bitter dispute , called the opposition " the Protestant underworld " . Despite the clear majority of clergy and laity in favour of the revision , the House of Commons refused to authorise it , and voted it down in 1927 and again in 1928 . Henson 's colleague Cyril Garbett wrote that the Commons had " made it plain that the Church does not possess full spiritual freedom to determine its worship " . The Church instituted damage limitation measures by permitting parishes to use the new unauthorised text where there was a local consensus to do so , but Henson was horrified at what he saw as Parliament 's betrayal of its duty to preside impartially over the governance of the Church , giving in to pressure from what he termed " an army of illiterates " .
Together with the suspicions he had started to harbour that a socialist government might misuse ecclesiastical patronage , the Prayer Book debacle turned Henson from a strong proponent of establishment to its best @-@ known critic . He spent much time and energy fruitlessly campaigning for disestablishment . He was , as he had often been earlier in his career , an isolated figure . Few of his colleagues agreed with him , even those dismayed by the parliamentary vote . He was less isolated in some other causes he took up in the 1920s and 30s . He was one of many wary of the ultra @-@ liberalism of the Modern Churchmen 's Union . In 1934 , he was among the senior clerics who censured Dean Dwelly for inviting a Unitarian to preach in Liverpool Cathedral and Bishop David for permitting it . He was critical of American evangelism as practised by Frank Buchman and the Oxford Group . Henson wrote of Buchman 's " oracular despotism " and " the trail of moral and intellectual wrecks which its progress leaves behind . "
Henson was in a minority of senior clergy in speaking out against the dictators of the Axis powers . He condemned Nazi anti @-@ Semitism , Mussolini 's invasion of Abyssinia , appeasement and the Munich agreement . On 1 February 1939 , at the age of seventy @-@ five , he retired from Durham to Hintlesham in Suffolk . Seven months later the Second World War began . Henson supported the Allies ' fight in what he saw as a just war to defeat godless barbarism ; he wrote of " The deepening infamies of Nazi warfare – infamies so horrible as almost to shake one 's faith in the essential Divineness of Humanity . " He urged , " there can be no compromise or patched up peace " .
= = = Last years = = =
Winston Churchill was impressed by Henson . Grimley comments that they had much in common , both spending years as isolated figures speaking out for beliefs that were dismissed at the time and later vindicated . As prime minister , Churchill persuaded Henson out of retirement in 1940 to resume his old duties as a Canon of Westminster Abbey . After overcoming the momentary strangeness of being back in his old post after nearly thirty years he preached with vigour until cataracts made his eyesight too poor to continue . He retired from the Abbey in 1941 .
In his later years Henson 's lifelong sense of loneliness was compounded by the growing deafness of his wife , making their conversation difficult . He found some solace in the friendship of her companion , Fearne Booker , who lived with the Hensons for more than thirty years . He occupied a considerable part of his retirement writing a substantial work of autobiography , published in three volumes under the title Retrospect of an Unimportant Life . Both at the time and subsequently many of his friends and admirers regretted his publishing the work ; they thought he had done his reputation a disservice . Despite what Williams calls the " peculiar interest and vivacity " of the books , his survey of his many campaigns and controversies , seemed to others to be self @-@ justifying and wilfully to deny many changes of stance that he had manifestly made during his career . In Williams 's view the posthumous publication of Henson 's edited letters were a better legacy : " delightful in both form and content , and , barbed though they often are , they do him fuller justice " .
In his writings Henson referred to his two regrets in life . The first was that he had not been at a public school , a fact to which he ascribed his lifelong feeling of being an outsider . The second regret was that he and his wife had been unable to have children . They unofficially adopted a succession of poor boys and paid for their education . At least one of them became a priest and was ordained by Henson .
Henson died at Hintlesham on 27 September 1947 at the age of eighty @-@ four . At his wish his body was cremated ; his ashes were interred in Durham Cathedral .
= = Books by Henson = =
= = = As editor = = =
Church Problems , a View of Modern Anglicanism . London : John Murray . 1900 . OCLC 29980088 .
The Naked Truth by Bishop Herbert Croft . London : Chatto & Windus . 1919 [ 1674 ] . OCLC 265436413 .
A Memoir of the Right Honourable Sir William Anson . Oxford : Clarendon Press . 1920 . OCLC 4065005 .
= = = As author = = =
= Batgirl =
Batgirl is the name of several fictional superheroes appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics , depicted as female counterparts to the superhero Batman . Although the character Betty Kane was introduced into publication in 1961 by Bill Finger and Sheldon Moldoff as Bat @-@ Girl , she was replaced by Barbara Gordon in 1967 , who later came to be identified as the iconic Batgirl . Depicted as the daughter of Gotham City police commissioner James Gordon , she debuted in Detective Comics # 359 , titled " The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl ! " ( 1967 ) by writer Gardner Fox and artist Carmine Infantino . As Batgirl , the character operates primarily in Gotham City , allying herself with Batman and the original Robin , Dick Grayson , as well as other prominent heroes in the DC Universe .
Batgirl makes regular appearances in Detective Comics , Batman Family and several other books produced by DC until 1988 . That year , she appears in Barbara Kesel 's Batgirl Special # 1 , in which she retires from crime @-@ fighting . She subsequently appears in Alan Moore 's graphic novel Batman : The Killing Joke where , in her civilian identity , she is shot by the Joker and left paraplegic . Although she is recreated as the computer expert and information broker Oracle by editor Kim Yale and writer John Ostrander the following year , her paralysis sparked debate about the portrayal of women in comics , particularly violence depicted toward female characters .
In the 1999 crossover No Man 's Land , the character Helena Bertinelli , known as Huntress , briefly assumes the role of Batgirl until she is stripped of the identity by Batman for violating his stringent codes . Within the same storyline , writer Kelley Puckett and artist Damion Scott introduce the character Cassandra Cain , written as the daughter of assassins David Cain and Lady Shiva ; she takes the mantle of Batgirl under the guidance of Batman and Oracle . In 2000 , she became the first Batgirl to star in an eponymous monthly comic book series , in addition to becoming one of the most prominent characters of Asian descent to appear in American comics . The series was canceled in 2006 , at which point during the company @-@ wide event One Year Later , she is established as a villain and head of the League of Assassins . After receiving harsh feedback from readership , she is later restored to her original conception . However , the character Stephanie Brown , originally known as Spoiler and later Robin , succeeds her as Batgirl after Cassandra Cain abandons the role .
Stephanie Brown became the featured character of the Batgirl series written by Bryan Q. Miller from 2009 to 2011 . DC subsequently relaunched all their monthly publications during The New 52 event . In the revised continuity , Barbara Gordon recovers from her paralysis following a surgical procedure and stars in the relaunched Batgirl series written by Gail Simone as the title character . As Batgirl , Barbara Gordon has been adapted into various media relating to the Batman franchise , including television , film , animation , video games , and other merchandise . This factored into the decision to return her to the comic book role , as Dan DiDio , co @-@ publisher of DC Comics , expressed that she is the best @-@ known version of the character .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Detective Comics , Batman Family and other appearances ( 1961 – 1988 ) = = =
Following the accusations of a homoerotic subtext in the depiction of the relationship between Batman and Robin as described in Fredric Wertham 's book Seduction of the Innocent ( 1954 ) , a female character , Kathy Kane the Batwoman , appeared in 1956 as a love @-@ interest for Batman . In 1961 DC Comics introduced a second female character as a love @-@ interest for Robin . Betty Kane as " Bat @-@ Girl " arrived as the niece of and Robin @-@ like sidekick to Batwoman , first appearing in Batman # 139 ( 1961 ) . The creation of the Batman Family , which included Batman and Batwoman depicted as parents , Robin and Bat @-@ Girl depicted as their children , the extraterrestrial imp Bat @-@ Mite and the " family pet " Ace the Bat @-@ Hound , caused the Batman @-@ related comic books to take " a wrong turn , switching from superheroes to situational comedy " .
DC Comics abandoned these characters in 1964 when newly appointed Batman @-@ editor Julius Schwartz judged them too silly and therefore inappropriate . Schwartz had asserted that these characters should be removed , considering the Batman related comic books had steadily declined in sales , and restored the Batman mythology to its original conception of heroic vigilantism . Bat @-@ Girl , along with other characters in the Batman Family , were retconned out of existence following the 1985 limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths . However , even though Bat @-@ Girl did not exist in the post @-@ Crisis continuity , a modified version of the character , Mary Elizabeth " Bette " Kane , introduced as the superhero Flamebird , continues to appear in DC Comics publications .
Schwartz stated that he had been asked to develop a new female character in order to attract a female viewership to the Batman television series of the 1960s . Executive producer William Dozier suggested that the new character would be the daughter of Gotham City 's Police Commissioner James Gordon , and that she would adopt the identity of Batgirl . When Dozier and producer Howie Horowitz saw rough concept artwork of the new Batgirl by artist Carmine Infantino during a visit to DC offices , they optioned the character in a bid to help sell a third season to the ABC television network . Infantino reflected on the creation of Batgirl , stating " Bob Kane had had a Bat @-@ Girl for about three stories in the ’ 50s but she had nothing to do with a bat . She was like a pesky girl version of Robin . I knew we could do a lot better , so Julie and I came up with the real Batgirl , who was so popular she almost got her own TV show . " Yvonne Craig portrayed the character in the show 's third season . Barbara Gordon and alter ego Batgirl debuted in Detective Comics # 359 , " The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl " ( 1967 ) . In the debut story , while driving to a costume ball dressed as a female version of Batman , Barbara Gordon intervenes in a kidnapping attempt on Bruce Wayne by the super villain Killer Moth , attracting Batman 's attention and leading to a crime @-@ fighting career . Although Batman insists she give up crime @-@ fighting because of her gender , Batgirl disregards his objections .
In her civilian identity , Dr. Barbara Gordon Ph.D. is depicted as a career woman with a doctorate in library science , as well as being head of Gotham City public library , " presumably one of the largest public libraries in the DC Comics version of reality . " She was given a regular backup slot in Detective Comics starting with issue # 384 ( February 1969 ) , alternating issues with Robin until issue # 404 , after which she had the backup slot to herself . Frank Robbins wrote nearly all of these backups , which were penciled first by Gil Kane and later by Don Heck . Barbara Gordon ’ s Batgirl exceeded the earlier Bat @-@ Girl and Batwoman characters in popularity , and readers requested for her to appear in other titles . Although some readers requested that Batwoman also continue to appear in publication , DC responded to the fan @-@ based acclaim and criticism of the new character in an open letter in Detective Comics # 417 ( 1971 ) , stating : " I 'd like to say a few words about the reaction some readers have to Batgirl . These are readers who remember Batwoman and the other Bat @-@ girls from years back ... They were there because romance seemed to be needed in Batman 's life . But thanks to the big change and a foresighted editor , these hapless females are gone for good . In their place stands a girl who is a capable crime @-@ fighter , a far cry from Batwoman who constantly had to be rescued [ by ] Batman . "
Batgirl continued to appear in DC Comics publications throughout the late 1960s and 1970s as a supporting character in Detective Comics , in addition to guest appearances in various titles such as Justice League of America , World 's Finest Comics , The Brave and the Bold , Adventure Comics , and Superman . In the early @-@ 1970s Batgirl reveals her secret identity to her father ( who had already discovered it on his own ) and serves as a member of the United States House of Representatives . She moves to Washington , D.C. , intending to give up her career as Batgirl , and in June 1972 appeared in a story entitled " Batgirl 's Last Case . " Julius Schwartz brought her back a year later in Superman # 268 ( 1973 ) in which she has a blind date with Clark Kent , establishing their friendship , and fights alongside Superman . Batgirl and Superman team up twice more , in Superman # 279 and DC Comics Presents # 19 . Batgirl also guest @-@ starred in other Superman related titles such as # 453 of Adventure Comics and in Superman Family # 171 , where she teams with Supergirl . The character is given a starring role in DC 's Batman Family comic book which debuted in 1975 . The original Robin , Dick Grayson , became her partner in the series , with the two frequently referred to as the " Dynamite Duo : Batgirl & Robin " . Batgirl meets Batwoman in Batman Family # 10 , when the retired superhero briefly returns to crime @-@ fighting ( before the Bronze Tiger murders Kane ) . The two fight Killer Moth and Cavalier , and learn each other 's secret identities . Batwoman retires once again at the conclusion of the story , leaving Batgirl to continue crime @-@ fighting . Although this series ended after three years of publication , Batgirl continued to appear in back up stories published in Detective Comics through issue # 519 ( October 1982 ) .
Crisis on Infinite Earths , a limited miniseries published in 1985 , was written in order to reduce the complex history of DC Comics to a single continuity . Although Batgirl is a featured character , her role is relatively small — she delivers Supergirl 's eulogy in issue seven of the 12 @-@ part series . The conclusion of Crisis on Infinite Earths changed DC Universe continuity in many ways . Following the reboot , Barbara Gordon is born to Roger and Thelma Gordon , and she is Jim Gordon 's niece and adopted daughter in current canon . Post @-@ Crisis , Supergirl does not arrive on Earth until after Gordon has established herself as Oracle , and many of the adventures she shared with Batgirl are retroactively described as having been experienced by Power Girl . In Secret Origins # 20 ( 1987 ) , Barbara Gordon 's origin is rebooted by author Barbara Randal . Within the storyline , Gordon recounts the series of events that lead to her career as Batgirl , including her first encounter with Batman as a child , studying martial arts under the tutelage of a sensei , memorizing maps and blue prints of the city , excelling in academics in order to skip grades , and pushing herself to become a star athlete .
= = = Batgirl Special and Batman : The Killing Joke ( 1988 ) = = =
DC officially retired the hero in the one @-@ shot comic Batgirl Special # 1 ( July 1988 ) , written by Barbara Kesel . Later that year , she appears in Alan Moore 's Batman : The Killing Joke . In this graphic novel , the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon in an attempt to drive her father insane , thereby proving to Batman that anyone can be morally compromised . Although events in The Killing Joke exert a great impact on the character , the story has little to do with her . She is deployed as a plot device to cement the Joker ’ s vendetta against Commissioner Gordon and Batman . In 2006 , during an interview with Wizard , Moore expressed regret over his treatment of the character calling it " shallow and ill @-@ conceived " . He stated prior to writing the graphic novel , " I asked DC if they had any problem with me crippling Barbara Gordon — who was Batgirl at the time — and if I remember , I spoke to Len Wein , who was our editor on the project " , and following a discussion with then @-@ Executive Editorial Director Dick Giordano , " Len got back onto the phone and said , ‘ Yeah , okay , cripple the bitch . ' " Although there has been speculation as to whether or not editors at DC specifically intended to have the character 's paralysis become permanent , Brian Cronin , author of Was Superman A Spy ? : And Other Comic Book Legends Revealed ( 2009 ) noted that DC had hired Barbara Kesel to write the Batgirl Special specifically to retire the character and set her in place for The Killing Joke . Gail Simone included the character 's paralysis in a list of " major female characters that had been killed , mutilated , and depowered " , dubbing the phenomenon " Women in Refrigerators " in reference to a 1994 Green Lantern story where the title character discovers his girlfriend 's mutilated body in his refrigerator . Following the release of the graphic novel , comic book editor and writer Kim Yale discussed how distasteful she found the treatment of Barbara Gordon with her husband , fellow comic writer John Ostrander . Rather than allow the character to fall into obscurity , the two decided to revive her as a character living with a disability — the information broker , Oracle .
= = = No Man 's Land ( 1999 ) = = =
Eleven years after the editorial retirement of Barbara Gordon as Batgirl , a new version of the character was introduced in Batman : Shadow of the Bat # 83 during the multi @-@ title story arc " No Man 's Land " ( 1999 ) . In Batman : Legends of the Dark Knight # 120 ( 1999 ) , the new Batgirl is revealed to be Helena Bertinelli , an established DC comics superhero alternatively known as the Huntress . Bertinelli is eventually forced to abandon the mantle by Batgirl . No Man 's Land also marks the introduction of Cassandra Cain in Batman # 567 ( 1999 ) . Depicted as a martial arts child prodigy , Cassandra Cain is written as a young woman of partly Asian descent who succeeds Helena Bertinelli as Batgirl , with the approval of both Batman and Oracle .
= = = Batgirl and other appearances ( 2000 – 2011 ) = = =
The first Batgirl monthly comic was published in 2000 , with Cassandra Cain as the title character . Raised by assassin David Cain , Cassandra Cain was not taught spoken language , but instead was taught to " read " physical movement . Subsequently , Cain 's only form of communication was body language . The parts of the character 's brain normally used for speech were trained so Cain could read other people 's body language and predict , with uncanny accuracy , their next move . This also caused her brain to develop learning functions different from most , a form of dyslexia that hampers her abilities to read and write .
Despite Cain 's disability , author Andersen Gabrych describes the character 's unique form of language as the key factor in what makes Cain an excellent detective ; the ability to walk into a room and " know " something is wrong based on body language . During the first arc of the Batgirl comic book series entitled " Silent Running " , Cassandra Cain encounters a psychic who " reprograms " her brain , enabling her to comprehend verbal language , while simultaneously losing the ability to predict movements . This issue is resolved during the second arc of the series , " A Knight Alone " , when Batgirl encounters the assassin Lady Shiva who agrees to teach her how to predict movement once again . Six years after its debut , DC Comics canceled the Batgirl comic book series with issue # 73 ( 2006 ) , ending with Cain relinquishing her role as Batgirl .
When DC Comics continuity skipped forward one year after the events of the limited series Infinite Crisis , Cassandra Cain is revived as leader of the League of Assassins , having abandoned her previous characterization as an altruist . The character 's progression from hero to villain angered some of her fans and was accompanied by heavy criticism . Cain reprised her role as Batgirl in the " Titans East " ( 2007 ) storyline of Teen Titans , where it was discovered that she had been influenced by a mind @-@ altering drug administered by supervillain Deathstroke the Terminator . Following the conclusion of the storyline , DC Comics has restored Cain 's original characterization as a superhero and the character has been given a supporting role in the comic book series Batman and the Outsiders .
Following the events of Batman 's disappearance , Cassandra , acting under her mentor 's orders in the event of his death , handed over the Batgirl mantle to Stephanie Brown , the former Spoiler and Robin . After declining an offer from Tim Drake to reclaim the Batgirl mantle from Stephanie , Cassandra rejoined the Batman Family under the new identity of Blackbat . She currently acts as the Hong Kong representative of Batman Inc .
Stephanie Brown , formerly the Spoiler and briefly the fourth Robin , takes up the mantle of Batgirl after Cassandra Cain gives Brown her costume under Batman 's order . Eventually , Barbara Gordon approves of Brown as her newest successor — and she gives Brown her own Batgirl costume and becomes her mentor for a period . Brown is the fourth in @-@ continuity Batgirl and the second Batgirl to star in her own ongoing Batgirl comic book series .
= = = The New 52 : Batgirl , Birds of Prey and other appearances ( 2011 – 2016 ) = = =
In September , 2011 , following the company @-@ wide relaunch , Barbara Gordon stars in a new Batgirl series — one of The New 52 titles featuring the company 's most iconic characters . The conclusion of the limited series Flashpoint ( 2011 ) establishes a new continuity within the DC Universe , with all characters regressing to an earlier age and stage in their careers , while remaining in a modern timeline . DC Senior VP of Sales , Bob Wayne , explained that with each of their titles reverting to issue # 1 , " our creative teams have the ability to take a more modern approach — not only with each character , but with how the characters interact with one another and the universe as a whole , and focus on the earlier part of the careers of each of our iconic characters . " Wayne also stated that " The Killing Joke still happened and she was Oracle . Now she will go through physical rehabilitation and become a more seasoned and nuanced character because she had these incredible and diverse experiences . Dan DiDio , Co @-@ Publisher of DC Comics explained the decision by stating that " she 'll always be the most recognizable [ Batgirl ] . " Series writer Gail Simone stated : " For many years , I got to write the character as Oracle , and there is to this day , no character who means more to me . This is classic Barbara as she was originally conceived , with a few big surprises . It ’ s a bit of a shock , to be sure , but we ’ re doing everything we can to be respectful to this character ’ s amazing legacy , while presenting something thrilling that a generation of comics readers will be experiencing for the first time ... Barbara Gordon leaping , fighting , and swinging over Gotham . Now , when citizens of that city look up , they are going to see BATGIRL . And that is absolutely thrilling . "
In the new , revised continuity , the events of The Killing Joke took place three years before the current storyline , and while it is established she was paraplegic during that time , Barbara Gordon is written as having regained her mobility after undergoing experimental surgery at a South African clinic . Although she resumes her work as Batgirl one year after her recovery , she continues to suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder , causing her to hesitate in battle when exposed to gunfire that could result in receiving new spinal damage . The character also exhibits survivor guilt due to the fact she has made a full recovery from her paralysis while others have not . Series writer Gail Simone stated that while the character is " one of the smartest and toughest women in comics ... One thing the book is truly about , is that the after @-@ effects of something like PTSD ( post @-@ traumatic stress disorder ) or other trauma @-@ related syndromes , can strike even very smart , very intellectually tough people , even soldiers and cops " , a subject that is generally overlooked in comic books . She also explained the method of the character 's recovery is based upon real life experiences in that " some of the best real world work in the field of mobility rehabilitation is coming from South Africa . People have been talking about this as if it 's some sort of mystical thing like returning from the dead , but there are treatments and surgeries that can restore mobility in some cases . Barbara 's spine was not severed . That makes her a candidate . "
Prior to release , Batgirl # 1 sold out at the distribution level with over 100 @,@ 000 copies printed in its first run according to Diamond Comic Distributors . Along with Action Comics # 1 , Justice League # 1 , Batman # 1 , Batman and Robin # 1 , Batman : The Dark Knight # 1 , Detective Comics # 1 , Flash # 1 , Green Lantern # 1 , and Superman # 1 , retailers were required to order a second printing . Calvin Reid of Publishers Weekly states in a review of the first issue : " The artwork is okay though conventional , while Simone ’ s script tries to tie up of the end of the previous Barbara Gordon / Oracle storyline and setup up the new Batgirl . Her formula : murderous villains , blood splattering violence and high flying superheroics mixed with single @-@ white @-@ female bonding ... plus a cliffhanger ending to the first issue that offers a nifty [ segue ] into the new world of Barbara Gordon and Batgirl . " The New York Times critic George Gene Gustines wrote : "
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998 ) , and the one @-@ shot comic Elseworld 's Finest : Supergirl & Batgirl ( 1998 ) .
In 2005 , DC Comics launched its All Star imprint — an ongoing series of comics designed to pair the company 's most iconic characters with the most acclaimed writers and artists in the industry . Similar to Elseworlds , All Star is not restricted to continuity and establishes a fresh perspective for the latest generation of readership . According to Dan DiDio , " [ t ] hese books are created to literally reach the widest audience possible , and not just the comic book audience , but anyone who has ever wanted to read or see anything about Superman or Batman . " An alternate Barbara Gordon was adapted into Frank Miller 's All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder ( 2005 ) as a teenage Batgirl . In addition , another variation of the character had been set to star in an eponymous All Star Batgirl title , written by Geoff Johns ; however , the series was canceled prior to publication .
Alternate versions of Batgirl aside from Barbara Gordon have also appeared in publications by DC Comics . In Batman Beyond Unlimited ( set in the continuity of the animated series Batman Beyond ) , the new Batgirl is a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Nissa . In Batgirl : Future 's End # 1 , set in an alternate future , a trio of Batgirls include Casandra Cain , Stephanie Brown and newcomer Tiffany Fox — the daughter of Lucius Fox and the first African American character to be portrayed as Batgirl .
In the alternate history DC Comics Bombshells universe , there is no singular Batgirl . Instead , there exists a group of young female vigilantes known as The Batgirls , whose ranks consist of a Batwoman fan named Harper Row , an African @-@ American mechanic named Kathy Duquesne , a young girl named Nell Little , and a Singaporean @-@ American dancer named Alysia Yeoh . In Digital Issue 42 ( collected in Print Issue 14 ) , Harley Quinn tells Pamela Isley about encountering " the Belle of the Bog " , who appears to be Barbara Gordon as a vampire . Barbara Gordon 's origins as the first Bombshell Batgirl will be explored in DC Comics Bombshells Annual # 1 , set to be published on 31 August 2016 .
= = Characterization = =
Batgirl has officially been represented by four different characters - and two claimants - beginning with her introduction in 1961 .
= = = Betty / Bette Kane = = =
During the Golden Age , a female character was introduced as a love interest for Robin . Betty Kane as " Bat @-@ Girl " was depicted as the niece of and Robin @-@ like sidekick to the original Batwoman . In 1964 , however , editor Julius Schwartz asserted that Bat @-@ Girl and other characters in the Bat @-@ Family should be removed considering the decline in sales and restored the Batman mythology to its original conception of heroic vigilantism . During the Crisis on Infinite Earths storyline , Betty Kane was retconned out of existence .
Mary Elizabeth " Bette " Kane is a reinvented version of the Betty Kane character during the Golden Age . As her original characterization was retconned out of existence during the Crisis on Infinite Earths storyline , a discrepancy arose where her Bat @-@ Girl character had joined the west coast version of the Teen Titans but simply disappeared . The character was reintroduced as Bette Kane and the alias of Flamebird . Following Infinite Crisis , the character 's past as Bat @-@ Girl was hinted at as being a part of continuity . However , that reference included a revamped origin of the character and it may or may not have been the current Bette Kane .
= = = Barbara Gordon = = =
During the run of the Batman television series , DC editorial was approached about adding a female character back into the Batman family . Revising the character history and motivation , Julius Schwartz created Barbara Gordon . This character held the role of Batgirl from 1967 to 1988 when she was retired by DC editorial decision . The character 's role was changed to a paraplegic source of information for all members of the Batman family and codenamed Oracle . She was later restored as Batgirl during The New 52 relaunch of the entire DC publication line in 2011 .
= = = Cassandra Cain = = =
During the same No Man 's Land storyline , Cassandra Cain was given the role of Batgirl under the guidance of Batman and Oracle . Written as the daughter of assassins David Cain and Lady Shiva , she is trained from early childhood to read human body language instead of developing verbal and written communication skills as part of her father 's conditioning to mold her into the world 's deadliest assassin . However , after committing her first murder , she vows to never again use her martial @-@ arts prowess to kill . In 2000 , she became the first Batgirl to star in an eponymous monthly comic book series as well as one of the most prominent characters of Asian descent to appear in American comics . The series was canceled in 2006 and Cassandra Cain abandoned the role of Batgirl shortly thereafter . Years later , Cassandra rejoined the Batman family under the moniker Blackbat .
= = = Stephanie Brown = = =
Stephanie Brown was formerly known as Spoiler and then as the first in @-@ continuity female Robin until her apparent death in 2006 . Following her return to comics in 2009 , she assumed the role of Batgirl . She maintained this position until 2011 , the relaunch of the DC imprint under The New 52 . The character reappeared in the DCU in Batman # 28 , as Spoiler .
= = = Claimants = = =
= = = = Helena Bertinelli = = = =
For a brief time during 1999 's No Man 's Land storyline , Helena Bertinelli assumed the mantle of Batgirl . After violating Batman 's code against extreme violence , she was stripped of the mantle and returned to her alias of Huntress .
= = = = Charlotte " Charlie " Gage @-@ Radcliffe = = = =
After Cassandra Cain abandoned the role a mystery character appeared as the new Batgirl in the Birds of Prey comic . Possessing superpowers , the teen claimed the empty mantle in an attempt to honor the character . However , Barbara Gordon quickly dissuaded the teen from continuing in the role . Charlie Gage @-@ Radcliffe acquiesced , but modified her costume and changed her name to Misfit .
= = Cultural impact = =
While Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain have both been the subject of academic analysis regarding the portrayal of women in comics , commentary on Barbara Gordon 's Batgirl has focused on her character 's connection to the Women 's liberation movement , doctoral degree and career as a librarian , while analysis of Cassandra Cain 's Batgirl has focused on the character 's double minority status as a woman and a person of color . Since her debut in DC Comics publication , and fueled by her adaptation into the Batman television series in 1967 , Barbara Gordon 's Batgirl has been listed among fictional characters that are regarded as cultural icons . Author Brian Cronin , in Was Superman A Spy ? : And Other Comic Book Legends Revealed ( 2009 ) notes that following her 1967 debut , " Batgirl was soon popular enough to appear regularly over the next two decades and Yvonne Craig certainly made an impression on many viewers with her one season portraying young Ms. Gordon . " In 2011 , IGN ranked Barbara Gordon 17th in the Top 100 Comic Books Heroes . Cassandra Cain 's Batgirl has become one of the most prominent Asian characters to appear in American comic books , and her understated sexuality is notable as being contrary to the common sexual objectification of female characters , especially those of Asian descent .
= = = Feminist interpretations = = =
In The Supergirls : Fashion , Feminism , Fantasy , and the History of Comic Book Heroines ( 2009 ) , author Mike Madrid states that what set Barbara Gordon as Batgirl apart from other female characters was her motivation for crime @-@ fighting . Unlike Batwoman who preceded her , " she wears his symbol on her chest , but she is not his girlfriend or faithful handmaiden . " Because of the fact she does not pursue a romantic interest in Batman , " Batgirl is a female Batman can actually regard as a brilliant peer and a partner in the war on crime , the same way he would a male . " Historian Peter Sanderson observed that Barbara Gordon 's Batgirl reflected the Women 's liberation movement of the 1960s . In the 1980s , Barbara Kesel , after writing a complaint to DC Comics over the negative portrayal of female characters , was given the opportunity to write for Barbara Gordon in Detective Comics . Robin Anne Reid , in Women in Science Fiction and Fantasy : Overviews ( 2009 ) wrote that " Kesel 's version of Batgirl established her as a character separate from Batman and Robin : a woman motivated to do what men do , but alone and in her own way . Her Secret Origins ( 1987 ) and Batgirl Special ( 1988 ) countered the victimized and objectified presentation of Barbara Gordon / Batgirl in Alan Moore 's acclaimed The Killing Joke ( 1988 ) . " She notes that Kesel 's interpretation of the character emphasized her intelligence , technological skill , and ability to overcome fear . Gail Simone included the character 's paralysis in a list of " major female characters that had been killed , mutilated , and depowered " , dubbing the phenomenon " Women in Refrigerators " in reference to a 1994 Green Lantern story where the title character discovers his girlfriend 's mutilated body in his refrigerator . Simone highlighted the gender difference regarding the treatment of Batman and Batgirl regarding paralysis by stating that " [ b ] oth had their backs broken [ Batman broke his in a dramatic Batcave confrontation with the villain Bane ; Batgirl broke hers when she was ambushed in her home and shot in the spine by the Joker , never given a chance to fight ] . Less than a year later , Batman was fine . Batgirl — now named Oracle — was in a wheelchair and remained so for many years . ”
In Superheroes and Superegos : Analyzing the Minds Behind the Masks ( 2010 ) , author Sharon Packer wrote that " [ a ] nyone who feels that feminist critics overreacted to [ Gordon 's ] accident is advised to consult the source material " calling the work " sadistic to the core . " Brian Cronin noted that " [ many ] readers felt the violence towards Barbara Gordon was too much , and even Moore , in retrospect , has expressed his displeasure with how the story turned out . " Jeffrey A. Brown , author of Dangerous Curves : Action Heroines , Gender , Fetishism , and Popular Culture ( 2011 ) noted The Killing Joke as an example of the " inherent misogyny of the male @-@ dominated comic book industry " in light of the " relatively unequal violence [ female characters ] are subjected to . " While male characters may be critically injured or killed , they are more than likely to be returned to their original conception , while female characters are more likely to receive permanent damage . Reid states that although speculation behind the editorial decision to allow the paralysis of the character to become permanent included the idea she had become outdated , " if audiences had grown tired of Batgirl , it was not because she was a bad character but because she had been written badly . "
Despite views that present the character 's Batgirl persona as a symbol of female empowerment , a long @-@ held criticism is that she was originally conceived as an uninspired variation of Batman " rather than standing alone as leader , such as Wonder Woman " who had no pre @-@ existing male counterpart . In analyzing stereotypes in gender , Jackie Marsh noted that male superheroes ( such as Batman ) are depicted as hyper @-@ masculine and anti @-@ social , " while female superheroes are reduced to a childlike status by their names " such as the Batgirl character .
= = = Representation for librarians = = =
In The Image and Role of the Librarian ( 2002 ) , Wendi Arant and Candace R. Benefiel argue that Batgirl 's portrayal as a librarian is considered to be significant to the profession , in that it is represented as a valuable and honorable career . Even in light of the fact that the character abandons it in order to run for United States Congress , Barbara Gordon is seen as being given a " career switch that even most librarians would consider a step up . " In the essay " Librarians , Professionalism and Image : Stereotype and Reality " ( 2007 ) , Abigail Luthmann views the character less favorably , stating that " [ t ] he unassuming role of librarian is used as a low @-@ visibility disguise for her crime @-@ fighting alter @-@ ego , and while her information @-@ locating skills may have been useful to her extra @-@ curricular activities no direct examples are given . "
= = = Representation for Asian Americans = = =
The Cassandra Cain version of Batgirl , depicted as a biracial character ( Half White and half Chinese ) , is notable as one of the most prominent characters of Asian descent to appear in American comic books . Jeffrey A. Brown states that while her ethnicity is rarely mentioned in the comic books , Asian women have had a long history in comics of being portrayed as martial artists and are often exploited as sex objects . However , in the case of Batgirl , " Cassandra 's racial identity is treated more implicitly than explicitly . Her costume design actually conceals her entire body so that while in her guise as Batgirl her ethnicity is completely unapparent . " The fact that her sexuality is also understated represents a shift away from the typical portrayls of women , and Asian women in particular . The most controversial aspect of her character came about during the One Year Later event , when she is reintroduced as a villain . The abrupt shift in her character brought about negative criticism from readership . When questioned about the change in characterization , writer Adam Beechen stated : " They didn 't present me with a rationale as to why Cassandra was going to change , or a motivating factor . That was left for me to come up with and them to approve . And we did that . But as far as to why the editors and writers and whoever else made the decision decided that was a good direction , I honestly couldn 't answer . "
= = In other media = =
Portrayed by Yvonne Craig , the character 's first adaptation outside of comic books took place in the third season of Batman ( 1967 ) . Les Daniels , in Batman : The Complete History ( 2004 ) wrote that the goal of ABC was to " attract new audience members , especially idealistic young girls and less high @-@ minded older men . " According to Craig : " I used to think the reason they hired me was because they knew I could ride my own motorcycle ... I realized they hired me because I had a cartoon voice . " A shared criticism of Batgirl and other female superheroes in television at the time ( such as Wonder Woman and the Bionic Woman ) , is that she was not allowed to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat on screen . As such , " her fights were choreographed carefully to imitate the moves of a Broadway showgirl through the use of a straight kick to her opponent 's face rather than the type of kick a martial artist would use . " However , Craig has also stated : " I meet young women who say Batgirl was their role model ... They say its because it was the first time they ever felt girls could do the same things guys could do , and sometimes better . I think that ’ s lovely . " During the early 1970s , Craig portrayed Batgirl once again in a public service announcement to advocate equal pay for women .
Since Batman , the character has had a long history of appearances in television and other media . As Batgirl , Barbara Gordon plays a supporting role in a string of animated series , voiced by Jane Webb in The Batman / Superman Hour ( 1968 ) , Melendy Britt in The New Adventures of Batman ( 1977 ) , Melissa Gilbert in Batman : The Animated Series ( 1992 ) , Tara Strong in The New Batman Adventures ( 1997 ) , Danielle Judovits in The Batman ( 2004 ) , and Mae Whitman in Batman : The Brave and the Bold ( 2008 ) . In 2012 , Batgirl starred alongside Supergirl and Wonder Girl in Super Best Friends Forever , a series of shorts developed by Lauren Faust for the DC Nation block on Cartoon Network . Barbara Gordon makes two cameo appearances in the first season of the animated series Young Justice , and is added as a recurring character in season two where she has adopted her Batgirl persona . Dina Meyer starred as Barbara Gordon in the television series Birds of Prey ( 2002 ) . Although this series focused on her role as Oracle , the series included flash @-@ backs of the character 's history as Batgirl . In the film Batman & Robin , Alicia Silverstone played a variation of the character : Barbara Wilson , Alfred Pennyworth 's niece .
In addition to live @-@ action television and animation , the character has appeared in a number of video games included in the Batman franchise . She appears in The Adventures of Batman & Robin and Batman : Rise of Sin Tzu voiced by Tara Strong . She also appears in LEGO Batman for the PC , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , Wii , DS , and PlayStation Portable . In Scribblenauts Unmasked : A DC Comics Adventure , The Barbara Gordon incarnation of Batgirl appears when Maxwell heads to Arkham Asylum to battle The Scarecrow . The other three Batgirls ( Bette Kane , Stephanie Brown and Cassandra Cain ) can be spawned and all three are playable in the Wii U version . The most recent video game featuring Batgirl is Batman : Arkham Knight , available for PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and PC . The developers created a side story named " A Matter of Family " in which the player is able to control Batgirl . Robin is also playable , but only in fight scenes . The plot tells about Batgirl entering an amusement park where Joker maintains her father , commissioner James Gordon , captive , as well as other cops . Gotham 's Ben McKenzie did tease about seeing Batgirl in child form in the series . Film director Nicolas Winding Refn revealed in a interview with Collider that he would like to direct a Batgirl movie .
= = Collected editions = =
= = Other collected editions = =
Batman : Bruce Wayne – Murderer ? ( Batgirl # 24 )
Batman : Bruce Wayne – Fugitive Vol . One ( Batgirl # 27 and # 29 )
Batman : Bruce Wayne – Fugitive Vol . Three ( Batgirl # 33 )
Batman War Games : Act One - Outbreak ( Batgirl # 55 )
Batman War Games : Act Two - Tides ( Batgirl # 56 )
Batman War Games : Act Three - Endgame ( Batgirl # 57 )
= The Titan 's Curse =
The Titan 's Curse is a 2007 fantasy @-@ adventure novel based on Greek mythology written by Rick Riordan . It is the third novel in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series and the sequel to The Sea of Monsters . It charts the adventures of the fourteen @-@ year @-@ old demigod Percy Jackson as he and his friends go on a dangerous quest to rescue his friend Annabeth Chase and the Greek goddess Artemis , who have both been kidnapped .
The Titan 's Curse was published by Miramax Books , an imprint of Hyperion Books for Children and thus Disney Publishing ( succeeded by the Disney Hyperion imprint ) . It was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on May 1 , 2007 . The novel was also released in audiobook format , read by Jesse Bernstein .
Mostly well @-@ received , The Titan 's Curse was nominated for numerous awards , winning ones such as the No. 1 The New York Times children 's series best seller and Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick for 2007 .
= = Plot = =
Percy Jackson , Annabeth Chase , and Thalia Grace get a ride from Mrs. Jackson to Westover Hall , a boarding school in Bar Harbor , Maine , to escort two sibling half @-@ bloods named Nico and Bianca di Angelo that Grover Underwood has found . They are attacked by a manticore named Dr. Thorn . Though Artemis and her hunters arrive to help , Annabeth is captured by Dr. Thorn . Artemis is troubled by the manticore 's mention of a " Great Stirring " of monsters , and goes off alone to hunt an Olympus @-@ destroying monster she believes to have finally returned from Tartarus . She sends the half @-@ bloods and Hunters ( whose number now includes Bianca di Angelo ) to Camp Half @-@ Blood with her brother Apollo .
While there , Nico settles into camp life ; Percy and Blackjack save a sea monster Percy nicknames Bessie ; and Artemis 's lieutenant Zoë Nightshade has mysterious dreams about the goddess being in grave danger . Percy has similar dreams about Annabeth . Both are unable to act , however , until the Oracle ( a shriveled mummy ) somehow leaves her storage room and delivers the Huntress a prophecy . Chiron and Zoë organize a quest , but Percy is not included because the Hunters refuse to travel with a boy . He successfully sneaks away from camp on Blackjack , though he is almost stopped by Mr. D ( Dionysus ) .
When they arrive in Washington , D.C. , Percy notices Dr. Thorn heading into the National Museum of Natural History , and follows him using an invisibility cap . Luke and a man called the General are there , and summon spartoi to hunt the official quest group , who are currently in the National Air and Space Museum nearby . Percy runs to warn them , but they are attacked by the Nemean Lion before they can leave . They flee , and , on the advice of Apollo , travel to Cloudcroft , New Mexico . In Cloudcroft , Grover senses the presence of Pan , who sends the Erymanthian Boar to help them escape the spartoi who have caught up with them . The boar carries them as far as Gila Claw , Arizona and the " junkyard of the gods " . After a brief encounter with Ares and Aphrodite , the group enters the junkyard , where Bianca tries to take a cursed statuette for Nico . Her theft awakens a prototype of Talos , and she gives her life to bring it down . The remaining quest members travel to the Hoover Dam , and , after narrowly escaping the spartoi again , arrive in San Francisco .
Once there , Percy seeks out Nereus and learns that the monster Artemis was hunting is Bessie , the monster he saved , who is an ophiotaurus . After a final encounter with Dr. Thorn , Grover heads back to Camp Half @-@ Blood with the ophiotaurus . Zoë , Percy , and Thalia go to find Frederick Chase in the hope that he will help them reach their final destination : Mount Tamalpais , which is the modern location of the Titans ' fortress on Mount Othrys . With Mr. Chase 's car , they travel to the Garden of Hesperides . Zoë is wounded by the dragon Ladon while they pass through . From the place where Atlas once held up the sky , they see Artemis now doing his job . Seeing Annabeth in chains and learning that " the General " is Zoë 's father Atlas , Percy takes the burden from Artemis so his companions can fight the Titan 's advance guard . Artemis manages to force Atlas back under his burden , but not before he seriously wounds her lieutenant . Thalia battles Luke , and he falls from a cliff , apparently dead . With the help of Mr. Chase , who arrives in a biplane he has fitted with celestial bronze weaponry , they escape and travel to Olympus . Zoë dies during the trip and is turned into a constellation by the lady Artemis .
During the winter solstice meeting , the gods are finally convinced by Artemis to take action against the Titans . Thalia is also asked by Artemis to become an immortal Huntress , and her acceptance is the only thing that prevents the onset of the Great Prophecy . Percy is told by his father that Luke is somehow not dead , and he and Annabeth return to Camp Half @-@ Blood worried about the future . Before he can relax , however , Percy is forced to explain Bianca 's death to Nico . Nico blames Percy , and when a group of spartoi arrive to attack the son of Poseidon , Nico banishes them to the realm of Hades . Percy realizes Nico must be a son of Hades . Nico runs away , and the only people Percy tells the truth are Annabeth and Grover . They promise to hide this fact from everyone else , especially the Titan 's army .
= = = Prophecy = = =
The prophecy given by the oracle to Zoë Nightshade reads :
Five shall go west to the goddess in chains ,
One shall be lost in the land without rain ,
The bane of Olympus shows the trail ,
Campers and Hunters combined prevail ,
The Titan ’ s curse must one withstand ,
And one shall perish by a parent ’ s hand .
= = = = Meaning = = = =
1.The group consisting of Zoë , Thalia , Grover , Bianca , and Percy ( originally Phoebe ) . The questers travel to Mount Othrys in the west to free Artemis from her confinement .
2 . Bianca sacrificed herself in the desert to save the group against a defective prototype of Hephaestus ' robot , Talos .
3 . They followed the Ophiotaurus , which was called the bane of Olympus because if he was sacrificed in flames , the person that sacrificed it would have the power to destroy Olympus . During the quest , it keeps appearing in various bodies of water .
4 . The only way the quest would be successful was if campers and Hunters worked together . The quest consisted of three campers ( Percy , Grover , and Thalia ) and two Hunters ( Bianca and Zoë ) .
5 . The curse of holding the sky above the earth had to be taken by someone ( Luke took the sky from Atlas ; Annabeth took the sky from Luke ; Artemis took it from Annabeth ; Percy took it for Artemis and Artemis forced Atlas back under the sky ) .
6 . In the end , Zoë after already suffering from being poisoned by the dragon Ladon , was killed by her father Atlas after he tossed her against a wall .
= = Major characters = =
Percy Jackson : Percy , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old demigod and son of Poseidon , is the protagonist as well as the series ' narrator . He embarks on a journey to save Annabeth and the Greek goddess Artemis , who have both been kidnapped .
Thalia Grace : Thalia is a 15 @-@ year @-@ old demigod daughter of Zeus . Though she appears in Percy 's dream in the first book , she makes a full appearance at the end of The Sea of Monsters and is given a greater role in the third book . Thalia is described as looking very punk , with electric blue eyes , black clothes , and spiky hair . Her personality is often described as " independent and many times sarcastic . " Thalia is a lot like Percy and consequently , they often butt heads . She is heartbroken by Luke 's betrayal , it is supposed that she had feelings for him . She is also afraid of heights , which she reluctantly admits to Percy , despite the fact that she is daughter of Zeus , God of the Sky .
Annabeth Chase : Annabeth is a 14 @-@ year @-@ old demigod and the daughter of Athena . She is friends with Percy , Thalia and Grover . She is kidnapped along with Artemis by the Titans . She has a great passion and interest for architecture and she wishes to be an architect when she is older . Although she has a growing love interest in Percy , her feelings for Luke remain a problem between the two . Percy returns her feelings without realizing it , and is oblivious to how she feels about him .
Grover Underwood : A large @-@ hearted satyr whose favorite foods are aluminum cans and cheese enchiladas . He is 28 years old , yet has the appearance of a teenager due to the satyrs ' slower growth rate ( half that of humans ) . He wants to become a searcher for Pan , the satyr god of nature and the wild , who fell into a " deep sleep " due to the humans ' pollution of the world .
Bianca di Angelo : Bianca is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old demigod and the daughter of Hades . She and her ten @-@ year @-@ old brother Nico were trapped in the Lotus Casino , where time is slowed down , but in the beginning of the book , they were released and attended quest in the " Junkyard of the Gods " .
Zoë Nightshade : Zoë is the daughter of Atlas , a banished Hesperid for helping the hero Hercules , and the first lieutenant of the Hunters of Artemis . She often has trouble updating her language and uses Old English . She dies after being bitten by Ladon , who protects the immortality @-@ giving golden apple tree , and after her father Atlas , throws her against a pile of rocks . Artemis turns her spirit into a constellation soon after her death for remembrance . She and Thalia developed grudges against each other after Thalia did not want to join the hunters , but they get along when they do not think about it .
Luke Castellan : The 21 @-@ year @-@ old demigod son of Hermes , Luke is the main antagonist of the series . He is the sidekick to , Kronos ; Kronos ' followers and army gather on a ship called the Princess Andromeda .
Nico di Angelo : The 10 @-@ year @-@ old demigod son of Hades and older sister Bianca di Angelo are rescued from a manticore by Percy , Annabeth , Thalia , and Grover . He is left at camp during the quest , but stays in the Hermes cabin because his parentage has not yet been discovered . He leaves camp after hearing Percy broke his promise , letting Bianca die . Before he leaves , he sends an army of skeletal warriors back to the underworld .
= = Critical reception = =
" The Titan 's Curse " received relatively positive reviews , which often lauded the humor and action in the story . Children 's Literature , which commended the book 's fast pace and humor , wrote , " Readers will relate to good natured Percy , the protagonist . " Kirkus awarded it a starred review with , " This third in the Olympians series makes the Greek myths come alive in a way no dreary classroom unit can ... will have readers wondering how literature can be this fun . This can stand alone , though newcomers to the series will race back to the first two volumes and eagerly await a fourth installment . " School Library Journal praised the " adventurous " plot as well as the book 's appeal : " Teachers will cheer for Percy Jackson and the Olympians as they inspire students to embrace Greek mythology and score the ultimate Herculean challenge : getting kids to read . All in all , a winner of Olympic proportions and a surefire read @-@ aloud . " Booklist 's starred review approved of the novel 's humor action , and plotting : " The Percy Jackson & the Olympians series is built around a terrific idea — that the half @-@ mortal offspring of Greek gods live among us , playing out struggles of mythic scale — and Riordan takes it from strength to strength with this exciting installment , adding even more depth to the characters and story arc while retaining its predecessors ' nonstop laughs and action . " Kidsreads raved , " Rick Riordan 's Olympian adventures have gained great popularity thanks to their combination of humor , adventure and a winning hero ... Readers who are familiar with ancient mythology will enjoy Riordan 's tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek approach ; those who aren 't just might be tempted to go to the original sources to learn more . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The Titan 's Curse received several literature @-@ related awards , including : number one The New York Times children 's series best seller and Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick for 2007 . It was also a Quill Award nominee .
= = Audiobook = =
An eight @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ forty @-@ eight @-@ minute audiobook read by the actor Jesse Bernstein and published by Listening Library was released on April 24 , 2007 .
AudioFile Magazine lauded Bernstein 's interpretation , writing , " Sounding alternately young , or old , or really scary , Jesse Bernstein ... effectively voices the confusion and loss the team experiences . "
= = Sequel = =
In The Battle of the Labyrinth , Annabeth and Percy find an entrance into the Labyrinth during a game of capture the flag . Percy soon learns that Luke had used the entrance and will lead his army through the Labyrinth straight in to the heart of camp . To get into the Labyrinth , Percy has to find the symbol of Daedalus , the Greek letter delta , ( Δ ) on a passageway , touch it , and then enter the Labyrinth . Using the Labyrinth , Percy tries to find Daedalus so Luke cannot get Ariadne 's string , thereby foiling Luke 's invasion .
= Cock Lane ghost =
The Cock Lane ghost was a purported haunting that attracted mass public attention in 1762 . The location was an apartment in Cock Lane , a short road adjacent to London 's Smithfield market and a few minutes ' walk from St Paul 's Cathedral . The event centred on three people : William Kent , a usurer from Norfolk , Richard Parsons , a parish clerk , and Parsons ' daughter Elizabeth .
Following the death during childbirth of Kent 's wife , Elizabeth Lynes , he became romantically involved with her sister , Fanny . Canon law prevented the couple from marrying , but they nevertheless moved to London and lodged at the property in Cock Lane , then owned by Parsons . Several accounts of strange knocking sounds and ghostly apparitions were reported , although for the most part they stopped after the couple moved out , but following Fanny 's death from smallpox and Kent 's successful legal action against Parsons over an outstanding debt , they resumed . Parsons claimed that Fanny 's ghost haunted his property and later his daughter . Regular séances were held to determine " Scratching Fanny 's " motives ; Cock Lane was often made impassable by the throngs of interested bystanders .
The ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been poisoned with arsenic and Kent was publicly suspected of being her murderer . But a commission whose members included Samuel Johnson concluded that the supposed haunting was a fraud . Further investigations proved the scam was perpetrated by Elizabeth Parsons , under duress from her father . Those responsible were prosecuted and found guilty ; Richard Parsons was pilloried and sentenced to two years in prison .
The Cock Lane ghost became a focus of controversy between the Methodist and Anglican churches and is referenced frequently in contemporary literature . Charles Dickens is one of several Victorian authors whose work alluded to the story and the pictorial satirist William Hogarth referenced the ghost in two of his prints .
= = Background = =
In about 1756 – 57 William Kent , a usurer from Norfolk , married Elizabeth Lynes , the daughter of a grocer from Lyneham . They moved to Stoke Ferry where Kent kept an inn and later , the local post office . They were apparently very much in love , but their marriage was short @-@ lived as within a month of the move Elizabeth died during childbirth . Her sister Frances — commonly known as Fanny — had during Elizabeth 's pregnancy moved in with the couple and she stayed to care for the infant and its father . The boy did not survive long and rather than leave , Fanny stayed on to take care of William and the house . The two soon began a relationship , but canon law appeared to rule out marriage ; when Kent travelled to London to seek advice he was told that as Elizabeth had borne him a living son , a union with Fanny was impossible . In January 1759 therefore , he gave up the post office , left Fanny and moved to London , intending to " purchase a place in some public office " in the hope that " business would erase that passion he had unfortunately indulged " . Fanny meanwhile stayed with one of her brothers at Lyneham .
Despite her family 's disapproval of their relationship , Fanny began to write passionate letters to Kent , " filled with repeated entreaties to spend the rest of their lives together " . He eventually allowed her to join him at lodgings in East Greenwich near London . The two decided to live together as man and wife , making wills in each other 's favour and hoping to remain discreet . In this , however , they did not reckon on Fanny 's relations . The couple moved to lodgings near the Mansion House , but their landlord there may have learnt of their relationship from Fanny 's family , expressing his contempt by refusing to repay a sum of money Kent loaned him ( about £ 20 ) . In response , Kent had him arrested .
While attending early morning prayers at the church of St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate , William Kent and Fanny met Richard Parsons , the officiating clerk . Although he was generally considered respectable , Parsons was known locally as a drunk and was struggling to provide for his family . He listened to the couple 's plight and was sympathetic , offering them the use of lodgings in his home on Cock Lane , to the north of St Sepulchre 's . Located along a narrow , winding thoroughfare similar to most of central London 's streets , the three @-@ storey house was in a respectable but declining area , and comprised a single room on each floor , connected by a winding staircase . Shortly after Mr and Mrs Kent ( as they called themselves ) moved in , Kent loaned Parsons 12 guineas , to be repaid at a rate of a guinea per month .
It was while Kent was away at a wedding in the country that the first reports of strange noises began . Parsons had a wife and two daughters ; the elder , Elizabeth , was described as a " little artful girl about eleven years of age " . Kent asked Elizabeth to stay with Fanny , who was then several months into a pregnancy , and to share her bed while he was away . The two reported hearing scratching and rapping noises . These were attributed by Mrs Parsons to a neighbouring cobbler , although when the noises re @-@ occurred on a Sunday , Fanny asked if the cobbler was working that day ; Mrs Parsons told her he was not . James Franzen , landlord of the nearby Wheat Sheaf public house , was another witness . After visiting the house he reported seeing a ghostly white figure ascend the stairs . Terrified , he returned home , where Parsons later visited him and claimed also to have seen a ghost .
As Fanny was only weeks away from giving birth Kent made arrangements to move to a property at Bartlet 's Court in Clerkenwell , but by January 1760 it was not ready and so they moved instead to an " inconvenient " apartment nearby , intending only a temporary stay . However , on 25 January Fanny fell ill . The attending doctor diagnosed the early stages of an eruptive fever and agreed with Kent that their lodgings were inadequate for someone at so critical a stage of pregnancy . Fanny was therefore moved , by coach , to Bartlet 's Court . The next day her doctor returned and met with her apothecary . Both agreed that Fanny 's symptoms were indicative of smallpox . On hearing this , Fanny sent for an attorney , to ensure the will she had had made was in good order , and that Kent would inherit her estate . An acquaintance of Kent 's , Stephen Aldrich , Rector of St John Clerkenwell , reassured her that she would be forgiven for her sins . She died on 2 February .
As sole executor of Fanny 's will , Kent ordered a coffin , but fearful of being prosecuted should the nature of their relationship become known , asked that it remain nameless . On registering the burial he was , however , forced to give a name , and he gave her his own . Fanny 's family was notified and her sister Ann Lynes , who lived nearby at Pall Mall , attended the funeral at St John 's . When Ann learned of the terms of Fanny 's will , which left her brothers and sisters half a crown each and Kent the rest , she tried but failed to block it in Doctors ' Commons . The bulk of Kent 's inheritance was Fanny 's £ 150 share of her dead brother Thomas 's estate . This also included some land owned by Thomas , sold by the executor of his estate , John Lynes , and Kent received Fanny 's share of that too ( almost £ 95 ) . Her family resented this . Legal problems with Lynes 's sale meant that each of Thomas 's beneficiaries had to pay £ 45 in compensation to the purchaser , but Kent refused , claiming that he had already spent the money in settling Fanny 's debts . In response to this , in October 1761 John Lynes began proceedings against Kent in the Court of Chancery . Meanwhile , Kent became a stockbroker and remarried in 1761 .
= = Haunting = =
Echoing the actions of Kent 's previous landlord , Parsons had not repaid Kent 's loan — of which about three guineas was outstanding — and Kent therefore instructed his attorney to sue him . He managed to recover the debt by January 1762 , just as the mysterious noises at Cock Lane began again . Catherine Friend had lodged there shortly after the couple left but moved out when she found the noises , which had returned intermittently and which were becoming more frequent , could not be stopped . They apparently emanated from Elizabeth Parsons , who also suffered fits , and the house was regularly disturbed by unexplained noises , likened at the time to the sound of a cat scratching a chair . Reportedly determined to discover their source , Richard Parsons had a carpenter remove the wainscotting around Elizabeth 's bed . He approached John Moore , assistant preacher at St Sepulchre 's since 1754 and rector of St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Great in West Smithfield since June 1761 . The presence of one ghost , presumed to belong to Fanny 's sister , Elizabeth , had already been noted while Fanny lay dying , and the two concluded that the spirit now haunting Parsons ' house must be that of Fanny Lynes herself . The notion that a person 's spirit might return from the dead to warn those still alive was a commonly held belief , and the presence of two apparently restless spirits was therefore an obvious sign to both men that each ghost had an important message to disclose .
Parsons and Moore devised a method of communication ; one knock for yes , two knocks for no . Using this system , the ghost appeared to claim that Fanny had been murdered . It was conjectured that the mysterious figure in white which so terrified James Franzen , presumed to be the ghost of Elizabeth , had appeared there to warn her sister of her impending death . As the first ghost had seemingly vanished , this charge against Kent — that he murdered Elizabeth — was never acted on , but through repeated questioning of Fanny 's ghost it was divined that she had died not from the effects of smallpox , but rather from arsenic poisoning . The deadly toxin had apparently been administered by Kent about two hours before Fanny died and now , it was supposed , her spirit wanted justice . Moore had heard from Parsons how Kent had pursued the debt he was owed , and he had also heard from Ann Lynes , who had complained that as Fanny 's coffin lid was screwed down she had not been able to see her sister 's corpse . Moore thought that Fanny 's body might not show any visible signs of smallpox and that if she had been poisoned , the lack of scarring would have been something Kent would rather keep hidden . As a clergyman with inclinations toward Methodism he was inclined to trust the ghost , but for added support he enlisted the aid of Thomas Broughton , an early Methodist . Broughton visited Cock Lane on 5 January and left convinced the ghost was real . The story spread through London , The Public Ledger began to publish detailed accounts of the phenomenon , and Kent fell under public suspicion as a murderer .
= = Séances = =
After reading the veiled accusations made against him in the Public Ledger , Kent determined to clear his name , and accompanied by a witness went to see John Moore . The Methodist showed Kent the list of questions he and Parsons had drawn up for the ghost to answer . One concerned William and Fanny 's marital status , prompting Kent to admit that they never married . Moore told him he did not think he was a murderer , rather , he believed the spirit 's presence indicated that " there was something behind darker than all the rest , and that if he would go to Parson 's house , he might be a witness to the same and convinced of its reality " . On 12 January therefore , Kent enlisted the aid of the two physicians who attended Fanny in her last days , and with Broughton , went to Cock Lane . On the house 's upper floor Elizabeth Parsons was publicly undressed , and with her younger sister was put to bed . The audience sat around the bed , positioned in the centre of the room . They were warned that the ghost was sensitive to disbelief and told that they should accord it due respect . When the séance began , a relative of Parsons , Mary Frazer , ran around the room shouting " Fanny , Fanny , why don 't you come ? Do come , pray Fanny , come ; dear Fanny , come ! " When nothing happened , Moore told the group the ghost would not come as they were making too much noise . He asked them to leave the room , telling them he would try to contact the ghost by stamping his foot . About ten minutes later they were told the ghost had returned and that they should re @-@ enter the room . Moore then started to run through his and Parsons ' list of questions :
" Are you the wife of Mr. Kent ? " — Two knocks
" Did you die naturally ? " — Two knocks
" By poison ? " — One knock
" Did any person other than Mr. Kent administer it ? " — Two knocks
After more questions , a member of the audience exclaimed " Kent , ask this Ghost if you shall be hanged " . He did so , and the question was answered by a single knock . Kent exclaimed " Thou art a lying spirit , thou are not the ghost of my Fanny . She would never have said any such thing . "
Public interest in the story grew when it was discovered that the ghost appeared to follow Elizabeth Parsons . She was removed to the house of a Mr Bray , where on 14 January , in the presence of two unidentified nobles , more knocking sounds were heard . A few days later she was returned to Cock Lane , where on 18 January another séance was held . In attendance were Kent , the apothecary , and local parish priest and incumbent of St John Clerkenwell , Stephen Aldrich . On that occasion , when a clergyman used a candle to look under the bed , the ghost " refused " to answer , Frazer claiming " she [ the ghost ] loving not light " . After a few minutes of silence the questioning continued , but when Moore asked if the ghost would appear in court against Kent , Frazer refused to ask the question .
When they lived at Cock Lane William and Fanny had employed a maid , Esther " Carrots " Carlisle ( Carrots on account of her red hair ) . She had since moved to a new job and knew nothing of the haunting , but seeking evidence of Fanny 's poisoning , Moore went to question her . Carrots told him that Fanny had been unable to speak in the days before she died , so Moore invited her to a séance , held on 19 January . Once there , she was asked to confirm that Fanny had been poisoned , but Carrots remained adamant that Fanny had said nothing to her , telling the party that William and Fanny had been " very loving , and lived very happy together . " Kent arrived later that night , this time with James Franzen and priests William Dodd and Thomas Broughton . Frazer began with her usual introduction before Moore sent her out , apparently irritated by her behaviour . He then asked the party of about 20 to leave the room , calling them back a few minutes later . This time , the séance centred on Carrots , who addressed the ghost directly :
" Are you my mistress ? " — One knock , followed by scratches
" Are you angry with me , Madam ? " — One knock
" Then I am sure , Madam , you may be ashamed of yourself for I never hurt you in my life . "
At this , the séance was ended . Frazer and Franzen remained alone in the room , the latter reportedly too terrified to move . Frazer asked if he would like to pray and was angered when he apparently could not . The séance resumed and Franzen later returned to his home , where he and his wife were reportedly tormented by the ghost 's knocking in their bedchamber .
= = Investigation = =
On 20 January another séance was held , this time at the home of a Mr Bruin , on the corner of nearby Hosier Lane . Among those attending was a man " extremely desirous of detecting the fraud , and discovering the truth of this mysterious affair " , who later sent his account of the night to the London Chronicle . He arrived with a small party which included James Penn of St Ann 's in Aldersgate . Inside the house , a member of the group positioned himself against the bed , but was asked by one of the ghost 's sympathisers to move . He refused , and following a brief argument the ghost 's supporters left . The gentleman then asked if Parsons would allow his daughter to be moved to a room at his house , but was refused . For the remainder of the night the ghost made no sound , while Elizabeth Parsons , now extremely agitated , displayed signs of convulsions . When questioned she confirmed that she had seen the ghost , but that she was not frightened by it . At that point several of the party left , but at about 7 am the next morning the knocking once more recommenced . Following the usual questions about the cause of Fanny 's death and who was responsible , the interrogation turned to her body , which lay in the vaults of St John 's .
Parsons agreed to move his daughter to Aldrich 's house for further testing on 22 January , but when that morning Penn and a man of " veracity and fortune " called on Parsons and asked for Elizabeth , the clerk told them she was not there and refused to reveal her whereabouts . Parsons had spoken with friends and was apparently worried that Kent had been busy with his own investigations . Instead , he allowed Elizabeth to be moved that night to St Bartholomew 's Hospital , where another séance was held . Nothing was reported until about 6 am , when three scratches were heard , apparently while the girl was asleep . The approximately 20 @-@ strong audience complained that the affair was a deception . Once Elizabeth woke she began to cry , and once reassured that she was safe admitted that she was afraid for her father , " who must needs be ruined and undone , if their matter should be supposed to be an imposture . " She also admitted that although she had appeared to be asleep , she was in fact fully aware of the conversation going on around her .
Initially only the Public Ledger reported on the case , but once it became known that noblemen had taken an interest and visited the ghost at Mr Bray 's house on 14 January , the story began to appear in other newspapers . The St. James 's Chronicle and the London Chronicle printed reports from 16 – 19 January ( the latter the more sceptical of the two ) , and Lloyd 's Evening Post from 18 – 20 January . The story spread across London and by the middle of January the crowds gathered outside the property were such that Cock Lane was rendered impassable . Parsons charged visitors an entrance fee to " talk " with the ghost , which , it was reported , did not disappoint . After receiving several requests to intercede , Samuel Fludyer , Lord Mayor of London , was on 23 January approached by Alderman Gosling , John Moore and Parsons . They told him of their experiences but Fludyer was reminded of the then recent case of fraudster Elizabeth Canning and refused to have Kent or Parsons arrested ( on charges of murder and conspiracy respectively ) . Instead , against a backdrop of hysteria caused in part by the newspapers ' relentless reporting of the case , he ordered that Elizabeth be tested at Aldrich 's house . Meanwhile , Elizabeth was again the subject of study , in two séances held 23 – 24 January . Parsons accepted the Lord Mayor 's decision , but asked that " some persons connected with the girl might be permitted to be there , to divert her in the day @-@ time " . This was refused , as were two similar requests , Aldrich and Penn insisting that they would accept only " any person or persons , of strict character and reputation , who are housekeepers " . Aldrich and Penn 's account of their negotiations with Parsons clearly perturbed the clerk , as he defended his actions in the Public Ledger . This prompted Aldrich and Penn to issue a pointed retort in Lloyd 's Evening Post : " We are greatly puzzled to find Mr. Parsons asserting that he hath been always willing to deliver up the child , when he refused a gentleman on Wednesday evening the 20th inst . [ ... ] What is to be understood , by requiring security " ?
Elizabeth was taken on 26 January to the house of Jane Armstrong , sleeping there in a hammock . The continued noises strengthened the resolve of the ghost 's supporters , while the press 's ceaseless reporting of the case continued . Horace Walpole , 4th Earl of Orford , announced that with the Duke of York , Lady Northumberland , Lady Mary Coke and Lord Hertford , he was to visit Cock Lane on 30 January . After struggling through the throngs of interested visitors though , he was ultimately disappointed ; the Public Advertiser observed that " the noise is now generally deferred till seven in the morning , it being necessary to vary the time , that the imposition may be the better carried on " .
= = Exposure = =
With Lord Dartmouth Aldrich began to draw together the people who would be involved in his investigation . They chose the matron of a local lying @-@ in hospital as principal lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , the critic and controversialist Bishop John Douglas , and Dr George Macaulay . A Captain Wilkinson was also included on the committee ; he had attended one séance armed with a pistol and stick ; the former to shoot the source of the knocking , and the latter to make his escape ( the ghost had remained silent on that occasion ) . James Penn and John Moore were also on the committee , but its most prominent member was Dr Samuel Johnson , who documented the séance , held on 1 February 1762 :
On the night of the 1st of February many gentlemen eminent for their rank and character were , by the invitation of the Reverend Mr. Aldrich , of Clerkenwell , assembled at his house , for the examination of the noises supposed to be made by a departed spirit , for the detection of some enormous crime . About ten at night the gentlemen met in the chamber in which the girl , supposed to be disturbed by a spirit , had , with proper caution , been put to bed by several ladies . They sat rather more than an hour , and hearing nothing , went down stairs , when they interrogated the father of the girl , who denied , in the strongest terms , any knowledge or belief of fraud . The supposed spirit had before publickly promised , by an affirmative knock , that it would attend one of the gentlemen into the vault under the Church of St. John , Clerkenwell , where the body is deposited , and give a token of her presence there , by a knock upon her coffin ; it was therefore determined to make this trial of the existence or veracity of the supposed spirit . While they were enquiring and deliberating , they were summoned into the girl 's chamber by some ladies who were near her bed , and who had heard knocks and scratches . When the gentlemen entered , the girl declared that she felt the spirit like a mouse upon her back , and was required to hold her hands out of bed . From that time , though the spirit was very solemnly required to manifest its existence by appearance , by impression on the hand or body of any present , by scratches , knocks , or any other agency , no evidence of any preter @-@ natural power was exhibited . The spirit was then very seriously advertised that the person to whom the promise was made of striking the coffin , was then about to visit the vault , and that the performance of the promise was then claimed . The company at one o 'clock went into the church , and the gentleman to whom the promise was made , went with another into the vault . The spirit was solemnly required to perform its promise , but nothing more than silence ensued : the person supposed to be accused by the spirit , then went down with several others , but no effect was perceived . Upon their return they examined the girl , but could draw no confession from her . Between two and three she desired and was permitted to go home with her father . It is , therefore , the opinion of the whole assembly , that the child has some art of making or counterfeiting a particular noise , and that there is no agency of any higher cause .
Disappointed that the ghost had failed to reveal itself , Moore now told Kent he believed it was an imposter , and that he would help reveal it . Kent asked him to admit the truth and write an affidavit of what he knew , so as to end the affair and restore Kent 's reputation , but Moore refused , telling him that he still believed that the spirit 's presence was a reminder of his sin . Moore 's view of the couple 's relationship was shared by many , including Mrs Parsons , who believed that the supposed ghost of Elizabeth Kent had disapproved of her sister 's new relationship .
Another séance on 3 February saw the knocking continue unabated , but by then Parsons was in an extremely difficult — and serious — situation . Keen to prove the ghost was not an imposture he allowed his daughter to be examined at a house on The Strand from 7 – 10 February , and at another house in Covent Garden from 14 February . There she was tested in a variety of ways which included being swung up in a hammock , her hands and feet extended . As expected , the noises commenced , but stopped once Elizabeth was made to place her hands outside the bed . For two nights the ghost was silent . Elizabeth was told that if no more noises were heard by Sunday 21 February , she and her father would be committed to Newgate Prison . Her maids then saw her conceal on her person a small piece of wood about 6 by 4 inches ( 150 by 100 mm ) and informed the investigators . More scratches were heard but the observers concluded that Elizabeth was responsible for the noises , and that she had been forced by her father to make them . Elizabeth was allowed home shortly after .
On or about 25 February , a pamphlet sympathetic to Kent 's case was published , called The Mystery Revealed , and most likely written by Oliver Goldsmith . Meanwhile , Kent was still trying to clear his name , and on 25 February he went to the vault of St John 's , accompanied by Aldrich , the undertaker , the clerk and the parish sexton . The group was there to prove beyond any doubt that a recent newspaper report , which claimed that the supposed removal of Fanny 's body from the vault accounted for the ghost 's failure to knock on her coffin , was false . The undertaker removed the lid to expose Fanny 's corpse , " and a very awful shocking sight it was " . For Moore this was too much and he published his retraction :
In justice to the person , whose reputation has been attacked in a most gross manner , by the pretended Ghost in Cock @-@ lane ; to check the credulity of the weak ; to defeat the attempts of the malicious , and to prevent further imposition , on account of this absurd phenomenon , I do hereby certify , that though , from the several attendances on this occasion , I have not been able to point out , how , and in what manner , those knockings and scratchings , of the supposed Ghost , were contrived , performed , and continued ; yet , that I am convinced , that those knockings and scratchings were the effects of some artful , wicked contrivance ; and that I was , in a more especial manner , convinced of its being such , on the first of this month , when I attended with several persons of rank and character , who assembled at the Rev. Mr. Aldrich 's , Clerkenwell , in order to examine into this iniquitous imposition upon the Public . Since which time I have not seen the child , nor heard the noises ; and think myself in duty bound to add , that the injured person ( when present to hear himself accused by the pretended Ghost ) has not , by his behaviour , given the least ground of suspicion , but has preserved that becoming steadfastness , which nothing , I am persuaded , but innocence could inspire .
It was not enough to keep him from being charged by the authorities with conspiracy , along with Richard Parsons and his wife , Mary Frazer , and Richard James , a tradesman .
= = Trial = =
The trial of all five was held at the Guild Hall in London on 10 July 1762 . Presiding over the case was Lord Chief Justice William Murray . Proceedings began at 10 am , " brought by William Kent against the above defendants for a conspiracy to take away his life by charging him with the murder of Frances Lynes by giving her poison whereof she died " . The courtroom was crowded with spectators , who watched as Kent gave evidence against those in the dock . He told the court about his relationship with Fanny and of her resurrection as " Scratching Fanny " ( so @-@ called because of the scratching noises made by the " ghost " ) . James Franzen was next on the stand , his story corroborated by Fanny 's servant , Esther " Carrots " Carlisle , who testified later that day . Dr Cooper , who had served Fanny as she lay dying , told the court that he had always believed the strange noises in Cock Lane to be a trick , and his account of Fanny 's illness was supported by her apothecary , James Jones . Several other prosecution witnesses described how the hoax had been revealed , and Richard James was accused by the prosecution 's last witness of being responsible for some of the more offensive material published in the Public Ledger .
The defence 's witnesses included some of those who had cared for Elizabeth Parsons and who presumably still believed that the ghost was real . Other witnesses included the carpenter responsible for removing the wainscotting from Parsons ' apartment and Catherine Friend , who to escape the knocking noises had left the property . One witness 's testimony caused the court to burst into laughter , at which she replied " I assure you gentlemen , it is no laughing matter , whatever you may think of it . " Thomas Broughton was also called , as was a priest surnamed Ross , one of those who had questioned the ghost . Judge Murray asked him " Whether he thought he had puzzled the Ghost , or the Ghost had puzzled him ? " John Moore was offered support by several esteemed gentlemen and presented Murray with a letter from Thomas Secker , Archbishop of Canterbury , who sought to intercede on his behalf . Murray placed the letter in his pocket , unopened , and told the court " it was impossible it could relate to the cause in question . " Richard James and Richard Parsons also received support from various witnesses , some of whom although acknowledging Parsons ' drink problem , told the court they could not believe he was guilty .
The trial ended at about 9 : 30 pm . The judge spent about 90 minutes summing up the case , but it took the jury only 15 minutes to reach a verdict of guilty for all five defendants . The following Monday , two others responsible for defaming Kent were found guilty and later fined £ 50 each . The conspirators were brought back on 22 November but sentencing was delayed in the hope that they could agree on the level of damages payable to Kent . Having failed to do so they returned on 27 January 1763 and were committed to the King 's Bench Prison until 11 February , by which time John Moore and Richard James had agreed to pay Kent £ 588 ; they were subsequently admonished by Justice Wilmot and released . The following day , the rest were sentenced :
The Court chusing that Mr. Kent , who had been so much injured on the occasion , should receive some reparation by punishment of the offenders , deferred giving judgment for seven or eight months , in hopes that the parties might make it up in the meantime . Accordingly , the clergyman , and tradesman agreed to pay Mr. Kent a round sum — some say between £ 500 and £ 600 to purchase their pardon , and were , therefore , dismissed with a severe reprimand . The father was ordered to be set in the pillory three times in one month — once at the end of Cock – Lane ; Elizabeth his wife to be imprisoned one year ; and Mary Frazer six months in Bridewell , with hard labour . The father appearing to be out of his mind at the time he was first to standing in the pillory , the execution of that part of his sentence was deferred to another day , when , as well as the other day of his standing there , the populace took so much compassion on him , that instead of using him ill , they made a handsome subscription for him .
Parsons , all the while protesting his innocence , was also sentenced to two years imprisonment . He stood in the pillory on 16 March , 30 March and finally on 8 April . In contrast to other criminals the crowd treated him kindly , making collections of money for him .
= = Legacy = =
The Cock Lane ghost was a focus for a contemporary religious controversy between the Methodists and orthodox Anglicans . Belief in a spiritual afterlife is a requirement for most religions , and in every
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instance where a spirit had supposedly manifested itself in the real world , the event was cherished as an affirmation of such beliefs . In his youth , John Wesley had been strongly influenced by a supposed haunting at his family home and these experiences were carried through to the religion he founded , which was regularly criticised for its position on witchcraft and magic . Methodism , although far from a united religion , became almost synonymous with a belief in the supernatural . Some of its followers therefore gave more credence to the reality of the Cock Lane ghost than did the Anglican establishment , which considered such things to be relics of the country 's Catholic past . This was a view that was epitomised in the conflict between the Methodist John Moore and the Anglican Stephen Aldrich . In his 1845 memoirs , Horace Walpole , who had attended one of the séances , accused the Methodists of actively working to establish the existence of ghosts . He described the constant presence of Methodist clergymen near Elizabeth Parsons and implied that the church would recompense her father for his troubles .
Samuel Johnson was committed to his Christian faith and shared the views of author Joseph Glanvill , who , in his 1681 work Saducismus Triumphatus , wrote of his concern over the advances made against religion and a belief in witchcraft , by atheism and scepticism . For Johnson the idea that an afterlife might not exist was an appalling thought , but although he thought that spirits could protect and counsel those still living , he kept himself distant from the more credulous Methodists , and recognised that his religion required proof of an afterlife . Ever a sceptic , in his discussions with his biographer James Boswell , he said :
Sir , I make a distinction between what a man may experience by the mere strength of his imagination , and what imagination cannot possibly produce . Thus , suppose I should think I saw a form , and heard a voice cry , " Johnson , you are a very wicked fellow , and unless you repent you will certainly be punished ; " my own unworthiness is so deeply impressed upon my mind , that I might imagine I thus saw and heard , and therefore I should not believe that an external communication had been made to me . But if a form should appear , and a voice tell me that a particular man had died at a particular place , and a particular hour , a fact which I had no apprehension of , nor any means of knowing , and this fact , with all its circumstances , should afterwards be unquestionably proved , I should , in that case , be persuaded that I had supernatural intelligence imparted to me .
Johnson 's role in revealing the nature of the hoax was not enough to keep the satirist Charles Churchill from mocking his apparent credulity in his 1762 work The Ghost . He resented Johnson 's lack of enthusiasm for his writing and with the character of ' Pomposo ' , written as one of the more credulous of the ghost 's investigators , used the satire to highlight a " superstitious streak " in his subject . Johnson paid this scant attention , but was said to have been more upset when Churchill again mocked him for his delay in releasing Shakespeare . Publishers were at first wary of attacking those involved in the supposed haunting , but Churchill 's satire was one of a number of publications which , following the exposure of Parsons ' deception , heaped scorn on the affair . The newspapers searched for evidence of past impostures and referenced older publications such as Reginald Scot 's Discoverie of Witchcraft ( 1584 ) . The ghost was referenced in an anonymous work entitled Anti @-@ Canidia : or , Superstition Detected and Exposed ( 1762 ) , which sought to ridicule the credulity of those involved in the Cock Lane case . The author described his work as a " sally of indignation at the contemptible wonder in Cock @-@ lane " . Works such as The Orators ( 1762 ) by Samuel Foote , were soon available . Farcical poems such as Cock @-@ lane Humbug were released , theatres staged plays such as The Drummer and The Haunted House .
Oliver Goldsmith , who had in February 1762 published The Mystery Revealed , may also have been responsible for the satirical illustration , English Credulity or the Invisible Ghost ( 1762 ) . It shows a séance as envisioned by the artist , with the ghost hovering above the heads of the two children in the bed . To the right of the bed a woman deep in prayer exclaims " O ! that they would lay it in the Red Sea ! " Another cries " I shall never have any rest again " . The English magistrate and social reformer John Fielding , who was blind , is pictured entering from the left saying " I should be glad to see this spirit " , while his companion says " Your W — — r 's had better get your Warrant back 'd by his L — rds — p " , referring to a Middlesex magistrate 's warrant which required an endorsement from the Lord Mayor , Samuel Fludyer . A man in tall boots , whip in hand , says : " Ay Tom I 'll lay 6 to 1 it runs more nights than the Coronation " and his companion remarks " How they swallow the hum " . A clergymen says " I saw the light on the Clock " while another asks " Now thou Infidel does thou not believe ? " , prompting his neighbour to reply " Yes if it had happen 'd sooner ' t would have serv 'd me for a new Character in the Lyar the Story would tell better than the Cat & Kittens " . Another clergyman exclaims " If a Gold Watch knock 3 times " , and a Parson asks him " Brother don 't disturb it " . On the wall , an image of The Bottle Conjuror is alongside an image of Elizabeth Canning , whose fraud had so worried Samuel Fludyer that he had refused to arrest either Parsons or Kent .
Playwright David Garrick dedicated the enormously successful The Farmer 's Return to the satirical artist William Hogarth . The story concerns a farmer who regales his family with an account of his talk with Miss Fanny , the comedy being derived from the reversal of traditional roles : the sceptical farmer poking fun at the credulous city @-@ folk . Hogarth made his own observations of the Cock Lane ghost , with obvious references in Credulity , Superstition and Fanaticism ( 1762 ) . This illustration makes a point of attacking Methodist ministers , one of whom is seen to slip a phallic " ghost " into a young woman 's bodice . He again attacked the Methodists in The Times , Plate 2 ( 1762 – 1763 ) , placing an image of Thomas Secker ( who had tried to intervene on behalf of the Methodists ) behind the Cock Lane ghost , and putting the ghost in the same pillory as the radical politician John Wilkes , which implied a connection between the demagoguery surrounding the Methodists and Pittites . The print enraged Bishop William Warburton , who although a vocal critic of Methodism , wrote :
I have seen Hogarth 's print of the Ghost . It is a horrid composition of lewd Obscenity & blasphemous prophaneness for which I detest the artist & have lost all esteem for the man . The best is , that the worst parts of it have a good chance of not being understood by the people .
The 19th @-@ century author Charles Dickens — whose childhood nursemaid Mary Weller may have affected him with a fascination for ghosts — made reference to the Cock Lane ghost in several of his books . One of Nicholas Nickleby 's main characters and a source of much of the novel 's comic relief , Mrs. Nickleby , claims that her great @-@ grandfather " went to school with the Cock @-@ lane Ghost " and that " I know the master of his school was a Dissenter , and that would in a great measure account for the Cock @-@ lane Ghost 's behaving in such an improper manner to the clergyman when he grew up . " Dickens also very briefly mentions the Cock Lane ghost in A Tale of Two Cities and Dombey and Son .
According to a 1965 source , the site of Parson 's lodgings corresponded to the building with the modern address 20 Cock Lane . The house was believed to have been built in the late 17th century , and was demolished in 1979 .
= Edward M. Burke =
Edward M. " Ed " Burke ( born December 29 , 1943 ) is alderman of the 14th Ward of the City of Chicago . A member of the Democratic Party , he was first elected to the Chicago City Council in 1969 , and represents part of the city 's Southwest Side . Chair of Council 's Committee on Finance , Burke has been called Chicago 's " most powerful alderman " by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Burke was named one of the " 100 Most Powerful Chicagoans " by Chicago Magazine , describing him as " [ o ] ne of the last of the old @-@ school Chicago Machine pols . "
Burke is the longest @-@ serving aldermen in Chicago history . He was a leader of the " Vrdolyak 29 " during the first term of Mayor Harold Washington , the " Council Wars " era . Burke and his staff were the subjects of federal and local investigations , and members of his staff were the targets of indictments and convictions involving payroll and contracting irregularities .
Burke is the lead partner in a law firm that specializes in property tax appeals and which includes clients who do business with the city . Burke 's wife is Illinois Supreme Court Justice Anne M. Burke . He and his wife were foster parents and were party to a protracted , highly publicized , racially charged child custody dispute .
= = Early life = =
Burke is a lifelong resident of Chicago . His father , Joseph P. Burke , was a Cook County Sheriff 's policeman who worked as a court bailiff . Joseph Burke served as committeeman from the 14th Ward ( a local Democratic party post ) , and was elected alderman from the 14th Ward in November 1953 .
Ed Burke attended Visitation Grammar School in Visitation Parish on Chicago 's South Side and is a 1961 graduate of Quigley Preparatory Seminary . He graduated with a bachelor 's degree from DePaul University in 1965 , then worked for three years as a Chicago police officer , assigned to the state 's attorney 's office . Meanwhile , he studied law at DePaul University College of Law . In 1968 , Burke received a Juris Doctor degree , was admitted to the Illinois Bar , and married his wife , Anne Marie .
While in law school in the late 1960s , an era of escalation in the Vietnam War , Burke received a draft deferment as a full @-@ time student . After his marriage and the death of his father , he applied for and was granted a hardship deferment ( 3 @-@ A ) , as the sole support of his wife , mother , and two younger brothers . In June 1969 , the Illinois Selective Service board of appeals reclassified him 1 @-@ A ( " available for unrestricted military service " ) . At the same time , he was accepted into a Chicago @-@ based United States Army Reserve unit , the 363rd civil affairs group , as a private . Political rivals expressed concern that special consideration allowed Burke to join the Reserve unit ahead of others , but an Army investigation found no evidence of manipulation in his favor .
= = Democratic committeeman = =
Burke succeeded his father in local politics , first as Democratic Committeeman and then as alderman from the 14th Ward . After the elder Burke died in office of cancer on May 11 , 1968 , Edward Burke took leave from his job as a policeman to replace his father as Democratic committeeman for the 14th Ward . Though not a precinct captain , Burke won election to his father 's committeeman seat in a secret vote of 65 precinct captains , defeating a veteran precinct captain by just 3 ½ votes . At 24 , Burke was the youngest person in Chicago 's history to become a ward committeeman , a position he has held ever since .
= = Chicago Alderman = =
The 14th Ward Democrats slated the young Burke as the Democratic candidate in a special election called for on March 11 , 1969 to fill vacancies in City Council , including the 14th Ward . Burke faced six opponents , but won with a majority of 11 @,@ 204 votes , while the next highest candidate received 1460 votes . Following the 1971 aldermanic elections , the Council approved the appointment of Burke , who was at the time a police sergeant on leave , as chairman of the Police and Fire Committee . In 1972 and 1973 , Burke joined Alderman Edward Vrdolyak in a dissident caucus of aldermen demanding a greater voice in city affairs from Mayor Richard J. Daley and finance committee chairman Thomas Keane . The dissident aldermen were labelled the " Young Turks , " and their caucus was called the " coffee rebellion " after the beverage served at their morning meetings . In the backroom of the City Council chamber , Burke once threatened to punch Alderman Leon Despres in the nose if Despres were not so old .
Former city commissioner of consumer affairs Jane Byrne announced her challenge to Chicago Mayor Michael Bilandic on April 24 , 1978 , describing herself as an alternative to a " cabal of evil men [ that ] has fastened onto the government of the City of Chicago , " and , when pressed to name them , singled out Burke and Vrdolyak .
After Burke 's first campaign for alderman , he has been unopposed in most of his re @-@ election campaigns . In 2007 , Burke faced his first opponent since 1971 , a school teacher who had never run for office . A Burke supporter unsuccessfully challenged the validity of the opponent 's ballot application , but the case was tied up in court for most of the campaign , and Burke went on to win with nearly 90 percent of the vote .
= = = Leader of opposition to Mayor Washington = = =
Burke was , along with Alderman Edward Vrdolyak , a leader of the " Vrdolyak 29 " , a City Council majority voting block , which included 28 white and one Puerto Rican aldermen , who opposed the agenda of the newly elected Mayor Harold Washington , Chicago 's first black mayor , during Washington 's first three years as mayor , 1983 – 1986 , a period referred to as Council Wars . Vrdolyak , a Burke mentor , was chairman of the Cook County Democratic Party . Vrdolyak forged the alliance by expanding the number of city council committees to 29 and negotiating 29 committee chairmanship assignments . On May 2 , 1983 , during the first city council meeting of the Washington administration , the mayor and some aldermen left the meeting , Vrdolyak was President pro tempore of the city council ( chair of city council meetings when the mayor is not present ) so he continued the meeting . Burke was chosen to chair the powerful Finance Committee .
Burke assumed a vocal role in anti @-@ Washington attacks and was considered second to Vrdolyak in the anti @-@ Washington caucus . Burke sued in Cook County Circuit Court to remove Washington from office , contending that Washington forfeited his office by being three weeks late in filing a routine financial disclosure by the deadline set by state law . The suit was dismissed . Burke asked Illinois Attorney General Neil Hartigan to seek the ouster of Washington . The request was denied . Richard M. Daley , Cook County States Attorney at the time , pleaded for unity , saying , " This personal hatred has gone too far . "
In the spring of 1987 , in Chicago 's municipal elections , Vrdolyak , rather than seeking re @-@ election as alderman , was the Solidarity Party 's candidate challenging Washington for mayor . Washington won re @-@ election , and Washington allies won twenty @-@ five City Council seats . Burke led opposition in the City Council , but Washington supporter Alderman Timothy C. Evans replaced Burke as Chairman of the Committee on Finance . Ousted from the spacious Finance Committee staff offices , Burke never used the relatively modest office allocated to him in City Hall and instead worked out of his private law office two blocks away . In the days following the death of Mayor Washington in office , Burke supported the Council 's selection of Alderman Eugene Sawyer over Evans to serve as mayor . Sawyer prevailed , but Burke was the alderman who least often voted in support of the legislative agenda of Mayor Sawyer , Chicago 's second black mayor . After Richard M. Daley was elected mayor in the spring of 1989 , Daley nominated Burke as Finance chairman , a position he has held ever since .
The chairmanship of the City Council 's Committee on Finance has been described as " the No. 2 spot in city government " . Almost all expenditures , tax matters , and many city contracts must be recommended by the Finance Committee before they can be considered by the full Council . As Chairman of the Committee on Finance , Burke controlled a 63 @-@ member staff and $ 2 @.@ 2 @-@ million annual budget , dwarfing the resources of other council committees . In the city 's self @-@ managed workman 's compensation program , the Finance Committee determines and approves payment amounts in disability claims . As Chairman of the Committee on Finance , Burke controls a $ 1.3M per year taxpayer @-@ funded payroll account available to aldermen with no scrutiny . In 2008 , Burke spent the largest portion of the account , $ 70 @,@ 164 , more than any other alderman by more than $ 26 @,@ 000 . Burke is also a member of the City Council 's committees on Aviation ; Budget and Government Operation ; Energy , Environmental Protection and Public Utilities ; and Zoning . Additionally , Burke is a member of the Chicago Planning Commission and Economic Development Commission . He controls three well @-@ funded political action committees , the " Friends of Edward M Burke , " the " 14th Ward Regular Democratic Organization , " and " The Burnham Committee . " In July 2009 , Burke 's campaign funds totaled $ 3 @.@ 7 million , higher than any other alderman and one of the largest in Illinois . Illinois judges are elected in partisan elections , and a significant aspect of Burke 's influence derives from his role as the longtime chairman of the judicial slating subcommittee of the Cook County Democratic Party .
Burke has been a principal draftsman of the map of ward boundaries . When Burke started his political career , the 14th Ward that he represents was centered in the Back of the Yards neighborhood , more than a mile and a half east of where it is now . The 14th Ward is a gerrymandered area whose shape has been described as " like a piece of a jigsaw puzzle " . With each new ward map , drawn every 10 years , its boundaries have been moved farther west . As of 2010 , its boundaries extended from 39th Street south to 59th and from Western Avenue west to Cicero Avenue , including most of the Brighton Park , Gage Park and Archer Heights neighborhoods . The ethnic composition of the ward has changed dramatically during Burke 's tenure in office . As of 1968 , residents were predominantly of Polish or other Eastern European extraction , but by 2010 it had a large Mexican and Mexican @-@ American population .
Burke maintains a taxpayer @-@ salaried staff to ghost @-@ write speeches , resolutions , and works of non @-@ fiction for him , including Thomas J. O 'Gorman , carried on Burke 's City Council staff payroll as a " legislative aide " since 1995 . In October 2006 , Burke and O 'Gorman published End of Watch , a book detailing the lives and tragedies of police officers who died in the line of duty . Also , Burke and R. Craig Sautter published the book Inside the Wigwam : Chicago Presidential Conventions 1860 – 1996 . Under Burke 's direction , the Finance Committee staff compiles historical exhibits in City Hall and drafts honorary resolutions for special visitors to Chicago or recently deceased prominent Americans and Chicagoans . Burke was named " Best Orator at City Hall " in the Chicago Reader 's " Best of Chicago 2010 " special issue .
= = = Ghost payrolling on Burke 's staff = = =
The staffing practices of Burke 's Finance Committee came under scrutiny in local and federal investigations of ghost @-@ payrolling abuses in local government and resulted in several indictments and convictions .
Marie D 'Amico , the daughter of Alderman Anthony Laurino of the 39th Ward of Chicago , pleaded guilty to having collected tens of thousands of dollars in no @-@ work jobs between 1981 and 1994 from three separate public agencies : Cook County sheriff , Cook County clerk , and the City Council 's Finance Committee while Burke was chairman . Burke denied knowing D 'Amico rarely showed up for work . Burke said the Finance Committee 's chief investigator , who had died in 1994 , " apparently connived " with D 'Amico to carry D 'Amico on the payroll , prompting the Chicago Sun @-@ Times editorial , " Dead Men Can 't Wear Stripes . " D 'Amico was the first indictment in what became a federal investigation of ghost payrolling known as Operation Haunted Hall . In January 1995 , the Operation Haunted Hall grand jury subpoenaed the personnel records of three City Council Committees : Finance , Budget and Traffic .
Burke 's long @-@ time aldermanic secretary worked full @-@ time out of the downtown office of Burke 's law firm , even though her salary was paid by the city . The secretary was subpoenaed by the Operation Haunted Hall grand jury . Alderman Joe Moore asked , " Why is she over at the law firm ? It looks bad . It raises the appearance that she 's possibly doing not only city work but law firm work . " An attorney for the Finance Committee said , " I don 't have to explain why she 's at the law firm . [ Burke ] doesn 't have to explain . It makes no difference where she sits ... She 's a city employee and she does city work . " The secretary was transferred to City Hall .
Burke 's law firm had employed Joseph A. Martinez , a real estate tax appeal attorney , as a full @-@ time partner since about 1977 , when in 1981 Mayor Jane Byrne appointed Martinez to replace the resigning 31st Ward Alderman Chester Kuta . Martinez served out the remainder of Kuta 's term but declined to run for re @-@ election when the ward committeeman endorsed a challenger . Between 1985 and 1992 , Martinez received $ 91 @,@ 000 in wages and benefits for doing little or no work for City Council committees , and was a target of Operation Haunted Hall . In April 1995 , after the federal subpoena of Council committee personnel records , Martinez returned the $ 91 @,@ 000 , sending cash to City Hall in three installments . He was charged and pleaded guilty on January 23 , 1997 . In his plea agreement , he admitted he was a ghost payroller on City Council committees , starting with the Finance Committee in 1987 , and said that he was employed in each committee job " in order to receive health insurance " . Martinez 's attorney said Burke got Martinez the jobs because Burke 's law firm did not provide health insurance . In a statement , Burke wrote , " A memorandum filed in Mr. Martinez 's case [ has ] asserted that I participated in a scheme that gave rise to these charges . This allegation is untrue . I have done nothing wrong in connection with this matter . " Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning columnist Mike Royko wrote , " You would think that a bright fellow such as Burke - whose father was a ward boss and an alderman - would know better ... "
Burke was corporate secretary of security firm SDI Security , Inc. from shortly after it was formed in 1989 until 1994 . Burke hired the President of SDI , Michael A. Pedicone , as an outside lawyer for the Finance Committee . SDI was owned by 11th ward Alderman Patrick Huels , chairman of the Council 's Transportation Committee , and Mayor Richard M. Daley 's floor leader , and Huels ' wife and brother . A federal grand jury subpoenaed Burke 's and Huels ' campaign finance records and ethics disclosures , and Pedicone 's billings . The Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of the Illinois Supreme Court , the state agency that regulates the conduct of attorneys in Illinois , investigated Burke and subpoenaed all records on SDI from the Illinois Department of Professional Regulation . In late December 1997 a grand jury convened by the Cook County State 's Attorney 's office subpoenaed records on expenditures to SDI from Burke 's Finance and Huels ' Transportation Committees , notable in that local prosecutors rarely investigate local politicians . In a memo to aldermen , Burke wrote , " He [ Pedicone ] was not a ghost payroller , " and that Pedicone had been paid about $ 490 @,@ 000 over eight years for handling more than 450 disability @-@ claim cases . Huels ' resignation was the first major public corruption scandal of Daley 's first two terms , and editorials called for Burke 's resignation as well .
At the sentencing hearing for a Chicago attorney , a federal agent testified that the attorney said that his job with Burke 's Finance Committee only required four hours of work a week , although he was paid a full @-@ time salary . On January 8 , 1998 , federal prosecutors in Operation Haunted Hall indicted another Chicago attorney for collecting $ 9 @,@ 223 in wages and benefits from the Finance Committee in 1991 and 1992 despite doing little or no work .
Burke hired criminal defense attorney Anton Valukas , a former U.S. attorney and a partner in the law firm Jenner and Block , to represent him . Burke was not charged with any wrongdoing in the probe . By 1999 , Operation Haunted Hall resulted in 34 guilty pleas , one conviction after trial , and one acquittal .
On December 4 , 2008 , Illinois State Representative Robert S. Molaro resigned after serving about 15 years in the state legislature , and was eligible to receive a public pension of about $ 64 @,@ 000 per year based on the standard of 85 % of his roughly $ 75 @,@ 000 annual salary . Burke hired the newly retired Molaro for $ 12 @,@ 000 for one month to write a 19 @-@ page white paper about Chicago 's perennially under @-@ funded pensions . When Molaro officially retired on January 1 , 2009 , his pensionable salary was annualized as $ 144 @,@ 000 , nearly doubling his pension . On August 16 , 2012 Illinois Governor Pat Quinn signed a bill which limited the state 's liability when former state legislators bolster their state pensions with short @-@ term jobs with cities , counties and other local governments .
= = = Law clients with city business = = =
In 2007 , although one of eight alderman who were attorneys , only Burke disclosed law clients who were local government contractors . Burke had 37 law clients that did business with the city or other local government agencies , according to his annual ethics statement filed with the city . Burke disclosed 2008 income above the reporting threshold of $ 5 @,@ 000 from each of 31 law clients that do business with the city .
Burke has been criticized for alleged conflicts of interest involving law clients and his role as chairman of the Council 's Finance Committee . Burke has helped line up millions of dollars in public subsidies to companies that later hired his firm for property tax assessment appeals . Burke law clients which regularly have legislative issues before the Finance Committee have included communications company Ameritech , the Chicago Mercantile Exchange , Yellow Cab Company , and several major airlines and concessionaires at the city @-@ owned O 'Hare and Midway airports .
For example , Cotter and Company , a wholesaler to 6 @,@ 000 True Value hardware stores , sought a package of public subsidies to keep their headquarters and operations in Chicago . In February 1996 , while the final components of the package were working their way through City Hall , Burke toured Cotter 's headquarters , at the end of which he handed out his business card from his private law practice and asked for the company 's property tax appeals business . Cotter decided to hire Burke in March 1996 and finalized the arrangement in June 1996 . An unprecedented $ 2 @.@ 8 million cash grant from the City to Cotter , never publicized by the Daley administration , was included in a $ 20 million bond issue approved by the Finance Committee and the City Council by July 31 , 1996 .
= = = Recusals and corrections in voting record = = =
Burke recuses himself from voting on issues involving clients so often that he was called " Chicago 's most conflicted alderman " by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . Burke abstains from at least a few votes at almost every Finance Committee meeting .
In March 1997 , weeks after hiring defense attorney Valukus , and days after learning from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times of their investigation into Burke 's law firm and clients , Burke invoked a rarely used motion to amend the proceedings of the City Council to change to abstentions four " yes " votes regarding airport facility leases for Midway and American airlines , two of Burke 's seven airline clients . Burke blamed the recording of his " aye " votes on the late Alderman Thomas Cullerton , who chaired the City Council Committee on Aviation , which reviews airport leases . Cullerton had died in February 1993 , three months before Burke cast one of the votes he changed . At the July 2 , 1997 City Council meeting , Burke changed to abstention a June 4 , 1997 vote in favor of a property @-@ tax break for another client , Heinemann 's Inc . , a baked goods company in Burke 's 14th ward . Between 1993 and 1997 , Burke put through six journal corrections on his votes , some dating back seven years , and accounting for more than half the corrections from all aldermen during that period . In 2004 , Burke changed the record of a vote in support of a zoning change favorable to another of his clients , Centrum Properties .
Burke 's corrections of his voting history were criticized by other aldermen and Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley . Daley suggested Burke was involved in conflicts of interest that merited investigation by the Illinois Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission and the City Board of Ethics , and Daley advocated more stringent regulation regarding aldermanic conflicts of interest . Burke 's conflicts of interest inspired a strengthening of the City 's ethics laws in October 1998 . The Council passed the ordinance , 40 @-@ 9 . Burke voted " no " in a voice vote , then switched to " yes " for the record .
= = = Legislative initiatives = = =
In October , 1997 , as Huels resigned in the SDI scandal , and amid calls for Burke 's resignation , Burke sponsored a resolution exonerating Kate O 'Leary and her cow Daisy of culpability for the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 . The resolution cited research blaming the fire on an O 'Leary neighbor , Daniel " Peg Leg " Sullivan . Burke argued in favor of passage of the resolution ,
In 1871 , journalists , eager to sensationalize the events of the Great Fire , were quick to find in Mrs. Kate O 'Leary an easy scapegoat for the calamitous inferno . As a working @-@ class immigrant and a woman , Kate O 'Leary was an easy target for those publications who always found it comfortable to vilify Irish Catholics who had not yet assimilated into the dominant American middle @-@ class culture .
The resolution was unanimously recommended by the City Council 's Police and Fire Committee on October 6 , 1997 and passed unanimously by the full City Council on October 28 , 1997 . Other Burke legislative initiatives include protecting non @-@ smokers from second @-@ hand smoke , mandating pet @-@ spaying , and regulating fatty restaurant food .
= = = Jerry Springer hearing = = =
In April 1999 , Roman Catholic priest and activist Michael Pfleger , pastor of St. Sabina parish in Chicago 's Auburn Gresham neighborhood , wrote a letter to Chicago Police Superintendent Terry Hilliard complaining of the glorification of violence on The Jerry Springer Show , a popular television show which was produced in Chicago . Burke showed about ten minutes of clips from the show at the April 28 , 1999 meeting of the City Council 's Police and Fire Committee and convinced aldermen to invite , under threat of subpoena , show host Jerry Springer to testify under oath as to whether the violence on the show was genuine or scripted . If scripted , Burke proposed to force the show to obtain a city entertainment license , and , if genuine , Burke proposed that the off @-@ duty Chicago policemen providing security at the show arrest fighting guests on the set .
The hearing attracted more than 21 television news crews from around the country , including Court TV , MSNBC , Fox News , a film crew from The Jerry Springer Show , dozens of print reporters , and about 75 of Springer 's fans . Burke led the questioning of Springer . None of the aldermen asked Springer if the violence was staged until more than an hour into the three @-@ hour hearing . Springer , a former Cincinnati council member and mayor , spent most of his time sparring with Burke , and handled the inquiry .
= = = Security detail = = =
Burke is the only Chicago alderman who has Chicago police officers assigned to him as bodyguards . In 1986 , Mayor Harold Washington 's acting Chicago police commissioner Fred Rice tried to reduce the number of Burke 's bodyguards from four to two , on the basis that the manpower was no longer necessary . Burke sued the city , arguing that the move was a political retaliation . The court sided with Burke . Rice removed nearly all the aldermanic bodyguards , but was blocked by court orders from taking away the Vrdolyak and Burke contingents . For nine months in 2005 , the police details assigned to the city clerk , city treasurer and Burke did not file any police reports . Andy Shaw , president and chief executive of the watchdog group Better Government Association , asked ,
This is a city that doesn 't have enough money for basic services right now and doesn 't have enough money to protect regular citizens . The question has to be asked whether a full @-@ time bodyguard detail to one alderman who hasn 't been shown to be in any kind of danger for more than two decades is warranted .
An unmarked Chicago police car was assigned to Burke 's city @-@ funded security detail . He is one of several aldermen who lease sports utility vehicles at taxpayer expense .
= = = Length of service = = =
In November 2014 , Burke surpassed John Coughlin as the longest @-@ serving alderman in Chicago history . Coughlin , who had served from 1892 until his death in 1938 , had held the record for 77 years .
= = Attempts at other public office = =
In 1980 , Burke sought the Democratic nomination for Cook County State 's Attorney . Burke was aligned with Mayor Jane Byrne and was endorsed by the Cook County Democratic Central Committee . Burke 's loss in the primary to Richard M. Daley was interpreted at the time as a set @-@ back for the Chicago political machine .
In 1988 , following the sudden death in office of Mayor Harold Washington , Burke was one of several candidates who sought to fill the vacancy . " I know I would like to be Mayor . It is obviously the Super Bowl of Chicago politics , " Burke said . After polls showed declining support for his candidacy , he dropped out of the race in December 1988 and endorsed Richard M. Daley , who won the nomination in the February 1989 Democratic primary .
= = Property tax attorney = =
Burke is the lead partner in a Chicago law firm , Klafter and Burke , that specializes in representing clients in property tax appeals before the Cook County Assessor 's Office , the Cook County Board of Review , and in the courts . The firm was successful in several " significant legal challenges " to Illinois real estate law . Burke 's law firm 's senior partner , Melvin Klafter , died on June 5 , 1988 at age 73 . The number of tax appeals Burke 's firm filed for clients with the Board of Tax Appeals increased from 212 in 1982 to 1 @,@ 876 in 1995 . In 2002 , Burke helped pass a city ordinance barring the city from contesting property tax appeals seeking a reduction in property assessment of under $ 1 million , which was most of Burke 's cases . Between 2003 and 2013 , Burke 's firm won more than $ 18 @.@ 1 million in property @-@ tax refunds in Chicago .
In a 2006 interview , Burke reflected ,
The law business is good . I have been fortunate to have the best of both worlds . I have enjoyed the political side of it and also enjoyed my private legal practice . Yes , there have been temptations , [ but ] if you try to conduct yourself under the rules , in the long run you are better off .
= = Personal life = =
Burke 's wife Anne has served as an Illinois Appellate Court Justice and was installed as an Illinois Supreme Court Justice on July 4 , 2006 . The Burkes resides in the southwestern Chicago neighborhood of Archer Heights , close to Curie Metropolitan High School and the Pulaski Station of the CTA Orange Line . Their adult children are Jennifer , Edward , and Sarah . Jennifer is an attorney who worked in the City of Chicago Law Department under Mayor Richard M. Daley 's corporation counsel and now is on the Illinois Pollution Control Board . Edward M. Burke Jr. is an assistant chief deputy to Cook County Sheriff Tom Dart . In 2004 , Burke 's son Emmett , aged 30 , was killed in a snowmobiling accident .
Burke 's brother Daniel J. Burke is a member of the Illinois House of Representatives from Illinois ' 23rd District , which includes the 14th ward , as well as a lobbyist to Chicago City Hall . Crain 's Chicago Business in 2006 named Edward , Daniel , and Anne one of " Illinois ' most influential families " and in 2013 named Edward and Anne one of Chicago 's " 15 clout @-@ heavy clans . "
Noted for his impeccable conservative suits and attention to accessorizing , Burke was named " Best Dressed Alderman " in a 1981 review of aldermen by the Chicago Tribune 's City Hall reporters . Burke is also a licensed private detective in Illinois .
= = = Baby T = = =
In February 1996 , the Burkes became foster parents to an African American child , known in public by his court name " Baby T , " born to a woman suffering drug addiction . The child 's mother , Tina Olison , an addict in recovery , sued to regain custody of her child several times in a protracted , racially charged court battle that drew extensive media attention . The suits ultimately reached the Illinois State Supreme Court , which ruled in favor of custody for the Burkes in 2001 .
= = Publications = =
Burke , Edward M. ; O 'Gorman , Thomas J. ( 2006 ) . End of Watch : Chicago Police Killed in the Line of Duty 1853 – 2006 . Chicago 's Neighborhoods , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9788663 @-@ 2 @-@ 7 .
Sautter , R. Craig ; Burke , Edward M. ( 1996 ) . Inside the Wigwam : Chicago Presidential Conventions 1860 – 1996 . Loyola Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8294 @-@ 0911 @-@ 6 .
Burke , Edward M. ( March 22 , 2002 ) . " Lunatics and anarchists : political homicide in Chicago " ( PDF ) . Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology ( Northwestern University School of Law ) 92 ( 3 @-@ 4 ) : 791 – 804 . Retrieved June 6 , 2009 .
= Ricardo Rodríguez ( footballer ) =
Ricardo Iván Rodríguez Araya ( born 25 August 1992 ) is a Swiss professional footballer who plays as a left back for VfL Wolfsburg in the Bundesliga .
Born to a Spanish father and a Chilean mother , Rodríguez began his professional career at local club FC Zürich in 2010 , having spent eight years in the youth setup . After breaking through into the first team at Zürich , Rodríguez was sold to VfL Wolfsburg in January 2012 for £ 7 @.@ 5 million . He has been described as an accomplished defender and is noted for his strong heading ability , and ability to deliver pinpoint crosses . Rodríguez is also noted for his speciality in dead @-@ ball situations and for penalty @-@ taking abilities , emerging as Wolfsburg 's first @-@ choice penalty taker .
Rodríguez has earned caps at every level of the Swiss national team setup , winning the FIFA U17 World Cup in 2009 . A full international for Switzerland since 2011 , Rodríguez has earned over 40 caps for the country . He was part of the Swiss team at the 2014 FIFA World Cup and later that year was voted Swiss Footballer of the Year .
= = Club career = =
= = = FC Zürich = = =
Rodríguez began playing football at the highly regarded youth club FC Schwamendingen in 2001 before joining the youth setup of FC Zürich as an 11 @-@ year @-@ old in 2002 . He was promoted to the senior squad in 2009 at age 16 , making the bench for Zürich 's 2 – 3 defeat to NK Maribor in the first leg of their third qualifying round Champions League tie on 29 July 2009 .
He made his Zürich debut as a 17 @-@ year @-@ old in the 25th round of the Swiss Super League on 21 March 2010 , replacing the injured Hannu Tihinen in the first @-@ half of the 2 – 0 win over Bellinzona . His full debut came in the Zürich Derby against Grasshoppers on 5 April , playing the entire 3 – 2 win for the hosts .
He made only his second start in the first match of the Swiss Super League season on 20 July 2010 , playing the full 90 minutes in a 2 – 3 defeat to rivals FC Basel . On 28 April 2011 , he scored his first professional goal for the club , opening the scoring for the hosts as they ran out 3 – 0 winners over Neuchâtel Xamax at the Letzigrund .
Rodríguez made his European debut in the first @-@ leg of their third qualifying round tie against Standard Liège on 27 July 2011 . He played the entire match and provided the cross for fellow Zürich youth team graduate Admir Mehmedi as the Swiss secured a 1 – 1 draw at the Stade Maurice Dufrasne in Belgium . In the second leg , Rodríguez missed from an open goal from close range but Zürich won 1 – 0 to earn a spot in the play @-@ off round against Bayern Munich . He played the entirety of both play @-@ off matches against Bayern , but the Swiss side fell 0 – 3 on aggregate and dropped into the Europa League .
On 26 October 2011 , Rodríguez scored his second goal for the club , netting his side 's second from the penalty spot , in a 2 – 0 win over FC Thun . The club 's final Super League match before the winter break on 10 December 2011 , turned out to be Rodríguez 's last in a Zürich shirt , playing the entire 1 – 1 draw with FC Sion . On 11 January 2012 , Zürich officials announced that the club had accepted a bid for Rodríguez by German side Wolfsburg and that he was on the verge of completing the transfer , subject to a medical . Despite being sold mid @-@ way through the season , Rodríguez was voted as the Fans ' Player of the Season on 4 June 2012 , ahead of Oliver Buff and Pedro Henrique .
= = = VfL Wolfsburg = = =
= = = = Early career = = = =
VfL Wolfsburg purchased Rodríguez as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old on 13 January 2012 for £ 7 @.@ 5 million with the player signing a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal . He quickly asserted himself into the first @-@ team lineup , making his Bundesliga debut the next day against 1 . FC Köln , a 1 – 0 victory for the Wolves . Rodríguez went on to play every game of the season from that point on without being substituted , becoming a favorite on the left of the defense for manager Felix Magath .
Through the first ten league games of the following campaign , Rodríguez was once again an ever @-@ present in the squad , featuring in all the outings , starting eight . But Magath was sacked after a poor run of form in the league and when Lorenz @-@ Günther Köstner was installed as interim manager , the more experienced Marcel Schäfer was preferred at left back . Once Dieter Hecking was appointed manager though , Rodríguez won his place back in the first team .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
On 9 November 2013 , he scored his first goal for Wolfsburg , from a direct free kick in a home Bundesliga match against Borussia Dortmund . The match ended in a 2 – 1 win for Wolfsburg , although they were losing at half @-@ time . His second goal for Wolfsburg came from the penalty spot against Hamburg on 29 November , earning his side a 1 – 1 draw . He opened the scoring in their Bundesliga match on 14 December , curling the ball past keeper Sven Ulreich , as Wolfsburg won 3 – 1 .
He finished the 2013 – 14 season with five league goals , in addition to nine assists . He failed to make it into the Bundesliga Team of the Season , but was included in a list of the Best Defenders for the 2013 – 14 campaign . Rodríguez 's nine assists also meant that he created more goals than any other full @-@ back in Europe . His impressive displays during the season included 2 @.@ 3 key passes per game , the same number as Andrea Pirlo , the two @-@ time reigning Serie A Footballer of the Year , and 2 @.@ 6 successful dribbles per game , more than Cristiano Ronaldo , the reigning Ballon d 'Or winner .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
He scored his first ever goal in European football for Wolfsburg on 18 September 2014 , netting directly from a free @-@ kick after having previously scored an own @-@ goal in a 4 – 1 defeat to English side Everton . Three days later , Rodriguez scored twice more for Wolfsburg , once from the penalty spot and a volley from a Kevin De Bruyne corner , as Wolfsburg defeated Bayer Leverkusen 4 – 1 . He scored his third league goal of the season against Werder Bremen on 27 September , converting a De Bruyne cross to put Wolfsburg up 1 – 0 in an eventual 2 – 1 victory .
In October 2014 , Rodríguez was ruled out for a number of weeks with a troubled patella tendon and thigh . On 31 October , his agent , Roger Wittman , confirmed that Rodríguez and Wolfsburg had opened contract talks to extend his current deal beyond 2016 . Rodríguez scored twice in Wolfsburg 's 3 – 0 win away to Lille on 11 December , a result which advanced his side into the Europa League knockout stage instead of their opponents . In January 2015 , he signed a new contract up to June 2019 . He scored the only goal of the game from the penalty spot on 7 April , as Wolfsburg defeated SC Freiburg to reach the semi @-@ finals of the DFB @-@ Pokal , also making a goalline clearance later on . In the final on 30 May , he played the full 90 minutes as Wolfsburg won their first cup , defeating Borussia Dortmund 3 – 1 .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Rodríguez played the full 90 minutes of Wolfsburg 's victory over Bayern Munich in the 2015 DFL @-@ Supercup on 1 August , scoring their first attempt in the penalty shootout after a 1 – 1 draw .
On 6 April 2016 , as Wolfsburg hosted Real Madrid in the first leg of the quarter @-@ finals of the season 's Champions League , Rodríguez scored a penalty to open a surprise 2 – 0 victory . By sending Keylor Navas the wrong way , he was the first player to score against Real 's goalkeeper in the tournament for 738 minutes .
= = International career = =
In 2009 , he was part of the Swiss U17 team who won the 2009 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup . His first goal of the tournament came in Switzerland 's second group game against Japan on 27 October 2009 , netting the winning goal as the match ended 4 – 3 . He opened the scoring for the Swiss in the 35th minute against Germany in the Round of 16 as Switzerland eventually won 4 – 3 in added extra time . In the semi @-@ finals against Colombia , he scored Switzerland 's final goal of their 4 – 0 win to reach their first final of a FIFA competition since a 3 – 0 loss to Uruguay in the 1924 Olympics . He played the entire final against Nigeria on 15 November , helping Switzerland to a 1 – 0 victory to become just the third European nation to lift the trophy .
Rodríguez made his debut for Switzerland in a Euro 2012 qualifying match against Wales on 7 October 2011 , replacing Xherdan Shaqiri in the second half of the 0 – 2 loss . In his full debt four days later , Rodríguez played the entire match as the Swiss defeated Montenegro 2 – 0 to end their qualification campaign on a high , despite missing out on a playoff spot to the Balkan side . In a friendly match against the Netherlands on 11 November , he played the entire match as the Swiss kept a clean sheet in Amsterdam .
He played all three matches for Switzerland at the 2012 Olympics , in which they were eliminated in the group stage .
Rodríguez featured in nine of ten World Cup qualifying matches for the Swiss , totaling 810 minutes , as they qualified for the World Cup with a game to spare , thanks to a 2 – 1 win over Albania on 11 October 2013 . On 13 May 2014 , Rodríguez was named in Switzerland 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In their opening group game against Ecuador on 15 June , he took the corner which was headed by Admir Mehmedi for the equaliser , as well as crossing for Haris Seferović to score the winner in a 2 – 1 victory . During the tournament finals in Brazil , he averaged 5 tackles and 2 @.@ 5 interceptions per game , earning plaudits for his strong tackling as well as his ability to read the game .
At UEFA Euro 2016 in France , Rodríguez played every minute as Switzerland reached the last 16 . They were eliminated on penalties by Poland in Saint @-@ Étienne , although Rodríguez scored his attempt .
= = Playing style = =
Rodríguez is known for being equally adept at defending as he is going forward . Experts consider him as an accomplished defender and note his strong heading ability . As well as considering him a continual attacking threat and noting his exceptional stamina and pace which allow for his constant , buccaneering runs up the wing . Conversely , he has been criticised for giving too much room to opposition attackers , taking up poor positioning and lacking in defensive discipline , and other analysts have criticised his concentration .
He has become known for his pinpoint crossing and accurate left foot and has been compared to Everton and England left back Leighton Baines . He is also noted for his speciality in dead ball situations and for penalty taking abilities , emerging as Wolfsburg 's first @-@ choice penalty taker during the 2013 – 14 season . In 2014 , his manager Dieter Hecking praised Rodríguez as " the best left @-@ back in the Bundesliga " .
= = Personal life = =
Rodríguez was born in Zürich to a Spanish father and a Chilean mother . As a result , he is fluent in Spanish and holds Spanish and Chilean nationalities . He is the younger brother of FC St. Gallen midfielder Roberto Rodríguez and the older brother of Switzerland U19 midfielder Francisco Rodríguez , who also plays for VfL Wolfsburg .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 25 June 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
VfL Wolfsburg
DFB @-@ Pokal : 2014 – 15
DFL @-@ Supercup : 2015
= = = International = = =
Switzerland
FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup : 2009
= = = Individual = = =
FC Zürich Fans ' Player of the Season : 2011 – 12
Swiss Footballer of the Year : 2014
= Japanese cruiser Izumo =
Izumo ( 出雲 , sometimes transliterated Idzumo ) was the lead ship of her class of armored cruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was built in Britain . She often served as a flagship and participated in most of the naval battles of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 . The ship was lightly damaged during the Battle off Ulsan and the Battle of Tsushima . Izumo was ordered to protect Japanese citizens and interests in 1913 during the Mexican Revolution and was still there when World War I began in 1914 .
She was then tasked to search for German commerce raiders and protect Allied shipping off the western coasts of North and Central America . The ship assisted the armored cruiser Asama in early 1915 when she struck a rock off Baja California . In 1917 , Izumo became the flagship of the Japanese squadron deployed in the Mediterranean Sea . After the war , she sailed to Great Britain to take control of some ex @-@ German submarines and then escorted them part of the way back to Japan .
The ship spent most of the 1920s as a training ship for naval cadets and became flagship of the IJN 's China forces in 1932 during the First Shanghai Incident . Izumo participated in the Battle of Shanghai five years later and was not damaged , despite repeated aerial attacks . The ship played a minor role in the Pacific War , supporting Japanese forces during Philippines Campaign until she struck a mine . She returned to Japan in 1943 and again became a training ship for naval cadets . Izumo was sunk by American carrier aircraft during the attack on Kure in July 1945 . Her wreck was refloated and scrapped in 1947 .
= = Background and description = =
The 1896 Naval Expansion Plan was made after the First Sino @-@ Japanese War and included four armored cruisers in addition to four more battleships , all of which had to be ordered from British shipyards as Japan lacked the capability to build them itself . Further consideration of the Russian building program caused the IJN to believe that the battleships ordered under the original plan would not be sufficient to counter the Imperial Russian Navy . Budgetary limitations prevented ordering more battleships and the IJN decided to expand the number of more affordable armored cruisers to be ordered from four to six ships . The revised plan is commonly known as the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " . Unlike most of their contemporaries which were designed for commerce raiding or to defend colonies and trade routes , Izumo and her half @-@ sisters were intended as fleet scouts and to be employed in the battleline .
The ship was 132 @.@ 28 meters ( 434 ft 0 in ) long overall and 121 @.@ 92 meters ( 400 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 20 @.@ 94 meters ( 68 ft 8 in ) and had an average draft of 7 @.@ 26 meters ( 23 ft 10 in ) . Izumo displaced 9 @,@ 503 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 353 long tons ) at normal load and 10 @,@ 305 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 142 long tons ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 0 @.@ 88 meters ( 2 ft 11 in ) . Her crew consisted of 672 officers and enlisted men .
Izumo had two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 24 Belleville boilers and the engines were rated at a total of 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 20 @.@ 75 knots ( 38 @.@ 43 km / h ; 23 @.@ 88 mph ) and reached 21 @.@ 74 knots ( 40 @.@ 26 km / h ; 25 @.@ 02 mph ) during her sea trials from 16 @,@ 078 ihp ( 11 @,@ 989 kW ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 527 long tons ( 1 @,@ 551 t ) of coal and could steam for 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament for all of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers was four eight @-@ inch guns in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of 14 Elswick Ordnance Company " Pattern Z " quick @-@ firing ( QF ) , 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . Only four of these guns were not mounted in armored casemates on the main and upper decks and their mounts on the upper deck were protected by gun shields . Izumo was also equipped with a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt guns and eight QF 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Yamauchi guns as close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . The ship was equipped with four submerged 457 mm ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside .
All of the " Six @-@ Six Fleet " armored cruisers used the same armor scheme with some minor differences . The waterline belt of Krupp cemented armor ran the full length of the ship and its thickness varied from 178 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) amidships to 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) at the bow and stern . It had a height of 2 @.@ 13 meters ( 7 ft 0 in ) , of which 1 @.@ 39 meters ( 4 ft 7 in ) was normally underwater . The upper strake of belt armor was 127 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) thick and extended from the upper edge of the waterline belt to the main deck . It extended 51 @.@ 18 meters ( 167 ft 11 in ) from the forward to the rear barbette . The Izumo class had oblique 127 mm armored bulkheads that closed off the ends of the central armored citadel .
The barbettes , gun turrets and the front of the casemates were all 6 inches thick while the sides and rear of the casemates were protected by 51 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . The deck was 63 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) thick and the armor protecting the conning tower was 356 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness .
= = Construction and career = =
The contract for Izumo , named after the eponymous province , was signed on 24 September 1897 with Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was laid down at their shipyard in Elswick on 14 May 1898 and launched on 19 September . She was completed on 25 September 1900 and departed for Japan on 2 October under the command of Captain Inoue Toshio , who had been appointed to supervise her construction and bring her back to Japan on 29 September 1899 . Izumo arrived in Yokosuka on 8 December and Inoue was confirmed in his command .
= = = Russo @-@ Japanese War = = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Izumo , now under the command of Captain Miyaoka Naoki , was the flagship of Vice Admiral Kamimura Hikonojō , commander of the 2nd Fleet . She participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 , when Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the Combined Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but
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episode had a different subplot that revolved around the restaurant chain Planet Hollywood . Groening had been told by a spokesperson that if he put Planet Hollywood in The Simpsons , the creators of the restaurant , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Bruce Willis , and Sylvester Stallone , would agree to make guest appearances on the show . The writers of The Simpsons were excited about this so they wrote a new subplot for the episode that featured Planet Hollywood and the three actors . However , for unknown reasons , they were unable to appear in the episode . Instead , Gerry Cooney and Robert Goulet guest starred as themselves . Executive producer David Mirkin enjoyed directing Goulet because he was " such a good sport " and had " a great sense of humor " . Oakley thought it was nice that Goulet was willing to make fun of himself in the episode , which at the time was rare for guest stars on The Simpsons . This episode features the first appearances of Gunter and Ernst , the Siegfried and Roy @-@ esque casino magicians who are attacked by their white tiger , Anastasia . Ten years after this episode first aired , Roy Horn was attacked by one of the duo 's white tigers . The Simpsons production team dismissed the novelty of the prediction by saying that it was " bound to happen " sooner or later . The Rich Texan also makes his debut appearance in this episode , referred to as " Senator " by Homer .
= = Cultural references = =
The title is a reference to the 1964 film Dr. Strangelove or : How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb . Burns ' bed looks similar to the one occupied by Keir Dullea 's character Dave Bowman in the end of the 1968 film , 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise appear at the casino to reprise their roles from the 1988 film Rain Man . Homer is impressed by the card @-@ counting abilities of a man who resembles Raymond Babbitt , Hoffman 's character in the film . Krusty 's show at midnight is similar to Bill Cosby 's 1971 album For Adults Only , which was recorded at a casino at midnight . Marge reminds Homer that his lifelong dream was to be a contestant on the television show The Gong Show .
Burns 's paranoid obsession with germs and cleanliness , and his refusal to leave his bedroom once the casino opens , parodies American magnate Howard Hughes , who had obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder , and was involved in the casino business in his later years . The " Spruce Moose " , an absurdly tiny wooden plane Burns makes in the episode , is a parody of Hughes ' impractically enormous wooden plane , derisively nicknamed the " Spruce Goose " . Homer parodies the scene in the 1939 film Wizard of Oz when Scarecrow demonstrates his newly acquired intelligence by ( incorrectly ) reciting the law that governs the lengths of the sides of an isosceles triangle . Unlike in the film , somebody correctly points out that the Pythagorean theorem recited applies only to right triangles , not all isosceles triangles .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " $ pringfield " finished 35th in the ratings for the week of December 13 to December 19 , 1993 , with a Nielsen Rating of 11 @.@ 7 , translating to 11 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " this excellent episode includes a surprising number of concurrent plots . Homer also works in the casino and tries to care for the family without Marge . It balances them deftly and provides great laughs along the way . " Adam Suraf of Dunkirkma.net named it the third best episode of the season . He also praised the episode 's cultural references . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " There 's a lovely nod to the earlier episodes in which Marge protests the citizenry 's hare @-@ brained ideas at council meetings . A series of bizarre moments rather than a story — we 're especially fond of Homer 's photographic memory and Mr Burns ' descent into insanity — but great fun . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A , and Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave it a score of 4 out of 5 . The episode is Sarah Culp of The Quindecim 's eleventh @-@ favorite episode of the show , and one of Les Winan of Box Office Prophets 's favorite episodes . A scene from the episode where former United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger meets Burns was included in the 2002 documentary film The Trials of Henry Kissinger .
= The Mask of Zorro =
The Mask of Zorro is a 1998 American swashbuckler film based on the character of the masked outlaw Zorro created by Johnston McCulley . It was directed by Martin Campbell and stars Antonio Banderas , Anthony Hopkins , Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones , and Stuart Wilson . The film features the original Zorro , Don Diego de la Vega ( Hopkins ) , escaping from prison to find his long @-@ lost daughter ( Zeta @-@ Jones ) and avenge the death of his wife at the hands of the corrupt governor Rafael Montero ( Wilson ) . He is aided by his successor ( Banderas ) , who is pursuing his own vendetta against the governor 's right @-@ hand man while falling in love with de la Vega 's daughter .
Producer Steven Spielberg had initially developed the film for TriStar Pictures with directors Mikael Salomon and Robert Rodriguez , before Campbell signed on in 1996 . Salomon cast Sean Connery as Don Diego de la Vega , while Rodriguez brought Banderas in the lead role . Connery dropped out and was replaced with Hopkins , and The Mask of Zorro began filming in January 1997 at Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City , Mexico . The film was released in the United States on July 17 , 1998 to financial and critical success . The Legend of Zorro , a sequel also starring Banderas and Zeta @-@ Jones and directed by Campbell , was released in 2005 , but did not fare as well as its predecessor .
= = Plot = =
In 1821 , Don Diego De La Vega ( Anthony Hopkins ) fights against the Spanish in the Mexican War of Independence as Zorro , a mysterious swordsman who defends the Mexican peasants and commoners of Las Californias . Don Rafael Montero ( Stuart Wilson ) , the governor of the region , learns of De La Vega 's alter ego , and attempts to arrest him . De La Vega 's wife is killed during the scuffle . Montero imprisons De La Vega and takes his infant daughter , Eléna , as his own . Twenty years later Montero returns to California as a civilian , alongside Eléna ( Catherine Zeta Jones ) , who has grown into a beautiful woman . Montero 's reappearance coincides with De La Vega 's escape from prison . He encounters a thief , Alejandro Murrieta ( Antonio Banderas ) , who , as a child , once did Zorro a favor . De La Vega decides that fate has brought them together , and agrees to make Alejandro his protégé , grooming him to be the new Zorro . Murrieta agrees to undergo De La Vega 's training regimen in order to be able to take revenge on Captain Harrison Love ( Matt Letscher ) , Montero 's right @-@ hand man , who was responsible for killing Murrieta 's brother , Joaquin .
While still being trained , Murrieta steals a black stallion resembling Tornado from the local garrison . De La Vega scolds Murrieta , claiming that Zorro was a servant of the people , not a thief and adventurer . He challenges Alejandro to gain Montero 's trust instead . Murrieta poses as visiting nobleman named Don Alejandro del Castillo y García , with De La Vega as his servant , and attends a party at Montero 's hacienda . At the party he gains Eléna 's admiration and enough of Montero 's trust to be invited to a secret meeting where several other noblemen are present . Montero hints at a plan to retake California for the Dons by buying it from General Santa Anna , who needs money to fund his upcoming war with the United States .
Montero takes Murrieta and the noblemen to a secret gold mine known as " El Dorado " , where peasants and prisoners are used for slave labor . Montero plans to buy California from Santa Anna using gold mined from Santa Anna 's own land . De La Vega uses this opportunity to become closer to Eléna , though he identifies himself as " Bernardo " the servant , learning that Montero told Eléna that her mother died in childbirth . While walking in a market , Eléna meets the woman who was her nanny . De La Vega sends Murrieta , dressed as Zorro , to steal Montero 's map leading to the gold mine . Zorro duels Montero , Love , and their guards at the hacienda . When Zorro escapes , Eléna attempts to retrieve Montero 's map from the swordsman , but he seduces her , leading to a passionate kiss before he flees .
Terrified of Santa Anna 's retribution if he discovers that he is being paid with his own gold , Montero decides to destroy the mine and kill the workers . De La Vega tells Murrieta to release the workers on his own so that De La Vega can reclaim Eléna . Murrieta sets off , feeling betrayed by Diego 's vendetta . De La Vega corners Montero at the hacienda and reveals his identity , but Montero captures him by threatening Eléna . As he is taken away , De La Vega tells Eléna the name of the flowers she recognized upon her arrival in California , convincing her that he is her father . She releases De La Vega from his cell and they proceed to the mine , where Murrieta and De La Vega defeat Love and Montero . Eléna and Murrieta free the workers before the explosives go off , and then find the mortally wounded De La Vega . He makes peace with Murrieta before dying , passing the mantle of Zorro to him , and gives his blessings for his marriage to Eléna . In a closing sequence they are shown to be living together with a son named Joaquin , in honor of Murrieta 's brother .
= = Cast = =
Antonio Banderas as Alejandro Murrieta / Zorro : Despite claims made by several media outlets and Antonio Banderas , Banderas was not the first Spanish actor to portray Zorro . Spanish actor José Suárez was cast as Zorro in the 1953 film La montaña sin ley , and in the 1960s @-@ 70s Spanish actor Carlos Quiney ( aka Charles Quiney ) portrayed Zorro in three films : Zorro Il Cavaliere della Vendetta , Zorro Il Dominatore and Zorro la Maschera della Vendetta . Banderas was paid $ 5 million for the role . The character of Alejandro Murrieta was conceived as the fictional brother of the real @-@ life Joaquin Murrieta , making the character either Mexican or Chilean . To prepare for his role , Banderas practiced with the Olympic fencing team in Spain for four months , before studying additional fencing and swordsmanship with Anthony Hopkins and Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones . The three were trained by Bob Anderson during pre @-@ production in Mexico , spending 10 hours a day for two months specifically on fight scenes from the film . During interviews for The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , Anderson rated Banderas the best natural talent he worked with . " We used to call him Grumpy Bob on the set , he was such a perfectionist , " director Martin Campbell reflected . " He was incredibly inventive , and also refused to treat any of the actors as stars . They would complain about the intensity of the training , but having worked with him there 's nobody I 'd rather use . "
José María de Tavira portrays a young Alejandro Murrieta .
Anthony Hopkins as Don Diego de la Vega / Zorro : Hopkins was cast in December 1996 , one month before filming began . Hopkins , known for his dramatic acting , took up the role over his enthusiasm to be in an action film .
Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones as Elena Montero : The actress signed on in November 1996 , when Spielberg saw her performance in the Titanic miniseries and recommended her to Campbell . Despite being a Welsh actress portraying a Latina character , Zeta @-@ Jones discovered similarities between her " volatile " Celtic temper and the Latin temperament of Eléna . Izabella Scorupco , who worked with Campbell on GoldenEye , and Judith Godrèche both screen tested for the part . The actress credits The Mask of Zorro as her breakthrough in entering A @-@ list recognition .
María and Mónica Fernández Cruz portray Elena de la Vega ( infant ) .
Stuart Wilson as Don Rafael Montero : Armand Assante had initially been cast in the role , but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with The Odyssey . Stuart Wilson , who Campbell previously directed in No Escape , was cast in Assante 's place four months after .
Matt Letscher as Captain Harrison Love
Tony Amendola as Don Luiz
Pedro Armendáriz , Jr. as Don Pedro
Victor Rivers as Joaquín Murrieta
Diego Sieres as Young Joaquín Murrieta
L. Q. Jones as Three @-@ fingered Jack
Julieta Rosen as Esperanza De La Vega , Don Diego 's beloved wife and Elena 's mother
Maury Chaykin as Prison Warden
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In October 1992 , TriStar Pictures and Steven Spielberg 's Amblin Entertainment were planning to start production on Zorro the following year , and hired Joel Gross to rewrite the script after they were impressed with his adaptation of The Three Musketeers . At the time , Spielberg was producing Zorro with the potential to direct . Gross completed his rewrite in March 1993 , and TriStar entered pre @-@ production , creating early promotion for the film that same month at the ShoWest trade show . By December 1993 , Branko Lustig was producing the film with Spielberg , and Mikael Salomon was attached as director . In August 1994 , Sean Connery was cast as Don Diego de la Vega , while Salomon stated that the rest of the major cast would be Hispanic or Latino . Pre @-@ production proceeded even further in August when Salomon compiled test footage for a planned April 1995 start date .
Connery and Salomon eventually dropped out , and in September 1995 , Robert Rodriguez , fresh from the success of Desperado , signed to direct with Antonio Banderas , who had also starred in Desperado , playing the title role . TriStar and Amblin had been surprised by Rodriguez 's low @-@ budget filming techniques for his action films , El Mariachi and Desperado , and shifted away from their initial plans with Salomon to make a big @-@ budget version of Zorro . Spielberg had hoped Rodriguez would start filming in January 1996 for a Christmas release date , but the start date was pushed back to July . The release date was later moved to Easter 1997 . Rodriguez pulled out of the film ' in June 1996 over difficulties coming to terms with TriStar on the budget . The studio projected a range of $ 35 million , while Rodriguez wanted $ 45 million . They both attempted to compromise when Rodriguez lowered it to $ 42 million , but the studio refused and set $ 41 million as their highest mark . Banderas remained with the production , and Martin Campbell signed on later that month , turning down the chance to direct Tomorrow Never Dies . The finished screenplay would be written by John Eskow , Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio , based on a story by Elliott , Rossio , and Randall Jahnson .
= = = Filming = = =
The principal photography for the film began in Mexico on January 27 , 1997 on a $ 60 million budget . The Mask of Zorro was mostly shot at Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City . Production stalled for four days in February when the director , Martin Campbell , was hospitalized for bronchitis . Filming resumed in Tlaxcala , three hours east of Mexico City , where the production crew constructed the Montero hacienda and town set pieces . Sony sent David Foster to join the project as a producer to help fill the void left by Steven Spielberg , Walter F. Parkes , and Laurie MacDonald , who were busy running DreamWorks . Foster and David S. Ward , who went uncredited , re @-@ wrote some scenes ; the troubled production caused The Mask of Zorro to go $ 10 million over its budget . In December , the producers were frustrated by customs agents when some props and other items , including Zorro 's plastic sword , were held for nine days . During the post @-@ production phase , Spielberg and Campbell decided that Diego de la Vega 's death in the arms of his daughter was too depressing . The ending , where Alejandro and Eléna are happily married with their infant son , was added three months after filming had ended .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
On January 24 , 2001 , Sony Pictures Entertainment filed a lawsuit in United States District Court , Central District of California , Western Division , against Fireworks Entertainment Group , the producers of the syndicated television series Queen of Swords . Sony alleged copyright infringement and other claims , saying the series " copied protectable elements from [ the ] ' Zorro ' character and ' Zorro ' related works " . On April 5 , 2001 , U.S. District Judge Collins denied Sony 's motion for a preliminary injunction , noting " that since the copyrights in [ Johnson McCulley 's 1919 short story ] The Curse of Capistrano and [ the 1920 movie ] The Mark of Zorro lapsed in 1995 or before , the character Zorro has been in the public domain . " As to specific elements of The Mask of Zorro , the judge found that any similarities between the film and the TV series ' secondary characters and plot elements were insufficient to warrant an injunction .
= = = Music = = =
James Horner was hired to compose the film score in September 1997 . Horner 's work on The Mask of Zorro was influenced by Miklós Rózsa 's score from El Cid . The soundtrack , released by Sony Classical Records and Epic Soundtrax , was commercially successful and propelled by the rising profile of the Latin heartthrobs of Marc Anthony and Australian singer Tina Arena . Their duet , " I Want to Spend My Lifetime Loving You " , plays in the closing credits of the film and was released as a single in Europe . The song went # 3 on the French singles and # 4 on the Dutch singles charts .
= = Historical references = =
The Mask of Zorro and its sequel The Legend of Zorro incorporate certain historical events and people into their narrative . Antonio Banderas ' character , Alejandro Murrieta , is a fictional brother of Joaquin Murrieta , a real Mexican outlaw who was killed by the California State Rangers led by Harry Love ( portrayed in the film as Texas Army Captain " Harrison Love " ) in 1853 . The confrontation in the film takes place more than a decade earlier , in 1841 . The capture of Murrieta 's right @-@ hand man Three @-@ Fingered Jack by Love was also historical ; however , the real person was a Mexican named Manuel Garcia rather than an Anglo @-@ American . As he did in the movie , the actual Harry Love preserved both Murrieta 's head and Jack 's hand in large , alcohol @-@ filled glass jars . The opening sequence is set during the aftermath of the Mexican War of Independence , and an original ending on the DVD includes an appearance by Antonio López de Santa Anna , who is only mentioned in the finished film .
= = Release = =
The Mask of Zorro was initially set for release on December 19 , 1997 before the release date was changed to March 1998 . There was speculation within the media about whether TriStar changed the date in an attempt to avoid competition with Titanic . In reality Zorro had encountered production problems that extended its shooting schedule . In addition , Sony Pictures Entertainment , TriStar 's parent company , wanted an action film for its first quarter releases of 1998 . The release date was once again pushed back , this time to July 1998 , when pick @-@ ups were commissioned . The delay from March to July added $ 3 million in interest costs .
To market Zorro , TriStar purchased a 30 @-@ second advertising spot at Super Bowl XXXII for $ 1 @.@ 3 million . Sony , who had been known for their low @-@ key presence at the ShoWest trade show , showed clips from the film , while actors Antonio Banderas and Anthony Hopkins presented a panel at the conference on May 10 , 1998 . The studio also attached Zorro 's trailer to prints of Godzilla . Sony launched an official website in June 1998 . Internet marketing was an emerging concept in the late @-@ 1990s , and Zorro was Sony 's first film to use VRML .
The Mask of Zorro caught the attention of European Royalty with the film 's foreign premieres . Spain 's King Juan Carlos I , Queen Sophia , and Princess Elena attended the first Royal premiere in Madrid in seven years . On December 10 , 1998 , a Royal Command Performance for Zorro was toplined by Prince Charles and his sons .
= = = Home media = = =
The Mask of Zorro was released on DVD on December 1 , 1998 by Columbia TriStar Home Video .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Based on 69 reviews aggregated by Rotten Tomatoes , 83 % of the critics enjoyed The Mask of Zorro , giving it an average score of 7 @.@ 1 / 10 . Metacritic gave the film an average score of 63 / 100 , based on 22 reviews . Richard Schickel of Time magazine praised Zorro as a summer blockbuster which paid tribute to the classical Hollywood swashbuckler films . " The action in this movie , most of which takes the form of spectacular stunt work performed by real , as opposed to digitized , people , " Schickel stated , " is motivated by simple , powerful emotions of an old @-@ fashioned and rather melodramatic nature . " Zorro exceeded Roger Ebert 's expectations , who was surprised by the screenplay 's display of traditional film craftsmanship . " It 's a reminder of the time when stunts and special effects were integrated into stories , rather than the other way around . " Ebert later called The Mask of Zorro " probably the best Zorro movie ever made . " Despite giving credit to Anthony Hopkins for his masculine portrayal of an older Zorro , Mick LaSalle , writing in the San Francisco Chronicle , found that the actor 's " performance presents a slight problem : The film asks us to believe that no one has figured out that Zorro and his real @-@ life persona are the same person , even though they are the only guys in Mexico who talk with a British accent . "
Todd McCarthy of Variety found the film 's length to be " somewhat overlong " and lacking " the snap and concision that would have put it over the top as a bang @-@ up entertainment , but it 's closer in spirit to a vintage Errol Flynn or Tyrone Power swashbuckler than anything that 's come out of Hollywood in quite some time . " In his review for Rolling Stone magazine , Peter Travers criticized the casting choices for the Mexican roles , which included Banderas , a Spaniard , as well as Hopkins and Zeta @-@ Jones , who are both Welsh . Disappointed with the film 's entertainment value , Travers also expected the film to be a failure with audiences . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli compared the tone and style of The Mask of Zorro to producer Steven Spielberg 's Raiders of the Lost Ark . " While The Mask of Zorro isn 't on the same level , it 's not an altogether ridiculous comparison . Even though Zorro doesn 't feature the non @-@ stop cliffhanger adventure of Raiders , " Berardinelli continued , " there 's still plenty of action , tumult , and derring @-@ do . " He was undecided whether the film would be a box office success , and that it would depend on the on @-@ screen chemistry between Banderas and Zeta @-@ Jones . In one of the film 's most popular scenes , Alejandro renders Eléna topless with a flurry of sword slashes . One critic placed it on his list of " Erotic [ Film ] Scenes in the 90s " .
= = = Box office = = =
The Mask of Zorro was released in the United States on July 17 , 1998 in 2 @,@ 515 theaters , earning $ 22 @,@ 525 @,@ 855 in its opening weekend . The film dropped from its number one position in the second week with the releases of Saving Private Ryan and There 's Something About Mary . The Mask of Zorro eventually earned $ 94 @,@ 095 @,@ 523 within the US , and $ 156 @,@ 193 @,@ 000 internationally , coming to a worldwide total of $ 250 @,@ 288 @,@ 523 . With the commercial success of the film , Sony sold the TV rights of Zorro for $ 30 million in a joint deal to CBS and Turner Broadcasting System ( TBS ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
= Geastrum welwitschii =
Geastrum welwitschii is a species of fungus in the earthstar family . When young and unopened , the fruit bodies resemble small spheres lying in the soil . As the mushroom matures , the thick leathery outer layer of tissue ( the peridium ) splits star @-@ like to form a number of fleshy arms , which curve downward to reveal the inner spore sac that contains the fertile tissue known as the gleba . The spore sac has a narrow grooved opening at the top where the spores are released . Fully expanded , the fruit bodies are up to 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) wide and 58 mm ( 2 @.@ 3 in ) tall . First collected from Spain in the mid @-@ 19th century , the fungus is distributed in Europe , North America , and Bermuda .
= = Taxonomy = =
The fungus was first collected in Spain by the Austrian explorer and botanist Friedrich Welwitsch . British mycologist Miles Joseph Berkeley obtained the specimens and thought them to be Geastrum fimbriatum . He sent a specimen to the French mycologist Camille Montagne in 1856 , who named it Geaster Welwitschii ( Geaster is an orthographical variant of Geastrum ) . Patricio Ponce de León in his 1968 world monograph of Geastrum , considered the species a fornicate variety of G. javanicum , and described it as Geastrum javanicum var. welwitschii ; this is now a synonym .
According to Stanek 's infrageneric ( ranks below the level of genus ) concept of the genus Geastrum , G. welwitschii is classified in the section Basimyceliata , which includes species in which the outer part of the mycelial layer do not incorporate sand and encrusting debris . It is further classified in the subsection Laevistomata because its peristome ( an opening at the top of the spore sac ) is even to fibrillose ( with fibrils ) .
= = Description = =
The mature fruit body of G. welwitschii is small to medium @-@ sized , with a fornicate spore sac , meaning that the spore sac is raised into the air as the rays press down . Unlike some other earthstar fungi , the mycelial layer does not encrust debris as the fruit body develops . The peristome is even , and has an indistinct boundary . The young fruit bodies just prior to opening are found near the surface of the ground , and are rounded , with or without an umbo , and attached to the substrate with a basal mycelial tuft or cord . The expanded fruit body is small to medium @-@ sized . The fornicate exoperidium ( outer peridium ) has the upper , arched part ( fibrous and pseudoparenchymatous layers ) split to about the half @-@ way point or more into 4 – 7 rays . The mycelial cup is free ( only attached at its base ) , with 4 – 7 more or less well @-@ developed lobes corresponding to the 4 – 7 rays . The width of the fruit body is about 20 – 35 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 4 in ) , and in height about 40 – 58 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 3 in ) ( including the 15 – 20 mm high mycelial cup ) . The diameter of the exoperidium is about 39 – 72 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) .
The pseudoparenchymatous layer ( a layer of thin @-@ walled , usually angular , randomly arranged cells that are tightly packed ) is initially beige , later brownish , in age dark brown , cracked and if moist reddish @-@ brown . The fibrous layer is beige @-@ colored , with its outer side free from the mycelial layer except at the tips of the rays . The mycelial layer has a beige brown to somewhat yellowish @-@ brown , felted to tufted outer surface , darkening to reddish brown if moist . It is not encrusted with debris , but some debris and sand may adhere . The inner side is smooth , dull to somewhat glossy , and hazelnut brown .
The spore sac is stalked , and roughly spherical , with a diameter of about 8 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) . The stalk is short but distinct , up to 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 059 in ) high , light beige in color , and sometimes indistinctly developed . The endoperidium ( inner peridium ) is more or less smooth to the unaided eye , but densely protruding light to grayish @-@ brown hyphal tips are present . The peristome is indistinctly delimited ( without distinct boundaries ) , and the mouth area fibrillose . The columella is not well @-@ developed , and broadly club @-@ shaped to columnar ; in cross @-@ section it is whitish to pale beige . The mature gleba is brown and powdery .
The spores of Geastrum welwitschii are roughly spherical , sometimes contain an oil droplet , and measure 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 μm in diameter . Scanning electron microscopy has revealed that the spore surface is covered with column @-@ like processes , up to 0 @.@ 45 μm high , that may be more or less confluent .
= = Similar species = =
Geastrum welwitschii is morphologically similar to G. fornicatum in having fornicate , mostly 3 – 6 rays , of exoperidia and a cup @-@ shaped mycelial layer . Geastrum welwitschii is distinguished from G. fornicatum by its epigeal mycelial cup with a felted or tufted outer surface .
Geastrum welwitschii also has similar morphological characters to G. minimum in having small fruit bodies , whitish spore sacs , and fibrillose peristomes . However G. welwitschii is differentiated from G. minimum by its fornicate , mostly 3 – 6 , rays of the exoperidia , and the mycelial layer that easily loosens from the fibrous layer to form a mycelial cup . G. welwitschii is distinguished from G. entomophilum by its dark and sessile endoperidium , and smaller spores ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 μm ) .
According to mycologists Hemmes and Desjardin , the most common earthstar in the coastal Casuarina forests of Hawaii is a species " closely allied " with G. welwitschii , which they name Geastrum aff. welwitschii . It differs from the main species in its much coarser pyramidal warts on the exoperidial surface , a sessile and sac @-@ shaped endoperidial body , and smaller spores . They likened the roughened outer surface of the exoperidium to lychee fruit .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fungus is saprobic , and grows on the ground , in leaf litter , or on decomposing wood . It has been collected in Spain , South Carolina , Florida , and Bermuda .
= History of Lithuania ( 1219 – 95 ) =
The history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 concerns the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the prehistory of Lithuania . From this point on the history of Lithuania is recorded in chronicles , treaties , and other written documents . In 1219 , 21 Lithuanian dukes signed a peace treaty with Galicia – Volhynia . This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating . Despite continuous warfare with two Christian orders , the Livonian Order and the Teutonic Knights , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established and gained some control over the lands of Black Ruthenia , Polatsk , Minsk , and other territories east of modern @-@ day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of Kievan Rus ' .
The first ruler to hold the title of Grand Duke was Mindaugas . Traditionally he is considered the founder of the state , the one who united the Baltic tribes and established the Duchy . Some scholars , however , challenge this perception , arguing that an organized state existed before Mindaugas , possibly as early as 1183 . After quelling an internal war with his nephews , Mindaugas was baptized in 1251 , and was crowned as King of Lithuania in 1253 . In 1261 , he broke the peace with the Livonian Order , perhaps even renouncing Christianity . His assassination in 1263 by Treniota ended the early Christian kingdom in Lithuania . For another 120 years Lithuania would remain a pagan empire , fighting against the Teutonic and Livonian Orders during the Northern Crusades during their attempts to Christianize the land .
After Mindaugas ' death , the Grand Duchy of Lithuania entered times of relative instability , as reflected by the fact that seven Grand Dukes held the title over the course of the next 32 years . Little is known about this period , but the Gediminid dynasty was founded in about 1280 . Despite the instability , the Grand Duchy did not disintegrate . Vytenis assumed power in 1295 , and during the next 20 years laid solid foundations for the Duchy to expand and grow under the leadership of Gediminas and his son Algirdas . While the Grand Duchy was established between 1219 and 1295 , the years after 1295 marked its expansion .
= = Establishment of the state = =
= = = Baltic unification = = =
The Balts were largely driven to unite by external threats from aggressive German religious orders . In 1202 , the Order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword was established by Albert , the Bishop of Riga , to promote the Christianization and conquest of the Livonians , Curonians , Semigallians , and Estonians near the Gulf of Riga . The Order waged a number of successful campaigns and posed a great danger to the Lithuanian territories . The Order 's progress was halted by its defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236 , after which it almost collapsed . The following year , it merged into the Teutonic Knights .
In 1226 , Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the Prussians , offering the Knights the use of Chełmno ( Kulm ) as a base for their campaign . In 1230 , they settled in Chełmno , built a castle , and began attacking Prussian lands . After 44 years , and despite two Prussian uprisings against them , they had conquered most of the Prussian tribes . Afterwards , the Knights spent nine years conquering the Nadruvians , Skalvians , and Yotvingians , and from 1283 , they were better positioned to threaten the young Lithuanian state from the west .
Further unification of the Lithuanian tribes was facilitated by the social changes that took place in Lithuania during this period . Private land ownership was established ( allodiums , Lithuanian : atolai ) , which would later evolve into a feudal system . As attested by many chronicles , it was the principal form of organization governing land ownership in the 13th century . Under this system , known in England as primogeniture , only the eldest son could inherit lands , which allowed dukes to consolidate their holdings . Social classes and divisions of labor also began taking shape . There were classes of experienced soldiers ( bajoras ) , of free peasants ( laukininkas ) , and of " unfree " people ( kaimynas and šeimynykštis ) . In order to enforce this social structure , a united state was needed . Another force behind unification was the desire to take advantage of Ruthenian lands , which were suffering from the Mongol invasion . Temporary alliances among Lithuanian dukes often sufficed for military ventures into , and plundering of , these lands ( including Pskov , plundered in 1213 ) . Altogether , between 1201 and 1236 , Lithuanians launched at least 22 incursions into Livonia , 14 into Rus , and 4 into Poland . The ongoing administration of conquered territories , however , required a strong and unified central power .
= = = Galicia – Volhynia Treaty = = =
Some evidence suggests that Lithuanians began combining their forces at the dawn of the 13th century . For example , in 1207 , soldiers were recruited across Lithuania to fight the German religious orders , and in 1212 , Daugirutis ' treaty with Novgorod shows that he exerted some degree of influence over a vast area . During the first twenty years of the 13th century , Lithuanians organized some thirty military expeditions to Livonia , Russia , and Poland . Historian Tomas Baranauskas argues that a Lithuanian state could be said to exist as early as 1183 .
However , the first conclusive evidence that the Balts were uniting is considered to be the treaty with Galicia – Volhynia signed in 1219 . The treaty 's signatories include 21 Lithuanian dukes ; it specifies that five of those were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen . Presumably , the eldest Duke was Živinbudas , since his name was mentioned first . Mindaugas , despite his youth , and his brother Dausprungas , are listed among the elder dukes . That would imply that they inherited their titles . The remaining two elder dukes were Daujotas ( mentioned second ) and his brother Vilikaila ( mentioned last of the five ) .
The treaty is important for several reasons . It shows that the Lithuanian Dukes were co @-@ operating ; the signatories include Dukes who ruled lands such as Samogitia , which probably had no contact with Galicia – Volhynia . Their participation implies a perception of common interest , an indication of a nascent state . However , the designation of five Dukes as " elder " shows that the process of unification was still in transition . The inclusion of 21 Dukes indicates that the various lands in Lithuania were powerful and semi @-@ independent . Historians consider the treaty an interesting documentation of the long and complex process of a state 's formation . The progress of unification was uneven ; for example , after the deaths of Dukes Daugirutis in 1213 and Stekšys in 1214 , fewer raids were organized by Lithuanians .
= = = Rise of Mindaugas = = =
Mindaugas , the duke who governed southern Lithuania between the Neman and Neris Rivers , eventually became the founder of the state . Mindaugas is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle in 1236 . The means by which he managed to acquire this title are not well known . Russian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled various other dukes , including his relatives .
In 1236 , Duke Vykintas led the Samogitian forces to victory in the Battle of Saule , where the Livonian Order suffered a catastrophic defeat . It seems that Vykintas did not receive support from Mindaugas . Vykintas ' personal power grew . The Livonian Order was on the brink of collapse and was forced to become a branch of the Teutonic Knights . The combined Orders focused on the conquest of Samogitia , since only this land prevented them from consolidating their territories . The union of these aggressive powers could not have passed without notice in Lithuanian lands , and might have furthered the unification process . In about 1239 Mindaugas took over the weakened Black Ruthenia and appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern it . During the early 1240s , Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic lands . In 1245 , Mindaugas sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas , the sons of Dausprungas and Vykintas , to conquer Smolensk , but they were unsuccessful . In 1249 , an internal war erupted as Mindaugas sought to seize his nephews ' and Vykintas ' lands .
Tautvilas , Edivydas , and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition with the Samogitians , the Livonian Order , Daniel of Galicia ( Tautvilas and Edivydas ' brother @-@ in @-@ law ) , and Vasilko of Volhynia in opposition to Mindaugas . Only Poles , invited by Daniel , declined to take part in the coalition against the Lithuanians . The dukes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia , an area ruled by Mindaugas ' son Vaišvilkas . Tautvilas traveled to Riga , where he was baptized by the Archbishop . In 1250 , the Order organized two major raids , one against Nalša land and the other against the domains of Mindaugas and those parts of Samogitia that still supported him .
Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere , Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position , but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga in his own interests . He succeeded in bribing Andreas von Stierland , the master of the Order , who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat in 1236 . In 1251 , Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania , for which he was to receive a crown in return . In 1252 , Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas in Voruta , sometimes considered to be the first capital of Lithuania . The attack failed and Tautvilas ' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tverai Castle , in the present @-@ day Rietavas municipality . Vykintas died in or about 1253 , and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia . Daniel reconciled with Mindaugas in 1254 ; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman , the son of Daniel . Vaišvilkas , the son of Mindaugas , decided to join a monastery . Tautvilas recognized Mindaugas ' superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom .
= = Kingdom of Lithuania = =
As promised , Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned at some time during the summer of 1253 , and the Kingdom of Lithuania , proclaimed by the pope in 1251 , was soundly established . 6 July is now celebrated as " Statehood Day " ( Lithuanian : Valstybės diena ) ; it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania . However , the exact date of the coronation is not known ; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius , who promulgated this date , is sometimes challenged . The location of the coronation also remains unknown .
Pope Innocent IV supported Mindaugas , hoping that a new Christian state could stem the inroads being made by the Golden Horde , a state of the Mongol Empire . On 17 July 1251 , the pope signed two crucial papal bulls . One of them ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania , appoint a bishop for Lithuania , and to build a cathedral . The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the pope . This was a welcome development to the Lithuanians , since they were concerned that their long @-@ standing antagonists , the Livonian Order , would exert too much control over the new state .
It took some time before a Bishop of Lithuania was appointed because of various conflicts of interest . The Bishop of Gniezno appointed Vito ( Lithuanian : Vitas ) , a monk of the Dominican Order , to this position , but he was not recognized by Mindaugas or accepted by the populace . The activities of Vito in Lithuania are unknown , although he is sometimes associated with Mindaugas ' Cathedral . Finally , in 1254 , Christian ( Lithuanian : Kristijonas ) from the Livonian Order was appointed . Mindaugas endowed him with some lands in Samogitia , but not much is known about his activities . Historical sources do not mention any sponsorship of missionaries , education of priests , or construction of churches during that time , and Bishop Christian went back to Germany in 1259 , where he died in 1271 . The establishment of Mindaugas ' Cathedral remains problematic , but recent archeological research found the remains of a 13th @-@ century brick building on the site of the present @-@ day Vilnius Cathedral . The general assumption is that the remains are those of Mindaugas Cathedral , built to satisfy the agreement with the pope . However , as later events showed , Lithuanians resisted Christianization , and Mindaugas ' baptism had only a temporary impact on further developments .
Immediately after his coronation , Mindaugas transferred some western lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia , Nadruva , and Dainava . There is some discussion as to whether in later years ( 1255 , 1257 , 1259 , 1261 ) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the Order . The deeds might have been falsified by the Order ; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas . Whatever the case , relative peace and stability was established for about eight more years . Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on expansion to the east . He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia , in Pinsk , and took advantage of the collapsed Kievan Rus ' by conquering Polatsk , a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin . He also negotiated a peace with Galicia – Volhynia , and married a daughter to Svarn , the son of Daniel of Galicia , who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania . Diplomatic relations with western Europe and the Holy See were also reinforced . In 1255 , Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania . In the domestic arena , Mindaugas strove to establish state institutions : his own noble court , administrative systems , a diplomatic service , and a monetary system . Silver Lithuanian long currency ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos ilgieji ) circulated , providing an indice of statehood .
The Livonian Order used this period to consolidate their control over Samogitian lands . They built three castles along the border : Memelburg ( Klaipėda ) , Georgenburg ( Jurbarkas ) , and Doben ( Durbe in Latvia ) . The Samogitians responded by electing Algminas as their war leader , and attacked Courland , as the Order had limited battlefield successes . In 1259 , the Livonian Order lost the Battle of Skuodas , and in 1260 , it lost the Battle of Durbe . The first loss encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians , and the later loss spurred the Prussians into an uprising against the Order . The Great Prussian Uprising lasted for 14 years . Encouraged by Treniota , his nephew , Mindaugas broke peace with the Order . Some chronicles hint that he also returned to his former pagan beliefs , but this is disputable . Nevertheless , all the diplomatic achievements made since his coronation were lost .
Mindaugas then formed an alliance with Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod and marched against the Order . Treniota led an army to Cēsis and battled Masovia , hoping to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership . He waged successful battles , but did not manage to capture the fortified castles or spark a coalition of Baltic forces against the Order . His personal influence grew because Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Russian lands , dispatching a large army to Bryansk . Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities . In the midst of these events , Mindaugas ' wife Morta died , and Mindaugas expressed the wish to marry Daumantas ' wife . Daumantas and Treniota responded to this insult by assassinating Mindaugas and two of his sons , Ruklys and Rupeikis , in 1263 . Lithuania lapsed into years of internal instability .
= = Years after Mindaugas = =
= = = Years of instability = = =
After Mindaugas ' death , the state did not disintegrate and Treniota took over the title of Grand Duke . However , his power was fragile ; he was challenged by Tautvilas , who had not forgotten his own claims to power . Tautvilas was also assassinated by Treniota . However , just a year later , in 1264 , Treniota was killed by Mindaugas ' former servants . His son Vaišvilkas and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Shvarn from Volhynia took over the control in Lithuania . Daumantas was forced to flee to Pskov , was baptized Timofei , ruled successfully from 1266 to 1299 and even became a saint . In 1265 Vaišvilkas , as a Christian , reconciled with the Livonian Order and , without support from Lithuania , the rebellions among the Balts that had been fueled by Treniota began to subside . In 1267 he returned to a monastic life and transferred the Grand Duchy to Shvarn .
Little is known about Shvarn and his rule , but historians believe he was unable to take control of all Lithuania , and ruled only over its southern portions . He died in 1269 or 1271 in Galicia .
= = = Reign of Traidenis = = =
The circumstances surrounding the advance to power in 1269 of the next ruler , Traidenis , are not clear . From the outset his relationships with Galicia – Volhynia were tense and eventually resulted in the 1274 – 1276 war . Traidenis was successful in battle , and his control over Black Ruthenia was strengthened . Traidenis , known for his strong anti @-@ German attitude , was also successful in fighting with the Livonian Order . In 1270 he won the Battle of Karuse , fought on ice near Saaremaa . However , in 1272 the Order retaliated , attacking Semigalia and building Dünaburg ( Daugavpils ) Castle in 1273 on lands nominally controlled by Traidenis . Several years later , in 1281 , Traidenis conquered Jersika Castle in the present @-@ day Preiļi District , and was able to exchange it for the Dünaburg Castle . Dünaburg remained a Lithuanian outpost until 1313 . In 1279 the Order attacked Lithuanian lands , reaching as far as Kernavė , but on their way back they suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Aizkraukle . The Order 's master , Ernst von Rassburg , died in the battle , and the conquered Semigallians rebelled . The Semigallians were now willing to acknowledge Lithuania 's superiority and asked Traidenis for assistance . However , Traidenis died soon afterwards , and the rebellion was not successful .
Traidenis ' reign was the longest and most stable regime during the period of unrest . After his death the Orders finalized their conquests : the conquered Baltic tribes did not rebel again and the Orders could now concentrate on Lithuania . In 1274 the Great Prussian Rebellion ended , and the Teutonic Knights proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes : the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274 – 1277 , and the Yotvingians in 1283 ; the Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia , the last Baltic ally of Lithuania , in 1291 . The Orders could now turn their full attention to Lithuania . The " buffer zone " composed of other Baltic tribes had disappeared , and Lithuania was left to battle the Orders on its own .
= = = Rise of Gediminids = = =
There is considerable uncertainty about the identities of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania between Traidenis ' death in 1282 and Vytenis ' assumption of power in 1295 . This is in part because the two main sources for Lithuanian history in the 13th century , the Hypatian Codex and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle , end in the early 1290s . In 1285 , one chronicle mentions Daumantas as Grand Duke . He attacked the Bishop of Tver and was severely wounded or even killed in the battle . However , that is the only information about him .
The Gediminid dynasty began its ascent in Lithuania during this time with the emergence of its first leader , Butigeidis . In 1289 , leading about 8 @,@ 000 troops , he attacked Sambia . In 1289 the Teutonic Knights built a castle in present @-@ day Sovetsk ( Tilsit ) and their raids intensified . Butigeidis was the first to build strong castles along the Neman River . He died in 1290 or 1292 , and his brother Butvydas ( also known as Pukuveras ) inherited the crown . Butvydas was the father of Vytenis and probably of Gediminas . During his short reign Butvydas tried to defend the duchy against the Teutonic Knights ; he also attacked Masovia , an ally of the knights . His son , Vytenis , advanced to power in 1295 and ended the period of relative instability . His reign marks the transition from the state 's establishment to the point at which it was poised for expansion .
= = Legacy = =
The state united and ruled by Mindaugas constituted the first Lithuanian state . The state effectively protected Lithuanians and Samogitians from assimilation induced by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order , the destiny of Prussians , Skalvians , Curonians , Selonians and other Baltic tribes . Mindaugas ruled about 100 @,@ 000 km2 ( 39 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of Lithuanian ethnic territory , an area with an estimated population of 300 @,@ 000 . The Slavic lands under his control and influence occupied another 100 @,@ 000 km2 ( 39 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . By about 1430 , at its peak during the reign of Vytautas the Great , the Grand Duchy controlled some 930 @,@ 000 km2 ( 360 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and almost 2 @.@ 5 million people .
The period from 1219 to 1295 also shaped future conflicts : the pagan Lithuanians were surrounded by the aggressive Roman Catholic Orders to its north and southwest , and by adherents of the Orthodox Church in the east . The Catholic Orders ' raids intensified after they overcame the " buffer zone " created by Prussians , Nadruvians , Skalvians , Yotvingians , and Semigalians by 1283 . The Lithuanian relationships with the Orthodox Church were more peaceful . The people were allowed to practise their religion ; Lithuanian dukes did not hesitate to marry daughters of Orthodox dukes ; at least some of the dukes ' scribes must have been Orthodox as well . Struggles with the Teutonic Knights and expansion to the east were characteristic of the years from 1295 to 1377 . It was inevitable that Lithuania could not endure religious , political , and cultural isolation forever and would have to choose either Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy . In 1386 , Grand Duke Jogaila elected baptism in the Catholic rite to marry Jadwiga of Poland and become King of Poland ; the last pagan state in Europe was converted to Christianity .
= Squall Leonhart =
Squall Leonhart ( Japanese : スコール ・ レオンハート , Hepburn : Sukōru Reonhāto ) is a fictional character and the primary protagonist of Final Fantasy VIII , a role @-@ playing video game by Square ( now Square Enix ) . He was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , with input from game director Yoshinori Kitase . Squall has appeared in several other games , including Chocobo Racing , Itadaki Street Special , and the Kingdom Hearts series , as Leon ( レオン , Reon ) . His weapon , a gunblade , also appears in other works .
In Final Fantasy VIII , Squall is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old student at Balamb Garden , a prestigious military academy for elite mercenaries ( known as " SeeDs " ) . As the story progresses , Squall befriends Quistis Trepe , Zell Dincht , Selphie Tilmitt and Irvine Kinneas and falls in love with Rinoa Heartilly . These relationships , combined with the game 's plot , gradually change him from a loner to an open , caring person . Squall had a varied reaction from critics , with some judging him poorly compared to other Final Fantasy heroes ( due to his coldness and angst ) and others praising his character development .
= = Creation and design = =
The first character Nomura designed for Final Fantasy VIII , Squall was inspired by actor River Phoenix , although Nomura said that " [ n ] obody understood it . " Squall is 177 cm ( 5 ft 10 in ) tall , initially with longer hair and a more feminine appearance . After objections by game director Yoshinori Kitase , Nomura made the character more masculine . He added the scar across Squall 's brow and the bridge of his nose impulsively ( to make the character more recognizable ) , leaving the description of its origin up to scenario writer Kazushige Nojima . Nomura 's design of Squall included fur lining along his jacket collar as a challenge for the game 's full motion video designers . In Final Fantasy VIII Nojima worked to give players insight into what Squall was thinking , in contrast to Final Fantasy VII ( which encouraged players to speculate ) .
Nomura created Squall 's gunblade with silver accessories . The weapon is a sword with components of a revolver , sending vibrations through the blade when triggered ; this inflicts additional damage if the player presses the R1 trigger on the controller as Squall strikes an enemy . Although the weapon was intended as a novel way for players to control weapons in battle , Nomura said he feels ( in retrospect ) that it looks odd . Square 's Hiroki Chiba said that his favorite moment in the Final Fantasy franchise was when Squall and Rinoa embrace in space due to the use of Faye Wong 's " Eyes On Me " music in the background and having to work every frame to make it work .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VIII = = =
At the beginning of Final Fantasy VIII , Squall is known as a " lone wolf " because he never shows his feelings and seems cold to his associates . His superiors ( such as teacher Quistis Trepe ) consider him difficult to deal with , but respect his talents . Squall is stoic , with his taciturn nature used for comic relief . In the cutscene where he meets Rinoa , she coerces him into dancing with her at the SeeD graduation party . Awkward and confused , he bumps into other party @-@ goers because he is looking at his feet . Rinoa perseveres , and Squall later reveals that he really can dance ( since it was a mandatory part of his training ) .
He is dragged into a heroic role when Cid , headmaster of Balamb Garden , appoints him leader of the academy midway through the game . During a late battle against Galbadia Garden , Squall has difficulty exhibiting leadership because of his lingering isolation . Although other characters try to pull him out of his shell and Rinoa Heartilly expends considerable energy pursuing him , it takes time for him to accept the others ' friendship , fall in love with Rinoa and care for her . Squall is more comfortable later in a leadership role , especially when he must fight Ultimecia .
Throughout the game , he has a rivalry with Seifer Almasy . The opening sequence features the duel where Squall receives his facial scar ( giving Seifer a mirror image ) , and scenes where Squall and Seifer are supposed to cooperate are characterized by squabbles between the cadets . Although Seifer later allies with the Sorceress ( requiring Squall to fight him several times ) , Squall still feels a camaraderie with him .
According to flashbacks during the game , Squall grew up in an orphanage with the other playable characters ( except Rinoa ) and it is implied that Laguna Loire is his father . On the airship Ragnarok late in the game , Kiros and Ward comment on Squall 's resemblance to his mother and dissimilarity to his father ( Nomura designed him to contrast with Laguna ) . The orphans were cared for by Edea ; although Squall remembers little about his past , he becomes an emotionally detached , cynical and introverted boy whose original goal is to go through life without any emotional ties or dependence . He gradually warms , and it is later revealed that his detachment from his companions is a defensive mechanism to protect himself from the emotional pain he suffered when he and his older sister were separated .
After Ultimecia is defeated , the time and space that she had absorbed begin to return to normal , pulling Squall 's comrades back into their places in the timeline , while Squall returns to the orphanage and meets a younger Edea . Since she does not want to involve the children , she absorbs the dying Ultimecia 's powers as part of the cycle of sorceresses ( a sorceress must pass her powers to a successor before she can die peacefully ) . Squall plants the ideas for Garden and SeeD in her mind , creating an origin paradox : Squall must become leader of Balamb Garden so he can pass its version of SeeD tradition to Edea , who teaches them to her husband Cid ( who co @-@ founds Balamb Garden , which admits Edea 's orphans — including Squall ) .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Squall appears as a non @-@ playable character in Kingdom Hearts . He wears a short leather jacket with red wings on the back ( resembling the decorations on Rinoa 's duster ) and his Griever necklace . Squall takes the name Leon as an alias , because he was ashamed of not protecting those he loved from the Heartless when his home world ( the Radiant Garden ) was consumed by darkness . Leon is voiced by David Boreanaz in the English version of the game and Hideo Ishikawa in the Japanese version . His role in Kingdom Hearts is to help guide the protagonist , Sora , in his battle ( with other Final Fantasy characters ) against the Heartless . Although Squall 's appearance and age differ ( he is 25 in Kingdom Hearts and 17 in Final Fantasy VIII ) , his personality remains the same . A memory @-@ based version of Squall ( as Leon ) appears in Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories teaching gameplay in a tutorial . He returns in Kingdom Hearts II , voiced in the English version by Doug Erholtz . Erholtz said in an interview that he had a " fun journey " voicing Leon and it was a " really fun role to play " . Leon 's jacket later has a fur lining on its collar , which did not appear in the first Kingdom Hearts game . In this game , he works with his friends to restore their world . Squall also appears as an opponent in Olympus Coliseum tournaments , often paired with other Final Fantasy characters . His virtual replica appears in Kingdom Hearts coded , where it meets Sora 's virtual replica .
Squall is a secret character in Chocobo Racing and Itadaki Street Special , and a sprite version occasionally appears on the loading screen of the PlayStation version of Final Fantasy VI ( part of the Final Fantasy Anthology ) . He is the hero representing Final Fantasy VIII in Dissidia : Final Fantasy . Squall appears with the cast of the prequel Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , where his Kingdom Hearts design is downloadable content . He is a playable character in Itadaki Street Portable and the main character , representing Final Fantasy VIII , in the rhythm games Theatrhythm Final Fantasy and Theatrhythm Final Fantasy : Curtain Call . Squall also appears as a premium character in Pictlogica Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy : All The Bravest both for Android and iOS .
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to Squall was mixed . Journalist Jack Patrick Rodgers of PopMatters said that Squall 's cynicism and frustration with those around him made him a strong character , but " coldly inhuman " . GamesRadar called Squall the fifth @-@ best Final Fantasy hero of all time , praising the development of his personality and his improved interactions with other characters . GameZone rated him the fourth @-@ best character in the franchise , saying that while fans " either love or hate this guy " he became the " ultimate anti @-@ hero " ( despite little dialogue ) of an entertaining journey . The website called Squall and Rinoa the best couple created by Square Enix , noting the differences between them and the fact that their relationship was the first in the series to drive the plot of a game . They were on The Inquirer 's list of most @-@ memorable video @-@ game love teams , with comments again focused on the differences between them . GameSpot said that while Squall could be viewed as a " jerk " , he could also be seen as " standoffish because of some repressed Wagnerian broodiness , in which case he was kind of interesting " . Allgame said that they initially hated Squall , but although he originally seemed " cold and uncaring " , his romance changed him for the better . RPGamer called Squall " everyone 's favorite orphan " and said that although he tries to distance himself from others , " he can 't help but draw people to him , be it sorceresses or gun @-@ slinging ladies ' men " . GameDaily ranked him sixth on their list of the " Top 25 Gaming Hunks " , stating that while critics described the character as a " jerk " , his character design , notably his scar , made him visually appealing . Arnold Katayev of PSXextreme praised Squall 's redesign in Kingdom Hearts as the game 's best . In a 2008 Oricon poll , Squall was voted the tenth @-@ most @-@ popular video @-@ game character . He was voted the 29th @-@ best video @-@ game character by Famitsu readers in February 2010 .
However , IGN said that " the problem [ with Final Fantasy VIII ] is that the character at the heart of everything , Squall , is basically a pouty jerk ... When your story is character @-@ centered , you 'd better center it on a character the audience can care about . Squall ... just doesn 't fit the bill " . 1UP.com ranked Squall second on its list of the " Top 5 Most Irritating RPG Protagonists " and stated that although he was an attempt to " cater to the fedora @-@ wearing , trench @-@ coat @-@ clad folks " , his lack of social skills alienated players . Edge compared Squall unfavor
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3 until her death . Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet " Bloody Mary " .
She was the only child of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood . Her younger half @-@ brother Edward VI ( son of Henry and Jane Seymour ) succeeded their father in 1547 . When Edward became mortally ill in 1553 , he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences . On his death their first cousin once removed , Lady Jane Grey , was proclaimed queen . Mary assembled a force in East Anglia and deposed Jane , who was ultimately beheaded . Mary was — excluding the disputed reigns of Jane and the Empress Matilda — the first queen regnant of England . In 1554 , Mary married Philip of Spain , becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556 .
As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty , Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after her half @-@ brother 's short @-@ lived Protestant reign . During her five @-@ year reign , she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions . After her death in 1558 , her re @-@ establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed by her younger half @-@ sister and successor Elizabeth I , daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn .
= = Birth and family = =
Mary was born on 18 February 1516 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , London . She was the only child of King Henry VIII and his first wife , Catherine of Aragon , to survive infancy . Her mother had many miscarriages ; before Mary 's birth , four previous pregnancies had resulted in a stillborn daughter and three short @-@ lived or stillborn sons , including Henry , Duke of Cornwall . She was baptised into the Catholic faith at the Church of the Observant Friars in Greenwich three days after her birth . Her godparents included her great @-@ aunt the Countess of Devon , Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey , and the Duchess of Norfolk . Henry VIII 's cousin once removed , Margaret Pole , Countess of Salisbury , stood sponsor for Mary 's confirmation , which was held immediately after the baptism . The following year , Mary became a godmother herself when she was named as one of the sponsors of her cousin Frances Brandon . In 1520 , the Countess of Salisbury was appointed Mary 's governess . Sir John Hussey , later Lord Hussey , was her chamberlain from 1530 , and his wife , Lady Anne , daughter of George Grey , 2nd Earl of Kent , was one of Mary 's attendants .
= = Education and early marriage plans = =
Mary was a precocious child . In July 1520 , when scarcely four and a half years old , she entertained a visiting French delegation with a performance on the virginals ( a type of harpsichord ) . A great part of her early education came from her mother , who consulted the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives for advice and commissioned him to write De Institutione Feminae Christianae , a treatise on the education of girls . By the age of nine , Mary could read and write Latin . She studied French , Spanish , music , dance , and perhaps Greek . Henry VIII doted on his daughter and boasted to the Venetian ambassador Sebastian Giustiniani , " This girl never cries " . Also , as the miniature portrait of her shows , Mary had , like both her parents , a very fair complexion , pale blue eyes and red or reddish @-@ golden hair . She was also ruddy cheeked , a trait she inherited from her father .
Despite his affection for Mary , Henry was deeply disappointed that his marriage had produced no sons . By the time Mary was nine years old , it was apparent that Henry and Catherine would have no more children , leaving Henry without a legitimate male heir . In 1525 , Henry sent Mary to the border of Wales to preside , presumably in name only , over the Council of Wales and the Marches . She was given her own court based at Ludlow Castle and many of the royal prerogatives normally reserved for the Prince of Wales . Vives and others called her the Princess of Wales , although she was never technically invested with the title . She appears to have spent three years in the Welsh Marches , making regular visits to her father 's court , before returning permanently to the home counties around London in mid @-@ 1528 .
Throughout Mary 's childhood , Henry negotiated potential future marriages for her . When she was only two years old , she was promised to the Dauphin , the infant son of King Francis I of France , but the contract was repudiated after three years . In 1522 , at the age of six , she was instead contracted to marry her 22 @-@ year @-@ old first cousin , Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. However , the engagement was broken off within a few years by Charles with Henry 's agreement . Cardinal Wolsey , Henry 's chief adviser , then resumed marriage negotiations with the French , and Henry suggested that Mary marry the Dauphin 's father , King Francis I himself , who was eager for an alliance with England . A marriage treaty was signed which provided that Mary marry either Francis I or his second son Henry , Duke of Orleans , but Wolsey secured an alliance with France without the marriage .
According to the Venetian Mario Savorgnano , Mary was developing into a pretty , well @-@ proportioned young lady with a fine complexion .
= = Adolescence = =
Meanwhile , the marriage of Mary 's parents was in jeopardy . Disappointed at the lack of a male heir , and eager to remarry , Henry attempted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled , but Pope Clement VII refused his requests . Henry claimed , citing biblical passages ( Leviticus 20 : 21 ) , that his marriage to Catherine was unclean because she was the widow of his brother ( Mary 's uncle ) Arthur . Catherine claimed that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated and so was not a valid marriage . Her first marriage had been annulled by a previous pope , Julius II , on that basis . Clement may have been reluctant to act because he was influenced by Charles V , Catherine 's nephew and Mary 's former betrothed , whose troops had surrounded and occupied Rome in the War of the League of Cognac .
From 1531 , Mary was often sick with irregular menstruation and depression , although it is not clear whether this was caused by stress , puberty or a more deep @-@ seated disease . She was not permitted to see her mother , who had been sent to live away from court by Henry . In early 1533 , Henry married Anne Boleyn , who was pregnant with his child , and in May Thomas Cranmer , the Archbishop of Canterbury , formally declared the marriage with Catherine void , and the marriage to Anne valid . Henry broke with the Roman Catholic Church and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England . Catherine was demoted to Dowager Princess of Wales ( a title she would have held as the widow of Arthur ) , and Mary was deemed illegitimate . She was styled " The Lady Mary " rather than Princess , and her place in the line of succession was transferred to her newborn half @-@ sister , Elizabeth , Anne 's daughter . Mary 's own household was dissolved ; her servants ( including the Countess of Salisbury ) were dismissed and in December 1533 she was sent to join the household of the infant Elizabeth at Hatfield , Hertfordshire .
Mary determinedly refused to acknowledge that Anne was the queen or that Elizabeth was a princess , further enraging King Henry . Under strain and with her movements restricted , Mary was frequently ill , which the royal physician attributed to her " ill treatment " . The Imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys became her close adviser , and interceded , unsuccessfully , on her behalf at court . The relationship between Mary and her father worsened ; they did not speak to each other for three years . Although both she and her mother were ill , Mary was refused permission to visit Catherine . When Catherine died in 1536 , Mary was " inconsolable " . Catherine was interred in Peterborough Cathedral , while Mary grieved in semi @-@ seclusion at Hunsdon in Hertfordshire .
= = Adulthood = =
In 1536 , Queen Anne fell from the king 's favour and was beheaded . Elizabeth , like Mary , was downgraded to the status of Lady and removed from the line of succession . Within two weeks of Anne 's execution , Henry married Jane Seymour , who urged her husband to make peace with Mary . Henry insisted that Mary recognise him as head of the Church of England , repudiate papal authority , acknowledge that the marriage between her parents was unlawful , and accept her own illegitimacy . She attempted to reconcile with him by submitting to his authority as far as " God and my conscience " permitted , but she was eventually bullied into signing a document agreeing to all of Henry 's demands . Reconciled with her father , Mary resumed her place at court . Henry granted her a household ( which included the reinstatement of Mary 's favourite Susan Clarencieux ) . Mary 's privy purse expenses for this period show that Hatfield House , the Palace of Beaulieu ( also called Newhall ) , Richmond and Hunsdon were among her principal places of residence , as well as Henry 's palaces at Greenwich , Westminster and Hampton Court . Her expenses included fine clothes and gambling at cards , one of her favourite pastimes . Rebels in the North of England , including Lord Hussey , Mary 's former chamberlain , campaigned against Henry 's religious reforms , and one of their demands was that Mary be made legitimate . The rebellion , known as the Pilgrimage of Grace , was ruthlessly suppressed . Along with other rebels , Hussey was executed , but there was no suggestion that Mary was directly involved . The following year , 1537 , Jane died after giving birth to a son , Edward . Mary was made godmother to her half @-@ brother and acted as chief mourner at the queen 's funeral .
Mary was courted by Duke Philip of Bavaria from late 1539 , but Philip was Lutheran and his suit for her hand was unsuccessful . Over 1539 , the king 's chief minister , Thomas Cromwell , negotiated a potential alliance with the Duchy of Cleves . Suggestions that Mary marry the Duke of Cleves , who was the same age , came to nothing , but a match between Henry and the Duke 's sister Anne was agreed . When the king saw Anne for the first time in late December 1539 , a week before the scheduled wedding , he did not find her attractive but was unable , for diplomatic reasons and in the absence of a suitable pretext , to cancel the marriage . Cromwell fell from favour and was arrested for treason in June 1540 ; one of the unlikely charges against him was that he had plotted to marry Mary himself . Anne consented to the annulment of the marriage , which had not been consummated , and Cromwell was beheaded .
In 1541 , Henry had the Countess of Salisbury , Mary 's old governess and godmother , executed on the pretext of a Catholic plot , in which her son ( Reginald Pole ) was implicated . Her executioner was " a wretched and blundering youth " who " literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces " . In 1542 , following the execution of Henry 's fifth wife , Catherine Howard , the unmarried Henry invited Mary to attend the royal Christmas festivities . At court , while her father was between marriages and without a consort , Mary acted as hostess . In 1543 , Henry married his sixth and last wife , Catherine Parr , who was able to bring the family closer together . Henry returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession , through the Act of Succession 1544 , placing them after Edward . However , both remained legally illegitimate .
In 1547 , Henry died and Edward succeeded him , as Edward VI . Mary inherited estates in Norfolk , Suffolk and Essex , and was granted Hunsdon and Beaulieu as her own . Since Edward was still a child , rule passed to a regency council dominated by Protestants , who attempted to establish their faith throughout the country . For example , the Act of Uniformity 1549 prescribed Protestant rites for church services , such as the use of Thomas Cranmer 's new Book of Common Prayer . Mary remained faithful to Roman Catholicism and defiantly celebrated the traditional mass in her own chapel . She appealed to her cousin Charles V to apply diplomatic pressure demanding that she be allowed to practice her religion .
For most of Edward 's reign , Mary remained on her own estates and rarely attended court . A plan between May and July 1550 to smuggle her out of England to the safety of the European mainland came to nothing . Religious differences between Mary and Edward continued . When Mary was in her thirties , she attended a reunion with Edward and Elizabeth for Christmas 1550 , where 13 @-@ year @-@ old Edward embarrassed Mary , and reduced both her and himself to tears in front of the court , by publicly reproving her for ignoring his laws regarding worship . Mary repeatedly refused Edward 's demands that she abandon Catholicism , and Edward repeatedly refused to drop his demands .
= = Accession = =
On 6 July 1553 , at the age of 15 , Edward VI died from a lung infection , possibly tuberculosis . He did not want the crown to go to Mary , because he feared she would restore Catholicism and undo his reforms as well as those of Henry VIII , and so he planned to exclude her from the line of succession . His advisers , however , told him that he could not disinherit only one of his sisters , but that he would have to disinherit Elizabeth as well , even though she was a Protestant . Guided by John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , and perhaps others , Edward excluded both of his sisters from the line of succession in his will .
Contradicting the Succession Act , which restored Mary and Elizabeth to the line of succession , Edward named Dudley 's daughter @-@ in @-@ law Lady Jane Grey , the granddaughter of Henry VIII 's younger sister Mary , as his successor . Lady Jane 's mother was Frances Brandon , Mary 's cousin and goddaughter . Just before Edward VI 's death , Mary was summoned to London to visit her dying brother . She was warned , however , that the summons was a pretext on which to capture her and thereby facilitate Lady Jane 's accession to the throne . Therefore , instead of heading to London from her residence at Hunsdon , Mary fled into East Anglia , where she owned extensive estates and Dudley had ruthlessly put down Kett 's Rebellion . Many adherents to the Catholic faith , opponents of Dudley 's , lived there . On 9 July , from Kenninghall , Norfolk , she wrote to the privy council with orders for her proclamation as Edward 's successor .
On 10 July 1553 , Lady Jane was proclaimed queen by Dudley and his supporters , and on the same day Mary 's letter to the council arrived in London . By 12 July , Mary and her supporters had assembled a military force at Framlingham Castle , Suffolk . Dudley 's support collapsed , and Mary 's grew . Jane was deposed on 19 July . She and Dudley were imprisoned in the Tower of London . Mary rode triumphantly into London on 3 August 1553 , on a wave of popular support . She was accompanied by her half @-@ sister Elizabeth and a procession of over 800 nobles and gentlemen .
One of Mary 's first actions as queen was to order the release of the Roman Catholic Duke of Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London , as well as her kinsman Edward Courtenay . Mary understood that the young Lady Jane was essentially a pawn in Dudley 's scheme , and Dudley was the only conspirator of rank executed for high treason in the immediate aftermath of the coup . Lady Jane and her husband , Lord Guildford Dudley , though found guilty , were kept under guard in the Tower rather than immediately executed , while Lady Jane 's father , Henry Grey , 1st Duke of Suffolk , was released . Mary was left in a difficult position , as almost all the Privy Counsellors had been implicated in the plot to put Lady Jane on the throne . She appointed Gardiner to the council and made him both Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor , offices he held until his death in November 1555 . Susan Clarencieux became Mistress of the Robes . On 1 October 1553 , Gardiner crowned Mary at Westminster Abbey .
= = = Spanish marriage = = =
At age 37 , Mary turned her attention to finding a husband and producing an heir , thus preventing the Protestant Elizabeth ( still next @-@ in @-@ line under the terms of Henry VIII 's will and the Act of Succession of 1544 ) from succeeding to the throne . Edward Courtenay and Reginald Pole were both mentioned as prospective suitors , but her cousin Charles V suggested she marry his only son , Prince Philip of Spain . Philip had a son from a previous marriage and was heir apparent to vast territories in Continental Europe and the New World . As part of the marriage negotiations , a portrait of Philip , by Titian , was sent to her in September 1553 .
Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons unsuccessfully petitioned her to consider marrying an Englishman , fearing that England would be relegated to a dependency of the Habsburgs . The marriage was unpopular with the English ; Gardiner and his allies opposed it on the basis of patriotism , while Protestants were motivated by a fear of Catholicism . When Mary insisted on marrying Philip , insurrections broke out . Thomas Wyatt the younger led a force from Kent to depose Mary in favour of Elizabeth , as part of a wider conspiracy now known as Wyatt 's rebellion , which also involved the Duke of Suffolk , the father of Lady Jane . Mary declared publicly that she would summon Parliament to discuss the marriage , and if Parliament decided that the marriage was not to the advantage of the kingdom , she would refrain from pursuing it . On reaching London , Wyatt was defeated and captured . Wyatt , the Duke of Suffolk , his daughter Lady Jane , and her husband Guildford Dudley were executed . Courtenay , who was implicated in the plot , was imprisoned , and then exiled . Elizabeth , though protesting her innocence in the Wyatt affair , was imprisoned in the Tower of London for two months , then was put under house arrest at Woodstock Palace .
Mary was — excluding the brief , disputed reigns of the Empress Matilda and Lady Jane Grey — England 's first queen regnant . Further , under the English common law doctrine of jure uxoris , the property and titles belonging to a woman became her husband 's upon marriage , and it was feared that any man she married would thereby become King of England in fact and in name . While Mary 's grandparents , Ferdinand and Isabella , had retained sovereignty of their own realms during their marriage , there was no precedent to follow in England . Under the terms of Queen Mary 's Marriage Act , Philip was to be styled " King of England " , all official documents ( including Acts of Parliament ) were to be dated with both their names , and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple , for Mary 's lifetime only . England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip 's father in any war , and Philip could not act without his wife 's consent or appoint foreigners to office in England . Philip was unhappy at the conditions imposed , but he was ready to agree for the sake of securing the marriage . He had no amorous feelings toward Mary and sought the marriage for its political and strategic gains ; Philip 's aide Ruy Gómez de Silva wrote to a correspondent in Brussels , " the marriage was concluded for no fleshly consideration , but in order to remedy the disorders of this kingdom and to preserve the Low Countries . "
To elevate his son to Mary 's rank , Emperor Charles V ceded to Philip the crown of Naples as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Therefore , Mary became Queen of Naples and titular Queen of Jerusalem upon marriage . Their wedding at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting . Philip could not speak English , and so they spoke in a mixture of Spanish , French , and Latin .
= = = False pregnancy = = =
In September 1554 , Mary stopped menstruating . She gained weight , and felt nauseated in the mornings . For these reasons , almost the entirety of her court , including her doctors , believed her to be pregnant . Parliament passed an act making Philip regent in the event of Mary 's death in childbirth . In the last week of April 1555 , Elizabeth was released from house arrest , and called to court as a witness to the birth , which was expected imminently . According to Giovanni Michieli , the Venetian ambassador , Philip may have planned to marry Elizabeth in the event of Mary 's death in childbirth , but in a letter to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Maximilian of Austria , Philip expressed uncertainty as to whether his wife was pregnant .
Thanksgiving services in the diocese of London were held at the end of April after false rumours that Mary had given birth to a son spread across Europe . Through May and June , the apparent delay in delivery fed gossip that Mary was not pregnant . Susan Clarencieux revealed her doubts to the French ambassador , Antoine de Noailles . Mary continued to exhibit signs of pregnancy until July 1555 , when her abdomen receded . There was no baby . Michieli dismissively ridiculed the pregnancy as more likely to " end in wind rather than anything else " . It was most likely a false pregnancy , perhaps induced by Mary 's overwhelming desire to have a child . In August , soon after the disgrace of the false pregnancy , which Mary considered to be " God 's punishment " for her having " tolerated heretics " in her realm , Philip left England to command his armies against France in Flanders . Mary was heartbroken and fell into a deep depression . Michieli was touched by the queen 's grief ; he wrote she was " extraordinarily in love " with her husband , and was disconsolate at his departure .
Elizabeth remained at court until October , apparently restored to favour . In the absence of any children , Philip was concerned that after Mary and Elizabeth , one of the next claimants to the English throne was the Queen of Scots , who was betrothed to the Dauphin of France . Philip persuaded Mary that Elizabeth should marry his cousin , Emmanuel Philibert , Duke of Savoy , to secure the Catholic succession and preserve the Habsburg interest in England , but Elizabeth refused to comply and parliamentary consent was unlikely .
= = = Religious policy = = =
In the month following her accession , Mary issued a proclamation that she would not compel any of her subjects to follow her religion , but by the end of September leading Protestant churchmen — including John Bradford , John Rogers , John Hooper , Hugh Latimer , and Thomas Cranmer — were imprisoned . Mary 's first Parliament , which assembled in early October 1553 , declared the marriage of her parents valid and abolished Edward 's religious laws . Church doctrine was restored to the form it had taken in the 1539 Six Articles , which ( among other things ) re @-@ affirmed clerical celibacy . Married priests were deprived of their benefices .
Mary had always rejected the break with Rome instituted by her father and the establishment of Protestantism by her brother 's regents . Philip persuaded Parliament to repeal Henry 's religious laws , thus returning the English church to Roman jurisdiction . Reaching an agreement took many months and Mary and Pope Julius III had to make a major concession : the monastery lands confiscated under Henry were not returned to the church but remained in the hands of their influential new owners . By the end of 1554 , the pope had approved the deal , and the Heresy Acts were revived .
Under the Heresy Acts , numerous Protestants were executed in the Marian persecutions . Around 800 rich Protestants , including John Foxe , chose exile instead . The first executions occurred over a period of five days in early February 1555 : John Rogers on 4 February , Laurence Saunders on 8 February , and Rowland Taylor and John Hooper on 9 February . Thomas Cranmer , the imprisoned archbishop of Canterbury , was forced to watch Bishops Ridley and Latimer being burned at the stake . Cranmer recanted , repudiated Protestant theology , and rejoined the Catholic faith . Under the normal process of the law , he should have been absolved as a repentant . Mary , however , refused to reprieve him . On the day of his burning , he dramatically withdrew his recantation . In total , 283 were executed , most by burning . The burnings proved so unpopular that even Alfonso de Castro , one of Philip 's own ecclesiastical staff , condemned them and another adviser , Simon Renard , warned him that such " cruel enforcement " could " cause a revolt " . Mary persevered with the policy , which continued until her death and exacerbated anti @-@ Catholic and anti @-@ Spanish feeling among the English people . The victims of the persecutions became lauded as martyrs .
Reginald Pole , the son of Mary 's executed governess and once considered a suitor , arrived as papal legate in November 1554 . He was ordained a priest and appointed Archbishop of Canterbury immediately after Cranmer 's death in March 1556 .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Furthering the Tudor conquest of Ireland , under Mary 's reign English colonists were settled in the Irish Midlands . Queen 's and King 's Counties ( now Counties Laois and Offaly ) were founded , and their plantation began . Their principal towns were respectively named Maryborough ( now Portlaoise ) and Philipstown ( now Daingean ) .
In January 1556 , Mary 's father @-@ in @-@ law abdicated and Philip became King of Spain , with Mary as his consort . They were still apart ; Philip was declared king in Brussels , but Mary stayed in England . Philip negotiated an unsteady truce with the French in February 1556 . The following month , the French ambassador in England , Antoine de Noailles , was implicated in a plot against Mary when Sir Henry Dudley , a second cousin of the executed Duke of Northumberland , attempted to assemble an invasion force in France . The plot , known as the Dudley conspiracy , was betrayed , and the conspirators in England were rounded up . Dudley remained in exile in France , and Noailles prudently left Britain .
Philip returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to support Spain in a renewed war against France . Mary was in favour of declaring war , but her councillors opposed it because French trade would be jeopardised , it contravened the marriage treaty , and a bad economic legacy from Edward VI 's reign and a series of poor harvests meant England lacked supplies and finances . War was only declared in June 1557 after Reginald Pole 's nephew , Thomas Stafford , invaded England and seized Scarborough Castle with French help in a failed attempt to depose Mary . As a result of the war , relations between England and the Papacy became strained , since Pope Paul IV was allied with Henry II of France . In January 1558 , French forces took Calais , England 's sole remaining possession on the European mainland . Although the territory was financially burdensome , it was an ideological loss that damaged Mary 's prestige . According to Holinshed 's Chronicles , Mary later lamented , " When I am dead and opened , you shall find ' Calais ' lying in my heart " , although this may be apocryphal .
= = = Commerce and revenue = = =
The years of Mary 's reign were consistently wet . The persistent rain and subsequent flooding led to famine . Another problem was the decline of the Antwerp cloth trade . Despite Mary 's marriage to Philip , England did not benefit from Spain 's enormously lucrative trade with the New World . The Spanish guarded their trade routes jealously , and Mary could not condone illicit trade or piracy against her husband . In an attempt to increase trade and rescue the English economy , Mary 's counsellors continued Northumberland 's policy of seeking out new commercial opportunities . She granted a royal charter to the Muscovy Company , whose first governor was Sebastian Cabot , and commissioned a world atlas from Diogo Homem . Adventurers such as John Lok and William Towerson sailed south in an attempt to develop links with the coast of Africa .
Financially , Mary 's regime tried to reconcile a modern form of government — with correspondingly higher spending — with a medieval system of collecting taxation and dues . Mary retained the Edwardian appointee William Paulet , 1st Marquess of Winchester , as Lord High Treasurer and assigned him to oversee the revenue collection system . A failure to apply new tariffs to new forms of imports meant that a key source of revenue was neglected . To solve this problem , Mary 's government published a revised " Book of Rates " ( 1558 ) , which listed the tariffs and duties for every import . This publication was not extensively reviewed until 1604 .
English coinage was debased under both Henry VIII and Edward VI . Mary drafted plans for currency reform but they were not implemented until after her death .
= = Death = =
After Philip 's visit in 1557 , Mary thought she was pregnant again , with a baby due in March 1558 . She decreed in her will that her husband would be the regent during the minority of their child . However , no child was born , and Mary was forced to accept that Elizabeth was her lawful successor .
Mary was weak and ill from May 1558 . In pain , possibly from ovarian cysts or uterine cancer , she died on 17 November 1558 , aged 42 , at St. James 's Palace , during an influenza epidemic that also claimed the life of Reginald Pole later the same day . She was succeeded by her half @-@ sister . Philip , who was in Brussels , wrote to his sister Joan : " I felt a reasonable regret for her death . "
Although Mary 's will stated that she wished to be buried next to her mother , she was interred in Westminster Abbey on 14 December , in a tomb she would eventually share with Elizabeth . The Latin inscription on their tomb , Regno consortes et urna , hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores , in spe resurrectionis ( affixed there by James I when he succeeded Elizabeth ) , translates to : " Consorts in realm and tomb , we , sisters Elizabeth and Mary , here lie down to sleep in hope of resurrection . "
= = Legacy = =
At her funeral service , John White , bishop of Winchester , praised Mary : " She was a king 's daughter ; she was a king 's sister ; she was a king 's wife . She was a queen , and by the same title a king also . " She was the first woman to succeed in claiming the throne of England , despite competing claims and determined opposition , and enjoyed popular support and sympathy during the earliest parts of her reign , especially from the Roman Catholics of England .
Catholic historians , such as John Lingard , thought Mary 's policies failed not because they were wrong but because she had too short a reign to establish them and because of natural disasters beyond her control . However , her marriage to Philip was unpopular among her subjects and her religious policies resulted in deep @-@ seated resentment . The military losses in France , poor weather , and failed harvests increased public discontent . Philip spent most of his time abroad , while his wife remained in England , leaving her depressed at his absence and undermined by their inability to have children . After Mary 's death , he sought to marry Elizabeth but she refused him . Thirty years later , he sent the Spanish Armada to overthrow her , without success .
By the seventeenth century , Mary 's persecution of Protestants had led to her sobriquet Bloody Mary . John Knox attacked her in his First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women ( 1558 ) , and she was prominently featured and vilified in Actes and Monuments ( 1563 ) , published by John Foxe , five years after her death . Subsequent editions of the book remained popular with Protestants throughout the following centuries and helped shape enduring perceptions of Mary as a bloodthirsty tyrant . In the mid @-@ twentieth century , H. F. M. Prescott attempted to redress the tradition that Mary was intolerant and authoritarian by writing more objectively , and scholarship since then has tended to view the older , simpler , partisan assessments of Mary with greater scepticism . Although Mary 's rule was ultimately ineffectual and unpopular , the policies of fiscal reform , naval expansion , and colonial exploration that were later lauded as Elizabethan accomplishments were started in Mary 's reign .
= = Titles , style , and arms = =
When Mary ascended the throne , she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI : " Mary , by the Grace of God , Queen of England , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , and of the Church of England and of Ireland on Earth Supreme Head " . The title Supreme Head of the Church was repugnant to Mary 's Catholicism , and she omitted it from Christmas 1553 .
Under Mary 's marriage treaty with Philip , the official joint style reflected not only Mary 's but also Philip 's dominions and claims : " Philip and Mary , by the grace of God , King and Queen of England , France , Naples , Jerusalem , and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , Princes of Spain and Sicily , Archdukes of Austria , Dukes of Milan , Burgundy and Brabant , Counts of Habsburg , Flanders and Tyrol " . This style , which had been in use since 1554 , was replaced when Philip inherited the Spanish Crown in 1556 with " Philip and Mary , by the Grace of God King and Queen of England , Spain , France , both the Sicilies , Jerusalem and Ireland , Defenders of the Faith , Archdukes of Austria , Dukes of Burgundy , Milan and Brabant , Counts of Habsburg , Flanders and Tyrol " .
Mary I 's coat of arms was the same as those used by all her predecessors since Henry IV : Quarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys Or [ for France ] and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) . Sometimes , her arms were impaled ( depicted side @-@ by @-@ side ) with those of her husband . She adopted " Truth , the Daughter of Time " ( Latin : Veritas Temporis Filia ) as her personal motto .
= = Ancestry = =
Both Mary and Philip were descended from legitimate children of John of Gaunt , 1st Duke of Lancaster , by his first two wives , a relationship which was used to portray Philip as an English king . Mary descended from the Duke of Lancaster by all three of his wives , Blanche of Lancaster , Constance of Castile , and Katherine Swynford .
= = = Family tree = = =
= = = Pedigree = = =
= 2000 Sugar Bowl =
The 2000 Sugar Bowl was the designated Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) National Championship Game for the United States 1999 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season and was played on January 4 , 2000 , at the Louisiana Superdome in New Orleans , Louisiana . The Florida State Seminoles , representing the Atlantic Coast Conference , defeated the Virginia Tech Hokies , representing the Big East Conference , by a score of 46 – 29 . With the win , Florida State clinched the 1999 BCS national championship , the team 's second national championship in its history .
An estimated total of 79 @,@ 280 people attended the game in person , while approximately 18 @.@ 4 million US viewers watched the game on ABC television . The resulting 17 @.@ 5 television rating was the third @-@ largest ever recorded for a BCS college football game . Tickets were in high demand for the game , withs tens of thousands of fans from both teams attending , many using scalped tickets to gain entry .
The game kicked off at 8 p.m. EST , and Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game . Though Tech advanced down the field , Florida State scored first and took advantage of a blocked punt for a touchdown , giving the Seminoles a 14 – 0 lead in the first quarter . Tech answered with a touchdown drive of its own before the end of the quarter , but Florida State scored two quick touchdowns to begin the second quarter . Virginia Tech scored a touchdown before halftime , but halfway through the game , Florida State held a 28 – 14 lead . In the third quarter , Virginia Tech 's offense gave the Hokies a lead with a field goal and two touchdowns . Tech failed to convert two two @-@ point conversions , but held a 29 – 28 lead at the end of the third quarter . Florida State answered in the fourth quarter , however , taking a 36 – 29 lead with a touchdown and successful two @-@ point conversion early in the quarter . From this point , the Seminoles did not relinquish the lead , extending it to 46 – 29 with another touchdown and a field goal .
For his performance in the game , Florida Statewide receiver Peter Warrick was named the game 's most valuable player . Although Tech lost the game , several of its players won postseason awards — most notably Michael Vick , who earned an ESPY for his performance during the Sugar Bowl and the regular season . Several players from each team entered the National Football League after graduation , being selected either in the 2000 NFL Draft or later editions of that selection process .
= = Team selection = =
By contract , the top two teams in the BCS Poll at the conclusion of the regular season were invited to the BCS national championship game . In 2000 , the BCS Poll was a combination of four different systems : media and coaches ' polls ( Associated Press college football poll and USA Today Coaches ' Poll ) , team records , a collection of eight different computer ranking systems , and a strength @-@ of @-@ schedule component based on opponent records . Under the BCS , the site of the national championship game rotated every year . In 2000 , there were four BCS bowl games : the Rose Bowl , the Sugar Bowl , the Orange Bowl , and the Fiesta Bowl . The national championship game rotated to a different location each year , and the other three games served as bowl games for lower @-@ ranked teams . Later , in 2007 , the BCS National Championship was created , adding a fifth BCS bowl . In 2000 , the Sugar Bowl was scheduled to host the national championship game .
= = = Florida State = = =
The Florida State Seminoles ended the 1998 college football season with a 23 – 16 loss to the Tennessee Volunteers in the 1999 Fiesta Bowl , which was the national championship game that year . The loss was only the second of the season for Florida State , which had entered the game ranked No. 2 and favored against the No. 1 ranked Volunteers . Florida State players and coaches entered the off @-@ season hoping to improve upon their runner @-@ up finish in the national championship game the year before , and were voted the No. 1 team in the country in the annual Associated Press preseason poll .
Florida State lived up to its No. 1 ranking in its first game of the 1999 college football season , routing unranked Louisiana Tech , 41 – 7 . The following week , in their ACC opener , the Seminoles had a closer contest against Georgia Tech , but still earned a 41 – 35 victory . As the weeks went by , the wins continued to accumulate . FSU defeated North Carolina State , 42 – 11 ; North Carolina , 42 – 10 ; and Duke , 51 – 23 . In the seventh week of the college football season , the Seminoles faced off against a traditional rival : the Miami Hurricanes . Heading into the game , the Seminoles were without star wide receiver and potential Heisman Trophy candidate Peter Warrick , who was suspended from the team after being arrested for participating in a scheme to underpay for clothes at a Tallahassee , Florida clothing store . Despite the loss of Warrick , Florida State eked out a 31 – 21 victory over the Hurricanes after being tied , 21 – 21 , at halftime .
The week after the Miami game , the Seminoles had an even closer call against the Clemson Tigers — their closest , in fact , of the entire season . Despite the return of Peter Warrick , who was cleared of charges in a Florida courtroom , Florida State fell behind the Tigers in the first half . Trailing in Clemson , South Carolina , 14 – 3 at halftime , Florida State cut the gap to 14 – 6 with a field goal midway through the third quarter , then tied the game at the end of the third quarter with a touchdown and two @-@ point conversion . The Seminoles clinched the victory after a field goal late in the fourth quarter gave them a 17 – 14 lead and cemented the victory when a Clemson attempt to even the score with a field goal fell short . The victory was FSU head coach Bobby Bowden 's 300th win and came against his son , Tommy Bowden , coach of the Tigers .
Florida State earned easy wins with a 35 – 10 victory over Virginia and a 49 – 10 win over Maryland before facing the rival Florida Gators in the final game of the Seminoles ' regular season . Florida State led throughout the game , but had to fend off a last @-@ minute Florida drive in order to clinch a 30 – 23 win and just the third perfect regular season in Florida State history . This season later was termed the " Wire to Wire " season as the Seminoles kept their No. 1 ranking the entire season .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
Like Florida State , the Virginia Tech Hokies began the 1999 college football season with raised expectations . In 1998 , the Hokies had gone 9 – 3 during the regular season and had posted a 5 – 2 record against fellow Big East Conference teams . The Hokies concluded that 1998 season — which was supposed to be a rebuilding year — in the 1998 Music City Bowl , where the Hokies defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide , 38 – 7 . With the addition of redshirt freshman quarterback Michael Vick to a team that had allowed an average of just 12 @.@ 9 points per game on defense , there was the possibility that Tech could improve upon its previous season 's performance . Sports Illustrated , for example , predicted that the Hokies might challenge Miami for the Big East football championship , and the preseason Coaches ' Poll ranked the Hokies No. 14 prior to the first game of the season .
In their first game of the season , the Hokies lived up to expectations , shutting out James Madison University , 47 – 0 . The game was the first time Tech had shut out an opponent in a season opener since 1953 . The game was marred , however , by a leg injury to Michael Vick that caused him to leave the game . The following week , against the University of Alabama Birmingham , Vick did not play . Despite his absence , the Hokies still managed a 31 – 10 win . This was followed by a 31 – 11 Thursday @-@ night victory over Clemson in Virginia Tech 's first game against a Division I @-@ A opponent during the season .
Following the win over Clemson , Tech faced traditional rival Virginia in the annual battle for the Commonwealth Cup . Despite the rivalry and the fact that Virginia was ranked the No. 24 team in the country , the Cavaliers put up even less of a struggle than Clemson . Virginia Tech won , 31 – 7 . Now No. 5 in the country , Tech began to distance itself from other highly ranked teams with consecutive wins over Rutgers and Syracuse . The 62 – 0 shutout of No. 16 Syracuse was the largest victory ever recorded against a team ranked in the AP Poll . By this time , the Hokies were being described in media reports as a national championship contender .
Following a 30 – 17 victory at Pittsburgh , Virginia Tech traveled to Morgantown , West Virginia , to face the West Virginia Mountaineers in the annual battle for the Black Diamond Trophy . In West Virginia , Virginia Tech eked out a 22 – 20 victory with a last @-@ second field goal from placekicker Shayne Graham . It was Tech 's closest victory of the season and moved the Hokies to the No. 2 ranking in the country .
Following the win over West Virginia , Tech defeated Miami , 43 – 10 , and Temple , 62 – 7 , to clinch the Big East championship . In the final game of the regular season , the Hokies beat Boston College , 38 – 14 , cementing the third unbeaten season in Virginia Tech history and the Hokies ' first since 1954 .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the month prior to the Sugar Bowl , media attention focused on Virginia Tech 's sudden rise to national prominence and Florida State 's perennial appearance in the national championship game . The Seminoles had the most top @-@ 5 finishes and the most national championship game appearances of any team in the 1990s , including a national championship victory in 1993 . Many media stories focused on the apparent David and Goliath showdown between the two teams , with the Seminoles in the role of the overdog and the Hokies in the role of the underdog . Because of this fact , spread bettors favored Florida State to win the game by 5 @.@ 5 points .
Tens of thousands of fans from both teams traveled to the game , often purchasing ticket and travel packages for thousands of dollars . The limited numbers of tickets available for the game were in high demand by fans of both teams .
= = = Florida State offense = = =
The Seminoles threw for no fewer than 229 passing yards in every game during the regular season and averaged 12 @.@ 7 points per game more than its opponents . On the ground , the Seminoles averaged 122 @.@ 8 rushing yards per game .
Leading the Florida State offense was quarterback Chris Weinke , a former baseball player who , at 27 years old , was by far the oldest player on the Seminoles ' team . After suffering a neck injury in the 1998 college football season , Weinke recovered to complete 232 of 377 pass attempts for 3 @,@ 103 yards , 25 touchdowns , and 14 interceptions .
Weinke 's favorite target was wide receiver Peter Warrick , who led all Seminole receivers with 71 receptions and 931 yards in just nine games during the regular season . Five times , Warrick earned more than 100 receiving yards in a game . Warrick 's season was shortened by a two @-@ game suspension following his arrest for underpaying for clothes , but he still was named an All @-@ America selection at wide receiver , signifying his status as one of the best players in the country at the position .
Florida State placekicker Sebastian Janikowski , who was born in Poland , also was a key component of the Seminoles ' scoring offense . In his career at Florida State prior to the Sugar Bowl , Janikowski made 65 of 83 field goal attempts , including 33 of his previous 38 kicks of less than 50 yards . Janikowski also handled kickoffs , kicking the ball so hard that 57 of his 83 kickoffs were touchbacks . Janikowski was considered to have the potential to be an early selection in the 2000 NFL Draft by several scouts for professional teams .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
During the regular season , Virginia Tech 's offense outscored opponents by an average of 31 points per game . Tech averaged 254 yards rushing per game , the eighth @-@ highest average in the nation . Important to that success was running back Shyrone Stith , who had 1 @,@ 119 rushing yards during the regular season . Even more important to the Hokies ' success , however , was quarterback Michael Vick .
Vick was recognized by multiple nationwide publications for his performance during the regular season . His passer rating was the highest of any quarterback in the country , and he completed 59 @.@ 2 percent of his 152 passes for 1 @,@ 840 yards , 12 touchdowns , and five interceptions . In addition , He rushed for 585 yards and eight touchdowns on 108 carries . Vick was named Big East Offensive Player of the Year and was the runner @-@ up in voting for the Associated Press Player of the Year . Vick 's average of 242 yards of total offense per game were the most in the country , and his 184 passing yards per game were the second @-@ most . In addition , Vick finished third in the voting for the Heisman Trophy , traditionally given to the best college football player in the country . He was featured in multiple national publications , including on the cover of Sports Illustrated twice ..
A handful of days before the Sugar Bowl , Tech wide receiver Ricky Hall broke a bone in his foot during practice and was considered unlikely to play . Hall was Tech 's second @-@ leading receiver , having caught 25 passes for 398 yards and three touchdowns . In addition , Hall was the Hokies ' starting punt returner , and had returned 40 kicks for 510 yards and one touchdown , setting a school record for punt return yardage .
Tech placekicker Shayne Graham won Big East Special Teams Player of the Year honors after scoring 107 points during the regular season . That mark set a Big East record , and Graham 's 372 career points during his four years with the Hokies were a NCAA record at the time . Graham 's award ensured Tech won all five of the Big East 's player and coach of the year awards .
= = = Florida State defense = = =
The Florida State defense was considered key to reining in Tech quarterback Vick . The Seminoles allowed less than 100 rushing yards per game on average , and intercepted 22 passes during the regular season . The Seminoles were ranked 15th nationally in pass defense at the end of the regular season but had allowed increasing amounts of pass yardage in the latter games of the season . Despite that fact , the Florida State defense 's main concern was Michael Vick 's ability to run the football . Said Florida State defensive coordinator Mickey Andrews : " A guy like that usually gives us problems , considering the type of ( 4 – 3 gap ) defense we run . When a quarterback gets out of the pocket , that could hurt us for big yardage . "
The Seminole defense was led by nose guard Corey Simon , who accumulated 48 solo tackles , four sacks , and one interception . For his accomplishments during the regular season , Simon earned consensus first @-@ team All @-@ America honors . Despite his accomplishments , Simon was not the Seminoles ' leading tackler . That honor went to linebacker Tommy Polley , who accumulated 67 tackles during the season . Fellow linebacker Brian Allen contributed five quarterback sacks , the most in that statistical category for Florida State .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
In the important category of scoring defense , the Hokies were the top @-@ ranked defense in the country , allowing only 10 @.@ 5 points per game . The team was ranked No. 3 in the country in both total defense and rushing defense . On average , Tech allowed just 247 @.@ 3 total yards and 75 @.@ 9 rushing yards per game . Tech 's pass defense was No. 7 in the country , allowing an average of 171 @.@ 4 passing yards per game . The Hokies permitted no more than 226 passing yards to any team during the regular season , and no opposing player earned 100 receiving yards . Tech defenders also accumulated 58 sacks during the season .
Virginia Tech defensive end Corey Moore was the top performer on the Hokie defense . Moore accumulated 55 tackles and 17 sacks during the regular season , and was named Big East Defensive Player of the Year and to the Associated Press All @-@ America team . In the first week of December , Moore was awarded the Bronko Nagurski Trophy , given to the best defensive college football player in the country . Tech 's other defensive end was John Engelberger , who earned seven sacks , six other tackles for loss and 16 quarterback hurries . Engelberger was projected by pro scouts to be the first Tech player selected in the 2000 NFL Draft .
= = Game summary = =
The 2000 Sugar Bowl kicked off at 8 p.m. EST on January 4 , 2000 , at the Louisiana Superdome , in New Orleans , Louisiana . A crowd of 79 @,@ 280 people attended the game in person , and an estimated 18 @.@ 4 million people watched the game 's television broadcast on ABC , earning the broadcast a television rating of 17 @.@ 5 , the third @-@ highest rating ever recorded for a BCS game . ABC estimates were higher , speculating that at least 54 million people watched at least a portion of the broadcast . Brent Musburger , Gary Danielson , Lynn Swann , and Jack Arute were the television commentators for the event , and Ron Franklin , Mike Gottfried , and Adrian Karsten provided commentary for the ESPN Radio broadcast of the game . In exchange for their performance at the game , Virginia Tech and Florida State each received more than $ 4 million .
The traditional pregame singing of the national anthem was performed by the Zion Harmonizers , a New Orleans gospel quartet . Steve Shaw was the referee . Actor John Goodman performed the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss to determine first possession of the ball . Florida State won the coin toss and elected to kick off to Virginia Tech to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech received the game 's opening kickoff in their end zone for a touchback , and the Tech offense began at its 20 @-@ yard line . On the game 's first play , Tech committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty . Running back Shyrone Stith was stopped for a loss on the first non @-@ penalty play of the game , but Tech made up both that loss and the penalty when quarterback Michael Vick scrambled for 25 yards and a first down . Vick then ran for another nine yards , pushing the line of scrimmage near midfield . Tech executed an option run to Stith , who ran inside the Florida State 30 @-@ yard line . Tech picked up a few yards with a run up the middle , then Vick completed a pass to Davis , giving the Hokies a first down at the Florida State 13 @-@ yard line . Stith picked up seven yards on a rush to the six @-@ yard line , but the Seminole defense stiffened , and Tech was unable to pick up the remaining three yards needed for a first down . Facing a fourth down and needing less than a yard to pick up another first down inside the Florida State three @-@ yard line , Tech head coach Frank Beamer kept his offense on the field to attempt to gain the first down rather than kick a field goal . On the attempt , however , Vick fumbled the ball forward into the end zone , where Florida State recovered it for a touchback . Virginia Tech was thus denied the first score of the game , and Florida State 's offense entered the game for the first time .
Starting at their 20 @-@ yard line after the touchback , Florida State 's first play was a five @-@ yard rush by running back Travis Minor . Quarterback Chris Weinke then completed a three @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Peter Warrick , who was stopped short of the first down . After the next play failed to gain positive yardage , the Seminoles were forced to punt . Virginia Tech 's offense began their second series after a short punt return to the 31 @-@ yard line . After an incomplete pass from Vick , Stith picked up a Tech first down with two running plays . From their 43 @-@ yard line , Tech executed an end @-@ around for a first down . Florida State also committed a five @-@ yard facemask penalty that pushed Tech to the Seminoles ' 40 @-@ yard line . Tech was stopped for losses on subsequent plays and committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty , but Vick completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Davis for a first down , making up the losses . Tech was unable to make good the losses accumulated on the next three plays , when Vick was sacked after throwing two incomplete passes . Tech punted , the ball rolled into the end zone , and Florida State 's offense began again at its 20 @-@ yard line . Weinke threw two incomplete passes before connecting on a first @-@ down throw to wide receiver Ron Dugans . On the next play , Weinke connected on a 64 @-@ yard throw to Warrick for a Florida State touchdown and the first points of the game . The extra point attempt was successful , and Florida State took a 7 – 0 lead with 3 : 22 remaining in the first quarter .
Following Florida State 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff , Virginia Tech 's offense began its third possession of the game at the Tech 24 @-@ yard line after a short kick return . Running back Andre Kendrick ran for a short gain , but on the next play Vick was called for an intentional grounding penalty while attempting to avoid a sack . The Hokies were unable to make up the yardage lost by the penalty and punted after failing to gain a first down . Owing to the penalty , Tech punter Jimmy Kibble was forced to kick from his own end zone . Florida State was able to break through the Tech offensive line during the punt and blocked the kick . The ball was picked up by Florida State defender Jeff Chaney , who dashed into the end zone for Florida State 's second touchdown of the game . The score and extra point gave Florida State a 14 – 0 lead with 2 : 14 remaining in the first quarter .
Florida State 's kickoff was downed for a touchback , and Tech began at its 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the possession , Florida State committed a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty that gave Tech a first down at its 35 @-@ yard line . Tech was further aided by two five @-@ yard penalties against Florida State that gave the Hokies another first down , and Vick completed a short pass across midfield . On the first play in Florida State territory , Vick completed a 49 @-@ yard throw to wide receiver Andre Davis for Tech 's first touchdown of the game . The extra point attempt was good , and with 30 seconds remaining in the quarter , Tech narrowed Florida State 's lead to 14 – 7 .
Following Virginia Tech 's kickoff and a touchback , Florida State 's offense started work at its 20 @-@ yard line . Tech committed a five @-@ yard penalty , and as the final seconds of the quarter ticked off , Florida State ran up the middle for five yards and a first down . At the end of the first quarter , the score was 14 – 7 , Florida State leading .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Florida State in possession of the ball , facing a first down at its 30 @-@ yard line . After picking up short yardage on two consecutive plays , Weinke completed a 63 @-@ yard pass to Dugans , who ran down the field for a touchdown . The extra point was successful , and with 13 : 45 remaining in the second quarter , Florida State extended its lead to 21 – 7 . Following the Florida State kickoff , Virginia Tech returned the ball to the 33 @-@ yard line , where Tech 's offense began operations . Tech committed an offensive pass interference penalty , and Tech was forced to punt after being unable to gain a first down after the penalty . The Seminoles ' Peter Warrick was assigned to return the punt , and he fielded the ball at the Florida State 41 @-@ yard line . Thanks to several key blocks from other Florida State players , Warrick was able to run 59 unimpeded yards to the end zone for a touchdown . With 11 : 34 still remaining before halftime , the Seminoles extended their lead to 28 – 7 .
Following the Florida State kickoff , Virginia Tech attempted to answer Florida State 's kick @-@ return touchdown with one of its own . Kendrick fielded the ball at the Virginia Tech goal line and returned it 63 yards , all the way to the Florida State 37 @-@ yard line , where the Hokie offense began work . Despite the good field position , Tech was unable to gain a first down . Tech kicker Shayne Graham was sent into the game , seemingly to attempt a 51 @-@ yard field goal . Instead of kicking the ball , Graham attempted to run the ball for a first down . Graham fumbled short of the first down , and Florida State took over on offense with 9 : 43 remaining in the first half .
On the Seminoles ' first offensive play of the drive , they attempted a flea flicker pass , which was caught by Warrick at the Virginia Tech 33 @-@ yard line for a 33 @-@ yard gain . Following the play , Weinke was sacked for the first time by the Tech defense . This was followed immediately by Tech 's second sack , which pushed Weinke back into the Seminoles ' side of the field . On the third play of the Seminole drive , Weinke attempted to scramble for yardage , but was stopped short of the needed mark . Florida State 's punt was downed at the Virginia Tech one @-@ yard line , which was where the Tech offense began work . Florida State 's defense prevented the Hokies from gaining a first down , and Tech again had to punt from its end zone .
Following the kick and a short return , Florida State began a drive at the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , seemingly in excellent field position . But on the first play of the State drive , the Seminoles were stopped for a loss . State was able to pick up a short gain on the second play , but on the third , Weinke was sacked for the third time in the game . After the Seminole punt and a touchback , Tech 's offense started at its 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies picked up a first down with an option run to Stith , then Vick ran for a long gain and another first down at the Florida State 20 @-@ yard line . Stith picked up seven yards on a rush up the middle of the field , then Vick completed a first @-@ down pass to Derek Carter inside the Seminole 10 @-@ yard line . Kendrick advanced the ball to the Seminole three @-@ yard line , then Vick ran the remaining yardage for a touchdown . Following the extra point , Tech cut Florida State 's lead to 28 – 14 with 37 seconds remaining in the first half .
After the Virginia Tech kickoff and a Florida State return to their 17 @-@ yard line , Florida State began running out the clock to bring the half to an end . At halftime , Florida State held a 28 – 14 lead over Virginia Tech .
= = = Halftime = = =
At halftime , several organizations and groups performed under the overarching theme of a " Gospel Jubilee . " The halftime show was organized by Douglas K. Green and Bowl Games of America , a company founded to provide similar services to bowl games across the United States . Multiple high school bands and dance teams from Kansas to Florida entertained the crowd .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game , Florida State received the ball to begin the second half . The Seminoles returned the kickoff to their 22 @-@ yard line , and on the first play of the second half attempted a lateral pass . Virginia Tech defender Corey Moore knocked the ball down and out of bounds , causing a loss of 16 yards . Despite the loss , Weinke was able to make good the needed yards with a 28 @-@ yard pass to Minor . Minor picked up short yardage on a run up the middle , then Weinke passed for another first down , advancing the ball to the State 45 @-@ yard line . On first down , Weinke fumbled , but managed to recover the ball after a five @-@ yard loss . Unlike before , State was unable to regain the lost yardage and was forced to punt . Virginia Tech returned the kick to their 33 @-@ yard line , where the Tech offense began work .
Vick passed for six yards , then ran an option for 12 yards and a first down . Now on State 's side of the field , however , the Tech offense was unable to gain another first down and punted back to Florida State , which returned the kick to its 21 @-@ yard line . State was stopped short on consecutive plays , committed a five @-@ yard false start penalty , then was stopped for no gain on third down . After going three and out , State punted back to the Hokies , who returned the ball to the Seminoles ' 41 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the drive , Vick completed a 26 @-@ yard pass to the Tech fullback , Hawkins . After three rushes failed to pick up the first down at the Florida State five @-@ yard line , Tech coach Frank Beamer sent in Graham to kick a 23 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was successful , and with 7 : 54 remaining in the quarter , Tech cut Florida State 's lead to 28 – 17 .
Virginia Tech 's post @-@ touchdown kickoff was downed for a touchback , and Florida State 's offense started a drive at its 20 @-@ yard line . Weinke completed one pass , but two others fell incomplete , and Florida State punted after again going three and out . The Hokies returned the State kick to the Seminoles ' 36 @-@ yard line with a 45 @-@ yard return . Vick threw an incomplete pass , ran for seven yards , then handed it off to Kendrick , who broke through the Florida State defense and ran ahead 29 yards for a touchdown . Rather than attempt an extra point , Beamer ordered a two @-@ point conversion in an attempt to cut Florida State 's lead to just three points . The play , which was Tech 's first two @-@ point attempt that season , failed . Even without an extra point , the touchdown still cut Florida State 's lead to 28 – 23 .
After the post @-@ score kickoff and return , Florida State began at its 22 @-@ yard line . Weinke completed a first @-@ down pass to Warrick , but Warrick committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty in the process . On the next play , Weinke attempted a long pass downfield , but Tech defender Anthony Midget intercepted the ball at the Tech 41 @-@ yard line . Trailing by five , Tech 's offense began a drive to potentially further cut Florida State 's lead or put the Hokies in the lead themselves . After slipping on the field and taking a loss , Vick completed a 20 @-@ yard pass to Hawkins , who picked up a first down and pushed Tech to the Florida State 39 @-@ yard line . After a short rush by Kendrick , Vick scrambled to the State 21 @-@ yard line for another first down . On the next play , Vick was sacked for a seven @-@ yard loss , but recovered the lost ground by running for 22 yards on the next play . With a first down at the Seminoles ' seven @-@ yard line , Vick handed the ball to Kendrick , who ran seven yards straight ahead for a Tech touchdown , giving the Hokies the lead for the first time in the game . Again , Beamer ordered a two @-@ point conversion attempt , but again , Florida State stopped the Hokies short . Despite that failure to pick up the two @-@ point conversion , Tech took a 29 – 28 lead with 2 : 13 remaining in the quarter .
The Seminoles returned Tech 's post @-@ score kick to their 15 @-@ yard line , where Florida State 's offense began work again , hoping to regain the lead for State . Weinke completed a seven @-@ yard pass to Warrick , then was sacked by the Virginia Tech defense . Weinke overcame the loss on the next play with a 19 @-@ yard first @-@ down pass . State continued to advance the ball with short passes , as Weinke completed a five @-@ yard throw . Chaney gained three yards on a rush to the right as the final seconds of the third quarter ticked off the clock , setting up an important third @-@ down play . With one quarter remaining , Virginia Tech led Florida State , 29 – 28 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Florida State began the fourth quarter in possession of the ball and facing a third down , needing three yards for a first down . Weinke completed a pass for just short of the needed three yards . Instead of punting the ball away , Florida State head coach Bobby Bowden ordered the team to attempt to convert the
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and League City ( in fact the rice industry on the U.S. Gulf Coast was born in Webster ; see Seito Saibara ) . Major manufacturing centers developed throughout the Bay Area with Houston acting as the corporate and financial center for the boom . Wealthy Houstonians created waterfront retreats in Morgan 's Point and a boardwalk amusement park at Sylvan Beach , La Porte ( together known at the time as the Texas " Gold Coast " ) , as well as summer homes at Seabrook and other communities . The onset of Prohibition made Galveston Bay an important entry point for smuggling illegal liquor , which supplied most of Texas and much of the Midwest . Boats arrived at locations ranging from Galveston to Seabrook . The Maceo crime syndicate , which operated in Galveston at that time , created casino districts in Kemah and Dickinson and other areas of Galveston County . Houstonians often humorously referred to the county line as the " Maceo @-@ Dickinson line " ( a pun referring to the Mason @-@ Dixon line ) . Much of the area around Clear Lake was developed as recreational properties for the wealthy , including a large ranch estate owned by Houston businessman James West . Though the Great Depression closed many businesses in the area petroleum @-@ related growth helped offset the effects .
During the World Wars , factories around the bay were pressed into service mass @-@ producing a variety of products including aviation fuel , synthetic rubber , and ships . The first tin smelter outside of Europe was opened in Texas City becoming one of the world 's main suppliers . The population in the Bay Area grew faster than even Houston as processing plants and factories were built and expanded . Ellington Air Force Base was built to the southeast of Houston ( adjacent to modern Clear Lake City ) and became a major air field and flight training center during the wars .
Industrialization and urbanization during the earlier 20th century led to the pollution of the bay . By the 1970s the bay was described by some sources as " the most polluted body of water in the U.S. " The ship channel and Clear Lake were rated by some sources as having even worse water quality . Drilling for oil and underground water , as well as large wakes from increasing shipping in the bay , led to land subsidence and erosion along the shoreline , especially in the Baytown @-@ Pasadena area . Today approximately 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) of the historic San Jacinto battleground are submerged , most of Sylvan Beach is gone , and the once prominent Brownwood neighborhood of Baytown has had to be abandoned .
In 1947 , an explosion on a ship at the Port of Texas City caused fires and destruction throughout the city 's industrial complex and other ships creating one of nation 's worst industrial accidents . The tragedy caused more than five hundred deaths , more than four thousand injuries , and more than $ 50 million in damage ( $ 530 million in today 's dollars ) . Though the city 's growth and prosperity were interrupted , the city and the business leaders were able to rebuild .
= = Modern times = =
The war effort had brought about significant diversification in the area 's industrial base . This diversity facilitated the area 's transition to a peacetime economy though the petroleum industry again became a major focus . In 1952 the Gulf Freeway , then part of U.S. Route 75 , was completed providing a fast automobile link between Houston and Galveston . The new freeway , considered an engineering marvel at the time , greatly encouraged new development in the western region of the bay .
Hurricane Carla , Texas ' largest storm on record , struck the coast in 1961 causing substantial flooding and damage in Texas City and other communities . Loss of life was minimal thanks to evacuation efforts . Expansion of the flood control dike and construction on the Texas City seawall occurred a result . The project was completed in 1985 .
NASA 's Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) was established in the area in 1963 . That and the explosive growth of neighboring Houston in the mid @-@ 20th century , especially the 1970s and 1980s , caused the remainder of the communities on the southwestern shore to urbanize . The Clear Lake City community was created by the Friendswood Development Company , a venture of Humble Oil and Dell E. Webb Corporation , to support residential growth near the new NASA facility . The communities around Clear Lake rapidly reoriented toward aerospace related industries , and the region 's economy diversified further . Urban development spread solidly between Houston and the Bay Area communities . Houston formally annexed most of Clear Lake City in 1977 with Pasadena annexing most of the rest . Most of the other communities around the bay , however , had already incorporated , or incorporated soon afterward , and thus were independent of the metropolis .
The economic boom of the 1970s and early 1980s that took place in Texas ( because of the escalation in oil prices ) benefited the Bay Area communities significantly . Industrial operations were expanded including the opening of the U.S. Steel plant in Baytown in 1970 , and the Barbours Cut shipping terminal at Morgan 's Point in 1977 . The Port of Texas City became the third leading port in Texas by tonnage and ninth in the nation . The Barbours Cut terminal , operated by the Port of Houston , became the seventh leading port in the nation . Not all of this development was without controversy , however . In building Barbours Cut , the Port of Houston used its power of eminent domain to evict residents from nearly one third of the homes in Morgan 's Point . Still , when the Texas economy declined in the later 1980s , the economic diversity of the area and substantial annual federal investments related to JSC helped the region fare better than most of Greater Houston .
Conservation efforts in the mid to late 20th century by area industries and municipalities helped to dramatically improve water quality in the bay . The Nature Conservancy and Houston 's Outdoor Nature Club ( ONC ) helped encourage nature preservation efforts including creating the Anahuac National Wildlife Refuge , the Armand Bayou Nature Center , and the Texas City Prairie Preserve . Tourism in the area grew , especially around Clear Lake , led in large part by the Space Center . Some former resort communities of the early 20th century like Kemah and Seabrook re @-@ emerged . The lake itself today holds one of the largest concentrations of marinas in the world .
During the later 20th century and afterward , many of the communities and businesses in the area began cooperative efforts , including the Clear Lake Area Chamber of Commerce , the Bay Area Houston Economic Partnership , and the Bay Area Houston Transportation Partnership , to create a distinct economic and civic identity for the region and to plan regional development . Though most of the communities in the region have been incorporated into municipalities , a few unincorporated communities remain under the extra @-@ territorial jurisdiction of neighboring towns . These include San Leon , Bacliff , and Smith Point . The communities of San Leon and Bacliff , despite their seaside location , their proximity to the relatively prosperous Clear Lake Area , and the development of summer resort communities there in the early 20th century , have suffered economic decline since the mid @-@ 20th century and are among the least affluent parts of the Bay Area today .
In 2008 Hurricane Ike struck the coast causing substantial damage both environmentally and economically . As of 2009 the ecology of the region is still in recovery with damage caused by both natural pollution ( sea salt ) and man @-@ made pollution ( chemicals washed into the freshwater and the bay ) still showing dramatic effects on both the marine and land @-@ dwelling wildlife . Commercial fishing and oyster farming are expected to take decades to fully recover . Most major industry was able to return to normal operations but some tourist areas have taken longer to recover .
Discussions of a proposal to build an Ike Dike that would protect the Bay Area , particularly the nationally critical Houston Ship Channel , were begun in 2009 . As of 2010 the project is still in the conceptual stage .
= Oklahoma State Highway 9 =
State Highway 9 , abbreviated as SH @-@ 9 , OK @-@ 9 , or simply Highway 9 , is a major east – west highway in the U.S. state of Oklahoma . Spanning across the central part of the state , SH @-@ 9 begins at the Texas state line near Madge , Oklahoma , and ends at the Arkansas state line near Fort Smith , Arkansas . State Highway 9 is a major highway around the Norman area . At 348 @.@ 1 miles ( 560 @.@ 2 km ) , SH @-@ 9 is Oklahoma 's second @-@ longest state highway ( second to State Highway 3 ) .
= = Route description = =
= = = West of Interstate 35 = = =
From the western terminus at State Highway 203 along the Texas border , the highway travels due east for five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) and intersects with SH @-@ 30 between Madge and Vinson . SH @-@ 9 continues east for 23 miles ( 37 km ) without intersecting another highway until meeting US @-@ 283 and SH @-@ 34 two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Mangum . The highway overlaps the other two routes for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , going north , before splitting off and heading east again through Granite and Lone Wolf . East of Lone Wolf , the highway forms a concurrency with SH @-@ 44 . Near Hobart , SH @-@ 9 overlaps US @-@ 183 for 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) ( again going northward ) before splitting off again .
Continuing east , SH @-@ 9 passes through Gotebo , Mountain View , and Carnegie . Around Fort Cobb , Oklahoma , the highway begins nine miles ( 14 km ) of travel to the south . There , the route links up with the concurrent U.S. Highways 62 and 281 . While US @-@ 281 will split off in Anadarko , SH @-@ 9 and US @-@ 62 remain concurrent until Newcastle . In Chickasha , US @-@ 277 joins to form another three @-@ route concurrency with US @-@ 62 and SH @-@ 9 . On the eastern edge of Chickasha , US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 have an interchange with I @-@ 44 , or more commonly known as the H.E. Bailey Turnpike .
Traveling northeast from Chickasha , US @-@ 62 / 277 / SH @-@ 9 are routed to the town of Blanchard . Four miles later , SH @-@ 9 splits away from the two U.S. routes at a diamond interchange that also serves as the eastern terminus of the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur . SH @-@ 9 remains without any concurrent routes until Goldsby . The section of road east of US @-@ 62 / 277 , recently upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway , provides a link from the H.E. Bailey Turnpike Spur to Interstate 35 . At the interstate , SH @-@ 9 merges onto I @-@ 35 northbound to cross the Canadian River into Norman .
= = = East of Interstate 35 = = =
Through Norman , Highway 9 serves as a major artery providing access to the University of Oklahoma campus ( in particular , the Lloyd Noble Center ) . Around the area , the route is a four @-@ lane divided expressway ( with surface crossings and stoplights ) . However , after a full interchange with US @-@ 77 , the road becomes a two lane highway again .
SH @-@ 9 continues eastward , passing Lake Thunderbird State Park , before reaching the towns of Tecumseh and Seminole . The road intersects the Indian Nation Turnpike near Hanna , and US @-@ 69 near Eufaula . SH @-@ 9 provides access to the south side of Lake Eufaula before reaching Stigler .
SH @-@ 9 overlaps US @-@ 59 for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , after which the road becomes concurrent with US @-@ 271 . Both remain concurrent , until the highway ends at the Arkansas border . After passing the Arkansas state line , State Highway 9 becomes I @-@ 540 , and US @-@ 271 continues over the state line concurrent with the Interstate .
= = History = =
Officially designated on 1924 @-@ 08 @-@ 24 , the original route encompassed all of current SH @-@ 9 west of Blanchard . East of Blanchard , SH @-@ 9 followed a more northerly route . Bypassing Norman , SH @-@ 9 ran north to Oklahoma City before going east through Harrah , Meeker , Prague , Henryetta , and Checotah . The highway ended at the original State Highway 3 in Spiro . Upon the creation of the United States Numbered Routes system in 1926 , the section between Oklahoma City and Warner was overlaid with U.S. Highway 266 . Four years later in 1930 , SH @-@ 9 was truncated to Chickasha . By this time , much of the route had become part of U.S. Highway 62 .
On 1935 @-@ 08 @-@ 27 , the route was extended eastward , taking over the original SH @-@ 37 . SH @-@ 9 's eastern terminus became SH @-@ 48 near Seminole . On 1937 @-@ 08 @-@ 25 , the route was brought further east to end at US @-@ 69 in Eufaula . Part of the newly commissioned section was rescinded on 1937 @-@ 10 @-@ 19 , when a small segment just east of SH @-@ 48 and the entire Hughes County portion were dropped from the highway . These sections were re @-@ added on 1938 @-@ 09 @-@ 27 .
State Highway 9 was extended eastward twice in the route 's history . The first extension occurred on 1941 @-@ 02 @-@ 26 , and extended SH @-@ 9 to SH @-@ 2 at Whitefield . The final extension brought SH @-@ 9 to the Arkansas state line on 1941 @-@ 11 @-@ 12 . The only major realignment in SH @-@ 9 's history since 1941 was the Norman expressway bypass , which was designated as SH @-@ 9 on 1971 @-@ 11 @-@ 08 .
After the I @-@ 40 bridge disaster , parts of State Highway 9 in eastern Oklahoma served as an emergency detour for eastbound I @-@ 40 traffic . All eastbound traffic was routed along the section of SH @-@ 9 between SH @-@ 2 in Whitefield and US @-@ 59 . In addition , the section of SH @-@ 9 between US @-@ 59 and the Arkansas state line were used for eastbound traffic for commercial trucks .
= = Future = =
Discussions are under way to widen SH @-@ 9 to four lanes east of US @-@ 77 in Norman . The City of Norman and ODOT have conflict in their proposals for the design of the widened highway . ODOT has proposed a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) paved median , with 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) shoulders to accommodate bicyclists . Norman 's proposal includes a grass median and a separate bike path along the north side of the right @-@ of @-@ way , running from 24th Avenue S.E. to Lake Thunderbird . ODOT criticized the city 's plan as too expensive . The city is now proposing a compromise , with a narrower raised concrete median and separate bike path .
= = Spurs = =
State Highway 9 creates three spur highways throughout the state . Additionally , it has two business routes , serving towns the main route bypasses . These routes are :
Business SH @-@ 9 , a three @-@ mile ( 5 km ) loop through Hobart .
Another instance of Business SH @-@ 9 that loops through Gotebo . ( This is not shown on the state highway map . )
SH @-@ 9A is a designation for three distinct highways :
A highway that intersects SH @-@ 9 in Earlsboro and links the parent highway to I @-@ 40 and SH @-@ 39 in Konawa . The spur also passes through the town of Maud .
A connector highway from US @-@ 69 to SH @-@ 9 south of Eufaula .
A spur route to SH @-@ 112 in Arkoma . This section is a former alignment of U.S. Highway 271 .
= = Junction list = =
= Gowanus Canal =
The Gowanus Canal is a canal in the New York City borough of Brooklyn , on the westernmost portion of Long Island . Connected to Gowanus Bay in Upper New York Bay , the canal borders the neighborhoods of Red Hook , Carroll Gardens , and Gowanus , all within South Brooklyn , to the west ; Park Slope to the east ; Boerum Hill and Cobble Hill to the north ; and Sunset Park to the south . It is 1 @.@ 8 miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km ) long . There are seven bridges over the canal , carrying Union Street , Carroll Street ( a landmark ) , Third Street , Ninth Street , Hamilton Avenue , the Gowanus Expressway , and the IND Culver Line of the New York City Subway .
Once a busy cargo transportation hub , the canal is now recognized as one of the most polluted bodies of water in the United States , and is labeled as a Superfund site . The canal 's history has paralleled the decline of domestic shipping via water . The canal is still used for waterborne transportation of goods , notably fuel oil , scrap metal and aggregates . Tugs and barges still navigate the canal daily . A legacy of serious environmental problems has beset the area from the time the canal arose from the local tidal wetlands and fresh water streams . In recent years , there has been a call once again for environmental cleanup . In addition , development pressures have brought speculation that the wetlands of the Gowanus should serve waterfront economic development needs which may not be compatible with environmental restoration .
= = Historical use = =
= = = Mill creek = = =
The Gowanus neighborhood originally surrounded Gowanus Creek , which consisted of a tidal inlet of navigable creeks in original saltwater marshland and meadows teeming with fish and other wildlife . Henry Hudson and Giovanni da Verrazzano both navigated the inlet in their explorations of New York Harbor . The first land patents within Breukelen ( Brooklyn ) , including the land of the Gowanus , were issued by the Dutch Government from 1630 to 1664 . In 1639 , the leaders of New Netherland made one of the earliest recorded real estate deals in New York City history with the purchase of the area around the Gowanus Bay for construction of a tobacco plantation . The early settlers of the area named the waterway " Gowanes Creek " after Gouwane , sachem of the local Lenape tribe called the Canarsee , who lived and farmed on the shorelines .
Adam Brouwer , who had been a soldier in the service of the Dutch West India Company , built and operated the first gristmill patented in New York at Gowanus ( on land patented July 8 , 1645 , to Jan Evertse Bout ) . The tide @-@ water gristmill on the Gowanus was the first in the town of Breukelen and was the first mill ever operated in New Netherland ( located north of Union Street , west of Nevins Street , and next to Bond Street ) . A second mill ( Denton 's Mill , also called Yellow mill ) was built on Denton 's mill pond , after being granted permission to dredge from the creek to the mill pond once located between Fifth Ave and the present day canal at Carroll and Third Street . On May 26 , 1664 , several Breuckelen residents , headed by Brouwer , petitioned director general Peter Stuyvesant and his Council for permission to dredge a canal at their own expense through the land of Frederick Lubbertsen in order to supply water to run the mill . The petition was presented to the council on May 29 , 1664 , and the motion was granted . Another mill , Cole 's Mill , was located just about at present day 9th Street , between Smith Street and the Canal . Cole 's Mill Pond , located north of 9th street , occupied the present location of Public Place . Slave labor was used to excavate the marshland .
In 1700 , a settler , Nicholas Vechte , built a farmhouse of brick and stone now known as the Old Stone House , which later played a critical role in the 1776 Battle of Long Island , when American troops fought off the Redcoats long enough to allow George Washington to retreat . This house sat at the south eastern edge of the Denton 's Mill pond . Brower 's Mill ( also known as Freeks Mill , located at the present day intersection of Union and Nevins streets ) can be seen in drawings depicting the " Battle of Brooklyn " .
Throughout this period , a few Dutch farmers settled along the marshland and engaged in clamming of large oysters that became a notable first export to Europe . The six @-@ foot ( 2 m ) tides of the bay forced salt water up into the creek 's meandering course , creating a brackish mix of water that was ideal for the bivalves , which often grew much larger than today but gradually shrank through a form of negative artificial selection . By the middle of the 19th century , the City of Brooklyn was the third most populous , and fastest growing , city in America and had incorporated the creek and farmland into a greater urban fabric with linear villages flourishing along the shore .
= = = Economic hub = = =
The mills on the Gowanus were also home to public landing sites , connecting the water route to the old Gowanus road . As the local population grew and 19th @-@ century industrial revolution reached Brooklyn , the need for larger navigational and docking facilities grew . Colonel Daniel Richards , a successful local merchant , advocated the building of a canal to benefit existing inland industries and drain the surrounding marshes for land reclamation that would raise property values . In 1849 , the New York Legislature authorized the construction of the Gowanus Canal by deepening Gowanus Creek , to transform it into a mile @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ long commercial waterway connected to Upper New York Bay . The full dredging of Gowanus Creek could not begin until a further act of the legislature in 1867 . After exploring numerous alternative ( and some more environmentally sound ) designs , the final was chosen for its low price tag . United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) Major David Bates Douglass was hired to design the canal , which was essentially complete by 1869 . The cost of the construction came from assessments on the local residents of Brooklyn and State money .
Despite its relatively short length , the Gowanus Canal was a hub for Brooklyn 's maritime and commercial shipping activity . Factories , warehouses , tanneries , coal stores , and manufactured gas refineries sprang up as a result of its construction . Much of the brownstone quarried in New Jersey and the upper Hudson was placed on barges with lumber and brick and shipped through the canal to build the neighborhoods of Carroll Gardens , Cobble Hill , and Park Slope . In addition , the industrial sector around the canal grew substantially over time to include : stone and coal yards ; flour mills ; cement works , and manufactured gas plants ; tanneries , factories for paint , ink , and soap ; machine shops ; chemical plants ; and sulfur producers , all of which emitted substantial water and airborne pollutants . The canal was the first site where chemical fertilizers were manufactured .
With as many as 700 new buildings a year constructed , the South Brooklyn region grew at a remarkable rate . Thriving industry brought many new people to the area but important questions about wastewater sanitation had not been properly addressed to handle such growth . All the sewage from the new buildings drained downhill , into the Gowanus . The building of new sewer connections only compounded the problem by discharging raw sewage from neighborhoods even farther away into the Canal . By the turn of the century , the combination of industrial pollutants and runoff from storm water , fortified with the products of the new sewage system , rendered the waterway a repository of rank odors , euphemistically called by wise @-@ cracking locals " Lavender Lake " . After World War I , with six million annual tons of cargo produced and trafficked though the waterway , the Gowanus Canal became the nation 's busiest commercial canal , and arguably the most polluted . The heavy sewage flow into the canal required regular dredging to keep the waters navigable .
With much fanfare , the US Army Corps of Engineers completed its last dredging of the canal in 1955 and soon afterward abandoned its regular dredging schedule , deeming it to be no longer cost @-@ effective . Brooklyn 's fuel trade was already converting from coal and artificial gas to petroleum , which was served by the wider and deeper Newtown Creek , and natural gas , which arrived by pipeline . With the early 1960s growth of containerization , New York 's loss of industrial waterfront jobs during this period was evident on the canal and , with the failure of the city sewage and pump station infrastructure along the canal , Gowanus was used as a derelict dumping place . Remaining barge traffic mostly carries fuel oil , sand , gravel and scrap metal is exported ; the canal still serves as a port moving goods in and out of Brooklyn . At this point , the issue of revitalizing of the Gowanus area was raised . In 1975 the City of New York established a Gowanus Industrial Renewal Plan for the area , which remained in effect until the year 2011 . Since 1975 , the surrounding community has been calling for the city , state , and federal governments to bring the full power of the Clean Water Act to bear on the environmental conditions left behind in this once thriving urban / industrial waterway .
= = = Degeneration = = =
At the time the canal was built , several designs were proposed for it , some with lock systems that would have allowed daily flushing of the whole waterway . But these designs were considered too expensive , and as a result the Gowanus Canal was constructed with significant design flaws , but within budget . There was no through @-@ flow of water and the canal was open at only one end , in the hope that the tides would be enough to flush the waterway . But with the canal 's wooden and concrete embankments , the strong tides of fresh diurnal doses of oxygenated water from New York Harbor were barred from flowing into the 1 @.@ 8 mile ( 3 km ) channel . Water quality studies have found the concentration of oxygen in the canal to be just 1 @.@ 5 parts per million , well below the minimum 4 parts per million needed to sustain life . With the high level of development in the Gowanus watershed area , excessive nitrates and pathogens are constantly flowing into the canal , further depleting the oxygen and creating breeding grounds for the pathogens responsible for the canal 's odor .
The opaqueness of the Gowanus water obstructs sunlight to one third of the six feet needed for aquatic plant growth . Rising gas bubbles betray the decomposition of sewage sludge that on a warm , sultry day produces the canal 's notable ripe stench . The murky depths of the canal conceal the remnants of its industrial past : cement , oil , mercury , lead , multiple volatile organic compounds , PCBs , coal tar , and other contaminants . A 2007 Science Line report found gonorrhea and unidentified organisms in the canal . In 1951 , with the opening of the elevated Gowanus Expressway over the waterway , easy access for trucks and cars catalyzed industry slightly , but with 150 @,@ 000 vehicles passing overhead each day , the expressway also deposits tons of toxic emissions into the air and water beneath .
There is an urban legend that the canal served as a dumping ground for the Mafia . In Jonathan Lethem 's Motherless Brooklyn , a character refers to it as " the only body of water in the world that is 90 percent guns . " In Lavender Lake , a 1998 documentary film about the Gowanus Canal by Alison Prete , two cops discuss the recent discovery by fishermen of a suitcase full of human body parts that was taken from the waterway . In Joseph O 'Neill 's novel Netherland , the remains of one of the protagonists are found in the Gowanus Canal .
= = = Flushing the canal = = =
The first step to ameliorate pollution in the canal was the construction in the 1890s of the Bond Street sewer pipeline that carried sewage out into the harbor , but this proved inadequate . In the first attempt to improve flow at the northern , closed end of the canal , the " Big Sewer " was constructed from Marcy Avenue in Prospect Heights , down Green Ave to 4th Avenue and into the canal at Butler Street . This sewer design was featured in Scientific American for its innovative construction method and size . The area this sewer ran through was known as " The Flooded District , " and it was believed that this new sewer would serve two purposes : to drain the flooded district , and to use the flow of that excessive water to move the water of the upper Gowanus Canal . Headlines in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle newspaper declared it an engineering blunder shortly after its construction . The Big Sewer still exists under the streets of Brooklyn today .
The existing method to control the pollution of the isolated Gowanus Canal was the installation of the Flushing Tunnel on June 21 , 1911 , which for a time supplied clean water to the upper reaches of the canal through the brick @-@ lined 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) tunnel via Butler Street to Buttermilk Channel between Brooklyn and Governors Island . Unfortunately , this too failed . Aside from numerous operational glitches , a long series of problems and mistakes occurred throughout the 1960s , culminating when a city worker dropped a manhole cover that severely damaged a pump system already suffering from the effect of the corrosive salt water . The Clean Water Act had not yet been passed , and the city , stretched for funds at the time , did nothing to address the issue . As a result of the unrepaired damage to the Flushing Tunnel , and the long stretch of economic recession , the waters of the canal lay stagnant and under @-@ used for years .
According to the New York City Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) , plans to reactivate the Flushing Tunnel pump were proposed in 1982 . But , due to bureaucratic delays , the DEP did not take up the project until 1994 . The tunnel was finally reactivated in 1999 . The new design employed a 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) motor , that pumped an average rate of 200 million gallons a day ( 9 m ³ / s ) of aerated water from Buttermilk Channel of the East River into the head end of the canal . Although water was circulating through the tunnel , it can only be pumped 11 hours a day , due to tidal forces . Water quality has now improved , or at least the quality of water samples taken while the Flushing Pump is operating . Another attempt to control pollution , the construction of the $ 230 million Red Hook Water Pollution Control Plant in 1987 , had similar unsatisfactory results . The Red Hook Treatment plant collected waste from the existing Bond Street sewer that had been dumping into the harbor , but did not take up any additional waste that still spills into the canal from the sewer system 's 14 combined sewer overflow ( CSO ) points . The city has yet to modify the sewer system to reduce sewage overflows into the Gowanus .
= = Environmental cleanup and redevelopment = =
= = = Redevelopment plans = = =
In 1999 , Assemblywoman Joan Millman allocated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Gowanus Canal Community Development Corporation ( GCCDC ) to produce and distribute a bulkhead study and public access document . The following year , GCCDC received $ 270 @,@ 000 from the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation to construct three street @-@ end public open spaces along the Gowanus Canal through the city 's Green Street program . An additional $ 270 @,@ 000 was funded by Governor George E. Pataki to create a revitalization plan in 2001 and then allocated $ 100 @,@ 000 in capital funds in 2002 to implement a pilot project on the shoreline . In 2003 , Congresswoman Nydia Velázquez allocated an additional $ 225 @,@ 000 to create a comprehensive community development plan . Today this organization relies on community volunteers to maintain and clean these Green Street Projects . The community lacks a community centered redevelopment plan .
In 2002 , the United States Army Corps of Engineers entered into a cost @-@ sharing agreement with the DEP to collaborate on a $ 5 million Ecosystem Restoration Feasibility Study of the Gowanus Canal area to be completed in 2005 , studying possible alternatives for ecosystem restoration such as dredging , and wetland and habitat restoration . Discussions turned to breaking down the hard edges of the canal in order to restore some of the natural processes to improve the overall environment of the Gowanus wetlands area . The DEP also initiated the Gowanus Canal Use and Standards Attainment project , to meet the City 's obligations under the Clean Water Act . As of the summer 2009 , the joint NYC / Army Corps Feasibility study has not been completed .
In early 2006 , the problem of wastewater management arose during a controversy over a planned Brooklyn Nets Arena in nearby central Brooklyn . The project at that point , now called Pacific Park , was to include a basketball arena and 17 skyscrapers , with the resulting sewage would flow into antiquated combined sewers that can overflow when it rains . The Gowanus Canal has 14 combined sewer overflow points , so the fear is that the additional wastewater from the arena would lead to more frequent overflows in the canal .
As the industrial Brooklyn cityscape evolves , new development plans have been debated for the Gowanus Canal and the land abutting it . The adjacent neighborhood to the east ( 4th Avenue ) was rezoned for high density residential use with a strong commercial component . With brownfield redevelopment incentives offered by the State of New York , developers look to this land as another place to build , with substantial help of public money .
In February 2009 , the city of New York granted a zoning change to the developer , Toll Brothers Inc . , allowing for a 480 @-@ unit , twelve @-@ story , super @-@ block residential project , the first permitted along the waterway . Toll Brothers abandoned this project in 2010 when the Gowanus Canal was declared a Superfund cleanup site by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
= = = = Different uses = = = =
Paving the way for recreational use of the canal has been the Gowanus Dredgers Canoe Club ( founded in 1999 ) , and The Urban Divers Estuary Conservancy ( founded in 1998 ) , two organizations that are dedicated to providing waterfront access and education related to the estuary and bordering shoreline of the canal . During the 2003 season , over 1 @,@ 000 individuals , including more than 200 youths , participated in Dredger Canoe Club programs , logging over 2 @,@ 000 trips on the Gowanus Canal . The NY Harbor report for that same year showed the Gowanus to have the highest level of pathogens in the entire harbor .
A 9 @.@ 4 acres ( 4 ha ) U.S. Postal Service site on the east side of the Ninth Street canal crossing became available for commercial development . Development groups have not taken their eye off a whole range of possible projects for the site . It has been proposed as the Brooklyn Commons , an entertainment and retail complex featuring a multiplex cinema , a bowling alley , shops and restaurants . After controversy , a lawsuit , and a rival proposal for an IKEA store , a large Lowe 's store was built and opened on April 30 , 2004 , with an adjacent public promenade overlooking the canal . The IKEA company , previously rejected from the Ninth Street location for traffic congestion , opened on the south end of Red Hook on the harbor waterway . That project was objected to by community organizations in the Red Hook and Gowanus neighborhoods .
Another site at Smith and 4th street was taken by the city in 1975 and designated a Public Place , for use as " public recreation space " . Despite this legal standing of the Public Place , developers have continually proposed using this site for other possibilities . National Grid is accountable for a cleanup of the pollution left behind on the site after years of coal gas manufacture . Upon completion of this cleanup , the site was to be turned over to the parks department .
= = = = Activism = = = =
In November 2006 , HABITATS , a festival dedicated to " local action as global wisdom " , celebrated the Gowanus Canal through environmental conferences , collaborative art , educational programs and interactive walks around the area . The canal has been the home to various arts organizations . Issue Project Room once organized art events , and the Yard , an outdoor concert space , opened in the summer of 2007 near the Carroll Street bridge .
= = = Cleanup efforts = = =
In April 2009 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) proposed that the canal be listed as a Superfund cleanup site . This action was supported by the state Department of Environmental Conservation , which had requested help from the EPA to address the canal 's environmental problems . In May 2009 , the city stepped forward to oppose the Superfund listing and offered , for the first time , to produce a Gowanus cleanup plan that would match the work of a Superfund cleanup , but with a promise to accomplish it faster . The city stated that it could now achieve a faster cleanup than EPA because the city would fund the cleanup through taxpayer dollars from the state and city levels , while the EPA would seek its funding from the polluters . In 2009 , the nonprofit Gowanus Canal Conservancy was founded , which partners with the EPA , the city Department of Environmental Protection ( NYCDEP ) , groups like Riverkeeper and universities such as Cornell and Rutgers . Among other things , it hosts monthly composting events . On March 4 , 2010 , the EPA announced that it had placed the Gowanus Canal on its Superfund National Priorities List .
By 2013 , the NYCDEP was planning to reduce the sewage content of the canal by repairing a tunnel that flushes fresh water into the Gowanus . The repair will not completely eliminate the sewage problem . The EPA has suggested seven plans for the clean up . The Village Voice reported two scenarios as most viable , estimated at taking ten years to complete and costing around $ 350 – $ 450 million . The first step in the plans is dredging , scheduled to begin 2016 . The second is to lay down one of two different proposed " caps " . One cap over the still @-@ polluted canal bed would be made of concrete . The second would have first a layer of clay to absorb pollutants , a layer of sand to act as a buffer , and then a layer of rocks to anchor that floor . Some express concern that the clean @-@ up poses a health risk .
On September 27 , 2013 , the EPA approved a clean @-@ up plan for the Gowanus Canal . The plan is to cost $ 506 million and should be completed by 2022 . The plan divides the canal into three segments : The upper segment runs from the top of the canal to 3rd Street , the middle segment runs from 3rd Street to just south of the Hamilton Avenue Bridge and the lower segment runs from the Hamilton Avenue Bridge to the mouth of the canal . The plan entails removing contaminated sediment from the bottom of canal by dredging , capping the dredged areas and implementing controls on combined sewer overflows to prevent future contamination . It also involves excavating and restoring approximately 475 feet of the former 1st Street Basin and 25 feet of the former 5th Street Basin .
The layer of toxic sediment in the canal averages 10 feet thick , and at some spots reaches 20 feet . EPA will remove approximately 307 @,@ 000 cubic yards of highly contaminated sediment from the upper and middle segments and 281 @,@ 000 cubic yards of contaminated sediment from the lower segment . The dredged sediment will be treated at an off @-@ site facility .
Following dredging , in areas of the canal where contamination has permeated the underlying sediment , EPA will cap with multiple layers of clean material . The multi @-@ layer cap consists of an “ active ” layer made of a specific type of clay that will remove contamination that could well up from below , an “ isolation ” layer of sand and gravel that will ensure that the contaminants are not exposed , and an “ armor ” layer of heavier gravel and stone to prevent erosion of the underlying layers from boat traffic and canal currents . Finally , sufficient clean sand will be placed on top of the “ armor ” layer to fill in the voids between the stones and to establish sufficient depth in order to restore the canal bottom as a habitat . In the middle and upper segment of the canal where the native sediment is contaminated with liquid coal tar , the EPA will stabilize that sediment by mixing it with concrete or similar materials . The stabilized areas will then be covered with the multiple layer cap as described above .
As the Superfund model requires the EPA to seek restitution from the Potentially Responsible Parties ( PRPs ) , the estimated cost of the cleanup plan is to be spread among more than three dozen entities , mostly companies and a few government entities like the City of New York and the United States Navy , for ship work that polluted the canal . Many of the original businesses that once operated alongside the canal have since merged , changed names or moved away , including Brooklyn Union Gas , which eventually became a part of National Grid , Continental Oil and Standard Oil . When companies have been sold or merged , the successor company as well as the current property owner assume the liability . Companies that produced or transported the hazardous substances are also considered responsible . The EPA Superfund Gowanus report has identified the major PRPs as National Grid and New York City .
= = = = Wildlife = = = =
On January 26 , 2013 , a dolphin entered the canal at low tide , was unable to get out , and died . The necropsy on dolphin showed it was middle @-@ aged and sickly before becoming trapped . It had kidney stones , gastric ulcers and parasites .
By 2014 , it has been reported that herons , egrets , bats , Canada geese , small fish and crabs have started to live around the waterway .
= = In popular culture = =
In 2014 , So What ? Press published an issue of its comic series Tales of the Night Watchman , entitled " It Came from the Gowanus Canal " , about a toxic sludge monster who lives in the canal and takes revenge on a gangster who once dumped bodies there . It was written by Dave Kelly and illustrated by Molly Ostertag . The publisher also produced a fake movie poster in conjunction with the Gowanus Souvenir Shop based on the issue in 2015 .
= 1906 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1906 Atlantic hurricane season was the eleventh @-@ deadliest Atlantic hurricane season in recorded history , with 381 deaths . The season was fairly active , with eleven storms , of which six became hurricanes and three became major hurricanes . The first storm of the season , a tropical storm in the northern Caribbean Sea , formed on June 8 ; although it struck the United States , no major impacts were recorded . July saw a period of inactivity , with no known storms . However , in August , the streak of inactivity ended with two storms , including a powerful hurricane . September brought three storms , including a deadly hurricane , with catastrophic impacts in Pensacola and Mobile . October included three storms , with a powerful hurricane that killed over 200 people . The final storm of the season impacted Cuba in early November and dissipated on November 9 .
= = Methodology = =
Prior to the advent of modern tropical cyclone tracking technology , notably satellite imagery , many hurricanes that did not affect land directly went unnoticed , and storms that did affect land were not recognized until their onslaught . As a result , information on older hurricane seasons was often incomplete . Modern @-@ day efforts have been made and are still ongoing to reconstruct the tracks of known hurricanes and to identify initially undetected storms . In many cases , the only evidence that a hurricane existed was reports from ships in its path , and judging by the direction of winds experienced by ships , and their location in relation to the storm , it is possible to roughly pinpoint the storm 's center of circulation for a given point in time . This is the manner in which all of the eleven known storms in the 1906 season were identified by hurricane expert José Fernández @-@ Partagás 's reanalysis of hurricane seasons between 1851 and 1910 . Partagás also extended the known tracks of three other hurricanes previously identified by scholars . The information Partagás and his colleague uncovered was largely adopted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Atlantic hurricane reanalysis in their updates to the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , with some slight adjustments . HURDAT is the official source for such hurricane data as track and intensity , although due to a sparsity of available records at the time the storms existed , listings on some storms are incomplete .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the season formed on June 8 , south of western Cuba , attaining its peak winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) by June 9 . On June 10 , a weather station in Havana reported a minimum air pressure of 1002 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 59 inHg ) ; however , the minimum pressure of the system itself is unknown . On June 12 , the system caused the sinking of a schooner ; however , all on board the schooner were rescued . The system continued traveling north @-@ northwestward , making landfall near Panama City on June 13 , quickly weakening to a tropical depression as it moved inland . The system became extratropical by June 14 , dissipating shortly thereafter ; no deaths and injuries are known to have been caused by the storm .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
This first hurricane of the season 's effects were first noted in Santa Clara , Cuba , where rainy and windy conditions were observed on the afternoon of June 14 . Several vessels sank during the hurricane during the early morning hours of June 15 . The system was thought to have entered the Florida Straits during the evening . The system began to travel towards the west @-@ northwest , steadily strengthening into a hurricane by the afternoon . On June 17 , a minimum pressure of 979 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 91 inHg ) was recorded , as the hurricane passed over southern Florida .
The hurricane slowly intensified as it traveled offshore , continuing to strengthen throughout the day on June 17 , eventually reaching Category 2 status by June 18 . As the storm headed northeastward , the hurricane began to weaken , becoming a tropical storm by June 21 . The system turned toward the east @-@ southeast on June 21 , later recurving towards the east @-@ northeast on June 22 . It weakened to a tropical depression by June 23 , transitioning into an extratropical cyclone later that day . Impacts caused by the hurricane were minimal — a boat was partially dismantled at Key West , and a wharf at Coconut Grove was also damaged . In addition , the schooner Hidie Feroe sank , although her crew was later rescued .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
This tropical storm was previously unidentified until modern research by José Fernández @-@ Partagás revealed the storm in 1997 . The tropical storm is believed to have originated as a tropical depression in the North Atlantic on August 22 . By August 23 , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm , with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The system further intensified into a powerful tropical storm on August 24 , with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . However , the storm began to weaken , and it transitioned into an extratropical storm on August 25 , with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The fourth storm of the season was believed to have originated as a tropical storm off the coast of Africa on August 25 . The storm slowly intensified , eventually reaching hurricane status on August 28 . As the storm headed west @-@ northwestward on August 31 , it passed by the Lesser Antilles as a Category 2 hurricane . The storm became a Category 3 hurricane on September 2 as it passed north of the Dominican Republic . The storm further intensified into a Category 4 hurricane on September 5 , located east of the Bahamas . Throughout the day on September 6 , the hurricane began to curve northward . During the evening , it weakened to Category 3 status and began to travel northeastward on September 7 .
The hurricane maintained its intensity and passed northwest of Bermuda on September 9 , where winds reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and air pressures fell to 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The storm continued to weaken , eventually becoming a Category 2 hurricane on September 11 ; at this time , the Koenigin Luise measured an air pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 06 inHg ) . The system became extratropical later during the day , and lost its identity on September 12 in the North Atlantic near the British Isles . As a result of warnings in advance , little damage was caused by the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
The fifth storm of the season formed on September 3 in the western Atlantic . It drifted west @-@ northwestward , slowly gaining intensity , and turned northwest on September 8 . However , the tropical storm then changed course and began to head west @-@ northwest on September 11 as it slowly intensified . By September 12 , the tropical storm had intensified to a minimal hurricane , and began to turn towards the north @-@ northwest on September 13 . It attained its peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on September 14 . As it maintained its intensity on September 15 , the hurricane began to turn westward while it continued to approach the coast of South Carolina on September 17 . The hurricane made landfall near Myrtle Beach later on September 17 , and quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it moved inland . The storm dissipated as a tropical depression on September 18 over Tennessee .
The hurricane caused moderate impacts — two hundred people were stranded at Wrightsville Beach , North Carolina . At Charleston , South Carolina , winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) were recorded , in addition to a barometric pressure of 997 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 44 inHg ) . Many small buildings were damaged in Charleston ; damage in the city totaled to $ 1 @,@ 000 , while at the town of Georgetown , damage was estimated to be around $ 15 @,@ 000 . The Laura encountered the hurricane , and three of the crew of four were killed . A schooner called the Seguranca and its crew were also impacted by the hurricane ; the crew on board survived without food for two days . Overall damage to shipping and crops in the Carolinas was moderate ; seven people were killed , and at least $ 2 @,@ 016 @,@ 000 ( 1906 USD ) in damage was recorded .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
The sixth hurricane of the season originated as a tropical depression on September 19 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea . The following day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . It continued to intensify steadily , eventually reaching hurricane status on September 24 as it exited the Yucatán Channel . The hurricane continued to intensify as it moved north @-@ northwest and attained Category 2 intensity in the Gulf of Mexico . During the afternoon , the storm intensified further into a major hurricane . At this time , the hurricane was 300 miles ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cuba . The hurricane maintained intensity and continued to drift north @-@ northwest , and weakened to a Category 2 hurricane as it made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , on September 27 . The hurricane weakened as it moved inland , quickly weakening to a tropical storm by September 28 . The storm became extratropical on September 29 .
The hurricane caused severe damage along the Gulf Coast . Many marine vessels were blown ashore
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or sunken in Pensacola , and railroads in the city were severely damaged . Numerous wharfs were damaged or destroyed , and many roofs were torn off buildings . Three forts in the vicinity of Pensacola suffered damage . Electricity in the city was shut off . A total of 35 people were killed in Pensacola . Mobile and surrounding areas suffered similar damage , including destroyed timber , smashed windows , and sunken watercraft . In Mississippi , over 300 @,@ 000 cotton bales were ruined during the hurricane , amounting to $ 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damage . Damage in New Orleans was minimal ; however , Lake Pontchartrain overflowed , flooding the city . The hurricane killed a total of 134 people .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
This tropical storm was previously unidentified and was not considered a tropical storm until research by José Fernández @-@ Partagás in 1997 . The storm is believed to have originated west of the Canary Islands in the northeastern Atlantic on September 22 . The tropical storm moved west @-@ southwestward for several days , maintaining its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; however , the storm began to curve early on September 26 and traveled directly westward before curving northward during the afternoon . The tropical storm continued to change course , turning west @-@ northwestward by September 28 . The transitioned to an extratropical system on October 1 , and reached England on October 3 .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
This hurricane originated on October 4 near Barbados as a " cyclonic perturbation " ; however , no closed circulation was evidently associated with the system . Barometric pressures began sinking in Panama as the system drifted westward , and it was considered a tropical storm by October 8 . As the storm headed west , it rapidly strengthened ; the storm became a hurricane on October 9 and intensified into a major hurricane on October 10 . As it began to curve northwestward , the hurricane made landfall in Nicaragua , and weakened to a tropical storm on October 11 . It began to drift north @-@ northwestward later that day , intensifying into a minimal hurricane as it drifted into the Gulf of Honduras .
However , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm again on October 14 as it moved overland , and began to curve north @-@ northwest , restrengthening to a major hurricane by October 17 while it was west @-@ southwest of Cuba . The hurricane made landfall over Cuba on the evening of October 17 . The hurricane passed over southern Florida near Pigeon Key and Downtown Miami on October 18 . The hurricane continued traveling north @-@ northwest ; however , it was forced to re @-@ curve south @-@ southwest , as a result of a high @-@ pressure area . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm overland , eventually becoming a tropical depression . The system meandered into the Gulf of Mexico , making a final landfall in Central America on October 23 .
The hurricane wreaked havoc throughout its path — crops in Central America suffered severe damage , and rainfall destroyed many roads and bridges in Nicaragua . In Cuba , at least 29 people were killed , and tobacco crops in the country were ruined . The most severe damage was caused in Florida — the state suffered more than $ 420 @,@ 000 in damage and more than two hundred people were killed . Of the people killed in Florida , 135 were workers on the Florida East Coast Railway , and more than 70 people were drowned near Elliott Key after two steamers sank . Throughout its path , damage caused by the hurricane totaled to at least $ 4 @,@ 135 @,@ 000 and at least 240 deaths were recorded .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
A tropical storm was believed to have formed from a low @-@ pressure area , possibly on the tail end of a cold front on October 14 . The storm moved westward ; however , it began to curve west @-@ southwestward on October 15 , as it reached its peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm continued to trek towards the west @-@ southwest on October 16 , later making landfall in eastern Florida on October 17 as a tropical depression . No damage is known to have been caused by the tropical storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Ten = = =
The tenth storm of the season formed on October 15 as a tropical storm east of the Bahamas and north of Hispaniola . The tropical storm moved northwest , but changed direction and began to curve northeastward on October 17 . As the storm moved eastward , it slowly strengthened ; the storm attained its peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 18 . The tropical storm headed directly eastward on October 19 , and dissipated in the open Atlantic on October 20 .
= = = Hurricane Eleven = = =
The final storm of the season started as a tropical depression on November 5 , located in the Caribbean , south of Cuba . It strengthened into a tropical storm later during the day as it curved northward , and the storm turned towards the northeast on November 6 . As it approached Cuba , the storm briefly attained hurricane status ; however , as the hurricane made landfall over Cuba , it weakened to a tropical storm . The storm drifted over the Bahamas as a minimal tropical storm on November 8 while it traced east @-@ northeast . It continued to weaken , and transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 10 . No damage is known to have been caused by the hurricane . Its path , its intensity , and the time of the year in which it formed are very similar to those of Hurricane Katrina of 1981 .
= X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor =
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X @-@ 10 Pile , was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor ( after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 ) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It was built during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project .
While Chicago Pile @-@ 1 demonstrated the feasibility of nuclear reactors , the Manhattan Project 's goal of producing enough plutonium for atomic bombs required reactors a thousand times as powerful , along with facilities to chemically separate the plutonium bred in the reactors from uranium and fission products . An intermediate step was considered prudent . The next step for the plutonium project , codenamed X @-@ 10 , was the construction of a semiworks where techniques and procedures could be developed and training conducted . The centerpiece of this was the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor . It was air @-@ cooled , used nuclear graphite as a neutron moderator , and pure natural uranium in metal form for fuel .
DuPont commenced construction of the plutonium semiworks at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge on February 2 , 1943 . The reactor went critical on November 4 , 1943 , and produced its first plutonium in early 1944 . It supplied the Los Alamos Laboratory with its first significant amounts of plutonium , and its first reactor @-@ bred product . Studies of these samples heavily influenced bomb design . The reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers , technicians , reactor operators , and safety officials who then moved on to the Hanford site . It operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities , and the production of radioactive isotopes for scientific , medical , industrial and agricultural uses . It was shut down in 1963 , and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 .
= = Origins = =
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , followed by its theoretical explanation ( and naming ) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , opened up the possibility of a controlled nuclear chain reaction with uranium . At Columbia University , Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard began exploring how this might be done . Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President of the United States , Franklin D. Roosevelt , explaining the possibility of atomic bombs , and warning of the danger of a German nuclear weapon project . He convinced his old friend and collaborator Albert Einstein to co @-@ sign it , lending his fame to the proposal . This resulted in support by the U.S. government for research into nuclear fission , which became the Manhattan Project .
In April 1941 , the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) asked Arthur Compton , a Nobel @-@ Prize @-@ winning physics professor at the University of Chicago , to report on the uranium program . His report , submitted in May 1941 , foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons , nuclear propulsion for ships , and nuclear weapons using uranium @-@ 235 or the recently discovered plutonium . In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb . Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had theorized that heavy isotopes with odd atomic numbers were fissile . If so , then plutonium @-@ 239 was likely to be .
Emilio Segrè and Glenn Seaborg at the University of California produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron there in May 1941 , and found that it had 1 @.@ 7 times the thermal neutron capture cross section of uranium @-@ 235 . At the time only such minute quantities of plutonium @-@ 239 had been produced , in cyclotrons , and it was not possible to produce a sufficiently large quantity that way . Compton discussed with Eugene Wigner from Princeton University how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor , and with Robert Serber how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium .
The final draft of Compton 's November 1941 report made no mention of using plutonium , but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence , Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible . In December , Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project , which was codenamed X @-@ 10 . Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium , and to design and build an atomic bomb . It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs the scientists should pursue , even though a successful reactor had not yet been built . He felt that having teams at Columbia , Princeton , the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration , and he concentrated the work at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago .
= = Site selection = =
By June 1942 , the Manhattan Project had reached the stage where the construction of production facilities could be contemplated . On June 25 , 1942 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) S @-@ 1 Executive Committee deliberated on where they should be located . Moving directly to a megawatt production plant looked like a big step , given that many industrial processes do not easily scale from the laboratory to production size . An intermediate step of building a pilot plant was considered prudent . For the pilot plutonium separation plant , a site was wanted close to the Metallurgical Laboratory , where the research was being carried out , but for reasons of safety and security , it was not desirable to locate the facilities in a densely populated area like Chicago .
Compton selected a site in the Argonne Forest , part of the Forest Preserve District of Cook County , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) southwest of Chicago . The full @-@ scale production facilities would be co @-@ located with other Manhattan Project facilities at a still more remote location in Tennessee . Some 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of land was leased from Cook County for the pilot facilities , while an 83 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 34 @,@ 000 ha ) site for the production facilities was selected at Oak Ridge , Tennessee . By the S @-@ 1 Executive Committee meeting on September 13 and 14 , it had become apparent that the pilot facilities would be too extensive for the Argonne site . Instead , a research reactor would be built at Argonne , while the plutonium pilot facilities ( a semiworks ) would be built in Tennessee .
In December , it was decided that the plutonium production facilities would not be built at Oak Ridge after all , but at the even more remote Hanford Site in Washington state . Compton and the staff at the Metallurgical Laboratory then reopened the question of building the plutonium semiworks at Argonne . But the engineers and management of DuPont , particularly Roger Williams , the head of its TNX Division , which was responsible for the company 's role in the Manhattan Project , disagreed . They felt that there would be insufficient space at Argonne , and that there were disadvantages in having a site that was so accessible , especially to the research staff from the Metallurgical Laboratory , whom they feared would attempt to interfere unduly . A better location , they felt , would be with the production facilities at Hanford . In the end a compromise was reached . On January 12 , 1943 , Compton , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and Williams agreed that the semiworks would be built at Oak Ridge .
Both Compton and Groves proposed that DuPont operate the semiworks . Williams counter @-@ proposed that the semiworks be operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory . He reasoned that it would primarily be a research and educational facility , and that expertise was at the Metallurgical Laboratory . Compton was shocked . The Metallurgical Laboratory was part of the University of Chicago , so the university would be operating an industrial facility 500 miles ( 800 km ) from its main campus . James B. Conant told him that Harvard University " wouldn 't touch it with a ten @-@ foot pole " , but the University of Chicago 's Vice President , E. T. Filbey took a different view , and told Compton to accept . When University President Robert Hutchins returned , he greeted Compton with " I see Arthur , that while I was gone you doubled the size of my university " .
= = Design = =
A critical design decision was the cooling system . A limiting factor was that the fuel slugs would be clad in aluminum , so the operating temperature of the reactor could not exceed about 200 ° C ( 392 ° F ) . The theoretical physicists in Wigner 's group at the Metallurgical Laboratory developed several designs . They found that in heavy water the number of neutrons produced for every one absorbed ( known as k ) was 10 percent more efficient than the purest graphite . In November 1942 , the DuPont engineers chose helium as the coolant for the production plant , largely on the basis that it did not absorb neutrons.By contrast , the decision that the reactor would use graphite as a neutron moderator caused little debate , as heavy water was unavailable , although there was concern that there was a sufficient supply of uranium and pure graphite .
Not everyone agreed with the decision to use helium . Szilard in particular was an early proponent of using liquid bismuth . But the major opponent was Wigner , who argued strongly in favor of a water @-@ cooled reactor design . He realised that since water absorbed neutrons , k would be reduced by about 3 percent , but had sufficient confidence in his calculations that the water @-@ cooled reactor would . From an engineering perspective , a water @-@ cooled was straightforward to design and build , while helium posed technological problems . Wigner 's team produced a preliminary report on water cooling , designated CE @-@ 140 in April 1942 , followed by a more detailed one , CE @-@ 197 , titled " On a Plant with Water Cooling " , in July 1942 .
Fermi 's Chicago Pile @-@ 1 reactor , constructed under the west viewing stands of the original Stagg Field at the University of Chicago , went critical on December 2 , 1942 . This reactor only generated up to 200 W , but it demonstrated that k was higher than anticipated . This not only removed most of the objections to air @-@ cooled and water @-@ cooled reactor designs , it also greatly simplified other aspects of the design . Wigner 's team submitted blueprints of a water @-@ cooled reactor to DuPont in January 1943 . By this time , the concerns of DuPont 's engineers about the corrosiveness of water had been overcome by the mounting difficulties of using helium , and all work on helium was terminated in February . At the same time , Air was chosen for the reactor at the pilot plant . Since it would be of a quite different design to the production reactors , the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor lost its value as a prototype ; but it was considered more important to get the pilot facility up and running as soon as possible in order to supply quantities of plutonium needed for research . It was hoped that problems would be found in time to correct them in the production plants . The semiworks would also be used for training , and for developing procedures .
= = Construction = =
Although the design of the reactor was not yet complete , DuPont began construction of the plutonium semiworks on February 2 , 1943 , on an isolated 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site in the Bethel Valley about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southwest of Oak Ridge officially known as the X @-@ 10 area . There was a chemical separation plant , research laboratories , waste storage area , training facility for Hanford staff , and administrative and support facilities that included a laundry , cafeteria , first aid center and fire station . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The semiworks eventually became known as the Clinton Laboratories , and was operated by the University of Chicago as part of the Metallurgical Project .
Construction work on the reactor had to wait until DuPont had completed the design . Excavation commenced on April 27 , 1943 . A large pocket of soft clay was soon discovered , necessitating additional foundations . Further delays occurred due to wartime difficulties in procuring building materials . There was an acute shortage of both common and skilled labor ; the contractor had only three @-@ quarters of the required workforce , and there was high turnover and absenteeism , mainly the result of poor accommodations and difficulties in commuting . The township of Oak Ridge was still under construction , and barracks were built to house workers . Special arrangements with individual workers increased their morale and reduced turnover . Finally , there was unusually heavy rainfall , with 9 @.@ 3 inches ( 240 mm ) falling in July 1943 , more than twice the average of 4 @.@ 3 inches ( 110 mm ) .
Some 700 short tons ( 640 t ) of graphite blocks were purchased from National Carbon . The construction crews began stacking it in September 1943 . Cast uranium billets came from Metal Hydrides , Mallinckrodt and other suppliers . These were extruded into cylindrical slugs , and canned by Alcoa , which started production on June 14 , 1943 . The fuel slugs were canned primarily to protect the uranium metal from corrosion that would occur if it came into contact with water , but also to prevent the venting of gaseous radioactive fission products that might be formed when they were irradiated . The cladding had to transmit heat but not absorb too many neutrons . Aluminum was chosen . General Electric and the Metallurgical Laboratory developed a new welding technique to seal the cans airtight . The new equipment was installed in the production line at Alcoa in October 1943 .
Construction commenced on the pilot separation plant before a chemical process for separating plutonium from uranium had been selected . Not until May 1943 would DuPont managers decide to use the Bismuth @-@ phosphate process . The plant consisted of six cells , separated from each other and the control room by thick concrete walls . The equipment was operated from the control room by remote control . Work was completed on 26 November 1943 , but the plant could not operate until the reactor started producing irradiated uranium slugs .
= = Operation = =
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor after Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation . It consisted of a huge block , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side , of nuclear graphite cubes , weighing around 1 @,@ 500 short tons ( 1 @,@ 400 t ) , that acted as a moderator . They were surrounded by seven feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield . In all , the reactor was 38 feet ( 12 m ) wide , 47 feet ( 14 m ) deep and 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) high . There were 36 horizontal rows of 35 holes . Behind each was a metal channel into which uranium fuel slugs could be inserted . An elevator provided access to those higher up . Only 800 ( ~ 64 % ) of the channels were ever used .
The reactor used cadmium @-@ clad steel control rods . Three 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) rods penetrated the reactor vertically , held in place by a clutch to form the scram system . They were suspended from steel cables that were wound around a drum , and held in place by an electromagnetic clutch . If power was lost , these rods would drop into the reactor , halting it . The other four rods , were made of boron steel and horizontally penetrated the reactor from the north side . Two of them , known as " shim " rods , were hydraulically controlled . Sand @-@ filled hydraulic accumulators could be used in the event of a power failure . The other two rods were driven by electric motors .
The cooling system consisted of three 55 @,@ 000 cubic feet per minute ( 1 @,@ 600 m3 / min ) electric fans . Because they used outside air , the reactor could be run at a higher power level on cold days . After going through the reactor , the air was filtered to remove radioactive particles larger than 0 @.@ 00004 inches ( 0 @.@ 0010 mm ) in diameter . This took care of over 99 percent of the radioactive particles . It was then expelled back into the air through a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) chimney . The reactor was operated from a control room in the southeast corner on the second floor .
In September 1942 , Compton asked a physicist , Martin D. Whitaker , to form a skeleton operating staff for X @-@ 10 . Whitaker became the inaugural director of the Clinton Laboratories , as the semiworks became officially known in April 1943 . The first permanent operating staff arrived from the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago in April 1943 , by which time DuPont began transferring its technicians to the site . They were augmented by one hundred technicians in uniform from the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment . By March 1944 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 people working at X @-@ 10 .
Supervised by Compton , Whitaker and Fermi , the reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons ( 33 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created . The reactor normally operated around the clock , with 10 @-@ hour weekly shutdowns for refueling . During startup , the safety rods and one shim rod were completely removed . The other shim rod was inserted at a predetermined position . When the desired power level was reached , the reactor was controlled by adjusting the partly inserted shim rod .
The first batch of canned slugs to be irradiated was received on December 20 , 1943 , allowing the first plutonium to be produced in early 1944 . The slugs used pure metallic natural uranium , in air @-@ tight aluminum cans 4 @.@ 1 inches ( 100 mm ) long and 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in diameter . Each channel was loaded with between 24 and 54 fuel slugs . The reactor went critical with 30 short tons ( 27 t ) of slugs , but in its later life was operated with as much as 54 short tons ( 49 t ) . To load a channel , the radiation @-@ absorbing shield plug was removed , and the slugs inserted manually in the front ( east ) end with long rods . To unload them , they were pushed all the way through to the far ( west ) end , where they fell onto a neoprene slab and fell down a chute into a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) deep pool of water that acted as a radiation shield . Following weeks of underwater storage to allow for decay in radioactivity , the slugs were delivered to the chemical separation building .
By February 1944 , the reactor was irradiating a ton of uranium every three days . Over the next five months , the efficiency of the separation process was improved , with the percentage of plutonium recovered increasing from 40 to 90 percent . Modifications over time raised the reactor 's power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 . Unfortunately , operations did not detect the effect of the neutron poison xenon @-@ 135 , which caused problems with the startup of the Hanford B reactor .
The X @-@ 10 semiworks operated as a plutonium production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities . By this time , 299 batches of irradiated slugs had been processed . A radioisotope building , a steam plant , and other structures were added in April 1946 to support the laboratory 's peacetime educational and research missions . All work was completed by December 1946 , adding another $ 1 @,@ 009 @,@ 000 to the cost of construction at X @-@ 10 , and bringing the total cost to $ 13 @,@ 041 @,@ 000 . Operational costs added another $ 22 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 .
X @-@ 10 supplied the Los Alamos Laboratory with the first significant samples of plutonium . Studies of these by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos revealed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 , which has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 . This meant that it would be highly likely that a plutonium gun @-@ type nuclear weapon would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass . The Los Alamos Laboratory was thus forced to turn its development efforts to creating an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon — a far more difficult feat .
The X @-@ 10 chemical separation plant also proved the bismuth phosphate process that was used in the full @-@ scale separation facilities at Hanford . Finally , the reactor and chemical separation plant provided invaluable experience for engineers , technicians , reactor operators , and safety officials who then moved on to the Hanford site .
= = Peacetime use = =
After the war ended , the graphite reactor became the first facility in the world to produce radioactive isotopes for peacetime use . On August 2 , 1946 , Oak Ridge National Laboratory director Eugene Wigner presented a small container of carbon @-@ 14 to the director of the Barnard Free Skin and Cancer Hospital , for medical use at the hospital in St. Louis , Missouri . Subsequent shipments of radioisotopes , primarily iodine @-@ 131 , phosphorus @-@ 32 , molybdenum @-@ 99 / technetium @-@ 99m and carbon @-@ 14 , were for scientific , medical , industrial and agricultural uses .
The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor was shut down on November 4 , 1963 , after twenty years of use . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1965 , and was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 15 , 1966 . In 1969 the American Society for Metals listed it as a landmark for its contributions to the advancement of materials science and technology , and in 2008 it was designated as a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society . The control room and reactor face are accessible to the public during scheduled tours offered through the American Museum of Science and Energy . During 2015 tours were part of a general three @-@ hour tour of the Clinton Engineer Works facilities , and were conducted on Mondays through Fridays at noon , from June 4 to September 30 , except on July 4 and 5 .
= = Similar reactors = =
The Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor was the first nuclear reactor to be constructed in the United States following World War II . Led by Lyle Benjamin Borst , the reactor construction began in 1947 and reached criticality for the first time on August 22 , 1950 . The reactor consisted of a 700 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 640 t ) , 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) cube of graphite fueled by natural uranium . Its primary mission was applied nuclear research in medicine , biology , chemistry , physics and nuclear engineering . One of the most significant discoveries at this facility was the development of production of moybdenum @-@ 99 / technetium @-@ 99m , used today in tens of millions of medical diagnostic procedures annually , making it the most commonly used medical radioisotope . The graphite reactor was shut down in 1969 and fully decommissioned in 2012 .
When Britain began planning to build nuclear reactors to produce plutonium for weapons in 1946 , it was decided to build a pair of air @-@ cooled graphite reactors similar to the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Windscale . Natural uranium was used as enriched was not available , and similarly graphite was chosen as a neutron moderator because beryllia was toxic and hard to manufacture , while heavy water was unavailable . Use of water as a coolant was considered , but there were concerns about the possibility of a catastrophic nuclear meltdown in the densely @-@ populated British Isles if the cooling system failed , an event that did indeed occur in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 . Helium was again the preferred choice as a coolant gas , but the main source of it was the United States , and under the 1946 McMahon Act , the United States would not supply it for nuclear weapons production , so , in the end , air cooling was chosen . Construction began in September 1947 , and the two reactors became operational in October 1950 and June 1951 . Both were decommissioned after the disastrous Windscale fire in October 1957 . They would be last major air @-@ cooled plutonium @-@ producing reactors ; the UK 's follow @-@ on Magnox and AGR designs used carbon dioxide instead .
As of 2016 , another reactor of similar design to the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor is still in operation , the Belgian BR @-@ 1 reactor of the SCK • CEN , located in Mol , Belgium . Financed through the Belgian uranium export tax with the help of British experts , the 4 MW research reactor became critical for the first time on May 11 , 1956 . It is used for scientific purposes , such as neutron activation analysis , neutron physics experiments , calibration of nuclear measurement devices and the production of neutron transmutation doped silicon .
= Charles Keating =
Charles Humphrey Keating , Jr . ( December 4 , 1923 – March 31 , 2014 ) was an American athlete , lawyer , real estate developer , banker , financier , and activist best known for his role in the savings and loan scandal of the late 1980s .
Keating was a champion swimmer for the University of Cincinnati in the 1940s . From the late 1950s through the 1970s , he was a noted anti @-@ pornography activist , founding the organization Citizens for Decent Literature and serving as a member on the 1969 President 's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography .
In the 1980s , Keating ran American Continental Corporation and the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association , and took advantage of loosened restrictions on banking investments . His enterprises began to suffer financial problems and were investigated by federal regulators . His financial contributions to , and requests for regulatory intervention from five sitting U.S. senators led to those legislators being dubbed the " Keating Five " .
When Lincoln failed in 1989 , it cost the federal government over $ 3 billion and about 23 @,@ 000 customers were left with worthless bonds . In the early 1990s , Keating was convicted in both federal and state courts of many counts of fraud , racketeering and conspiracy . He served four and a half years in prison before those convictions were overturned in 1996 . In 1999 , he pleaded guilty to a more limited set of wire fraud and bankruptcy fraud counts , and was sentenced to the time he had already served . Keating spent his final years in low @-@ profile real estate activities until his death in 2014 .
= = Early life and military service = =
Keating was born on December 4 , 1923 , in Cincinnati , Ohio , into a devout Roman Catholic family . He was the son of Adele ( Kipp ) and Charles Humphrey Keating . He grew up in the Avondale and Clifton neighborhoods of that city . His younger brother William was born in 1927 . Their father came from Kentucky and managed a dairy . Charles Keating , Sr. lost a leg in a hunting accident , and then fell into a long decline from Parkinson 's disease around 1931 , and was nursed by his wife until his death in 1964 .
Keating began swimming at a Catholic summer camp and became passionately involved in the sport . He attended St. Xavier High School , where he was a good student , was on the swim team all four years , and also ran track and played football . In swimming he led the team to three Greater Catholic League championships , set several school records , was named all @-@ state , and was captain of the team in his senior year . Keating graduated from St. Xavier in 1941 .
After one semester at the University of Cincinnati in fall 1941 , Keating left because of poor grades , although he advanced to the NCAA Men 's Swimming and Diving Championships in 1942 , finishing sixth in the 200 yard breaststroke . He enlisted in the United States Navy , where he would spend four years . He trained in the Naval Air Corps to become a carrier @-@ based night fighter pilot flying F6F Hellcats .
During World War II , Keating was stationed in the U.S. , sometimes at Banana Creek in Florida , and flew Hellcats to armed services swimming meets . He narrowly escaped serious injury one night at Naval Air Station Vero Beach when he neglected to lower the landing gear on his Hellcat and wrecked the plane in an unexpected belly landing . Due to additional training on new intercept methods and the vagaries of squadron transfers , the war ended before he could be deployed to any combat theater .
= = Education and swimming = =
Keating was ready to return to college after finishing his Navy service in 1945 . His abilities as a swimmer made him an attractive recruit , despite his having dropped out earlier . He cut a deal with the University of Cincinnati wherein it would accept for academic credit much of his Navy service , then he would take six months of liberal arts courses before entering its law school .
Keating won the 200 @-@ yard breaststroke at the Ohio Intercollegiate Conference championship in 1945 . On March 30 , 1946 , Keating competed in the 200 @-@ yard breaststroke at the NCAA Men 's Swimming and Diving Championships , before a packed house of 2 @,@ 500 spectators at Yale University 's Payne Whitney Gymnasium . In an exciting , back @-@ and @-@ forth contest with Paul Murray of Cornell University and future coaching legend James Counsilman of Ohio State University , he prevailed by a foot to win the championship with a time of 2 : 26 @.@ 2 . ( The event was later reclassified as the butterfly in NCAA records due to a definitional evolution involving the two strokes . )
This was the first ever national championship in any sport for the University of Cincinnati . He and teammate Roy Lagaly become the first @-@ ever Bearcats to be named All @-@ Americans . Keating was an imposing 6 feet 5 inches , a natural leader and co @-@ captain of the team with Lagaly . Of Keating , Lagaly said , " You could tell even then he was going to be very successful . He was very ambitious . Whatever he did , he did all the way . " Keating followed this by swimming for Cincinnati Gym , finishing second to future Olympic gold medalist Joseph Verdeur in the 220 @-@ yard breaststroke at the April 1946 national AAU championships .
Keating received his law degree from the University of Cincinnati College of Law in 1948 , and would later be named a member of the university 's Athletic Hall of Fame .
Charles Keating was a long @-@ time supporter of U.S. swimming and beginning in 1969 he and his brother William donated $ 600 @,@ 000 to St. Xavier High School in Cincinnati to build a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art competition pool . The school 's swimming team went on to win many state titles . St. Xavier named the Keating Natatorium after the brothers ' father , and inducted Charles Keating into its initial Athletic Hall of Fame class in 1985 . The University of Cincinnati 's 2006 athletic building is named the Keating Aquatic Center , in honor of William Keating , and donations from the Keating family used to construct it . Charles Keating funded Cincinnati 's Marlins swim club ; six swimmers on the 1980 Summer Olympics squad were from its roster , including future Olympic champion Mary T. Meagher . When he later moved to Phoenix , Charles Keating built the Phoenix Swim Club , where Olympians also trained .
= = Marriage and family = =
Keating married Mary Elaine Fette in 1949 . She was an athletically @-@ minded Catholic from an established Cincinnati family . They had six children : daughters Kathleen , Mary , Maureen , Elaine , and Elizabeth , and a son , Charles Keating III .
His daughter Mary married Gary Hall , Sr. , who would go on to swim in the 1968 , 1972 , and 1976 Summer Olympics , winning a medal in each one . Charles Keating III swam in the 1976 Summer Olympics , finishing fifth in the 200 @-@ meter breaststroke . Keating 's grandson Gary Hall Jr. competed in the 1996 , 2000 , and 2004 Summer Olympics as a swimmer and won ten medals overall .
Another Keating grandson , Petty Officer 1st Class Charlie Keating IV , a Navy SEAL , was killed at age 31 in combat with ISIS in Iraq in 2016 .
= = Early legal and business career = =
After law school graduation , Keating did spot legal work for the FBI , then joined a law firm doing corporate law . On the side , he entered the business world where his ventures involved selling life insurance , running a fruit stand , and working for Roto @-@ Rooter .
In 1952 , along with his brother , William , and a mutual friend from law school , he became a founding partner of the Cincinnati law firm Keating , Muething & Keating . Beginning in the late 1950s they took on Carl Lindner , Jr. as a client . Lindner was rapidly accumulating ice cream stores , supermarkets , real estate , and savings and loans , and soon essentially became Keating 's sole client . In 1956 , he filed requests for Q clearances on behalf of a small company of former Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory scientists with an office in Newtown , Ohio ; unknown to Keating , the FBI suspected the application was fraudulent and launched an investigation of him , but no charges were made . Keating was admitted to the U.S. Supreme Court bar in 1958 .
In 1960 , Lindner and Keating created American Financial Corporation , a holding company of Lindner 's disparate businesses that created further subsidiaries and financial instruments , all doing business with each other . Keating was named to the board of directors of the company in 1963 .
= = Anti @-@ pornography activism = =
In 1956 , Keating joined a priest leading a group of concerned Catholics in Cincinnati who were concerned about the dangers of pornography , and he began giving talks on the subject to parents and other groups . In 1958 , Keating testified before the House Judiciary Committee on mail @-@ order pornography , saying that it was " capable of poisoning any mind at any age and of perverting our entire younger generation " , and that it was closely tied to juvenile delinquency , while also quoting a Senate Committee report that " part of the Communist conspiracy was to print ( obscene materials ) " . Keating mentioned links between pornography and Communism at other times , but distanced himself from the more fervent anti @-@ Communist groups of the early 1960s . He stated that 90 percent of obscene materials were produced for profit , not ideological reasons , and told Congress in 1960 , " I had better say [ ... ] that I am not blaming obscenity in America on the Communists . "
Keating founded Citizens for Decent Literature ( CDL ) in 1958 ( later renamed a number of times , the best known of which is Citizens for Decency through Law ) , which advocated reading classics not " smut . " It would grow to 300 chapters and 100 @,@ 000 members nationwide and become the largest anti @-@ pornography organization in the nation . It absorbed some other groups , such as National Citizens for Decent Literature and the Pittsburgh National Better Magazines Council . The structure of CDL was initially decentralized , but Keating grew frustrated with some local chapters taking aggressive actions he did not approve of , and so he gave it a more controlled focus with a national magazine , film production , and a greater role in legal actions .
Over the next two decades , CDL mailed some 40 million letters on behalf of its position and filed a series of amicus curiae briefs before the U.S. Supreme Court . Keating gained the nickname " Mr. Clean " .
In 1964 – 65 , Keating produced Perversion for Profit , a film featuring announcer George Putnam . It was a survey of then @-@ available prurient and obscene materials , and asserted that pornography led to moral decay . It , along with two lesser @-@ known films produced or distributed by CDL , was screened frequently throughout the country and remained in print for a long time .
In 1969 , Keating 's national reputation on the issue led President Nixon to appoint him to the President 's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography , which had been begun under Nixon 's predecessor , Lyndon B. Johnson . The majority on the commission issued a report which concluded that pornography does not degrade the morals of adults or cause crime and recommended that all federal , state , and local laws preventing consenting adults from obtaining pornographic materials be repealed . Keating , Nixon 's only appointee on the 18 @-@ person commission , was the leading commission dissenter from the report .
In September 1970 , Keating was granted a temporary restraining order from the D.C. Federal District Court to delay publication of the report , stating that he needed access to all the report 's backing materials and time to write a dissent . Several days later , Keating was given the desired materials and two weeks to write his report by the committee .
Keating filed his dissent , saying , " At a time when the spread of pornography has reached epidemic proportions in our country and when the moral fiber of our nation seems to be rapidly unravelling , the desperate need is for enlightenment and intelligent control of the poisons which threaten us – not the declaration of moral bankruptcy inherent in the repeal of the laws which have been the defense of decent people against the pornographer for profit . " Keating wrote , " One can consult all the experts he chooses , can write reports , make studies , etc . , but the fact that obscenity corrupts lies within the common sense , the reason , and the logic of every man . "
The Nixon administration tacitly supported Keating 's legal efforts , and Counsellor to the President John Ehrlichman assigned White House speechwriter Pat Buchanan to help draft the dissenting report . The commission 's majority report was denounced by congressional leaders of both parties as well as by the administration .
The commission involvement earned Keating further national attention , which he used to push towards stringent behavior in Cincinnati . In 1969 , Keating obtained an injunction preventing the showing in Cincinnati of softcore sexploitation master Russ Meyer 's film Vixen ! , claiming it was obscene , and the film was seized by the police the first day it opened . Showing of the film was successfully stopped in other parts of Ohio as well , and Meyer spent $ 250 @,@ 000 in defense against Keating legal actions . Keating said Meyer had done more to undermine morals in the nation than anyone else ; Meyer responded that " I was glad to do it . " The Cincinnati Vixen ! case was appealed and in 1971 the Supreme Court of Ohio upheld the prohibition .
In 1970 , Keating tried to block a closed @-@ circuit showing of the musical Oh ! Calcutta ! in Cincinnati , saying that " it appeals to a prurient interest in sex . " During 1972 , a Keating legal action kept a sex film theater shut as a " public nuisance " . He tried to prevent newsstands near his office from selling Playboy and Oui magazines . He denounced the Ramada Inn chain for offering adult programming on cable television to guests . Other local actions involving shutting stores and removing books from public libraries were attributed by civil liberties advocates to the " oppressive " trend that Keating had set . Such was Keating and his organization 's effectiveness that when the U.S. Supreme Court handed down the 1973 Miller v. California decision establishing that obscenity definitions be based upon local community standards , every adult bookstore and movie house in Cincinnati was closed within hours .
Citizens for Decent Literature and Keating often warned about homosexuality as an example of what they saw as perverse behavior . The film Perversion for Profit had included a claim that homosexuals had a slogan saying that " today 's conquest is tomorrow 's competition " ; in a 1977 speech in Miami , Keating repeated this phrase , concluding from it that homosexuality represented an endless " seduction of the innocent " .
In 1975 , Oui magazine gave Keating the top spot on its " Enemies of pornography " list . Hamilton County prosecutor Simon L. Leis , Jr. put Ohio pornographer Larry Flynt on trial in 1976 for pandering obscenity and for engaging in a form of organized crime . Local public opinion ran against Flynt . Flynt was convicted on both counts and received the maximum sentence of 7 to 25 years in prison . While the conviction was later overturned on appeal , the verdict again established Cincinnati 's community standards in this regard , and even after Keating left for Arizona , his influence remained in Cincinnati being a center of anti @-@ pornography fervor . In the 1996 biopic , The People vs. Larry Flynt , which reportedly exaggerated Keating 's role in the prosecution and trial , Keating was portrayed by actor James Cromwell . Attempts to show Vixen ! in Cincinnati would continue , but by the late 1990s it was still illegal to do so .
= = American Financial Corporation = =
While officially an outside lawyer , Keating functioned as a public face for Carl Lindner and American Financial Corporation and the two were close associates on business as well as legal matters ; Lindner would sometimes refer to Keating as a " founder " of American Financial . The company had easy access to credit lines , which allowed it to continually grow . The web of transactions involving the company and its subsidiaries was large and complex , and one stock analyst stated in 1977 that he had " never come across a company that has so much strange paper on its books . "
Keating left his law practice in 1972 and formally joined American Financial Corporation , by now a $ 1 billion enterprise , as executive vice president . Keating became Lindner 's person in charge of firing employees from newly acquired companies . Within business circles Keating gained a reputation for aggressiveness and arrogance . He took on an operational involvement in The Cincinnati Enquirer , the town 's only morning newspaper . He interfered in editorial decisions , such as adding coverage to high school sports that he or Lindner 's sons were involved in . The paper was then sold to a group including his brother , William , who had been a Republican congressman from Ohio 's 1st congressional district in the early 1970s . Charles Keating was involved in American Financial 's 1974 sale of Bantam Books , and its decision that year not to enter the investment banking field .
In 1975 and 1976 , several stockholder lawsuits were filed against American Financial , and Keating was under fire for aspects involving unsecured loans , stock warrants , and the sale of the Enquirer . The Securities and Exchange Commission launched a major investigation of the company and charged Lindner , Keating and others with having defrauded investors and filing false SEC reports . At particular issue was a $ 14 million loan that the SEC said was made on preferential terms . Keating resigned from American Financial in August 1976 , with conflicting stories as to whether or not Keating and Lindner had remained close or whether they had fallen out .
= = American Continental Corporation = =
Keating moved to Phoenix , Arizona in 1976 to run the real estate firm American Continental Homes , a struggling , millions @-@ losing homebuilding spin @-@ off of American Financial that was given over to Keating for $ 300 @,@ 000 as part of his departure package . The move was completed when his family followed him in 1978 . In 1979 the SEC case with American Financial was settled , with Keating signing a consent agreement where he neither admitted nor denied guilt but agreed not to violate federal fraud and securities statutes . In practice , Keating was blamed for much of the irregular financial practices that had gone on and his reputation was significantly damaged .
Keating reaped benefits from the move to Arizona , a wide @-@ open territory in both a physical and business sense that allowed someone a fresh start . He turned the now @-@ renamed American Continental Corporation around , adding various operations and divisions in a structure somewhat reminiscent of American Financial . As chairman and controlling stockholder , Keating relied heavily upon family members , employing his son and four of his sons @-@ in @-@ law in prominent positions . Charles Keating III had a fast career rise within the company .
In 1979 , Keating served as head of fundraising in the Southwest for John Connally 's campaign for the 1980 Republican Party presidential nomination . Connally was a favorite of the business community , but his campaign had difficulty parlaying its fundraising successes into popular support . In early December 1979 , Keating was named campaign manager , with the existing manager being demoted to campaign strategist . Keating 's first action was as a " pruner " who immediately fired twenty workers at the campaign 's Virginia headquarters . The campaign continued to struggle , and , by late February 1980 , Keating was out as manager , with Connally taking the role . Connally 's campaign ended two weeks later , famously known for having spent $ 11 million and gaining only one delegate .
Having won the 1980 election , President Reagan contacted Keating about becoming U.S. Ambassador to the Bahamas , where Keating had spent considerable time . When Keating 's run @-@ in with the SEC resurfaced in press reports , however , he was dropped from consideration . This dismayed Keating , who subsequently said , " To keep people like me out of positions like that because of yellow journalism , I don 't know what good it does . "
By the early 1980s , American Continental 's profits were in the millions and it had become the biggest single @-@ family home builder in Phoenix and Denver . At its peak it would have $ 6 billion in assets , a large number of subsidiaries , 2 @,@ 500 employees , and a headquarters complex on Phoenix 's Camelback Road . It had three corporate jets and a helicopter . He was a very hard worker and a strong presence to his employees ; one later said , " It 's almost magnetic . When he moves , things happen . The office would come alive when he walked in . " He inspired both camaraderie and fervent loyalty in them . While he demanded long hours , he often rewarded employees monetarily and with gifts . Businesspeople outside his company often found Keating arrogant and difficult to deal with . Congressman William Keating , who was well @-@ liked , said of his brother : " Charlie is impatient , aggressive , always on the move . He has clearly defined goals . I don 't think he worries about the popularity of his positions . " A Fortune profile in 1977 reported , " It seems almost impossible to find anyone who actually likes Charlie Keating . " The story rankled Keating , who later had over five thousand large yellow " I Like Charlie Keating " buttons made up which he handed out to employees and visitors . Keating said , " There are a lot of people that would say nasty things , I 'm sure , about me , but it ain 't true that nobody ever liked Charlie Keating . "
A devout Catholic , Keating became a heavy donor to charity when he moved to Phoenix , donating $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul , more than $ 1 million to Covenant House , and another more than $ 1 million to Mother Teresa 's operations , including lending her his helicopter when she was in Arizona so that she could visit remote Indian reservations in the state . Covenant House 's Father Bruce Ritter said of Keating , " He makes you believe in Providence . " In 1983 , Keating and his companies made legal but unusually large campaign donations in races for the Phoenix City Council , who were responsible for approving his building projects including water usage for residential developments built around artificial ponds . The scale of donations represented a change from past practice in local Phoenix politics ; some council figures opposed the trend , while others readily asked for the funds .
= = Lincoln Savings and the Keating Five = =
In 1984 , American Continental Corporation bought Lincoln Savings and Loan Association for just over $ 50 million . Up through the early 1980s , Lincoln had been a conservatively @-@ run enterprise , with almost half its assets in home loans and only a quarter of its assets considered at risk . It made slow growth at best , and had shown a loss for several years until it made a profit of a few million dollars in 1983 . Once he took over , Keating fired the existing management . Savings and loan associations had been deregulated in the early 1980s , allowing them to make high @-@ risk investments with their depositors ' money , a change of which Keating and other savings and loan operators took advantage . When Keating later was asked why he got into savings and loans , he said , " I know the business inside out , and I always felt that an S & L , if they 'd relax the rules , was the biggest moneymaker in the world . "
Over the next four years Lincoln 's assets increased from $ 1 @.@ 1 billion to $ 5 @.@ 5 billion . Lincoln 's particular investments took the form of buying land , taking equity positions in real estate development projects , and buying high @-@ yield junk bonds . A sales document from this period urges staff to , " always remember the weak , meek and ignorant are always good targets . "
Beginning in 1985 the Federal Home Loan Bank Board ( FHLBB ) feared that the savings industry 's risky investment practices were exposing the government 's insurance funds to huge losses . It instituted a rule whereby savings associations could hold no more than 10 percent of their assets in " direct investments " , and were thus prohibited from taking ownership positions in certain financial entities and instruments . Lincoln had become burdened with bad debt resulting from its past aggressiveness , and by early 1986 its investment practices were being investigated and audited by the San Francisco office of the FHLBB : in particular whether it had violated these direct investment rules ; Lincoln had directed accounts insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation into commercial real estate ventures . By the end of 1986 , that office of the FHLBB had found that Lincoln had $ 135 million in unreported losses and had surpassed the regulated direct investments limit by $ 600 million .
Keating believed that the regulators were against him because he opposed their rules . He also told his staff that some of the San Francisco regulators were likely " homos " who were " out to get him " for his strong moral views . Keating took measures to oppose the FHLBB , including recruiting a study from then @-@ private economist Alan Greenspan saying that direct investments were not harmful , trying to hire FHLBB members or their wives , and getting President Ronald Reagan to make a recess appointment of a Keating ally , real estate developer Lee H. Henkel Jr . , to the FHLBB . By March 1987 , however , the ally had resigned upon news of his having large loans due to Lincoln . It appeared as though the government might seize Lincoln for being insolvent .
Starting in January 1987 , Keating looked for help from what would become known as " the Keating Five " : U.S. Senators Alan Cranston ( D @-@ CA ) , Dennis DeConcini ( D @-@ AZ ) , John Glenn ( D @-@ OH ) , John McCain ( R @-@ AZ ) and Donald W. Riegle ( D @-@ MI ) . Keating had , or would soon make , legal political contributions of about $ 1 @.@ 3 million to the senators , and he called on them to help him resist the regulators . Keating became a personal friend of McCain following their initial contacts in 1981 , and McCain was the only one of the five with close social and personal ties to Keating . McCain and his family had made several trips at Keating 's expense , sometimes aboard American Continental 's jet , for vacations at Keating 's opulent Bahamas retreat at Cat Cay .
Keating asked that Lincoln be given a lenient judgment by the FHLBB , so it could limit its high risk investments and get into the relatively safe home mortgage business , allowing the business to survive . A letter from audit firm Arthur Young & Co. bolstered Keating 's case that the government investigation was taking a long time . McCain initially refused to meet with Keating over the FHLBB matter and Keating called McCain a " wimp " behind his back . The two had a heated , contentious meeting in which McCain said he had not spent years in North Vietnamese prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps to have his courage or integrity questioned ; the friendship ended and they would not speak again . In April 1987 , the group of senators met twice with FHLBB members who were investigating American Continental Corporation and Lincoln , in an attempt to end the investigation . Meanwhile , Keating filed a lawsuit against the FHLBB , saying it had leaked confidential information about Lincoln . The outgoing head of the FHLBB in Washington deferred judgment and the new head was more sympathetic to Keating . In May 1988 , the FHLBB agreed to an unprecedented memorandum of understanding giving Lincoln a clean slate and forgiveness for any violations up to that point . ( In 1991 , the senators would be rebuked to various degrees by the Senate Ethics Committee , with Cranston receiving the harshest verdict and Glenn and McCain the least . McCain later testified against Keating in a civil lawsuit brought by Lincoln bondholders , while the other four refused to testify . )
= = Failure of Lincoln and American Continental = =
Lincoln stayed in business ; from mid @-@ 1987 to April 1989 , its assets grew from $ 3 @.@ 91 billion to $ 5 @.@ 46 billion . Following Keating 's past practices with Lindner , American Continental amassed a large collection of confusingly connected subsidiaries in real estate , banking , and insurance businesses ; these numbered at least 54 , and there were some overseas ones that auditors were not aware of . Keating was triumphant in having defeated the regulators , whom he despised as useless relics from an outmoded financial past , and defended his high salary and business practices . He spent about $ 500 @,@ 000 on radio advertisements in the Phoenix area to improve his public image ; the commercials stressed his real estate projects and his family @-@ oriented values . A 1988 Los Angeles Times profile assessed Keating as " a businessman without apparent peer in Arizona in terms of riches , clout and color . " While Keating had taken Citizens for Decency through Law with him , he had generally de @-@ emphasized his anti @-@ pornography work when he moved to Arizona . Nevertheless , X @-@ rated movies and Playboy magazine were banned from his hotels .
In October 1988 , Keating opened his most extravagant real estate project ever , the 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , 600 @-@ room The Phoenician resort at the base of Camelback Mountain . Its construction cost $ 300 million , included many opulent , imported features , and saw a number of instances of Keating or his decorator wife making wholesale late design changes at great expense . His other grand project was Estrella , a 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) mixed @-@ use development outside of Phoenix in Goodyear , Arizona in the direction of the Sierra Estrella . Incorporating homes , offices , industrial buildings , schools , shopping , a resort and a hospital , it was intended to eventually house 200 @,@ 000 people and become a model 21st century city . American Continental wrote rules saying that Estrella homeowners could not " intentionally terminat [ e ] a human pregnancy " or possess " adult material " , but removed them once Keating was informed that such covenants were unconstitutional . A late 1980s downturn in the Sun Belt real estate market put Estrella in jeopardy before much building could be done .
Asked in an interview if he ever worried about going broke , Keating responded , " All the time , every day . I come into the office with this hollow feeling in my stomach lots of time .... You get trapped almost . You get too many responsibilities . It 's a bellyfull to carry . It 's risky . Dangerous . There 's the possibility of failure with it every day and every night . But in a way , it 's a challenge . It 's invigorating . There isn 't any point in not being a player – you 're here .... It 's not only the money . It 's the disgrace , yourself , your manhood . I 'm not sure I 'd have a big problem with that . On the other hand I 'm not sure I wouldn 't . "
As Lincoln grew , money was siphoned from Lincoln to the parent American Continental Corporation under a variety of schemes , and American Continental spent lavishly on speculative investments and personal expenses . A new regulatory investigation began in July 1988 . After Arthur Young indicated doubts about some accounting practices , Keating fired them in September 1988 and switched to Touche Ross . American Continental was desperate for cash inflow to make up for losses in real estate purchases and projects . Lincoln 's branch managers and tellers convinced customers to replace their federally @-@ insured certificates of deposit with higher @-@ yielding bond certificates of American Continental ; the customers later said they were never properly informed that the bonds were uninsured and very risky given the state of American Continental 's finances . The regulators had already adjudged the bonds to have no solvent backing . Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation chair L. William Seidman would later write that Lincoln 's push to get depositors to switch was " one of the most heartless and cruel frauds in modern memory . " In late 1988 , Keating began desperate attempts to sell Lincoln ; regulators rejected one $ 50 million potential sale due to the buyers not meeting federal requirements .
A December 1988 audit by the FHLBB found Lincoln in violation of many regulations and in danger of default . The following month they ordered Keating to stop transferring cash from Lincoln to American Continental , which imperiled the latter 's survival strategy and caused its stock price to nosedive . Keating tried to arrange junk bond deals with Michael Milken and place bets in the global currency markets to generate cash , but the moves failed and he lost $ 11 million in one month alone . Keating got Senators DeConcini and Cranston to pressure the regulators to let a sale go through , but this time the lawmakers were ignored .
American Continental went bankrupt in April 1989 , and Lincoln was seized by the FHLBB . About 23 @,@ 000 customers were left with worthless bonds . Many investors , often ones living in California retirement communities , lost their life savings , and later claimed to have suffered emotional trauma for having been duped on top of their financial devastation . The total bondholder loss came to between $ 250 million and $ 288 million .
The federal government was eventually liable for $ 3 @.@ 4 billion to cover Lincoln 's losses when it seized the institution . In talking to reporters in April 1989 , Keating maintained that he was the victim of a federal government that had spent years trying to destroy him , and then said , " One question , among many raised in recent weeks , had to do with whether my financial support in any way influenced several political figures to take up my cause . I want to say in the most forceful way I can : I certainly hope so . "
In September 1989 , Keating was hit with a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion fraud and racketeering action , filed against him by the regulators . He proclaimed that , " We 've lost everything in this thing , my wife and I. It 's devastating . " In November 1989 , Keating was subpoenaed to testify before the House Banking Committee , but refused to answer questions , invoking his right against self @-@ incrimination under the Fifth Amendment . Also in November , his Phoenician Resort was seized by the FBI ; under their operation it became known as " Club Fed " before later being sold to a Kuwaiti group . The vastly ambitious Estrella project would remain deserted and was sold in 1993 to an investment group .
By November 1989 , the estimated cost of the overall savings and loan crisis had reached $ 500 billion , and the media 's coverage often highlighted Keating 's role as part of what became a feeding frenzy . Keating and Lincoln Savings became convenient symbols for arguments about what had gone wrong in America 's financial system and society , as well as for 1980s greed in general , and were featured in popular culture references . A deck of playing cards would be marketed , called " The Savings and Loan Scandal " , that featured on their face Charles Keating holding up his hand , with images of the Keating Five senators portrayed as puppets on his fingers .
= = Legal consequences = =
Keating blamed government regulators for the failure of Lincoln Savings and sued for control over the bank . The suit was dismissed in August 1990 , with the judge calling the seizure fully justified . , Keating 's legal fees were running at $ 1 million per month .
In September 1990 , Keating and his associates were indicted by the State of California on 42 counts related to having duped Lincoln 's customers into buying worthless junk bonds of American Continental Corporation . Keating went to jail when he could not post a $ 5 million bond . He was convicted in December 1991 of 17 counts of fraud , racketeering , and conspiracy . Mother Teresa asked the court to show leniency to Keating , in recognition of the considerable sums he had donated to her charitable operations . In April 1992 , California Superior Court Judge Lance Ito gave Keating the maximum 10 @-@ year prison sentence , quoting Woody Guthrie , to wit " More people have suffered from the point of a fountain pen than from a gun . " Keating was sent to the medium @-@ security Federal Correctional Institution , Tucson to serve his time .
In May 1992 , Keating 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Robert M. Wurzelbacher Jr . , a senior vice president of American Continental , and chief executive of an investment firm owned by Lincoln Savings , was also implicated , pleaded guilty to three federal fraud counts in connection with the collapse of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association and agreed to testify against Keating . ( In December 1993 , Wurzelbacher was sentenced to a 40 @-@ month prison term . )
In January 1993 , a federal conviction followed , on 73 counts of fraud , racketeering and conspiracy . In July 1993 , Keating was given a 12 ½ year sentence . The judge ordered Keating to pay restitution of $ 122 million to the government , but Keating said he was $ 10 million in debt and had no assets to sell .
One case filed by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission was settled in 1994 : Keating said he was bankrupt but agreed to repay millions should any hidden assets be discovered . A third case filed by the Resolution Trust Corporation resulted in a summary judgment of $ 4 @.@ 3 billion against Keating and his wife in 1994 , the largest judgment ever against a private person . The judgment was overturned on appeal in 1999 , on grounds that Keating could not be held personally liable to the government without a specific criminal conviction or some other decision at trial . Throughout his incarceration , Keating maintained his innocence , saying he was a " political prisoner " of the U.S. government and a scapegoat for the largest banking scandal in the nation 's history .
In April 1996 , the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco ruled that state trial judge Ito had given the jury faulty instructions about the law regarding fraud . The conviction was overturned . In December 1996 , the same Court of Appeals ruled that some of the jurors in the federal case might have been influenced by their knowledge and discussion of the results of the state case , and threw out the federal conviction . Keating was freed after 4 ½ years in prison ; he later said that staying tough during his incarceration was the thing he was proudest of . He was said to have gotten along well with other prisoners and served as best man at weddings for some that he met there .
In April 1999 , on the eve of the retrial of the federal case , Keating entered a plea agreement . He admitted to having committed four counts of wire and bankruptcy fraud by extracting nearly $ 1 million from American Continental Corp. while already anticipating the collapse that happened weeks later . The federal prosecutors dropped all other charges against him and his son , Charles Keating III . He was sentenced to time served .
In October 2000 , the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear the government 's appeal of the overturning of the state conviction . This left Keating without any convictions other than that from his plea bargain . State prosecutors declined to move for a retrial , saying it would bring no more than a six @-@ month jail sentence and that many witnesses had died in the interim or were in bad health . Keating replied that if the government had left him alone , investors " would all be rich . "
= = Final years and death = =
Following his release from prison , Keating separated from his wife Mary . He moved in with his daughter Mary and son @-@ in @-@ law Gary Hall , Sr. in the Paradise Valley neighborhood of Phoenix .
During the 2000s , Keating worked as a business consultant and as of 2008 was involved in some successful real estate developments in the Phoenix market . He kept a low profile in his
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in Libya . While she accepted responsibility for security lapses relating to the 2012 Benghazi attack , she said she had no direct role in consulate security prior to that attack . Leaving office after Obama 's first term , she wrote her fifth book and undertook speaking engagements before announcing her second presidential run in the 2016 election . Clinton won the Democratic primaries and the 2016 Democratic nomination , becoming the first woman to be nominated for president by a major U.S. political party . She faces Republican Donald Trump in the general election .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hillary Diane Rodham was born on October 26 , 1947 , at Edgewater Hospital in Chicago , Illinois . She was raised in a United Methodist family , first in Chicago and then , from the age of three , in suburban Park Ridge , Illinois . Her father , Hugh Ellsworth Rodham ( 1911 – 1993 ) , was of Welsh and English descent ; he managed a successful small business in the textile industry . Her mother , Dorothy Emma Howell ( 1919 – 2011 ) , was a homemaker of English , Scottish , French @-@ Canadian , and Welsh descent . Hillary has two younger brothers , Hugh and Tony .
As a child , Rodham was a favorite of her teachers at the public schools she attended in Park Ridge . She participated in sports , such as swimming and baseball , and earned numerous badges as a Brownie and as a Girl Scout . She has often told a story of being inspired by U.S. efforts during the Space Race and sending a letter to NASA around 1961 asking what she could do to become an astronaut , only to be told that no women were being accepted into that program .
She attended Maine East High School , where she participated in student council , the school newspaper , and was selected for National Honor Society . She won election as class vice president for her junior year , but then lost an election for class president for her senior year against two boys , one of whom told her that " you are really stupid if you think a girl can be elected president . " For her senior year , she was redistricted to Maine South High School , where she was a National Merit Finalist and graduated in the top five percent of her class of 1965 . Rodham 's mother wanted her to have an independent , professional career , and her father , otherwise a traditionalist , felt that his daughter 's abilities and opportunities should not be limited by gender .
Raised in a politically conservative household , Rodham helped canvass Chicago 's South Side at age thirteen following the very close 1960 U.S. presidential election , where she saw evidence of electoral fraud ( such as voting list entries showing addresses that were empty lots ) against Republican candidate Richard Nixon . She then volunteered to campaign for Republican candidate Barry Goldwater in the U.S. presidential election of 1964 . Rodham 's early political development was shaped most by her high school history teacher ( like her father , a fervent anti @-@ communist ) , who introduced her to Goldwater 's The Conscience of a Conservative , and by her Methodist youth minister ( like her mother , concerned with issues of social justice ) , with whom she saw , and afterwards briefly met , civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr. at a 1962 speech in Chicago 's Orchestra Hall .
= = = Wellesley College years = = =
In 1965 , Rodham enrolled at Wellesley College , where she majored in political science . During her freshman year , she served as president of the Wellesley Young Republicans ; with this Rockefeller Republican @-@ oriented group , she supported the elections to mayor of John Lindsay ( New York City ) and to U.S. senator of Edward Brooke ( Massachusetts ) . She later stepped down from this position , as her views changed regarding the American Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War . In a letter to her youth minister at this time , she described herself as " a mind conservative and a heart liberal " . In contrast to the 1960s current that advocated radical actions against the political system , she sought to work for change within it .
In her junior year , Rodham became a supporter of the antiwar presidential nomination campaign of Democrat Eugene McCarthy . In early 1968 , she was elected president of the Wellesley College Government Association and served through early 1969 . Following the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . , Rodham organized a two @-@ day student strike and worked with Wellesley 's black students to recruit more black students and faculty . In her student government role , she played a role in keeping Wellesley from being embroiled in the student disruptions common to other colleges . A number of her fellow students thought she might some day become the first female President of the United States .
To help her better understand her changing political views , Professor Alan Schechter assigned Rodham to intern at the House Republican Conference , and she attended the " Wellesley in Washington " summer program . Rodham was invited by moderate New York Republican Representative Charles Goodell to help Governor Nelson Rockefeller 's late @-@ entry campaign for the Republican nomination . Rodham attended the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami . However , she was upset by the way Richard Nixon 's campaign portrayed Rockefeller and by what she perceived as the convention 's " veiled " racist messages , and left the Republican Party for good . Rodham wrote her senior thesis , a critique of the tactics of radical community organizer Saul Alinsky , under Professor Schechter . ( Years later , while she was first lady , access to her thesis was restricted at the request of the White House and it became the subject of some speculation . )
In 1969 , she graduated with a bachelor of arts , with departmental honors in political science . After some fellow seniors requested that the college administration allow a student speaker at commencement , she became the first student in Wellesley College history to speak at the event , following commencement speaker Senator Brooke . Her speech received a standing ovation lasting seven minutes . She was featured in an article published in Life magazine , due to the response to a part of her speech that criticized Senator Brooke . She also appeared on Irv Kupcinet 's nationally syndicated television talk show as well as in Illinois and New England newspapers . That summer , she worked her way across Alaska , washing dishes in Mount McKinley National Park and sliming salmon in a fish processing cannery in Valdez ( which fired her and shut down overnight when she complained about unhealthful conditions ) .
= = = Yale Law School and postgraduate studies = = =
Rodham then entered Yale Law School . There she served on the editorial board of the Yale Review of Law and Social Action . During her second year , she worked at the Yale Child Study Center , learning about new research on early childhood brain development and working as a research assistant on the seminal work , Beyond the Best Interests of the Child ( 1973 ) . She also took on cases of child abuse at Yale – New Haven Hospital and volunteered at New Haven Legal Services to provide free legal advice for the poor . In the summer of 1970 she was awarded a grant to work at Marian Wright Edelman 's Washington Research Project , where she was assigned to Senator Walter Mondale 's Subcommittee on Migratory Labor . There she researched migrant workers ' problems in housing , sanitation , health and education . Edelman later became a significant mentor . Rodham was recruited by political advisor Anne Wexler to work on the 1970 campaign of Connecticut U.S. Senate candidate Joseph Duffey , with Rodham later crediting Wexler with providing her first job in politics .
In the late spring of 1971 she began dating Bill Clinton , also a law student at Yale . That summer she interned at the Oakland , California , law firm of Treuhaft , Walker and Burnstein . The firm was well known for its support of constitutional rights , civil liberties , and radical causes ( two of its four partners were current or former Communist Party members ) ; Rodham worked on child custody and other cases . Clinton canceled his original summer plans in order to live with her in California ; the couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school . The following summer , Rodham and Clinton campaigned in Texas for unsuccessful 1972 Democratic presidential candidate George McGovern . She received a Juris Doctor degree from Yale in 1973 , having stayed on an extra year to be with Clinton . He first proposed marriage to her following graduation but she declined , uncertain if she wanted to tie her future to his .
Rodham began a year of postgraduate study on children and medicine at the Yale Child Study Center . Her first scholarly article , " Children Under the Law " , was published in the Harvard Educational Review in late 1973 . Discussing the new children 's rights movement , it stated that " child citizens " were " powerless individuals " and argued that children should not be considered equally incompetent from birth to attaining legal age , but that instead courts should presume competence except when there is evidence otherwise , on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . The article became frequently cited in the field .
= = Marriage and family , law career and First Lady of Arkansas = =
= = = From the East Coast to Arkansas = = =
During her postgraduate study , Rodham served as staff attorney for Edelman 's newly founded Children 's Defense Fund in Cambridge , Massachusetts , and as a consultant to the Carnegie Council on Children . In 1974 she was a member of the impeachment inquiry staff in Washington , D.C. , advising the House Committee on the Judiciary during the Watergate scandal . Under the guidance of Chief Counsel John Doar and senior member Bernard W. Nussbaum , Rodham helped research procedures of impeachment and the historical grounds and standards for impeachment . The committee 's work culminated in the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974 .
By then , Rodham was viewed as someone with a bright political future : Democratic political organizer and consultant Betsey Wright had moved from Texas to Washington the previous year to help guide Rodham 's career . Wright thought she had the potential to become a future senator or president . Meanwhile , Clinton had repeatedly asked Rodham to marry him and she continued to demur . After failing the District of Columbia bar exam and passing the Arkansas exam , Rodham came to a key decision . As she later wrote , " I chose to follow my heart instead of my head " . She thus followed Bill Clinton to Arkansas , rather than staying in Washington , where career prospects were brighter . He was then teaching law and running for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in his home state . In August 1974 , Rodham moved to Fayetteville , Arkansas , and became one of only two female faculty members in the School of Law at the University of Arkansas , Fayetteville .
= = = Early Arkansas years = = =
At the university , Rodham gave classes in criminal law , where she was considered a rigorous teacher and tough grader . She became the first director of a new legal aid clinic at the school , securing support from the local bar association and gaining federal funding . Among her cases was one where she was obliged by request of the court to serve as defense counsel to a man accused of raping a twelve @-@ year @-@ old girl ; she put on an effective defense that led to his pleading guilty to a much lesser charge . Decades later , the woman involved said that the defense counsel had put her " through hell " during the legal process ; Clinton has called the trial a " terrible case " . During her time in Fayetteville , Rodham and several other women founded the city 's first rape crisis center . Rodham still harbored doubts about marriage , concerned that her separate identity would be lost and that her accomplishments would be viewed in the light of someone else 's .
Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton bought a house in Fayetteville in the summer of 1975 , and Hillary finally agreed to marry Bill . Their wedding took place on October 11 , 1975 , in a Methodist ceremony in their living room . A story about the marriage in the Arkansas Gazette indicated that she was retaining the name Hillary Rodham . The motivation was to keep the couple 's professional lives separate and avoid apparent conflicts of interest and because , as she told a friend at the time , " it showed that I was still me . " The decision did upset both their mothers . Bill Clinton had lost the congressional race in 1974 , but in November 1976 was elected Arkansas Attorney General , and so the couple moved to the state capital of Little Rock . There , in February 1977 , Rodham joined the venerable Rose Law Firm , a bastion of Arkansan political and economic influence . She specialized in patent infringement and intellectual property law while also working pro bono in child advocacy ; she rarely performed litigation work in court .
Rodham maintained her interest in children 's law and family policy , publishing the scholarly articles " Children 's Policies : Abandonment and Neglect " in 1977 and " Children 's Rights : A Legal Perspective " in 1979 . The latter continued her argument that children 's legal competence depended upon their age and other circumstances and that in serious medical rights cases , judicial intervention was sometimes warranted . An American Bar Association chair later said , " Her articles were important , not because they were radically new but because they helped formulate something that had been inchoate . " Historian Garry Wills would later describe her as " one of the more important scholar @-@ activists of the last two decades " , while conservatives said her theories would usurp traditional parental authority , would allow children to file frivolous lawsuits against their parents , and exemplified legal " crit " theory run amok .
In 1977 , Rodham cofounded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families , a state @-@ level alliance with the Children 's Defense Fund . Later that year , President Jimmy Carter ( for whom Rodham had been the 1976 campaign director of field operations in Indiana ) appointed her to the board of directors of the Legal Services Corporation , and she served in that capacity from 1978 until the end of 1981 . From mid @-@ 1978 to mid @-@ 1980 , she was the chair of that board , the first woman to do so . During her time as chair , funding for the Corporation was expanded from $ 90 million to $ 300 million ; subsequently she successfully fought President Ronald Reagan 's attempts to reduce the funding and change the nature of the organization .
Following her husband 's November 1978 election as Governor of Arkansas , Rodham became First Lady of Arkansas in January 1979 , her title for twelve years ( 1979 – 81 , 1983 – 92 ) . Clinton appointed her chair of the Rural Health Advisory Committee the same year , where she secured federal funds to expand medical facilities in Arkansas 's poorest areas without affecting doctors ' fees .
In 1979 , Rodham became the first woman to be made a full partner of Rose Law Firm . From 1978 until they entered the White House , she had a higher salary than that of her husband . During 1978 and 1979 , while looking to supplement their income , Rodham engaged in the trading of cattle futures contracts ; an initial $ 1 @,@ 000 investment generated nearly $ 100 @,@ 000 when she stopped trading after ten months . The couple also began their ill @-@ fated investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation real estate venture with Jim and Susan McDougal at this time . Both of these became subjects of controversy in the 1990s .
On February 27 , 1980 , Rodham gave birth to their daughter Chelsea . In November 1980 , Bill Clinton was defeated in his bid for re @-@ election .
= = = Later Arkansas years = = =
Bill Clinton returned to the governor 's office two years later after winning the election of 1982 . During her husband 's campaign , Rodham began to use the name Hillary Clinton , or sometimes " Mrs. Bill Clinton " , to assuage the concerns of Arkansas voters ; she also took a leave of absence from Rose Law to campaign for him full @-@ time . As First Lady of Arkansas again , she made a note of using Hillary Rodham Clinton as her name . She was named chair of the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee in 1983 , where she sought to reform the state 's court @-@ sanctioned public education system . In one of the Clinton governorship 's most important initiatives , she fought a prolonged but ultimately successful battle against the Arkansas Education Association to establish mandatory teacher testing and state standards for curriculum and classroom size . It became her introduction into the politics of a highly visible public policy effort . In 1985 , she introduced Arkansas 's Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth , a program that helps parents work with their children in preschool preparedness and literacy . She was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in 1983 and Arkansas Mother of the Year in 1984 .
Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm while she was First Lady of Arkansas . She earned less than the other partners , as she billed fewer hours , but still made more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in her final year there . The firm considered her a " rainmaker " because she brought in clients , partly thanks to the prestige she lent it and to her corporate board connections . She was also very influential in the appointment of state judges . Bill Clinton 's Republican opponent in his 1986 gubernatorial re @-@ election campaign accused the Clintons of conflict of interest , because Rose Law did state business ; the Clintons countered the charge by saying that state fees were walled off by the firm before her profits were calculated .
From 1982 to 1988 , Clinton was on the board of directors , sometimes as chair , of the New World Foundation , which funded a variety of New Left interest groups . From 1987 to 1991 , she was the first chair of the American Bar Association 's Commission on Women in the Profession , created to address gender bias in the legal profession and induce the association to adopt measures to combat it . She was twice named by The National Law Journal as one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America : in 1988 and in 1991 . When Bill Clinton thought about not running again for governor in 1990 , Hillary considered running , but private polls were unfavorable and , in the end , he ran and was re @-@ elected for the final time .
Clinton served on the boards of the Arkansas Children 's Hospital Legal Services ( 1988 – 92 ) and the Children 's Defense Fund ( as chair , 1986 – 92 ) . In addition to her positions with nonprofit organizations , she also held positions on the corporate board of directors of TCBY ( 1985 – 92 ) , Wal @-@ Mart Stores ( 1986 – 92 ) and Lafarge ( 1990 – 92 ) . TCBY and Wal @-@ Mart were Arkansas @-@ based companies that were also clients of Rose Law . Clinton was the first female member on Wal @-@ Mart 's board , added following pressure on chairman Sam Walton to name a woman to it . Once there , she pushed successfully for Wal @-@ Mart to adopt more environmentally friendly practices , was largely unsuccessful in a campaign for more women to be added to the company 's management , and was silent about the company 's famously anti @-@ labor union practices .
= = = Bill Clinton presidential campaign of 1992 = = =
Hillary Clinton received sustained national attention for the first time when her husband became a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination of 1992 . Before the New Hampshire primary , tabloid publications printed assertions that Bill Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Arkansas lounge singer Gennifer Flowers . In response , the Clintons appeared together on 60 Minutes , where Bill Clinton denied the affair , but acknowledged " causing pain in my marriage " . This joint appearance was credited with rescuing his campaign . During it , Hillary Clinton made culturally disparaging remarks about Tammy Wynette 's outlook on marriage as described in her classic song " Stand by Your Man " , and later in the campaign about how she could have chosen to be like women staying home and baking cookies and having teas , but wanted to pursue her career instead . The remarks were widely criticized , particularly by those who were , or defended , stay @-@ at @-@ home mothers , and in retrospect , were ill @-@ considered by her own admission . Bill Clinton said that in electing him , the nation would " get two for the price of one " , referring to the prominent role his wife would assume . Beginning with Daniel Wattenberg 's August 1992 The American Spectator article " The Lady Macbeth of Little Rock " , Hillary Clinton 's own past ideological and ethical record came under attack from conservatives . At least twenty other articles in major publications also drew comparisons between her and Lady Macbeth .
= = First Lady of the United States = =
= = = Role as first lady = = =
When Bill Clinton took office as president in January 1993 , Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States , and her press secretary reiterated that she would be using that form of her name . She was the initial first lady to hold a postgraduate degree and to have her own professional career up to the time of entering the White House . She was also the first to have an office in the West Wing of the White House in addition to the usual first lady offices in the East Wing . She was part of the innermost circle vetting appointments to the new administration and her choices filled at least eleven top @-@ level positions and dozens more lower @-@ level ones . After Eleanor Roosevelt , Clinton is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history .
Some critics called it inappropriate for the first lady to play a central role in matters of public policy . Supporters pointed out that Clinton 's role in policy was no different from that of other White House advisors and that voters had been well aware that she would play an active role in her husband 's presidency . Bill Clinton 's campaign promise of " two for the price of one " led opponents to refer derisively to the Clintons as " co @-@ presidents " or sometimes the Arkansas label " Billary " . The pressures of conflicting ideas about the role of a first lady were enough to send Clinton into " imaginary discussions " with the also @-@ politically @-@ active Eleanor Roosevelt . From the time she came to Washington , she also found refuge in a prayer group of The Fellowship that featured many wives of conservative Washington figures . Triggered in part by the death of her father in April 1993 , she publicly sought to find a synthesis of Methodist teachings , liberal religious political philosophy , and Tikkun editor Michael Lerner 's " politics of meaning " to overcome what she saw as America 's " sleeping sickness of the soul " ; that would lead to a willingness " to remold society by redefining what it means to be a human being in the twentieth century , moving into a new millennium . " Other segments of the public focused on her appearance , which had evolved over time from inattention to fashion during her days in Arkansas , to a popular site in the early days of the World Wide Web devoted to showing her many different , and frequently analyzed , hairstyles as first lady , to an appearance on the cover of Vogue magazine in 1998 .
= = = Health care and other policy initiatives = = =
In January 1993 , President Clinton named First Lady Clinton to chair a Task Force on National Health Care Reform , hoping to replicate the success she had in leading the effort for Arkansas education reform . Unconvinced regarding the merits of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , she privately urged that passage of health care reform be given higher priority . The recommendation of the task force became known as the Clinton health care plan , a comprehensive proposal that would require employers to provide health coverage to their employees through individual health maintenance organizations . Its opponents quickly derided the plan as " Hillarycare " , and it faced opposition from even some Democrats in Congress . Some protesters against the proposed plan became vitriolic , and during a July 1994 bus tour to rally support for the plan , Clinton wore a bulletproof vest at times .
Failing to gather enough support for a floor vote in either the House or the Senate , although Democrats controlled both chambers , the proposal was abandoned in September 1994 . Clinton later acknowledged in her memoir that her political inexperience partly contributed to the defeat , but cited many other factors . The First Lady 's approval ratings , which had generally been in the high @-@ 50s percent range during her first year , fell to 44 percent in April 1994 and 35 percent by September 1994 .
Republicans made the Clinton health care plan a major campaign issue of the 1994 midterm elections , which saw a net Republican gain of fifty @-@ three seats in the House election and seven in the Senate election , winning control of both ; many analysts and pollsters found the plan to be a major factor in the Democrats ' defeat , especially among independent voters . The White House subsequently sought to downplay Hillary Clinton 's role in shaping policy . Opponents of universal health care would continue to use " Hillarycare " as a pejorative label for similar plans by others .
Along with Senators Ted Kennedy and Orrin Hatch , she was a force behind the passage of the State Children 's Health Insurance Program in 1997 , a federal effort that provided state support for children whose parents could not provide them with health coverage , and conducted outreach efforts on behalf of enrolling children in the program once it became law . She promoted nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and encouraged older women to seek a mammogram to detect breast cancer , with coverage provided by Medicare . She successfully sought to increase research funding for prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the National Institutes of Health . The First Lady worked to investigate reports of an illness that affected veterans of the Gulf War , which became known as the Gulf War syndrome .
Enactment of welfare reform was a major goal of her husband 's , but when the first two bills on it came from the Republican @-@ controlled Congress lacked protections for people going off welfare , she urged him to veto them , which he did . A third version came up during his 1996 general election campaign that restored some of the protections but cut the scope of benefits in other areas ; critics , including her past mentor Edelman , urged her to get the president to veto it again . But she decided to support the bill , which became the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 , as the best political compromise available . This caused a rift with Edelman that Clinton later called " sad and painful " .
Together with Attorney General Janet Reno , Clinton helped create the Office on Violence Against Women at the Department of Justice . In 1997 , she initiated and shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act , which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as first lady . In 1999 , she was instrumental in the passage of the Foster Care Independence Act , which doubled federal monies for teenagers aging out of foster care . As first lady , Clinton hosted numerous White House conferences , including ones on Child Care ( 1997 ) , on Early Childhood Development and Learning ( 1997 ) , and on Children and Adolescents ( 2000 ) . She also hosted the first @-@ ever White House Conference on Teenagers ( 2000 ) and the first @-@ ever White House Conference on Philanthropy ( 1999 ) .
Clinton traveled to 79 countries during this time , breaking the mark for most @-@ traveled first lady held by Pat Nixon . She did not hold a security clearance or attend National Security Council meetings , but played a role in U.S. diplomacy attaining its objectives . A March 1995 five @-@ nation trip to South Asia , on behest of the U.S. State Department and without her husband , sought to improve relations with India and Pakistan . Clinton was troubled by the plight of women she encountered , but found a warm response from the people of the countries she visited and gained a better relationship with the American press corps . The trip was a transformative experience for her and presaged her eventual career in diplomacy .
In a September 1995 speech before the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing , Clinton argued very forcefully against practices that abused women around the world and in the People 's Republic of China itself , declaring that " it is no longer acceptable to discuss women 's rights as separate from human rights " . Delegates from over 180 countries heard her say : " If there is one message that echoes forth from this conference , let it be that human rights are women 's rights and women 's rights are human rights , once and for all . " In doing so , she resisted both internal administration and Chinese pressure to soften her remarks . The speech became a key moment in the empowerment of women and years later females around the world would recite Clinton 's key phrases . She was one of the most prominent international figures during the late 1990s to speak out against the treatment of Afghan women by the Taliban . She helped create Vital Voices , an international initiative sponsored by the U.S. to promote the participation of women in the political processes of their countries . It and Clinton 's own visits encouraged women to make themselves heard in the Northern Ireland peace process .
= = = Whitewater and other investigations = = =
First Lady Clinton was a subject of several investigations by the United States Office of the Independent Counsel , committees of the U.S. Congress , and the press .
The Whitewater controversy was the focus of media attention from the publication of a New York Times report during the 1992 presidential campaign and throughout her time as first lady . The Clintons had lost their late @-@ 1970s investment in the Whitewater Development Corporation ; at the same time , their partners in that investment , Jim and Susan McDougal , operated Madison Guaranty , a savings and loan institution that retained the legal services of Rose Law Firm and may have been improperly subsidizing Whitewater losses . Madison Guaranty later failed , and Clinton 's work at Rose was scrutinized for a possible conflict of interest in representing the bank before state regulators that her husband had appointed . She said she had done minimal work for the bank . Independent counsels Robert Fiske and Kenneth Starr subpoenaed Clinton 's legal billing records ; she said she did not know where they were . The records were found in the First Lady 's White House book room after a two @-@ year search and delivered to investigators in early 1996 . The delayed appearance of the records sparked intense interest and another investigation concerning how they surfaced and where they had been . Clinton 's staff attributed the problem to continual changes in White House storage areas since the move from the Arkansas Governor 's Mansion . On January 26 , 1996 , Clinton became the first first lady to be subpoenaed to testify before a federal grand jury . After several Independent Counsels had investigated , a final report was issued in 2000 that stated there was insufficient evidence that either Clinton had engaged in criminal wrongdoing .
Scrutiny of the May 1993 firings of the White House Travel Office employees , an affair that became known as " Travelgate " , began with charges that the White House had used audited financial irregularities in the Travel Office operation as an excuse to replace the staff with friends from Arkansas . The 1996 discovery of a two @-@ year @-@ old White House memo caused the investigation to focus on whether Hillary Clinton had orchestrated the firings and whether the statements she made to investigators about her role in the firings were true . The 2000 final Independent Counsel report concluded she was involved in the firings and that she had made " factually false " statements , but that there was insufficient evidence that she knew the statements were false , or knew that her actions would lead to firings , to prosecute her .
Following deputy White House counsel Vince Foster 's July 1993 suicide , allegations were made that Hillary Clinton had ordered the removal of potentially damaging files ( related to Whitewater or other matters ) from Foster 's office on the night of his death . Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated this , and , by 1999 , Starr was reported to be holding the investigation open , despite his staff having told him there was no case to be made . When Starr 's successor Robert Ray issued his final Whitewater reports in 2000 , no claims were made against Hillary Clinton regarding this . An outgrowth of the " Travelgate " investigation was the June 1996 discovery of improper White House access to hundreds of FBI background reports on former Republican White House employees , an affair that some called " Filegate " . Accusations were made that Hillary Clinton had requested these files and that she had recommended hiring an unqualified individual to head the White House Security Office . The 2000 final Independent Counsel report found no substantial or credible evidence that Hillary Clinton had any role or showed any misconduct in the matter .
In March 1994 , newspaper reports revealed her spectacular profits from trading in 1978 – 79 , thus leading to the cattle futures controversy . Allegations were made in the press of conflict of interest and disguised bribery , and several individuals analyzed her trading records , but no formal investigation was made and she was never charged with any wrongdoing .
There was a controversy that arose in early 2001 over gifts made to the White House , rather than to the Clintons personally , that were removed and shipped to the Clintons ' private residence during the last year of Bill Clinton 's time in office . Following public pressure the couple returned $ 134 @,@ 000 worth of such gifts . Hillary Clinton faced additional criticism for having possibly solicited personal gifts shortly before being sworn in as a senator , at which time she would have been barred from accepting them .
= = = Response to Lewinsky scandal = = =
In 1998 , the Clintons ' relationship became the subject of much speculation when investigations revealed that the President had engaged in an extramarital affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky . Events surrounding the Lewinsky scandal eventually led to the Impeachment of Bill Clinton by the House of Representatives and later acquittal by the Senate . When the allegations against her husband were first made public , Hillary Clinton stated that they were the result of a " vast right @-@ wing conspiracy " , characterizing the Lewinsky charges as the latest in a long , organized , collaborative series of charges by Bill Clinton 's political enemies rather than any wrongdoing by her husband . She later said that she had been misled by her husband 's initial claims that no affair had taken place . After the evidence of President Clinton 's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible , she issued a public statement reaffirming her commitment to their marriage , but privately was reported to be furious at him and was unsure if she wanted to stay in the marriage . The White House residence staff noticed a pronounced level of tension between the couple during this period .
Public reaction varied . Some women admired her strength and poise in private matters made public , some sympathized with her as a victim of her husband 's insensitive behavior , others criticized her as being an enabler to her husband 's indiscretions , while still others accused her of cynically staying in a failed marriage as a way of keeping or even fostering her own political influence . Her public approval ratings in the wake of the revelations shot upward to around 70 percent , the highest they had ever been . In her 2003 memoir , she would attribute her decision to stay married to " a love that has persisted for decades " and add : " No one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does . Even after all these years , he is still the most interesting , energizing and fully alive person I have ever met . "
Matters surrounding the Lewinsky scandal left Bill Clinton with substantial legal bills ; in 2014 , Hillary Clinton would state that she and Bill had left the White House " not only dead broke , but in debt . " The statement may have been literally accurate but ignored the potentially enormous earnings potential of presidents upon leaving office as well as the couple 's ability to secure loans from banks .
= = = Traditional duties = = =
Clinton initiated and was founding chair of the Save America 's Treasures program , a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to preserve and restore historic items and sites , including the flag that inspired " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and the First Ladies Historic Site in Canton , Ohio . She was head of the White House Millennium Council and hosted Millennium Evenings , a series of lectures that discussed futures studies , one of which became the first live simultaneous webcast from the White House . Clinton also created the first White House Sculpture Garden , located in the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden , which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums .
In the White House , Clinton placed donated handicrafts of contemporary American artisans , such as pottery and glassware , on rotating display in the state rooms . She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room to be historically authentic to the period of James Monroe and the Map Room to how it looked during World War II . Working with Arkansas interior decorator Kaki Hockersmith over an eight @-@ year period , she oversaw extensive , privately funded redecoration efforts around the building , often trying to make it look brighter . These included changing the look of the Treaty Room , a presidential study , to along 19th century lines . Overall the redecoration brought mixed notices , with Victorian furnishings for the Lincoln Sitting Room being criticized the most . Clinton hosted many large @-@ scale events at the White House , such as a Saint Patrick 's Day reception , a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries , a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in public schools , a New Year 's Eve celebration at the turn of the 21st century , and a state dinner honoring the bicentennial of the White House in November 2000 .
= = 2000 U.S. Senate election = =
When New York 's long @-@ serving U.S. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan announced his retirement in November 1998 , several prominent Democratic figures , including Representative Charles Rangel of New York , urged Clinton to run for Moynihan 's open seat in the Senate election of 2000 . Once she decided to run , the Clintons purchased a home in Chappaqua , New York , north of New York City , in September 1999 . She became the first first lady of the United States to be a candidate for elected office . Initially , Clinton expected to face Rudy Giuliani , the Mayor of New York City , as her Republican opponent in the election . Giuliani withdrew from the race in May 2000 after he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and matters related to his failing marriage became public , and Clinton instead faced Rick Lazio , a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives representing New York 's 2nd congressional district . Throughout the campaign , opponents accused Clinton of carpetbagging , as she had never resided in New York nor participated in the state 's politics before the 2000 Senate race .
Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state , in a " listening tour " of small @-@ group settings . She devoted considerable time in traditionally Republican Upstate New York regions . Clinton vowed to improve the economic situation in those areas , promising to deliver 200 @,@ 000 jobs to the state over her term . Her plan included tax credits to reward job creation and encourage business investment , especially in the high @-@ tech sector . She called for personal tax cuts for college tuition and long @-@ term care .
The contest drew national attention . Lazio blundered during a September debate by seeming to invade Clinton 's personal space trying to get her to sign a fundraising agreement . The campaigns of Clinton and Lazio , along with Giuliani 's initial effort , spent a record combined $ 90 million . Clinton won the election on November 7 , 2000 , with 55 percent of the vote to Lazio 's 43 percent . She was sworn in as U.S. senator on January 3 , 2001 , making her the first ( and so far only ) woman to have held an elected office either while ( for a brief period ) or after serving as first lady .
= = United States Senate = =
= = = First term = = =
Upon entering the Senate , Clinton maintained a low public profile and built relationships with senators from both parties . She forged alliances with religiously inclined senators by becoming a regular participant in the Senate Prayer Breakfast . She served on five Senate committees : Committee on Budget ( 2001 – 02 ) , Committee on Armed Services ( 2003 – 09 ) , Committee on Environment and Public Works ( 2001 – 09 ) , Committee on Health , Education , Labor and Pensions ( 2001 – 09 ) and Special Committee on Aging . She was also a member of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe ( 2001 – 09 ) .
Following the September 11 attacks , Clinton sought to obtain funding for the recovery efforts in New York City and security improvements in her state . Working with New York 's senior senator , Charles Schumer , she was instrumental in securing $ 21 billion in funding for the World Trade Center site 's redevelopment . She subsequently took a leading role in investigating the health issues faced by 9 / 11 first responders . Clinton
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resources are protected . In 2005 , the Billie Mine , an underground borax mine located along the road to Dante 's View , closed , ending mining in the park .
Death Valley National Monument was designated a biosphere reserve in 1984 . On October 31 , 1994 , the monument was expanded by 1 @.@ 3 million acres ( 5 @,@ 300 km2 ) and re @-@ designated as a national park , via congressional passage of the California Desert Protection Act ( Public Law 103 @-@ 433 ) . Consequently , the elevated status for Death Valley made it the largest national park in the contiguous United States . Many of the larger cities and towns within the boundary of the regional ground water flow system that the park and its plants and animals rely upon are experiencing some of the fastest growth rates of any place in the United States . Notable examples within a 100 @-@ mile ( 160 km ) radius of Death Valley National Park include Las Vegas and Pahrump , Nevada . In the case of Las Vegas , the local Chamber of Commerce estimates that 6 @,@ 000 people are moving to the city every month . Between 1985 and 1995 , the population of the Las Vegas Valley increased from 550 @,@ 700 to 1 @,@ 138 @,@ 800 .
In 1977 , parts of Death Valley were used by director George Lucas as a filming location for Star Wars , providing the setting for the fictional planet Tatooine .
= = Geologic history = =
The park has a diverse and complex geologic history . Since its formation , the area that comprises the park has experienced at least four major periods of extensive volcanism , three or four periods of major sedimentation , and several intervals of major tectonic deformation where the crust has been reshaped . Two periods of glaciation ( a series of ice ages ) have also had effects on the area , although no glaciers ever existed in the ranges now in the park .
= = = Basement and Pahrump Group = = =
Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the area due to extensive metamorphism ( alteration of rock by heat and pressure ) . Radiometric dating gives an age of 1 @,@ 700 million years for the metamorphism during the Proterozoic . About 1 @,@ 400 million years ago a mass of granite now in the Panamint Range intruded this complex . Uplift later exposed these rocks to nearly 500 million years of erosion .
The Proterozoic sedimentary formations of the Pahrump Group were deposited on these basement rocks . This occurred following uplift and erosion of any earlier sediments from the Proterozoic basement rocks . The Pahrump is composed of arkose conglomerate ( quartz clasts in a concrete @-@ like matrix ) and mudstone in its lower part , followed by dolomite from carbonate banks topped by algal mats as stromatolites , and finished with basin @-@ filling sediment derived from the above , including possible glacial till from the hypothesized Snowball Earth glaciation . The very youngest rocks in the Pahrump Group are basaltic lava flows .
= = = Rifting and deposition = = =
A rift opened and subsequently flooded the region as part of the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic ( by about 755 million years ago ) and the creation of the Pacific Ocean . A shoreline similar to the present Atlantic Ocean margin of the United States lay to the east . An algal mat @-@ covered carbonate bank was deposited , forming the Noonday Dolomite . Subsidence of the region occurred as the continental crust thinned and the newly formed Pacific widened , forming the Ibex Formation . An angular unconformity ( an uneven gap in the geologic record ) followed .
A true ocean basin developed to the west , breaking all the earlier formations along a steep front . A wedge of clastic sediment then began to accumulate at the base of the two underwater precipices , starting the formation of opposing continental shelfs . Three formations developed from sediment that accumulated on the wedge . The region 's first known fossils of complex life are found in the resulting formations . Notable among these are the Ediacara fauna and trilobites , the evolution of the latter being part of the Cambrian Explosion of life .
The sandy mudflats gave way about 550 million years ago to a carbonate platform ( similar to the one around the present @-@ day Bahamas ) , which lasted for the next 300 million years of Paleozoic time ( refer to the middle of the timescale image ) . Death Valley 's position was then within ten or twenty degrees of the Paleozoic equator . Thick beds of carbonate @-@ rich sediments were periodically interrupted by periods of emergence . Although details of geography varied during this immense interval of time , a north @-@ northeasterly trending coastline generally ran from Arizona up through Utah . The resulting eight formations and one group are 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 km ) thick and underlay much of the Cottonwood , Funeral , Grapevine , and Panamint ranges .
= = = Compression and uplift = = =
In the early @-@ to @-@ mid- Mesozoic the western edge of the North American continent was pushed against the oceanic plate under the Pacific Ocean , creating a subduction zone . A subduction zone is a type of contact between different crustal plates where heavier crust slides below lighter crust . Erupting volcanoes and uplifting mountains were created as a result , and the coastline was pushed to the west . The Sierran Arc started to form to the northwest from heat and pressure generated from subduction , and compressive forces caused thrust faults to develop .
A long period of uplift and erosion was concurrent with and followed the above events , creating a major unconformity , which is a large gap in the geologic record . Sediments worn off the Death Valley region were carried both east and west by wind and water . No Jurassic- to Eocene @-@ aged sedimentary formations exist in the area , except for some possibly Jurassic @-@ age volcanic rocks ( see the top of the timescale image ) .
Erosion over many millions of years created a relatively featureless plain . Thirty @-@ five million years ago , sluggish streams migrated laterally over its surface . Several other similar formations were also laid down .
= = = Stretching and lakes = = =
Basin and Range @-@ associated stretching of large parts of crust below southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico started around 16 million years ago and the region is still spreading . This stretching began to affect the Death and Panamint valleys area by 3 million years ago . Before this , rocks now in the Panamint Range were on top of rocks that would become the Black Mountains and the Cottonwood Mountains . Lateral and vertical transport of these blocks was accomplished by movement on normal faults . Right @-@ lateral movement along strike @-@ slip faults that run parallel to and at the base of the ranges also helped to develop the area . Torsional forces , probably associated with northwesterly movement of the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas Fault ( west of the region ) , is responsible for the lateral movement .
Igneous activity associated with this stretching occurred from 12 million to 4 million years ago . Sedimentation is concentrated in valleys ( basins ) from material eroded from adjacent ranges . The amount of sediment deposited has roughly kept up with this subsidence , resulting in retention of more or less the same valley floor elevation over time .
Pleistocene ice ages started 2 million years ago , and melt from alpine glaciers on the nearby Sierra Nevada Mountains fed a series of lakes that filled Death and Panamint valleys and surrounding basins ( see the top of the timescale image ) . The lake that filled Death Valley was the last of a chain of lakes fed by the Amargosa and Mojave Rivers , and possibly also the Owens River . The large lake that covered much of Death Valley 's floor , which geologists call Lake Manly , started to dry up 10 @,@ 500 years ago . Saltpans and playas were created as ice age glaciers retreated , thus drastically reducing the lakes ' water source . Only faint shorelines are left .
= = Biology = =
Habitat varies from saltpan at 282 feet ( 86 m ) below sea level to the sub @-@ alpine conditions found on the summit of Telescope Peak , which rises to 11 @,@ 049 feet ( 3 @,@ 368 m ) . Vegetation zones include Creosote Bush , Desert Holly , and mesquite at the lower elevations and sage up through shadscale , blackbrush , Joshua Tree , pinyon @-@ juniper , to Limber Pine and Bristlecone Pine woodlands . The saltpan is devoid of vegetation , and the rest of the valley floor and lower slopes have sparse cover , although where water is available , an abundance of vegetation is usually present . These zones and the adjacent desert support a variety of wildlife species , including 51 species of native mammals , 307 species of birds , 36 species of reptiles , 3 species of amphibians , and 2 species of native fish .
Small mammals are more numerous than large mammals , such as bighorn sheep , coyotes ( image ) , bobcats , kit foxes , cougars , and mule deer . Mule deer are present in the pinyon / juniper associations of the Grapevine , Cottonwood , and Panamint ranges . Bighorn sheep are a rare species of mountain sheep that exist in isolated bands in the Sierra and in Death Valley . These are highly adaptable animals and can eat almost any plant . They have no known predators , but humans and burros compete for habitat .
The ancestors of the Death Valley Pupfish swam to the area from the Colorado River via a long @-@ since dried @-@ up system of rivers and lakes ( see Lake Manly ) . They now live in two separate populations : one in Salt Creek and another in Cottonball Marsh . Death Valley is one of the hottest and driest places in North America , yet it is home to over 1 @,@ 000 species of plants ; 23 of which , including the very rare Rock Lady ( Holmgrenanthe petrophila ) , are not found anywhere else .
Adaptation to the dry environment is key . For example , creosote bush and mesquite have tap @-@ root systems that can extend 50 feet ( 15 m ) down in order to take advantage of a year @-@ round supply of ground water . The diversity of Death Valley 's plant communities results partly from the region 's location in a transition zone between the Mojave Desert , the Great Basin Desert and the Sonoran Desert . This location , combined with the great relief found within the Park , supports vegetation typical of three biotic life zones : the lower Sonoran , the Canadian , and the Arctic / Alpine in portions of the Panamint Range . Based on the Munz and Keck ( 1968 ) classifications , seven plant communities can be categorized within these life zones , each characterized by dominant vegetation and representative of three vegetation types : scrub , desert woodland , and coniferous forest . Microhabitats further subdivide some communities into zones , especially on the valley floor .
Unlike more typical locations across the Mojave Desert , many of the water @-@ dependent Death Valley habitats possess a diversity of plant and animal species that are not found anywhere else in the world . The existence of these species is due largely to a unique geologic history and the process of evolution that has progressed in habitats that have been isolated from one another since the Pleistocene epoch .
= = Activities = =
Sightseeing is available by personal automobile , four @-@ wheel drive , bicycle , mountain bike ( on established roadways only ) , and hiking . Riding through the park on motorcycle is also a popular pastime . State Route 190 , the Badwater Road , the Scotty 's Castle Road , and paved roads to Dante 's View and Wildrose provide access to the major scenic viewpoints and historic points of interest . More than 350 miles ( 560 km ) of unpaved and four @-@ wheel @-@ drive roads provide access to wilderness hiking , camping , and historical sites . All vehicles must be licensed and street legal . There are hiking trails of varying lengths and difficulties , but most backcountry areas are accessible only by cross @-@ country hiking . There are literally thousands of hiking possibilities . The normal season for visiting the park is from October 15 to May 15 , because of summer extremes in temperature . Costumed living history tours of the historic Death Valley Scotty 's Castle are conducted for a fee , but as of October 2015 , are suspended due to flood damage to the Scotty 's Castle buildings and grounds .
There are nine designated campgrounds within the park , and overnight backcountry camping permits are available at the Visitor Center . Xanterra Parks & Resorts owns and operates a private resort , the Furnace Creek Inn and Ranch Resort , which comprises two separate and distinct hotels : the Furnace Creek Inn is a four @-@ star historic hotel , and the Furnace Creek Ranch is a three @-@ star ranch @-@ style property reminiscent of the mining and prospecting days . Death Valley Lodging Company operates the Stovepipe Wells Village motel . Stovepipe Wells Village is the only authorized concession operations located in Death Valley National Park . There are a few motels near various entrances to the park , in Shoshone , Death Valley Junction , Beatty , Nevada , and Panamint Springs .
The visitor center is located in the Furnace Creek resort area on State Route 190 . A 12 @-@ minute introductory slide program is shown every 30 minutes . During the winter season — November through April — rangers offer interpretive tours and a wide variety of walks , talks , and slide presentations about Death Valley cultural and natural history . The visitor center has displays dealing with the park 's geology , climate , wildlife and natural history . There are also specific sections dealing with the human history and pioneer experience . The Death Valley Natural History Association maintains a bookstore specifically geared to the natural and cultural history of the park .
Death Valley National Park is a popular location for stargazing as it has one of the darkest night skies in the United States . Despite Death Valley 's remote location , its air quality and night visibility are threatened by civilization . In particular , light pollution is introduced by nearby Las Vegas . The darkest skies are , in general , located in the northwest of the park .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Suillus brevipes =
Suillus brevipes is a species of fungus in the family Suillaceae . First described by American mycologists in the late 19th century , it is commonly known as the stubby @-@ stalk or the short @-@ stemmed slippery Jack . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) produced by the fungus are characterized by a chocolate to reddish @-@ brown cap covered with a sticky layer of slime , and a short whitish stipe that does not have either a partial veil or prominent dark or colored glandular dots . The cap can reach a diameter of about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , while the stipe is up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . Like other bolete mushrooms , S. brevipes produces spores in a vertically arranged layer of spongy tubes with openings that form a layer of small yellowish pores on the underside of the cap .
Suillus brevipes grows in a mycorrhizal association with various species of two- and three @-@ needled pines , especially lodgepole and ponderosa pine . The fungus is found throughout North America , and has been introduced to several other countries via transplanted pines . In the succession of mycorrhizal fungi associated with the regrowth of jack pine after clearcutting or wildfires , S. brevipes is a multi @-@ stage fungus , found during all stages of tree development . The mushrooms are edible , and are high in the essential fatty acid linoleic acid .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically as Boletus viscosus by American mycologist Charles Frost in 1874 . In 1885 , Charles Horton Peck , who had found specimens in pine woods of Albany County , New York , explained that the species name was a taxonomic homonym ( Boletus viscosus was already in use for another species named by Ventenat in 1863 ) , and so renamed it to Boletus brevipes . Its current name was assigned by German Otto Kuntze in 1898 . William Alphonso Murrill renamed it as Rostkovites brevipes in 1948 ; the genus Rostkovites is now considered to be synonymous with Suillus .
Agaricales specialist Rolf Singer included Suillus brevipes in the subsection Suillus of genus Suillus , an infrageneric ( a taxonomic level below genus ) grouping of species characterized by a cinnamon @-@ brown spore print , and pores less than 1 mm wide . Molecular phylogenetic analyses of ribosomal DNA sequences shows that the most closely related species to Suillus brevipes include S. luteus , S. pseudobrevipes , and S. weaverae ( formerly Fuscoboletinus weaverae ) .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin brevipes , meaning " short @-@ footed " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " stubby @-@ stalk " or the " short @-@ stemmed slippery Jack " .
= = Description = =
The cap is deep brown to reddish @-@ brown , later fading to tan with age , and it does not bruise with handling . The cap surface is smooth , and , depending on the moisture in the environment , may range from sticky to the touch to slimy . Depending on its maturity , the cap shape may range from spherical to broadly convex . The cap diameter measures 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and the cap cuticle can be peeled from the surface . The tubes are yellow , becoming olive @-@ green with age , and they have an attachment to the stipe that ranges from adnate ( with most of the tube fused to the stipe ) to decurrent ( with the tubes broadly attached , but running somewhat down the length of the stipe ) . They are typically up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) deep , and there are about 1 – 2 tube mouths ( pores ) per millimeter . The pores are pale yellow , round , 1 – 2 mm wide , and do not change color when bruised .
The stipe is white to pale yellow , dry , solid , not bruising , and pruinose ( having a very fine whitish powder on the surface ) . A characteristic feature of many Suillus species are the glandular dots found on the stipe — clumps of hyphal cell ends through which the fungus secretes various metabolic wastes , leaving a sticky or resinous " dot " . In S. brevipes , the form of the glandular dots is variable : they may be absent , slightly underdeveloped or obscurely formed with age . The stipe is usually short in comparison to the diameter of the cap , typically 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . It is either of equal width throughout , or may taper downwards ; its surface bears minute puncture holes at maturity , and is it slightly fibrous at the base . Collections made in New Zealand tend to have a reddish coloration at the very base of the stipe . The flesh of the mushroom is initially white , but turns pale yellow in age . The odor and taste are mild . The spore print is cinnamon @-@ brown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are elliptical to oblong , smooth , and have dimensions of 7 – 10 by 3 – 4 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are thin @-@ walled , club @-@ shaped to roughly cylindrical , and measure 2 – 25 by 5 – 7 µm . They bear either two or four spores . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia that are found on the face of a gill ) are roughly cylindrical with rounded ends , thin @-@ walled , and 40 – 55 by 5 – 8 µm . The cells often have brown contents , and in the presence of 2 % potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) will appear hyaline ( translucent ) or vinaceous ( red wine @-@ colored ) ; in Melzer 's reagent they become pale yellow or brown . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia found on the edge of a gill ) are 30 – 60 by 7 – 10 µm , club @-@ shaped to almost cylindrical , thin @-@ walled , with brown incrusting material at the base , and arranged like a bundle of fibers . In KOH they appear hyaline , and are pale yellow in Melzer 's reagent . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe ) are 60 – 90 by 7 – 9 µm , mostly cylindrical with rounded ends , and arranged in bundles with brown pigment particles at the base . The caulocystidia stain vinaceous in KOH . The cuticle of the cap is made of a layer of interwoven gelatinous hyphae that are individually 2 – 5 µm thick ; the gelatinous hyphae are responsible for the sliminess of the cuticle . There are no clamp connections in the hyphae .
= = = Edibility = = =
Like many species of the genus Suillus , S. brevipes is edible , and the mushroom is considered choice by some . The odor is mild , and the taste mild or slightly acidic . Field guides typically recommended to remove the slimy cap cuticle , and , in older specimens , the tube layer before consumption . The mushrooms are common in the diet of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park .
The fatty acid composition of S. brevipes fruit bodies has been analyzed . The cap contained a higher lipid content than the stipe — 18 @.@ 4 % of the dry weight , compared to 12 @.@ 4 % . In the cap , linoleic acid made up 50 @.@ 7 % of the total lipids ( 65 @.@ 7 % in the stipe ) , oleic acid was 29 @.@ 9 % ( 12 @.@ 4 % in the stipe ) , followed by palmitic acid at 10 @.@ 5 % ( 12 @.@ 6 % in the stipe ) . Linoleic acid — a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega @-@ 6 fatty acids — is an essential dietary requirement for humans .
= = = Similar species = = =
Several Suillus species which grow under pines could be confused with S. brevipes . S. granulatus has a longer stipe , and distinct raised granules on the stipe . S. brevipes is differentiated from S. albidipes by not having a cottony roll of velar tissue ( derived from a partial veil ) at the margin when young . S. pallidiceps is by distinguished its pale yellow cap color ; and S. albivelatus has a veil . S. pungens has a characteristic pungent odor , compared to the mild smell of S. brevipes , and like S. granulatus , has glandular dots on the stipe .
= = Ecology = =
Suillus brevipes is a mycorrhizal fungus , and it develops a close symbiotic association with the roots of various tree species , especially pine . The underground mycelia form a sheath around the tree rootlets , and the fungal hyphae penetrate between the cortical cells of the root , forming ectomycorrhizae . In this way , the fungus can supply the tree with minerals , while the tree reciprocates by supplying carbohydrates created by photosynthesis . In nature , it associates with two- and three @-@ needle pines , especially lodgepole and ponderosa pine . Under controlled laboratory conditions , the fungus has been shown to form ectomycorrhizae with ponderosa , lodgepole , loblolly , eastern white , patula , pond , radiata , and red pines . In vitro mycorrhizal associations formed with non @-@ pine species include Pacific madrone , bearberry , western larch , Sitka spruce , and coast Douglas @-@ fir . Fungal growth is inhibited by the presence of high levels of the heavy metals cadmium ( 350 ppm ) , lead ( 200 ppm ) , and nickel ( 20 ppm ) .
During the regrowth of pine trees after disturbance like clearcutting or wildfire , there appears an orderly sequence of mycorrhizal fungi as one species is replaced by another . A study on the ecological succession of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Canadian jack pine forests following wildfire concluded that S. brevipes is a multi @-@ stage fungus . It appears relatively early during tree development ; fruit bodies were common in 6 @-@ year @-@ old tree stands , and the fungus colonized the highest proportion of root tips . The fungus persists throughout the life of the tree , having been found in tree stands that were 41 , 65 , and 122 years old . There is , however , a relative reduction in the prevalence of the fungus with increasing stand age , which may be attributed to increased competition from other fungi , and a change in habitat brought about by closure of the forest canopy . Generally , S. brevipes responds favorably to silvicultural practices such as thinning and clearcutting . A 1996 study demonstrated that fruit bodies increased in abundance as the severity of disturbance increased . It has been suggested that the thick @-@ walled , wiry rhizomorphs produced by the fungus may serve as an adaptation that helps it to survive and remain viable for a period of time following disturbance .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Suillus brevipes grows singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground in late summer and autumn . A common — and sometimes abundant — mushroom , it occurs over most of North America ( including Hawaii ) , south to Mexico , and north to Canada . This species has been found in Puerto Rico growing under planted Pinus caribaea , where it is thought to have been introduced inadvertently from North Carolina by the USDA Forest Service in 1955 . Other introductions have also occurred in exotic pine plantations in Argentina , India , New Zealand , Japan , and Taiwan .
= Histoire Naturelle =
The Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du Cabinet du Roi ( 1749 – 1804 ) is an encyclopaedic collection of 36 large ( quarto ) volumes written over much of his working life by the Comte de Buffon , and continued in eight more volumes after his death by his colleagues , led by Bernard Germain de Lacépède . The books cover what was known of the " natural sciences " at the time , including what would now be called material science , physics , chemistry and technology as well as the natural history of animals .
= = Histoire Naturelle , an encyclopaedic work = =
The Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du Cabinet du Roi is the work that the Comte de Buffon ( 1707 – 1788 ) is remembered for . He worked on it for some 50 years , initially at Montbard in his office in the Tour Saint @-@ Louis , then in his library at Petit Fontenet . 36 volumes came out between 1749 and 1789 , followed by 8 more after his death , thanks to Bernard Germain de Lacépède . It includes all the knowledge available in his time on the " natural sciences " , a broad term that includes disciplines which today would be called material science , physics , chemistry and technology . Buffon notes the morphological similarities between men and apes , although he considered apes completely devoid of the ability to think , differentiating them sharply from human beings . Buffon 's attention to internal anatomy made him an early comparative anatomist . " L ’ intérieur , dans les êtres vivants , est le fond du dessin de la nature " , he wrote in his Quadrupèdes , " the interior , in living things , is the foundation of nature 's design . "
The Histoire Naturelle , which was meant to address the whole of natural history , actually covers only minerals , birds , and the quadrupeds among animals . It is accompanied by some discourses and a theory of the earth by way of introduction , and by supplements including an elegantly written account of the epochs of nature .
The Suppléments cover a wide range of topics ; for example , in ( Suppléments IV ) , there is a Discours sur le style ( Discourse on Style ) and an Essai d 'arithmétique morale ( essay on Moral Arithmetic ) .
Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton assisted Buffon on the quadrupeds ; Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard worked on the birds . They were joined , from 1767 , by Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond , the abbot Gabriel Bexon and Charles @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt . The whole descriptive and anatomical part of l ’ Histoire des Quadrupèdes was the work of Daubenton and Jean @-@ Claude Mertrud .
Buffon attached much importance to the illustrations ; Jacques de Sève illustrated the quadrupeds and François @-@ Nicolas Martinet illustrated the birds . Nearly 2000 plates adorn the work , representing animals with care given both to aesthetics and anatomical accuracy , with dreamlike and mythological settings .
On minerals , Buffon collaborated with André Thouin . Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond and Louis Bernard Guyton de Morveau provided sources for the mineral volumes .
L ’ Histoire Naturelle met immense success , almost as great as Encyclopédie by Diderot , which came out in the same period . The first three volumes of L ’ Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière , avec la description du cabinet du Roi were reprinted three times in six weeks .
The encyclopaedia appeared in 36 volumes :
3 volumes in 1749 : De la manière d ’ étudier l ’ histoire naturelle followed by Théorie de la Terre , Histoire Générale des animaux and Histoire Naturelle de l ’ homme
12 volumes on quadrupeds ( 1753 to 1767 )
9 volumes on birds ( 1770 to 1783 ] )
5 volumes on minerals ( 1783 to 1788 ) , the last including Traité de l ’ aimant , the last work published by Buffon in his lifetime
7 volumes of supplements ( 1774 to 1789 ) , including Époques de la nature ( from 1778 ) .
L ’ Histoire Naturelle was initially printed at the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes ( 1749 – 1789 ) . In 1764 Buffon bought back the rights to his work . It was continued by Bernard Germain de Lacépède , who described the egg @-@ laying quadrupeds , snakes , fishes and cetaceans in 8 volumes ( 1788 – 1804 ) .
Buffon was assisted in the work by Jacques @-@ François Artur ( 1708 – 1779 ) , Gabriel Léopold Charles Amé Bexon ( 1748 – 1785 ) , Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton ( 1716 – 1799 ) , Edme @-@ Louis Daubenton ( 1732 – 1786 ) , Jacques de Sève ( actif 1742 – 1788 ) , Barthélemy Faujas de Saint @-@ Fond ( 1741 – 1819 ) , Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard ( 1720 – 1785 ) , Louis @-@ Bernard Guyton @-@ Morveau ( 1737 – 1816 ) , Bernard Germain de Lacépède ( 1756 – 1825 ) , François @-@ Nicolas Martinet ( 1731 – 1800 ) , the anatomist Jean @-@ Claude Mertrud ( 1728 – 1802 ) , Charles @-@ Nicolas @-@ Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt ( 1751 – 1812 ) , and André Thouin ( 1747 – 1823 ) .
= = Approach = =
Each group is introduced with a general essay . This is followed by an article , sometimes of many pages , on each animal ( or other item ) . The article on the wolf begins with the claim that it is one of the animals with a specially strong appetite for flesh ; it asserts that the animal is naturally coarse and cowardly ( grossier et poltron ) , but becoming crafty at need , and hardy by necessity , driven by hunger . The language , as in this instance , is elegant and elaborate , even " flowery and ornate " . Buffon was roundly criticised by his fellow academics for writing a " purely popularizing work , empty and puffed up , with little real scientific value " .
The species is named in Greek , Latin , Italian , Spanish , German , English , Swedish , and Polish . The zoological descriptions of the species by Gessner , Ray , Linnaeus , Klein and Buffon himself ( " Canis ex griseo flavescens . Lupus vulgaris . Buffon . Reg. animal. pag . 235 " ) are cited .
The text is written as a continuous essay , without the sections on identification , distribution and behaviour that might have been expected from other natural histories . Parts concern human responses rather than the animal itself , as for example that the wolf likes human flesh , and the strongest wolves sometimes eat nothing else . Measurements may be included ; in the case of the wolf , 41 separate measurements are tabulated , in pre @-@ revolutionary French feet and inches starting with the " Length of the whole body measured in a straight line from the end of the muzzle to the anus ........ 3 feet . 7 inches . " ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) ; the " Length of the largest claws " is given as " 10 lines " ( 2 @.@ 2 cm ) .
The wolf is illustrated standing in farmland , and as a complete skeleton standing on a stone plinth in a landscape . The account of the species occupies 32 pages including illustrations .
= = Editions = =
= = = Buffon 's original edition continued by Lacépède = = =
The original edition of the Histoire Naturelle by Buffon comprised 36 volumes in quarto , divided into the following series : Histoire de la Terre et de l 'Homme , Quadrupèdes , Oiseaux , Minéraux , Suppléments . Buffon edited 35 volumes in his lifetime . Soon after his death , the fifth and final volume of l ’ Histoire des minéraux appeared in 1788 at the Imprimerie des Bâtiments du Roi . The seventh and final volume of Suppléments by Buffon was published posthumously in 1789 through Lacépède 's hands . Lacépède continued the part of the Histoire Naturelle which dealt with animals . A few months before Buffon 's death , en 1788 , Lacépède published , as a continuation , the first volume of his Histoire des Reptiles , on egg @-@ laying quadrupeds . The next year , he wrote a second volume on snakes , published during the French Revolution . Between 1798 and 1803 , he brought out the volume Histoire des Poissons . Lacépède made use of the notes and collections left by Philibert Commerson ( 1727 – 1773 ) . He wrote Histoire des Cétacés which was printed in 1804 . At that point , the Histoire Naturelle , by Buffon and Lacépède , thus contained 44 quarto volumes forming the definitive edition .
= = = Variations in the editions by Buffon and Lacépède = = =
Another edition in quarto format was printed by the Imprimerie royale in 36 volumes ( 1774 – 1804 ) . It consisted of 28 volumes par Buffon , and 8 volumes by Lacépède . The part containing anatomical articles by Louis Jean @-@ Marie Daubenton was dropped . The supplements were merged into the relevant articles in the main volumes .
The Imprimerie royale also published two editions of the Histoire Naturelle in duodecimo format ( 1752 – 1805 ) , occupying 90 or 71 volumes , depending on whether or not they included the part on anatomy . In this print format , the original work by Buffon occupied 73 volumes with the part on anatomy , or 54 volumes without the part on anatomy . The continuation by Lacépède took up 17 duodecimo volumes .
A de luxe edition of Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux ( Birds ) ( 1771 – 1786 ) was produced by the Imprimerie royale in 10 folio and quarto volumes , with 1008 engraved and hand @-@ coloured plates , executed under Buffon 's personal supervision by Edme @-@ Louis Daubenton , cousin and brother @-@ in @-@ law of Buffon 's principal collaborator .
= = = Translations = = =
The Histoire Naturelle was translated into languages including English , German , Swedish , Russian and Italian . Many translations , often partial ( single volumes , or all volumes to a certain date ) , abridged , reprinted in the same translation by different printers , or with additional text ( for example on insects ) and new illustrations , were made at the end of the eighteenth century and the start of the nineteenth century , presenting a complicated publication history . Early translations were necessarily only of the earlier volumes . Given the complexity , all catalogue dates other than of single volumes should be taken as approximate .
R. Griffith published an early translation of the volume on The Horse in London in 1762 . T. Bell published a translation of the first six volumes in London between 1775 and 1776 . William Creech published an edition in Edinburgh between 1780 and 1785 . T. Cadell and W. Davies published another edition in London in 1812 . An abridged edition was published by Wogan , Byrne et al. in Dublin in 1791 ; that same year R. Morison and Son of Perth , J. and J. Fairbairn of Edinburgh and T. Kay and C. Forster of London published their edition . W. Strahan and T. Cadell published a translation with notes by the encyclopaedist William Smellie in London around 1785 . Barr 's Buffon in ten volumes was published in London between 1797 and 1807 . W. Davidson published an abridged version including the natural history of insects taken from Swammerdam , Brookes , Goldsmith et al . , with " elegant engravings on wood " ; its four volumes appeared in Alnwick in 1814 .
German translations include those published by Joseph Georg Trassler 1784 – 1785 ; by Pauli , 1772 – 1829 ; Grund and Holle , 1750 – 1775 ; and Johann Samuel Heinsius , 1756 – 1782 .
Italian translations include those published by Fratelle Bassaglia around 1788 and Boringherieri in 1959 .
Per Olof Gravander translated an 1802 – 1803 French abridgement into Swedish , publishing it in Örebro in 1806 – 1807 .
A Russian version ( The General and Particulary Natural History by Count Buffon ; " Всеобщая и частная естественная история графа Бюффона " ) was brought out by The Imperial Academy of Sciences ( Императорской Академией Наук ) in St. Petersburg between 1789 and 1808 .
= = = Children 's = = =
An abridged edition for children was published by Frederick Warne in London and Scribner , Welford and Co. c . 1870 .
= = Contents by volume = =
The original edition was arranged as follows :
Natural history , and description of the king 's cabinet of curiosities
Volume I : Premier Discours - De la manière d ’ étudier et de traiter l ’ histoire naturelle , Second Discours - Histoire et théorie de la Terre , Preuves de la théorie de la Terre , 1749
Volume II : Histoire générale des Animaux , Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1749
Volume III : Description du cabinet du Roi , Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1749
Quadrupèdes ( Quadrupeds )
Volume IV ( Quadrupèdes I ) : Discours sur la nature des Animaux , Les Animaux domestiques , 1753
Volume V ( Quadrupèdes II ) : 1755
Volume VI ( Quadrupèdes III ) : Les Animaux sauvages , 1756
Volume VII ( Quadrupèdes IV ) : Les Animaux carnassiers , 1758
Volume VIII ( Quadrupèdes V ) : 1760
Volume IX ( Quadrupèdes VI ) : 1761
Volume X ( Quadrupèdes VII ) : 1763
Volume XI ( Quadrupèdes VIII ) : 1764
Volume XII ( Quadrupèdes IX ) : 1764
Volume XIII ( Quadrupèdes X ) : 1765
Volume XIV ( Quadrupèdes XI ) : Nomenclature des Singes , De la dégénération des Animaux , 1766
Volume XV ( Quadrupèdes XII ) : 1767
Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux ( Birds ) ( 1770 – 1783 )
Volume XVI ( Oiseaux I ) : 1770
Volume XVII ( Oiseaux II ) : 1771
Volume XVIII ( Oiseaux III ) : 1774
Volume XIX ( Oiseaux IV ) : 1778
Volume XX ( Oiseaux V ) : 1778
Volume XXI ( Oiseaux VI ) : 1779
Volume XXII ( Oiseaux VII ) : 1780
Volume XXIII ( Oiseaux VIII ) : 1781
Volume XXIV ( Oiseaux IX ) : 1783
Histoire Naturelle des Minéraux ( Minerals ) ( 1783 – 1788 )
Volume XXV ( Minéraux I ) : 1783
Volume XXVI ( Minéraux II ) : 1783
Volume XXVII ( Minéraux III ) : 1785
Volume XXVIII ( Minéraux IV ) : 1786
Volume XXIX ( Minéraux V ) : Traité de l 'Aimant et de ses usages , 1788
Suppléments à l ’ Histoire Naturelle , générale et particulière ( Supplements ) ( 1774 – 1789 )
Volume XXX ( Suppléments I ) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre , et d ’ introduction à l ’ Histoire des Minéraux , 1774
Volume XXXI ( Suppléments II ) : Servant de suite à la Théorie de la Terre , et de préliminaire à l ’ Histoire des Végétaux - Parties Expérimentale & Hypothétique , 1775
Volume XXXII ( Suppléments III ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1776
Volume XXXIII ( Suppléments IV ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire Naturelle de l 'Homme , 1777
Volume XXXIV ( Suppléments V ) : Des Époques de la nature , 1779
Volume XXXV ( Suppléments VI ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1782
Volume XXXVI ( Suppléments VII ) : Servant de suite à l 'Histoire des Animaux quadrupèdes , 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Quadrupèdes ovipares et des Serpents ( Egg @-@ laying Quadrupeds and Snakes ) ( 1788 – 1789 )
Volume XXXVII ( Reptiles I ) : Histoire générale et particulière des Quadrupèdes ovipares , 1788
Volume XXXVIII ( Reptiles II ) : Histoire des Serpents , 1789
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons ( Fish ) ( 1798 – 1803 )
Volume XXXIX ( Poissons I ) : 1798
Volume XXXX ( Poissons II ) : 1800
Volume XXXXI ( Poissons III ) : 1802
Volume XXXXII ( Poissons IV ) : 1802
Volume XXXXIII ( Poissons V ) : 1803
Histoire Naturelle des Cétacés ( Cetaceans ) ( 1804 )
Volume XXXXIV ( Cétacés ) : 1804
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Histoire Naturelle had a distinctly mixed reception in the eighteenth century . Wealthy homes in both England and France purchased copies , and the first edition was sold out within six weeks . But Buffon was criticised by priests for suggesting ( in the essay Les Epoques de Nature , Volume XXXIV ) that the earth was more than 6 @,@ 000 years old and that mountains had arisen in geological time . Buffon cites as evidence that fossil sea @-@ shells had been found at the tops of mountains ; but the claim was seen as contradicting the biblical account in the Book of Genesis . Buffon also disagreed with Linnaeus 's system of classifying plants as described in Systema Naturae ( 1735 ) . In Buffon 's view , expounded in the " Premier Discours " of the Histoire Naturelle ( 1749 ) , the concept of species was entirely artificial , the only real entity in nature being the individual ; as for a taxonomy based on the number of stamens or pistils in a flower , mere counting ( despite Buffon 's own training in mathematics ) had no bearing on nature .
The Paris faculty of theology , acting as the official censor , wrote to Buffon with a list of statements in the Histoire Naturelle that were contradictory to Roman Catholic Church teaching . Hypocritically , Buffon replied that he believed firmly in the biblical account of creation , and was able to continue printing his book , and remain in position as the leader of the ' old school ' , complete with his job as director of the royal botanical garden . On Buffon 's death , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Georges Cuvier celebrated with the words " This time , the Comte de Buffon is dead and buried " . Soon afterwards , the French revolution went much further in sweeping away old attitudes to natural history , along with much else .
= = = Modern = = =
= = = = Philosophy = = = =
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls the Histoire Naturelle " Buffon 's major work " , observing that " In addressing the history of the earth , Buffon also broke with the ' counter @-@ factual ' tradition of Descartes , and presented a secular and realist account of the origins of the earth and its life forms . " In its view , the work created an " age of Buffon " , defining what natural history itself was , while Buffon 's " Discourse on Method " ( unlike that of Descartes ) at the start of the work argued that repeated observation could lead to a greater certainty of knowledge even than " mathematical analysis of nature " . Buffon also led natural history away from the natural theology of British parson @-@ naturalists such as John Ray . He thus offered both a new methodology and an empirical style of enquiry . Buffon 's position on evolution is complex ; he noted in Volume 4 from Daubenton 's comparative anatomy of the horse and the donkey that species might " transform " , but initially ( 1753 ) rejected the possibility . However , in doing so he changed the definition of a species from a fixed or universal class ( which could not change , by definition ) to " the historical succession of ancestor and descendant linked by material connection through generation " , identified by the ability to mate and produce fertile offspring . Thus the horse and donkey , which produce only sterile hybrids , are seen empirically not to be the same species , even though they have similar anatomy . That empirical fact leaves open the possibility of evolution .
= = = = Style = = = =
The botanist Sandra Knapp writes that " Buffon 's prose was so purple that the ideas themselves are almost hidden " , observing that this was also the contemporary academic opinion . She notes that some quite radical ideas are to be found in his work , but they are almost invisible , given the language they are cloaked in . She quotes Buffon 's dramatic description of the lion , which along with the engraving in her view " emphasized both the lion 's regal bearing and personality not only in his text but also in the illustration ... A reader was left in no doubt as to the importance and character of the animal . " She concludes " No wonder the cultured aristocratic public lapped it up – the text reads more like a romantic novel than a dry scientific treatise " .
= = = = Evolutionary thought = = = =
The evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr comments that " In this monumental and fascinating Histoire naturelle , Buffon dealt in a stimulating manner with almost all the problems that would subsequently be raised by evolutionists . Written in a brilliant style , this work was read in French or in one of the numerous translations by every educated person in Europe " . Mayr argued that " virtually all the well @-@ known writers of the Enlightenment " were " Buffonians " , and calls Buffon " the father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the eighteenth century " .
Mayr notes that Buffon was not an " evolutionist " , but was certainly responsible for creating the great amount of interest in natural history in France . He agrees that Buffon 's thought is hard to classify and even self @-@ contradictory , and that the theologians forced him to avoid writing some of his opinions openly . Mayr argues however that Buffon was " fully aware of the possibility of ' common descent ' , and was perhaps the first author ever to articulate it clearly " , quoting Buffon at length , starting with " Not only the ass and the horse , but also man , the apes , the quadrupeds , and all the animals might be regarded as constituting but a single family " , and later " that man and ape have a common origin " , and that " the power of nature ... with sufficient time , she has been able from a single being to derive all the other organized beings " . Mayr notes , however , that Buffon immediately rejects the suggestion and offers three arguments against it , namely that no new species have arisen in historical times ; that hybrid infertility firmly separates species ; and that animals intermediate between , say , the horse and the donkey are not seen ( in the fossil record ) .
= The Boat Race 1996 =
The 142nd Boat Race took place on 6 April 1996 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by a former Blue , Mike Sweeney , Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in the second @-@ fastest time in the history of the race .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis in a record time , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1995 race by four lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 72 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
The previous year 's race was watched by seven million viewers in the United Kingdom alone . Oxford coach Dan Topolski suggested that part of the appeal was that the contest was " absolutely amateur " but still " represents quality " . Former Oxford Blue and Olympic gold medallist Jonny Searle agreed , calling the Boat Race " a unique experience " . Both Topolski and Searle predicted a close race ; Cambridge coach Robin Williams agreed : " We 've got to accord Oxford some respect . I think we 're again the better crew ... but the only way to find out is on the water . " Penny Chuter , one of the other Oxford coaches , noted " Cambridge have a continuity ... but we have more power this year . " Cambridge 's boat club president John Carver had earlier withdrawn from the race with injury . Oxford 's director of rowing , Steve Royle , said of his crew : " these guys love a scrap . "
The 250 officers from Wandsworth Police lining the embankments were able to replace their traditional helmets for peaked caps for the first time , in order to discourage members of the crowd from removing them and throwing them into the river . The race was sponsored for the tenth consecutive year by Beefeater Gin , and umpired by former Cambridge Blue Mike Sweeney .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 57 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Each crew saw just one former Blue return , Clegg for Oxford and Barnett for Cambridge , in addition to Barnett , Cambridge 's crew contained five former Goldie rowers . Oxford 's crew more international rowers with four Americans and a Canadian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge started as pre @-@ race favourites . They won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . After a close start , where neither boat took a significant lead , Cambridge were a half a length up at the Mile Post . They pushed on at Harrods Furniture Depository to take two thirds of a length lead over Oxford by Hammersmith Bridge . Under pressure from the Dark Blues , Whyman steered his crew to record times between the Mile Post and Barnes Bridge , Hammersmith Bridge to Barnes Bridge , Chiswick Steps to Barnes Bridge and Chiswick Steps to the finishing post . Cambridge won by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 16 minutes 58 seconds , the second @-@ fastest time on record ( thirteen seconds slower than the winning time in the 1984 race ) .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by eleven lengths , in a record time , over Isis . It was Cambridge 's ninth victory in ten years . Cambridge won the 51st Women 's Boat Race by four lengths in a time of 6 minutes and 12 seconds , their seventh victory in eight years .
= = Reaction = =
During the race , David Miller of the The Times claimed that Cambridge 's stroke James Ball " conducted a continual tactical conversation with Kevin Whyman , the Cambridge cox " . Miller suggested that while Oxford were the more powerful crew , Cambridge were technically superior .
Oxford coach Chuter concluded : " we did not find the cohesive and relaxed rhythm which we have had . " Her counterpart , Williams , exclaimed " you have got to be happy with that " .
= X @-@ Men Legends =
X @-@ Men Legends is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision . It was released on the GameCube , PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles in the fall of 2004 . Barking Lizards Technologies developed the N @-@ Gage port of the game , which was released in early 2005 . Players can play as one of fifteen X @-@ Men characters , with the ability to switch between four computer- or human @-@ controlled characters at any time .
X @-@ Men Legends follows Alison Crestmere , a young mutant who has the ability to summon and control volcanic activity . As Alison is taught to control her powers at the X @-@ Mansion , the X @-@ Men are sent on several missions . Eventually the X @-@ Men learn of Magneto 's plan to cover the Earth in darkness from his base on Asteroid M.
X @-@ Men Legends received generally positive reviews from critics . The Xbox version was the best received , garnering aggregate scores of 83 % and 82 / 100 on the review aggregating websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Reviewers praised Raven 's variation on cel @-@ shaded graphics . Due to the success of the game a sequel was made , X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse .
= = Gameplay = =
X @-@ Men Legends is played as an action role @-@ playing game . Players choose a team of up to four characters from a larger group of X @-@ Men . As players proceed through the game additional X @-@ Men are unlocked . On the console versions up to four players can play in the cooperative campaign , with the ability to add or remove players at any time . Cooperative play features a refined combat system and the ability to interact with non @-@ player characters . The game also features a skirmish mode , which allows players to fight against each other or against waves of computer @-@ controlled enemies .
As characters gain experience points players can upgrade their four main powers and other abilities unique to that character . Items found during gameplay can also be equipped to further enhance a character 's abilities . Characters can combine attacks to create a combo , in which two or more players use their mutant powers on a single enemy at the same time . The characters ' special abilities can be used to create a " Super Combo " when combined with an " Xtreme Power " which become available at level 15 .
The X @-@ Mansion serves as a hub that the team returns to after each mission . While at the mansion , one player controls Alison Crestmere as she explores , and learns about herself and the other X @-@ Men . Here players can also view loading screen art , cinematics , and comic book covers acquired during gameplay . Biographies of the X @-@ Men and their enemies can be accessed on computers located in the mansion . Players can participate in an X @-@ Men trivia game , which rewards experience points for correct answers . Additionally , players can access the Danger Room 's computer to play challenge missions unlocked during gameplay .
The players have two vendors available to them : Forge , who sells equipment and the Morlock Healer , who provides health and energy packs as well as training disks for use in the Danger Room . Forge becomes available after Alison contacts him accidentally from the X @-@ Mansion , and Healer can be accessed following the third mission .
The N @-@ Gage version of X @-@ Men Legends contains most of the features found on the console versions . However , the game is played from an isometric point of view . Characters are two @-@ dimensional sprites based on their three @-@ dimensional console counterparts , and levels are redesigned to meet the limitations of the isometric point of view . Cutscenes were reused from the console versions , but are rendered at a much lower frame rate . Players can link with other N @-@ Gage systems for four @-@ player cooperative gameplay using GSM cellular technology .
= = Plot = =
X @-@ Men Legends is not set in any particular Marvel Comics universe . It is played from the perspective of a teenage girl named Alison Crestmere , a mutant with the ability to control volcanic activity . At the start of the game Alison is abducted by the Genetic Research and Security Organization ( GRSO ) . As GRSO soldiers take her away , Mystique arrives with Blob and takes Alison from the soldiers . She is in turn rescued from Mystique and Blob by the X @-@ Men Wolverine and Cyclops , who take her to the Xavier Institute to explore her powers . As Alison trains , the X @-@ Men investigate an Alaskan research facility controlled by the Brotherhood of Mutants , then rescue Gambit from the Morlocks . They then try to stop the Brotherhood from rescuing Magneto from captivity aboard the U.S.S. Arbiter . Mystique is able to penetrate the defenses and free Magneto , and the ensuing damage caused by the Brotherhood leaves the X @-@ Men
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to rescue several Arbiter crew members .
With Alison ’ s training complete , she takes the codename Magma and the X @-@ Men travel to Russia to help Colossus prevent the Brotherhood from obtaining weapons @-@ grade plutonium . After accomplishing this mission , they discover that Colossus ’ s sister , Illyana , is in a coma from a psychic hold placed on her by the Shadow King . Professor Xavier , Emma Frost , and Jean Grey enter the astral plane to save her . They succeed , but in the process Xavier is captured by the Shadow King . After Xavier ’ s capture the X @-@ Men learn that General William Kincaid , a leader in the anti @-@ mutant movement , is building mutant @-@ hunting Sentinels . Magneto travels to his base on Asteroid M , where he reveals his plan to cover the Earth in darkness . Meanwhile , the X @-@ Men free Xavier who defeats the Shadow King in a psychic battle . The X @-@ Men travel to Asteroid M , where they discover that the asteroid is on a collision course with Earth . After defeating Magneto they search for the Gravitron , a device used to pilot the asteroid . They encounter General Kincaid , who pilots Master Mold , a prototype sentinel larger and more powerful than other sentinels . After defeating General Kincaid , the X @-@ Men locate the Gravitron and Magma uses her powers to steer the asteroid back into space . The X @-@ Men 's victory on Asteroid M is watched by Apocalypse who makes his upcoming plot from his base .
In the game 's epilogue , a television news anchor reports that Magneto is still at large and General Kincaid has been arrested for crimes against humanity . The game ends with the President of the United States thanking the X @-@ Men for their service .
= = = Characters = = =
^ a Only playable during sections of the Astral Plane missions .
= = Development = =
X @-@ Men Legends was announced in a press release by Activision on April 23 , 2003 . The game is Raven Software 's first console title ; after a number of successful titles for personal computers , it wanted to expand into the console market . The company developed the three console versions simultaneously , and used Vicarious Visions ' Alchemy engine as a base for the game . After deciding to make an " X @-@ Men RPG " , staff began brainstorming story , gameplay and design ideas . Raven wanted to feature a team @-@ based dynamic , something it felt was absent in previous X @-@ Men games . The original concept featured turned @-@ based gameplay , similar to a Final Fantasy game . However , the team concluded that players would prefer more action that allowed control of the character 's super powers . The genre switch proved problematic to maintaining the team aspect of gameplay .
The group experimented with several gameplay models , and opted for one that allowed players to freely switch characters . The final product mimics isometric dungeon crawling video games . Raven designed gameplay with strategy in mind ; each character 's abilities allow different interactions with the environment and other characters . For example , a physically strong character like Colossus can break walls but is unable to reach certain areas that require the ability to fly , and Iceman is able to freeze enemies so that other characters can easily defeat them . Staff hoped that the differences would force players to switch characters regularly during missions . Extraction points , specific locations that players can switch characters , were added to allow players to continue without a game over in the event one or more team member was defeated . Raven included flash back missions as an homage to the franchise and based some on specific comic book issues . Originally a single @-@ player game , Raven eventually incorporated simultaneous co @-@ orperative gameplay . The developers chose to not create an online multi @-@ player mode , stating that the gameplay was " designed around localized encounters . "
The game 's story was penned by a group of former Marvel writers known as Man of Action , consisting of Duncan Rouleau , Joe Casey , Joe Kelly , and Steven T. Seagle , with Stan Lee consulting . Man of Action chose the character Magma as their lead because she was an " appropriately blank slate as a character . " Man of Action also stated that the script for X @-@ Men Legends was in excess of five hundred pages . The writers created a story that would allow for players to change their active team throughout the game and not affect the overall flow of the story .
The game 's voice cast consists largely of television and film stars as well as veteran voice actors . Patrick Stewart reprised his role as Professor Xavier from the X @-@ Men films , while Tony Jay voiced Magneto . Ed Asner lent his voice as Healer , a Morlock shaman . Lou Diamond Phillips voiced Forge , a Native American mutant whose power grants him intuitive talent for inventing mechanical devices . Danica McKellar voiced Jubilee , a young mutant who generates plasmoids from her fingertips . Veteran voice actors Steven Blum , Grey DeLisle , Dee Bradley Baker , Robin Atkin Downes and Dorian Harewood also lent voices as Wolverine , Mystique , Nightcrawler , Cyclops and Shadow King , respectively . Music for the game was composed by Rik Schaffer of the Los Angeles @-@ based Womb Music .
Characters were selected from different time lines in the X @-@ Men universe . Art lead Brian Pelletier stated that they took the most memorable characters from the last 40 years and grouped them together . X @-@ Men Legends uses cel shading to give the characters a comic @-@ like appearance . However , Raven cited that they opted for then @-@ high resolution textures to stay away from " cartoony looking " characters . Character costumes were inspired by Marvel Comics ' Ultimate X @-@ Men . However , some of the X @-@ Men playable in X @-@ Men Legends had not appeared in the comics at the time of its release so , with permission from Marvel , Raven created unique looks for those characters . During development Raven tried visual formats for the X @-@ Men , including using their New X @-@ Men uniforms as well as removing the cel @-@ shaded look from the characters . In contrast , the back stories , relationships and personalities of the X @-@ Men were taken from Marvel 's mainstream universe . Angel was also to be included in the game , and was to be voiced by André Sogliuzzo , but was cut from the final build .
= = Reception = =
X @-@ Men Legends received mostly positive reviews , with the Xbox version receiving the highest aggregate scores of 83 @.@ 36 % at GameRankings and 82 / 100 at Metacritic . The GameCube version was rated next highest , scoring 81 @.@ 98 % at GameRankings and 81 / 100 at Metacritic . Though the PlayStation 2 version received the lowest scores of the console versions , it still fared well , scoring 80 @.@ 50 % at GameRankings and 79 / 100 at Metacritic . The N @-@ Gage version garnered scores similar to its console counterparts , receiving 76 @.@ 13 % and 79 / 100 at GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . In 2011 , GamePro retrospectively listed " the melee combat , ability to customize your stats , and multiplayer " among the strong points of X @-@ Men Legends , adding that the game " was so successful that it created a well @-@ received sequel and paved the way for the Marvel Ultimate Alliance series . "
Critics generally praised the game 's use of cel @-@ shading . IGN 's Hilary Goldstein stated , " To capture the ' comic book feel , ' Raven Soft chose to go for a cel @-@ shaded look with Legends . It 's not that the characters look two @-@ dimensional , but they have very basic textures and a cut @-@ out look " . GameSpot reviewer Jeff Gerstmann pointed out that though the characters are cel @-@ shaded , the environments are not , making them easy to distinguish . The gameplay was lauded for its role @-@ playing elements , character powers and melee combat . Eurogamer praised the Xbox version 's control system for character powers and melee attacks , as well as the " fluid " combat .
Reviewers found that the artificial intelligence ( AI ) was lacking , and recommended the game 's multiplayer . Opinions were generally mixed on the subject of voice acting . X @-@ Play reviewer Russ Fischer called it " purely average " , though he made an exception for Patrick Stewart 's portrayal of Professor Xavier . IGN noted that while some voice acting fit the characters well , others seemed out of place .
The N @-@ Gage version was praised for the ability to play cooperatively using the N @-@ Gage 's bluetooth technology . Reviewers also found that the game 's graphics were " very strong " and that " everything looks amazing " . The presence of voice acting in the N @-@ Gage port was also praised , with GameSpy reviewer Justin Leeper stating the audio clips seemed to be " lifted right out of other versions " . He criticized the AI , however , for being " [ a ] bit stupid at inopportune times " and for failing to use the game 's healing abilities at important moments .
= = Legacy = =
X @-@ Men Legends sold enough copies to be inducted into the budget lines for all three consoles on which it was released : PlayStation 2 's Greatest Hits , GameCube 's Player 's Choice , and Xbox 's Platinum Hits . A sequel , X @-@ Men Legends II : Rise of Apocalypse was released for all major platforms in the fall of 2005 , and the N @-@ Gage later that year . Barking Lizards again helped port the game , this time to mobile phone devices . Vicarious Visions ported the game to the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) , and Beenox developed the PC port .
The success of the X @-@ Men Legends series led Raven Software , Marvel , and Activision to create the video game Marvel : Ultimate Alliance , which was released on several consoles , handheld devices and the PC in 2007 . Barking Lizards , Vicarious Visions and Beenox handled the ports for different platforms . Marvel : Ultimate Alliance was followed by Marvel : Ultimate Alliance 2 , jointly developed by Vicarious Visions , n @-@ Space and Savage Entertainment . Marvel Ultimate Alliance 2 was released on several consoles and handhelds in the fall of 2009 . Vicarious Visions developed the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions , while n @-@ Space developed the Nintendo DS , PSP and Wii versions . Savage Entertainment ported the version developed by n @-@ Space to the PSP .
= Toyota Center =
Toyota Center is an indoor arena located in downtown Houston , Texas . It is named after the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota . The arena is home to the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association , the principal users of the building , and the former home of the Houston Aeros of the American Hockey League .
Rockets owner Leslie Alexander first began to request a new arena in 1995 , and attempted to release the Rockets from their lease at The Summit , which ran until 2003 . However , he was denied by arena owner Chuck Watson , then @-@ owner of the Aeros , who also wanted control of a new arena . The two sides agreed to equal control over an arena in a deal signed in 1997 , but the proposal was rejected by city voters in a 1999 referendum . It was not until the city and the Rockets signed an amended agreement in 2001 , excluding the Aeros , that the proposal was accepted .
Construction began in July 2001 , and the new arena was officially opened in October 2003 . The total costs were $ 235 million , with the city of Houston paying the majority , and the Rockets paying for enhancements . Toyota paid US $ 100 million for the naming rights .
= = History = =
In May 1995 , several Texas sports teams , including the Houston Rockets , proposed legislation that would dedicate state tax revenue to build new arenas . Although the bill was failed in the Texas House of Representatives , Rockets owner Leslie Alexander announced he would continue to study the possibility of constructing a new arena in downtown Houston , saying the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Summit arena was too outdated to be profitable . Although the Summit 's management said they could renovate the building for a small part of the cost of a new arena , the Rockets began talks with the city of Houston on a possible location for an arena , They also negotiated with Houston Aeros and Summit owner , Chuck Watson , to release them from their contract with the Summit , which ran until 2003 .
As the negotiations continued into 1996 , a panel appointed by Houston mayor Bob Lanier reported that building a new arena was " essential to keep pro sports in Houston " . After Watson rejected a contract buyout proposal of $ 30 million , the Rockets filed a legal challenge against their lease , stating the " need to be able to buy out " of the lease . However , the city of Houston filed a counterclaim to force the Rockets to stay at the Summit , saying that if the Rockets did not honor their contract , then they might " have no incentive to honor any new agreement with the city of Houston to play in a new downtown sports arena " . The validity of the lease was eventually upheld , and in April 1997 , Lanier announced that the Rockets and Watson would have to agree to share control of the new arena equally , or lose access to it altogether . After both parties agreed to the terms , a bill that authorized increased taxes to pay for a new arena was signed into law in July , by then @-@ Governor George W. Bush .
However , after the National Hockey League decided not to consider Houston as a location for an expansion team because of the indecision over the new arena , Lanier said that he would not have a referendum in November . The Rockets began an appeal in January 1998 against the court order to stay at the Summit , but then dropped it in May , because they felt that a new arena would be ready by the time they finished their lease . In January 1999 , recently elected mayor Lee Brown guaranteed a referendum on the issue before the end of the year . After several months negotiating with the Harris County @-@ Houston Sports Authority , the Rockets finalized a deal to pay half of the constructions costs , and a referendum was set for November 2 . The deal was approved by Brown and the Houston City Council , but Watson started an opposition group against the referendum , saying the arena was " not in Houston 's interest " . On November 3 , the results of the referendum were announced , and the arena proposal was rejected by 54 % of voters . Alexander said " we never thought we would lose " and that they were " devastated by the loss " .
After the vote , NBA commissioner David Stern said " if there 's not a new building ... I think it 's certain that the team will be relocated . " The Houston Sports Authority had not planned to meet with the Rockets until after the 1999 – 2000 NBA season ended , but after the Rockets began to talk to other cities about relocation , they resumed talks in February 2000 . Although the Rockets continued to negotiate with Louisville , Kentucky , a funding plan for the arena in Houston was released in June . A final agreement was proposed on July 6 , and both the Rockets and mayor Brown agreed to the terms . After the city council approved the deal , the proposal was placed on the November referendum ballot . Leading up to the vote , the Rockets stressed that there would be " no new taxes of any kind " , although opponents said the new arena would raise energy consumption , and also contended that the public would pay for too much of the costs of the arena . Contributions for the campaign for the arena included donations of US $ 400 @,@ 000 from Reliant Energy , and a total of $ 590 @,@ 000 in loans and contributions from Enron and Ken Lay , who the Rockets said was a " tireless " force in the campaign . On November 8 , the arena was approved by 66 % of voters .
= = = Construction = = =
According to the agreement signed , the city of Houston bought the land for the arena and an adjoining parking garage , which was near the George R. Brown Convention Center , and paid for it by selling bonds and borrowing $ 30 million . Morris Architects , designed the 750 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 70 @,@ 000 m2 ) building , and Hunt Construction was contracted to build the arena . A building formerly owned by Houston Lighting and Power Company was demolished to make way for the arena , and two streets were closed for the duration of the construction . A groundbreaking ceremony was held on July 31 , 2001 , and construction continued for 26 months .
At the request of Alexander , the arena was built 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) below street level , so fans would not have to walk up stairs to reach their seats . To sink the arena , $ 12 million was spent to excavate 31 @,@ 500 cubic yards of dirt over four months , which was the largest excavation in Houston history . Concrete was poured for the foundation throughout the summer of 2002 , and structural work began in October . The roof was set on in December , as work continued inside , with a peak workforce of 650 . In September 2003 , a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony was held to mark the official opening of the arena . The total cost of construction was $ 235 million , with the city paying $ 182 million , and the Rockets adding $ 43 million for additions and enhancements .
= = Arena Interior = =
The arena can seat 18 @,@ 055 for basketball , 17 @,@ 800 for ice hockey , and 19 @,@ 300 for concerts . The price for courtside seats to a Rockets game in the new arena were raised by as much as 50 % compared to prices in the team 's old home , while upper @-@ deck seat prices were lowered .
It has 103 luxury suites and 2 @,@ 900 club seats ( Sections 105 @-@ 109 , Rockets Club West ; Sections 118 @-@ 122 , Rockets Club East ) . The Rockets East & West Clubs feature upscale concessions , extra wide seats , full private bar featuring premium wine and beverage selections and concierge service . The adjacent 2 @,@ 500 @-@ space Toyota Tundra garage is connected to the arena by a private skybridge that can be accessed by Suite , Court @-@ side and Club Seat holders .
Additionally , the floor level features three separate private club lounges for access from court @-@ side seat holders and floor seat concert goers . Lexus Lounge and Woodforest Club are on the west side of the floor level and the Platinum Lounge is located on the east side of the floor level . All feature upscale amenities including multiple flat screen televisions , private bar , restrooms , and plush seating . The Lexus Lounge has its own pool tables and all three court @-@ side lounges feature numerous private court @-@ side suites .
Toyota Center also features the Red & White Wine Bistro , located on the lower suites level on the south side of the arena . The restaurant features a huge dining room , private bar , two twin 1 @,@ 500 bottle wine towers and views of the arena floor .
Levy Restaurants manages concession services at the arena , and offers fast food on the main concourses , while also catering a VIP restaurant for Suite and Club Seat holders . Alexander personally chose colors for the restaurant to help customers feel " warm and comfortable " , and Rockets president George Postolos said that the Rockets looked " for a relationship with the people that attend events in our venue " . Originally , a 40 feet ( 12 m ) by 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) centerhung video system from Daktronics , which has four main replay screens and eight other full @-@ color displays , hung from the ceiling of the arena , and had the highest @-@ resolution display of any North American sports facility . In 2012 , the Toyota Center installed a larger , 4 panel scoreboard , similar to the one installed at AT & T Stadium , measuring 58 feet ( 18 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the sidelines , and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) on the ends , making it the largest such video board in an indoor arena . This larger scoreboard was installed by Panasonic and made its debut during the Houston Rockets 2012 @-@ 13 season opener . The arena has two additional displays located at each end of the court , and a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " audio system .
Another amenity new to the Toyota Center in the 2012 – 2013 season is Wi @-@ Fi . Designed by SignalShare and implemented by OfficeConnect.net , the Wi @-@ Fi network is deployed throughout the arena and allows high @-@ speed internet access during events . Its implementation was timed to be ready for the NBA All Stars Game .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
In July 2003 , the arena was named the Toyota Center , after Toyota agreed to pay $ 100 million for naming rights , the fourth @-@ largest deal for a sports arena in the United States at the time . The logo of the company was placed on the roof of the building , as well in other prominent places inside the arena , and the company was given " a dominant presence " in commercials shown during broadcasts of games played in the arena .
= = = Seating Capacity = = =
The seating capacity for basketball games has been as follows :
17 @,@ 982 ( 2003 – 2007 )
18 @,@ 043 ( 2007 – 2012 )
18 @,@ 023 ( 2012 – 2014 )
18 @,@ 055 ( 2014 – present )
= = Events = =
The arena 's first event was a Fleetwood Mac concert on October 6 , 2003 , and the first Rockets game at the Toyota Center was against the Denver Nuggets on October 30 .
In its first year , the total attendance for events at the arena exceeded 1 @.@ 5 million . The arena was also the winner of the Allen Award for Civic Enhancement by Central Houston , the " Rookie of the Year " award by the Harlem Globetrotters , and a finalist for Pollstar Magazine 's " Best New Concert Venue " award . The current attendance for a concert held at the arena was set on November 20 , 2008 , when Metallica played to a sold out crowd during the Death Magnetic tour . The record for a basketball game is 18 @,@ 583 , set on March 26 , 2010 , when the Los Angeles Lakers defeated the Rockets 109 – 101 .
The R & B girl group Destiny 's Child performed at the Toyota Center on August 20 , 2005 , with the Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It Tour . Beyoncé , as a solo artist , performed at the arena many times : on July 14 , 2007 , with The Beyoncé Experience Tour ; on July 4 , 2009 , with the I Am ... World Tour ; on July 15 , 2013 , and once more on December 10 , 2013 , with The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Beyoncé was born in Houston , on September 4 , 1981 .
American singer / songwriter , P ! nk performed at the arena for the first time on the 24th of September , 2009 on her Funhouse Tour . She performed at the arena again on the 21st of February on her The Truth About Love Tour .
Lady Gaga also performed at the arena for the first time on her The Monster Ball Tour . She also performed at the Toyota Center for The Born This Way Ball Tour and performed for her world tour , ArtRave : The Artpop Ball on July 16 , 2014 .
Miley Cyrus performed in the arena during her 2014 Bangerz Tour after previously performing in the arena during her 2007 – 2008 Best of Both Worlds Tour on November 11 , 2007 . Cyrus has performed 2 total sold @-@ out nights in the arena since 2007 .
In 2007 , 2011 , 2013 , and 2015 , it played host to a UFC event .
The arena hosted the 9th Annual Latin Grammy Awards on November 13 , 2008 . It also held the 2009 WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony , the night before WrestleMania XXV took place at NRG Stadium and , also held WWE No Mercy 2005 , WWE Vengeance 2007 and WWE TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs two times , in 2010 and 2013 . On September 20 , 2015 , the arena hosted WWE Night of Champions .
On August 21 , 2010 , it played host to Strikeforce : Houston .
Many concerts have also taken place in the Toyota Center , like Prince , Duran Duran on their Astronaut tour , Janet Jackson , Madonna on her MDNA Tour , Red Hot Chili Peppers , Gloria Estefan , Muse , Rihanna , Miley Cyrus , Bruno Mars , Christina Aguilera , P ! nk , Andrea Bocelli , Roger Waters , High School Musical The Concert , Aerosmith , Guns N ' Roses , Coldplay , RBD , Laura Pausini , Alanis Morissette , Matchbox Twenty , Fiona Apple , Nickelback , Depeche Mode , Bon Jovi , Enrique Iglesias , Katy Perry , Drake , Shakira , Britney Spears , Kanye West and Jay @-@ Z with their successful Watch The Throne Tour , Justin Bieber , Taylor Swift , The Rolling Stones , One Direction , Carrie Underwood on her Storyteller Tour , and Rammstein .
On February 19 , 2016 , it played host to Bellator MMA event Bellator 149 : Shamrock vs. Gracie III . The event featured a double main event featuring heavyweights Kimbo Slice vs. Dada 5000 , and light heavyweights Ken Shamrock vs. Royce Gracie . Bellator 149 had a live attendance record of 13 @,@ 209 ; and a near $ 1.2M gate at the Toyota Center . Thus making Bellator 149 the largest attended show in Bellator MMA history .
Passion Conferences has been held in the Toyota Center in 2014 , 2015 , and will be held there in 2016 as well . The conference draws around 20 @,@ 000 people with multiple other gatherings held in Atlanta .
= Mac Speedie =
Mac Curtis Speedie ( January 12 , 1920 – March 5 , 1993 ) was an American football end who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) for seven years , and later served for two years as head coach of the American Football League 's Denver Broncos . A tall and quick runner whose awkward gait helped him deceive defenders and get open , Speedie led his league in receptions four times during his career and was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro six times . His career average of 800 yards per season was not surpassed until two decades after his retirement , and his per @-@ game average of 50 yards went unequalled for 20 years after he left the game .
Speedie grew up in Utah , where he overcame Perthes Disease to become a standout as a hurdler on his high school track team and a halfback on the football team . He attended the University of Utah , where he continued to excel at track and football before entering the military in 1942 during World War II . He spent four years in the service before joining the Browns in 1946 , where he played as an end opposite quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and fellow receiver Dante Lavelli . The Browns , a new team in the AAFC , won the league championship every year between 1946 and 1949 . The Browns merged into the NFL in 1950 after the AAFC disbanded , and Speedie continued to succeed as the team won another league championship . After two more years with the Browns , however , Speedie left the team for the Western Interprovincial Football Union ( WIFU ) amid a conflict with Paul Brown , Cleveland 's head coach . He played two full seasons in the WIFU and one game in a third season before leaving professional football .
Speedie was hired in 1960 as an end coach for the Houston Oilers in the American Football League ( AFL ) . The Oilers won the AFL championship that year , but Speedie left in 1961 after the head coach , former teammate Lou Rymkus , was fired . He then took a job as an assistant for the AFL 's Denver Broncos and was promoted to head coach in 1964 . His two @-@ year run with the team was unsuccessful , however . After his resignation in 1966 , Speedie became a scout for the Broncos , a job he kept until his retirement in 1982 . Despite lobbying by friends and former teammates , Speedie was not selected for induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Speedie was born in Odell , Illinois , but attended high school in Utah . As a child he had Perthes Disease , a condition where growth or loss of bone mass in the hip joint affects blood supply to the area . He had to wear a brace for four years to correct the condition ; one of his legs came out shorter than the other . Despite his struggle with the disease , Speedie became a star athlete at South High School in Salt Lake City , playing football , basketball and track . He was the center on the school 's basketball team and was named to a list of Salt Lake 's best athletes as a halfback on the football team . Getting out of the braces " was like turning a frisky colt out to pasture after a year in a box stall , " Speedie once said . " I had such a backlog of athletic ambition that I wanted to play football , basketball , and track all at one time . "
= = College and military career = =
After graduating from high school , Speedie attended the University of Utah , where he majored in geology and continued to excel as an athlete . He played football and basketball and was a top college hurdler in track . As an end on the Utah Redskins football team He won all @-@ conference honors in 1939 , 1940 and 1941 . In track , he finished second in a high hurdles event where the winner , Rice University 's Fred Wolcott , set a NCAA record .
Like many college athletes , Speedie joined the military as America 's involvement in World War II intensified following the attack on Pearl Harbor at the end of 1941 . He entered the U.S. Army after graduating in 1942 . Speedie was stationed at Fort Warren in Wyoming and played for the base 's Broncos military team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns = = =
Speedie was drafted by the National Football League 's Detroit Lions in the late rounds of the 1942 draft . Fred Mandel , the owner of the Lions , visited him at Fort Warren and offered a contract worth $ 2 @,@ 800 a year . Speedie wanted to sign immediately , but Mandel preferred to wait until after the war . By the time the war drew to a close in 1945 , however , Speedie was considering signing with the Chicago Rockets , a team in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . He was pursued by the Rockets after playing well against a team at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro from which many of the Rockets ' players were drawn . Speedie was also spotted by Paul Brown , who had been the head coach of a military team at Great Lakes Naval Station that played against the Broncos . Brown , who was starting a new AAFC team called the Cleveland Browns , sent a friend named Jackie Ranen to sign Speedie for $ 7 @,@ 000 in 1946 .
With the Browns , Speedie quickly became an important part of an offensive attack that featured quarterback Otto Graham , fullback Marion Motley and fellow receiver Dante Lavelli . He was enthusiastic , energetic and fast , posing a challenge for defenders assigned to cover him . He had an unusual running style because of his bout with Perthes Disease , which Lavelli said " gave him an odd gait in which he could fake plays without even trying " . Speedie caught the first touchdown in the AAFC 's existence in the Browns ' opening game against the Miami Seahawks , a 44 – 0 win . The Browns ended the regular season with a 12 – 2 record , winning the AAFC West division and earning a spot in the league championship . During the week before the championship game against the New York Yankees , Speedie and two teammates , Lou Rymkus and team captain Jim Daniell were arrested after an argument with Cleveland police . Daniell was driving a car with Rymkus and Speedie as passengers as they waited for Speedie 's wife to return on a flight from Utah . A police car was blocking Daniell 's way , and he honked the horn , leading to the confrontation and arrests . Brown kicked Daniell off of the team , but Speedie and Rymkus were not punished by the team ; they were , however , held in custody for several hours and charged with creating a disturbance .
The Browns went on to win the championship game in 1946 , helped by Speedie 's six catches for 71 yards . Speedie led the league in yards per catch , with 23 @.@ 5 , and scored seven touchdowns . After the season , he was named along with several teammates to the AAFC 's all @-@ league team .
The 1947 season was another strong one for Speedie . In a game against the Buffalo Bills , he tied a professional football record by catching a throw from Graham and running 99 yards for a touchdown . He finished the season as the league leader in receptions and receiving yards as the Browns won another championship . His 67 catches and 1 @,@ 146 receiving yards , in fact , were the second @-@ best in pro football history after Don Hutson of the Green Bay Packers , who caught for 1 @,@ 211 yards in 1940 . Speedie was named by news outlets as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro . Speedie 's success in 1947 came as he , Graham and Lavelli gelled as a passing and receiving unit , having studied hours of tape and worked on their technique and coordination . Speedie studied how defensive backs moved their feet and tried to break into the open by exploiting mis @-@ steps . They experimented with screen passes and made modifications to common receiving routes to exploit the weaknesses of defenses .
The Browns had a perfect season the following year , winning the championship for a third straight time . Speedie led the league in receiving and was named an All @-@ Pro again . The 1949 season brought another championship and another All @-@ Pro season for Speedie , who led the league in receptions for the third year in a row . He had 228 receiving yards in a game against the Yankees , which remains a Browns record . Tom Landry , a Yankees cornerback who went on to coach the Dallas Cowboys , was assigned to cover Speedie and called it " the most embarrassing athletic performance of my entire life " . The AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season and the Browns , along with two other teams , were absorbed by the more established NFL . Speedie was the AAFC 's all @-@ time leader in receptions and receiving yards , with 3 @,@ 554 .
Cleveland 's success continued in the NFL in 1950 , silencing skeptics who thought the team stood out only because of the poor quality of competition in the AAFC . After beating the defending NFL champion Philadelphia Eagles in the first game of the season , the Browns advanced to the championship game , where they beat the Los Angeles Rams 30 – 28 on a last @-@ second Lou Groza field goal . Speedie had 548 receiving yards during the season and was selected for the NFL 's first @-@ ever Pro Bowl .
The Browns reached the NFL championship game in 1951 and 1952 , but lost both times . Speedie led the NFL in receiving in 1951 and was named a first @-@ team All Pro , but he did not play in the championship game due to an injury . He was selected for the Pro Bowl for a second time in 1952 . After that season , however , he left the Browns to join the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Western Interprovincial Football Union under acrimonious circumstances . Speedie had an independent streak that did not sit well with Brown , whose domineering coaching style grated against many of the men who played for him . " He was one of the ones that Paul Brown picked on quite a bit , " recalled former teammate Ken Carpenter . " He 'd get on Speedie 's case for no particular reason . " Speedie showed his displeasure by bringing a skunk to training camp in 1952 and calling it " Paul " . Brown told Speedie he did not think it was very funny , to which Speedie responded that it was a nocturnal animal and was named after Paul Revere .
The Roughriders offered Speedie double his Browns salary as the Canadian leagues tried to make names for themselves by signing top @-@ level NFL players . Paul Brown refused to match the offer , and Speedie , who was making $ 11 @,@ 000 per year with the Browns , joined the Canadian team for the 1953 season . Brown then threatened to sue Speedie for violating his existing contract with the team , saying the Browns had exercised an option to extend the deal after it expired in the summer of 1953 . " This was a case of jumping a contract , pure and simple , as this young man morally and ethically had a contract with us , " Brown said at the time . Speedie later said that Brown " told me when I jumped leagues that he was going to get even with me " .
= = = Western Interprovincial Football Union = = =
Speedie , by then 33 years old , joined the Roughriders despite the threat of legal action . Speedie had a league @-@ leading seven touchdowns in 1953 , and 576 receiving yards the following season . He was sent to the WIFU 's BC Lions in 1955 , but played only one game for the club . Speedie hurt his left knee and was declared out for the season . He had suffered a hairline leg fracture and underwent surgery on torn ligaments in his knee and ankle . He was expected to scout for the Lions as he recovered . After the injury , Speedie was cut from the Lions ' roster and did not play professional football again .
At the end of his career , Speedie was one of the most prolific receivers of his era . He averaged more than 800 receiving yards a season during his seven years in the AAFC and NFL , a mark that was not surpassed for 20 years after he left the game . His career receiving yards average of 49 @.@ 9 per game stood for 25 years . He was named to the National Football League 1940s All @-@ Decade Team and was selected by news outlets as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro six times . The authors of the official NFL encyclopedia named him one of the league 's 300 greatest @-@ ever players .
= = Coaching career = =
Speedie resurfaced in 1960 , when he was named the end coach for the new American Football League 's Houston Oilers under former teammate and Oilers head coach Lou Rymkus . The Oilers won the AFL championship in 1960 , but Rymkus was fired after the team got off to a slow start the following year . Team owner Bud Adams urged Speedie to stay on the staff , but Speedie resigned out of loyalty to Rymkus .
The AFL 's Denver Broncos hired Speedie the following year as an end coach . He served under head coach Jack Faulkner , who replaced Frank Filchock that season and was voted AFL Coach of the Year for turning the team around and posting a 7 – 7 record . Faulkner led the team to a 2 – 11 – 1 season in 1963 , however , and Speedie replaced him the following year as the Broncos went on a 14 @-@ game losing streak .
In Speedie 's first game leading the team , the Broncos ended the losing streak with a 33 – 27 upset victory over the Kansas City Chiefs . Two weeks later , Speedie suspended placekicker Gene Mingo and defensive back Willie West for " conduct detrimental to the club " , reportedly as a result of a late @-@ night party at a hotel . The team posted a 2 – 7 – 1 record under Speedie , and he was signed to a two @-@ year contract after the season .
In his first full season as the Broncos ' coach in 1965 , Speedie 's team posted a 4 – 10 record . After two losses to begin the 1966 season , Speedie resigned and assistant Ray Malavasi took over . He said the move was in the best interest of the club . Speedie had a 6 @-@ 19 @-@ 1 record as the Broncos ' coach . He then accepted a scouting position with the organization and was based out of his home in Laguna Hills , California . He held the post until his retirement in 1982 .
= = Later life and death = =
Speedie had a brief and cold reunion with Brown in 1977 , when the two met at the annual East – West Shrine Game , a college all @-@ star game . Speedie introduced himself to Brown , only to be told , " Yes , I know . You 're the one who went to Canada . " Speedie 's friends and former teammates lobbied repeatedly for his inclusion in the Pro Football Hall of Fame , but Speedie believed that his conflict with Brown was keeping him out even as numerous former teammates , including Otto Graham , Dante Lavelli and Marion Motley were inducted . He was placed on an old @-@ timers ' list of nominees for induction into the hall in the mid @-@ 1980s , but ultimately was passed over . " Quite honestly , I think Paul Brown is the reason " for Speedie 's exclusion , Graham said in 1991 . " Paul wasn 't the type of guy you crossed . He would never forget it . "
While was passed over for professional football 's hall of fame , Speedie was inducted into the Utah Sports Hall of Fame in 1972 and the University of Utah 's Crimson Club hall of fame in 1986 . He died in California in 1993 . In 2003 , he was named to the Professional Football Researchers Association Hall of Very Good in the association 's inaugural HOVG class .
= Final Fantasy XIV =
Final Fantasy XIV ( ファイナルファンタジーXIV , Fainaru Fantajī Fōtīn ) , also known as Final Fantasy XIV Online , is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game for Microsoft Windows personal computers , developed and published by Square Enix in 2010 . It is the fourteenth entry in the main Final Fantasy series and the second MMORPG in the series after Final Fantasy XI . Set in the fantasy realm of Eorzea , players take control of a customized avatar as they explore the land and are caught up in both an invasion by the hostile Garlean Empire and the threat of the Primals , the deities of the land 's Beastmen tribes . Eventually , they are embroiled in a plot by a Garlean Legatus to destroy the Primals by bringing one of the planet 's moons down on Eorzea .
The game had been in development since 2005 under the codename " Rapture " , and was announced in 2009 for Windows and PlayStation 3 video game consoles . It ran on Square Enix 's Crystal Tools middleware engine , which was adjusted to suit the game 's specifications . During development , the team carried over multiple aesthetic elements from XI while creating something that stood on its own . Due to several factors , the development was beset by problems that would later have drastic effects on the game . Attempts to bring the game to Xbox 360 consoles fell through due to disagreements with Microsoft about the use of Xbox Live .
After its alpha test and a delayed beta test , the game went live on September 30 , 2010 ( September 30 , 2010 ) , remaining active until its servers were closed on November 11 , 2012 ( November 11 , 2012 ) . At launch , the game received a mixed to negative reaction : while the graphics and music met with general praise , other aspects were unanimously panned , including the gameplay , interface , and the general impression of the game being unfinished at launch . Critic and fan backlash caused Square Enix to pull subscription fees , indefinitely postpone the PlayStation 3 version , and eventually develop an entirely new version of the game called Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn .
= = Gameplay = =
Final Fantasy XIV is a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) in which the player controls a customized Adventurer avatar from one of the five playable races . Each race has two tribes , and all but two allow for the selection of male or female characters . The avatar can have their eye and hair color , facial features , and skin tone customized , and features such as birthmarks and scars can be added . Their chosen tribe , along with their chosen patron deity , affect their stats and elemental attributes . The game 's opening varies depending on which starting location is chosen . Two different types of quests are available for players : story quests , which are unlocked as characters accumulate experience points ( EXP ) and raise their experience level while unlocking new abilities ; and Levequests ( leves ) , side quests accessed through the Adventurers ' Guilds . Leves are broken down into multiple types , focusing on gathering or combat . Levequests are associated with particular non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) . As the player completes leves , they gain favor with three different factions and unlock new abilities , with rewards only coming from the NPCs within the factions who issued the quest . Gaining favor also unlocks a new type of level called Faction leves , which deplete a character 's favor when completed .
Compared to Final Fantasy XI , where party @-@ based gameplay is forefront at all times , the gameplay in XIV is adjusted so that players can go for longer periods without joining a party . There is no auto @-@ attack option , with each action needing a manual input while an enemy is targeted . Each action uses up a stamina bar . Through defeating monsters , crafting items , and completing quests , players accumulate EXP which , when a certain threshold is reached , automatically increments the player 's level . The player 's level affects attributes such as HP ( health / hit points ) , MP ( magic / mana points ) , and the number of abilities available to them .
Under the Armory System , a character 's equipped weapon or crafting tool , determines the player 's character class , allowing them to switch roles at will . Some classes are associated with a particular starting point . Classes are divided into four disciplines : Disciples of War , masters of physical combat ; Disciples of Magic , practitioners of the magical arts ; Disciples of the Hand , crafters and handymen who synthesize and repair items ; and Disciples of the Land , gatherers who collect resources from the environment . Certain abilities learned under one class may be equipped and used by other classes . The Job System ( a post @-@ launch addition ) builds upon the Armoury System for Disciples of War and Magic . In exchange for restricting the range of equippable abilities from other classes , players gain access to powerful skills , magic , weapons , and armor exclusive to the Job corresponding to that class . These Jobs , based on classic Final Fantasy character jobs , are more suited to party @-@ based combat .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Final Fantasy XIV takes place in a high fantasy setting . The main location is Eorzea , a continent on the larger planet Hydaelyn : this contrasts Final Fantasy XI which uses one name to refer to the entire world and its regions . Eorzea is broken up between three main powers : the forest nation of Gridania ; the desert @-@ based Ul 'dah sultanate ; and the thalassocracy of Limsa Lominsa , Eorzea 's dominant maritime power . Other important locations include the scholarly city @-@ state of Sharlayan and the Garlean Empire , a hostile northern power with highly developed technology . Five years prior to the start of the game , the Garlean Empire invaded the land of Ala Migho , but were prevented from conquering Eorzea by the attacks of the ancient dragon Midgardsomr and his dragon hordes . In response to the Empire 's threat , the three nations of Eorzea reform the Grand Companies , comprehensive centers of command which combine the cities ' military and economic assets . The Grand Companies attracted people from all walks of life , who take up the mantle of Adventurers .
The player character is a customizable Adventurer avatar taken from the five main races of Eorzea . The playable races are the human @-@ like Hyur ( ヒューラン , Hyūran ) , the elf @-@ like Elezen ( エレゼン , Erezen ) , the physically @-@ imposing Roegadyn ( ルガディン , Rugadin ) , the diminutive Lalafell ( ララフェル , Raraferu ) , and the feline Miqo 'te ( ミコッテ , Mikotte ) . Playable Roegadyn and Miqo 'te are gender @-@ locked to male and female respectively . Aside from these races are the Beastmen , tribes who worship ancient gods called the Primals , which require aether @-@ rich crystals and whose presence damages the planet .
= = = Plot = = =
Beginning in one of Eorzea 's three main states , the player character awakes to the Echo , a power granting them the ability to see the past . The Adventurers are initially involved in both conflicts within the nations provoked by the Garlean pretense , led by the Garlean Legatus Gaius Van Baelsar , and the Beastmen 's attempts to summon their Primals and their consequent hoarding of crystal supplies . Eventually , a greater threat is brought to the attention of the nations by the Sharlayan scholar Louisoix Leveilleur : another Garlean Legatus named Nael Van Darnus is using arcane magic and technology to summon Dalamud , the planet 's second moon , down on Eorzea to purge the Beastmen and Primals . With the aid of Garlean defector Cid nan Garlond , the Adventurers discover that Nael has set up a beacon for summoning Dalamud in the new fortress of Castrum Novum . While each nation makes individual attempts to storm the fortress , they are repelled . Faced with this , their leaders form a pact and unite the nations under the banner of the Eorzean Alliance .
Now united , the nations , aided by Adventurers , successfully storm Castrum Novum and destroy the beacon . Nael , insanely committed to his plan , makes himself into a second beacon . Though he is defeated by the Adventurers , Dalamud has descended too far for it to return into orbit , so Louisoix proposes a final desperate plan : to summon the Twelve , Eorzea 's deities , and return Dalamud into orbit . The Adventurers pray to altars dedicated to the Twelve across the land , then rally with the armies of the Eorzean Alliance to fight Nael 's legion on the Carteneau Flats , the predicted impact site of Dalamud . In the midst of the battle , Dalamud disintegrates and reveals itself to have been a prison for the Elder Primal Bahamut . Enraged after its imprisonment , Bahamut begins laying waste to Eorzea . After the attempt to summon the Twelve fails , Louisoix uses the last of his power to send the Adventurers into a time rift , separating them from the flow of time so they can return when Eorzea has recovered . Louisoix then proceeds to sacrifice himself to destroy Bahamut in a final cataclysmic battle , leaving behind a barren , scarred landscape .
= = Development = =
Planning for Final Fantasy XIV began in 2005 , four years prior to its official announcement . At the time , it was codenamed " Rapture " ( ラプチャー , Rapuchā ) . While it had been decided within the company that MMORPGs would be mainline entries rather than spin @-@ offs , the team was worried that the final product would be too radical for the main numbered series . The main staff included multiple developers who had worked on previous entries in the Final Fantasy series : producer Hiromichi Tanaka had acted as the original producer for Final Fantasy XI and been involved in multiple early Final Fantasy games , director Nobuaki Komoto was a director for XI and had been among the staff of Final Fantasy IX , writer Yeako Sato had been the main scenario writer for XI , and Akihiko Yoshida had previously also been art director for Vagrant Story and Final Fantasy XII . The game 's logo and some other artwork was designed by Yoshitaka Amano .
The game 's story , primarily written by Sato , was based around a central narrative complemented by side @-@ stories . The setting and gameplay were decided upon before Sato was brought on board , with the result that she needed to consult the rest of the team when she wished to use one of Eorzea 's main locations in a certain way . The story 's main conflict was to be between the five main races of Eorzea and the Beastmen , with the Garlean Empire acting as a third force . The placement of the Garlean Empire to the northeast of Eorzea was not meant to simulate a real @-@ world location , but naturally ended up there as the map of Hydaelyn was being created . The game 's logo , designed by Amano , was designed around the importance of weapons and the concept of a wheel : the " wheel " in question was a wheel of adventurers , arranged so their backs were exposed and they needed to rely on their comrades and friends for support .
For his work as art director , Yoshida needed to adjust from working on a single static project to creating artwork assets for a game which would be updated and expanded . While the game world was created around a high fantasy aesthetic , it was meant to be realistic and encourage exploration . At the beginning of development , the team created a detailed profile of Hydaelyn , including its relation with other planets , ecosystems , climate , and geography . This was done to promote a sense of realism . Alongside creating a seamless travel experience for players , careful work was put into the topography and varied lighting of environments so they would not seem repetitive . After the environment was created , the architectural , cultural and religious elements of the world were incorporated into the environment . City and machine designs mixed metallic and natural materials to create a combined sense of wonder and familiarity for players . The game 's five playable races were directly based on the five initial races from Final Fantasy XI , with design adjustments to reflect the new setting . The developers also created two different tribes , as opposed to the single tribe set @-@ up present in XI . Characters ' movements were primarily developed using motion capture , though the recorded movements were then adjusted so they would be sharp and distinctive . Much work was invested in creating emotes , character movements chosen by the player to represent a specific mood or emotion previously used in XI . To create realistic expressions , a character artist manually adjusted the faces for each expression . For the monsters , advances in hardware enabled the team to create more realistic and detailed character models , including detailed skin textures and carefully placed hair follicles .
The game 's cutscenes were first drafted using a storyboard , then when the sequence of events had been finalized , motion capture was used to create the scene in a digitized format . Lighting and environmental effects were then put in place . One of the most challenging sequences to create was the opening real @-@ time cutscene for the Limsa Lominsa story route : the giant sea serpent 's fins were each individually animated . The game 's opening cinematic was produced by Visual Works , Square Enix 's in @-@ house CGI development company . All the in @-@ game models were first created in high @-@ resolution form using a 3D sculpturing program , then readjusted so they could appear in the game with a lower polygon count but equivalent graphical quality . Another large part of creating the characters was their accessories : to help with this , the team developed a multi @-@ layered development system . A technique dubbed " polygon shaving " was used so two sets of equipment could be designed to look different while using the same model data . Another function dubbed " reshaping " was used to adjust the shapes of equipment and accessories . The third element , dubbed " SSD @-@ file " , enabled the adjustment of the " materials " equipment was made off , so its color and texture could be changed . Rather than relying on a single design image , which would have been impractical for the hardware , the team took basic art and used Photoshop to add subtle changes to each . It was then passed down to the modeling team , who used the same sculpting process as was used for the game 's monsters to create high @-@ detail models while keeping the polygon count low .
The game 's engine was Crystal Tools , a specially @-@ created middleware engine that was also used in Final Fantasy XIII . So that it would be compatible with the game 's specifications , the team customized the engine to suit their needs . In the end , the game 's chosen engine proved unsuitable to the needs of the game , rendering its internal structure " broken " . The game 's development ended up being beset with multiple problems . According to a later postmortem , the team developing the game had an unhealthy obsession of graphical quality over gameplay content that led to other parts of the game being neglected , reinforced by the company 's then @-@ outdated development methods . A cited example of the focus on graphics was a flowerpot , which had as many polygons and lines of shader code as a player character . This high graphical quality meant that compromises needed to be made ; for example , the number of players present on @-@ screen at any one time needed to be limited to twenty , undermining the large @-@ scale communal appeal of MMORPGs . This issue also impacted the game 's environments ; to save on memory space while preserving seamless travel , the team needed to reuse environmental features and textures on a regular basis . Another problem was that the team lacked experience in developing MMORPGs , a problem that had also beset Final Fantasy XI , but had been successfully overcome . With this in mind , the team were still using the development mindset used during the sixth console generation , which could not hold up under the increased staff and resource needs for seventh generation development . A third major reason was the company 's belief that the game 's problems could be patched after the initial launch , compounded by the lack of an overall plan for how to deal with them .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Final Fantasy XIV was composed by Nobuo Uematsu , a regular contributor to the music of the Final Fantasy series . Originally contracted to create the ending theme for XIII , Uematsu accepted the request by the XIV team to work on the game , leaving XIII 's theme song to be composed by Masashi Hamauzu . Having only contributed a few tunes to Final Fantasy XI , XIV was Uematsu 's first full @-@ time work on an MMORPG . Despite this , he treated as any other project , and had considerable creative freedom as the team 's vision for the game had not been finalized . For the battle themes , he used a mix of orchestral and rock pieces . He worked on XIV at the same time as working on The Last Story , a video game from original Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi . During the time XIV was active after the initial release , other composers including Masayoshi Soken , Naoshi Mizuta , Tsuyoshi Sekito and Ryo Yamazaki contributed to the score . Soken acted as the game 's sound director , and would take over as the main composer for its relaunch . The game 's theme song , " Answers " , was composed by Uematsu and sung by Susan Calloway , who was specially chosen by Uematsu after hearing her rendition of previous Final Fantasy theme songs .
Multiple albums featuring music from XIV have been released . Two mini @-@ albums , Final Fantasy XIV : Battle Tracks and Final Fantasy XIV : Field Tracks , were released on September 29 , 2010 . A full album , Final Fantasy XIV - Eorzean Frontiers , was released on September 1 , 2012 as both a single album and three mini @-@ albums . A Blu @-@ ray album featuring all music from the original version of XIV , Before Meteor : Final Fantasy XIV Original Soundtrack , was released on August 14 , 2013 , two weeks prior to its relaunch .
= = Release = =
XIV was first hinted at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) when Square Enix announced that they were developing a new MMORPG , showing it off using a tech demo . The demo included aesthetic elements similar to XI , such as races from Vana 'diel . In 2006 , rumors emerged that Square Enix was developing a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XI , but further details remained unknown . During the next few years , contradictory reports were issued as to what platforms the game was being developed for : the platforms listed varied from the game being an Xbox 360 exclusive , to being for PlayStation platforms , to being for Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) and Windows platforms . XIV was officially announced at E3 2009 for PS3 , then for Windows . After its official announcement for those platforms , it was stated that a port to Microsoft hardware was under consideration . Despite negotiation with Microsoft concerning an Xbox 360 version of the game , the two companies were unable to agree upon the use of Xbox Live , as Square Enix wanted a shared server across all platforms and Microsoft would not give them the full access necessary to implement this . Because of this disagreement and the consequent extra manpower needed to develop a version separate from the other two platforms , development on the Xbox 360 version was stopped .
According to Yoichi Wada , then @-@ CEO of Square Enix , XIV was being planned as a serious rival to successful western MMORPG World of Warcraft . The game was developed primarily for Windows , and was then ported across to PS3 . XIV was originally scheduled for simultaneous release on Windows and PS3 in 2010 , but the PS3 version was delayed into 2011 . This was explained as due to it taking longer than expected to make the adjustments needed so the game could fit within the console 's limited memory . The game did not use the PlayOnline service used for XI . This was explained as being due to the marked decrease of content on the service . Instead , they would migrate to a new service that still allowed cross @-@ platform gameplay , including the use of a universal Square Enix ID that would allow players to play from wherever they left off . In October 2009 , the game 's Beta release was announced as being only for Windows . First print runs of the PS3 version of Final Fantasy XIII contained a bonus code for the PS3 version of XIV for a special in @-@ game item .
Due to earlier recurring issues with mistranslations related to news updates , the team decided not to implement forums in the original release , instead hearing player feedback through fan sites and unofficial forums . Also because of mistranslation fears , dedicated teams in each of the game 's release regions would gather feedback and transmit it to the development team . The game 's first closed Alpha test began on March 11 , 2010 . It was available only to veteran players from XI . During alpha testing , the team used player feedback to find out key problems with the game , such as limitations on graphical adjustments making the game run at a slow frame rate . The open Beta test was originally scheduled to begin on August 31 , but was indefinitely postponed due to the discovery of critical bugs in the game . The Beta test eventually went live on September 2 , running until the game 's release later that month . It was later stated that more time should have been given to fixing bugs during the Beta period . The game released on September 30 , 2010 , six months prior to the PS3 version 's projected release date of March 2011 . A Collector 's Edition was released on September 22 , allowing owners to log in to the game from that date . The Collector 's Edition , which was decorated by artwork from Amano and Yoshida , came with bonus items including a DVD featuring a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary , a security token , a case for the game 's box , and a decorated tumbler . The game was released with text in Japanese , English , French and German , while the spoken dialogue in cutscenes was English in all versions .
= = Reception = =
During its debut week in Japan , the Collector 's Edition reached # 2 in the PC games charts behind Civilization 5 and ahead of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty . In the UK charts , the game debuted at # 10 behind multiple other games including F1 2010 ( # 1 ) , Halo : Reach ( # 2 ) , Civilization 5 ( # 4 ) and Prince of Persia : The Forgotten Sands ( # 7 ) . By November 2010 , the game had sold 603 @,@ 000 copies worldwide .
The game received generally negative reviews at release , garnering scores of 50 % and 49 / 100 by aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Computer and Video Games said " Eorzea is a beautiful world with huge potential for vast adventures , but it 's just a shame that this first voyage into it is such a mis @-@ step " . 1UP.com said that " playing [ Final Fantasy XIV ] is like playing with a toy stuck in a plastic bag : it can be fun for a while and you can get the general idea , but you can 't appreciate the full experience " , stating that future updates would likely rectify this issue . IGN said that " Much of the promise of the combat system and depth of the crafting mechanics are drowned , unfortunately , under a sea of interface and performance issues that hinder the experience at nearly every step " , further stating that while patches might improve the experience , its state at the time of the review made it " not a world worth visiting " . GameSpot , in addition to warning players away from the game , said that " Final Fantasy XIV is a notable entry to the genre but only for what it lacks " .
GameTrailers was particularly critical , saying that it had been " released before it was finished " , calling it " [ a ] broken , incomplete mess " . PC Gamer called the game " a shallow , slow , grind @-@ heavy MMO crippled by a horrible interface and nonsensical player limitations " . GameSpy was again highly critical , saying that " barring a complete overhaul of the user interface , the combat , the player interaction mechanics , the progress system , and of the layout of the world itself , [ Final Fantasy XIV ] is unlikely to ever be fun . " Eurogamer said that while the game would appeal to some players , they advised them to " wait another six months before even thinking about Final Fantasy XIV , because Square Enix hasn 't yet got its head around its own players " .
Critics agreed that the game 's graphics were good , enjoyed Uematsu 's score , and several praised the concepts behind the Job and leveling systems . Alongside this , unanimous criticism was laid against the gameplay pace , its convoluted interface , bugs and glitches , and the slow pace of the story . It was generally seen as a great disappointment both as an MMORPG and a mainline entry in the Final Fantasy series . Later , as part of an interview concerning the game 's later development , 1UP.com commented that subsequent patches and overhauls had turned the game into something more playable .
= = Post @-@ release = =
The release of the game sparked immediate player backlash in addition to its negative critical reception . Some of the controversy was produced by the use of gameplay features unusual for the genre . The main complaint by players was the user interface , followed by problems with the performance and aspects of gameplay . The initial 30 @-@ day free trial was extended twice in order to allow players to experience the new development team 's updates before committing to the game . In December 2010 , it was announced that Tanaka and Komoto had been removed from their posts as producer and director , with Tanaka taking full responsibility for the game 's problems . The PS3 version was indefinitely delayed from its original March 2011 release date , with Square Enix saying that it would not release the game for that platform until it fully met the quality standards suitable for the Final Fantasy series . Subscriptions for the Windows version were also suspended indefinitely .
The position of producer and director was taken over by Naoki Yoshida , a staff member at Square Enix who had previously worked on the Dragon Quest series . Amongst these were other staff changes : Komoto was reassigned to become lead game designer , Akihiko Yoshida became lead scenario concept artist , Hiroshi Takai was appointed as lead artist , and Akihiko Matsui became lead combat system designer . Yoshida 's main priority was to make the game a playable experience after the poor launch and subsequent reaction . Through subsequent patches to the game , multiple graphical and gameplay improvements were made : among the most notable were the addition of a job system , personal chocobos , a revamped battle system , greater customization options for gear , and multiple new dungeons and bosses . Yoshida also introduced the official Final Fantasy XIV forums in order to obtain player feedback and suggestions , and stated that interacting with and growing closer to the community would be a high priority . During this period , XIV and XI were taken offline to help with energy conservation in the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . They went back online one week later as other means were found to reduce their energy usage that did not involve their online services . Due to the earthquake , a planned and partially @-@ developed boss battle with the Primal Titan was cut and replaced by another Primal : the team felt that
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helps Milhouse produce plagues to scare the Pharaoh into freeing the Israelites ; they fail . This in turn gets Lisa and Milhouse thrown in a Pyramid prison . When they escape , Milhouse gathers all the students and they attempt to leave . When they reach the sea , Lisa has an idea to get across : They simultaneously flush all the Egyptians ' toilets to drain the sea . As they cross , the Pharaoh and his guards follow , but the water fills the sea back up and swallows them . They enjoy splashing each other , and then return to the shore . Pleased that they have escaped , Milhouse asks Lisa what the future holds for the Israelites , but Lisa disappoints Milhouse when she says that they have to wander the desert for forty years . Milhouse then asks if it is going to be smooth sailing for the Jews after that . Rather than disappoint Milhouse again with news of the ongoing anti @-@ Semitism that will plague the Jews for many centuries , she distracts the crowd by sending them to search for manna .
= = = Homer 's Dream = = =
Homer pictures himself as King Solomon . Lenny and Carl fight over ownership of a pie . King Solomon cuts it in half , sentences Lenny and Carl to death , and then eats the pie . King Solomon then presides over a civil case between Jesus and Checker Chariot .
= = = Bart 's Dream = = =
Bart sees himself as King David , who kills Goliath , but has not won the war yet : Nelson is Goliath II , Goliath 's son . Goliath II has killed Methuselah ( Grampa ) , David 's oldest friend . In retaliation , David challenges Goliath II , but having no stones to sling at him , David loses and is catapulted from the city . David then meets Ralph , a shepherd , who claims he can kill Goliath II . Ralph dies , which enrages David even more . He then trains to try to slay Goliath . Having to climb up the enormous Tower of Babel beforehand , David manages to kill Goliath by throwing a lit lantern down his throat . Goliath is surprisingly still alive , but is quickly killed by Ralph 's gravestone , hurled by Ralph himself , who also had not died . Much to his shock , David is sent to jail as the townspeople claim that Goliath was the best King they ever had , building roads , libraries and hospitals . The dream ends with a title card that reads " A Bart Simpson Dream " .
= = = Ending sequence = = =
As the family wakes up , they find themselves alone in the church . Upon exiting they realize that the Apocalypse has come ; fire rains from a red sky , and the Four Horsemen ride past . The Flanders ascend into Heaven , but The Simpsons do not ; Lisa begins to ascend , but Homer grabs her ankle and pulls her back down . Instead , the Simpsons descend via a staircase into Hell , where Homer follows the delicious scent of barbecue . The episode ends with Homer screaming in agony ( because there are no hot dogs , there is pineapple in the coleslaw , and German potato salad ) as " Highway to Hell " by AC / DC plays over the credits .
= = Production = =
" Simpsons Bible Stories " was co @-@ written by Matt Selman , Larry Doyle and Tim Long , and was the first episode Nancy Kruse directed for The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on April 4 , 1999 , the day Easter took place that year . According to executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully , the idea for the episode was conceived when Fox requested an Easter @-@ themed Simpsons episode that would air on the holiday . Normally , Fox would not broadcast any new Simpsons episodes on Easter , as it is considered a " low @-@ ratings night " , but " Simpsons Bible Stories " was an exception . However , according to co @-@ writer Selman , the idea for the episode came about when he and former staff writer Dan Greaney were pitching episode ideas for the tenth season with former staff writer Donick Cary . Cary and Greaney suggested a " bible @-@ trilogy " story , which then became " Simpsons Bible Stories " . " Simpsons Bible Stories " is the first of the trilogy episodes which , since the season 12 episode " Simpsons Tall Tales " , The Simpsons produces once every season .
The first segment was written by Long . According to former staff writer Tom Martin , Long wanted the pig in the garden of Eden to have a " Tony British " accent . The pig was voiced by regular cast member Hank Azaria , who portrays Moe Szyslak among other characters in the series . The unicorn that digs a hole from the garden of Eden was portrayed by Tress MacNeille . The second segment was written by Doyle . The episode 's third segment was written by Selman . When writing segments for trilogy episodes , the writing staff usually follow the stories they are based on , while putting The Simpsons characters in the original characters ' place . With " Simpsons Bible Stories " ' third segment , Selman stated that he wanted to go a " fresh new way " by instead writing a sequel to the story of David and Goliath . According to Scully , Selman had a very clear vision of how he wanted the segment to be , and Selman said that he wanted to make a " dog 's breakfast " of movie clichés at the time .
The song that plays during Bart 's training montage is " Winner Takes It All " by American rock singer Sammy Hagar . Selman decided to include the song after hearing it in the 1987 action drama film Over the Top . According to Doyle , the scene was originally much longer , almost seven minutes in length . The song that plays during the episode 's end credits is " Highway to Hell " by Australian hard rock band AC / DC . According to Scully , the staff could not use the song on The Simpsons at first , since AC / DC 's record company refused to sell it . However , when Scully called the band 's manager directly , it turned out he had not been told about the request . Scully said that when they asked if they could use " Highway to Hell " , the band 's manager " signed on right away " and gave the Simpsons staff a " huge discount . "
Because most of the episode takes place in ancient history , the animators had to create completely new sets and designs for the episode . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Kruse stated that she and staff animator Alex Ruiz had to re @-@ draw a majority of the episode , as the faulty scenes were drawn by six trainees . In order to receive an animator credit on The Simpsons , an animator has to draw ten scenes in an episode . Because the trainees did not draw ten scenes each , none of them were credited for their work on the episode . All the trainees were later hired to The Simpsons animation staff . Kruse stated that , while animating the episode , she was worried that the animation department would be offended by the episode 's content , as many of the crew members were " very religious " . However , as animation ensued , she found that most of the animators were not uncomfortable with the episode , as it mostly parodies the Old Testament . The only complaint she received was from an animator who refused to animate Jesus in the court room scene in Homer 's dream .
In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that he regretted not submitting " Simpsons Bible Stories " for the Primetime Emmy Award in the category of animated programming less than one hour in 1999 . At the time , Scully reasoned that , because the original stories were not conceived by the writing staff , the episode would not hold up . However , he noted that the episode 's animation was " outstanding " , and that he later found out that the Emmy awards " put a lot of importance on " the animation in submitted episodes . Instead of submitting " Simpsons Bible Stories " for the Emmy awards in 1999 , Scully submitted " Viva Ned Flanders " , which ultimately lost to the King of the Hill episode " And They Call It Bobby Love " .
= = Cultural references = =
" Simpsons Bible Stories " contains several references to the Christian prophets , holy book and the religion as a whole , as well as films based on the Bible . Each segment is based on a biblical story , mostly from the Old Testament . The first segment is based on the story of Adam and Eve , who , according to the Book of Genesis were the first man and woman created by God . Ned Flanders has the role of God , while the serpent that lures Marge into eating an apple from the forbidden tree resembles Snake Jailbird . The Garden of Eden was the place where Adam and Eve lived after they were created by God , according to the Book of Genesis .
The second segment parodies Moses who , according to the Book of Exodus , freed the Israelites from the Egyptian Pharaoh . Milhouse has the role of Moses while Skinner has the role of the Pharaoh . When the Pharaoh asked who vandalized his sarcophagus , the burning bush tells him that Bart did it . When Bart is seized by the Pharaoh 's guards , he exclaims " No , the bush set me up ! " Bart 's line refers to the 1990 arrest of Marion Barry who , while being arrested by the FBI for smoking crack cocaine , exclaimed " No , the bitch set me up ! " In a scene in the segment , Milhouse and Lisa can be seen pouring frogs into Skinner 's tent . The scene refers to the second of ten Biblical plagues that were imposed on Egypt by Yahweh , in chapters 7 @-@ 12 of the Book of Exodus . While they are inside the torture chamber , Milhouse and Lisa walk past an orb . The orb is called " Orb of Isis " and played a big part in the season 9 episode " Lost Our Lisa " . In another scene , Milhouse parts the Red Sea so that his fellow slaves can escape . The execution of the scene is based on the one seen in the 1956 American epic film The Ten Commandments , in which Moses parts the Red Sea . The shot in which Pharaoh and his guards are drowning is also taken from the movie .
In Homer 's dream , Homer has the role of King Solomon who , according to the Books of Kings and Book of Chronicles was a King of Israel , as well as one of the 48 prophets according to the Talmud . Bart 's dream shows Bart as King David and , rather than telling the story of David and Goliath , Bart 's dream is a " sequel " to the story . The segment is inspired by and contains references to several films by Jerry Bruckheimer , including Die Hard and Lethal Weapon , and borrows elements from other action films . At one point in the segment , Bart 's dog Santa 's Little Helper starts talking to him . The dog 's voice is similar to that of Goliath in the Christian stop @-@ motion animated television series Davey and Goliath . Inside the whale skeleton in the episode , Bart finds the remains of Jonah . Jonah was a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel , according to the Hebrew Bible . Nelson lives in the Tower of Babel which , according to the Book of Genesis , was an enormous tower that the humans built in order to reach heaven . After being defeated by Bart , Nelson reappears while a variation of Modest Mussorgsky 's composition St. John 's Night on the Bare Mountain plays in the background . At the end of the segment , Bart is arrested and Chief Wiggum says " Where 's your messiah now ? " Wiggum 's line was also taken from The Ten Commandments , from a character played by Edward G. Robinson , on whom Wiggum 's voice is based . King David 's ( Bart ) training montage of arm @-@ wrestling with his sheep is a reference to the film Over the Top , complete with Sammy Hagar 's " Winner Takes It All " from the film .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 4 , 1999 , " Simpsons Bible Stories " received a 7 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 4 million viewers . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 12 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode , a considerable drop from the previous episode , which was seen by an estimated 15 @.@ 5 million viewers . David Bianculli of New York Daily News attributed the loss in viewership to the fact that the episode aired on a religious holiday . Nevertheless , it was the week 's second most watched program on the network . Later that year , the episode received an Annie award in the category of Best Animated Television Production , the second year in a row that The Simpsons won the award . On August 7 , 2007 , " Simpsons Bible Stories " was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Tom Martin , Larry Doyle , Matt Selman and Nancy Kruse participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its broadcast , " Simpsons Bible Stories " received mixed reviews from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide wrote that the episode is " A fantastic twist of the Treehouse of Horror style of storytelling , " and added that each segment is a " classic on its own " . They wrote that Wiggum telling Moses and Lisa to give his regards to the British Museum as he seals them inside a tomb and Marge asking Bart if he is wearing clean underwear as they face the apocalypse were some of the episode 's " best moments " , and concluded by writing that the episode is " The Simpsons at its very best : inventive , irreverent and very , very funny . " While DVD Town 's James Plath wrote that the episode 's premise was " risky " , he still enjoyed the episode . Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz of The Star @-@ Ledger described the episode as " hilarious " , however they noted that the episode 's " suggestion that Moses parted the Red Sea by having all the Israelites flush their toilets at once " could result in a backlash from the " religious right " .
On the other hand , giving the episode a negative review , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that " Simpsons Bible Stories " " proves less successful [ than most Treehouse of Horror episodes ] " . He added that he " just think the brevity required by the inclusion of three separate tales better suits the world of horror spoofs than it does these Bible pieces , " as they " try to pack an awful lot into very little time . " He concluded by writing that , while the episode has " some good moments " , he did not find a lot of entertainment in it . Jake MacNeill of Digital Entertainment News was also critical , and wrote that the episode " fails to be funny " because it " strays too far from the source material " . He added " have you read the bible ? That stuff ’ s funny enough in and of itself . " Aaron Roxby of Collider described " Simpsons Bible Stories " as his least @-@ favorite trilogy episode , and wrote " Considering that , in earlier seasons , the show had some of the most thoughtfully edgy religious humor on television , this one feels surprisingly toothless . " However , he gave praise to the talking pig in the Garden of Eden .
At the end of the episode , the Simpsons walk out of the church and notice that the Apocalypse has begun . While the other family members are left on earth , Lisa at first starts ascending into Heaven , but Homer stops her by grabbing her leg and says " Where do you think you 're going , missy ? " The gag was written by staff writer George Meyer , and is series creator Matt Groening 's favorite joke of the series . While the episode 's ending is one of Groening 's favorites , fans were uneasy with it . Selman stated that the ending " drives them [ the fans ] crazy " , since they do not know whether or not the episode is canonical . In 2007 , Homer 's line " Oh , I smell barbeque ! " was included in Bobby Bryant of The State 's list " 20 Essential Things I 've Learned From Homer Simpson " . The same year , the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma , unveiled a new exhibit which galleried Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a promotional poster for " Simpsons Bible Stories " .
= Crocodiles ( album ) =
Crocodiles is the debut album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . It was released on 18 July 1980 in the United Kingdom and on 17 December 1980 in the United States . The album reached number 17 on the UK Albums Chart . " Pictures on My Wall " and " Rescue " had previously been released as singles .
Recorded at Eden Studios in London and at Rockfield Studios near Monmouth , Crocodiles was produced by Bill Drummond and David Balfe , while Ian Broudie had already produced the single " Rescue " . The music and the cover of the album both reflect imagery of darkness and sorrowfulness . The album received favourable reviews from the music press , receiving four out of five stars by both Rolling Stone and Blender magazines .
= = Background and recording = =
Echo & the Bunnymen formed in 1978 and originally consisted of Ian McCulloch ( lead vocals ) , Will Sergeant ( lead guitar ) , Les Pattinson ( bass ) and a drum machine . They released their debut single , " The Pictures on My Wall " in May 1979 on the independent label Zoo Records . The band then signed with WEA subsidiary label Korova and were persuaded to employ a drummer . Pete de Freitas subsequently joined the band and in early 1980 they recorded their second single " Rescue " . The single was recorded at Eden Studios in London and produced by fellow Liverpudlian and ex @-@ member of Big in Japan Ian Broudie .
A British tour followed in June 1980 before the band went to Rockfield Studios to record their debut album . Despite talk of the American singer Del Shannon being asked to produce the album , it was produced by the band 's manager Bill Drummond and his business partner and The Teardrop Explodes keyboard player David Balfe . The recording of the album only took three weeks , but Pattinson was still surprised by how boring the recording process was : " There was a lot of hanging about . I didn 't get all the ' drop @-@ ins ' and ' edits ' bit . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The music on Crocodiles is generally dark and moody : In 1980 , the British music magazine NME described McCulloch 's lyrics as a being " scattered with themes of sorrow , horror , and despair , themes that are reinforced by stormy animal / sexual imagery " and American music magazine Creem described Crocodiles as " a moody , mysterious , fascinating record " . In 1981 music journalist David Fricke , writing for Rolling Stone magazine , said , " Instead of dope , McCulloch trips out on his worst fears : isolation , death and emotional bankruptcy . "
In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again : Post Punk 1978 – 1984 , British music journalist Simon Reynolds describes the sound of the album as " pared and sparse " . He goes on to describe Pattinson 's " granite basslines " carrying the melody ; Sergeant 's guitar playing as " jagged @-@ quartz " and avoiding " anything resembling a solo , apart from the odd flinty peal of lead playing " ; de Freitas ' drumming as minimal and " surging urgency " ; and McCulloch 's vocals as having " precocious authority " . Reynolds then describes the songs as being rooted in " doubt , anguish , despair " while the " tightness and brightness of their sound transmits contradictory sensations of confidence , vigour and euphoria . " He also describes how the line " Stars are stars and they shine so hard " – from the track " Stars Are Stars " – showed how the band felt no embarrassment in their wish to be famous . In 1989 McCulloch told Reynolds how , as a teenager , he felt there was " a big movie camera in the sky " . McCulloch described the opening line of the track " Going Up " – " Ain 't thou watching my film " – as a terrible line and he went on to say , " It was meant to be tongue in cheek , but that was what spurred me on . "
= = Cover = =
The photographs used on the cover of the Crocodiles were taken by photographer Brian Griffin . Griffin took a series of pictures of the band in woods near Rickmansworth in Hertfordshire at night and which show themes of introspection , despair and confusion . Describing the picture used on the front cover of the album , music journalist Chris Salewicz said , " [ ... ] the Bunnymen are placed in poses of histrionic despair in a near @-@ neurotically gothic woodland that evokes memories of elfin glades and fabled Arthurian legends . " Creem magazine said , " The cover art suggests four boys dazed and confused in a drugged dream , a surreal where @-@ are @-@ we landscape . The Bunnymen 's images are of loneliness , disconnection , a world gone awry . "
Originally the band wanted the pictures to include burning stakes , however , given the possible KKK connotations , they settled for moody lighting instead . Despite this , McCulloch was pleased with the cover saying " the cover [ ... ] is better to look at than the Mona Lisa " . Sergeant was less happy and said he " was pissed off that there was a solo picture of [ McCulloch ] on the back cover " .
= = Releases = =
The album was originally released as an LP in the United Kingdom on 18 July 1980 by Warner Bros. subsidiary label Korova . Two tracks , " Do It Clean " and " Read It in Books " , were included on the cassette but initially omitted from the LP version of the album because the managing director of Warner Bros. , Rob Dickins , thought that they contained obscenities . Dickins realised his error and the tracks were included on the American version of the album , which was released by Sire Records on 17 December 1980 . The two tracks were included with the UK release as a limited edition single . The album was first released on CD in May 1989 by WEA in the UK . It was released on CD in the US by Sire Records the following year . The track @-@ listings of these versions were the same as the original LP releases for each country .
Crocodiles and Joy Division 's Closer were released on the same date , July 18 , 1980 . Seemingly forever entwined with Joy Division , the Bunnymen were perhaps more contemporaries of Joy Division in likeminded explorations , versus mere followers of a blueprint for melancholic vocals , sparse guitar , and ominous bass lines .
Along with their first five albums , Crocodiles was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 containing ten bonus tracks on the UK version and eight on the US — these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . The UK version contained the missing tracks " Do It Clean " and " Read It in Books " . The other bonus tracks included " Simple Stuff " which was the B @-@ side to the single " Rescue " ; early versions of " Villiers Terrace " , " Pride " and " Simple Stuff " from the album 's recording sessions ; and the four tracks from the Shine So Hard EP , " Crocodiles " , " Zimbo " , " All That Jazz " and " Over the Wall " . The reissued album was produced by music historian Andy Zax and producer Bill Inglot .
Prior to the album 's release , the tracks " Pictures on My Wall " — as " The Pictures on My Wall " — and " Rescue " had already been released as singles . " The Pictures on My Wall " was released on 5 May 1979 and was the band 's first single . Originally recorded and released prior to de Freitas joining the band , the song was re @-@ recorded for the album with him playing drums . The band 's second single , " Rescue " , was released a year later on 5 May 1980 and became the band 's first song to chart when it reached number 62 on the UK Singles Chart .
Scottish band Idlewild covered the track " Rescue " on their single " These Wooden Ideas " in June 2000 . In late 2001 American singer @-@ songwriter Kelley Stoltz released the album Crockodials , which is a track by track cover version of the original Crocodiles album .
= = Reception = =
Writing for NME in 1980 Chis Salewicz described the album as " being probably the best album this year by a British band " . In his review of the album for Smash Hits , Ian Cranna said that the album was " proof positive that there 's just no substitute for a good song delivered with power and emotion " . Cranna added , " [ The Band ] deliver attractive melodies with dark and moody ( but not obscure ) personal lyrics , all turned into compulsive listening by a driving beat , ringing guitars and a hauntingly emotional voice . " Reviewing the album in 1981 for Rolling Stone magazine , David Fricke awarded it four out of five stars and said when describing McCulloch 's vocals , " [ He ] specializes in a sort of apocalyptic brooding , combining Jim Morrison @-@ style psychosexual yells , a flair for David Bowie @-@ like vocal inflections and the nihilistic bark of his punk peers into a disturbing portrait of the singer as a young neurotic " . He went on to say , " Behind him , gripping music swells into Doors @-@ style dirges ( ' Pictures on My Wall ' ) , PiL @-@ like guitar dynamics ( ' Monkeys ' ) , spookily evocative pop ( ' Rescue ' ) and Yardbirds @-@ cum @-@ Elevators ravers jacked up in the New Wave manner ( ' Do It Clean , ' ' Crocodiles ' ) " . Reviewing the 2003 remastered version for American music magazine Blender 's website , reviewer Andrew Harrison also gave the album four out of five stars and said , " [ ... ] the Bunnymen were a pure nihilistic thrill , with Will Sergeant 's desperate , mantra @-@ like guitar summoning up a primal night of blinking hallucinations . "
Following its release , Crocodiles reached a peak of number 17 on the UK Albums Chart in July 1980 . The album has since sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies and the band was awarded with a gold disc for the album on 5 December 1984 by the British Phonographic Industry . In 1993 , the NME listed Crocodiles at number 28 in its list of the 50 greatest albums of the 1980s . In 2006 , Uncut magazine also listed the album at number 69 on its list of the 100 greatest debut albums .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas except where noted .
= = = 2003 bonus tracks = = =
" Do It Clean " [ A ] – 2 : 44
" Read It in Books " [ A ] ( McCulloch , Cope ) – 2 : 31
" Simple Stuff " – 2 : 38
" Villiers Terrace " ( early version ) – 3 : 08
" Pride " ( early version ) – 2 : 54
" Simple Stuff " ( early version ) – 2 : 37
" Crocodiles " [ B ] ( live ) – 5 : 09
" Zimbo " [ B ] ( live ) – 3 : 36
" All That Jazz " [ B ] ( live ) – 2 : 53
" Over the Wall " [ B ] ( live ) – 5 : 28
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – lead guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Pete de Freitas – drums
Bill Drummond [ C ] – producer ( original album and Shine So Hard tracks )
David Balfe [ C ] – producer ( original album ) , keyboards
Ian Broudie – producer ( " Pride " and " Rescue " )
The Bunnymen – producer ( " Simple Stuff " )
Pat Moran – producer ( early versions )
Hugh Jones – producer ( Shine So Hard tracks ) , engineer ( original album )
Andy Zax – reissue producer
Bill Inglot – reissue producer , remastering
Rod Houison – engineer ( " Pride " and " Rescue " )
Gary Edwards – engineer ( early versions )
Dan Hersch – remastering
Brian Griffin – cover photography
Bill Butt – insert photography
= 1906 Mississippi hurricane =
The 1906 Mississippi hurricane was a deadly and destructive hurricane during the 1906 Atlantic hurricane season . The fourth hurricane of the season , the system was originally observed in the western Caribbean on September 22 ; however , modern research revealed that the system became a tropical depression on September 19 . The system slowly intensified , eventually becoming a major hurricane by September 24 . The system made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , during the evening of September 27 , devastating the cities of Pensacola and Mobile and the state of Mississippi . Damage totaled to at least $ 19 @,@ 221 @,@ 000 , and more than 134 people were killed .
= = Meteorological history = =
The first documented information on the storm places it in the western Caribbean Sea on September 22 , although modern reanalysis of this storm as a tropical depression on September 19 . The storm drifted north from the Yucatán Channel on September 24 , while it was a weak hurricane with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The hurricane was south @-@ southwest of Havana by morning , and as it drifted north @-@ northwestward during the evening hours of September 24 , the system intensified into a Category 2 hurricane .
The hurricane was documented to have been about 300 miles ( 480 km ) west @-@ northwest of Cuba on September 25 . Near this area , the hurricane had intensified further into a Category 3 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . The system finished its passage into the Gulf of Mexico by September 27 . During the afternoon , the hurricane made landfall near Pascagoula , Mississippi , as a Category 2 hurricane . The hurricane moved inland , weakening to a Category 1 hurricane and eventually to a tropical storm . The storm weakened to a tropical depression , and dissipated on September 29 as it transitioned into an extratropical storm .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Florida = = =
The city of Pensacola suffered the most severe damage caused by the storm . Several tugboats , vessels , fishing boats , and other watercraft were tossed along the shore of the city . Large numbers of trees were uprooted and the roofs of houses were torn off . At its highest , the storm surge of the hurricane was 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) above the normal tide , the highest recorded in the city at the time . The city 's waterfront was completely flooded , along with some houses near the waterfront . Muscogee wharf was partially destroyed , broken into two pieces . On either side of the wharf , railroad tracks had been washed away . A total of 39 freight cars carrying coal were also washed away . In addition , the grain elevator of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was destroyed during the hurricane . A timber boom was demolished during the hurricane , leaving wood and debris on the beach .
Along Intendencia Street , several cottages were flooded ; in some areas , the floodwaters were 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep . The southern end of West Main Street was completely inundated and was swept away . There was devastation between Barcelona and Perdido streets , with several boats wrecked . Between Palafox Street and Wright Street , many houses ' roofs were torn away . Rail service in and out of Pensacola was severely affected ; one train arrived several hours later than scheduled , and it was said that it had to stop " every few yards " in order to remove trees and debris covering the track . Between Magnolia Bluff and Milton , the track was destroyed and the Escambia Bridge was partially demolished . The fishing industry of Pensacola was estimated to have suffered at least $ 500 @,@ 000 in damage . Many wharfs had been completely destroyed during the hurricane . Electricity was shut off during the hurricane .
Fort Barrancas , Fort Pickens , and Fort McRee suffered severe damage . At Forts Pickens and Barrancas , damage was estimated to be around $ 10 @,@ 000 . In the Bayou Grande area of Pensacola , the tide was estimated to be about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above normal . At the intersection of Cedar and Baylen streets , oyster boats , steam tugs , wood , and other debris were scattered . A boat identified as the Wolverine was tossed into a lot near the corner . Trees and chimneys were blown down , and a tin roof was peeled off a house as a result of strong winds . On the 26th port , one bark was completely destroyed , while another eleven were tossed around . A schooner that sank during the hurricane was tipped over . At the 38th port , 29 schooners were thrown ashore , and another sixteen were completely destroyed . Only eight of the 36 lumber barges floated , while three of eight tugs were floating , and of those three of them were wrecked . Other debris was scattered around the city , including pieces of shattered glass . A fire occurred at a hotel in Pensacola .
At the navy yard of Pensacola , all but three boats — the Isle de Luzon and two " water boats " — were either sunk or thrown ashore . A steel dock owned by Spain was untouched , but areas surrounding it were littered with debris . In the towns of Wosley and Warrington , waterfronts were severely damaged and some houses washed away . At Pensacola Bay , the tide was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ; at East Bay , the tide was measured at 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ; at St. Andrews Bay , the tide was 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high ; and at Apalachicola Bay , the tide was 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high . The damage caused in the city totaled to at least $ 2 @,@ 620 @,@ 000 , while the damage within the vicinity of the city amounted to more than $ 1 @,@ 230 @,@ 000 . The total damage caused within Pensacola and the surrounding areas totaled to greater than $ 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 . The hurricane was considered the worst in the city in 170 years . However , there was widespread praise by residents and newspapers for the Weather Bureau for tracking the hurricane and issuing storm warnings three days before the storm made landfall . A total of 35 people were killed in Pensacola .
= = = Louisiana = = =
In New Orleans , observations at the backwater of the Mississippi River indicated a storm surge of about 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height on the morning of September 27 . The highest sustained winds recorded during the storm in New Orleans were measured at 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) , while the minimum pressure recorded was 987 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) . In the town of Burrwood , a wharf was impacted by the hurricane 's storm surge . In addition , local crops and railroads suffered severe damage . Lake Pontchartrain overflowed during the hurricane , with its waters 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal levels , flooding New Orleans . Telegraph wires were down in New Orleans after the hurricane , resulting in the loss of contact with the city . Chimneys were blown down in the city ; and a resort along Lake Pontchartrain was underwater , and many houses were swept away near the hotel . Telephone service in New Orleans went down during the hurricane . It was reported that Fort St. Philip was flooded by boaters along the Mississippi River . The hurricane set a new 24 @-@ hour @-@ record for rainfall at Colliston , where rainfall amounted to 4 @.@ 55 inches ( 11 @.@ 6 cm ) accumulated during the hurricane .
= = = Alabama = = =
The lowest air pressure recorded in Mobile was 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 84 inHg ) . At the highest point , the tide was measured at 9 @.@ 87 feet ( 3 @.@ 01 m ) , while the maximum sustained wind during the hurricane reached 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) . About twenty small buildings and houses were destroyed by the hurricane 's winds . Most of the buildings in the city were either slightly or moderately damaged . Some shingles and roofs were blown off , while telegraph wires were down , along with other services that required electricity . In the Mobile River and Bay , a total of eleven steamships , seventeen barks and schooners , and 12 tugboats , had either been sunk or blown ashore . About 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 16 cm ) of rain was measured during the hurricane . In the areas surrounding Mobile , approximately half of all timber to be converted into turpentine was destroyed , and between 5 and 35 percent of other wood had been destroyed . The hurricane caused at least $ 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 in damage throughout Mobile . Telegraph wires were cut off from Mobile after the hurricane , resulting in the loss of communication with the city . It was estimated that five thousand houses were damaged in Mobile during the hurricane . The steamer Camp Carney was thrown onto St. Francis Street . Between Franscati Street and Three Mile Creek , all wharves were destroyed .
At the Christ Church Cathedral in Mobile , about $ 40 @,@ 000 in damage was suffered , while at the St. Francis Baptist Church , damage totaled to about $ 10 @,@ 000 . Several steamers sank during the storm , including the J. P. Sehuh , Mary E. Staples , Mary S. Blees , Cama , Overton , Hattie B. Moore , City of Camden , and numerous others . One child was killed in Mobile . At Fort Morgan , many trees fell , roofs caved in , and windows were " smashed as though of tissue paper " . Telegraph buildings in the city were flooded and moderately damaged . Five hotels suffered damage totaling to $ 21 @,@ 000 , while the Southern Supply Company , which was headquartered in the city , suffered $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage . The fort 's port suffered about $ 100 @,@ 000 in damages . Six civilians were killed at the fort . Between Flomaton and Pensacola , railroad tracks of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad were torn up and blocked by trees . The section of railroad tracks between Georgian and Graceville was affected by similar damage . The railroad cancelled all services following the hurricane .
= = = Mississippi = = =
In Scranton , the steamer Winona reported a minimum air pressure of 965 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 50 inHg ) . Lieutenant B.L. Brockway speculated that Scranton was near the center of the hurricane at the time , due to the low pressure readings . At Biloxi , Moss Point , and Mississippi City , communications were not received . However , Moss Point reported that floodwaters were 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep before communications were lost . In Macon , a hotel had been demolished during the hurricane , resulting in the deaths of two people . Jackson and Brookhaven suffered a loss of at least 300 @,@ 000 cotton bales , amounting to $ 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damage . In Vicksburg and McComb , many buildings were damaged , along with damage to shipping in Vicksburg , with a broken dock . The railroads and trees of Monticello suffered moderate damage : the railroad tracks were covered in trees , and service was suspended east of the town . In Hattiesburg , many cabins were blown down during the storm . Damage in Hattiesburg amounted to $ 300 @,@ 000 . In McNeil , one person was killed by a tree that was blown down .
At the Horn Island lighthouse , the lighthouse keeper was killed along with his wife and daughter due to the hurricane . In addition to the death of the three at the lighthouse , it was noted that the schooner Daisy had been dismantled there , with one person killed . A person who was climbing a small tree was thrown away by the wind and drowned . Several people were trapped in their homes after a creek topped its banks . A warehouse and four other buildings were destroyed , while a bank 's roof was blown off . A train near Brookhaven was washed away along the tracks of the Mississippi Central Railroad , resulting in the injury of five people . 25 schooners along the Mississippi coastline were completely destroyed . Two barks , the Nurnberg and Hercules were destroyed during the hurricane . Mandeline , owned by Norway , was filled with water , while Sigrav suffered severe damage , completely torn apart . A boat known as the Florine was washed ashore . A total of 78 fatalities occurred .
= Mona Simpson ( The Simpsons ) =
Mona J. Simpson is a recurring fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She has been voiced by several actresses , including Maggie Roswell , Tress MacNeille , Pamela Hayden , and most prominently , Glenn Close . Glenn Close 's performances as Mona have been well received by critics and she was named one of the top 25 guest stars on the show by IGN .
Mona was the estranged wife of Abe Simpson and the mother of Homer Simpson . In the episode " Mother Simpson " where she was introduced , it was established that Homer believed that his mother was dead , a lie his father Abe told him when in reality she was on the run from the law after she sabotaged Mr Burns ' germ warfare laboratory . Mona first appeared in the second season in a flashback in " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " . She returned in the seventh season for her first main appearance
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45 km / h ) as the system was passing to the southwest . A minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) and ship reports of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) winds indicate that the system reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , or a minimal tropical storm . It turned to the north on September 27 and likely weakened , although observations were sparse . By September 30 , the system lost its circulation and degenerated into an open trough .
= = = Hurricane Easy = = =
On October 6 , a tropical depression formed about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) east of Antigua , near where the previous hurricane developed . The depression proceeded northward , and was detected by the Hurricane Hunters on October 7 . The next day , a plane flew into Easy and reported peak winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , indicating the storm had rapidly intensified . By the time it reached peak intensity , the hurricane had turned sharply to the east , and later began to move toward the south . As quickly as it strengthened , Easy began to weaken , and an aircraft reported winds of only 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) on October 9 . The storm headed southwest , ultimately dissipating on October 11 about 155 mi ( 249 km ) southwest of where it formed . Easy never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Fox = = =
The strongest tropical cyclone of the season formed on October 20 in the Caribbean Sea off the northwest coast of Colombia , believed to have been from the Intertropical Convergence Zone . It moved northwestward , intensifying into a tropical storm on October 21 and a hurricane the following day . Fox subsequently turned to the north , intensifying to a major hurricane as it passed west of the Cayman Islands . Late on October 24 , the cyclone struck the small island of Cayo Guano del Estes in the Archipelago de los Canarreos , south of Cienfuegos , Cuba . It struck the island with peak winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , and the island reported a minimum pressure of 934 mbar ( 27 @.@ 59 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , Fox crossed the mainland coast of Cuba west of Cienfuegos , and it weakened while crossing the island .
Hurricane Fox crossed Cuba in a rural area dominated by sugar plantations , with heavy damage reported to 36 mills . In one town , the hurricane destroyed about 600 homes and damaged over 1 @,@ 000 more . Across the island , the strongest winds downed large trees and washed a large freighter ashore . Heavy rainfall affected all but the extreme eastern and western end of the island , with a peak of 6 @.@ 84 in ( 174 mm ) near Havana . The rains flooded low @-@ lying areas and caused rivers to exceed their banks . Throughout Cuba , Hurricane Fox injured 70 people , killed 40 , and heavy damage totaling $ 10 million ( 1952 USD , $ 89 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) . Fox was among the strongest hurricanes to strike the country .
After crossing Cuba , Fox emerged into the Atlantic Ocean with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , crossing central Andros and turning eastward though the Bahamas . On New Providence , the hurricane dropped 13 @.@ 27 in ( 337 mm ) of rainfall , Strong winds caused severe crop damage , leaving 30 % of the tomato crop destroyed . After briefly restrengthening to a major hurricane , Fox began a steady weakening trend . It turned abruptly to the north @-@ northwest , followed by another turn to the northeast . On October 28 , Fox was absorbed by a cold front west @-@ southwest of Bermuda .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
A cold front stalled north of the Virgin Islands on November 23 , spawning an extratropical storm the next day . The system strengthened while moving northward , attaining gale force winds on November 25 . It was a large system , and a ship in the vicinity reported a pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . The observation , within a warm environment and in concurrence with gale force winds , suggested that the system became a tropical storm on November 26 , although the system likely was a subtropical cyclone due to the structure . Turning to the west @-@ northwest along a dissipating cold front , the storm reached peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on November 27 . Another front in the region steered the storm to the south and east in a counterclockwise circle . Weakening slightly , the system briefly transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 30 before dissipating later that day within the front .
= = Storm names = =
These names were used to name storms during the 1952 season , the third and final time storm names were taken from the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet . Names that were not used to designate tropical cyclones are marked in gray .
= A Very Supernatural Christmas =
" A Very Supernatural Christmas " is the eighth episode of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural 's third season . It was first broadcast on The CW on December 13 , 2007 . The narrative follows series protagonists Sam ( Jared Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Jensen Ackles ) as they confront a pair of pagan gods ( Spencer Garrett and Merrilyn Gann ) who annually take human sacrifices .
Written by Jeremy Carver and directed by J. Miller Tobin , the episode was intended to be " the most violent Christmas special in the history of television " . Flashbacks were added to the plot when the main storyline came up short , allowing the writers to expand upon the childhoods of a young Sam ( Colin Ford ) and Dean ( Ridge Canipe ) .
While critics universally praised the flashback sequences and the performances of Ford and Canipe , they had differing opinions of the main storyline .
= = Plot = =
As the episode opens , a man visits his grandson for Christmas in Seattle , Washington . He dresses up as Santa Claus , but is pulled up the chimney and slaughtered by a mysterious figure . One year later , Sam ( Padalecki ) and Dean Winchester ( Ackles ) pose as FBI agents to investigate a disappearance in Ypsilanti , Michigan . The discovery of a bloody tooth in the fireplace leads Sam to suspect that an evil version of Santa — many world lores tell of those who punish the wicked during Christmas — is at work . As the brothers search the town and debate about whether to celebrate Christmas that year — Dean insists while Sam refuses — another man is taken by a Santa @-@ dressed being . Upon investigation the following day , Sam notices that both families have the same wreath over their fireplaces . The wreath is found to be made of meadowsweet , an herb often used in pagan rituals to lure gods to a human sacrifice , which leads Sam to believe that they are dealing with Hold Nickar , the god of the winter solstice . Dean later admits that he wants to celebrate Christmas since it will be his last chance to — his demonic pact with a demon in " All Hell Breaks Loose , Part Two " only left him with one year to live . Sam responds that he cannot sit around celebrating and pretending that everything is okay while knowing that Dean will not be alive the next Christmas .
Further investigation and research lead the brothers to Edward ( Garrett ) and Madge Carrigan ( Gann ) , an apparently perfect couple whom Dean later refers to as " Ozzie and Harriet " ; the makers of the meadowsweet wreaths , the Carrigans lived in Seattle a year prior . Realizing that the couple are actually pagan gods , Sam and Dean break into their home , finding human remains in the basement . However , they are captured by the Carrigans and tied to chairs in the kitchen . The gods reveal that they have been attempting to blend into human society , reducing their annual sacrifices to only a few . They begin preparing Sam and Dean to be sacrificed , but are interrupted by a neighbor at the front door . When the Carrigans return , they find that the brothers have broken free . Knowing that the gods can be killed by evergreen wood , Sam and Dean stab them to death with branches of the Christmas tree . Later on , Dean is surprised to find that Sam has decorated their motel room with Christmas paraphernalia . They exchange gifts , all which were bought from the local gas station , and happily watch a football game on TV .
Throughout the episode , flashbacks depict a young Sam ( Ford ) and Dean ( Canipe ) on Christmas Eve of 1991 ; with their father out on a hunt , the brothers are staying alone in a motel room until he returns . As Sam wraps an object he obtained from Bobby Singer as a present for his father , he begins to question Dean about what their father is doing . Although Dean brushes him off , Sam reveals that he has read their father 's hunting journal . Dean acquiesces , and confirms that their father hunts monsters . This revelation terrifies Sam , who is afraid that the monsters will come after them . Later that night , Dean wakes Sam up and claims that their father briefly returned and left presents . When Sam 's gifts end up being a Barbie doll and a sparkly baton , Dean admits that he stole them from a nearby house . Despite this , Sam appreciates what Dean tried to do for him , and gives him the gift meant for their father — the amulet necklace that Dean has worn ever since .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
A fan of Christmas television specials growing up , series creator Eric Kripke desired to make " the most violent Christmas special in the history of television " . The myth of the anti @-@ Claus — an evil antithesis of Santa who " stuffs his victims in sacks and takes them off to eat them " — became the episode 's inspiration . However , the writers were hesitant to establish the creature as an anti @-@ Claus because it would implicate the existence of an actual Santa Claus . To remedy the dilemma , they incorporated the mythology of the pagan god Hold Nickar , who generally is believed to be the precedent of Santa . Kripke proudly noted that the lore is " one of [ their ] most accurate " since most Christmas traditions have pagan origins .
Though the episode itself was penned by Jeremy Carver , the writing staff contributed their ideas to the storyline . Within five minutes of brainstorming , they envisioned three scenes they had to do : the teaser , where a grandfather pretending to be Santa is pulled up the chimney and slaughtered ; a boy witnessing the Santa @-@ dressed villain brutally killing his father and then eating one of the cookies for Santa ; and the Winchesters killing someone with a Christmas tree .
= = = Flashbacks = = =
The initial draft of the script focused solely on the brothers ' attempts to kill the pagan gods ; when the episode came up short , Edlund suggested the addition of flashbacks to Sam and Dean 's childhood . The narrative device provided two revelations : the origins of Dean 's necklace , and the " beginning of Sam 's estrangement from his father and his indoctrination into the supernatural world " . Kripke noted that the staff loves to delve into the Winchesters ' childhoods , and deemed it " too good an opportunity to pass up " to be able to depict how Sam " lost his innocence " . Child actor Ridge Canipe reprised his role as a young Dean , while Colin Ford made his debut as a young Sam . Ford had not viewed the series prior to his audition , but watched the first season to research his character .
= = = Christmas theme = = =
Principal filming took place in Vancouver , British Columbia , and many visuals were influenced by the holiday theme . The " very festive , warm Christmas tones " of the Carrigans ' home were intended by set designer Jerry Wanek to create a contrast with the brothers ' " little coal @-@ burning old motel " . Diane Widas created the costumes , and had fun making the Carrigans ' Christmas sweaters " very campy " ; Edward 's sweater was originally going to be " over @-@ the @-@ top " with 3D snowmen . Because Santa and his elves worked in a " very tired little theme park " , the elves were given " ill @-@ fitting " costumes ; though new , they were altered to look " shabby " . The Santa 's " grungy " appearance reflected his drunken state .
Despite the dark storyline , Kripke found it important to maintain the " trappings of ... a really cheery , traditional Christmas special " . The spinning " A Special Presentation " title at the beginning of the episode was used by CBS in the 1980s , and Kripke was adamant on including it . Though it was very difficult to find who created and scored it , they eventually received permission . Keeping to the holiday theme , the episode shied away from the usual rock @-@ heavy soundtrack , and instead featured Christmas songs remade in different styles by composer Jay Gruska .
= = = Effects = = =
Visual effects shots often are produced but ultimately unused , and the episode was no exception . After Madge is killed , the script describes Edward as screaming her name " in all his godlike glory " . The visual effects department interpreted this literally , and had him transforming into a tree creature , " all wooden and gnarled " . However , it was deemed " a little too on the nose " .
= = Reception = =
On its initial broadcast , the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 02 million viewers . It received mixed reviews from critics . Julie Pyle of Airlock Alpha " really enjoyed " the " well directed , well written " episode , and " [ giggled ] with glee in anticipation of each ghastly Christmas nightmare " . Although she continued her criticism of the third season 's brighter lighting , she deemed it overall " another Christmas tradition to watch every year with our Charlie Brown Christmas DVDs " . Tina Charles of TV Guide enjoyed the monster of the week , but was " hooked " on the brothers ' storylines . She noted that Ford 's casting as a young Sam was " perfect " , and felt that Canipe 's performance as a young Dean had improved since his previous appearance in the first season . Likewise , Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune called it one of the " gems " of the third season . However , Karla Peterson of The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune disagreed , and gave the episode a C- . While she enjoyed the flashback sequences and praised Canipe and Ford for their " fierce little performances " , Peterson posited that the main storyline " seemed slapped together " and the pacing " felt sluggish " . Overall , she found it to be " your basic TV fruitcake — a dense combination of half @-@ baked dialogue and stale storytelling studded with chewy bits of sentimentality " .
= Shelly Martinez =
Shelly Leonor Martinez ( born February 9 , 1980 ) is an American model , actress , professional wrestler and valet . She is known for her work with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) on its ECW brand under the ring name Ariel and for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Salinas as valet to The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) .
Martinez entered professional wrestling in December 2000 . She worked mainly on the independent circuit in Southern California , using the name Desire , competing for promotions , including Revolution Pro Wrestling , Ultimate Pro Wrestling and the Empire Wrestling Federation ( EWF ) . In July 2002 , she teamed with Threat to win the EWF Tag Team Championship . In April 2005 , she signed a contract with WWE , and was assigned to their developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) . While in OVW she used the ring name Shelly , and managed several wrestlers , including Aaron Stevens , Paul Burchill and Seth Skyfire . She moved to the ECW brand in mid @-@ 2006 , and using a gimmick of a tarot reader , managed Kevin Thorn while known as Ariel . In mid @-@ 2007 , she was released from her WWE contract . Later that year , she signed with TNA , and began working as Salinas . She was associated with LAX , and managed both members of the team , Homicide and Hernandez . She left TNA in September 2008 , and has since appeared for several independent promotions .
Aside from wrestling , Martinez is also known for her acting and modelling work . She was a contestant on the reality television show , The Search for the Next Elvira , and has also appeared in films . She starred in The Notorious Jewel De 'Nyle & Shelly Martinez , a softcore pornography video alongside Jewel De 'Nyle , and has also posed nude on several occasions .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Martinez began working as a model in order to further her professional wrestling career . She also worked as an actress , and after being cast in an independent film about wrestling , she was introduced to a wrestling promoter and trainer . She trained at his school for two and a half years . Martinez first wrestled in Southern California under the ring name Desire , appearing in several independent promotions such as Revolution Pro Wrestling , Empire Wrestling Federation ( EWF ) and Ultimate Pro Wrestling ( UPW ) , where she worked as the storyline sister of Kyra . While in UPW , she also competed under the name Halloween Barbie . She also had a run in Women 's Extreme Wrestling , where she played the storyline cousin of Mercedes Martinez . On July 19 , 2002 , Martinez , under the name Desire , teamed with Threat to win the vacant EWF Tag Team Championship in a battle royal . They held the championship for 28 days , before losing it to PHAT ( Eric Matlock and Devon Willis ) on August 16 . In December 2004 , Martinez trained at World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) for a few weeks .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
In April 2005 , Martinez signed a developmental contract with WWE . By July of that year she had begun training and wrestling in their primary developmental territory OVW , using simply " Shelly " as a ring name . Her first role there had her , along with Beth Phoenix , acting as co @-@ manager for Aaron Stevens . As part of her affiliation with Phoenix and Stevens , Shelly had an erotic gimmick , with a relationship between all three being implied . She was involved in a scripted rivalry with Alexis Laree , with Shelly and Phoenix attacking her on several occasions and the pair wrestled her in handicap matches . In her first singles match in OVW Shelly defeated Laree on October 29 . Shelly and Phoenix also appeared together on the January 27 , 2006 episode of Heat as part of The Heart Throbs ( Romeo Roselli and Antonio Thomas ) " Throb @-@ o @-@ Meter " section , dancing in the ring with the team and teasing a kiss , before being interrupted by Trevor Murdoch .
In February 2006 , Shelly began a gimmick of being obsessed with Paul Burchill , who was using a pirate gimmick on SmackDown ! . It began at the television tapings on February 1 , when Burchill had picked her up to perform a piledriver , but instead carried her backstage after looking at her underwear . This obsession provoked a feud with Phoenix , when Shelly attacked Phoenix who was attempting to stop Shelly from attacking Cherry during a match between Burchill and Deuce Shade . As part of the feud , Shelly and Phoenix competed against each other in several matches , including a street fight at the television tapings on April 19 . On the May 6 , 2006 episode of Velocity , Shelly appeared as Burchill 's valet for his match against Road Warrior Animal , and was referred to as his " buxom wench " . Returning to OVW , she became involved in Seth Skyfire 's ongoing feud with Mike " The Miz " Mizanin and Roni Jonah . Upon her debut on the ECW brand in mid @-@ 2006 , Martinez began using the ring name Ariel in OVW as well . In November 2006 , Ariel unsuccessfully challenged Beth Phoenix for the OVW Women 's Championship . Her final appearance in OVW came on January 25 , 2007 , when she and Jon Bolen defeated Stevens and Phoenix .
= = = = ECW ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Martinez joined the ECW brand as Ariel , a tarot reading fortune teller . Originally , Martinez was to be part of a ' vampire ' faction with Gangrel and Kevin Thorn ; however , the faction did not materialise on television . Instead , Ariel and Thorn began appearing in vignettes together , and on July 25 , Thorn made his in @-@ ring debut with Ariel acting as his valet .
Ariel then increased her ringside presence during Thorn 's matches , often interfering in his matches , and Thorn began a scripted feud with Balls Mahoney . In order to counteract Ariel 's interference , Mahoney began bringing in Francine as an equalizer . Ariel made her ECW in @-@ ring debut against Francine on September 26 in an " Extreme Catfight " , which ended as a no contest due to interference from both Thorn and Mahoney . The two teams feuded until early October , until Francine was released by WWE . During a match between Thorn and CM Punk , Kelly Kelly interfered in order to help Punk . As a result , Punk won the match , and Ariel and Thorn attacked Kelly after the match . At the December to Dismember pay @-@ per @-@ view , Thorn and Ariel defeated Kelly and Kelly 's on @-@ screen boyfriend Mike Knox in a mixed tag team match , after Knox walked out on Kelly . The next week on ECW , Ariel lost to Kelly in a singles match , when Kelly utilized a schoolgirl for the victory .
On February 6 , 2007 , Ariel and Thorn joined Elijah Burke , Matt Striker , and Marcus Cor Von in forming the New Breed stable . Ariel began accompanying the New Breed to the ring during their matches , and appeared at WrestleMania 23 , managing the New Breed during their match against the ECW Originals . Shortly afterward , Burke announced a match between Thorn and CM Punk , after Punk had betrayed the New Breed , but Thorn lost . After the match , Thorn quit the New Breed , as none of the other members interfered during the match to help him . A few weeks later , on May 18 , Martinez was released from her WWE contract . In a 2013 interview , Martinez blamed her release on a confrontation with Dave Batista .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 , 2016 ) = = =
At the Bound for Glory pay @-@ per @-@ view in October 2007 , Martinez participated in a Knockout Gauntlet battle royal to crown the first TNA Knockout Champion , which was won by Gail Kim . Shortly afterward , a masked member of The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) began interfering in LAX 's matches to help them gain victories and attacking The Rock ' n Rave Infection 's valet , Christy Hemme . At the Final Resolution pay @-@ per @-@ view in January 2008 , the mystery masked wrestler was unveiled as Martinez after attacking Hemme again . On the following episode of Impact ! , Homicide and Hernandez gave her the name " Salinas " . Salinas then began accompanying Homicide and Hernandez to the ring as their valet .
She made her in @-@ ring debut for TNA in a singles against Awesome Kong , and was quickly defeated . She then began competing more frequently in matches , including intergender tag team matches alongside Homicide and Hernandez . Salinas participated at Lockdown in the first ever " Queen of the Cage " match , which was won by Roxxi Laveaux . After a Knockouts " Makeover Battle Royal " was announced for the Sacrifice pay @-@ per @-@ view , where one Knockout would get their head shaved , Salinas competed in a match to gain immunity from the head shaving on the May 8 episode of Impact ! , but was unsuccessful . At Sacrifice , the " Makeover Battle Royal " was won by Gail Kim , and Roxxi Laveaux had her head shaved . The same night , Salinas and Hector Guerrero were in the corner of LAX as they won the TNA World Tag Team Championship . As part of LAX 's feud with Beer Money , Inc . , Salinas wrestled their manager Jackie Moore on Impact ! in June 2008 , but lost by submission . She participated in a gauntlet battle royal match for the number one contendership to the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship , but was unsuccessful , and a few weeks later lost a three @-@ on @-@ one handicap match to Awesome Kong and The Beautiful People ( Velvet Sky and Angelina Love ) . After Beer Money , Inc. won the TNA World Tag Team Championship from LAX , the two teams began feuding , and at No Surrender in September , Salinas was attacked off camera by their manager Jackie Moore . This storyline was put in place as a way to take Martinez off television , as she had quit TNA to film an Italian thriller movie .
In 2016 , Martinez appeared on TNA 's One Night Only : Knockouts Knockdown 4 , where she fought Rebel in a losing effort .
= = = Other promotions = = =
Martinez has since wrestled under her real name for the Perros del Mal promotion in Mexico . Martinez is part of both World Independent Ladies Division and World Wrestling Fan Xperience in the Philippines . Martinez has also appeared as a valet for Dragon Gate USA .
Beginning in 2010 , Martinez began appearing for Championship Wrestling From Hollywood . She defeated Lucky O 'Shea in her debut match for the promotion in August 2010 . In 2013 , she was briefly associated with Todd Chandler , before switching her affections to Ricky Mandel , appearing as his storyline girlfriend .
On May 10 , 2014 , Martinez and JT Dunn competed in the 2014 WSU Queen and King of the Ring tournament , losing to the team of Candice LeRae and Joey Ryan .
= = Other media = =
She also starred in a pin @-@ up film titled American Pinups Vol . 2 . Martinez collaborated with Jewel De 'Nyle on an all @-@ female spanking and soft @-@ core bondage video entitled The Notorious Jewel De 'Nyle & Shelly Martinez . In October 2009 , Martinez posed nude for a contest called " THE 1 Contest " . In November 2012 Martinez appeared on the fourth season of the Bad Girls Club spin @-@ off Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too .
During her time on the Love Games she appeared in Episode 6 as Jamin 's ex and competed in the HBIC Challenge . She was a part of the question therapy after the challenge .
She starred in the independent supernatural horror movie Dead Things . In addition , she was a contestant on the reality show The Search for the Next Elvira , which debuted October 13 , 2007 , on the Fox Reality Channel . Martinez appears in the beginning of the Mötley Crüe music video for " Saints of Los Angeles " . In May 2011 , Martinez , Raven , and Cheerleader Melissa filmed the music video for the Smashing Pumpkins ' song " Owata " .
As of late 2011 , Martinez has been the official Hollywood event correspondent and hostess for the horror news website MoreHorror.com.
= = Personal life = =
Martinez is an advocate of medical marijuana as well as an animal rights activist .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
FTS ( Fun Time Shelly ) ( Chokehold STO )
The Shelly @-@ shock ( Sitout facebuster )
Signature moves
666 Forearm ( Multiple forearm smashes )
Big boot
Casadora Bulldog ( Wheelbarrow bulldog )
Corner foot choke
Camel clutch
Double choke
Diving crossbody
Drop toe @-@ hold
Elbow drop , with theatrics
Tornado DDT
Thesz press , followed by multiple punches
Wrestlers managed
Aaron Stevens
Paul Burchill
Seth Skyfire
Kevin Thorn
Elijah Burke
Marcus Cor Von
Matt Striker
Homicide
Hernandez
Entrance Themes
" Mi Destrojero " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; 2006 @-@ 2007 )
" To Live and Die In LAX ( Instrumental ) " by Dale Oliver and Serg Salinas ( TNA ; 2007 @-@ 2008 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Empire Wrestling Federation
EWF Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Threat
= Cesc Fàbregas =
Francesc " Cesc " Fàbregas Soler ( Catalan : [ ˈsɛsk ˈfaβɾəɣəs ] ; born 4 May 1987 ) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for English club Chelsea and the Spain national team .
Fàbregas came through La Masia , Barcelona 's youth academy , leaving at 16 when he was signed by English Premier League side Arsenal in September 2003 . Following injuries to key midfielders in the early part of the 2004 – 05 season , he went on establish himself in the team . He broke several of the club 's records in the process , earning a reputation as one of the best players in his position , and won the FA Cup in 2005 . After a protracted transfer saga Fàbregas left London on 15 August 2011 to return to Barcelona in a deal worth up to £ 35 million . During his three @-@ year spell at the Camp Nou , Fàbregas played in alongside Xavi and Andrés Iniesta and won a La Liga title , the Copa del Rey , the FIFA Club World Cup , the UEFA Super Cup and two Spanish Super Cups . He returned to London in June 2014 to Arsenal 's cross @-@ town rivals Chelsea for a fee of £ 30 million , and in his first year there he helped to secure League Cup and Premier League triumphs .
Internationally , Fàbregas made his debut for the Spanish national team in March 2006 . He represented his country in the 2006 FIFA World Cup , UEFA Euro 2008 , 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup , 2010 World Cup , Euro 2012 , 2013 Confederations Cup , the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 . He was a key figure in Spain 's European Championship victories in 2008 and 2012 and their 2010 World Cup triumph in which he supplied the pass for Andrés Iniesta 's winning goal in the final . On 12 October 2015 , Fàbregas earned his 100th cap for Spain .
= = Early years = =
Born in Arenys de Mar , Barcelona , Catalonia , to Francesc Fàbregas Sr. , who runs a property company , and Núria Soler , the owner of a pastry company , Fàbregas has supported FC Barcelona since childhood and went to his first match when he was nine months old with his grandfather . He began his club football career with CE Mataró before being signed for Barcelona 's La Masia youth academy aged ten in 1997 . His first coach , Señor Blai , reportedly did not select Fàbregas for matches against Barcelona in an attempt to hide him from their scouts . This tactic , however , was unable to withstand Barcelona for long , and Mataró gave in and allowed Fàbregas to train with Barcelona one day per week . Eventually Fàbregas joined Barcelona 's academy full @-@ time . His initial training was as a defensive midfielder playing alongside notable names such as Gerard Piqué and Lionel Messi . Although he was a prolific scorer , sometimes scoring even more than 30 goals in a season for the club 's youth teams , he did not manage to play a first team game at the Camp Nou . During his time at Barcelona 's youth academy , Fàbregas idolised Barcelona 's then @-@ captain and number four Pep Guardiola , who would later give Fàbregas his shirt as consolation when Fàbregas ' parents divorced .
= = Club career = =
= = = Arsenal = = =
= = = = Adapting to England = = = =
Sensing that he would have limited opportunities at Barcelona , Fàbregas joined Arsenal in their Academy , signing for the London club on 11 September 2003 . Initially , he found life difficult in England 's capital but soon struck a friendship with Spanish @-@ speaking teammate Philippe Senderos , who helped him settle down . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old , Fàbregas did not contemplate breaking into the first team immediately but looked up to senior players like Patrick Vieira and Gilberto Silva , while concentrating on training and learning the English language . He nevertheless made his debut for Arsenal not long after , on 28 October 2003 , in a League Cup tie at home to Rotherham United . In doing so , he became Arsenal 's youngest @-@ ever first team player , aged 16 years and 177 days . He then became the youngest goalscorer in Arsenal 's history in a later round of the League Cup , scoring in a 5 – 1 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers . Although Arsenal went on to win the league unbeaten in the 2003 – 04 season , Fàbregas was not awarded a winner 's medal because he did not play a single league game .
It was not until the start of the 2004 – 05 season that the Spaniard started making first team appearances in matches outside the League Cup . His first match of the season was against Manchester United in the FA Community Shield . Following an injury to Vieira , Fàbregas stepped in and made four consecutive Premier League starts . He was praised for his performances in those games , even claiming a goal against Blackburn Rovers in a 3 – 0 victory , and becoming Arsenal 's youngest @-@ ever goalscorer in a league game . With further injuries to Edu and Gilberto Silva , he received more playing time in all competitions . He signed his first professional contract with Arsenal in September 2004 , which committed his long @-@ term future to the club . In October 2004 , Arsenal lost 2 – 0 to Manchester United , ending their 49 @-@ match unbeaten run in the Premier League . The match was dubbed the " Battle of the Buffet " after pizza was thrown at Manchester United manager Sir Alex Ferguson at the end of the match in the players ' tunnel by a then @-@ unknown Arsenal player . Speculation that the player was Fàbregas was confirmed in November 2011 by former Arsenal player Martin Keown on a phone @-@ in show on BBC Radio 5 Live . In the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League , he became the second @-@ youngest goalscorer in the competition 's history after scoring the third goal against Rosenborg in a 5 – 1 win . He concluded his season by winning his first honours with Arsenal when he was in the starting eleven that defeated Manchester United on penalties in the 2005 FA Cup Final .
= = = = Making the starting eleven = = = =
After the departure of Patrick Vieira to Juventus , Fàbregas was given the Frenchman 's number 4 shirt and featured regularly in the Arsenal central midfield alongside Gilberto Silva . He made 49 appearances in all competitions during the 2005 – 06 season . Despite his young age , his performances came under greater scrutiny due to his increased involvement in the first team . Further , as Fàbregas possessed a smaller frame and played with less aggression than Vieira , there were initially doubts over his ability to fill in the void left by the Frenchman . Nevertheless , Fàbregas asserted his own style of play and impressed pundits in the Champions League against Real Madrid and Juventus . In the latter , he scored Arsenal 's first goal and set up Thierry Henry for the second , at the same time proving that he could compete against tough , hard @-@ tackling midfielders like Vieira . He then played in the Final against his former club Barcelona , but Arsenal were defeated 2 – 1 , completing a trophyless 2005 – 06 campaign for Arsenal .
Fàbregas ' increase in exposure drew transfer speculation during the summer ; Real Madrid expressed a desire to sign the Spaniard despite his long @-@ term contract with Arsenal , but Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger stated that Arsenal would not listen to any offers . In September 2006 , with six years left on his deal , Arsenal offered a new five @-@ year deal ( with an option to extend by a further three years ) to the midfielder , which he signed on 19 October 2006 . While the contract was unusually long , Fàbregas cited Arsenal 's playing style and Wenger as reasons for his long @-@ term commitment to the club .
The 2006 – 07 season was a learning experience for the young Arsenal squad and Fàbregas . The club again failed to secure any major honours and were defeated by city rivals Chelsea in the League Cup Final . Fàbregas , however , emerged as one of the key creative players for the team , playing in every single league game . He kick @-@ started Arsenal 's 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League campaign when he scored a brace in a 3 – 0 win over Dinamo Zagreb in a qualifier match . In the Premier League , he notched up 13 assists , which was the second @-@ highest total in the league . He ended the season with several individual honours , including the Golden Boy award , presented by the Italian paper TuttoSport , based on a poll of leading writers across Europe . He was also named in the 2006 UEFA Team of the Year , and named FA Premier League Player of the Month for January 2007 . Additionally , he was nominated for both PFA Players ' Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year , although both awards went to Manchester United 's Cristiano Ronaldo . In June 2007 , he was named Arsenal 's Player of the Season , taking in 60 % of the votes .
The 2007 – 08 season began with much uncertainty for Arsenal . First , David Dein , the club 's vice @-@ chairman , left amidst allegations of internal strife , followed by the departure of the club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer and captain , Thierry Henry , who signed for Barcelona . There was also speculation over Wenger 's future with the club . Fàbregas knew that he would become the most important player for Arsenal , but stated he was ready for the challenge . He started the season well , chalking up goals and assists , and website soccernet attributed the early success of Arsenal to the young Spaniard . His start to the season also earned him the O2 Player of the Month award from Arsenal fans for August , September and October , as well as the Premier League Player of the Month for September . With Arsenal leading the league table until March , Fàbregas was equally instrumental in the club 's 2007 – 08 Champions League campaign ; in the return leg against Milan , the midfielder scored late in the game to send Arsenal into the quarter @-@ finals . Though Arsenal ended the season trophyless , Fàbregas amassed several personal awards . On 11 April 2008 , Fàbregas was nominated for the PFA Player of the Year and PFA Young Player of the Year awards for the second year running ; he was later crowned the winner of the latter , and named in the PFA Team of the Year . He was also named the 2007 – 08 Arsenal.com Player of the Season .
= = = = Captaincy = = = =
On 24 November 2008 , 14 league games into the 2008 – 09 season , Fàbregas was named as the successor to William Gallas as club captain . However , just as Arsenal were getting back into the title race after a poor start to the season , the Spaniard was ruled out for four months after sustaining a knee injury against Liverpool . The Gunners eventually finished the season without any silverware , coming in fourth in the league and being knocked out at the semi @-@ finals of the 2008 – 09 Champions League campaign . In tandem with Arsenal 's policy to groom its young players , the team that Fàbregas led into the new season consisted mostly of the same young nucleus as before , with the likes of Nicklas Bendtner , Gaël Clichy , Abou Diaby , Denílson , Samir Nasri , Alex Song and Theo Walcott in tow .
In the opening league game of 2009 – 10 season , Fàbregas scored a brace and managed two assists in Arsenal 's 6 – 1 away win against Everton . Arsenal went on to secure qualification for the 2009 – 10 Champions League campaign by beating Celtic over two legs , but their early momentum to the season was disrupted by consecutive league game losses to Manchester United and Manchester City . The team bounced back strongly after this setback , and with Fàbregas being prolific in scoring and setting up his teammates , it went unbeaten in the next 13 games . Despite suffering four league losses even before mid @-@ season approached , Arsenal managed to lead the league standings after 22 games . On 31 March 2010 , in the Champions League first leg of the quarter @-@ final against Barcelona , Fàbregas suffered a leg fracture before scoring the equalising goal in the game which ended 2 – 2 . Arsenal , who were four points behind league leaders Manchester United , were deprived of their captain for the remaining six league games of the season ; they were subsequently eliminated by Barcelona in the Champions League , and fell out of the league title race . Fàbregas was later named to the PFA Team of the Year .
Before the start of the 2010 – 11 season , there was once again intense media speculation about the Spaniard 's future , and in June 2010 , a € 35 million bid from Barcelona was rejected . The 2010 – 11 season turned out to be an extremely competitive one in the Premier League ; even though Arsenal had lost five games before mid @-@ season , they were jostling for pole position with Manchester United and Manchester City . Going into late February , Arsenal were still in contention for the quadruple , but within a span of two weeks they lost in the League Cup final , were eliminated by Barcelona in the Round of 16 of the Champions League , and defeated in the FA Cup quarter @-@ final . Although Fàbregas did not play in the League Cup Final , it was his misplaced backheel pass during the second leg of the Champions League game against Barcelona that allowed them to level the aggregate score . Arsenal remained in contention for the league title until a series of draws in the final third of the season caused them to fall too far behind league leaders Manchester United ; they ended the season fourth . The following season was once again marked by uncertainty . Barcelona made several bids for Fàbregas , while Nasri , Arsenal 's star performer the previous campaign , was courted by Manchester City .
= = = Barcelona = = =
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
On 15 August 2011 , Barcelona signed Fàbregas for an initial fee of € 29 million with a further € 5 million in variables , plus Fàbregas would pay Arsenal € 1 million a year from his wage for five years. ending one of the most protracted transfer sagas in recent times . Statistics show that in the five years prior to Fàbregas 's departure from Arsenal , Fàbregas created 466 goal @-@ scoring chances , made 86 assists and scored 48 goals , all three statistics topping those of new teammates Xavi and Andrés Iniesta , despite both having made more appearances in the same period .
Fàbregas joined a team that had won three La Liga titles in a row and two Champions League titles in three years , and one that featured the likes of Lionel Messi , Xavi Hernández , Andrés Iniesta and David Villa . He made his debut in the second leg of the Supercopa de España , coming on as a substitute against Real Madrid . Barcelona won the tie 3 – 2 and 5 – 4 on aggregate . He scored his first goal in a 2 – 0 win against Porto as Barcelona won the 2011 UEFA Super Cup , and his first league goal on his league debut against Villarreal . He went on to score three more league goals in the month of September , including a late equaliser in the 2 – 2 away draw to Valencia .
Fàbregas then spent the majority of October sidelined with a hamstring injury picked up on international duty . He made his return , and scored , in a 4 – 0 away victory to Viktoria Plzeň in the Champions League . He then made his league return in the 2 – 2 draw away to Athletic Bilbao , scoring a goal in the same match . Fàbregas then went on to score a brace in a 5 – 0 home victory against Levante before netting in a 3 – 1 away victory against Real Madrid . Fàbregas later scored against Brazilian club Santos to help Barcelona to a 4 – 0 victory in the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup final .
Fàbregas got another brace in a 4 – 0 victory against CA Osasuna in the Copa del Rey . He also scored in the semi @-@ final of the competition against Valencia to help Barcelona to the final with a 3 – 1 win on aggregate . He kept a regular run in the Barcelona side for the rest of the season , including appearances in both semi @-@ final legs of the 3 – 2 aggregate defeat to Chelsea in the Champions League , and a substitute appearance in the 3 – 0 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the Copa del Rey final .
Fàbregas ended his first season at Barcelona by winning the 2011 – 12 Copa del Rey , 2011 Supercopa de España , 2011 UEFA Super Cup and the 2011 FIFA Club World Cup , notching 15 goals and 20 assists in 48 appearances and four best midfielder awards .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
Fàbregas ended his long goal drought for his club when he scored his first league goals of the season with a brace against Sevilla in a 3 – 2 away victory . He then scored three goals in October , coming in the league , Champions League and the Copa del Rey . He scored again on 25 November in a 4 – 0 win away to Levante . On 13 January 2013 , Fàbregas scored in a 3 – 1 win away to Málaga . Fàbregas scored his first hat @-@ trick of his career against Mallorca in a 5 – 0 victory on 6 April 2013 . He ended his second season at Barcelona by winning the first league title of his career , with a record 100 points . Barcelona were eliminated , however , in the semi @-@ finals of both the Copa del Rey , to rivals Real Madrid , and the Champions League , to winners Bayern Munich . Fàbregas ended the season with 14 goals and 12 assists in 48 appearances in all competitions .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Barcelona began the season by winning the Supercopa de España . In the opening game of the league season on 18 August , Fàbregas provided five assists in a 7 – 0 win over Levante . He scored 8 goals in 36 league matches , including braces in away wins over Granada on 10 November and Getafe on 22 December , the latter including a penalty kick . He also scored the only goal of the game on 1 October as Barcelona won away at Celtic in the group stage of the Champions League , heading in Alexis Sánchez 's cross in the 73rd minute .
= = = Chelsea = = =
On 12 June 2014 , English Premier League team Chelsea signed Fàbregas on a five @-@ year contract for a fee in the region of € 33 million . Following his transfer he took the number 4 shirt , previously worn by David Luiz . Fàbregas spoke of his transfer , saying , " I asked Barcelona to find a way for me to leave the club , The president tried to stop the sale , but I already had my mind made up . " He went on to say , " If I didn 't think that I 'd be happy at Chelsea , I would 've never made this decision . Above all , I want to be happy both professionally and personally . "
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Fàbregas made his competitive debut for Chelsea on 18 August as the team began their league season away to Burnley ; he played the full 90 minutes of a 3 – 1 victory , providing two assists . He was a nominee for the Premier League Player of the Month in August 2014 , with the accolade going instead to another new Chelsea signing , Diego Costa . On 13 September 2014 , after providing two assists in Chelsea 's 4 – 2 victory over Swansea City , Fàbregas became the first player ever in Premier League history to record at least one assist in six successive games ; four under Chelsea and two under Arsenal during the 2010 – 11 season . Four days later , he scored his first goal for the club , opening a 1 – 1 draw at home against Schalke 04 in Chelsea 's first match of the Champions League group stage .
His first league goal for Chelsea gave them a 2 – 1 win at Crystal Palace on 18 October , capping off a 19 @-@ pass move . Fàbregas also completed 123 passes , the most by any player on either side . On 10 December , with Chelsea already through to the knockout stage as group winners , Fàbregas scored an eighth @-@ minute penalty to open a 3 – 1 Champions League victory over Sporting CP . Twelve days later he scored a second league goal , set up by Eden Hazard and concluding a 2 – 0 win away to Stoke .
Fàbregas was fitted with a protective mask after breaking his nose in a collision with Charlie Adam during the reverse fixture on 4 April . Eight days later , he scored the only goal of the game in the 88th minute in a victory over Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road . On 3 May , the day before his 28th birthday , he won his first Premier League title at the ninth attempt , following a 1 – 0 home win over Crystal Palace . During the penultimate game of the season , away at The Hawthorns against West Bromwich Albion , Fàbregas was shown the red card and booed off by fans for deliberately kicking the ball at Chris Brunt 's head while players were speaking to referee Mike Jones . On appeal , the suspension for this red card was cut from three matches to one .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
Fàbregas scored his first goal of the season on 16 September , as Chelsea defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 4 – 0 in the Champions League . He , Costa and Oscar were jeered by the crowd in December after the dismissal of Mourinho , with the supporters believing that the trio 's conduct and poor performances were more culpable for the team 's poor form .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth team = = =
Although he features regularly for the Spain national football team , Fàbregas ' international career began at youth level . At the 2003 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship held in Finland , he finished as top scorer of the tournament despite playing in
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004 – 05
FA Community Shield : 2004
UEFA Champions League : Runners @-@ up 2005 – 06
Barcelona
La Liga : 2012 – 13
Copa del Rey : 2011 – 12
Supercopa de España : 2011 , 2013
UEFA Super Cup : 2011
FIFA Club World Cup : 2011
Chelsea
Premier League : 2014 – 15
Football League Cup : 2014 – 15
= = = International = = =
Spain
FIFA World Cup : 2010
UEFA European Championship : 2008 , 2012
= = = Individual = = =
FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship Golden Ball : 2003
FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship Golden Shoe : 2003
UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Football Championship Golden Player : 2004
Bravo Award : 2006
Golden Boy : 2006
UEFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : 2006 , 2008
Premier League Player of the Month ( 2 ) : January 2007 , September 2007
PFA Young Player of the Year : 2007 – 08
PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10
UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament ( 2 ) : 2008 , 2012
ESM Team of the Year ( 3 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2009 – 10 , 2014 – 15
= = = Decorations = = =
Prince of Asturias Awards : 2010
Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit : 2011
= S.S.C. Napoli =
Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli , commonly referred to as Napoli ( pronounced [ ˈnaːpoli ] ) , is a professional Italian football club based in Naples , Campania . The club plays in Serie A , the top flight of Italian football where it is currently competing in the 2015 – 16 season . One of the more successful clubs in Italian football , they have won 12 domestic trophies ; the Serie A twice , in 1986 – 87 and 1989 – 90 and runners up 6 times , they also have won the Coppa Italia five times and been runners up 4 times , and the Supercoppa Italiana twice . On the European stage they have won the UEFA Cup in 1988 – 89 .
Napoli is also the most successful football club in Southern Italy and the 4th most supported football club in Italy after Juventus and the two Milanese clubs Internazionale and Milan . The club is ranked as the 5th most valuable football club in Serie A behind Internazionale , Roma , Milan and Juventus in terms of annual revenue , generating € 125 @.@ 5 million during the 2015 financial year .
Napoli is also one of the associate members of the European Club Association , an organisation that replaced the previous G @-@ 14 which consists of major football clubs in Europe . According to Deloitte Football Money League , as of 2014 , Napoli is ranked as the 15th richest football club in the world .
Napoli is also ranked the 8th best club in European Football and the 2nd best club in Italy according to UEFA rankings as of January 2016 passing clubs like Chelsea and Paris Saint @-@ Germain which is a huge improvement from the 2010 @-@ 2011 season , when Napoli was only ranked the 106th best club in Europe .
The club has one of the highest incomes and largest fanbases in the world . Napoli was named the seventeenth most valuable association football club in the world by Forbes , valued at $ 353 million , in 2015 and one of only 7 of the top 20 most valuable clubs in the world to have no debt . As of 2015 Napoli had an annual turnover of $ 224 million which would be the 3rd highest in Serie A and the 16th highest turnover in the world for a football club .
The club is famous around the world for being the club where Diego Maradona played his football and became one of the greatest footballers of all time . Napoli is also the club where Ballon d 'Or and World Cup winner Fabio Cannavaro started his career and has been home to many other great players , including Gianfranco Zola .
The official anthem of the club is " ' O surdato ' nnammurato " .
= = History = =
The first club was founded as Naples Foot @-@ Ball & Cricket Club in 1904 by English sailor William Poths and his associate Hector M. Bayon . Neapolitans such as Conforti , Catterina and Amedeo Salsi were also involved , the latter of whom was the club 's first president . The original kit of the club was a sky blue and navy blue striped shirt , with black shorts . Naples ' first match was a 3 – 2 win against the English crew of the boat Arabik with goals from MacPherson , Scafoglio and Chaudoir . The name of the club was shortened to Naples Foot @-@ Ball Club in 1906 .
Early into its existence , the Italian Football Championship was limited to just Northern clubs , so Southern clubs competed against sailors or in cups such as Thomas Lipton 's Lipton Challenge Cup . In the cup competed between Naples and Palermo FBC , Naples won three finals . The foreign contingent at the club broke off in 1912 to form Internazionale Napoli , in time for both club 's debut in the Italian Championship of 1912 – 13 . Though the sides had a keen rivalry in the Campania section , they were not as successful outside of it and a few years after World War I , they merged as Foot @-@ Ball Club Internazionale @-@ Naples , also known as FBC Internaples .
= = = Associazione Calcio Napoli = = =
Under the presidency of Giorgio Ascarelli , the club changed its name to Associazione Calcio Napoli on 23 August 1926 . After a poor start , with a sole point in an entire championship , Napoli was readmitted to Serie A 's forerunner National Division by the Italian FA , and began to improve thanks in part to Paraguayan @-@ born Attila Sallustro , who was the first fully fledged hero to the fans . He was a capable goal @-@ scorer and eventually set the all @-@ time goal @-@ scoring record for Napoli , which still stands today .
Napoli entered the Serie A @-@ era under the management of William Garbutt . During his six @-@ year stint , the club would be dramatically transformed , frequently finishing in the top half of the table . This included two third @-@ place finishes during the 1932 – 33 and 1933 – 34 seasons , with added notables such as Antonio Vojak , Arnaldo Sentimenti and Carlo Buscaglia . For the years leading up to World War II Napoli went into decline , surviving relegation in 1939 – 40 by goal average .
Napoli lost a closely contested relegation battle at the end of 1942 and were relegated to Serie B. They moved from Stadio Giorgio Ascarelli to Stadio Arturo Collana and stayed in Serie B until after the war . When play continued , Napoli earned the right to compete in Serie A , but were relegated after two seasons for a bribery scandal . The club bounced back to ensure top flight football at the start of the 1950s . Napoli moved to their new home ground Stadio San Paolo in 1959 . Despite erratic league form with highs and lows during this period , including a further relegation and promotion , Napoli had some cup success when they beat SPAL to lift the Coppa Italia in 1962 , with goals from Gianni Corelli and Pierluigi Ronzon . Their fourth relegation cut celebrations short the following season .
= = = Napoli on the rise : Maradona era = = =
As the club changed their name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli on 25 June 1964 they began to rise up again , gaining promotion in 1964 – 65 . Under the management of former player Bruno Pesaola , they won the Coppa delle Alpi and were back amongst the elite in Serie A , with consistent top five finishes . Napoli came very close to winning the league in 1967 – 68 , finishing just behind AC Milan in second place . Some of the most popular players from this period were Dino Zoff , José Altafini , Omar Sívori , and hometown midfielder Antonio Juliano . Juliano would eventually break the appearance records , which still stands today .
The trend of Napoli performing well in the league continued into the 1970s , with third place spots in 1970 – 71 and 1973 – 74 . Under the coaching of former player Luís Vinício , this gained them entry into the early UEFA Cup competitions ; in 1974 – 75 they reached the third round knocking out Porto 2 – 0 on the way . During the same season , Napoli finished second in Serie A ; just two points behind champions Juventus . Solid performances from locally born players such as Bruscolotti , Juliano and Esposito were relied upon during this period , coupled with goals from Giuseppe Savoldi .
After beating Southampton 4 – 1 on aggregate to lift the Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup , Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup for 1976 – 77 , where they reached the semi @-@ finals , losing 2 – 1 on aggregate to Anderlecht . The club won their second Coppa Italia trophy in 1975 – 76 , knocking out Milan and Fiorentina en route , before beating rivals Verona 4 – 0 in the final . In terms of the Italian league , Napoli were still very much a consistent top six side for much of the late 1970s . Even into the earliest two seasons of the 1980s , the club were performing respectably with a third @-@ place finish in 1980 – 81 , however by 1983 they had slipped dramatically and were involved in relegation battles . Napoli broke the world transfer record fee , turning to Diego Maradona with a € 12 million deal from Barcelona on 30 June 1984 . The squad was gradually re @-@ built , with the likes of Ciro Ferrara , Salvatore Bagni , and Fernando De Napoli filling the ranks . The rise up the tables was gradual , by 1985 – 86 , they had a third @-@ place finish under their belts , but better was yet to come . The 1986 – 87 season was the landmark in Napoli 's history ; they won the double , securing the Serie A title by three points and then beating Atalanta 4 – 0 to lift the Coppa Italia .
Because a mainland Southern Italian team had never won the league before , this turned Diego Maradona into a cultural , social and borderline religious icon for Neapolitans , which stretched beyond the realms of just football .
The club were unsuccessful in the European Cup in the following season and finished runners @-@ up in Serie A. However , Napoli were entered into the UEFA Cup for 1988 – 89 and won their first major European title . Juventus , Bayern Munich , and PAOK were defeated on the way to the final , where Napoli beat Stuttgart 5 – 4 on aggregate , with two goals from Careca and one each from Maradona , Ferrara and Alemão .
Napoli added their second Serie A title in 1989 – 90 , beating Milan by two points in the title race . However , this was surrounded by less auspicious circumstances as Napoli were awarded two points for a game , when in Bergamo , an Atalanta fan threw a £ 100 lira coin at Alemão 's head . A controversial set of events set off at the 1990 World Cup , when Maradona made comments pertaining to North @-@ South inequality in the country and the risorgimento , asking Neapolitans to root for Argentina in the semi @-@ finals against Italy in Naples .
San Paolo was the only stadium during the competition where the Argentine National Anthem wasn 't jeered , Maradona bowed to the Napoli fans at the end and his country went on to reach the final . However , after the final the Italian Football Federation forced Maradona to take a doping test , which he failed testing positive for cocaine ; both Maradona and Napoli staff later claimed it was a revenge plot for events at the World Cup . Maradona was banned for 15 months and would never play for the club again . The club still managed to win the Supercoppa Italiana that year , with a record 5 – 1 victory against Juventus , but it would be their last major trophy for 22 years . In the European Cup however , they went out in the second round .
= = = Decline and rebirth = = =
Though the club finished fourth during the 1991 – 92 season , Napoli gradually went into decline after that season , both financially and on the field . Players such as Gianfranco Zola , Daniel Fonseca , Ciro Ferrara and Careca had all departed by 1994 . Nonetheless , Napoli did manage to qualify for the 1994 – 95 UEFA Cup , reaching the third round and in 1996 – 97 , Napoli appeared at the Coppa Italia final , but lost 3 – 1 to Vicenza . Napoli 's league form had dropped lower , and relegation to Serie B came at the end of 1997 – 98 when they recorded only three wins all season .
The club returned to Serie A after gaining promotion in the 1999 – 2000 season , though after a closely contested relegation battle , they were relegated immediately back down the following season . They failed to gain promotion following this and slipped further down . The failed 2001 – 02 Serie B campaign was costly , the cost of production was € 70 @,@ 895 @,@ 838 , just about € 10 million fewer than in 2000 – 01 Serie A , heavily due to the high amortisation of the player asset ( € 33 @,@ 437 @,@ 075 ) . However value of production was just € 21 @,@ 183736 ( excluding player profit ) and the net loss was € 28 @,@ 856 @,@ 093 that season . Net asset on 30 June 2002 was € 2 @,@ 166 @,@ 997 , already including about € 20 million recapitalisation . The club once quoted the law " 21 February 2003 No.27 " to lower the amortisation expense by extending the amortisation period beyond the contract length of players to 10 @-@ year ( UEFA ruled the Italian special law was not lawful and all club should use IFRS standards , thus causing a re @-@ capitalization crisis in 2006 ) , which some players contract ( with a total residual accounting value of € 46 @,@ 601 @,@ 225 ) was amortise in special way for € 4 @,@ 660 @,@ 123 only and the rest for € 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 088 in 2002 – 03 , however the cost of production was still exceed the value of production for € 19 @,@ 071 @,@ 218 in 2002 – 03 . By August 2004 , Napoli was declared bankrupt with debts estimated up to € 70 million . To secure football in the city , film producer Aurelio De Laurentiis refounded the club under the name Napoli Soccer , as they were not allowed to use their old name . FIGC placed Napoli in Serie C1 , where they missed out on promotion after losing 2 – 1 in play @-@ offs to local rivals Avellino in 2004 – 05 Serie C1 .
Despite the fact that Napoli were playing in such a low division , they retained higher average attendances than most of the Serie A clubs , breaking the Serie C attendance record with 51 @,@ 000 at one game . The following season , they secured promotion to Serie B and De Laurentiis bought back the club 's history , restoring its name to Società Sportiva Calcio Napoli in May 2006 . After just one season back in Serie B , they were promoted on the final day , along with fellow sleeping giants Genoa . Napoli finished the season placed eighth in the Serie A , enough to secure a place in the Intertoto Cup third round .
The 2008 – 09 season saw Napoli qualify for the UEFA Cup via the Intertoto Cup . The team was eliminated in the first round , however , by Portuguese team Benfica . At the domestic level , Napoli made a very impressive start , proposing as one of the main candidates for a Champions League spot ; results and performances , however , quickly declined in mid @-@ season , causing Napoli to fall down to 11th place in the league table , which led to the dismissal of manager Edy Reja in March 2009 , with former Italy manager Roberto Donadoni being appointed as his replacement .
Despite reinforcements in the summer transfer window , Napoli began the 2009 – 10 season with a number of poor results . After a 2 – 1 loss to Roma in October 2009 , Donadoni was relieved of his duties and replaced by former Sampdoria manager Walter Mazzarri . Under Mazzarri , Napoli climbed up the table , finishing in sixth place to qualify for a Europa League spot . Napoli , under Mazzarri 's guide and reinforced by players such as Edinson Cavani , spent part of the 2010 – 11 season in the second place , finishing third and qualifying directly to the group phase of the 2011 – 12 UEFA Champions League .
In the 2011 – 12 season , Napoli ended in fifth place in Serie A , but managed to defeat unbeaten champions Juventus in the Stadio Olimpico to win the Coppa Italia for the fourth time in the club 's history , 25 years after their last cup win . Star striker Edinson Cavani scored from a penalty kick in the 63rd minute and Marek Hamšík decided the game in the 83rd minute . Napoli also had a successful season in the Champions League , its first participation in the European Cup since the 1990 – 91 season . The team finished second in its group behind Bayern Munich , and ahead of Manchester City , progressing to the round of 16 , where it was knocked out by eventual winners Chelsea .
In 2012 – 13 , Napoli finished in second place in Serie A , the club 's best performance since winning the 1989 – 90 Scudetto . Edinson Cavani finished as top scorer in the division with 29 goals , which resulted in him being sold to Paris Saint @-@ Germain for a club record fee of £ 57 million .
In the 2013 close @-@ season , Walter Mazzarri left Napoli to become coach of Internazionale , and was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez , who became the club 's first foreign coach since Zdeněk Zeman in 2000 . The money from selling Cavani went towards signing three Real Madrid players – Gonzalo Higuaín , Raúl Albiol and José Callejón – and other players including Dries Mertens and Pepe Reina . They finished the season by winning the 2014 Coppa Italia Final , their fifth title in the tournament , with a 3 – 1 win against Fiorentina with two goals from Lorenzo Insigne and another from Mertens , as well as qualifying for the Champions League by finishing 3rd in Serie A. According to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics ( IFFHS ) , Napoli was rated the third best club in the world in 2015 , despite failing to qualify for the 2014 @-@ 15 UEFA Champions League group stages .
On 1 December 2015 in the 2015 – 16 season , a 2 – 1 home win over league leaders Inter Milan sent Napoli to the top of Serie A for the first time in 25 years .
On 10 January 2016 an away 5 @-@ 1 victory against Frosinone made Napoli the champion of the first half of 2015 @-@ 16 Serie A season for the first time since the 1989 @-@ 90 season , thanks to Sassuolo 's 1 @-@ 0 win against Inter Milan in Giuseppe Meazza .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
As of 12 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Primavera squad = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
10 – Diego Armando Maradona , Second Striker , 1984 – 91
In the summer of 2000 Napoli retired the jersey number 10 belonged to former club legend Diego Armando Maradona who played for the club from 1984 to 1991 , as a tribute to his class and to the significant contribution made in the seven seasons with the shirt of Napoli . In order , the last players to wear number 10 were Fausto Pizzi ( 1995 – 1996 ) , Beto ( in 1996 – 1997 ) , Igor Protti in 1997 – 1998 was the last player to play and score a goal with the number 10 shirt in Serie A and Claudio Bellucci in 1998 – 1999 and 1999 – 2000 in Serie B. However , for regulatory reasons , the number was reissued on blue shirts 2004 to 2006 Serie C1 , a tournament where there is the old numbering from 1 to 11 . The last player to wear a sign and goals with this shirt in an official match was Mariano Bogliacino in the home match of 18 May 2006 against Spezia , valid for the final leg of the Supercoppa di Lega Serie C1 ; primacy belongs to him also for last appearance in the championship , 12 May 2006 at the home race of Lanciano . As regards exclusively the championship , however , goes to the Argentine footballer Roberto Sosa the distinction of being the last to wear the 10 at the San Paolo and at the same time to score in the match against Frosinone on 30 April 2006 .
= = = Notable players = = =
= = Current coaching , technical and administrative staff = =
Last updated : 24 August 2015
Source : it : SSC Napoli
= = Presidents = =
Below is the official presidential history of Napoli , from when Giorgio Ascarelli took over at the club in 1926 , until the present day . Napoli has had many managers and trainers , some seasons they have had co @-@ managers running the team . Here is a chronological list of them from 1926 onwards :
= = Managers = =
= = Statistics and records = =
Giuseppe Bruscolotti holds Napoli 's official appearance record , having made 511 over the course of 16 years from 1972 until 1988 . Antonio Juliano holds the record for league appearances with 394 ( 355 in Serie A ) over the course of 16 years from 1962 until 1978 .
The all @-@ time leading goalscorer for Napoli is Diego Armando Maradona , with 115 league goals scored . He finished the season of Serie A as the league 's topscorer , known in Italy as the capocannoniere , in the 1987 – 88 season with 15 goals . The record for most goals in the league ( also including tournaments Divisione Nazionale ) belongs to Attila Sallustro , with 106 goals , while the maximum scorer in Serie A is Antonio Vojak , with 102 goals . The record for most goals in a single tournament maximum number belongs to Gonzalo Higuaín , with 36 goals scored in the season 2015 – 2016 .
The biggest ever victory recorded by Napoli was 8 – 1 against Pro Patria , in the 1955 – 56 season of Serie A. Napoli 's heaviest championship defeat came during the 1927 – 28 season when eventual champions Torino beat them 11 – 0 .
On 26 July 2016 , Napoli player Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all @-@ time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club , when he signed for € 90 million to Juventus .
Below are appearance and goalscoring records pertaining to Napoli players of all time . Still active players in bold :
As of 15 May 2016
= = Colours , badge and nicknames = =
As Naples is a coastal city , the colours of the club have always been derived from the blue waters of the Gulf of Naples . Originally while using the name Naples FBC , the colours of the club implemented two shades of blue . Since the 1920s however , a singular blue tone has been used in the form of azure ; as thus they share the nickname azzurri with the Italian national side . The shade of blue has been sky blue in many instances .
One of the nicknames of Napoli is I ciucciarelli which means " the little donkeys " in the local dialect , they were given this name after a particularly poor performance during the 1926 – 27 season . It was originally meant to be derogatory , as the Neapolitan symbol is a rampant black horse , the club however adopted the donkey as a mascot called ' O Ciuccio , displaying it with pride .
The club badge Napoli are most famous for is a large N placed within a circle . This crest can be traced back to Internazionale Napoli , who used a similar design on their shirts . Since the club officially adopted the N badge as its representative , Napoli have altered it slightly at various times ; sometimes it features the club 's name around it , sometimes it does not . The main difference between each badge is the shade of blue used . Usually the N is white , although it has occasionally been gold .
Partenopei is a popular nickname for the club and people from the city of Naples in general . It is derived from Greek mythology where the siren Parthenópē tried to enchant Odysseus from his ship to Capri . In the story Odysseus had his men tie him to the ship 's mast so he was able to resist the song of the siren ; as a result Parthenope , unable to live with the rejection of her love , drowned herself and her body was washed up upon the shore of Naples .
= = Social commitment = =
Napoli is a company active in the social field , Napoli has stood out for its support provided to multiple charities .
Through the direct participation of its members , the blue club sponsored initiatives in support of the hospitals towns , as well as initiatives to raise awareness against violence in sport and child poverty . With the ' support association town Scugnizzi , which operates in the juvenile prison of Nisida , Naples supports various projects aimed at the social reintegration of young offenders once granted their punishment .
Through fundraising supported directly and indirectly by its members , the Naples has provided its support to institutions such as the Robert F. Kennedy Foundation , Telethon , the Fondazione San Raffaele , the Stefano Borgonovo Foundation and Massimo Leone Foundation .
The Neapolitan club also undertook several initiatives in support of the victims of the earthquake of 2009 , from the transfer of the proceeds of the games to raise funds for the construction of a sports center in the capital of the Abruzzo .
= = = Sponsors and manufacturers = = =
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Napoli is the fourth most supported football club in Italy with around 13 % of Italian football fans supporting the club . Like other top clubs in the country , Napoli 's fanbase goes beyond the Italian border ; it has been estimated by the club that there are around 6 million fans worldwide . Napoli is reputed to be one of the biggest clubs in Europe , with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe .
= = = Rivalries = = =
The Napoli fans have always had bad relations especially with the teams from the North of Italy . One of the first historical rivalries was with Hellas Verona , and later on in the second half of the 1980s rivalry with Inter Milan , Juventus and AC Milan was born , as Napoli defied the " Triad of the North " for the title of Champions of Italy .
The hostility of the ultras of Napoli with the fans of Lazio comes from the old friendship that Napoli had in the eighties with Roma fans , Napoli fans used to call Roma fans " cousins " , friendship then broke after the umbrella gesture of Salvatore Bagni of 25 October 1987 and after that came a very strong rivalry with the Roma .
Also there still remain rivalries with Sampdoria , Reggina and also with the Atalanta , Avellino , Bari , Bologna , Brescia , Cagliari , Lecce , Salernitana , Vicenza and Udinese . Other minor rivalry with Foggia , Perugia , Pisa , Pistoiese and Ternana .
= = = Derbies = = =
Unlike other Italian cities such as Genoa , Milan , Rome and Turin , Napoli is the only major football club in the city and therefore there is no derby in the strict sense of the term . Nevertheless , the fans of Napoli do co @-@ star in two particular derbies in Italy against other regional teams :
Derby della Campania generally refers to a rivalry with regional clubs , mainly Avellino and Salernitana . However , both teams have largely played in the lower divisions and meetings are largely limited to the Coppa Italia .
Derby of the Sun ( also called Derby of the South ) , at the height of its popularity in the seventies and eighties , starring Napoli and Roma .
= = = Friendships = = =
The twinning between supporters of the clubs Napoli and Genoa football club is one of the oldest in Italian football which started back on 16 May 1982 following a 2 – 2 draw in Naples between the two teams on the final day of the 1981 – 1982 Serie A season , a result that allowed the escape of Genoa from relegation and condemned AC Milan for the second time to relegation from Serie A to Serie B in its history . The history and friendship got even stronger for both teams when on the last day of the season in Serie B in the 2006 – 2007 season when both teams finished with a 0 – 0 draw at Genoa , ensuring both teams promotion to Serie A. Genoa ultras could be seen holding up banners saying " Benvenuto fratello napoletano " , meaning " Welcome , Neapolitan brother " . The historic partnership between the two groups of supporters was also honoured and supported by marketing initiatives .
There is also a strong supporter of friendship with Ancona and there are good relations with the fans of Catania and Borussia Dortmund .
A sympathy and good friendship was born with supporters of the Romanian football team Universitatea Craiova following the elimination of rivals FC Steaua Bucureşti from the Europa League at the hands of Napoli . They have a long @-@ standing friendship with Bulgarian fans of Lokomotiv Plovdiv ; Napoli gave birth to the name Napoletani Ultras Plovdiv and that is how the friendship arose .
= = S.S.C. Napoli as a company = =
S.S.C. Napoli was expelled from the professional league in 2004 . Thanks to Article 52 of N.O.I.F. , the sports title was transferred to Napoli Soccer ( later the new Napoli ) in the same year , while the old Napoli was liquidated . In the eve of bankruptcy , the club was in deep financial trouble to achieve positive operating income ( excluding windfall profit from players trading ) . At that time clubs using cash plus player swap to boost short term profit ( € 28 @,@ 329 @,@ 090 in 2000 – 01 ; € 17 @,@ 721 @,@ 534 in 2001 – 02 season ) , but also increased the long term cost ( as amortization ) by purchasing players . In the second last season before bankruptcy , the club was partially saved by the non @-@ standard accounting practice of amortization. it was due to Silvio Berlusconi , owner of Milan and prime minister of Italy , introduced Italian Law 91 / 1981 , Article 18B . Napoli was dramatically reduced the amortization from € 33 @,@ 437 @,@ 075 to € 1 @,@ 659 @,@ 088 + € 4 @,@ 660 @,@ 123 , due to € 46 @,@ 601 @,@ 225 of the intangible asset ( player contract ) , was deferred to amortize in 10 @-@ year installments , instead of varying from 1 to 5 years by the length of player contract . However , the practice was unable to save the club from the financial aid from the sugar daddy , which the owner withdrew .
Since refound in 2004 , S.S.C. Napoli S.p.A. had a sustainable management strategy . The club has one of thee largest supporting group in Italy ( or fourth , behind Juventus and Milan teams ) which was the main source of income , in terms of gate revenue and TV rights . Except the first few seasons , Napoli made an aggregate profit in successive years : in 2004 – 05 and 2005 – 06 season the net loss were € 7 @,@ 061 @,@ 463 and € 9 @,@ 088 @,@ 780 . In 2006 – 07 Serie B , Napoli made its first profit of € 1 @,@ 416 @,@ 976 The first Serie A season made new born Napoli had a net profit of € 11 @,@ 911 @,@ 041 It followed by a net profit of € 10 @,@ 934 @,@ 520 , due to the income from European matches was offset by the increase in cost . In 2009 – 10 season , Napoli heavily invested on players , made that season had a net profit of just € 343 @,@ 686 . In 2010 – 11 Serie A , Napoli returned to the right track with € 4 @,@ 197 @,@ 829 net profit . It was due to the new collective TV rights of Serie A , as well as qualified to 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League .
Napoli shareholder equity on 30 June 2005 was a negative of € 261 @,@ 466 , which the club started from € 3 million capital and re @-@ capitalized € 3 @.@ 8 million during 2004 – 05 Serie C1 . On 30 June 2006 the equity was increased to € 211 @,@ 220 , as the net loss was backup by a re @-@ capitalisation of € 9 @.@ 3 million + € 261 @,@ 466 for previous net loss . On 30 June 2007 the equity was increased to € 1 @,@ 961 @,@ 975 , due to the net profit and a re @-@ capitalised of € 288 @,@ 780 ( to make the share capital back to € 500 @,@ 000 ) . On 30 June 2008 the equity was increased to € 13 @,@ 829 @,@ 015 with a capital increase of just € 1 @,@ 000 . The net income contributed the increase in equity on 30 June 2009 , which was € 24 @,@ 763 @,@ 537 . On 30 June 2010 the equity was at € 25 @,@ 107 @,@ 223 . On 30 June 2011 the equity was increased to € 29 @,@ 305 @,@ 052 . Though less than € 17 million equity contribution in total from Filmauro , Napoli achieved self @-@ sustainability by good management and its large fans base .
= = Honours = =
= = = National titles = = =
Serie A
Winners ( 2 ) : 1986 – 87 , 1989 – 90
Coppa Italia
Winners ( 5 ) : 1961 – 62 , 1975 – 76 , 1986 – 87 , 2011 – 12 , 2013 – 14
Supercoppa Italiana
Winners ( 2 ) : 1990 , 2014
= = = European titles = = =
UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League
Winners ( 1 ) : 1988 – 89
= = = Minor titles = = =
Serie B
Winners ( 2 ) : 1945 – 46 ( Serie A @-@ B Southern Italy co @-@ champions with Bari ) , 1949 – 50
Runners @-@ up ( 4 ) : 1961 – 62 , 1964 – 65 , 1999 – 00 , 2006 – 07
Serie C1
Winners ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup
Winners ( 1 ) : 1976
Coppa delle Alpi
Winners ( 1 ) : 1966
= Fairey Spearfish =
The Fairey Spearfish was a British carrier @-@ based , single @-@ engined , torpedo bomber / dive bomber that was ordered from Fairey Aviation for the Fleet Air Arm during World War II . Designed during the war , the prototype did not fly until July 1945 . Much larger than earlier naval bombers , it was designed for use aboard the large Malta @-@ class aircraft carriers that were cancelled after the war and was itself cancelled thereafter . Seven prototypes were ordered , but only five were built , of which four actually flew . They were mostly used for experimental work until the last aircraft was scrapped in 1952 .
= = Design and development = =
The Spearfish was designed by Fairey Aviation to Admiralty Specification O.5 / 43 as a replacement for the Fairey Barracuda in the torpedo / dive bomber role . In comparison to the Barracuda , the Spearfish had a much more powerful engine , an internal weapons bay and a retractable ASV Mk.XV surface @-@ search radar mounted behind the bomb bay . The Spearfish was half as large again as the Barracuda , as it was designed to be operated from the 45 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) Malta @-@ class aircraft carriers then under development .
In August 1943 , the company received an order for three prototypes to be built against Specification O.5 / 43 and the first prototype , serial number RA356 , was constructed at Fairey 's Hayes factory and first flew on 5 July 1945 from Heston Aerodrome ; the other two did not fly until 1947 . In November 1943 the company was ordered to build a dual @-@ control dive @-@ bombing trainer variant against Specification T.21 / 43 and this was built at the Heaton Chapel factory and assembled and flown at Ringway on 20 June 1946 . Three further development aircraft were ordered in May 1944 to be built at Heaton Chapel , with the last two to be fitted with a Rolls @-@ Royce Pennine engine ; only the first Centarus @-@ engined aircraft was built but never flew .
Production orders for 150 aircraft were placed to be built at Heaton Chapel ; the first ten aircraft were intended to use 2 @,@ 600 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) Bristol Centaurus radial engine , Centaurus 59 engines on the next 22 , and Centaurus 60s of the remainder . In addition , the flaps were to be enlarged and lateral control was to be provided by spoilers with small " feeler " ailerons . With the cancellation of the Malta @-@ class carriers , the Fleet Air Arm no longer had a requirement for new torpedo bombers and the programme was cancelled . Work continued on the two other prototypes built at Hayes after the cancellation of the contract , albeit very slowly .
Test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown evaluated the first prototype and found " the controls in cruising flight were very heavy and , in fact , lateral control was so solid that I could barely move the ailerons with one hand at 130 knots ( 240 km / h ; 150 mph ) . " In bad weather a pilot circling a carrier while waiting to land would have been forced to fly such a wide circuit that he could not always keep the carrier in sight in bad weather . The later prototypes had ailerons boosted by hydraulic power and artificial feel to the stick from a spring , as an interim measure but Brown found " the second prototype was much less the pleasant aircraft to fly as the stick continually hunted either side of neutral and there was no build up of stick force with increase in speed . " The Spearfish lacked any sort of stall warning , which would have been a problem in operational use as the stall and approach speeds were fairly close . For the landing , the aircraft proved quite docile .
The first prototype was later used by Napier & Son at Luton for trials of the firm 's inflight de @-@ icing systems . It was then briefly used for ground @-@ training purposes beginning on 30 April 1952 , until scrapped shortly afterwards . The second prototype was used by the Royal Navy Carrier Trials Unit at RNAS Ford , Sussex , until it was sold for scrap on 15 September . The third prototype conducted ASV Mk.XV radar trials , but was damaged in a heavy landing on 1 September 1949 and sold for scrap on 22 August 1950 as uneconomical to repair . The fourth prototype never flew and was used as a source of spares . The sole Heaton Chapel @-@ built aircraft was the closest to the planned production configuration and it was used for engine @-@ cooling and power @-@ assisted flying @-@ control trials , until it was struck off charge on 24 July 1951 .
In a follow @-@ up , to meet Specification O.21 / 44 for a two @-@ seat strike fighter , the Spearfish was redesigned to accommodate a twin @-@ coupled Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine and contra @-@ rotating propellers . A variety of other engines were considered and although a production order was placed for three examples in 1944 , the programme was eventually shelved , remaining as an unfulfilled paper project .
= = Description = =
The Spearfish was a cantilever , mid @-@ wing monoplane , with an all @-@ metal , monocoque fuselage . The centre wing section was built integral with the fuselage and the outer wing panels could be hydraulically folded for carrier operations . A distinguishing feature of the wing was the large Fairey @-@ Youngman flaps that spanned 73 @.@ 5 % of the wing 's trailing edge . The Spearfish had an outward @-@ retracting conventional landing gear with a tailwheel . The wings housed a pair of 183 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 830 l ; 220 US gal ) fuel tanks , plus a 43 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 200 l ; 52 US gal ) tank in the leading edge of the starboard wing for a total of 409 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 860 l ; 491 US gal ) of fuel . The two @-@ man tandem cockpit had a hydraulically operated canopy .
The large internal weapons bay could alternatively carry up to four 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs , four depth charges , a torpedo , or a 180 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 820 l ; 220 US gal ) auxiliary fuel tank . The Spearfish was intended to carry four 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns , two in a remote @-@ controlled Fraser @-@ Nash FN 95 barbette behind the cockpit and two in the wings . The only external offensive armament was 16 RP @-@ 3 rockets that could be carried underneath the outer wing panels .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Royal Navy , Fleet Air Arm
= = Specifications ( Spearfish ) = =
Data from Fairey Aircraft Since 1915 & The Spearfish ... A Misconceived Welterweight
General characteristics
Crew : two
Length : 44 ft 7 in ( 13 @.@ 59 m )
Wingspan : 60 ft 3 in ( 18 @.@ 36 m )
Height : 13 ft 6 in ( 4 @.@ 11 m )
Empty weight : 15 @,@ 200 lb ( 6 @,@ 895 kg )
Gross weight : 21 @,@ 642 lb ( 9 @,@ 817 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 22 @,@ 083 lb ( 10 @,@ 017 kg )
Fuel capacity : 409 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 860 l ; 491 US gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus 57 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 825 hp ( 2 @,@ 107 kW )
Propellers : 5 @-@ bladed Rotol VH 65 , 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 292 mph ( 470 km / h ; 254 kn )
Cruise speed : 196 mph ( 170 kn ; 315 km / h )
Range : 1 @,@ 036 mi ( 900 nmi ; 1 @,@ 667 km )
Combat range : 349 mi ( 303 nmi ; 562 km )
Service ceiling : 25 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 620 m )
Time to altitude : 7 @.@ 75 minutes to 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 048 m )
Armament
Guns : 4 × .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning machine guns , two in the wings and two in a Frazer @-@ Nash FN95 remote @-@ controlled dorsal barbette
Rockets : 16 × RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on underwing rails
Bombs : carried in an internal weapons bay ; either :
1 × torpedo or
2 @,@ 000 lb ( 907 kg ) of bombs or depth charges
= Adams Avenue Parkway =
The Adams Avenue Parkway is a one @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 800 m ) private toll road in the U.S. state of Utah connecting U.S. Route 89 ( US @-@ 89 ) to Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) near Washington Terrace , Utah . The roadway opened in 2001 at a cost of $ 8 @.@ 9 million and was created after decades of requests by locals to connect the
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She returned to Germany briefly for a modernization in 1898 – 1899 , before being assigned to the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . During her tour in the Pacific , she participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China in 1900 . Her assignment in the Pacific was interrupted by the 1905 Maji @-@ Maji Rebellion in German East Africa , which prompted the German Navy to send Seeadler there .
Seeadler remained in East Africa for the next nine years , returning to Germany finally in January 1914 . She had spent over thirteen years abroad since her 1899 modernization , the longest period of continuous overseas service of any major German warship . After arriving in Germany , she was decommissioned . She was not mobilized after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , being too old to be of any fighting value . She was instead used as a mine storage hulk outside Wilhelmshaven . On 19 April 1917 , her cargo of mines exploded and destroyed the ship , though there were no casualties . Her wreck was never raised for scrapping .
= = Design = =
Seeadler was 83 @.@ 9 meters ( 275 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 864 t ( 1 @,@ 835 long tons ; 2 @,@ 055 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . These provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) and a range of approximately 2 @,@ 950 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 460 km ; 3 @,@ 390 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She had a crew of 9 officers and 152 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with eight 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 35 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns in single pedestal mounts , supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 10 @,@ 800 m ( 35 @,@ 400 ft ) . Two guns were placed side by side forward , two on each broadside , and two side by side aft . The gun armament was rounded out by five revolver cannon . She was also equipped with two 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes , both of which were mounted on the deck .
= = Service history = =
Seeadler , named for the sea eagle , was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Danzig in late 1890 . She was launched on 2 February 1892 , originally named Kaiseradler . The shipyard director , Kapitän zur See Aschmann gave the launching speech . She was completed by 27 June 1892 , when she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy . The ship was renamed on 17 August when she was commissioned , since Kaiser Wilhelm II decided to rename his first yacht Kaiseradler instead . Seeadler began her sea trials the same day . On 25 October , she was accidentally rammed by the armored corvette Bayern in Kiel , but she suffered only light damage . Her trials lasted until 17 November ; she formally entered service with the fleet on 15 March 1893 .
After her commissioning , Seedadler was slated to replace Schwalbe in the East African Station in German East Africa . But first , Seeadler and the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta conducted a good @-@ will visit to the United States , a belated celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus 's first voyage across the Atlantic . The ships left Kiel on 25 March , but due to a mistaken estimate for the amount of coal that would be necessary to cross the Atlantic , Seeadler ran out of fuel while en route . Kaiserin Augusta took the cruiser under tow to Halifax , where she refilled her coal bunkers . The two cruisers reached Hampton Roads on 18 April . Ships from nine other navies , including the US Navy , arrived for a major celebration in New York harbor that was reviewed by Grover Cleveland , the President of the United States . Seeadler attracted particular attention due to her yacht @-@ like appearance .
= = = Deployment to East Africa = = =
After the conclusion of the festivities in the United States , Seeadler steamed back across the Atlantic , first to the Azores , before proceeding into the Mediterranean Sea and then into the Red Sea . There , she met Schwalbe at Aden on 20 June . Seeadler proceeded to Bombay , India for a period of routine maintenance that lasted from 3 July to 21 August . The cruiser finally arrived on station on 2 September when she dropped anchor in Zanzibar , where she met the survey ship Möwe , the other vessel on the East Africa Station . On 9 September both ships went to Kilwa ; a group of slave traders had attacked the small detachment of Polizeitruppe ( police force ) stationed there . The colonial army , the Schutztruppe ( protection force ) was unavailable to reinforce the police troops , and so Seeadler and Möwe bombarded the slavers and neutralize the threat .
Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Lourenço Marques in Portuguese Moçambique . A rebellion in the Portuguese colony threatened German nationals residing in the city ; Seeadler evacuated the civilians and took them to Zanzibar , where they arrived on 15 November . During this period , Möwe was transferred to German New Guinea , and Seeadler 's sister ships Condor and Cormoran arrived in German East Africa . Condor was to reinforce Seeadler and Cormoran was to continue on to the Pacific , but the latter remained in the area temporarily to strengthen the German naval force in the region . This was done both to observe the damage to German economic interests in Moçambique and as a show of force to prevent British encroachment on Delagoa Bay , which was the only supply port for the independent Transvaal . In January 1895 , Condor took over Seeadler 's role on the East African coast .
On 10 January , Seeadler departed for Bombay , where her boilers were repaired in a major overhaul . Workers from the Kaiserliche Werft in Kiel were sent to do the work . Seeadler was back in service by May , and on 18 May she departed Bombay , arriving in East Africa on 31 May . Cormoran was meanwhile detached from East Africa and allowed to continue to the Pacific . The rest of the year was uneventful for Seeadler , though she became briefly involved in political developments in East Africa . The British Jameson Raid into the Transvaal in December 1895 threatened some 15 @,@ 000 German nationals in the Transvaal , along with the investment of 500 million gold marks in the country . The German governor considered ordering Seeadler to contribute a landing force to protect the German consul in Pretoria , the capital of the Transvaal , but the defeat of the Jameson Raid rendered the plan redundant . Seeadler nevertheless remained in East Africa while tensions cooled . In mid @-@ February 1896 , she went to Cape Town for her yearly overhaul .
After completing her repairs , Seeadler was ordered to German South @-@ West Africa on 28 April to assist the Schutztruppe in suppressing a local rebellion . The ship was tasked with interrupting the shipment of weapons from British arms dealers to the rebels . Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Swakopmund on 5 May ; she was joined there by the gunboat Hyäne . The two ships sent forces ashore to defend the city . At the end of the month , Seeadler returned to East Africa . On 2 October , she steamed to Zanzibar to take the deposed Sultan Khalid bin Barghash to Dar es Salaam following the brief Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War . On 20 December , Seeadler was again called to Lourenço Marques after the German consul there , Graf von Pfeil was attacked by Portuguese colonial police . Condor joined her there on 2 January 1897 to strengthen the show of force . Seeadler thereafter proceeded to Cape Town for her yearly overhaul .
The following two years proceeded uneventfully . In January 1898 , Seeadler again returned to Cape Town for an overhaul before being ordered to return to Germany on 3 May . She left Dar es Salaam three days later and arrived in Aden on 31 May . There she met Schwalbe , which was replacing her in East Africa . Seeadler returned to Kiel on 26 June , and she was placed out of service on 9 July for a major overhaul in Danzig . The work was done at the Kaiserliche Werft , and the changes included removing the main mast and cutting down her rigging to a topsail schooner rig . On 3 October 1899 , Seeadler was recommissioned and was ordered to replace her sister Falke on the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . She departed Kiel on 19 October and stopped in Tangiers on 27 – 28 October to force restitution from the Moroccan government for German financial damages . Seeadler then proceeded to Germany 's south @-@ Pacific colonies , arriving on 15 November .
= = = Deployment to the Pacific = = =
Following her arrival in the Pacific , Seeadler first went to the Admiralty Islands on 18 January 1900 in response to the murder of European businessmen by natives there . Starting on 30 January , she took a cruise to tour the German holdings in the area that lasted for several weeks . Stops included the Caroline Islands and the Mariana Islands , both of which had been recently purchased from Spain . In May , a cruise to German Samoa followed ; there she met Cormoran . The two ships then toured the islands with the governor of German Samoa , Wilhelm Solf , and the Samoan chief , Mata 'afa Iosefo aboard Seeadler . In July 1900 , following the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China the previous year , Seeadler was sent from the South Seas Station to assist in the Western suppression of the Boxers . She arrived in Tsingtau in the Kiautschou Bay concession and joined the ships of the East Asia Squadron . She spent the following months off Chinese harbors with the armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck and the protected cruiser Hertha .
On 24 April 1901 , Seeadler was ordered to steam to the island of Yap in the Carolines to assist the stranded Norddeutscher Lloyd postal steamer SS München . A pair of tugboats had managed to pull the steamer free by the time Seeadler arrived on 3 May , though the cruiser 's crew assisted with repairs to the ship 's damaged hull . Seeadler thereafter returned to East Asia and resumed her patrols of Chinese harbors , though during this period she also visited Japanese harbors as well . These duties lasted until the end of 1902 . During Seeadler 's operations in China , her crew suffered only one casualty from enemy action . On 2 January 1903 , her sister Bussard arrived to take her place in East Asian waters , allowing Seeadler to return to the South Seas Station . Seeadler underwent a periodic overhaul in Uraga , outside Tokyo , Japan from 3 August to 14 September .
Following the outbreak of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 , Seeadler was recalled to Tsingtau to be prepared for any possible hostilities involving Germany . During this period , Cormoran was replaced by Condor ; the two cruisers were joined by Seeadler 's old consort from East Africa , the survey vessel Möwe . In early 1905 , Seeadler conducted goodwill visits to the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , before returning to Tsingtau in April . On 28 June , with the Russo @-@ Japanese War winding down following the decisive Japanese victory at the Battle of Tsushima , Seeadler was detached from the East Asia Squadron , permitting her return to the South Seas Station . While en route to her station area , Seeadler received an order to return to Africa during a stop at Ponape on 20 August . Her presence was necessary there to help put down a major uprising , the Maji Maji Rebellion , that had broken out in July . Seeadler ran aground twice , at Labuan and Singapore on her way to East Africa , but both incidents caused no damage . She arrived in Dar es Salaam on 1 October .
= = = Return to East Africa = = =
In mid @-@ October , Seeadler sent a landing party ashore at Samanga to protect the coastal telegraph line there . By mid @-@ December , she had returned to Dar es Salaam , before proceeding to Kilwa on 17 January 1906 . The cruiser was back in Dar es Salaam on 24 January . Another overhaul at Cape Town followed from 10 February to 16 March . By this time , the situation in East Africa had calmed , and the light cruiser Thetis , which had also been sent to suppress the Maji @-@ Maji uprising , was sent back to Germany . Seeadler nevertheless remained in the region , and was formally assigned to the East Africa Station in early 1907 . In October 1907 , then @-@ Korvettenkapitän ( Corvette Captain ) Hugo Meurer served as the ship 's commanding officer . He would hold the position until June 1909
In 1908 , Seeadler was joined by Bussard on the East Africa Station . From 18 February to 18 March , Seeadler underwent another overhaul at Cape Town . She thereafter proceeded to German South @-@ West Africa , stopping in Walvis Bay and Swakopmund . There , she cruised with the gunboat Panther in March and early April . On 18 April , she was back in Dar es Salaam . Another period of dockyard repairs followed from 12 to 26 September , this time in Bombay . The rest of 1908 continued uneventfully for Seeadler , as did the next few years . The only significant event came in early November 1911 , when Seeadler pulled the Hamburg @-@ Bremen @-@ Afrika Linie steamer SS Irmgard free after she ran aground off Quelimane . In 1913 , the mayor of Cape Town hosted delegations from Seeadler and the British protected cruiser HMS Hermes . And at the end of December , the princes Leopold and Georg of Bavaria visited Seeadler in Dar es Salaam while on an overseas tour .
= = = Later service = = =
On 9 January 1914 , Seeadler departed East Africa for the last time , bound for Germany . She had spent nearly thirteen and a half years abroad , the longest uninterrupted period of overseas service of any major German warship . Her replacement , her sister Geier , had not yet arrived but was en route . Seeadler stopped in Aden on 22 January , and arrived in Kiel on 18 March . She was then moved to Danzig and decommissioned . On 6 May 1914 , she was reclassified as a gunboat . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was reduced to a hulk for storing naval mines since she was no longer fit for active service . She was towed to Wilhelmshaven and anchored in the outer roadstead . On 19 April 1917 , her cargo exploded while she was moored in the Jade outside Wilhelmshaven . The explosion destroyed the ship , but there were no casualties ; her wreck was never raised .
= Wyangala =
Wyangala / ˈwaɪæŋɡɑːlə / is a small village in the Lachlan Valley , near the junction of the Abercrombie and Lachlan Rivers , just below the Wyangala Dam wall . It is in the South West Slopes of New South Wales , Australia , and about 320 km ( 200 mi ) west of the state capital , Sydney .
The village was named after a Wiradjuri word of unknown meaning . The Wiradjuri people were the original inhabitants of the Lachlan Valley , with campsites along river flats , on open land and by rivers . In 1817 John Oxley and George William Evans were the first Europeans to explore the valley . White settlement commenced several years later in the 1830s , leading to violent clashes between the native population and the settlers .
The present @-@ day village was established in 1928 , during the construction of Wyangala Dam . However , in the same area , there was a scattered pioneering settlement known as Wyangala Flats , which was established in the 1840s . This settlement was submerged under water following the completion of Wyangala Dam in 1935 . Although Wyangala grew substantially during periods of dam construction , the population dwindled in the subsequent years . This resulted in the removal of houses and the closure of most businesses , leaving Wyangala with a small primary school , a Catholic church , sports fields and parks , in addition to other facilities . There are no buildings of historical note , as the original purpose of the village was to solely provide utilitarian accommodation for the construction workers .
Attractions in the area include Lake Wyangala ( used for power generation , water @-@ sports and fishing activities ) , a nine @-@ hole golf course , walking and mountain bike trails , and the 1 @.@ 37 km ( 0 @.@ 85 mi ) long dam wall itself . Wyangala has a warm and temperate climate with a diverse range of native and exotic plants and animals , including threatened and endangered species . The flora , fauna and village residents occupy a hilly landscape dominated by granite , with large rock outcrops and boulders throughout the entire area .
= = History = =
= = = European settlement and the Wiradjuri people = = =
The Wiradjuri people were the original custodians of the region surrounding Wyangala . These skilled hunter @-@ fisher @-@ gatherers wore possum @-@ skin cloaks and lived along river flats , on open ground and by rivers . They were , and still remain , the largest indigenous group in New South Wales , with tribal lands encompassing the Macquarie , the Lachlan and the Murrumbidgee rivers .
Archaeological investigations have identified over 200 Wiradjuri campsites around Wyangala , suggesting the native population in the area was originally high . Campsites were located on gentle hill slopes , on elevated crests and on alluvial / colluvial terraces near the Lachlan River course .
The name ' Wyangala ' ( pronounced / ˈwaɪæŋɡɑːlə / ) originates from a Wiradjuri word of unknown meaning . However , similar sounding words in the Wiradjuri language indicate it may mean troublesome or bad ( wanggun ) white ( ngalar ) . The village , situated adjacent the Lachlan River , inherited this name , as did the scattered pioneering settlement of Wyangala Flats .
On 27 May 1815 , Deputy Surveyor George William Evans was the first European to discover the headwaters of the Lachlan River , naming it in honour of the NSW Governor , Lachlan Macquarie . Two years later Lieutenant John Oxley , with Evans by his side , explored the Lachlan from its junction with the Belubula River to the Great Cumbung Swamp , a distance of 1 @,@ 450 km ( 900 mi ) . As Oxley progressed down the Lachlan , he had friendly encounters with the Wiradjuri people , noting that the language they spoke was distinctly different from that used by the indigenous population on the coast . By the time Oxley had reached the Cumbung Swamp , he could advance no further due to the presence of ' impassable ' marshland , eventually being forced to abandon the journey and to turn back . Oxley believed he had reached a marshy inland sea , concluding that the interior of Australia was ' uninhabitable ' and unfit for settlement .
Despite Oxley 's bleak assessment of the Lachlan Valley , European settlement of the area began several years after the expedition . In 1831 Arthur Rankin and James Sloan , both cattlemen from Bathurst , were the first white settlers to move into the Valley . Encroachment on traditional Wiradjuri lands resulted in violent clashes between the indigenous population and the settlers . In the midst of this ongoing conflict , new land was made available in the Wyangala area by the colonial government . By the 1840s occupation licenses for land at Wyangala Flats were being auctioned from the Bathurst Police Office , and by 1860 country lots at Wyangala were selling from the Boorowa Police Office for £ 1 an acre . At this time and until the construction of the 1935 dam , the land at Wyangala was primarily used for wool production .
The conflict with the Wiradjuri people lessened by the 1850s , as gold mining and free selection brought new settlers to the area . The unrelenting tide of Europeans overwhelmed the indigenous population , resulting in the occupation of traditional lands , the destruction of sacred sites , and perhaps most damaging of all , the introduction of new diseases . This eventually led to the displacement and the decline of the Wiradjuri people .
= = = Gold and bushrangers = = =
Gold mining was prevalent in the nearby Mount McDonald area in the late 1800s and early 1900s after reef gold was discovered in 1880 . The quartz reefs were found by Donald McDonald and his party as they were prospecting the mountain ranges around Wyangala . It was mere chance that McDonald happened upon the gold — he had failed to find the precious metal in areas where he was looking . On the day of the discovery , he was returning to his campsite and saw sunlight reflecting off something beneath a tree , this turned out to be the first piece of gold . This eventually led to the discovery of two gold @-@ rich quartz reefs . As news of his discovery spread , miners were drawn to the area and slowly the township of Mount McDonald grew out of the forest . In its prime , the town had
some 600 persons living there as well as many people in the surrounding district . A school , at least one ( Catholic ) Church , banks , a general store ... a resident doctor and the inevitable pubs .
By the late 1920s , as mining declined , the town faded away . A hamlet of no more than 4 or 5 houses exists where the Mt McDonald township once stood .
Although most of the gold mining activity was limited to Mount McDonald , alluvial gold and precious gems were also found along the banks of the Lachlan River at Wyangala in the early 1900s . However , the find was not significant enough to see commercial interest .
The discovery of gold in other parts of New South Wales in the years prior to that found at Mount McDonald , led to increased bushranger activity . During the 1860s and 1870s the Lachlan Valley had serious problems with bushrangers , notably gangs led by Frank Gardiner , John Gilbert and Ben Hall , amongst others . Frank Gardiner was one of the most successful bushrangers of the time . His final robbery , which also was to be his greatest haul , occurred in 1862 at Eugowra Rocks . In this instance , Gardiner along with Ben Hall , John Gilbert and others , robbed a ' gold escort ' carrying in the range of ₤ 14 @,@ 000 – ₤ 22 @,@ 000 in gold and cash . It was rumored that Gardiner convinced the gang members to bury their share of the gold in a mountain cave near Wyangala .
Somewhere on a rock @-@ strewn mountain near the Fish River that empties into the Wyangala Dam , a fortune in stolen gold lies hidden .
Gardiner was to give the gang members a signal when it was safe to recover the gold . This was never to happen , as Gardiner was eventually exiled to the United States after being sent to prison . Five years after the heist , an Irishman arrived in New South Wales with a rough map marking the location of the gold , purportedly drawn by Gardiner . Even with this map and years of searching , no trace of the gold was ever found . By the late 1800s improved police efficiency was bringing to a close the era of the bushranger , many of whom had been gaoled , exiled , shot or hanged . This decline in criminal activity coincided with a general push to populate the region , the introduction of telegraph communications , and the development of transport infrastructure .
= = = 20th century = = =
By the early 1900s , unreliable river flows were stifling development in the Lachlan Valley . In 1902 the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales recognised the need for water conservation . Recurrent droughts and their associated effects on waterways , were impacting production and causing significant livestock deaths . The Assembly considered options to address the problem , including a proposal to build a reservoir at Wyangala . Previous surveys of the Lachlan Valley had identified Wyangala as being the only suitable location for a large water storage . These early discussions eventually led to the construction of the 1935 dam and the beginnings of present @-@ day Wyangala village .
= = = = 1928 – 1935 dam construction = = = =
To promote development in the region and to provide a reliable water supply , a dam was needed to regulate the Lachlan river @-@ flow . Following the completion of Burrinjuck Dam on the Murrumbidgee River , work started on Wyangala Dam . The official sod @-@ turning ceremony to mark the beginning of the A £ 1 @.@ 3 million project was performed by the NSW Premier , Sir Thomas Bavin , on 17 December 1928 . The ceremony was not conducted in the usual manner of turning over a sod of soil , it was achieved through the detonation of explosives , removing tonnes of earth and rock .
The ' galvanized @-@ iron town of Wyangala ' was established to house the construction workers on land once owned by the Green family — pioneering settlers . By January 1930 Wyangala had become a bustling center with 450 workers and their families in the village , and 74 children attending the new primary school . In the words of a district resident
the township is progressing rapidly . The most important buildings are : One post and telegraph office , two stores , two bakers ' shops , one police station , one medical practitioner , one butcher 's shop , one public hall and school , one church , one boarding @-@ house for the men employed at the works , one G.S. bank , one temporary power house , and about 40 private residences ... When the dam is full the water will cover our house . I should think it will be a nice sight when completed . A new road has just been built from Woodstock to the dam . It runs through some wonderful scenery . A 32 @-@ passenger bus runs from Woodstock to the dam tri @-@ weekly .
This major undertaking was not without incident . Four men died during the construction of the dam , the first being Leslie Jeffrey , falling into the Lachlan River and drowning in 1929 . His death was followed by that of Walter Watt , a laborer ( 1931 ) , Wickliffe Brien , a dogman ( 1931 ) and Patrick Lewis , a carpenter ( 1933 ) .
The original pioneering settlement and cemetery were submerged under water after the dam was completed in 1935 .
= = = = 1961 – 1971 dam upgrade = = = =
Wyangala failed to hold the surging floodwaters of the devastating 1952 deluge , which was greater than any water mass it had been designed to withstand .
Due to concerns about the original dam capacity to withstand floods and a projected increase in demand for water by the agricultural industry in the region , Wyangala Dam was upgraded and enlarged from 1961 to 1971 . With post @-@ war immigration at its height , the Wyangala population swelled with a multinational workforce . Housing for these workers and their families was provided in temporary demountable dwellings within the village . At this time and also during the 1935 dam build , utilitarian construction prevailed , giving Wyangala no dwellings of historical note .
The ten year , A £ 18 million enlargement project increased the storage capacity of the dam threefold . The total surface area of the upgraded reservoir was 5 @,@ 390 ha ( 13 @,@ 300 acres ) , storing 1 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 ML ( 43 @,@ 000 × 10 ^ 6 cu ft ) ( two and a half times the volume of Sydney Harbour ) , within a catchment of 8 @,@ 300 km2 ( 3 @,@ 200 sq mi ) .
The opening ceremony for the upgraded dam was scheduled to be performed by Sir Roden Cutler , Governor of NSW on February 8 , 1971 . However , because of heavy rains and road flooding three days prior to the event , the opening was delayed until August 6 , 1971 . Over 2000 guests and officials attended the ceremony . In the months and years following the dam opening , the population of Wyangala decreased significantly ; houses used by workers on the north @-@ west and north @-@ east sides of the village were removed , leaving only the houses seen in the present day village , just below the dam wall .
= = = = Post office , school and church = = = =
By March 1929 , with dam construction underway ( see above ) , up to 60 letters arrived in the village every day or two , whenever a vehicle made the trip from Cowra to Wyangala . With over 350 workers and their families already in the growing village , the lack of a post office or telegraph office was a great inconvenience to the residents . To alleviate this issue , and to provide the residents with a reliable postal service , Wyangala Dam Post Office was opened on 14 March 1929 . The newly opened post office stamped mail with a Type 2C postmark , which had a full stop after the ‘ W ’ of ‘ N.S.W. ’ .
Throughout the subsequent years , the village post office became an integral part of the Wyangala community , providing the expected postal and , at times , banking services ( as an agent for the Commonwealth Bank of Australia ) . In the post @-@ telegraph era , a manual telephone exchange was also located within the post office . The postmaster / mistress would run the telephone exchange in conjunction with running the post office . The telephone exchange was automated in the late 1980s and the post office itself was closed in 1998 .
Postmasters / mistresses from the 1970s until closure , included :
Ken and Peggy Bloomfield ( 1970s )
Rosa and Graham Parr ( 1970s to early 1980s )
Geoff and Vicki Scott ( early to mid 1980s )
Jim and Yvonne Thomas ( mid 1980s to early 1990s )
Peter Raudonkis ( 1990s )
Wyangala Dam Public School was established not long after the opening of the village post office , in 1929 . At the time it was the district 's second school . Its initial purpose was to provide primary level education for the children of the Dam construction workers . Since establishment , the school has been located at three different sites around the village . The first was near the present @-@ day bowling club , and then near the Vic Roworth Conference Center , and finally during the 1960s , it was moved to its current location on Waugoola Road . Notably , there was an earlier school at Wyangala , which was established 22 years prior . This school ran for six years and closed in 1913 .
The number of children attending the school has varied widely over the years , ranging from 70 + in 1930 , to 160 in the 1960s , to 20 + in the early 1980s , to under 10 in the 2000s .
The first church in Wyangala was a small building made from timber and corrugated iron , built during the construction of the 1935 dam . As with the village school , it was originally located near the present @-@ day country club , opposite the bowling green . After the dam was completed , the church was purchased by Mr Bert Priddle and transported to a property near Grenfell , where it was re @-@ erected and licensed as an Anglican place of worship on 17 November 1935 , eventually becoming consecrated by Bishop Wylde on 19 August 1953 .
The current church , St Vincent 's , was built at the center of the village under the direction of Aub Murray , with interdenominational help . It is of cinder block construction , with an iron roof . The church was officially opened on 19 November 1954 . The day after the opening , as preparations were being made for the first mass , a storm knocked down the rear wall of the church . Rebuilding the wall delayed the first mass until 5 December 1954 .
= = = = Murder = = = =
The only recorded case of a suspected murder in Wyangala village occurred in July 1935 , when the coroner , Mr H. D. Pulling found the death of Mr John Neilson , a worker at the dam , was caused by a bullet wound to the head . The suspects were named as Mrs Mavis Neilsen ( the victim 's wife ) and Mr Claude Charnock ( a family friend ) . Both suspects claimed the shooting was accidental and self @-@ inflicted . However , evidence from the post mortem , conducted by Dr Mahon of Cowra , and that of another witness , indicated the wound could not be self @-@ inflicted .
The suspects were charged and brought to trial in September 1935 , the Crown alleging that they conspired together to kill Mr John Neilson . A short time into the trial , before the prosecution could complete their case , there was a dramatic turn of events when the jury indicated they did not wish to continue , as ' the evidence was not good enough to convict the accused ' . The prosecutor appealed to the jury to wait to hear more witness and police testimony . However , after taking no more than a few seconds to consider the request , the jury members agreed there was no point continuing . Consequently , the judge acquitted both the accused and allowed them to go free .
= = Community = =
= = = Education , church hall and sport = = =
The village has a small one @-@ teacher primary school , Wyangala Dam Public School , located on Waugoola Rd . Students come from the nearby rural area , the villages of Wyangala and Darbys Falls , and the Mt McDonald hamlet . The school emphasises environmental education and runs a plant nursery , which provides trees and other flora to the local community .
Not far from the school , also on Waugoola Rd , there is a Catholic church , St Vincent 's , which serves as a community hall for village activities , in addition to providing mass services on Saturdays and Sundays .
Adjacent the village is a nine @-@ hole golf course , bowling green , tennis courts and cricket field . These facilities are managed by the Wyangala Country Club .
In August 2013 Wyangala Cricket Oval was officially renamed Matt Morrison Oval , in honour of Matt Morrison who had died earlier in the year . Development of the Wyangala Cricket Club oval and much of the sponsorship of the Wyangala Golf Club was attributed to him .
Sports clubs in Wyangala include the fishing , cricket , golf , bowling and ski clubs . The Fishing Club ( Wyangala Danglers ) has regular events and fishing competitions throughout the year , including inter @-@ club competitions . The Cricket Club competes in a district cricket competition with surrounding towns including , Carcoar , Morongla , Canowindra , Grenfell and Cowra teams . The Golf Club , on the other hand , has occasional challenges and events during the year ; and the Bowling Club holds regular casual meetings . The Ski Club has a club house on Main Beach of Wyangala Dam and holds occasional events during the year .
= = = Food , services and attractions = = =
The Wyangala Country Club , on the hillside opposite the village , has one restaurant , the Country Club Bistro , in addition to having a bar and entertainment facilities . Locals congregate at the club for regular sports club meetings , for discussion forums addressing important village issues , and for other community activities .
The village Service Station / store is located at the nearby Wyangala Waters State Park entrance . Diesel , Premium ULP , and Regular ULP are available . The store has a range of fishing and camping supplies , in addition to take away food and other supplies .
Wyangala has two conference venues , the first being the Vic Roworth Conference Center within the village , and the other being the community hall in Wyangala Waters State Park . Both have seating capacities for tens of participants .
There is one holiday house in the village , near Wyangala Dam Public School . Additional accommodation is found at Wyangala Waters State Park , which contains numerous powered and unpowered camping sites , five bungalows , three cottages , one lodge , seven cabins and Jayco ensuite cabins .
As early as the mid 1930s , Wyangala was earmarked as a major tourist attraction and important fishing ground for the Lachlan Valley . The objective of turning Wyangala into a ' national playground ' and resort was the vision of Reg Hailstone , a civic leader of the 1940s and 1950s . Although Wyangala never became a ' tourist resort ' , Hailstone 's vision for a national playground was fulfilled over the proceeding years .
Lake Wyangala ( the impounded reservoir within the Dam ) is a significant and popular inland fishing location . The lake contains :
Bream
Brown and Rainbow Trout
Carp
Catfish
Murray Cod
Silver , Golden and Macquarie Perch
Through the spring and summer seasons , Lake Wyangala is also utilised for various water sports , such as canoeing , jet @-@ skiing , sailing , swimming and water skiing . There are walking and mountain bike trails through bushland near the village and the State Park , and houseboat hire is available for those seeking the opportunity to explore the lake and catch fish . Waterslides located within the Park are currently not operating . Dissipater Park , just below the Dam wall , has BBQ facilities for picnics and other gatherings .
The 1 @.@ 37 km ( 0 @.@ 85 mi ) long Dam wall is a notable landmark in the Lachlan Valley . It is 85 m ( 279 ft ) high ( as tall as a 25 story building ) , and has a width at its base of 304 m ( 997 ft ) . It can be viewed from various locations around the village and from nearby lookouts , as well as from many kilometers away on Darbys Falls Road . Historically , it was possible to drive across the top of the wall . However , as of June 2014 , vehicle access was closed following the completion of an alternative access road ( Trout Farm Road ) and bridge downstream of the village .
= = Geography = =
= = = Location and demographics = = =
Wyangala is situated in the Australian state of New South Wales , approximately 320 km ( 200 mi ) west of Sydney . It lies in an area known as the South West Slopes , a region extending from north of Cowra , through southern New South Wales , and down into western Victoria .
In the 2011 census the population of Wyangala was 227 : 44 @.@ 9 % female and 55 @.@ 1 % male . The average age of the population is 54 years , 17 years above the Australian average . 78 @.@ 4 % of people living in Wyangala were born in Australia . Other countries of birth included England 5 @.@ 7 % , Finland 1 @.@ 8 % and the Netherlands 1 @.@ 8 % . The religious make up is 33 @.@ 5 % Anglican , 26 @.@ 9 % Catholic , 18 @.@ 1 % No Religion , 3 @.@ 5 % Uniting Church , 1 @.@ 8 % Lutheran .
59 @.@ 6 % of the people living in Wyangala are employed full @-@ time , 32 @.@ 3 % are working on a part @-@ time basis . Wyangala has an unemployment rate of 4 % . The main occupations of people from Wyangala are Managers 21 @.@ 3 % , Labourers 16 % , Technicians and Trades Workers 14 @.@ 9 % , Professionals 12 @.@ 8 % , Community and Personal Service Workers 11 @.@ 7 % , Clerical and Administrative Workers 9 @.@ 6 % , Sales Workers 6 @.@ 4 % , Machinery Operators And Drivers 4 @.@ 3 % . The median rent in Wyangala is $ 100 per week and the median mortgage repayment is $ 800 per month .
= = = Water resources = = =
The Lachlan Valley is a region of New South Wales ( NSW ) , which extends from Crookwell in the east , to Oxley in the west of the state . It covers a catchment area of 84 @,@ 700 km2 ( 32 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , making up 10 % of NSW . It is one of the most important agricultural regions in Australia ; accounting for 14 % of the state 's agricultural production . Lake Wyangala is the only major water storage within the Valley — supplying water to over 88 @,@ 000 ha ( 220 @,@ 000 acres ) of irrigated land . In addition to what is utilised by agricultural irrigators and horticulturalists , water from the reservoir is also used for : general industry , mining industries , recreational purposes , stock and domestic supplies , town water supply and aquatic habitat protection .
A hydro @-@ electric power station is located below the Wyangala Dam wall , beside the village , at Dissipater Park . It generates an average output of 42 @.@ 9 gigawatt @-@ hours ( 154 TJ ) per annum . This is enough electricity to supply almost 6400 three @-@ person households in the area , assuming 6 @,@ 723 kWh ( 24 @,@ 200 MJ ) per household per year .
= = = Biota , geology and climate = = =
Wyangala has a diverse range of native and exotic plants and animals , including vulnerable , threatened and endangered species . Flora and fauna found in and around the village include :
For major fish species in Lake Wyangala and the Lachlan River , see Attractions .
The aforementioned plant and animal species inhabit the geological subdivision known as the Lachlan Fold Belt . It is a zone folded and faulted with Early Silurian Wyangala Granite , which has intruded passively , deformed Ordovician greywackes and volcaniclastics .
The local Wyangala landform is characterised by granite rock outcrops and large boulders , scattered throughout a hilly landscape . This contributes greatly to the soils of the area , which are largely formed from the weathering of granite . They include fragile , shallow stony soils on the steep slopes , to naturally acidic and sodic soils on the lower slopes . These soils are prone to degradation issues , and are susceptible to erosion , nutrient loss and salinity .
The climate is warm and temperate in Wyangala , with significant rainfall throughout the year . According to Köppen climate classification it is classified as Cfa . The average annual temperature in Wyangala is 15 @.@ 2 ° C ( 59 @.@ 4 ° F ) , and it receives about 600 mm ( 24 in ) precipitation . The warmest month of the year is January with an average temperature of 23 @.@ 9 ° C ( 75 @.@ 0 ° F ) . In July , the average temperature falls to 7 @.@ 9 ° C ( 46 @.@ 2 ° F ) , the lowest average temperature of the whole year .
The difference in precipitation between the driest month and the wettest month is 17 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 69 in ) . Average temperatures vary during the year by 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) .
= = Recent times = =
= = = Earthquake = = =
In October 2006 a magnitude 4 earthquake was felt throughout the New South Wales Central West , with the epicenter at Wyangala . An earthquake of this magnitude is classified as Light on the Richter scale and usually results in noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises . The State Water Corporation examined Wyangala Dam to see if it bore damage , finding that pressure and seepage gauges were unaffected by the earthquake . In addition , no damage or injuries were reported within the village or the State Park .
= = = Dam wall road closure = = =
In 2009 NSW State Water Corporation announced plans to permanently close public road access over Wyangala Dam wall , because of the introduction of ' tough new security measures ' and to comply with occupational health and safety requirements . This new policy was to coincide with a significant upgrade and increase in height of the Dam wall . State Water proposed that alternative access be provided to Wyangala via Mt McDonald Road . This announcement angered locals , as they believed the implications of such a change had not been considered . Concerns included :
Access to Wyangala Dam Public School , where children would need to travel 60 km ( 37 mi ) to get to school and back , instead of having a 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) journey
Local workers on the ' wrong ' side of the dam wall not being able to make the long detour via Mt McDonald Rd
The dangers of the narrow curves and bends on Mt McDonald road
Access time and ease of access for emergency services vehicles to Wyangala
The possible decline in patronage of Wyangala Waters State Park and Wyangala Country Club ( it is estimated over 75 % of visitors enter Wyangala via the Dam wall road )
The concerns voiced by local citizens , emergency services and local councils resulted in a review of the decision to reroute traffic through Mt McDonald road . Subsequently , a report prepared by Ian Armstrong recommended that a bridge be built across the Lachlan River , downstream of the village to give alternate access to Wyangala . This recommendation was accepted by most locals as the only viable option , even though there was dissent from people affected by the new road and bridge .
In June 2014 , the bridge ( Wyangala Bridge ) and new road ( Trout Farm Road ) were completed . As a result , vehicle access across the top of Wyangala Dam wall was closed .
= = = Removal of waterslides = = =
At the beginning of 2013 Wyangala Waters State Park advertised for expressions of interest to remove the water slides from within the Park . The slides had not been in use due to problems of Park management finding a suitable operator . This unexpected announcement by the Park resulted in an extensive campaign to save the slides .
Following the public outcry , the former NSW Deputy Premier , Andrew Stoner , put on hold plans to remove the slides , and moving forward , to appoint a group to review the slides future . This decision was welcomed by locals and the shire mayor , Bill West , who considered the slides " a very important tourist attraction ... and popular part of Cowra Shire " . As of June 2015 , no decision has been made regarding the future of the slides .
= = = Possible closure of school = = =
In 2015 , only 5 students were attending Wyangala Dam Public School . This significant decline in numbers has been attributed to the ageing population of the Wyangala community and the lack of any new young families within the village and surrounding area . Consequently , the school is at risk of closure if student numbers do not increase . A meeting to discuss the future of schooling within the village was held on 23 June 2015 with the Director of Public Schools Orange Network , allowing village residents and current and former students to ask questions and to present the case for keeping the school open . Any decision by the NSW Department of Education and Training regarding the schools future is to be decided later in 2015 . However , village residents have indicated they will create a working group to launch a campaign to attract new students to the school .
= = Timeline = =
A timeline of Wyangala and surrounding areas , from the 19th century until the 21st century :
Late 1800s
Prior to the establishment of present – day Wyangala .
Early 1900s
The commencement of present – day Wyangala village , with the construction of Wyangala Dam wall .
Late 1900s
During the 10 @-@ year period when Wyangala Dam was enlarged , and post upgrade .
Early 2000s
Areas once used for worker housing are now sports fields and a golf course .
= Georgetown Hoyas =
The Georgetown Hoyas are the athletics teams that officially represent Georgetown University in college sports . Part of the NCAA 's Division I , the Hoyas field 23 varsity level sports teams , most of which participate in the Big East Conference , with the exception of the Division I FCS Patriot League in football . In late 2012 , Georgetown and six other Catholic , non @-@ FBS schools announced that they were departing the Big East for a new conference . The rowing and sailing teams also participate in east coast conferences . The men 's basketball team is the school 's most famous and most successful program , but Hoyas have achieved success in a wide range of sports .
The team name is derived from the mixed Greek and Latin chant , " Hoya Saxa , " ( meaning " What Rocks " ) which gained popularity at the school in the late nineteenth century . The name Hoyas came into use in the 1920s . Most teams have their athletic facilities on the main campus of Georgetown University . The men 's basketball team plays most of their home games at the Verizon Center in downtown Washington , D.C. and the baseball team plays at Shirley Povich Field in Cabin John , Maryland . Lee Reed took over as the school 's athletic director in April 2010 .
= = Traditions = =
= = = The word " hoya " = = =
The University admits that the precise origin of the term " Hoya " is unknown . At some point before 1893 , students well @-@ versed in classical languages combined the Greek hoia or hoya , meaning " what " or " such " , and the Latin saxa to form Hoya Saxa ! , or " What Rocks ! " This cheer may either refer to the stalwart defense of the football team , or to the baseball team , which was nicknamed the " Stonewalls " , or to the actual stone wall that surrounds the campus .
After World War I , the term " Hoya " was increasingly used on campus , including for the newspaper and the school mascot . In 1920 , students began publishing the campus 's first sports newspaper under the name The Hoya , after successfully petitioning the Dean of the College to use it instead of the proposed name , The Hilltopper . " Hilltoppers " was also a name sometimes used for the sports teams . By the fall of 1928 , the newspaper had taken to referring to the sports teams as the Hoyas . This was influenced by a popular half time show at football games , where the mascot , a dog nicknamed " Hoya , " would entertain fans .
Georgetown 's unique team name has caused opponents to mock Georgetown with chants including " What 's a Hoya ? " Harrison High School , located in Kennesaw , Georgia , is the only other institution in the country licensed to share this name . However , Georgetown Preparatory School , which separated from the University in 1927 , uses the name " Little Hoyas " for its sports teams and shares the University 's blue and gray color scheme .
= = = Mascot = = =
Georgetown 's nickname is The Hoyas , but its mascot is " Jack the Bulldog . " Various breeds of dogs have been used by the sports teams as mascots since the early 1900s . Several notable bull terriers like Sergeant Stubby and " Hoya " were used at football games in the 1920s , as was a Great Dane in the 1940s . However , in 1951 , the school suspended its football program because of the increasing cost of the game financially and academically , which left the school without an official live mascot .
In 1964 , the school permitted exhibition football games to resume , and students financed the purchase of a young English bulldog named Royal Jacket , whom they intended to rename " Hoya " , but he only responded to the callname " Jack " . This breed was chosen to represent the school because of their " tenacity . " The athletics department subsequently adopted as its logo a drawing of a bulldog sporting a blue and gray freshman beanie . The original Jack retired in 1967 , but the name was carried over to his successors . In 1977 , the university began the tradition of dressing up a student in a blue and gray bulldog costume , replacing the live bulldog , though several dogs periodically joined the costumed mascot during the 1980s and 1990s .
In 1999 , Scott R. Pilarz , S.J. , with the help of the Hoya Blue fan club , revived the tradition of an official live bulldog named Jack , to work along with the costumed mascot . When Pilarz left for the University of Scranton in 2003 , taking Jack with him , Georgetown secured a new bulldog puppy and found another Jesuit , Christopher Steck , S.J. , to care for him . The current bulldog is named " John S. Carroll , " a play on the name of Georgetown 's founder , which name allows for continuation of the " Jack the Bulldog " nickname . After Jack injured his leg in 2012 , two Georgetown parents donated a younger bulldog puppy , who the school refers to as " Jack Jr . "
= = = Colors = = =
Blue and gray are the official colors of Georgetown University and its athletic teams . The colors are an important reminder of the school 's past . During the American Civil War , Prussian blue was commonly used in Union uniforms , while cadet grey was used in Confederate uniforms . These colors were introduced by the rowing team in 1876 , who deemed blue and gray " appropriate colors for the [ Boat ] Club and expressive of the feeling of unity between the Northern and Southern boys of the College . " Girls from neighboring Georgetown Visitation sewed the original uniforms together for the team and presented the Boat Club with a blue and gray banner reading " Ocior Euro " ( Swifter than the Wind ) .
The basketball and lacrosse teams use gray as their primary color in home jerseys , with blue in away jerseys . White is also frequently used as an accent to these colors , and is actually the main color in the football and baseball teams ' away jerseys and the soccer team 's home jerseys . Campus spirit groups often encourage students to " bleed Hoya blue , " a slogan used on teeshirts and bumper stickers sold to fans . Fans are generally encouraged to wear gray to home games , and sellouts are referred to as a " gray out . " Though various shades are used , the primary ones suggested by the school 's identification policy are pantone 409 and pantone 282 , which is the same shade as Oxford Blue .
= = = Fight song = = =
The Georgetown Fight Song , known as " There Goes Old Georgetown " , is actually an amalgamation of three songs , only the oldest of which , 1913 's " The Touchdown Song " , contains the lyric " here goes old Georgetown " . Students combined a version of " The Touchdown Song " with " Cheer for Victory " , written in 1915 , and " The Hoya Song " , written in 1930 , both of which are included in their entirety . The authors of these songs , and of the combined version , are unknown .
Georgetown 's fight song is rare among U.S. university fight songs for mentioning other colleges by name . Specifically , it mentions Yale University , Harvard University , Princeton University , College of the Holy Cross , the United States Naval Academy , and Cornell University , who were all rivals of Georgetown in the early to mid @-@ 20th century , and mocks their fight songs . In recent years the Hoyas only play Cornell and Holy Cross regularly ( in football ) , and many of these schools no longer use the fight songs that Georgetown 's song mocks .
= = Varsity sports = =
Georgetown University fields 23 varsity level sports teams , 11 men 's teams , 11 women 's teams , and one co @-@ ed team . Intercollegiate sports include ( inaugural season in parentheses ) :
Men 's : baseball ( 1870 ) , basketball ( 1907 ) , crew ( 1876 ; 1958 ) , cross country ( 1924 ) , football ( 1887 ) , golf ( 1925 ) , lacrosse ( 1951 ) , soccer ( 1952 ) , swimming and diving ( 1949 ) , tennis ( 1920 ) , and track and field ( 1891 )
Women 's : basketball ( 1960 ) , crew ( 1975 ) , cross country ( 1976 ) , field hockey ( 1960 ) , golf ( 2001 ) , lacrosse ( 1975 ) , soccer ( 1991 ) , softball ( 2005 ) , swimming and diving ( 1975 ) , tennis ( 1960 ) , track and field ( 1976 ) , and volleyball ( 1960 )
Coed : sailing ( 1937 )
= = = Basketball = = =
The Georgetown University men 's basketball team is perhaps the most well @-@ known Hoya program . Georgetown 's first intercollegiate men 's basketball team was formed in 1907 . John Thompson III , son of the accomplished Hoyas coach John Thompson , is the current head coach . The Hoyas historically have been well regarded not only for their team success , but also for their ability to generate players that after graduation succeed both on the court , such as Patrick Ewing , and off , such as Paul Tagliabue and Henry Hyde . The team has reached the NCAA Tournament Final Four five times including the 1984 national championship , and has won the Big East Tournament seven times , and has also won or shared the Big East regular season title seven times .
The women 's basketball also plays in the Big East Conference , and are coached by Terri Williams @-@ Flournoy . The team was first formed in 1970 , and joined the Big East in 1983 . They play their home games on campus at McDonough Gymnasium . The women 's team so far has not seen the same success as the men 's , and have only been invited to the NCAA tournament three times , reaching the Sweet Sixteen in 1993 and 2011 , and the second round in 2010 . They have been invited to the Women 's National Invitation Tournament , five times , progressing furthest in 2009 by reaching the fourth round .
= = = Rowing = = =
Rowing at Georgetown has a distinguished history dating back to the founding of the Boat Club in 1876 . The team was however suspended from 1909 to 1920 due to lack of interest , and involvement in World War I. Georgetown added a men 's lightweight team in 1963 , a women 's team in 1975 , and a women 's lightweight team in 1996 .
The men have won 5 national championships at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association Regatta , the most recent being the men 's varsity lightweight fours with coxswain on June 5 , 2016 . The first national championship win was in 1991 with the varsity heavyweight fours with coxswain .
Under the guidance of coaches Tony Johnson and Steve Full , Georgetown competes as a member of the top leagues in American rowing , the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women 's Rowing Colleges . Georgetown 's four crew teams have seen success in recent years , including trips to the Henley Royal Regatta and entry into the Eastern Sprints for the men 's heavyweight and lightweight teams and second @-@ in @-@ the @-@ nation finishes for both men 's and women 's lightweight teams . Many Georgetown oarsmen and -women have gone on to represent the United States on national and Olympic teams . The lightweight women 's team has earned bronze medals at Women 's Eastern Sprints in the Lightweight Women 's Varsity 8 + in 2013 and the Lightweight Women 's Varsity 4 + in 2015 . The LW8 + crew earning bronze in 2013 was later named Row2k Crew of the Week .
The university rents space in Thompson Boat Center , though it has ongoing plans to build a new boathouse closer to campus . For land workouts , Georgetown rowers have access to the Rowing Training Center , a refurbished storeroom beneath the Leavey Center that was repurposed into an erg room in 2013 ( its underground , windowless location has inspired numerous nicknames such as the " Thunder Dungeon " )
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Sid installation discs . This branch can be installed through a system upgrade from Testing .
Other branches in Debian :
Oldstable is the prior Stable release . It is supported by the Debian Security Team until one year after a new Stable is released , and since the release of Debian 6 , for another 2 years through the Long Term Support project . Eventually , Oldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases .
Oldoldstable is the prior Oldstable release . It is supported by the Long Term Support community . Eventually , Oldoldstable is moved to a repository for archived releases .
Experimental is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system . It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in Unstable , where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded .
The snapshot archive provides older versions of the branches . They may be used to install a specific older version of some software .
= = = = Numbering scheme = = = =
Stable and Oldstable get minor updates , called point releases ; as of April 2016 , the Stable release is version 8 @.@ 5 , and the Oldstable release is version 7 @.@ 10 .
The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4 @.@ 0 was to include the letter r ( for revision ) after the main version number and then the number of the point release ; for example , the latest point release of version 4 @.@ 0 is 4.0r9. This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs .
From Debian 5 @.@ 0 , the numbering scheme of point releases was changed , conforming to the GNU version numbering standard ; the first point release of Debian 5 @.@ 0 was 5 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 instead of 5.0r1. The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update , which was version 7 @.@ 1 . The r scheme is no longer in use , but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs .
= = = = Code names = = = =
The code names of Debian releases are names of characters from the Toy Story films . Debian 8 was named Jessie , after the cowgirl in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3 . The Testing branch is currently named Stretch , after the toy rubber octopus in Toy Story 3 . The Unstable trunk is permanently nicknamed Sid , after the emotionally unstable boy next door who regularly destroyed toys .
This naming tradition came about because Bruce Perens was involved in the early development of Debian while working at Pixar .
= = = = Blends = = = =
Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ box for users with particular skills and interests . For example , Debian Jr. is made for children , while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists . The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends . " Debian Blend " ( without " Pure " ) is a term for a Debian @-@ based distribution that strives to become part of mainstream Debian , and have its extra features included in future releases .
= = = Logo = = =
The Debian " swirl " logo was designed by Raul Silva in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi @-@ official logo that had been used . The winner of the contest received an @ debian.org email address , and a set of Debian 2 @.@ 1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice . There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo 's meaning , but at the time of the logo 's selection , it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke that made computers work .
One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear , the chosen character for the first named Debian release , has a swirl in his chin . Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one .
= = = Archive areas = = =
The Debian Free Software Guidelines ( DFSG ) define the distinctive meaning of the word " free " as in " free and open @-@ source software " . Packages which comply with these guidelines , usually under the GNU General Public License , Modified BSD License or Artistic License , are included inside the main area ; otherwise , they are included inside the non @-@ free and contrib areas . These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media , but they can be adopted manually .
Non @-@ free includes packages which do not comply with the DFSG , such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software , and legally questionable packages . Contrib includes packages which do comply with the DFSG but fail other requirements . For example , they may depend on packages which are in non @-@ free or requires such for building them .
Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have criticized the Debian project for hosting the non @-@ free repository and because the contrib and non @-@ free areas are easily accessible , an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman . The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non @-@ free section has persisted , but the last time it came to a vote in 2004 , the majority decided to keep it .
= = = Multimedia support = = =
Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements , without sources or under too restrictive licenses , and regarding technologies such as Adobe Flash . Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non @-@ free area , software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian .
A notable third party repository exists , formerly named debian @-@ multimedia.org , providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs , libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player . Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat , a Debian developer , it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server . The repository provides packages already included in Debian , interfering with the official maintenance . Eventually , project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the " Debian " name . Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb @-@ multimedia.org. The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project .
= = = Hardware support = = =
= = = = Hardware requirements = = = =
Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets . Debian supports uniprocessor and symmetric multiprocessor systems . Debian 's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation , which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components :
The real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table . It is possible to install Debian with 60 MB of RAM for x86 @-@ 64 ; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition . The installer for z / Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM , but relies on network hardware . Similarly , disk space requirements , which depend on the packages to be installed , can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed . As of August 2014 , no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily .
It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low @-@ end systems , but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended , as desktop environments are more resource @-@ intensive . Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered , with those of the base operating environment .
= = = = Architecture ports = = = =
= = = = = Official ports = = = = =
As of the Jessie release , the official ports are :
amd64 : x86 @-@ 64 architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland and supporting 32 @-@ bit software
arm64 : ARMv8 @-@ A architecture
armel : Little @-@ endian ARM architecture ( ARMv4T instruction set ) on various embedded systems ( embedded application binary interface ( EABI ) )
armhf : ARM hard @-@ float architecture ( ARMv7 instruction set ) requiring hardware with a floating @-@ point unit
i386 : IA @-@ 32 architecture with 32 @-@ bit userland , compatible with x86 @-@ 64 machines
mips : Big @-@ endian MIPS instruction set
mipsel : Little @-@ endian MIPS instruction set
powerpc : PowerPC architecture
ppc64el : Little @-@ endian PowerPC64 architecture supporting POWER7 + and POWER8 CPUs
s390x : z / Architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland , intended to replace s390
= = = = = Unofficial ports = = = = =
Unofficial ports are available as part of the Unstable distribution :
alpha : DEC Alpha architecture
hppa : HP PA @-@ RISC architecture
hurd @-@ i386 : GNU Hurd kernel on IA @-@ 32 architecture
kfreebsd @-@ amd64 : Kernel of FreeBSD on x86 @-@ 64 architecture
kfreebsd @-@ i386 : Kernel of FreeBSD on IA @-@ 32 architecture
m68k : Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga , Atari , Macintosh and various embedded VME systems
mips64el : Little @-@ endian 64 @-@ bit MIPS instruction set
powerpcspe : PowerPCSPE architecture , incompatible with PowerPC
ppc64 : PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64 @-@ bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX
sh4 : Hitachi SuperH architecture
sparc64 : Sun SPARC architecture with 64 @-@ bit userland
x32 : x32 ABI userland for x86 @-@ 64
= = = Embedded systems = = =
Debian supports a variety of ARM @-@ based NAS devices . The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4 @.@ 0 and 5 @.@ 0 , and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6 @.@ 0 . Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro , GLAN Tank , Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations .
Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip ( SoC ) are supported too , such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products . There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices , but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches . Nevertheless , there are packages for resource @-@ limited systems .
There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points . Debian is known to run on set @-@ top boxes . Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor , which is used in electronic point of service solutions . Debian may be customized to run on cash machines .
BeagleBoard , a low @-@ power open @-@ source hardware single @-@ board computer ( made by Texas Instruments ) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board 's flash .
= = = Support for communities = = =
= = = = Localization = = = =
Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English , including package descriptions , configuration messages , documentation and the website . The level of software localization depends on the language , ranging from the highly supported German and French to the hardly translated Creek and Samoan . The installer is available in 73 languages .
= = = = Virtual communities = = = =
Debian provides packages made for virtual communities . The Facebook and Twitter application interfaces are available to programmers ; the Pidgin messaging client used a custom plugin for Facebook until the networking site added support for XMPP . Debian 5 @.@ 0 Lenny was the last release supporting Tencent QQ . Communication with Skype is possible using software in the contrib area .
= = Policies = =
Debian is known for its manifesto , social contract , and policies . Debian 's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes . As a result of its policies , a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems .
= = = Organization = = =
The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents :
The Debian Social Contract defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs .
The Debian Free Software Guidelines define the criteria for " free software " and thus what software is permissible in the distribution . These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition . Although this document can be considered separate , it formally is part of the Social Contract .
The Debian Constitution describes the organizational structure for formal decision @-@ making within the project , and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader , the Secretary and other roles .
Debian developers are organized in a web of trust . There are at present about one thousand active Debian developers , but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer .
The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers . For issues with single packages and other tasks , a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users . Internet Relay Chat channels ( primarily on the Open and Free Technology Community ( OFTC ) and freenode networks ) are also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help .
Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader . The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest , the owner of the Debian trademark , manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects .
A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers . The leader has special powers , but they are not absolute , and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks . Delegates make decisions as they think is best , taking into account technical criteria and consensus . By way of a General Resolution , the developers may recall the leader , reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate , amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions . The voting method is based on the Schulze method ( Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping ) .
Project leadership is distributed occasionally . Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud , a team of developers that assisted the leader , but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes . Anthony Towns created a supplemental position , Second In Charge ( 2IC ) , that shared some powers of the leader . Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself .
One important role in Debian 's leadership is that of a release manager . The release team sets goals for the next release , supervises the processes and decides when to release . The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers . Release assistants were introduced in 2003 .
= = = Developer recruitment , motivation , and resignation = = =
The Debian project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers . These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity , motivation , understanding of the project 's principles , and technical competence . This process has become much harder throughout the years .
Debian developers join the project for many reasons . Some that have been cited include :
Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian
To improve the support for their favorite technology
They are involved with a Debian derivative
A desire to contribute back to the free @-@ software community
To make their Debian maintenance work easier
Debian developers may resign their positions at any time or , when deemed necessary , they can be expelled . Those who follow the retiring protocol are granted the " emeritus " status and they may regain their membership through a shortened new member process .
= = = Development procedures = = =
Each software package has a maintainer that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non @-@ developer maintainers . The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases , and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian . Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy , even to fix non @-@ Debian specific bugs , although coordination with upstream developers is advised .
The maintainer releases a new version by uploading the package to the " incoming " system , which verifies the integrity of the packages and their digital signatures . If the package is found to be valid , it is installed in the package archive into an area called the " pool " and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide . The upload must be signed using OpenPGP @-@ compatible software . All Debian developers have individual cryptographic key pairs . Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor .
Initially , an accepted package is only available in the Unstable branch . For a package to become a candidate for the next release , it must migrate to the Testing branch by meeting the following :
It has been in Unstable for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes .
It does not have " release @-@ critical " bugs , except for the ones already present in Testing . Release @-@ critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release .
There are no outdated versions in Unstable for any release ports .
The migration does not break any packages in Testing .
Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in Testing or by packages being migrated at the same time .
The migration is not blocked by a freeze .
Thus , a release @-@ critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering Testing , because the updated library must meet the requirements too . From the branch viewpoint , the migration process happens twice per day , rendering Testing in perpetual beta .
Periodically , the release team publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release . A new release occurs after a freeze , when all important software is reasonably up @-@ to @-@ date in the Testing branch and any other significant issues are solved . At that time , all packages in the Testing branch become the new Stable branch . Although freeze dates are time @-@ based , release dates are not , which are announced by the release managers a couple of weeks beforehand .
A version of a package can belong to more than one branch , usually Testing and Unstable . It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of Oldstable , Stable , Testing and Unstable at the same time . Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package " pool " mentioned above .
= = = Security = = =
The Debian project handles security through public disclosure rather than through obscurity . Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary , are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public . There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs ; Steve Kemp , who started the project , retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014 .
The Stable branch is supported by the Debian security team ; Oldstable is supported for one year . Although Squeeze is not officially supported , Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long @-@ term support until February 2016 , five years after the initial release , but only for the IA @-@ 32 and x86 @-@ 64 platforms . Testing is supported by the Testing security team , but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as Stable . Unstable 's security is left for the package maintainers .
The Debian project offers documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically . Security @-@ Enhanced Linux and AppArmor support is available but disabled by default . Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper , and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection , unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD , but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags .
= = = = 2008 OpenSSL vulnerability = = = =
In May 2008 , it was revealed that a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu , made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack , since only 32 @,@ 767 different keys were generated . The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings . The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough ; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates .
= = = Derivatives = = =
Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions , and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase , including Ubuntu and Knoppix . As of 2016 , DistroWatch lists 126 active Debian derivatives . The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian . A sign of cooperation with Ubuntu can be seen in the Debian package tracker .
= = History = =
= = = Birth ( 1993 – 1998 ) = = =
Debian was first announced on August 16 , 1993 , by Ian Murdock , who initially called the system " the Debian Linux Release " . The word " Debian " was formed as a combination of the first name of his then @-@ girlfriend Debra Lynn and his own first name . Before Debian 's release , the Softlanding Linux System ( SLS ) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware . The perceived poor maintenance and prevalence of bugs in SLS motivated Murdock to launch a new distribution .
Debian 0 @.@ 01 , released on August 1993 , was the first of several internal releases . Version 0 @.@ 91 was virtually the first public release , providing support through mailing lists hosted at Pixar . The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto , outlining Murdock 's view for the new operating system . In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained openly , in the spirit of Linux and GNU .
The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995 . During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year . Ian Murdock delegated the base system , the core packages of Debian , to Bruce Perens and Murdock focused on the management of the growing project . The first ports to non @-@ IA @-@ 32 architectures began in 1995 , and Debian 1 @.@ 1 was released in 1996 . By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson , the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian .
In 1996 , Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership . Perens was a controversial leader , regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian . He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month @-@ long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines . After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate , Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF . He led the conversion of the project from a.out to ELF . He created the BusyBox program to make it possible to run a Debian installer on a single floppy , and wrote a new installer . By the time Debian 1 @.@ 2 was released , the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers . Perens left the project in 1998 .
Ian Jackson became the leader in 1998 . Debian 2 @.@ 0 introduced the second official port , m68k . During this time the first port to a non @-@ Linux kernel , Debian GNU / Hurd , was started . On December 2 , the first Debian Constitution was ratified .
= = = Leader election ( 1999 – 2005 ) = = =
From 1999 , the project leader was elected yearly . The Advanced Packaging Tool was deployed with Debian 2 @.@ 1 . The amount of applicants was overwhelming and the project established the new member process . The first Debian derivatives , namely Libranet , Corel Linux and Stormix 's Storm Linux , were started in 1999 . The 2 @.@ 2 release in 2000 was dedicated to Joel Klecker , a developer who died of Duchenne muscular dystrophy .
In late 2000 , the project reorganized the archive with new package " pools " and created the Testing distribution , made up of packages considered stable , to reduce the freeze for the next release . In the same year , developers began holding an annual conference called DebConf with talks and workshops for developers and technical users . In May 2001 , Hewlett @-@ Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian .
In July 2002 , the project released version 3 @.@ 0 , code @-@ named Woody , the first release to include cryptographic software , a free licensed KDE and internationalization . During these last release cycles , the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases .
Some events disturbed the project while working on Sarge , as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers . One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus . After a meeting held in Vancouver , release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles . There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian 's aim to be " the universal operating system " .
= = = Sarge and later releases ( 2005 – 2015 ) = = =
The 3 @.@ 1 Sarge release was made in June 2005 . This release updated 73 % of the software and included over 9 @,@ 000 new packages . A new installer with a modular design , Debian @-@ Installer , allowed installations with RAID , XFS and LVM support , improved hardware detection , made installations easier for novice users , and was translated into almost forty languages . An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively . The efforts of Skolelinux , Debian @-@ Med and Debian @-@ Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational , had a medical affiliation , and ones made for people with disabilities .
In 2006 , as a result of a much @-@ publicized dispute , Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian , with Firefox becoming Iceweasel and Thunderbird becoming Icedove . The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark . Two reasons that Debian modifies the Firefox software are to change the non @-@ free artwork and to provide security patches . In February 2016 , it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox ; similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove / Thunderbird .
A fund @-@ raising experiment , Dunc @-@ Tank , was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full @-@ time ; in response , unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed . Debian 4 @.@ 0 ( Etch ) was released in April 2007 , featuring the x86 @-@ 64 port and a graphical installer . Debian 5 @.@ 0 ( Lenny ) was released in February 2009 , supporting Marvell 's Orion platform and netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC . The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer , a developer who died in a car crash .
In July 2009 , the policy of time @-@ based development freezes on a two @-@ year cycle was announced . Time @-@ based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian 's policy of feature based releases , and to reduce overall freeze time . The Squeeze cycle was going to be especially short ; however , this initial schedule was abandoned . In September 2010 , the backports service became official , providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release .
Debian 6 @.@ 0 ( Squeeze ) was released in February 2011 , introduced Debian GNU / kFreeBSD as a technology preview , featured a dependency @-@ based boot system , and moved problematic firmware to the non @-@ free area . Debian 7 @.@ 0 ( Wheezy ) was released in May 2013 , featuring multiarch support and Debian 8 @.@ 0 ( Jessie ) was released in April 2015 , using systemd as the new init system . At present , Debian is still in development and new packages are uploaded to Unstable every day .
Throughout Debian 's lifetime , both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations , including Server Distribution of the Year 2011 , The best Linux distro of 2011 , and a Best of the Net award for October 1998 .
On December 2 , 2015 , Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU / Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform .
= Deepika Padukone =
Deepika Padukone ( pronounced [ d ̪ iːpɪkaː pəɖʊkoːɳ ] ; born 5 January 1986 ) is an Indian film actress . She is one of the highest @-@ paid Indian celebrities and is cited in the media as one of the nation 's most popular and attractive personalities . Padukone has established a career in Hindi films , and is the recipient of several awards , including three Filmfare Awards .
Padukone , the daughter of the badminton player Prakash Padukone , was born in Copenhagen and raised in Bangalore . As a teenager she played badminton in national level championships , but left her career in sport to become a fashion model . She soon received offers for film roles , and made her acting debut in 2006 as the title character of the Kannada film Aishwarya . Padukone then played dual roles in her first Bollywood release — the 2007 blockbuster Om Shanti Om — and won a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . Padukone received praise for portraying the lead female roles in the romance Love Aaj Kal ( 2009 ) and the drama Lafangey Parindey ( 2010 ) , but her performances in the romance Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) and the comedy Housefull ( 2010 ) met with negative reviews .
The 2012 box office hit Cocktail marked a turning point in Padukone 's career , earning her praise and Best Actress nominations at several award ceremonies . She rose to prominence with starring roles in the comedies Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) , Chennai Express ( 2013 ) , and Happy New Year ( 2014 ) , and the historical romance Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) , all of which rank among the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films . Padukone 's acclaimed portrayal of a character based on Juliet in the tragic romance Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) and a headstrong architect in the comedy @-@ drama Piku ( 2015 ) won her two Best Actress awards at Filmfare .
Alongside her acting career , Padukone participates in stage shows , has written columns for an Indian newspaper , is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products , and is vocal about issues such as feminism and depression . She has designed her own line of clothing for women and is the founder of The Live Love Laugh Foundation , which creates awareness on mental health in India .
= = Early life and modelling career = =
Deepika Padukone was born on 5 January 1986 in Copenhagen , Denmark , to Konkani @-@ speaking parents . Her father , Prakash , is a former badminton player of international repute , and her mother , Ujjala , is a travel agent . Her younger sister , Anisha , is a golfer . Her paternal grandfather , Ramesh , was a secretary of the Mysore Badminton Association . The family relocated to Bangalore , India , when Padukone was a year old . She was educated at Bangalore 's Sophia High School , and completed her pre @-@ university education at Mount Carmel College . She subsequently enrolled at the Indira Gandhi National Open University for a Bachelor of Arts degree in sociology , but later quit it due to scheduling conflicts with her modelling career .
Padukone has admitted to being socially awkward as a child , and did not have many friends . The focus of her life was badminton , which she played competitively from a young age . Describing her daily routine in a 2012 interview , Padukone said , " I would wake up at five in the morning , go for physical training , go to school , again go for playing badminton , finish my homework and go to sleep . " Padukone continued to pursue a career in badminton throughout her school years , and played the sport in national level championships . She also played baseball in a few state level tournaments . While concentrating on her education and sporting career , Padukone also worked as a child model , first appearing in a couple of advertising campaigns at the age of eight . In the tenth grade , she changed focus and decided to become a fashion model . She later explained , " I realised that I was playing the game only because it ran in the family . So , I asked my father if I could give up the game and he wasn 't upset at all . " In 2004 , she began a full @-@ time career as a model under the tutelage of Prasad Bidapa .
Early in her career , Padukone gained recognition with a television commercial for the soap Liril , and modelled for various other brands and products . In 2005 , she made her runway debut at the Lakme Fashion Week for designer Suneet Varma , and won the " Model of the Year " award at the Kingfisher Fashion Awards . Padukone 's fame increased when she appeared in a highly popular print campaign for the 2006 Kingfisher Calendar ; the designer Wendell Rodricks commented , " Since Aishwarya Rai , we haven 't had a girl as beautiful and fresh . " Rodricks had spotted her at a Ganjam jewellery class he was teaching and signed her up with the Matrix agency . At the age of 21 , Padukone relocated to Mumbai and stayed at her aunt 's home . That year , she gained wider recognition by featuring in the music video for Himesh Reshammiya 's song " Naam Hai Tera . "
Padukone soon began to receive offers for film roles . Believing herself to be too inexperienced as an actor , she instead enrolled for a course at Anupam Kher 's film academy . Following much media speculation , the director Farah Khan , who had noticed her in Reshammiya 's music video , made the decision to cast her for a role in Happy New Year .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Film debut and breakthrough ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Padukone announced in 2006 that she would make her film debut with Aishwarya , a Kannada film directed by Indrajit Lankesh . The romantic comedy was a remake of the Telugu film Manmadhudu , and she was cast in the title role opposite the actor Upendra . The film proved a major commercial success . RG Vijayasarathy of Rediff.com was appreciative of Padukone 's screen presence but added that " she needs to work on her emotional scenes . "
By the end of 2006 , Farah Khan 's Happy New Year was shelved , and Khan had instead cast Padukone for the reincarnation melodrama Om Shanti Om ( 2007 ) . Set against the backdrop of the Hindi film industry , the film tells the story of a struggling actor in the 1970s who dies soon after witnessing the murder of the woman he loved , and is reincarnated to avenge her death . Shah Rukh Khan starred as the protagonist , and Padukone featured in dual roles — Shantipriya , a leading actress of the 1970s , and later as Sandy , an aspiring actress . She said , " I 've grown up watching [ Shah Rukh ] and always admired him so much . To get to work with him ... is quite wonderful . It was also fantastic that Farah showed faith in my talent and cast me opposite him . " In preparation for her role , Padukone watched several films of actresses Helen and Hema Malini to study their body language , which she felt " were more graceful " and " completely different from today 's actors . " However , her voice was dubbed by the voice artist Mona Ghosh Shetty . For one of the songs in the film , " Dhoom Taana , ” Padukone drew upon Indian classical dance , and according to Dorling Kindersley , " mesmeriz [ ed ] audiences " by using hasta mudras ( hand gestures ) . Om Shanti Om was a commercial success , and emerged as the highest @-@ grossing film of the year , with a global revenue of ₹ 1 @.@ 49 billion ( US $ 22 million ) . Taran Adarsh of the entertainment portal Bollywood Hungama reviewed , " Deepika has all it takes to be a top star — the personality , the looks and yes , she 's supremely talented too . Standing in the same frame as [ Shah Rukh ] and getting it right is no small achievement . She comes as a whiff of fresh air ! " At the annual Filmfare Awards ceremony , Padukone was awarded the Best Female Debut Award and received her first nomination in the Best Actress category .
Bollywood Hungama reported that the success of Om Shanti Om proved a breakthrough for Padukone . She followed this success with the role of Gayatri ( one of star Ranbir Kapoor 's love interests ) , a feisty student in Australia who moonlights as a cab driver in Yash Raj Films ' romantic comedy Bachna Ae Haseeno ( 2008 ) . The film was a financial success , but Namrata Joshi of Outlook wrote that Padukone 's performance was disappointing : " She is mannequin @-@ like and utterly lacks fire and zing . "
Padukone 's first release of 2009 came alongside Akshay Kumar in the Nikhil Advani @-@ directed kung fu comedy Chandni Chowk To China , in which she portrayed the dual roles of Indian @-@ Chinese twin sisters Sakhi and Suzy . Produced by Warner Bros. , it had one of the widest international releases ever given to an Indian film . Padukone learned the Japanese martial art form of jujutsu , and performed her stunts without the use of a body double . Despite the hype , Chandni Chowk To China proved a major financial failure with worldwide earnings of ₹ 554 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) on a budget of ₹ 800 million ( US $ 12 million ) . Film critics were generally disappointed with the picture and Padukone 's performance ; Justin Trout of Orlando Weekly noted that she " is so wasted in Chandni Chowk , my mind often wandered back to Om Shanti Om during her scenes , possibly as a defense mechanism . "
That same year , Padukone featured in an item number ( for a song called " Love Mera Hit Hit " ) in the drama Billu , following which she appeared alongside Saif Ali Khan in the romantic drama Love Aaj Kal from the writer @-@ director Imtiaz Ali . The film documented the changing value of relationships among the youth , and had Padukone play the part of Meera Pandit , a head @-@ strong career woman . With a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 18 million ) , Love Aaj Kal proved to be the third highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 . Aniruddha Guha of Daily News and Analysis said that Padukone " delivers the best of her four performances so far " and Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India mentioned her as " definitive and strong . " At the 55th Filmfare Awards Padukone received a nomination for Best Actress .
= = = Career struggles ( 2010 – 11 ) = = =
Padukone had five film releases in 2010 . Her first role was in Vijay Lalwani 's psychological thriller Karthik Calling Karthik , where Padukone was cast as the supportive girlfriend of a depressed man ( played by Farhan Akhtar ) who goes through a series of changes after receiving mysterious phone calls every morning . Derek Elley of Variety found the film to be " thinly plotted " but added that " the uncomplicated ingenuousness of Padukone ... helps make the tall tale convincing . " Commercially , the film performed poorly . Her most economically profitable film that year was Sajid Khan 's ₹ 1 @.@ 15 billion ( US $ 17 million ) -grossing comedy film Housefull in which she featured alongside an ensemble cast including Akshay Kumar , Ritesh Deshmukh , Lara Dutta , Arjun Rampal , Jiah Khan and Boman Irani . Raja Sen described the film as a " festival of bad acting " and attributed Padukone 's poor performance to her " plasticky expressions . "
Pradeep Sarkar 's drama Lafangey Parindey ( 2010 ) saw Padukone star opposite Neil Nitin Mukesh in the role of Pinky Palkar , a blind girl determined to win a skating competition . In preparation for her role , she observed the interactions of blind people and rehearsed scenes while blindfolded . Writing for The Hindu , Sudhish Kamath was particularly impressed by Padukone and wrote that she " exercises considerable restraint " in playing her part . Later that year , Hindustan Times published that the film helped change people 's perception of Padukone , with focus directed on her acting prowess rather than her appearance . Her next role was opposite Imran Khan in the Danish Aslam @-@ directed romantic comedy Break Ke Baad . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand found the film to be " reasonably engaging " and noted that it was " watchable largely for the performance of its leading lady . " Both Lafangey Parindey and Break Ke Baad underperformed at the box office .
Padukone 's final release of 2010 was Ashutosh Gowarikar 's period film Khelein Hum Jee Jaan Sey opposite Abhishek Bachchan . Based on the book Do and Die by Manini Chatterjee , the film is a retelling of the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid . Bachchan featured as the revolutionary leader Surya Sen and Padukone played Kalpana Dutta , his confidante . Padukone said that she did not research for the role as there were " hardly ... any reference points as to what Kalpana looked like other than a few photos , " and relied completely on Gowarikar 's direction . A review published in The Telegraph was appreciative of Padukone 's portrayal , and the film received a generally positive critical reception . Despite this , it proved a major commercial disappointment .
Padukone began 2011 with an item number in Rohan Sippy 's Dum Maaro Dum . The song was a remixed version of the iconic song " Dum Maro Dum , " from the 1971 film Hare Rama Hare Krishna , which featured Zeenat Aman . Padukone referred to it as " the wildest song any actress has done ; " the song 's " suggestive lyrics " and " raunchy moves " attracted controversy including a court case for indecency . Her next film was Prakash Jha 's socio @-@ political drama Aarakshan , co @-@ starring Amitabh Bachchan , Saif Ali Khan , Manoj Bajpayee and Prateik Babbar , which dealt with the political issue of caste @-@ based reservations in India . Trade journalists had high expectations for the film which ultimately flopped at the box office . Critical reaction was largely negative , though Pratim D. Gupta mentioned Padukone as the most " refreshing thing about [ the ] movie . " Her final appearance that year was in Rohit Dhawan 's comedy @-@ drama Desi Boyz alongside Akshay Kumar , John Abraham and Chitrangada Singh , a role that failed to propel her career forward . The series of poorly received films led critics to perceive that Padukone had " [ lost ] her sparkle . "
= = = Establishing with Cocktail ( 2012 – 14 ) = = =
In an interview for The Indian Express , Padukone said that her starring role in the 2012 Homi Adajania @-@ directed romantic comedy Cocktail marked a significant turning point in her career . Raja Sen of Rediff.com opined that she had successfully proved to be a " stunning girl who can also act . " Set in London , Cocktail tells the story of a software engineer ( played by Saif Ali Khan ) and his relationship with two temperamentally different women — an impulsive party girl ( Veronica , played by Padukone ) and a submissive girl next door ( Meera , played by Diana Penty ) . During the script narration , the producer Dinesh Vijan offered Padukone the choice of which woman to play ; she decided on Veronica to expand her hor
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, as well as cameo appearances by Madonna 's daughter Lourdes Leon , Paul Oakenfold , and the director himself .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Writer – Madonna , Paul Oakenfold , Ciaran Gribbin and Ian Green
Producer – Madonna and Paul Oakenfold
Additional productions – Ian Green
Background vocals – Ian Green
Record mixing – Demacio " Demo " Castellon for the Demolition Crew
Pro Tools – Ron Taylor
Assistant engineer – Nick Banns
Mastering – Chris Gehringer at Sterling Sound
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Utagawa Toyoharu =
Utagawa Toyoharu ( 歌川 豊春 , c . 1735 – 1814 ) was a Japanese artist in the ukiyo @-@ e genre , known as the founder of the Utagawa school and for his uki @-@ e pictures that incorporated Western @-@ style geometrical perspective to create a sense of depth .
Born in Toyooka in Tajima Province , Toyoharu first studied art in Kyoto , then in Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , where from 1768 he began to produce designs for ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . He soon became known for his uki @-@ e " floating pictures " of landscapes and famous sites , as well as copies of Western and Chinese perspective prints . Though his were not the first perspective prints in ukiyo @-@ e , they were the first to appear as full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e , and they demonstrate a much greater mastery of perspective techniques than the works of his predecessors . Toyoharu was the first to make the landscape a subject of ukiyo @-@ e art , rather than just a background to figures and events . By the 1780s he had turned primarily to painting . The Utagawa school of art grew to dominate ukiyo @-@ e in the 19th century with artists such as Utamaro , Hiroshige , and Kuniyoshi .
= = Life and career = =
Utagawa Toyoharu was born c . 1735 in Toyooka in Tajima Province . He studied in Kyoto under Tsuruzawa Tangei of the Kanō school of painting . It may have been around 1763 that he moved to Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , where he studied under Toriyama Sekien . The Toyo ( 春 ) in the art name Toyoharu ( 豊春 ) is said to have come from Sekien 's personal name Toyofusa ( 豊房 ) . Some sources hold he also studied under Ishikawa Toyonobu and Nishimura Shigenaga . Other art names Toyoharu went under include Ichiryūsai ( 一竜斎 ) , Senryūsai ( 潜竜斎 ) , and Shōjirō ( 松爾楼 ) . Tradition holds that the name Utagawa derives from Udagawa @-@ chō , where Toyoharu lived in in the Shiba district in Edo . His common name was Tajimaya Shōjirō ( 但馬屋 庄次郎 ) , and he also used the personal names Masaki ( 昌樹 ) and Shin 'emon ( 新右衛門 ) .
Toyoharu 's work began to appear about 1768 . His earliest work includes woodblock prints in a refined , delicate style of beauties and actors . Soon he began to produce uki @-@ e " floating picture " perspective prints , a genre in which Toyoharu applied Western @-@ style one @-@ point perspective to create a realistic sense of depth . Most were of famous sites , including theatres , temples , and teahouses . Toyoharu 's were not the first uki @-@ e — Okumura Masanobu had made such works since the early 1740s , and claimed the genre 's origin for himself . Toyoharu 's were the first uki @-@ e in the full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e genre that had developed in the 1760s . Several of his prints were based on imported prints from the West or China .
From the 1780s Toyoharu appears to have dedicated himself to painting , and also produced kabuki programs and billboards . He headed the painters involved in the restoration of Nikkō Tōshō @-@ gū in 1796 . He died in 1814 and was buried in Honkyōji Temple in Ikebukuro under the Buddhist posthumous name Utagawa @-@ in Toyoharu Nichiyō Shinji ( 歌川院豊春日要居士 ) .
Western influence on Toyoharu
= = Style = =
Toyoharu 's works have a gentle , calm , and unpretentious touch , and display the influence of ukiyo @-@ e masters such as Ishikawa Toyonobu and Suzuki Harunobu . Harunobu pioneered the full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e print and was particularly popular and influential in the 1760s , when Toyoharu first began his career .
Toyoharu procuded a number of willowy , graceful bijin @-@ ga portraits of beauties in hashira @-@ e pillar prints . Only about fifteen examples of his bijin @-@ ga are known , almost all from his earliest period . One of the better @-@ known examples of Toyoharu 's work in this style is a four @-@ sheet set depicting the Chinese ideal of the Four Arts . Toyoharu produced a small number of yakusha @-@ e actor prints that , in contrast to the works of the leading Katsukawa school , are executed in the learned style of an Ippitsusai Bunchō .
While Toyoharu trained in Kyoto he may have been exposed to the works of Maruyama Ōkyo , whose popular megane @-@ e were pictures in one @-@ point perspective meant to be viewed in a special box in the manner of the French vue d 'optique . Toyoharu may also have seen the Chinese vue d 'optique prints made in the 1750s that inspired Ōkyo 's work .
Early in his career , Toyoharu began producing the uki @-@ e for which he is best remembered . Books on geometrical perspective translated from Dutch and Chinese sources appeared in the 1730s , and soon after , ukiyo @-@ e prints displaying these techniques appeared first in the works of Torii Kiyotada and then of Okumura Masanobu . These early examples were inconsistent in their application of perspective techniques , and the results can be unconvincing ; Toyoharu 's were much more dextrous , though not strict — he manipulated it to allow the representation of figures and objects that otherwise would have been obscured . Toyoharu 's works helped pioneer the landscape as an ukiyo @-@ e subject , rather than merely a background for human figures or events , as in Masanobu 's works . Toyoharu 's earliest uki @-@ e cannot be reliably dated , but are assumed to have appeared before 1772 : early in that year the Great Meiwa Fire in Edo destroyed the Niō @-@ mon gate in Ueno , the subject of Toyoharu 's Famous Views of Edo : Niō @-@ mon in Ueno .
Several of Toyoharu 's prints were imitations of imported prints of famed European locations , some of which were Western and others Chinese imitations of Western prints . The titles were often fictional : The Bell which Resounds for Ten Thousand Leagues in the Dutch Port of Frankai is an imitation of a print of the Grand Canal of Venice from 1742 by Antonio Visentini , itself based on a painting by Canaletto . Toyoharu titled another A Perspective View of French Churches in Holland , though he based it on a print of the Roman Forum . Toyoharu took licence with other details of foreign lands , such as having the Dutch swim in their canals . Japanese and Chinese mythology were also frequent subjects in Toyoharu 's uki @-@ e prints , the foreign perspective technique giving such prints an exotic feel .
In his nikuhitsuga paintings the influence of Toyonobu can seem strong , but in his seals on these paintings Toyoharu proclaims himself a pupil of Sekien . His efforts contributed to the development of the Rinpa school .
' ' The Four Arts ' ' by Toyoharu
Perspective prints by Toyoharu
= = Legacy = =
The popularity of Toyoharu 's work peaked in the 1770s . By the 19th century , Western @-@ style perspective techniques had ceased to be a novelty and had been absorbed into Japanese artistic culture , deployed by such artists as Hokusai and Hiroshige , two artists best remembered for their landscapes , a genre Toyoharu pioneered .
The Utagawa school that Toyoharu founded was to become one of the most influential , and produced works in a far greater variety of genres than any other school . His students included Toyokuni and Toyohiro ; Toyohiro worked in the style of his master , while Toyokuni , who headed the school from 1814 , became a prominent and prolific producer of yakusha @-@ e prints of kabuki actors . Other well @-@ known members of the school were Utamaro , Hiroshige , Kuniyoshi , and Kunisada . Though Japanese art schools , such as the Katsukawa in ukiyo @-@ e and the Kanō in painting , emphasized a uniformity of style , a general style in the Utagawa school is not easy to recognize aside from a concern with realism and facial expresseiveness . The school dominated ukiyo @-@ e production by the mid @-@ 19th century , and most of the artists — such as Kobayashi Kiyochika — who documented the modernization of Japan during the Meiji period during ukiyo @-@ e 's declining years belonged to the Utagawa school .
The Torii school lasted longer , but the Utagawa school had more adherents . It fostered closer master – student relations and more systematized training than in other schools . Excepting a few prominent examples , such as Hiroshige or Kuniyoshi , the later generations of artists tended to lack stylistic diversity , and their work has become emblematic of ukiyo @-@ e 's decline in the 19th century .
Toyoharu also taught painting . His most prominent student was Sakai Hōitsu .
As of 2014 , studies into Toyoharu 's work have not been carried out in depth . Cataloguing and analyzing his work and his and his publishers ' seals was still in its infancy .
Members of the Utagawa school
Paintings by Toyoharu and his followers
= Æsir – Vanir War =
In Norse mythology , the Æsir – Vanir War was a conflict between two groups of deities that ultimately resulted in the unification of the Æsir and the Vanir into a single pantheon . The war is an important event in Norse mythology , and the implications for the potential historicity surrounding accounts of the war are a matter of scholarly debate and discourse .
Fragmented information about the war appears in surviving sources , including Völuspá , a poem collected in the Poetic Edda in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; in the book Skáldskaparmál in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in euhemerized form in the Ynglinga saga from Heimskringla , also written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century .
= = Attestations = =
The following attestations provide information about the war :
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In two stanzas of Völuspá , the war is recounted by a völva ( who refers to herself here in the third person ) while the god Óðinn questions her . In the first of the two stanzas , the völva says that she remembers the first war in the world , when Gullveig was stabbed with spears and then burnt three times in one of Óðinn 's halls , yet that Gullveig was reborn three times . In the later stanza , the völva says that they called Gullveig Heiðr ( meaning " Bright One " or potentially " Gleaming " or " Honor " ) whenever she came to houses , that she was a wise völva , and that she cast spells . Heiðr performed seiðr where she could , did so in a trance , and was " always the favorite of wicked women . "
In a later stanza , the völva then tells Óðinn that all the powers went to the judgment seats and discussed whether the Æsir should pay a fine or if all of the gods should instead have tribute . Further in the poem , a stanza provides the last of the völva 's account of the events surrounding the war . She says :
Odin shot a spear , hurled it over the host ;
that was still the first war in the world ,
the defense wall was broken of the Æsir 's stronghold ;
the Vanir , indomitable , were trampling the plain .
These stanzas are unclear , particularly the second half of stanza 23 , but the battle appears to have been precipitated by the entry of Gullveig / Heiðr among the Æsir . Stanza 23 relates a difficulty in reaching a truce which led to the all @-@ out war described in stanza 24 . However , the reference to " all the gods " could , in Lindow 's view , indicate a movement towards a community involving both the Æsir and the Vanir . Ursula Dronke points to extensive wordplay on all the meanings of the noun gildi and the adjective gildr to signal the core issue of whether the Æsir will surrender their monopoly on human tribute and join with the " all @-@ too @-@ popular " Vanir ; as their only alternative , they attack again .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál ( chapter 57 ) , the god Bragi explains the origin of poetry . Bragi says that it originated in the Æsir – Vanir War , when during the peace conference the Æsir and the Vanir formed a truce by all spitting into a vat . When they left , the gods decided that it should not be poured out , but rather kept as a symbol of their peace , and so from the contents made a man , Kvasir . Kvasir is later murdered , and from his blood is made the Mead of Poetry .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In chapter 4 of Heimskringla , Snorri presents a euhemerized account of the war . Snorri states that Óðinn led a great army from Asia ( " Ásaland " ) to attack the people of " Vanaland . " However , according to Snorri , the people of Vanaland were well prepared for the invasion ; they defended their land so well that victory was up for grabs from both sides , and both sides produced immense damage and ravaged the lands of one another .
Snorri states that the two sides eventually tired of the war and both agreed to meet to establish a truce . Snorri continues that the two sides did so and exchanged hostages . Vanaland are described as having sent to Asaland their best men : Njörðr — described as wealthy — and his son Freyr in exchange for Asaland 's Hœnir — described here as large , handsome , and thought of by the people of Vanaland well suited to be a chieftain . Additionally , Asaland sends Mímir — a man of great understanding — in exchange for Kvasir , who Snorri describes as the wisest man of Vanaland .
Snorri continues that , upon arrival in Vanaland , Hœnir was immediately made chief and Mímir often gave him good counsel . However , when Hœnir was at meetings and at the Thing without Mímir by his side , he would always answer the same way : " Let others decide . " Subsequently , the Vanaland folk suspected they had been cheated in the exchange by the Asaland folk , so they seized Mímir and beheaded him and sent the head to Asaland . Óðinn took the head of Mímir , embalmed it with herbs so that it would not rot , and spoke charms over it , which gave it the power to speak to him and reveal to him secrets .
According to Snorri , Óðinn then appointed Njörðr and Freyr to be priests of sacrificial customs and they became Diar ( " Gods " ) of the people of Asaland . Freyja , described as daughter of Njörðr , was the priestess of these sacrifices , and here she is described as introducing seiðr to Asaland .
= = Theories = =
A number of theories surround the Æsir – Vanir War :
= = = Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European basis = = =
As the Vanir are often considered fertility gods , the Æsir – Vanir War has been proposed as a reflection of the invasion of local fertility cults somewhere in regions inhabited by the Germanic peoples by a more aggressive , warlike cult . This has been proposed as an analogy of the invasion of the Indo @-@ Europeans . Georges Dumézil stated that the war need not necessarily be understood in terms of historicity more than any other myth however .
Scholars have cited parallels between the Æsir – Vanir War , The Rape of the Sabine Women from Roman mythology , and the Mahabharata from Hindu mythology , providing support for a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European " war of the functions . " Explaining these parallels , J. P. Mallory states :
Basically , the parallels concern the presence of first- ( magico @-@ juridical ) and second- ( warrior ) function representatives on the victorious side of a war that ultimately subdues and incorporates third function characters , for example , the Sabine women or the Norse Vanir . Indeed , the Iliad itself has also been examined in a similar light . The ultimate structure of the myth , then , is that the three estates of Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European society were fused only after a war between the first two against the third .
= = = Other = = =
Many scholars consider the figures of Gullveig / Heiðr and Freyja the same . These conclusions have been made through comparisons between the figure of Gullveig / Heiðr 's use of seiðr in Völuspá and the mention of Freyja introducing seiðr to the Æsir from the Vanir in Heimskringla . This is at times taken further that their corruption of the Æsir led to the Æsir – Vanir War .
Lindow states that he feels that even if the two are not identical , the various accounts of the war seem to share the idea of a disruptive entry of persons into a people . Lindow compares the appearance of Gullveig / Heiðr into the Æsir to that of Hœnir and Mímir 's disruption amongst the Vanir in Heimskringla . Lindow further states that all three accounts share the notion of acquisition of tools for the conquest of wisdom ; the practice of seiðr in two accounts and the head of Mímir in one .
= Pokémon Colosseum =
Pokémon Colosseum ( ポケモンコロシアム , Pokemon Koroshiamu ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Genius Sonority and published by Nintendo as part of the Pokémon series . It was released exclusively for the GameCube on November 21 , 2003 , in Japan ; March 22 , 2004 , in North America ; and May 14 , 2004 , in Europe . Unlike previous titles , the game does not feature random encounters with Pokémon ; instead , the player can steal ( " snag " ) the Pokémon of other Pokémon Trainers . The game also features several battle modes for single @-@ player and multiplayer gameplay .
The game is set in the desertous region of Orre . The player protagonist is Wes , a former member of Team Snagem . Throughout the game , the player rescues " Shadow Pokémon " — Pokémon who have had their hearts darkened by Cipher , an antagonistic organization — via snagging . Rui , a non @-@ player girl , serves as Wes 's sidekick and identifies Shadow Pokémon .
Pokémon Colosseum was exhibited at E3 2003 . North American pre @-@ orders were packaged with a bonus disc that allows the player to download the Pokémon Jirachi . Upon release , the game was generally well @-@ received , with praise directed at its graphics and music . It was a commercial success , with 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold in the United States and 656 @,@ 270 in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon Colosseum is a 3D role @-@ playing game viewed from a third @-@ person perspective . The player , controlling a Pokémon Trainer named Wes ( default name ) , moves through various towns and other locations ( traversed using a type of one @-@ wheeled motorcycle ) , battling enemy Trainers and completing quests . Items are purchased at " Pokémon Mart " locations using the game 's currency , " Pokémon Dollars " ( ) . When a battle starts , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based interface where the player 's and enemies ' Pokémon fight . Most battles are of the " double battle " format , which means two Pokémon on each side at one time . However , each Trainer can carry up to six Pokémon at one time , so once a Pokémon is defeated , his or her Trainer must switch out another one unless no more are left . Battles are also conducted at " Colosseums " in several cities .
Unlike most Pokémon games , Colosseum does not feature random encounters . The player begins the game with two Pokémon . More are obtained throughout the game by " Snagging " them from other Trainers using Poké Balls of various strengths . Only specifically designated " Shadow Pokémon " , whose hearts have been artificially closed , can be Snagged . Pokémon can be traded between Colosseum and the Game Boy Advance games Pokémon Ruby , Sapphire , FireRed , LeafGreen , or Emerald .
Each of the player 's Shadow Pokémon has a purple gauge that is drained by battling and coming to like the player . Once a Pokémon 's gauge is empty , the player may " Purify " the Pokémon by bringing him or her to Celebi 's shrine in Agate Village , or by using a rare " Time Flute " item . Purifying Shadow Pokémon is desirable because while in that status , they will often disobey the player , they cannot gain experience points , and their moves are at first restricted to " Shadow Rush " . Additionally , Shadow Pokémon will sporadically enter " Hyper Mode " state during battle , causing them to disobey the player character or attack themselves until the condition is alleviated by selecting the " Call " battle command .
Aside from the story mode , Colosseum also features several non @-@ canonical battle modes . In the " Quick Battle " mode , the player can battle either CPU trainers or friends , using Pokémon obtained in the story mode or randomly assigned ones . Battles in this mode do not result in gain of experience points or money . In the single @-@ player battle mode , the player competes at Colosseums — stadiums used throughout the game for Pokémon battles — and earns " Poké Coupons " , another currency which can be used to buy rare items . In the " Gang Battle " mode , up to four players can compete in a tournament . The first can use Pokémon obtained in the story mode , or from the Game Boy Advance games . Players two through four , however , can only use Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Pokémon Colosseum is set in the Orre region . Orre is a mostly desertous region in which no wild Pokémon can be found ( although the sequel , Pokémon XD : Gale of Darkness , adds wild Pokémon spots to the region ) . Orre consists of many cities , towns , and Colosseums .
= = = Characters = = =
The game 's player protagonist is by default named Wes ( レオ , Reo , Leo ) , but as with most Pokémon games , the player can change his name . Wes 's Starter Pokémon are Espeon and Umbreon , two fox @-@ like Pokémon who start at higher levels than most Starter Pokémon . Team Snagem ( スナッチ団 , Sunatchi @-@ dan , Team Snatch ) , a criminal organization that uses the " Snag machine " technology to capture the Pokémon of Trainers , serves as an antagonistic entity in the game . However , shortly after the game 's start , the Cipher Syndicate ( シャドー , Shadō , Shadow ) is revealed to be the main antagonistic force , having partnered with Snagem to obtain Pokémon from Trainers , corrupting them , and distributing them throughout Cipher and other places such as Pyrite Town . Wes is a former employee of Team Snagem . The organization also employs many grunt workers , as well as four administrators : disco @-@ loving Miror B. ( ミラーボ , Mirābo , Mirorbo ) , the explosively @-@ tempered bodybuilder , Dakim ( ダキム , Dakimu ) , the queen of the Under , Venus ( ヴィーナス , Vīnasu ) , and the strategist of a scientist , Ein ( ボルグ , Borugu , Borg ) .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins with a cold open in which Wes infiltrates and destroys the Team Snagem hideout before leaving the organization . Wes starts at the Outskirt Stand , a dilapidated train engine in the middle of the desert that has been converted into a shop . With Espeon and Umbreon , Wes 's first opponent is a Trainer named Willie . Wes then leaves the Stand and heads to the oasis @-@ esque Phenac City in time to see two men dragging a sack . After defeating them in battle , Wes unties the sack to find Rui , a girl with the ability to discern Shadow Pokémon . They meet the mayor , Es Cade , who seems very bothered about the Cipher problem , but seems to do nothing about it . Later , upon leaving Phenac Colosseum , three Snagem grunts find Wes and Rui . The grunts then reveal to Rui that he was a member of Snagem , and an excellent Snagger . Wes then confronts one of the grunts , which results in the latter 's defeat . Finding out that he is an expert at snagging Pokémon , Rui asks him to join forces with her in finding and snagging Shadow Pokémon .
As the game progresses , Wes becomes a target of a powerful organization known as Cipher . After leaving Phenac , he visits Pyrite Town , where Rui was kidnapped . In Pyrite , Shadow Pokémon are openly offered to winners of the town 's Colosseum tournament . The local police force is powerless to stop the practice , so Duking , an influential man in Pyrite , asks Wes to enter the tournament and investigate . Wes enters the Colosseum challenge and defeats four trainers to win . Inside a nearby building , a Cipher Peon is about to present the Shadow Pokémon prize , but another one recognizes Wes . The pair then battle their way through the building and a maze @-@ like cave set in the rock behind . Eventually , they face and defeat Miror B. , one of four Cipher Admins . Afterwards , Wes returns a Pokémon Miror B. stole from Duking . A team of kids working in Duking 's house introduce themselves as members of an anti @-@ Cipher news network , known as the Kids Grid , who pledge their help to Wes and Rui .
Their next stop is Agate Village , a forested village in the mountains . As Rui introduces Wes to her grandfather Eagun , another villager runs into the room , telling them that the Relic Stone — a shrine protected by Celebi — is under attack . Wes , following Eagun to the center of the tree , fights off four Cipher agents before the Relic Stone is safe . After resting , Wes is given access to the Relic Stone , the only place where he can purify Shadow Pokémon . On a suggestion from Eagun , Wes decides to train his skills at the nearby Mt . Battle .
Upon reaching Mt . Battle , people inform Wes and Rui that Cipher has already taken over the first section of the mountain . After battling nine other Trainers , Wes battles the Cipher administrator Dakim . Dakim owns a Shadow Entei , who is one of the trio of legendary beasts . After defeating Dakim , Wes heads to The Under , which is an underground city located underneath Pyrite Town , and under the control of Cipher . More members of the Kids Grid are here . They tell the player of Venus , another Cipher administrator , who has influence over The Under . After Wes confronts Venus , the owner of the second legendary beast Suicune , she flees . Next , Wes and Rui head to the Shadow Pokémon Lab , where Pokémon are transformed into Shadow Pokémon . After defeating numerous Cipher peons , Wes faces Ein , the final Cipher administrator and the owner of the final legendary beast Raikou .
Wes and Rui then go to Realgam Tower . All four administrators are there and ready to face Wes again . After doing so , he is granted access to the Colosseum at the top of the building . There , he is greeted by a large crowd . A Cipher man named Nascour tells Wes that he will have to face four trainers . After Wes defeats all four trainers , Nascour fights him . Once defeated , Nascour tries to leave , only to be interrupted by Es Cade . Es Cade reveals that he is really none other than Evice , the head of Cipher , and battles Wes . When Wes defeats him , Evice attempts to escape by helicopter , but the legendary Pokémon Ho @-@ Oh swoops in and blasts it out of the sky . Evice and Nascour are presumably arrested .
= = Development and release = =
Pokémon Colosseum was developed by the Japanese game developer Genius Sonority , and published by Nintendo . Just as Nintendo 64 predecessors Pokémon Stadium and Pokémon Stadium 2 had served as home console counterparts to the first- and second @-@ generation handheld titles , Colosseum had a similar role for the third generation .
The new concept for Pokémon Colosseum was influenced by RPGs such as Final Fantasy VII and Persona 2 over the Pokémon mold . When asked in an interview with Prima Games why the gameplay of Colosseum did not mirror that of the handheld Pokémon games , Pokémon director Junichi Masuda explained : " How players communicate with each other has been key to the Pokémon games – it is the backbone of all Pokémon game designs . I feel that the handheld systems work better than the home @-@ based consoles . It 's certainly possible to come up with concepts for home @-@ based consoles , but we might then have to change the core of the game . "
The transition to 3D also brought new graphical changes . Wes was designed to look " hazy " and about 17 years old . Genius Sonority ported most of the models and animations of first- and second @-@ generation Pokémon from Stadium and Stadium 2 . Genius Sonority based most of Orre on the real @-@ life city of Phoenix , Arizona . As a whole , the graphics were influenced more by manga than by established Pokémon convention .
A preview for the game was hosted at E3 2003 . Upon completion of development , Colosseum received a rating of " E " ( Everyone ) from the Entertainment Software Rating Board , " All Ages " from Computer Entertainment Rating Organization , and " 3 + " from Pan European Game Information . The game was released on November 21 , 2003 in Japan ; March 22 , 2004 in North America , and May 14 , 2004 in Europe .
Nintendo also published supplementary media to unlock additional content . Pre @-@ ordered copies of the game came with a bonus disc that contains trailers for the game and the film Pokémon : Jirachi Wish Maker . The North American disc also contains the exclusive Pokémon Jirachi that can be downloaded to the player 's copy of Ruby or Sapphire . The Japanese release contains a downloadable Celebi instead and requires a completed save file of Pokémon Colosseum . The disc also updates the software in Ruby and Sapphire to remove a " berry glitch " discovered in 2003 . Despite public anticipation the Bonus Disc was not released in PAL territories , prompting Nintendo to issue an official apology . However a Jirachi was later included in the PAL version of the game Pokémon Channel . In Japan , scannable cards for the Nintendo e @-@ Reader were available for purchase that featured additional trainers to battle and Shadow Pokémon .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Pokémon Colosseum was generally well @-@ received upon release , with respective scores of 73 / 100 and 73 @.@ 46 % from aggregators Metacritic and Game Rankings . Allgame staff writer Scott Alan Marriott gave the game three and a half stars out of five , although he did not review the game with more depth .
Critics praised Colosseum as the first true 3D role @-@ playing installment in the Pokémon series . Gamers Hell reviewer John K. called it " certainly a step in the right direction to a good 3D Pokémon game " , although he felt that the limited number of Pokémon and lack of a true overworld detracted from the experience . IGN staff writer Craig Harris said that the adaptation of the Pokémon RPG formula to the 3D zeitgeist " does a decent enough job " and is " a bit more linear and straightforward " .
The new 3D graphics received mixed remarks . Harris called the game " [ g ] raphically ... a mixed bag " , praising the visual style of the game 's Pokémon but criticizing the " poorly modeled and animated , angular " style of the Trainers . GameSpot reviewer Ryan Davis offered a similar opinion , concluding that " [ t ] he visual style ... has gone off the deep end " . GamePro writer Star Dingo called the graphics as a whole " insanely cute " but criticized the lack of animations showing two Pokémon attacking in tandem . GameZone 's review took a more positive stance , saying that " [ a ] nimations are brief but impressive ; each attack move is more elaborate and more extravagant on the ' Cube . " Nintendo Power thought similarly , commending the " amazing level of detail " .
GameZone compared the overall town design and environments to those of the landmark Final Fantasy VII . Dingo complained that " there are some characters to talk to and chests to find , but no ' overworld ' with free @-@ roaming monsters to capture . " John K. stated that " [ t ] he towns are made with enough detail , but sometimes a bit dull . "
Harris denounced the game 's usage of old Pokémon battle cries , a recurring complaint of the series . Dingo called the music as a whole " a bit too low @-@ tech and synthetic " . GameZone , in contrast , stated that the sound effects evoke nostalgia for Pokémon Red and Blue , and that the music tracks " have more depth than any of the songs from the previous Pokemon [ sic ] games . " John K. said that the music is neither annoying nor entertaining . Retronauts described Colosseum as " terrible " , citing the reuse of graphics from the Pokémon Stadium games .
In 2006 , Nintendo Power listed Colosseum as the 121st greatest video game to appear on a Nintendo console .
= = = Sales = = =
Three weeks before its release , pre @-@ orders of Pokémon Colosseum made it the best @-@ selling game on Amazon.com. In the game 's first week of release in the United Kingdom , it boosted the GameCube 's market share from 16 % to 32 % . It was the best @-@ selling GameCube game of May 2004 , and fourteenth among all consoles . In 2005 , the game was certified as part of Nintendo 's Player 's Choice line in North America , representing at least 250 @,@ 000 copies sold . As of 2007 , the game has sold over 1 @.@ 15 million copies in the United States and 656 @,@ 270 in Japan . It is the best @-@ selling RPG for the GameCube .
= = = Legacy = = =
Pokémon Colosseum spawned a high @-@ profile tournament in the United Kingdom entitled " Pokémon Colosseum Battlemaster 2004 " . The first round of battles was held at Toys " R " Us locations , with later battles taking place in movie theaters . Across Europe , the game was bundled with GameCube consoles shortly after its release . Special editions of this set also included a copy of Pokémon Box : Ruby and Sapphire — a game that allows players to organize and store up to 1 @,@ 500 Pokémon from their games — as well as a memory card and a Game Boy Advance – GameCube link cable .
A manga adaptation of Colosseum 's plot was printed in 2004 issues of the Japanese magazine CoroCoro Comic and titled Pokémon Colosseum Snatcher Leo ( ポケモンコロシアムスナッチャーズレオ ) . The game was followed by a 2005 sequel entitled Pokémon XD : Gale of Darkness . Set in Orre five years after Colosseum , it features a new protagonist snagging Shadow Pokémon from Team Cipher . Shadow Lugia is the game 's mascot , and serves as an antagonist whom the player can snag . The game alludes to Wes , Rui , and The Under , though they do not appear .
= Do or Die ( Super Furry Animals song ) =
" Do or Die " is the eleventh single by Super Furry Animals . It was the last single to be taken from the Guerrilla album and was the band 's last release for Creation Records . The track reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart after its release on 17 January 2000 . The group had originally wanted to release " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " as the final single from Guerilla but Creation instead chose " Do or Die " , a decision which the band claimed not to understand .
Although " Do or Die " features " daft lyrics " , its name was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi 's Quit India speech which called for Indians to " Do or Die " to end British Imperial rule in the country . Critical reaction was largely positive with the song being named ' Single of the Week ' by the Melody Maker and appearing at number 55 in the NME 's single of the year list for 2000 despite an earlier claim by the magazine that there was " no need whatsoever " to release the track as a single . The music video for " Do or Die " was directed by Jake & Jim and features live action footage of the group 's heads on brightly coloured cartoon bodies .
= = Themes and recording = =
According to Gruff Rhys " Do or Die " has a " ridiculously positive outlook " and was written in an attempt to " kickstart [ the band ] back into gear " after a bad period in the singer 's life . The track is a " driving song " and features sampled car noises so that " even if you 're not in a car it feels like you are " . Although Rhys has called the track a " dumb pop song " with " really daft " lyrics , he has also claimed that the title was inspired by the Quit India speech made by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Bombay in which Gandhi called for his countrymen to " Do or Die " and use non @-@ violent resistance to end British Imperial rule in India . Rhys has stated that he feels the fact that " five @-@ year @-@ olds " can jump up and down to the song , singing " Gandhi lyrics " , is important , as it contrasts with the " self @-@ important ... pompous " lyrics of singers such as Jim Morrison and Robert Plant . The track was recorded in the middle of 1998 at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , along with the rest of Guerrilla , and was produced by Super Furry Animals .
= = Composition = =
" Do or Die " is 1 minute and 59 seconds long and is in the key of A major . The instruments used on the track are tuned slightly sharper than standard . The song begins with an intro featuring a lead guitar and keyboard melody , which plays twice , accompanied by a rhythm guitar riff alternating between A and D chords , drums and bass . The track breaks down to just rhythm guitar , drums and bass for the first verse which begins after 13 seconds . The first chorus begins after 23 seconds with a distorted guitar playing the chord sequence D5 , C5 , B ♭ 5 and A5 twice while Rhys sings " If we do or die we should try , if we don 't try I say bye @-@ bye , and if I say bye @-@ bye , I 'll wonder why we didn 't try to do or die " backed by high harmony backing vocals and occasional keyboard noises . The song breaks down again for a second verse before the second chorus enters at 46 seconds . An instrumental passage follows with the lead guitar and keyboard reprising the melody which plays during the intro . The instrumental leads into a double chorus . At the end of the final chorus the track crescendos , with Rhys singing " yeah , yeah , yeah " and all instruments with the exception of the keyboard coming to an abrupt silence after 1 minute and 43 seconds . Keyboard noises continue and gradually fade out until the track ends .
= = Release and critical reception = =
The Super Furry Animals had originally intended to issue the song " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " as the third single from Guerrilla but , on returning from an American tour in 1999 , found that their record company , Creation , had not done any work regarding the release . Returning from a tour of Europe later the same year the band discovered that both their record label and record plugging company had folded and that Creation made the decision , first to release " Night Vision " instead of " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " , and then to replace " Night Vision " with " Do or Die " as the last single from Guerrilla . Singer Gruff Rhys has expressed dissatisfaction with this choice , claiming that he is not sure how the decision was made and that he wanted " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " to be released as he " quite fancied the idea of a novelty hit " . However , the group ultimately felt " Wherever I Lay My Phone ( That 's My Home ) " could not be issued in any case following the December 1999 release of " I Wanna 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 With You " by Jimmy Cauty 's Solid Gold Chartbusters , which was " based on the same Nokia ringtone " .
" Do or Die " was issued on CD , cassette and 7 " on 17 January 2000 , the band 's last release for Creation , and reached number 20 in the UK Singles Chart . The track became the shortest song ever to be performed on the BBC 's Top Of The Pops programme when the group appeared on the show to promote the single 's release . The track was included on the band 's ' greatest hits ' compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 .
" Do or Die " was awarded ' Single of the Week ' in the January 19 – 25 , 2000 issue of the Melody Maker by guest reviewers Pär Wiksten and Christina Bergmark from The Wannadies who gave the track " all the points we can afford " and claimed that it ends perfectly . The NME described the song as " not the best track from ... Guerrilla , but then not the worst either " and claimed that it was mostly of note because it was the second single by Super Furry Animals to be less than two minutes long following 1996 's " God ! Show Me
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zinc here , however , appears to have begun around the 12th century AD . One estimate is that this location produced an estimated million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide from the 12th to 16th centuries . Another estimate gives a total production of 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of metallic zinc over this period . The Rasaratna Samuccaya , written in approximately the 13th century AD , mentions two types of zinc @-@ containing ores : one used for metal extraction and another used for medicinal purposes .
= = = Early studies and naming = = =
Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Yasada or Jasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala and written about the year 1374 . Smelting and extraction of impure zinc by reducing calamine with wool and other organic substances was accomplished in the 13th century in India . The Chinese did not learn of the technique until the 17th century .
Alchemists burned zinc metal in air and collected the resulting zinc oxide on a condenser . Some alchemists called this zinc oxide lana philosophica , Latin for " philosopher 's wool " , because it collected in wooly tufts , whereas others thought it looked like white snow and named it nix album .
The name of the metal was probably first documented by Paracelsus , a Swiss @-@ born German alchemist , who referred to the metal as " zincum " or " zinken " in his book Liber Mineralium II , in the 16th century . The word is probably derived from the German zinke , and supposedly meant " tooth @-@ like , pointed or jagged " ( metallic zinc crystals have a needle @-@ like appearance ) . Zink could also imply " tin @-@ like " because of its relation to German zinn meaning tin . Yet another possibility is that the word is derived from the Persian word سنگ seng meaning stone . The metal was also called Indian tin , tutanego , calamine , and spinter .
German metallurgist Andreas Libavius received a quantity of what he called " calay " of Malabar from a cargo ship captured from the Portuguese in 1596 . Libavius described the properties of the sample , which may have been zinc . Zinc was regularly imported to Europe from the Orient in the 17th and early 18th centuries , but was at times very expensive .
= = = Isolation = = =
Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD , much earlier than in the West . Before it was isolated in Europe , it was imported from India in about 1600 CE . Postlewayt 's Universal Dictionary , a contemporary source giving technological information in Europe , did not mention zinc before 1751 but the element was studied before then .
Flemish metallurgist and alchemist P. M. de Respour reported that he had extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide in 1668 . By the start of the 18th century , Étienne François Geoffroy described how zinc oxide condenses as yellow crystals on bars of iron placed above zinc ore that is being smelted . In Britain , John Lane is said to have carried out experiments to smelt zinc , probably at Landore , prior to his bankruptcy in 1726 .
In 1738 in Great Britain , William Champion patented a process to extract zinc from calamine in a vertical retort style smelter . His technique resembled that used at Zawar zinc mines in Rajasthan , but no evidence suggests he visited the Orient . Champion 's process was used through 1851 .
German chemist Andreas Marggraf normally gets credit for discovering pure metallic zinc , even though Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had distilled zinc from calamine four years previously . In his 1746 experiment , Marggraf heated a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal . This procedure became commercially practical by 1752 .
= = = Later work = = =
William Champion 's brother , John , patented a process in 1758 for calcining zinc sulfide into an oxide usable in the retort process . Prior to this , only calamine could be used to produce zinc . In 1798 , Johann Christian Ruberg improved on the smelting process by building the first horizontal retort smelter . Jean @-@ Jacques Daniel Dony built a different kind of horizontal zinc smelter in Belgium that processed even more zinc . Italian doctor Luigi Galvani discovered in 1780 that connecting the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail attached by a brass hook caused the frog 's leg to twitch . He incorrectly thought he had discovered an ability of nerves and muscles to create electricity and called the effect " animal electricity " . The galvanic cell and the process of galvanization were both named for Luigi Galvani , and his discoveries paved the way for electrical batteries , galvanization , and cathodic protection .
Galvani 's friend , Alessandro Volta , continued researching the effect and invented the Voltaic pile in 1800 . The basic unit of Volta 's pile was a simplified galvanic cell , made of plates of copper and zinc separated by an electrolyte and connected by a conductor externally . The units were stacked in series to make the Voltaic cell , which produced electricity by directing electrons from the zinc to the copper and allowing the zinc to corrode .
The non @-@ magnetic character of zinc and its lack of color in solution delayed discovery of its importance to biochemistry and nutrition . This changed in 1940 when carbonic anhydrase , an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood , was shown to have zinc in its active site . The digestive enzyme carboxypeptidase became the second known zinc @-@ containing enzyme in 1955 .
= = Production = =
= = = Mining and processing = = =
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use , trailing only iron , aluminium , and copper with an annual production of about 13 million tonnes . The world 's largest zinc producer is Nyrstar , a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore . About 70 % of the world 's zinc originates from mining , while the remaining 30 % comes from recycling secondary zinc . Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade , often abbreviated SHG , and is 99 @.@ 995 % pure .
Worldwide , 95 % of new zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits , in which sphalerite ( ZnS ) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper , lead and iron . Zinc mines are scattered throughout the world , with the main areas being China , Australia , and Peru . China produced 38 % of the global zinc output in 2014 .
Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy . The ore is finely ground , then put through froth flotation to separate minerals from gangue ( on the property of hydrophobicity ) , to get a zinc sulfide ore concentrate consisting of about 50 % zinc , 32 % sulfur , 13 % iron , and 5 % SiO
2 .
Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate to zinc oxide :
2 ZnS + 3 O
2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO
2
The sulfur dioxide is used for the production of sulfuric acid , which is necessary for the leaching process . If deposits of zinc carbonate , zinc silicate , or zinc spinel ( like the Skorpion Deposit in Namibia ) are used for zinc production , the roasting can be omitted .
For further processing two basic methods are used : pyrometallurgy or electrowinning . Pyrometallurgy reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 ° C ( 1 @,@ 740 ° F ) into the metal , which is distilled as zinc vapor to separate it from other metals , which are not volatile at those temperatures . The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser . The equations below describe this process :
2 ZnO + C → 2 Zn + CO
2
ZnO + CO → Zn + CO
2
In electrowinning , zinc is leached from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid :
ZnO + H
2SO
4 → ZnSO
4 + H
2O
Finally , the zinc is reduced by electrolysis .
2 ZnSO
4 + 2 H
2O → 2 Zn + 2 H
2SO
4 + O
2
The sulfuric acid is regenerated and recycled to the leaching step .
When galvanised feedstock is fed to an electric arc furnace , the zinc is recovered from the dust by a number of processes , predominately the Waelz process ( 90 % as of 2014 ) .
= = = Environmental impact = = =
Refinement of sulfidic zinc ores produces large volumes of sulfur dioxide and cadmium vapor . Smelter slag and other residues contain significant quantities of heavy metals . About 1 @.@ 1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and 1882 . The dumps of the past mining operations leach zinc and cadmium , and the sediments of the Geul River contain non @-@ trivial amounts of heavy metals . About two thousand years ago , emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand tonnes a year . After increasing 10 @-@ fold from 1850 , zinc emissions peaked at 3 @.@ 4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s and declined to 2 @.@ 7 million tonnes in the 1990s , although a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline . Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1 .
Zinc in rivers flowing through industrial and mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm . Effective sewage treatment greatly reduces this ; treatment along the Rhine , for example , has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb . Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry in their blood .
Soils contaminated with zinc from mining , refining , or fertilizing with zinc @-@ bearing sludge can contain several grams of zinc per kilogram of dry soil . Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals , such as iron and manganese . Zinc levels of 2000 ppm to 180 @,@ 000 ppm ( 18 % ) have been recorded in some soil samples .
= = Applications = =
Major applications of zinc include ( numbers are given for the US )
Galvanizing ( 55 % )
Brass and bronze ( 16 % )
Other alloys ( 21 % )
Miscellaneous ( 8 % )
= = = Anti @-@ corrosion and batteries = = =
Zinc is most commonly used as an anti @-@ corrosion agent , and galvanization ( coating of iron or steel ) is the most familiar form . In 2009 in the United States , 55 % or 893 thousand tonnes of the zinc metal was used for galvanization .
Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel and thus will attract almost all local oxidation until it completely corrodes away . A protective surface layer of oxide and carbonate ( Zn
5 ( OH )
6 ( CO
3 )
2 ) forms as the zinc corrodes . This protection lasts even after the zinc layer is scratched but degrades through time as the zinc corrodes away . The zinc is applied electrochemically or as molten zinc by hot @-@ dip galvanizing or spraying . Galvanization is used on chain @-@ link fencing , guard rails , suspension bridges , lightposts , metal roofs , heat exchangers , and car bodies .
The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection ( CP ) . For example , cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe . Zinc acts as the anode ( negative terminus ) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline . Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water . A zinc disc attached to a ship 's iron rudder will slowly corrode while the rudder stays intact . Similarly , a zinc plug attached to a propeller or the metal protective guard for the keel of the ship provides temporary protection .
With a standard electrode potential ( SEP ) of − 0 @.@ 76 volts , zinc is used as an anode material for batteries . ( More reactive lithium ( SEP − 3 @.@ 04 V ) is used for anodes in lithium batteries ) . Powdered zinc is used in this way in alkaline batteries and the case ( which also serves as the anode ) of zinc – carbon batteries is formed from sheet zinc . Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the zinc @-@ air battery / fuel cell . The zinc @-@ cerium redox flow battery also relies on a zinc @-@ based negative half @-@ cell .
= = = Alloys = = =
A widely used zinc alloy is brass , in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3 % to 45 % zinc , depending upon the type of brass . Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper , and has superior corrosion resistance . These properties make it useful in communication equipment , hardware , musical instruments , and water valves .
Other widely used zinc alloys include nickel silver , typewriter metal , soft and aluminium solder , and commercial bronze . Zinc is also used in contemporary pipe organs as a substitute for the traditional lead / tin alloy in pipes . Alloys of 85 – 88 % zinc , 4 – 10 % copper , and 2 – 8 % aluminium find limited use in certain types of machine bearings . Zinc is the primary metal in American one cent coins ( pennies ) since 1982 . The zinc core is coated with a thin layer of copper to give the appearance of a copper coin . In 1994 , 33 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 36 @,@ 600 short tons ) of zinc were used to produce 13 @.@ 6 billion pennies in the United States .
Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper , aluminium , and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting , especially in the automotive , electrical , and hardware industries . These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak . An example of this is zinc aluminium . The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes . The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly . Another alloy , marketed under the brand name Prestal , contains 78 % zinc and 22 % aluminium , and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic . This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement .
Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold @-@ rolled into sheets . An alloy of 96 % zinc and 4 % aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications for which ferrous metal dies would be too expensive . For building facades , roofing , and other applications for sheet metal formed by deep drawing , roll forming , or bending , zinc alloys with titanium and copper are used . Unalloyed zinc is too brittle for these manufacturing processes .
As a dense , inexpensive , easily worked material , zinc is used as a lead replacement . In the wake of lead concerns , zinc appears in weights for various applications ranging from fishing to tire balances and flywheels .
Cadmium zinc telluride ( CZT ) is a semiconductive alloy that can be divided into an array of small sensing devices . These devices are similar to an integrated circuit and can detect the energy of incoming gamma ray photons . When behind an absorbing mask , the CZT sensor array can determine the direction of the rays .
= = = Other industrial uses = = =
Roughly one quarter of all zinc output in the United States in 2009 was consumed in zinc compounds ; a variety of which are used industrially . Zinc oxide is widely used as a white pigment in paints and as a catalyst in the manufacture of rubber to disburse heat . Zinc oxide is used to protect rubber polymers and plastics from ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) . The semiconductor properties of zinc oxide make it useful in varistors and photocopying products . The zinc zinc @-@ oxide cycle is a two step thermochemical process based on zinc and zinc oxide for hydrogen production .
Zinc chloride is often added to lumber as a fire retardant and sometimes as a wood preservative . It is used in the manufacture of other chemicals . Zinc methyl ( Zn ( CH3 )
2 ) is used in a number of organic syntheses . Zinc sulfide ( ZnS ) is used in luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks , X @-@ ray and television screens , and luminous paints . Crystals of ZnS are used in lasers that operate in the mid @-@ infrared part of the spectrum . Zinc sulfate is a chemical in dyes and pigments . Zinc pyrithione is used in antifouling paints .
Zinc powder is sometimes used as a propellant in model rockets . When a compressed mixture of 70 % zinc and 30 % sulfur powder is ignited there is a violent chemical reaction . This produces zinc sulfide , together with large amounts of hot gas , heat , and light .
Zinc sheet metal is used to make zinc bars .
64Zn , the most abundant isotope of zinc , is very susceptible to neutron activation , being transmuted into the highly radioactive 65Zn , which has a half @-@ life of 244 days and produces intense gamma radiation . Because of this , zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors as an anti @-@ corrosion agent is depleted of 64Zn before use , this is called depleted zinc oxide . For the same reason , zinc has been proposed as a salting material for nuclear weapons ( cobalt is another , better @-@ known salting material ) . A jacket of isotopically enriched 64Zn would be irradiated by the intense high @-@ energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon , forming a large amount of 65Zn significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon 's fallout . Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built , tested , or used .
65Zn is used as a tracer to study how alloys that contain zinc wear out , or the path and the role of zinc in organisms .
Zinc dithiocarbamate complexes are used as agricultural fungicides ; these include Zineb , Metiram , Propineb and Ziram . Zinc naphthenate is used as wood preservative . Zinc in the form of ZDDP , is used as an anti @-@ wear additive for metal parts in engine oil .
= = = Dietary supplement = = =
In most single @-@ tablet , over @-@ the @-@ counter , daily vitamin and mineral supplements , zinc is included in such forms as zinc oxide , zinc acetate , or zinc gluconate . Zinc is believed to be an antioxidant that may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and muscles of the body ; studies differ as to its effectiveness . Zinc also helps speed up the healing process after an injury . It is also suspected of being beneficial to the human immune system , and deficiency may be deleterious to virtually all parts of the system .
Zinc deficiency has been associated with major depressive disorder ( MDD ) , and zinc supplements may be an effective treatment .
Zinc serves as a simple , inexpensive , and critical tool for treating diarrheal episodes among children in the developing world . Zinc becomes depleted in the body during diarrhea , but recent studies suggest that replenishing zinc with a 10- to 14 @-@ day course of treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes and may also prevent future episodes for as long as three months .
The Age @-@ Related Eye Disease Study determined that zinc can be part of an effective treatment for age @-@ related macular degeneration . Zinc supplement is an effective treatment for acrodermatitis enteropathica , a genetic disorder affecting zinc absorption that was previously fatal to affected infants .
Gastroenteritis is strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc , possibly by direct antimicrobial action of the ions in the gastrointestinal tract , or by the absorption of the zinc and re @-@ release from immune cells ( all granulocytes secrete zinc ) , or both .
In 2011 , researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of drugs in urine . Similar claims appear in web forums .
= = = Zinc lozenges and the common cold = = =
In studies of zinc supplements and the common cold , zinc acetate produced the most positive results , apparently because acetate does not bind zinc ions .
= = = Topical use = = =
Topical preparations of zinc include those used on the skin , often in the form of zinc oxide . Zinc preparations can protect against sunburn in the summer and windburn in the winter . Applied thinly to a baby 's diaper area ( perineum ) with each diaper change , it can protect against diaper rash .
Chelated zinc is used in toothpastes and mouthwashes to prevent bad breath .
Zinc pyrithione is widely included in shampoos to prevent dandruff .
Zinc ions are effective antimicrobial agents even at low concentrations .
= = = Organic chemistry = = =
Organozinc chemistry is the science of copounds that contain carbon @-@ zinc bonds , describing the physical properties , synthesis , and chemical reactions.Many organozinc compounds are important . Among important applications are
The Frankland @-@ Duppa Reaction in which an oxalate ester ( ROCOCOOR ) reacts with an alkyl halide R 'X , zinc and hydrochloric acid to form the α @-@ hydroxycarboxylic esters RR 'COHCOOR
The Reformatskii reaction in which α @-@ halo @-@ esters and aldehydes are converted to β @-@ hydroxy @-@ esters
The Simmons – Smith reaction in which the carbenoid ( iodomethyl ) zinc iodide reacts with alkene ( or alkyne ) and converts them to cyclopropane
The Addition reaction of organozinc compounds to form carbonyl compounds
The Barbier reaction ( 1899 ) , which is the zinc equivalent of the magnesium Grignard reaction and is the better of the two . In presence of water , formation of the organomagnesium halide will fail , whereas the Barbier reaction can take place in water .
On the downside , organozincs are much less nucleophilic than Grignards , and they are expensive and difficult to handle . Commercially available diorganozinc compounds are dimethylzinc , diethylzinc and diphenylzinc . In one study , the active organozinc compound is obtained from much cheaper organobromine precursors
The Negishi coupling is also an important reaction for the formation of new carbon @-@ carbon bonds between unsaturated carbon atoms in alkenes , arenes and alkynes . The catalysts are nickel and palladium . A key step in the catalytic cycle is a transmetalation in which a zinc halide exchanges its organic substituent for another halogen with the palladium ( nickel ) metal center .
The Fukuyama coupling is another coupling reaction , but it uses a thioester as reactant and produces a ketone .
Zinc has found many applications as catalyst in organic synthesis including asymmetric synthesis , being cheap and easily available alternative to precious metal complexes . The results ( yield and ee ) obtained with chiral zinc catalysts are comparable to those achieved with palladium , ruthenium , iridium and others , and zinc becomes metal catalyst of choice .
= = Biological role = =
Zinc is an essential trace element for humans and other animals , for plants and for microorganisms . Zinc is found in nearly 100 specific enzymes ( other sources say 300 ) , serves as structural ions in transcription factors and is stored and transferred in metallothioneins . It is " typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms " after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes .
In proteins , Zinc ions are often coordinated to the amino acid side chains of aspartic acid , glutamic acid , cysteine and histidine . The theoretical and computational description of this zinc binding in proteins ( as well as that of other transition metals ) is difficult .
Between 2 and 4 grams of zinc are distributed throughout the human body . Most zinc is in the brain , muscle , bones , kidney , and liver , with the highest concentrations in the prostate and parts of the eye . Semen is particularly rich in zinc , a key factor in prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth .
In humans , zinc plays " ubiquitous biological roles " . It interacts with " a wide range of organic ligands " , and has roles in the metabolism of RNA and DNA , signal transduction , and gene expression . It also regulates apoptosis . A 2006 study estimated that about 10 % of human proteins ( 2800 ) potentially bind zinc , in addition to hundreds more that transport and traffic zinc ; a similar in silico study in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found 2367 zinc @-@ related proteins .
In the brain , zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and can " modulate brain excitability " . It plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and so in learning . However , it has been called " the brain 's dark horse " because it also can be a neurotoxin , suggesting zinc homeostasis plays a critical role in normal functioning of the brain and central nervous system .
= = = Enzymes = = =
Zinc is an efficient Lewis acid , making it a useful catalytic agent in hydroxylation and other enzymatic reactions . The metal also has a flexible coordination geometry , which allows proteins using it to rapidly shift conformations to perform biological reactions . Two examples of zinc @-@ containing enzymes are carbonic anhydrase and carboxypeptidase , which are vital to the processes of carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) regulation and digestion of proteins , respectively .
In vertebrate blood , carbonic anhydrase converts CO
2 into bicarbonate and the same enzyme transforms the bicarbonate back into CO
2 for exhalation through the lungs . Without this enzyme , this conversion would occur about one million times slower at the normal blood pH of 7 or would require a pH of 10 or more . The non @-@ related β @-@ carbonic anhydrase is required in plants for leaf formation , the synthesis of indole acetic acid ( auxin ) and alcoholic fermentation .
Carboxypeptidase cleaves peptide linkages during digestion of proteins . A coordinate covalent bond is formed between the terminal peptide and a C = O group attached to zinc , which gives the carbon a positive charge . This helps to create a hydrophobic pocket on the enzyme near the zinc , which attracts the non @-@ polar part of the protein being digested .
= = = Other proteins = = =
Zinc serves a purely structural role in zinc fingers , twists and clusters . Zinc fingers form parts of some transcription factors , which are proteins that recognize DNA base sequences during the replication and transcription of DNA . Each of the nine or ten Zn2 + ions in a zinc finger helps maintain the finger 's structure by coordinately binding to four amino acids in the transcription factor . The transcription factor wraps around the DNA helix and uses its fingers to accurately bind to the DNA sequence .
In blood plasma , zinc is bound to and transported by albumin ( 60 % , low @-@ affinity ) and transferrin ( 10 % ) . Because transferrin also transports iron , excessive iron reduces zinc absorption , and vice versa . A similar antagonism exists with copper . The concentration of zinc in blood plasma stays relatively constant regardless of zinc intake . Cells in the salivary gland , prostate , immune system , and intestine use zinc signaling to communicate with other cells .
Zinc may be held in metallothionein reserves within microorganisms or in the intestines or liver of animals . Metallothionein in intestinal cells is capable of adjusting absorption of zinc by 15 – 40 % . However , inadequate or excessive zinc intake can be harmful ; excess zinc particularly impairs copper absorption because metallothionein absorbs both metals .
= = = Dietary reference intake = = =
The Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. Institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements ( EARs ) and Recommended Dietary Allowances ( RDAs ) for zinc in 2001 . The current EARs for zinc for women and men ages 14 and up are 6 @.@ 8 mg / day and 9 @.@ 4 mg / day , respectively . The RDAs are 8 and 11 mg / day . RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements . RDA for pregnancy equals 11 mg / day . RDA for lactation equals 12 mg / day . For infants up to 12 months the RDA is 3 mg / day and for children ages 1 – 13 years the RDA increases with age from 3 to 8 mg / day . As for safety , the Food and Nutrition Board also sets Tolerable Upper Intake Levels ( known as ULs ) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient . In the case of zinc the UL is set at 40 mg / day . Collectively the EARs , RDAs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes . The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 25 mg / day .
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value ( % DV ) . For zinc labeling purposes 100 % of the Daily Value was 15 mg , but as of May 2016 it has been revised to 11 mg . A table of the pre @-@ change adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake . Food and supplement companies have until July 28 , 2018 to comply with the change .
= = = Dietary intake = = =
Animal @-@ sourced foods ( meat , fish , shellfish , fowl , eggs , dairy ) provide zinc . The concentration of zinc in plants varies with the level in the soil . With adequate zinc in the soil , the food plants that contain the most zinc are wheat ( germ and bran ) and various seeds ( sesame , poppy , alfalfa , celery , mustard ) . Zinc is also found in beans , nuts , almonds , whole grains , pumpkin seeds , sunflower seeds and blackcurrant .
Other sources include fortified food and dietary supplements in various forms . A 1998 review concluded that zinc oxide , one of the most common supplements in the United States , and zinc carbonate are nearly insoluble and poorly absorbed in the body . This review cited studies that found lower plasma zinc concentrations in the subjects who consumed zinc oxide and zinc carbonate than in those who took zinc acetate and sulfate salts . However , harmful excessive supplementation is a problem among the relatively affluent , and should probably not exceed 20 mg / day in healthy people .
For fortification , however , a 2003 review recommended cereals ( containing zinc oxide ) as a cheap , stable source that is as easily absorbed as the more expensive forms . A 2005 study found that various compounds of zinc , including oxide and sulfate , did not show statistically significant differences in absorption when added as fortificants to maize tortillas . A 1987 study found that zinc picolinate was better absorbed than zinc gluconate or zinc citrate . However , a study published in 2008 determined that zinc glycinate is the most readily absorbed of the four available dietary supplement compounds .
= = = Deficiency = = =
Zinc deficiency is usually due to insufficient dietary intake , but can be associated with malabsorption , acrodermatitis enteropathica , chronic liver disease , chronic renal disease , sickle cell disease , diabetes , malignancy , and other chronic illnesses . Groups at risk for zinc deficiency include the elderly , children in developing countries , and those with renal dysfunction .
In the United States , a federal survey of food consumption determined that for women and men over the age of 19 , average consumption was 9 @.@ 7 and 14 @.@ 2 mg / day , respectively . For women , 17 % consumed less than the EAR , for men 11 % . The percentages below EAR increased with age .
Symptoms of mild zinc deficiency are diverse . Clinical outcomes include depressed growth , diarrhea , impotence and delayed sexual maturation , alopecia , eye and skin lesions , impaired appetite , altered cognition , impaired host defense properties , defects in carbohydrate utilization , and reproductive teratogenesis . Mild zinc deficiency depresses immunity , although excessive zinc does also . Animals with a zinc deficiency require twice as much food to attain the same weight gain as animals with sufficient zinc .
Despite some concerns , western vegetarians and vegans do not suffer any more from overt zinc deficiency than meat @-@ eaters . Major plant sources of zinc include cooked dried beans , sea vegetables , fortified cereals , soy foods , nuts , peas , and seeds . However , phytates in many whole @-@ grains and fibers may interfere with zinc absorption and marginal zinc intake has poorly understood effects . The zinc chelator phytate , found in seeds and cereal bran , can contribute to zinc malabsorption . Some evidence suggests that more than the US RDA ( 15 mg ) of zinc daily may be needed in those whose diet is high in phytates , such as some vegetarians . These considerations must be balanced against the paucity of adequate zinc biomarkers , and the most widely used indicator , plasma zinc , has poor sensitivity and specificity . Diagnosing zinc deficiency is a persistent challenge .
Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc . In children , it causes an increase in infection and diarrhea and contributes to the death of about 800 @,@ 000 children worldwide per year . The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea . Zinc supplements help prevent disease and reduce mortality , especially among children with low birth weight or stunted growth . However , zinc supplements should not be administered alone , because many in the developing world have several deficiencies , and zinc interacts with other micronutrients .
= = Soil remediation = =
The Ericoid Mycorrhizal Fungi Calluna , Erica and Vaccinium can grow in zinc metalliferous soils .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Zinc deficiency appears to be the most common micronutrient deficiency in crop plants ; it is particularly common in high @-@ pH soils . Zinc @-@ deficient soil is cultivated in the cropland of about half of Turkey and India , a third of China , and most of Western Australia . Substantial responses to zinc fertilization have been reported in these areas . Plants that grow in soils that are zinc @-@ deficient are more susceptible to disease . Zinc is added to the soil primarily through the weathering of rocks , but humans have added zinc through fossil fuel combustion , mine waste , phosphate fertilizers , pesticide ( zinc phosphide ) , limestone , manure , sewage sludge , and particles from galvanized surfaces . Excess zinc is toxic to plants , although zinc toxicity is far less widespread .
= = Precautions = =
= = = Toxicity = = =
Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health , excess zinc can be harmful . Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses copper and iron absorption . The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants , invertebrates , and even vertebrate fish . The Free Ion Activity Model is well @-@ established in the literature , and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms . A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93 % of all Daphnia in water .
The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive . Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid , in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride . Swallowing a post @-@ 1982 American one cent piece ( 97 @.@ 5 % zinc ) can cause damage to the stomach lining through the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach .
Evidence shows that people taking 100 – 300 mg of zinc daily may suffer induced copper deficiency . A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo . Levels of 100 – 300 mg may interfere with the utilization of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol . Zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interferes with the plant absorption of other essential metals , such as iron and manganese . A condition called the zinc shakes or " zinc chills " can be induced by inhalation of zinc fumes while brazing or welding galvanized materials . Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram . Disability and even deaths from excessive use of these products have been claimed .
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose , causing anosmia . Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections . On June 16 , 2009 , the FDA ordered removal of zinc @-@ based intranasal cold products from store shelves . The FDA said the loss of smell can be life @-@ threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke , and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it . Recent research suggests that the topical antimicrobial zinc pyrithione is a potent heat shock response inducer that may impair genomic integrity with induction of PARP @-@ dependent energy crisis in cultured human keratinocytes and melanocytes .
= = = Poisoning = = =
In 1982 , the US Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but containing primarily zinc . The new zinc pennies pose a risk of zinc toxicosis , which can be fatal . One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies ( over 1 kg of zinc ) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis . Another patient who ingested 12 grams of zinc showed only lethargy and ataxia ( gross lack of coordination of muscle movements ) . Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins .
Pennies and other small coins are sometimes ingested by dogs , requiring veterinary removal of the foreign objects . The zinc content of some coins can cause zinc toxicity , commonly fatal in dogs through severe hemolytic anemia and liver or kidney damage ; vomiting and diarrhea are possible symptoms . Zinc is highly toxic in parrots and poisoning can often be fatal . The consumption of fruit juices stored in galvanized cans has resulted in mass parrot poisonings with zinc .
= Engleromyces sinensis =
Engleromyces sinensis is a species of fungus in the family Xylariaceae . It was described as new to science in 2010 , based on specimens collected in 1958 and incorrectly identified as Engleromyces goetzii . The fungus is known only from China , where it grows on bamboo culms . It forms fruit bodies in the shape of two roughly circular buff @-@ colored lobes measuring up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) in diameter that envelop the bamboo . E. sinensis has been used as a folk remedy against cancer and infection in Tibet , Yunnan , and Sichuan Provinces . Several bioactive metabolites have been isolated and identified from the fungus .
= = Discovery = =
Engleromyces sinensis was described as a new species in 2010 . The authors were studying members of the family Xylariaceae that were housed in the Mycological Herbarium of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing , and discovered that five specimens labeled as E. goetzii , collected from Jade Dragon Snow Mountain ( Yunnan Province ) in 1958 , did not match descriptions of the species published by Paul Christoph Hennings ( 1900 ) , Curtis Gates Lloyd ( 1917 ) , R.W.G. Dennis ( 1961 ) or Jack Rogers ( 1981 ) . These species descriptions , which were based on collections made in Africa , convinced the authors that the Chinese collections were sufficiently different from E. goetzii to warrant describing a new species . Prior to this discovery , Engleromyces was a monotypic genus . The specific epithet sinensis means " Chinese " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Engleromyces sinensis form two roughly spherical lobes that partially envelop the bamboo substrate . The official description gives dimensions of 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 9 in ) by 4 – 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 2 in ) and 1 @.@ 6 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in height , although specimens in markets measuring 10 to 50 cm ( 4 to 20 in ) in diameter have been noted . When young , the surface is buff @-@ colored with a pinkish hue and slightly dimpled surface ; the color changes to grayish @-@ brown and the surface becomes smoother as the fungus matures . The internal flesh is buff colored , with a firm texture that later becomes woody . The ostioles ( minute openings through which spores are released ) , which are scattered about the surface of the fruit bodies , are somewhat nipple @-@ like when young but later become sharper ( punctate ) . Situated under a crust with a thickness of about 1 mm , the perithecia are arranged in rows . They are spherical to flask shaped , with eight @-@ spored asci . The asci are funnel or T @-@ shaped , somewhat like a golf tee , and measure about 4 by 4 µm . They have an apical apparatus ( a region at the ascus tip that forms the spore @-@ shooting mechanism ) that stains blue in Melzer 's reagent . The smooth , black ascospores are lined up in a single row , and feature drop @-@ like appendages that are visible when still in the ascus . Measuring 15 – 19 by 11 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 µm , they are broadly inequilateral with one or both ends shortened , and lack a germ pore .
In contrast to E. goetzii ( the type species of Engleromyces ) , E. sinensis has smaller spores , and an apical apparatus that is T @-@ shaped rather than cuboid . E. goetzii fruit bodies can grow quite large – " to the size of a football " – and weigh up to 4 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) . They only grow on the African alpine bamboo ( Yushania alpina ) . The Siamese jelly ball fungus , Gelatinomyces siamensis , produces fruit bodies that are superficially similar to those of E. sinensis . However , the former are smaller , have a gelatinous texture , and are only found in Thailand , where they grow on bamboo culms and branches at elevations ranging from 390 – 840 m ( 1 @,@ 280 – 2 @,@ 760 ft ) .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Engleromyces sinensis is known only from China , including its type location in Yunnan , China , in Yulong County . The fungus has also been collected from Mêdog County ( Tibet ) , where it was found growing in a coniferous forest . It has been collected at elevations between 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 11 @,@ 500 ft ) . Fruit bodies grow on and partially envelop bamboo culms . Specifically , E. sinensis has been recorded from a species of bamboo variously known as Fargesia melanostachys or F. yulongshanensis , depending on the authority . Engleromyces collections made in Nepal , initially identified as E. goetzii , are likely to be E. sinensis .
= = Research = =
Engleromyces sinensis is used in China in traditional medicine for its antibiotic and antiinflammatory properties , and is sold in market stalls in Yunnan . Several bioactive metabolites have been isolated and identified from the fungus . It produces engleromycin , a cytochalasin . This compound , which is also made by E. goetzii , has antibiotic and cytotoxic activity . Additional metabolites include the novel compound neoengleromycin , and the previously known cytochalasin D and 19 @,@ 20 @-@ epoxycytochalasin D. Neoengleromycin has an unusual chemical structure featuring a rare amine @-@ substituted hydroxamic acid skeleton .
= Arthur James Dingle =
Arthur " Mud " James Dingle ( 16 October 1891 – 22 August 1915 ) was a rugby union centre and wing , who won three caps for England , and played for County Durham , Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford University .
He was born and raised in County Durham , attending Durham School , where he was head boy and excelled at many sports , especially rugby . He went on to study at Keble College , Oxford , playing rugby for the college and captaining the team in his final year . He played in the 1911 Varsity Match , in which he scored a try . He was first selected for England in February 1913 , against Ireland , although he had not been picked for Oxford that year . After graduating , he returned to Durham School as a master . He played for Hartlepool Rovers , scoring 55 tries in the 1913 – 14 season , as well as four hat @-@ tricks for County Durham , helping them reach the County Championship finals . He was picked for England against Scotland and France in the last international matches before the outbreak of the First World War .
Dingle , who had been a member of the Oxford Officers Training Corps , was gazetted second lieutenant in the 6th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment , which took part in the Suvla Bay Landing of the Gallipoli Campaign on 6 August 1915 . His battalion took Scimitar Hill on 9 August , with great loss of life , only to be forced to make a tactical withdrawal . On 21 August , the Battle of Scimitar Hill ensued , a disaster for Britain and her allies : Dingle was killed the following day , defending a trench that had earlier been captured . He is commemorated on the Helles Memorial to the missing dead .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Dingle was born on 16 October 1891 at Hetton @-@ le @-@ Hole , County Durham , the eldest son of Beatrice ( née Robson ) and Reverend Arthur Trehane Dingle , Rector of Egglescliffe . He had a brother , Hugh John Dingle . Arthur attended Bow School in Durham and then Durham School , where he was head of school , and displayed an aptitude for cricket , gymnastics , rowing and rugby . He then went up to Keble College , Oxford in 1910 , where he read theology in anticipation of being ordained .
= = Rugby career = =
At Oxford , Dingle played for his college , Keble , and captained the team in his final year . He also played on Saturdays for Rosslyn Park , joining a school friend , Nowell Oxland at the club . He was soon selected to play for Oxford , at centre , winning his Blue in the 1911 Varsity Match . In front of 10 @,@ 000 spectators at Queen 's Club on 12 December , Cambridge were the clear favourites to win : Oxford had lost 5 of the previous 13 games . Under the leadership of Ronnie Poulton , however , Oxford won a decisive victory , leading 11 – 0 already at half time . In the second half , a further two tries — one from Dingle , which Poulton described as " magnificent " — sealed the victory , 19 – 0 .
The following season , on 6 November 1912 , Oxford hosted the South African team touring the United Kingdom and France . Dingle played at centre . It was a close contest , with South Africa coming through to win 6 – 0 . After the Springboks ' convincing victory over Cambridge a little later , Oxford were favourites to win the Varsity Match and to add to their winning series . Dingle was unable to play due to injury , missing a game that went against the odds .
Dingle got his first call up to the England national team to face Ireland on 8 February 1913 , playing centre alongside Poulton , although he had not been selected to play for Oxford . The Times described his debut performance as ' strong in defence , but ... not altogether a success ' , while The Aberdeen Journal described him as ' fair ' , amongst a backline that was ' lacking in finishing power ' , with Poulton , ' poor ' . England gained an ' easy ' victory 15 – 4 but failed to turn their opportunities into points . Dingle was not picked for the next match , against Scotland on 15 March .
= = = 1913 – 14 season = = =
After he graduated , Dingle played for Richmond RFC and Surrey then , returning to Durham to become a master at his old school , he played for Hartlepool Rovers , and captained the team . At county level , he played for Durham , and had a significant part in helping the team reach the finals of the County Championship Tournament , scoring in each of the seven matches . In total , he scored 55 tries in the season , 39 for Hartlepool and a further 16 for Durham .
Early in the season , England played The South at Twickenham , winning 21 – 12 , with outstanding performances from Dingle , as well as Johnson and Poulton . Dingle then played in the third and final trial against the Rest of England , which England won 42 – 27 . His selection for the Five Nations came up for the match against Scotland , replacing Roberts on the left wing , who had had a poor game in the prior encounter against Ireland . Before the Scotland match on 21 March , Bill Maclagan described the English team as one of the best to visit Scotland . Having already defeated Wales and Ireland , England beat Scotland 15 – 16 in a close @-@ fought game . Scotland , with the wind behind them , opened the scoring in the first half with a try but England equalised just before half time . After the break , England got up a lead of 6 – 16 and victory seemed certain . Scotland responded and closed the gap to one point . After Cherry Pillman 's leg was broken in a tackle , England were playing with fourteen men , but they managed to hold on , thereby winning both the Triple Crown and the Calcutta Cup , as well as the Five Nations Championship . Dingle , in the opening minutes , missed a try @-@ scoring opportunity when he knocked @-@ on a pass from Poulton . Yet he had a positive impact in other parts of the game . It was England 's last international test on British soil before the First World War : 11 of the 30 players went on to be killed in it , including the Scotsman William Middleton Wallace , who died the same day as Dingle .
Dingle was kept on for the final match of the tournament against France . England overwhelmed France in a 13 – 39 defeat , in which the French crowd 's behaviour towards the visiting team was ' disorderly ' . The Times was once again critical of Dingle 's performance : ' AJ Dingle was the weakest of the four [ threequarters ] . He failed to take the passes and was very slow getting into his stride.'
With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , competitive rugby matches were suspended . Despite this , Edgar Mobbs , the captain of the Barbarians invitation side , organised a match against the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) on 10 April 1915 . The Barbarians team on that day was made up of military personnel , including Dingle , who contributed a try towards a 10 – 3 victory . Of Dingle 's team @-@ mates on that day , both Mobbs and another England international Billy Geen , would also die in action during the war .
= = = International appearances = = =
= = Military service = =
Since Dingle was a school master , he was exempt from military service , but having been a member of the Oxford University Officers Training Corps ( OTC ) , and having set up the OTC at Durham School , he sought permission to enlist from the headmaster , Canon Budworth . He was commissioned on 29 August 1914 temporary second lieutenant into the 6th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment . He was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 8 December .
Dingle 's regiment was sent to Gallipoli and took part in the Suvla Bay landings on 6 August 1915 . His battalion soon took the small hill at Lala Baba , with the loss of many lives . Three days later , with Dingle made temporary captain , his battalion captured Scimitar Hill , once again with great loss of life , but then made a tactical withdrawal . On 21 August , with Dingle as acting commanding officer of the 150 men of B Company , the battalion was involved in the Battle of Scimitar Hill , a major assault to recapture the hill , which ended in disaster . Dingle was shot through the temple and killed at dawn on 22 August 1915 , while defending a captured trench " against overwhelming odds " . It was not possible to recover his body . Of his England team @-@ mates who played Scotland in the final Calcutta Cup match in 1914 before the start of the war , three had already died : Bungy Watson , Francis Oakley and Poulton .
The Ballad of Suvla Bay by John Still , has these lines about Dingle :
He is commemorated on panels 51 to 54 of the Helles Memorial to the missing . Other rugby internationals commemorated on the monument include the two Scotsmen William Campbell Church and Eric Templeton Young , and the Englishman William Nanson . There are also memorials to him at Durham School , St Margaret 's Church in Durham , Keble College , Richmond , Rosslyn Park , Hartlepool Rovers and Oxford rugby club . There is also a tournament played amongst some of the first schools to adopt rugby , the Veterrimi IV , the winning team being awarded the AJ Dingle Cup .
= History of silk =
The production of silk originates in China in the Neolithic ( Yangshao culture , 4th millennium BCE ) . Silk remained confined to China until the Silk Road opened at some point during the later half of the first millennium BCE . China maintained its virtual monopoly over silk production for another thousand years . Not confined to clothing , silk was also used for a number of other applications , including writing , and the color of silk worn was an important guide of social class during the Tang Dynasty .
Silk cultivation spread to Japan around 300 CE , and , by 522 CE , the Byzantines managed to obtain silkworm eggs and were able to begin silkworm cultivation . The Arabs also began to manufacture silk during this same time . As a result of the spread of sericulture , Chinese silk exports became less important , although they still maintained dominance over the luxury silk market . The Crusades brought silk production to Western Europe , in particular to many Italian states , which saw an economic boom exporting silk to the rest of Europe . Changes in manufacturing techniques also began to take place during the Middle Ages , with devices such as the spinning wheel first appearing . During the 16th century France joined Italy in developing a successful silk trade , though the efforts of most other nations to develop a silk industry of their own were unsuccessful .
The Industrial Revolution changed much of Europe ’ s silk industry . Due to innovations in spinning cotton , cotton became much cheaper to manufacture and therefore caused more expensive silk production to become less mainstream . New weaving technologies , however , increased the efficiency of production . Among these was the Jacquard loom , developed for silk embroidery . An epidemic of several silkworm diseases caused production to fall , especially in France , where the industry never recovered . In the 20th century Japan and China regained their earlier role in silk production , and China is now once again the world ’ s largest producer of silk . The rise of new fabrics such as nylon reduced the prevalence of silk throughout the world , and silk is now once again a rare luxury good , much less important than in its heyday .
= = Early history = =
= = = The Appearance of Silk = = =
The earliest evidence of silk was found at the sites of Yangshao culture in Xia County , Shanxi , where a silk cocoon was found cut in half by a sharp knife , dating back to between 4000 and 3000 BCE . The species was identified as Bombyx mori , the domesticated silkworm . Fragments of primitive loom can also be seen from the sites of Hemudu culture in Yuyao , Zhejiang , dated to about 4000 BCE . The earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC , and was used as wrapping for the body of a child . The fabric comes from a Yangshao site in Qingtaicun at Rongyang , Henan . Scraps of silk were found in a Liangzhu culture site at Qianshanyang in Huzhou , Zhejiang , dating back to
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in tools used . Between the 10th and 12th centuries , small changes began to appear , though the changes of the 13th century were much larger and more radical . In a short time , new fabrics began to appear ; hemp and cotton each also had their own particular techniques of manufacture . Known since Roman times , silk remained a rare and expensive material . Byzantine magnaneries in Greece and Syria ( 6th to 8th century ) , and those of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain ( 8th to 10th century ) were able to supply the luxury material in a much greater abundance .
= = = Improved technology = = =
The 13th century saw an already changing technology undergo many dramatic changes . It is possible that , as with in England at the end of the 18th century , advances in the textile industry were a driving force behind advances in technology as a whole . Silk indeed occupies a privileged place in history on account of this .
At the start of the 13th century , a primitive form of milling the silk threads was already in use . In 1221 Jean de Garlande 's dictionary , and in 1226 , Étienne Boileau 's Livre des métiers ( Tradesman 's Handbook ) enumerated many types of devices which can only have been doubling machines . The instruments used were further perfected in Bologna between 1270 and 1280 . From the start of the 14th century , many documents allude to the use of devices that were quite complex .
The reel , originally developed for the silk industry , now has multiple uses . The earliest surviving depiction of a European spinning wheel is a panel of stained glass in the Cathedral of Chartres . Bobbins and warping machines appear together in the stained glass at Chartres and in a fresco in the Cologne Kunkelhaus ( ca 1300 ) . It is possible that the toothed warping machine was created by the silk industry ; it allowed the warp to be more uniform and allowed the warp to be of a longer length .
Starting at the end of the 14th century , no doubt on account of the devastation caused mid @-@ century by the Black Death , there was a general shift towards less expensive techniques . Many things which would have earlier been completely forbidden by the guilds were now commonplace ( using low quality wool , carding , etc . ) . In the silk industry , the use of water @-@ powered mills grew , and by the 15th century , the loom designed by Jean le Calabrais saw nearly universal use .
= = = The silk industry in France = = =
Italian silk cloth was very expensive , as much a result of the cost of the raw material as of the production costs . The craftsmen in Italy proved unable to keep up with the exigencies of French fashion , which continuously demanded lighter and less expensive materials . These materials were used for clothing , and garment production began to be done locally . Nevertheless , Italian silk long remained among the most prized , mostly for furnishings and the brilliant colours of the dyes .
Following the example of the wealthy Italian city @-@ states of the era , such as Venice , Florence , and Lucca , which had become the center of the luxury @-@ textile industry , Lyon obtained a similar function in the French market . In 1466 , King Louis XI decided to develop a national silk industry in Lyon . In the face of protests by the Lyonnais , he conceded and moved the silk fabrication to Tours , but the industry in Tours stayed relatively marginal . His main objective was to reduce France 's trade deficit with Italy , which caused France to lose 400 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 golden écus a year . It was under Francis I in around 1535 that a royal charter was granted to two merchants , Étienne Turquet and Barthélemy Naris , to develop a silk trade in Lyon . In 1540 , the king granted a monopoly on silk production to the city of Lyon . Starting in the 16th century , Lyon became the capital of the European silk trade , notably producing many reputable fashions . Gaining confidence , the silks produced in the city began to abandon the original oriental styles in favor of their own distinctive style , which emphasized landscapes . Thousand of workers , the canuts , devoted themselves to the flourishing industry . In the middle of the 17th century , over 14 @,@ 000 looms were used in Lyon , and the silk industry fed a third of the city 's population .
In the 18th and 19th centuries , Provence experienced a boom in sericulture that would last until the first world war , with much of the silk shipped north to Lyon . Viens and La Bastide @-@ des @-@ Jourdans are two of the communes of Luberon that profited the most from mulberry plantations that have since disappeared . Working at home under the domestic system , silk spinning and silk treatment employed many people and increased the income of the working class .
= = = Spread to other countries = = =
England under Henry IV was also looking to develop a silk industry , but no opportunity arose until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the 1680s , when hundreds of thousands of French Huguenots , many of whom were skilled weavers and experts in sericulture , began immigrating to England to escape religious persecution . Some areas , including Spitalfields saw many high @-@ quality silk workshops spring up , their products distinct from continental silk largely by the colors used . Nonetheless , the British climate prevented England 's domestic silk trade from becoming globally dominant .
Many envisioned starting a silk industry in the British colonies in America , starting in 1619 , under the reign of King James I of England . The silk industry in the colonies never became very large . Likewise , silk was introduced to numerous other countries , including Mexico , where it was brought by Cortez in 1522 . Only rarely did these new silk industries grow to any significant size .
= = Silk since the Industrial Revolution = =
= = = The start of the Industrial Revolution = = =
The start of the Industrial Revolution was marked by a massive boom in the textile industry , with remarkable technological innovations made , led by the cotton industry of Great Britain . In its early years , there were often disparities in technological innovation between different stages of fabric manufacture , which encouraged complementary innovations . For example , spinning progressed much more rapidly than weaving .
The silk industry , however , did not gain any benefit from innovations in spinning , as silk is naturally already a thread . Making silk , silver , and gold brocades is a very delicate and precise process , with each colour needing its own dedicated shuttle . In the 17th century and 18th centuries progress began to be made in the simplification and standardization of silk manufacture , with many advances following one after another . Bouchon and Falcon 's punched card loom appeared in 1775 , later improved on by Jacques de Vaucanson . Later , Joseph @-@ Marie Jacquard improved on the designs of Falcon and Vaucanson , introducing the revolutionary Jacquard loom , which allowed a string of punched cards to be processed mechanically in the correct sequence . The punched cards of the Jacquard loom were a direct precursor to the modern computer , in that they gave a ( limited ) form of programmability . Punched cards themselves were carried over to computers , and were ubiquitous until their obsolescence in the 1970s . From 1801 embroidery became highly mechanized due to the effectiveness of the Jacquard loom . The mechanism behind the Jacquard loom even allowed complex designs to be mass @-@ produced .
The Jacquard loom was immediately denounced by workers , who accused it of causing unemployment , but soon it had become vital to the industry . The loom was declared public property in 1806 , and Jacquard was rewarded with a pension and a royalty on each machine . In 1834 there were a total of 2885 Jacquard looms in Lyon alone . The Canut revolt in 1831 foreshadowed many of the larger worker uprisings of the Industrial Revolution . The canuts occupied the city of Lyon , and would not relinquish it until a bloody repression by the army , led by Marshal Soult . A second revolt , similar to the first , took place in 1834 .
= = = Decline in the European silk industry = = =
The first silkworm diseases began to appear in 1845 , creating an epidemic . Among them are pébrine , caused by the microsporidia Nosema bombycis , grasserie , caused by a virus , flacherie , caused by eating infected mulberry leaves or white muscardine disease , caused by the fungus Beauveria bassiana . The epidemic grew to a massive scale , and after having attacked the silkworms , other viruses began to infect the mulberry trees . The chemist Jean @-@ Baptiste Dumas , French minister of agriculture , was charged with stopping the epidemic . In face of sericulturers ' call for help , he asked Louis Pasteur to study the disease , starting in 1865 . For many years , Pasteur thought that pébrine was not a contagious disease . In 1870 he changed his view , and measures were enacted that caused the disease to decline .
Nevertheless , the increase in the price of silkworm cocoons and the reduction in importance of silk in the garments of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century caused the decline of the silk industry in Europe . The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the silk shortage in France reduced the price of importing Asian silk , particularly from China and Japan .
Starting from the Long Depression ( 1873 – 1896 ) , Lyonnais silk production had become totally industrialized , and hand looms were rapidly disappearing . The 19th century saw the textile industry 's progress caused by advances in chemistry . The synthesis of aniline was used to make mauveine ( aniline purple ) dye and the synthesis of quinine was used to make indigo dye . In 1884 Count Hilaire de Chardonnet invented artificial silk and in 1891 opened a factory dedicated to the production of artificial silk ( viscose ) , which cost much less and in part replaced natural silk .
= = Silk in modern times = =
Following the crisis in Europe , the modernization of sericulture in Japan made it the world 's foremost silk producer . By the early 20th century , rapidly industrializing Japan was producing as much as 60 percent of the world 's raw silk , most exports shipping through the port of Yokohama . Italy managed to rebound from the crisis , but France was unable . Urbanization in Europe saw many French and Italian agricultural workers leave silk growing for more lucrative factory work . Raw silk was imported from Japan to fill the void . Asian countries , formerly exporters of raw materials ( cocoons and raw silk ) , progressively began to export more and more finished garments .
During the Second World War , silk supplies from Japan were cut off , so western countries were forced to find substitutes . Synthetic fibres such as nylon were used in products such as parachutes and stockings , replacing silk . Even after the war , silk was not able to regain many of the markets lost , though it remained an expensive luxury product . Postwar Japan , through improvements in technology and a protectionist market policy , became the world 's foremost exporter of raw silk , a position it held until the 1970s . The continued rise in importance of synthetic fibres and loosening of the protectionist economy contributed to the decline of Japan 's silk industry , and by 1975 it was no longer a net exporter of silk .
With its recent economic reforms , the People 's Republic of China has become the world 's largest silk producer . In 1996 it produced 58 @,@ 000 tonnes out of a world production of 81 @,@ 000 , followed by India at 13 @,@ 000 tonnes . Japanese production is now marginal , at only 2500 tonnes . Between 1995 and 1997 Chinese silk production went down 40 % in an effort to raise prices , reminiscent of earlier shortages .
In December 2006 the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres , so as to raise the profile of silk and other natural fibres .
= Trait du Nord =
The Trait du Nord , previously also known as Ardennais du Nord or Ardennais de type Nord , is a breed of heavy draft horse developed and bred in the area of Hainaut in western Belgium and in northeastern France . Originally considered a subtype of the Ardennes , it was recognized as an individual breed with the opening of a studbook in 1903 . Developed in the fertile Flemish grasslands , it was bred for size and pulling power for agricultural work . By 1855 , the horses bred near Hainaut were considered by some veterinarians to be superior to other Flemish draft breeds . The Trait du Nord was used extensively in mining from the late 19th century through 1920 , with lesser use continuing through the 1960s .
The Trait du Nord continued to be used extensively for agriculture through World War II , but after the war this usage , and the breed population , declined significantly as farming became increasingly mechanized . During the mid @-@ 20th century , the breed was in demand for the production of horse meat , and due to this was bred to be larger and heavier . In the early 1970s , the market for horse meat began to decline , and the Trait du Nord , like many European draft breeds , was in danger of extinction . It was not until the 1990s that the breed experienced a slight revival through an increased interest in recreational riding and driving .
The Trait du Nord is large , with stallions weighing upwards of 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , and is bred for traction ability and pulling power . The breed is found in many solid colors , although bay and roan are the most common , and is known to be gentle and easy to handle . Two slightly different types of Trait du Nord are found – a larger type used for heavier pulling and a lighter type used for faster work . The breed is considered to be endangered by the French government , with fewer than 100 new foal births a year . The national breed registry in France is working with local groups in an attempt to promote this breed and bring population numbers back up . The breed currently has a high risk of inbreeding , due to the low number of breeding stallions , and is at risk of extinction .
= = Naming and registration = =
According to the French National Stud , the current official name of the breed is Trait du Nord . The name has changed several times during its history . In the mid @-@ 19th century it is mentioned as the " large horse of Hainaut " , but before 1903 it was not considered a separate breed and was often thought to be the same as the Ardennes . Beginning in 1913 , it was known as the Trait Ardennes North , and from 1945 to 1965 was known as the Northern Ardennes Draft . The name of Trait du Nord became commonly used around 1961 .
Until August 5 , 1903 , the Trait du Nord 's studbook was merged with that of the Ardennes , with the former being considered a subtype of the latter and called the Northern type Ardennes . The studbook was under the responsibility of the combined group " Studbook of Northern Workhorses " . In 1913 , the name of Trait du Nord was used for the first time and French mares began to be registered as their own breed , although Belgian horses continued to be used for breeding , with the resulting progeny able to be registered as Trait du Nords . In 1919 , the northern type was separated from the Ardennes , although the studbooks remained tied , and the horse was given the name " Northern Ardennes " . A centralized breeding union for the Northern Ardennes was created in 1945 .
In France , the Syndicat d 'élevage du cheval de trait du Nord ( Union of Trait du Nord Horse Breeders ) is the national breed association recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries . Its mission is to promote the breed and assist in its recovery , as well as creating and executing a policy of genetic improvement through selective breeding . The association works with the French National Stud and the Center for Genetic Resources to develop breeding programs and represents the Trait du Nord on French breed committees . It also organizes and contributes to contests and events that help to promote and develop the breed .
= = Breed characteristics = =
In the early 1930s , the breed reached the peak of its physical structure . It was then described as a born laborer , built for traction and with a conformation that allowed it to move huge weights over short distances . Although some breeds of draft horses have declined in weight in modern times , the Trait du Nord has remained relatively large . The average size in the breed is 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) for mares and 16 @.@ 2 to 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 66 to 67 inches , 168 to 170 cm ) for stallions , weighing 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 800 to 900 kg ) for mares and 1 @,@ 870 to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 850 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ) for stallions . Foals of 30 months who are candidates to become registered must be at least 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . Bay and roan are the most frequent colors seen in the breed . Chestnut ( including liver chestnut , although this color is quite rare ) is also allowed , as are black , brown and gray , although the latter is extremely rare .
In France , the National Stud regulates the physical standards of the Trait du Nord and eight other French breeds . The eligibility criteria have changed several times since the opening of the studbook in 1913 , and now describe the ideal Trait du Nord as large , well built , short and powerful , with a large frame and well @-@ developed muscles , energetic , with easygoing and beautiful gaits . Members of the breed are described by the breed association as courageous and observant , as well as gentle and easy to handle . The head is generally small in proportion to the mass of the horse , and often snub , with a flat profile ( neither concave nor convex ) . The neck is of medium length and strong , often slightly arched . The withers are prominent and the shoulder long and slightly oblique . The back is short and straight and the body compact , solid and very muscular . The chest is deep , with a broad , muscular breast . The croup is wide and powerfully muscled . The hooves are hard and strong .
There are two main types of Trait du Nord . One is a heavier type bred for pulling heavy loads , while the other is a lighter type bred for slightly faster work , generally at the trot . Auxois , Ardennes , Brabant and some Dutch draft breeds may be admitted to the Trait du Nord studbook after being inspected and approved by a review panel . Registered horses are marked with a stylized " N " brand on the left side of the neck , signifying conformity to the breed standard .
= = History = =
The ancestors of the breed lived in the northern river valleys of the Sambre and the Scheldt , near Valenciennes . Although it is a popular myth that many French draft breeds , including the Trait du Nord , are descendants of the prehistoric horses found at Solutré , this is not true . Two or possibly three subspecies of now @-@ extinct equines have been found at Solutré , but there is no evidence that they migrated to the area that later produced the Trait du Nord . Like Dutch and Belgian draft breeds such as the Brabant , the origin of the Trait du Nord is found in the large , fertile Flemish grasslands that cover the southern portion of the Netherlands , northern France and all of Belgium . The Hainaut region is the true birthplace of the breed in France . The Belgian draft breeds , the Ardennes and the Trait du Nord share the same ancestry , and the Trait du Nord has a history that is very similar to the Ardennes , due to the influence of the latter breed on the former . The Ardennes , Belgian , Dutch Heavy Draft , Trait du Nord and Auxois are all considered to come from the same group of breeds , due to their heritage , physical characteristics and selection for draft work . Until relatively recently , the breeds were not differentiated , and were frequently crossbred .
The region of Flanders is particularly conducive to agriculture , and in the 19th century the draining of the swamps and improved farming techniques led to a major expansion in cultivated areas and farm sizes . As there were no existing horses in the area that were suitable for plowing , the farmers found it necessary to create a breed of draft horse specifically for their use . From the 1850s on , farmers selected horses that eventually became the Trait du Nord . The farmers combined large Belgian breeds adapted to swampy ground with the Ardennes and Dutch breeds for size , weight and strength . The result was a muscular , powerful , and tough breed with long legs that facilitated movement . The Trait du Nord was unique in being selected specifically for farming , as many draft breeds were also bred for use in transport .
The Trait du Nord proved a successful breed for the farmers that developed it , and quickly spread throughout the Netherlands , Belgium and northern France . It was given different names depending on the country , and was often confused with and crossbred with draft breeds from the Netherlands , Brabants and the Ardennes . Breed associations began to organize in the late 19th century , and at this point blood from the Boulonnais was introduced to bring more elegance to the breed . The Trait du Nord gradually began to differ from the Ardennes as they gained size and volume and improved their gaits , and the breed became popular in the north and east of France . In 1855 , even before the breed had been differentiated from the Ardennes , veterinarians described the heavy horses bred near Hainaut as superior to Flemish breeds .
= = = 20th century = = =
During World War I , Trait du Nord horses were among those confiscated by Germans from Belgium and France for use in the war . In 1919 , these horses were returned to their homeland , allowing the reconstruction of the breed . During World War II , the armed forces used all stocks of fuel , and the draft horse was used to continue agricultural production in France . After the war , farmers quickly equipped themselves with mechanized equipment . The decline in the breeding of the Trait du Nord became noticeable in the early 1950s , and by 1960 breed numbers had collapsed completely . By the early 1970s , breeding had slowed so much that the Trait du Nord , along with other French draft breeds , was in danger of extinction .
As horses were replaced by tractors , the production of horse meat became the main viable market for the Trait du Nord and other French breeds . As the horses were sought for meat , the larger , heavier animals became more in demand , and these horses lost much of their power and pulling ability . A French decree on August 24 , 1976 , published in the Official Journal , encouraged farmers to select the biggest , heaviest stallions for breeding . The French National Stud backed this decree , and encouraged the breeding of foals that would fatten rapidly , to be butchered at the age of eighteen months . Between the mid @-@ 20th century and the 1980s , the average weight of the Trait du Nord increased from between 800 and 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 000 lb ) to over 1 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . Since the early 1970s , the use of the Trait du Nord for meat has declined , contributing to a further reduction in breeding .
In the early 1990s , recreational riding experienced a revival , and the consumption of horse meat continued to decrease . On March 11 , 1994 , the Trait du Nord was officially declared to be a workhorse again , and in 1996 another decree prohibited docking of tails in horses . Members of the breed are occasionally exported from France , with some going to Italy , Belgium and Germany , mainly for work in logging and pulling brewery wagons . A few are sent to Sicily and Guadeloupe , but this is quite rare .
= = Uses = =
The Trait du Nord was originally used mainly for agriculture and mining . They also towed barges on waterways , although this use ended quickly with the increased use of the engine at the beginning of the 20th century .
The peak use of the breed for agriculture was quite short , running from 1880 to around 1960 ( ending due to increased use of mechanized equipment ) , but it allowed significant progress in agriculture in northern France . The stamina and energy of the breed allows them to perform well in the heavy and compact soils in the region of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and recover quickly after exercise . The nature of soils in Hainaut required a horse weighing more than 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 800 kg ) for effective plowing . Since the 1950s , the Trait du Nord has been the preferred breed for farmers who practiced intensive cropping of cereals and beets in the Northern Great Plains of France .
The pulling power of the Trait du Nord made it popular for use during the Industrial Revolution of the late 19th century in heavy industry , including mining . In mines , steam engines and internal combustion engines could not be used due to the possibility of a gas explosion . The first horses were used in the mines in 1821 and the Trait du Nord quickly became a favorite for hauling carts in the mines and operating the pulleys used to lift coal to the surface . Breeders worked to adapt the breed to mining requirements , and the breed became larger as more power was needed to pull heavier loads . Good horses were able to pull 16 @.@ 8 metric tons ( 16 @.@ 5 long tons ; 18 @.@ 5 short tons ) , usually around twelve cars worth , along a railway . As early as 1920 , the usage of horses in mines began to decline as electric locomotives came into use , and in 1969 the last horse was removed from the mines .
= = = 1990s and today = = =
Today , the breed is used mainly for meat and logging forested areas inaccessible to machinery . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , colts not intended for breeding , recreational riding , or harness work are heavily fed and sent out to slaughter before the age of eighteen months . Fillies are generally used for breeding . The breed association and its breeders are trying to secure the future of the Trait du Nord by finding new markets , especially in the areas of recreational riding , agricultural work , recreational and competitive driving . The breed is involved in several reenactments and folk villages which attract good crowds . The breed is promoted for its use in logging in forests and fragile areas , with professional foresters using them to preserve the value and biodiversity of forested areas .
The revival of team driving has prompted farmers who use the Trait du Nord to attend competitions and improve the quality of their horses . The qualities of the breed make it a popular horse for leaders in the areas of recreational and competition team driving , and the breed has the advantage of being able to be immediately returned to work even after a period of inactivity for several months . When being driven , a traditional " Flemish collar " is generally used . The horses are trained to be driven with only one rein , leaving the driver 's hands free for other work . When shown in hand , Trait du Nord horses are often presented in groups , generally between four and eight to a string .
Each year , the Trait du Nord is honored at an agricultural show and horse show in Paris . In 1995 , the breed won the International Workhorse Trophy at the Paris show and in 2010 , a Trait du Nord took the first place prize for weight pulling at the show . Trait du Nord teams participate in the Route du Poisson , a relay race commemorating the route that teams took to bring fresh fish from Boulogne to Paris until the 19th century . The race takes place every two or three years and is the biggest equine relay race in Europe .
= = Breed preservation = =
The Trait du Nord is an endangered breed ; the Haras de Compiègne ( Compiegne Stud ) , a national stud in France , had a major influence in saving the breed , until it was closed in October 2009 . The national breed registry for the Trait du Nord is supported by other local initiatives . However , breed numbers were already low when these initiatives began to be implemented , and media attention on the Trait du Nord is insufficient to maintain economically viable interest . The breed is bred mainly by enthusiasts returning to family farms , but even the number of farms has been decreasing as many young farmers prefer more to breed cattle , which are more lucrative .
Although breed associations and the French National Stud are making efforts to protect the breed , very low numbers persist , and these organizations consider the breed very close to extinction . It is one of the most threatened French horse breeds . The production of horse meat has declined due to a decrease in consumption , and most male foals are neither selected for reproduction nor work . One author says that more alternatives to slaughter are needed and that the steady decline in breed numbers is proof that the breed is slowly disappearing . Beginning in 2011 , the Trait du Nord association is working with the North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais regional council and other groups to increase the number of births by 20 percent by December 2014 , and double the number by 2020 .
The main breeding areas are located around the former Compiegne Stud and include the departments of Nord , the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , the Oise , the Aisne and Somme . A few are found in the central region of Normandy and the Paris area . This breed is found mainly in France and is rarely exported abroad , or only very sporadically with related Belgian and Dutch breeds . A survey of mares in 2008 gave 121 mares in the region of North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , 46 in Picardy , 6 in Normandy and one to three mares in the other regions .
Despite efforts to revive interest in the breed , numbers steadily declined in the years before 1988 . In 1995 , there were 33 stallions in service ; in 1996 this number remained the same and by 1998 it had declined to 30 . In 2004 , there were 111 breeders and 119 Trait du Nord foals were registered . By 2007 and 2008 there were only 17 stallions registered , a number which is exposing the breed to a dangerous increase in inbreeding . To combat this danger , farmers are cross breeding the Trait du Nord with approved Belgian and Dutch horses . The number of farmers breeding the Trait du Nord decreased from 150 to 125 in 2002 , then to 92 in 2007 and 86 in 2008 . After birth rates remained relatively steady in the 1990s , they began to drop in the 2000s , declining from 176 in 2000 to 100 in 2005 and just 75 in 2007 .
= All Hope Is Gone World Tour =
The All Hope Is Gone World Tour was a concert tour by Slipknot that took place in 2008 and 2009 in support of the group 's fourth studio album All Hope Is Gone . The tour consisted of nine legs and took place in the United States , Canada , Japan , Australia , New Zealand , and Europe . The tour started with the Mayhem Festival 2008 .
Lawrence Upton acted as the tour 's director , Philippe Vachon acted as the tour 's programmer and lighting co @-@ director , and Dave Watson as lighting designer . Equipment such as LED units and Martin Atomic 3000 Strobes were used on the rig , and instead of a media server , the GrandMA mixing console was used for MA Lighting . David " Shirt " Nicholls was positioned as audio mixer , working with the digital mixing console .
Slipknot headlined every performance throughout the tour , sometimes sharing headlining status at festival appearances . Supporting acts throughout the tour included Disturbed , DragonForce , Mastodon , Machine Head , Children of Bodom , Coheed and Cambria , Trivium , 3 Inches of Blood , DevilDriver , The Black Dahlia Murder , and Sydonia . The tour consisted of nine legs and 153 shows , beginning on July 9 , 2008 and finishing on October 31 , 2009 . This was also the last tour with bassist Paul Gray who died on May 24 , 2010 .
Turntablist Sid Wilson broke both of his heels after jumping from an elevated area of a stage and landing incorrectly . He performed all dates of the tour , in a wheelchair . Drummer Joey Jordison suffered a broken ankle , causing four concerts to be cancelled . Towards the end of the leg Fehn left the tour due to a " tragic death in his family " , forcing him to miss the final two dates of the leg in Spain . Shawn Crahan left the Canadian part of the tour to return home to his family .
= = Background = =
In early February 2008 , Mick Thomson confirmed that Slipknot would be performing at the 2008 Mayhem Festival . Corey Taylor said : " This summer we are truly bringing Mayhem . Slipknot is excited to be a part of it , and to be able to bring the new chapter of our history to the masses . We are already working , building and designing a new show . " The tour acted as a follow @-@ up to The Subliminal Verses World Tour , which took place in 2004 to promote their third studio album Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . The band began recording their fourth studio album All Hope Is Gone in late February 2008 .
= = Lighting = =
Lawrence Upton acted as the tour 's director , and Philippe Vachon acted as the tour 's programmer and lighting co @-@ director . Vachon said Upton wanted " very aggressive lighting that would attack and have punch " , because Slipknot 's music was very aggressive . Up @-@ stage provided the gear package , which included 10 Martin Professional MAC Profiles and 54 Martin Mac 2000 Wash units . Assistant lighting designer Dave Watson explained that the Martin Professional MAC Profiles were used as " key lights " , while Martin Mac 2000 Wash units generated higher light output . Issues arose during the tour , specifically times when members were barely visible due to the lighting . Vachon said , " There is so much show in your face that we would lose the guys on stage ; we had to beef up the front @-@ of @-@ house [ with ] white . "
The rig consisted of a Front of House truss , two three @-@ quarter angled trusses , and two straight mid @-@ stage trusses . These were all located up @-@ stage , and had two sub @-@ hung trusses directly below them . There were two Lycian Starklite medium @-@ throw truss spots , and an accumulation of specialty lights . The specialty lights included 54 two @-@ light Molefays , six PAR 36 rotating beacons , 24 Martin Atomic 300 Strobes , 2 six @-@ light Molefays , and 10 four @-@ light Molefays . The rig also had LED units , which can be very bright , and which shone into the audience . Throughout the tour , 65 Philips Color Kinetics ColorBlast 12s , seven Color Blaze 48s , and twelve CK ColorBlaze 72s were used to light up the wall behind the band .
Instead of a media server , the GrandMA console was used for MA Lighting . Vachon explained that the GrandMA console was " the desk you can do the most with LEDs ; if you want to go further , you need a media serverCTB . " The assistant lighting designer used a full @-@ sized GrandMA console . Two NSPs provided the necessary extra channels . The show 's color palette was somewhat restricted . There was mostly white lights , but Upton used lighter colors to get the most light output . The original palette was also based on colors like amber , steel blue , sea green , and orange . Late in the tour Vachon would add additional bursts of color , which included intense oranges , reds , and violets .
= = Sound production = =
David " Shirt " Nicholls was the audio mixer , using a Digidesign Venue with both the Eventide Anthology Pack , which provided sound effects , and Venue Pro Pack , which was a complete digital mixing console . Nicholls has expressed his admiration for the Venue Pro Pack and also explained that the A @-@ T 4050 microphones which he used on the tour took a battering during shows . Nicholls has called the T6100 vocal microphones he used " bulletproof " as they would occasionally " go flying up into the seats " during shows but would still work the next show . The Meyer P.A. , which accumulates 16 MILO seat boxes , nine Nexo CD @-@ 18 subwoofers , and six flown HP700s on the ground per side , was provided by Thunder Audio .
The system was controlled by Meyer Sound Galileo . The side @-@ hang featured 10 MICA boxes per side , with four UPJs for front @-@ fills . Ron Hurd , the tour 's monitor engineer , mixed the show using a Yamaha PM5D console . Hurd said , " I 'm not using any plug @-@ ins or rack gear except for an [ Apogee ] Big Ben word clock . Six of the nine guys are on ears : Ultimate Ears with Sennheiser G2s . "
= = Set lists = =
= = Mayhem Festival = =
Slipknot began touring at the first ever Mayhem Festival , a music festival founded by Kevin Lyman and John Reese . During the opening date of the Mayhem Festival 2008 on July 9 at Auburn , Washington , turntablist Sid Wilson broke both of his heels after jumping from an elevated area of the stage and landing incorrectly . Despite the injury , he promised to perform on all dates of the tour in a wheelchair . Wilson returned to the band , in a wheelchair and with both his legs in casts , on the second date of the festival at Mountain View , California ; he did , however , perform without the wheelchair at times .
The second date of the Mayhem Festival in Marysville , California , on July 11 was rescheduled to July 14 due to wildfires in the area .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Critics noted the band 's energy and on @-@ stage presence during their Mayhem Festival sets . Matt Weitz credited the band 's use of the stage in Dallas , saying they were " severe in their presentation . " When reviewing the show at Burgettstown , Pennsylvania , Justin Jacobs said Slipknot " [ delivered ] the pummeling performance the whole crowd had been waiting for " , while noting that part of Slipknot 's appeal was their secrecy , referring to the band 's use of masks and aliases and the fact that a curtain was used to hide the stage while it was set up .
= = Cancelled European dates = =
At the end of the 2008 Mayhem Festival , drummer Joey Jordison broke his ankle . During an interview with Drummer , Jordison explained that the injury happened when he and a friend were " messing around and kinda wrestling with each other " one afternoon , and Jordison tripped and twisted his ankle . Despite the injury , Jordison could still walk and subsequently played the next night . However , during a lengthy double bass section of " The Blister Exists " he " felt a snap " in his ankle . A doctor confirmed he had broken his ankle and suggested surgery . Jordison continued to play with a broken ankle until the band finished the Mayhem Festival . Following the festival Jordison was told that if he continued to play , he could suffer permanent damage that could affect his ability to walk . Subsequently , Slipknot were forced to cancel their European festival appearances due to the injury . On August 22 , at Leeds Festival during the Dropkick Murphys performance , a plane flew above the open air crowd advertising tickets for Slipknot 's UK dates in December . Unhappy with the fact that the band had pulled out of the festival , the crowd began to boo at the banner advert .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = Japanese leg = =
During an interview prior to the Japanese leg of the tour , percussionist Shawn Crahan discussed the difference between Japanese audiences and Western audiences . When asked whether he believed that Japanese fans are less intense , he said it is a matter of opinion for bands and when Slipknot play , " it 's almost frightening how in to it they are . " However , he did note that between songs can be " very awkward " because the crowd is almost silent , whereas the band is used to a more energetic reception .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = Australian / New Zealand leg = =
The Australian leg of the All Hope Is Gone World Tour was the first time Slipknot were able to bring what percussionist Shawn Crahan described as " the real set , the real deal " to an Australian audience . The band travelled with over 11 tons of equipment , including hydraulic drum risers , percussionist rigs , pyrotechnics , lighting and stage set @-@ ups . During an interview prior to the band 's first show of this leg , vocalist Corey Taylor revealed that he had sprained his thumb the day before while sky @-@ diving ; however , the injury did not prevent him from performing .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Reviewing the band 's show in Auckland , Chris Schulz wrote that vocalist Taylor 's performance was " schizophrenic " and that his " unpredictable , passive @-@ aggressive nature " was the focal point of Slipknot 's live show . He also declared percussionist Crahan the " most menacing member of Slipknot " , noting that in a " particularly violent " version of " Duality " he " appeared pleased to play his part in the song by violating an empty keg with a baseball bat . " When reviewing the same show , Scott Kara of The New Zealand Herald compared Slipknot 's performance to their appearance at the 2005 Big Day Out festival , noting that " the gruesome obscenities , the vomiting , and fights " were absent , which made for " a far tighter and more solid " performance . Kara also commented upon the connection the fans had with the show , saying that in songs like " The Heretic Anthem " Taylor " hardly needs to sing " due to the involvement of the audience .
= = European leg = =
The opening date of the European leg of the tour was to have been the first time in Slipknot 's history that would perform in Israel , but due to " sudden personal and family conflicts " the band canceled their appearance . The band stated that they will perform in Israel in the future . The band 's appearance in Moscow marked Slipknot 's first performance in Russia . During an interview with Kerrang ! prior to their appearances in the UK , percussionist Crahan expressed excitement for the upcoming dates , saying , " There 's always been a deep love and affection between the British fans and ourselves . " Machine Head did not perform in Copenhagen on November 13 , due to frontman Robb Flynn 's " severe throat and bronchial infection . " On December 12 , in Sheffield , Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel collapsed on stage during their second to last song , forcing his band to cancel their appearances at the European leg 's final two dates . Slipknot 's performance in London on December 3 , 2008 was recorded for MTV 's World Stage series and aired on March 13 , 2009 , in the UK . It was also made available in over 160 countries .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
When reviewing Slipknot 's show in Düsseldorf , Sebastian Huhn called Shawn Crahan 's hydraulic percussion platform as a highlight of the performance . However , he also said , " Even though the tour had been named after the new album , the most part of the set consisted of tracks from the previous releases . " Huhn rated Slipknot 's overall performance 8 out of 10 . Alistair Lawrence of Kerrang ! reviewed the first of the band 's three shows at the Hammersmith Apollo in London . He said , " The choreographed chaos is too multi @-@ faceted to fully describe " , and noted that Taylor 's performance made songs like " Before I Forget " and " Psychosocial " sound better than on the recorded versions . Overall , Lawrence scored the show 4 out of 5 . When reviewing one of the Hammersmith Apollo shows , Rick Pearson of the Evening Standard wrote that there was " a strong feeling of camaraderie " at the concert . While he admitted he did not understand the draw of the band , " Spit It Out " offered " glimpses as to what got the maggots hooked on this brutal , bludgeoning band . " Adrian Osmond of Western Mail said that their show in Cardiff was " a pretty flawless , colourful and exciting piece of musical theatre " , adding that on entertainment value it would " rival any of the pantomimes out there this month . "
= = US Arena leg = =
During an interview with The Pulse of Radio , vocalist Taylor said that Slipknot would be changing their stage set around for the US arena leg . " We 're getting away from the pyro . We 're going way more visual this time . We 're incorporating a lot of video . " He explained that they always try to do something different : " We 've got people still coming to see us for , you know , after ten years , and we just want to try and give something special . " On the opening show of the leg , percussionist Crahan debuted a new mask which was significantly different from the one he wore while touring in 2008 .
During their show on January 25 in Council Bluffs , Iowa , a member of the audience collapsed from a heart attack and was later declared dead in hospital .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
News @-@ Press & Gazette Company reviewer Shea Conner said that he could not understand why anybody would buy a seat to a Slipknot concert . Saying " the madness is part of the experience " , he added that he himself was " ten feet from the stage with [ his ] head up and elbows , too . " While championing the band as " one of the greatest bands in the world to see live " , Conner wrote , " their antics and on @-@ stage spectacle match their ability to get the crowd in a frenzy . " Conner noted that due to their large line @-@ up " a few [ members ] can take a song or two off to entertain the fans , " citing events like percussionist Chris Fehn mocking a security guard , DJ Sid Wilson destroying a part of Fehn 's drumkit , and Shawn Crahan 's hydraulic drumkit with camera @-@ operated screen as particular examples . Katjusa Cisar of The Capital Times reviewed Slipknot 's show at the Alliant Energy Center , saying that despite their " satanic " reputation they put on " a pretty wholesome show . " She noted that throughout their ten years together they have " honed a show of ferocious , squealing intensity ; an unholy racket full of adolescent rage and goofy humor under a phalanx of moving and flashing lights . " Crediting frontman Corey Taylor 's ability to " [ lead ] his mutant army and the passionate crowd " , she said the crowd kept the energy high and that " mosh pits erupted like mini @-@ hurricanes . "
= = Canadian leg = =
Percussionist Shawn Crahan left the tour to return home after performing on the opening date of the tour 's Canadian leg . Slipknot continued the tour without him . While addressing their crowd during their May 1 , 2009 , concert in Toronto , Taylor explained that Crahan 's absence was due to " a very terrible , terrible predicament going on in [ Crahan 's ] family . " The band later stated that Crahan 's absence was due to the death of his mother .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
In his review of Slipknot 's show on April 29 , 2009 for the Montreal Gazette , Al Kratina said , " Their stage show is something to behold . " He said , " Not only are [ their ] songs [ ... ] absolutely crushing in a live setting , but the band is a fountain of bizarre , chaotic energy . " Describing vocalist Corey Taylor 's performance , he said , " Despite his manic energy [ he ] managed to keep his vocals tightly controlled , alternating between furious screaming and melodic passages " . While reviewing their Toronto show on May 1 , 2009 for CANOE , Jason MacNeil noted the absence of percussionist Crahan , although in noting that several other members would occasionally occupy the vacant drum kit , he added , " It didn 't seem to matter much to the fans . " He also said , " For the most part , Slipknot kept the energy high " and added that tracks like " Dead Memories " and " Vermilion " were the only moments " which served as breathers . " Overall MacNeil rated the show 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 .
= = US leg III = =
After missing six shows due to his mother 's death , percussionist Shawn Crahan returned to the tour . His first appearance since April 28 , 2009 , was in Oklahoma City on May 8 , 2009 .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
While reviewing their show on May 3 , 2009 , at the Van Andel Arena , Troy Reimink made a point of Crahan 's absence , suggesting that while it could have seriously disrupted the tour , it seemed like " merely a bump in the road for Slipknot . " Reimink said the band 's 17 song setlist , featuring songs from all their albums , " demonstrated the group 's skill at assembling relentlessly aggressive songs punctuated with fleeting , occasionally incongruous bits of melody . " While noting that Slipknot were " not [ his ] thing " , he described the show as " an exercise in finely calculated chaos " , rating the show 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 . Diana Nollen of The Gazette reviewed Slipknot 's show in Cedar Rapids , Iowa , describing their stage show as a " sophisticated sideshow of garish masks and growling lyrics . " Nollen made a note of their on @-@ stage antics saying that " it 's rather entertaining as they lumber across the stage and climb on each other 's percussion stations like baboons from hell . " Citing the singles " Before I Forget " and " Psychosocial " as particular highlights of the setlist , she concluded her review by saying that the " final visual punch " of drummer Joey Jordison 's kit raising , tipping and rotating above the stage was like " a demented version of an Adventureland ride . "
= = European leg II = =
Slipknot 's performance on June 13 , 2009 at Download Festival was streamed live on the internet , along with various other acts performing at the festival . During an interview prior to their performance on June 20 , 2009 in the Netherlands , percussionist Chris Fehn revealed that he suspected he had broken his hand . He did not say when the injury happened , but he did explain , " I lost a stick at a show and got a bit mad about it . " Towards the end of the leg , Fehn left the tour due to a " tragic death in his family " , which forced him to miss the final two dates in Spain . Additionally , Sid Wilson was absent from the Rock Am Ring show .
= = = Tour dates = = =
July 16 , 2009 Zagreb , Croatia ( Dom sportova )
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Several reporters reviewed Slipknot 's headlining slot at England 's Download Festival on June 13 , 2009 . Greg Cochrane , writing for the BBC , championed Slipknot as " spectacular headliners " , explaining : " Flame throwers , pneumatic drum kits and mass screaming , it has it all . " NME said Slipknot 's performance " saw the Main Stage become a scene of chaos " , noting how the band members " roamed the stage randomly smashing the set up with baseball bats , throwing barrels around and hanging off [ Crahan 's ] revolving drumkit . " Ian Strachan of The Sun rated their performance an 8 out of 10 , reporting that " the tunes were tight and delivered with venom . " He also cited a moment during " Spit It Out " in which Taylor got the crowd to crouch down and jump up all at once as " one of the stand out moments of the festival . " Christa Ktorides of Clickmusic said , " The sight of 70 @,@ 000 people sitting down on command is something we won 't long forget . " She also described their performance as " simply ferocious . " Metal Hammer reviewer Ted Bezer called it " arguably the greatest headline performance of the Download era " , adding , " Slipknot absolutely destroyed 70 @,@ 000 people in a way that it didn ’ t seem was possible . " He declared the performance of " Duality " the best moment at the whole festival .
= = Canceled US dates = =
Anthrax was initially announced as the main support band on this leg of the tour . However , due to the departure of vocalist Dan Nelson , Anthrax were forced to cancel most of their touring dates , including all dates on this tour .
On September 9 , 2009 , Slipknot planned on commemorating the 10 @-@ year anniversary of their debut album Slipknot by hosting a one @-@ day festival in their hometown . Slipknot were to headline the festival , which would host two stages , the second stage showcasing local bands . However , the festival was canceled shortly after it was announced , for unknown reasons .
On August 22 , 2009 , Slipknot canceled their appearance at the KISW Pain In The Grass event due to Jordison being rushed to hospital hours before their set was scheduled to start . Despite planning to return for the following date in Kennewick , Washington , Slipknot again canceled their appearance hours before their performance . Slipknot also canceled their remaining dates on the tour due to Jordison 's health , promising to reschedule the first two dates .
= = US , Canadian leg = =
As previously promised by the band , Slipknot rescheduled their first canceled appearances in Washington from August , allowing all previous ticket holders the opportunity to attend .
= = = Tour dates = = =
= Bristol Rovers F.C. =
Bristol Rovers Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of Bristol , England . They compete in League One , the third tier of English football . The team plays their home matches at Memorial Stadium , in Horfield , a suburb of Bristol , and is affiliated to the Gloucestershire County FA .
The club was founded in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. , and were also known as Eastville Rovers and Bristol Eastville Rovers before finally changing its name to Bristol Rovers in 1899 . The club 's official nickname is The Pirates , reflecting the maritime history of Bristol . The local nickname of the club is The Gas , from the gasworks next to their former home Eastville Stadium , which started as a derogatory term used by fans of their main rival Bristol City but was affectionately adopted by the team . According to a survey conducted in December 2003 , Cardiff City and Swindon Town are considered their second and third biggest rivals .
Rovers were admitted to the Football League in 1920 and have played there ever since , apart from spending the 2014 – 15 season in the Conference Premier . They previously came close to losing their league status in 1939 , when they were re @-@ elected after finishing bottom of Division Three ( South ) , and in 2002 when the team finished one league position away from relegation to the Football Conference . Their highest finishing positions were in 1956 and 1959 , on both occasions ending the season in 6th place in Division Two , then the second tier of English football . Rovers were Football League Trophy finalists in 1990 and 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The club was formed following a meeting at the Eastville Restaurant in Bristol in September 1883 . It was initially called Black Arabs F.C. , after the Arabs rugby team and the predominantly black kits in which they played . This name only lasted for the 1883 – 84 season , and in a bid to draw more fans from the local area the club was renamed Eastville Rovers in 1884 .
The club played only friendly games until the 1887 – 88 season , when it took part in the Gloucestershire Cup for the first time . In 1892 the club became a founder member of the Bristol and District League , which three years later was renamed the Western League . In 1897 Eastville Rovers joined the Birmingham and District League , and for two seasons played in both this league and the Western League . At the beginning of the 1897 – 98 season , the club turned professional and changed its name to Bristol Eastville Rovers , and on 17 February 1899 the name was officially changed to Bristol Rovers . In 1899 Bristol Rovers joined the newly formed Southern League , where they remained until 1920 , winning the league title along the way in 1905 .
= = = Into the Football League = = =
For the 1920 – 21 season , the Southern League teams were moved into the new Division Three of the Football League , which became Division Three ( South ) the following season . They remained in this division for over 30 years , before winning the league , and promotion in the 1952 – 53 season .
The team has won promotion on four other occasions : in 1973 – 74 from the Third Division to the Second Division , again in 1989 – 90 as Division Three champions , in 2006 – 07 to the Football League One , and then in 2014 – 15 to League Two from the Conference Premier . The club has been relegated six times — in 1961 – 62 , 1980 – 81 , 1992 – 93 , 2000 – 01 , 2010 – 11 and most recently at the end of the 2013 – 14 season .
The highest position in the football ladder achieved by Rovers at the end of season is sixth place in the second tier , which they did twice ; once in 1955 – 56 , and again in 1958 – 59 . The closest they came to the top flight was in 1955 – 56 , when they ended the season just four points below the promotion positions . The lowest league position achieved by the club is twenty @-@ third out of twenty @-@ four teams in the fourth tier , which has occurred twice . In the 2001 – 02 season , relegation from the Football League was narrowly avoided on two counts ; firstly they ended just one league position above the relegation zone , and secondly the rules were changed the following season to increase the number of relegation places to two , meaning that if Rovers had finished in that position one year later they would have been relegated . This position was matched at the end of the 2013 – 14 season , which this time saw Rovers relegated to the Conference for the first time . They returned to the league at the end of their first Conference season , with a penalty shootout victory over Grimsby Town in the play @-@ off final .
= = = Cup competitions = = =
The only major cup competition won by Bristol Rovers is the 1972 Watney Cup , when they beat Sheffield United in the final . The club also won the Division Three ( South ) Cup in 1934 – 35 , as well as winning or sharing the Gloucestershire Cup on 32 occasions . The team has never played in European competition ; the closest Rovers came was when they missed out on reaching the international stage of the Anglo @-@ Italian Cup in the 1992 – 93 season on a coin toss held over the phone with West Ham United .
In the FA Cup , Rovers have reached the quarter @-@ final stage on three occasions . The first time was in 1950 – 51 when they faced Newcastle United at St James ' Park in front of a crowd of 62 @,@ 787 , the record for the highest attendance at any Bristol Rovers match . The second time they reached the quarter final was in 1957 – 58 , when they lost to Fulham , and the most recent appearance at this stage of the competition was during the 2007 – 08 season , when they faced West Bromwich Albion . They were the first Division Three team to win an FA Cup tie away to a Premier League side , when in 2002 they beat Derby County 3 – 1 at Pride Park Stadium .
They have twice reached the final of the Football League Trophy , in 1989 – 90 and 2006 – 07 , but finished runners @-@ up on both occasions . On the second occasion they did not allow a single goal against them in the competition en route to the final , but conceded the lead less than a minute after the final kicked off .
= = Rivalries = =
Bristol Rovers main rivals are city neighbours Bristol City , with whom they contest the Bristol derby . This rivalry was deemed 8th fiercest rivalry in English football in an in @-@ depth report by the Football Pools in 2008 . The most recent encounter between the clubs took place on 4 September 2013 , which saw Rovers beaten by City in a Football League Trophy tie at Ashton Gate Stadium by a 2 – 1 scoreline . Other rivals are mainly other teams from the West Country , such as Swindon Town , Plymouth Argyle , Exeter City and Yeovil Town . Since relegation to the Conference , a rivalry has also emerged with Forest Green Rovers .
In the past , rivalries also emerged with Severnside rivals Cardiff City known as the Severnside derby . Rovers most recent meeting against Cardiff was a League Cup match on 26 August 2009 , which Cardiff went on to win 3 – 1 . This game took place at the new Cardiff City Stadium and the Rovers only goal from the game came from Steve Elliot . The last time Cardiff and Bristol Rovers were in the same league was in the 1999 – 2000 season .
Bristol Rovers and Plymouth Argyle have played each other 92 times in the Football League and in national cup competitions , with the better record belonging to The Pilgrims due to their 36 wins compared with Rovers ' 30 . The most recent encounter with Plymouth Argyle occurred on 1 January 2013 , which Rovers won 2 – 1 . Rovers were 2 – 0 up at half @-@ time , the defeat for Plymouth against Rovers resulted in Plymouth sacking their manager Carl Fletcher and saw John Ward register his first win of his second spell as Rovers manager .
The first time Rovers encountered Yeovil was a Football League Trophy match which was played on 31 October 2001 , which Rovers won via a penalty shoot out . The most recent encounter between the teams was in a Football League Two match on 15 August 2015 , which Rovers won 1 – 0 with Ellis Harrison scoring a late winner . Because of the close proximity many players have also represented both the clubs , for example Adam Virgo , Gavin Williams , Dominic Blizzard and Tom Parkes .
= = Colours and badge = =
Bristol Rovers are known for their distinctive blue and white quartered shirts , which they have worn for most of their history . The current home kit consists of a light blue and white quartered shirt and white shorts , while the away kit is black and gold with the same colours as the trim . During the 2008 – 09 season a special third strip , which is black with a gold sash , and is a reproduction of the original Black Arab shirt , was used for a single match to celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club .
The team began playing in black shirts with a yellow sash from their foundation in 1883 as Black Arabs F.C. until 1885 , by which time they were called Eastville Rovers . For the next fourteen years , until 1899 , the team wore blue and white hooped shirts . These were replaced by black and white striped shirts until 1919 .
When Rovers were admitted to The Football League in 1920 they wore white shirts with blue shorts . These remained the team colours until 1930 , when the colours were reversed to blue shirts and white shorts for one season . The blue and white quarters were first worn in 1931 , when they were introduced to try to make the players look larger and more intimidating . Rovers continued to wear the quarters for 31 years until they were replaced by blue pinstripes on a white background .
Over the next ten years , Rovers went on to wear blue and white stripes , all blue , and blue shirts with white shorts before returning to the blue and white quarters in 1973 , which have remained the colours ever since . During the 1996 – 97 season , Rovers wore an unpopular striped quartered design , prompting fans to refer to it as the Tesco bag shirts because of their similarity to the design used for the company 's carrier bags . The change in design prompted the Trumpton Times fanzine to change its name to Wot , No Quarters ?
The black and gold shirts were also used as the away kit for the 2002 – 03 season , the club 's 120th anniversary .
In 2005 , Rovers ran an April Fools ' joke on their official website , stating that the team 's new away strip would be all pink . Although this was intended to be a joke , a number of fans petitioned the club to get the kit made for real , and also suggested that funds raised through the sale of the pink shirts should be donated to a breast cancer charity . Although the pink shirts were never used in a competitive fixture , they were worn for a pre @-@ season friendly against Plymouth Argyle in 2006 .
A pirate features on both the club badge and the badge of the supporters club , reflecting the club nickname of The Pirates . Previous club badges have featured a blue and white quartered design , based on the quartered design of the team 's jerseys .
= = = Kit suppliers and sponsors = = =
Rovers first used an official kit supplier in 1977 , and the club 's first official kit sponsor followed in 1981 . Rovers ' longest running kit supplier is Errea who supplied the club kits for eleven years ( 2005 – 16 ) . The club 's longest running kit sponsorship was from local company Cowlin Construction who sponsored the club for a total of 11 years before ending the deal in 2009 .
The Cowlin deal came to an end during the late @-@ 2000s recession . Faced with the prospect of having no shirt sponsor for the 2009 – 10 season , the club came up with the idea of a raffle to raise the funds required . Tickets were sold at £ 1 @,@ 000 with all 96 available being sold meaning the club raised £ 96 @,@ 000 for one season of shirt sponsorship , more than some Premier League clubs . First prize in the draw went to local training and recruitment company N @-@ Gaged whose logo appeared on that season 's home kit . Second prize went to Bristol @-@ based solicitors Stevens , Hewlett & Perkins whose logo appeared on the away kit . The raffle proved so successful that the club replicated it for the 201
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