gem_id
stringlengths 20
25
| id
stringlengths 24
24
| title
stringlengths 3
59
| context
stringlengths 151
3.71k
| question
stringlengths 1
270
| target
stringlengths 1
270
| references
list | answers
dict |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
gem-squad_v2-train-105200
|
5726fa9cdd62a815002e96bc
|
History_of_science
|
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
|
Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
|
Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
|
[
"Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Aristarchus of Samos"
],
"answer_start": [
15
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105201
|
5726fa9cdd62a815002e96bd
|
History_of_science
|
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
|
Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
|
Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
|
[
"Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Eratosthenes"
],
"answer_start": [
137
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105202
|
5726fa9cdd62a815002e96be
|
History_of_science
|
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
|
Who made the first catalog of stars?
|
Who made the first catalog of stars?
|
[
"Who made the first catalog of stars?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Hipparchus"
],
"answer_start": [
204
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105203
|
5726fa9cdd62a815002e96bf
|
History_of_science
|
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
|
What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
|
What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
|
[
"What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Antikythera mechanism"
],
"answer_start": [
371
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105204
|
5726fa9cdd62a815002e96c0
|
History_of_science
|
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
|
When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
|
When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
|
[
"When was the Antikythera mechanism used?"
] |
{
"text": [
"150-100 BC"
],
"answer_start": [
398
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105205
|
5726fb48dd62a815002e96d6
|
History_of_science
|
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
|
Who wrote the book Elements?
|
Who wrote the book Elements?
|
[
"Who wrote the book Elements?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Euclid"
],
"answer_start": [
40
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105206
|
5726fb48dd62a815002e96d7
|
History_of_science
|
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
|
What was contained within the book Elements?
|
What was contained within the book Elements?
|
[
"What was contained within the book Elements?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the foundations of mathematical rigor"
],
"answer_start": [
57
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105207
|
5726fb48dd62a815002e96d8
|
History_of_science
|
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
|
Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?
|
Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?
|
[
"Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Archimedes"
],
"answer_start": [
254
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105208
|
5726fb48dd62a815002e96d9
|
History_of_science
|
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
|
What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?
|
What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?
|
[
"What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?"
] |
{
"text": [
"exhaustion"
],
"answer_start": [
362
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105209
|
5726fb48dd62a815002e96da
|
History_of_science
|
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
|
Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?
|
Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?
|
[
"Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Pi"
],
"answer_start": [
513
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105210
|
5726fe6af1498d1400e8f1de
|
History_of_science
|
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
|
What classification guide did Theophrastus create?
|
What classification guide did Theophrastus create?
|
[
"What classification guide did Theophrastus create?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the first taxonomy"
],
"answer_start": [
89
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105211
|
5726fe6af1498d1400e8f1df
|
History_of_science
|
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
|
In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?
|
In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?
|
[
"In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?"
] |
{
"text": [
"77 AD"
],
"answer_start": [
269
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105212
|
5726fe6af1498d1400e8f1e0
|
History_of_science
|
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
|
What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?
|
What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?
|
[
"What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the octahedral shape"
],
"answer_start": [
377
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105213
|
5726fe6af1498d1400e8f1e1
|
History_of_science
|
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
|
Who do engravers use diamond dust for?
|
Who do engravers use diamond dust for?
|
[
"Who do engravers use diamond dust for?"
] |
{
"text": [
"to cut and polish other gems"
],
"answer_start": [
477
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105214
|
5726fe6af1498d1400e8f1e2
|
History_of_science
|
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
|
What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?
|
What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?
|
[
"What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?"
] |
{
"text": [
"was a fossilized resin"
],
"answer_start": [
887
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105215
|
5727026e5951b619008f8487
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
|
The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?
|
The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?
|
[
"The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?"
] |
{
"text": [
"mathematical knowledge"
],
"answer_start": [
36
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105216
|
5727026e5951b619008f8488
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
|
What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?
|
What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?
|
[
"What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?"
] |
{
"text": [
"4:2:1"
],
"answer_start": [
259
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105217
|
5727026e5951b619008f8489
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
|
What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?
|
What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?
|
[
"What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?"
] |
{
"text": [
"stability"
],
"answer_start": [
295
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105218
|
5727026e5951b619008f848a
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
|
What was the name of the ruler that they created?
|
What was the name of the ruler that they created?
|
[
"What was the name of the ruler that they created?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Mohenjo-daro ruler"
],
"answer_start": [
432
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105219
|
5727026e5951b619008f848b
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
|
How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?
|
How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?
|
[
"How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?"
] |
{
"text": [
"1.32 inches"
],
"answer_start": [
491
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105220
|
572703e65951b619008f849b
|
History_of_science
|
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
|
When did Aryabhata live?
|
When did Aryabhata live?
|
[
"When did Aryabhata live?"
] |
{
"text": [
"476-550"
],
"answer_start": [
47
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105221
|
572703e65951b619008f849c
|
History_of_science
|
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
|
What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?
|
What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?
|
[
"What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?"
] |
{
"text": [
"sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine"
],
"answer_start": [
140
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105222
|
572703e65951b619008f849d
|
History_of_science
|
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
|
What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?
|
What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?
|
[
"What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?"
] |
{
"text": [
"gravity was a force of attraction"
],
"answer_start": [
283
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105223
|
572703e65951b619008f849e
|
History_of_science
|
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
|
What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?
|
What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?
|
[
"What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?"
] |
{
"text": [
"a placeholder and a decimal digit"
],
"answer_start": [
368
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105224
|
572703e65951b619008f849f
|
History_of_science
|
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".
|
What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?
|
What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?
|
[
"What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Arabic"
],
"answer_start": [
489
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105225
|
572705155951b619008f84b7
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
|
Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?
|
Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?
|
[
"Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Vedas"
],
"answer_start": [
73
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105226
|
572705155951b619008f84b8
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
|
Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?
|
Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?
|
[
"Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Bhāskara"
],
"answer_start": [
487
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105227
|
572705155951b619008f84b9
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
|
In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?
|
In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?
|
[
"In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?"
] |
{
"text": [
"12th century"
],
"answer_start": [
503
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105228
|
572705155951b619008f84ba
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
|
The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?
|
The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?
|
[
"The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?"
] |
{
"text": [
"13"
],
"answer_start": [
888
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105229
|
572705155951b619008f84bb
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
|
What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?
|
What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?
|
[
"What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the nature of the sphere"
],
"answer_start": [
925
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105230
|
57271234f1498d1400e8f31e
|
History_of_science
|
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
|
Where are the Neolithic graveyards?
|
Where are the Neolithic graveyards?
|
[
"Where are the Neolithic graveyards?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Pakistan"
],
"answer_start": [
60
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105231
|
57271234f1498d1400e8f31f
|
History_of_science
|
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
|
What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?
|
What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?
|
[
"What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?"
] |
{
"text": [
"proto-dentistry"
],
"answer_start": [
86
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105232
|
57271234f1498d1400e8f320
|
History_of_science
|
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
|
What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?
|
What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?
|
[
"What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Ayurveda"
],
"answer_start": [
134
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105233
|
57271234f1498d1400e8f321
|
History_of_science
|
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
|
What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?
|
What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?
|
[
"What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta"
],
"answer_start": [
340
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105234
|
57271234f1498d1400e8f322
|
History_of_science
|
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
|
What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?
|
What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?
|
[
"What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?"
] |
{
"text": [
"surgical procedures"
],
"answer_start": [
568
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105235
|
572713ce708984140094d965
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
|
What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?
|
What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?
|
[
"What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?"
] |
{
"text": [
"a positional decimal system on counting boards"
],
"answer_start": [
48
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105236
|
572713ce708984140094d966
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
|
One rod in the second box from the right is what number?
|
One rod in the second box from the right is what number?
|
[
"One rod in the second box from the right is what number?"
] |
{
"text": [
"10"
],
"answer_start": [
129
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105237
|
572713ce708984140094d967
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
|
When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?
|
When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?
|
[
"When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?"
] |
{
"text": [
"1st century BC"
],
"answer_start": [
318
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105238
|
572713ce708984140094d968
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
|
What text includes Horner's method?
|
What text includes Horner's method?
|
[
"What text includes Horner's method?"
] |
{
"text": [
"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art"
],
"answer_start": [
389
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105239
|
572713ce708984140094d969
|
History_of_science
|
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
|
What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?
|
What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?
|
[
"What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Cubic equations"
],
"answer_start": [
558
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105240
|
5727d383ff5b5019007d962c
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
|
What observations in astronomy did China record?
|
What observations in astronomy did China record?
|
[
"What observations in astronomy did China record?"
] |
{
"text": [
"sunspots"
],
"answer_start": [
136
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105241
|
5727d383ff5b5019007d962d
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
|
What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?
|
What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?
|
[
"What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?"
] |
{
"text": [
"eclipses"
],
"answer_start": [
291
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105242
|
5727d383ff5b5019007d962e
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
|
Who made predictions in 1601?
|
Who made predictions in 1601?
|
[
"Who made predictions in 1601?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Jesuit Matteo Ricci"
],
"answer_start": [
373
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105243
|
5727d383ff5b5019007d962f
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
|
What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?
|
What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?
|
[
"What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?"
] |
{
"text": [
"635"
],
"answer_start": [
443
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105244
|
5727d383ff5b5019007d9630
|
History_of_science
|
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
|
How many records of sunspots are there?
|
How many records of sunspots are there?
|
[
"How many records of sunspots are there?"
] |
{
"text": [
"112"
],
"answer_start": [
146
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105245
|
5727d51bff5b5019007d9658
|
History_of_science
|
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
|
What was invented in 132 CE?
|
What was invented in 132 CE?
|
[
"What was invented in 132 CE?"
] |
{
"text": [
"a seismometer"
],
"answer_start": [
66
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105246
|
5727d51bff5b5019007d9659
|
History_of_science
|
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
|
What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?
|
What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?
|
[
"What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?"
] |
{
"text": [
"an earthquake"
],
"answer_start": [
424
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105247
|
5727d51bff5b5019007d965a
|
History_of_science
|
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
|
What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?
|
What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?
|
[
"What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Houfeng didong yi"
],
"answer_start": [
649
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105248
|
5727d51bff5b5019007d965b
|
History_of_science
|
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
|
What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?
|
What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?
|
[
"What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?"
] |
{
"text": [
"enormous compression of trapped air"
],
"answer_start": [
762
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105249
|
5727d51bff5b5019007d965c
|
History_of_science
|
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.
|
What was Luoyang renamed to?
|
What was Luoyang renamed to?
|
[
"What was Luoyang renamed to?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Gansu"
],
"answer_start": [
535
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105250
|
5727e5aa3acd2414000def39
|
History_of_science
|
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
|
Who discovered the idea of true north?
|
Who discovered the idea of true north?
|
[
"Who discovered the idea of true north?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Shen Kuo"
],
"answer_start": [
123
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105251
|
5727e5aa3acd2414000def3a
|
History_of_science
|
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
|
When was Shen Kuo alive?
|
When was Shen Kuo alive?
|
[
"When was Shen Kuo alive?"
] |
{
"text": [
"1031–1095"
],
"answer_start": [
133
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105252
|
5727e5aa3acd2414000def3b
|
History_of_science
|
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
|
What are drydocks used for?
|
What are drydocks used for?
|
[
"What are drydocks used for?"
] |
{
"text": [
"to repair boats"
],
"answer_start": [
424
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105253
|
5727e5aa3acd2414000def3c
|
History_of_science
|
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
|
What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?
|
What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?
|
[
"What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?"
] |
{
"text": [
"geomorphology"
],
"answer_start": [
651
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105254
|
5727e5aa3acd2414000def3d
|
History_of_science
|
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.
|
What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?
|
What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?
|
[
"What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?"
] |
{
"text": [
"petrified bamboo"
],
"answer_start": [
755
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105255
|
5727e7003acd2414000def59
|
History_of_science
|
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
|
Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
|
Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
|
[
"Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Joseph Needham"
],
"answer_start": [
370
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105256
|
5727e7003acd2414000def5a
|
History_of_science
|
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
|
What type of bridge originated in China?
|
What type of bridge originated in China?
|
[
"What type of bridge originated in China?"
] |
{
"text": [
"suspension"
],
"answer_start": [
842
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105257
|
5727e7003acd2414000def5b
|
History_of_science
|
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
|
What type of map originated in China?
|
What type of map originated in China?
|
[
"What type of map originated in China?"
] |
{
"text": [
"raised-relief"
],
"answer_start": [
940
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105258
|
5727e7003acd2414000def5c
|
History_of_science
|
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
|
What type of fan originated in China?
|
What type of fan originated in China?
|
[
"What type of fan originated in China?"
] |
{
"text": [
"rotary"
],
"answer_start": [
888
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105259
|
5727e7003acd2414000def5d
|
History_of_science
|
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
|
What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
|
What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
|
[
"What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?"
] |
{
"text": [
"water-powered celestial"
],
"answer_start": [
585
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105260
|
5727e7cdff5b5019007d9804
|
History_of_science
|
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
|
What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
|
What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
|
[
"What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past"
],
"answer_start": [
39
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105261
|
5727e7cdff5b5019007d9805
|
History_of_science
|
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
|
Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
|
Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
|
[
"Where was support found for Greek philosophy?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Arab Empire"
],
"answer_start": [
191
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105262
|
5727e7cdff5b5019007d9806
|
History_of_science
|
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
|
What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
|
What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
|
[
"What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the 7th and 8th centuries"
],
"answer_start": [
232
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105263
|
5727e7cdff5b5019007d9807
|
History_of_science
|
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
|
How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
|
How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
|
[
"How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?"
] |
{
"text": [
"until the 13th century"
],
"answer_start": [
331
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105264
|
5727e7cdff5b5019007d9808
|
History_of_science
|
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
|
What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
|
What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
|
[
"What language did Muslim philosophers speak?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Arabic"
],
"answer_start": [
432
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105265
|
5727e88cff5b5019007d9824
|
History_of_science
|
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
|
What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
|
What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
|
[
"What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?"
] |
{
"text": [
"experiment"
],
"answer_start": [
49
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105266
|
5727e88cff5b5019007d9825
|
History_of_science
|
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
|
What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
|
What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
|
[
"What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Book of Optics"
],
"answer_start": [
299
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105267
|
5727e88cff5b5019007d9826
|
History_of_science
|
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
|
What law did the Persians know of?
|
What law did the Persians know of?
|
[
"What law did the Persians know of?"
] |
{
"text": [
"The law of refraction of light"
],
"answer_start": [
315
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105268
|
5727e88cff5b5019007d9827
|
History_of_science
|
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
|
What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
|
What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
|
[
"What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the father of optics"
],
"answer_start": [
627
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105269
|
5727e88cff5b5019007d9828
|
History_of_science
|
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.
|
What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
|
What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
|
[
"What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the intromission theory of light"
],
"answer_start": [
687
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105270
|
5727ea142ca10214002d9994
|
History_of_science
|
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
|
What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
|
What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
|
[
"What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?"
] |
{
"text": [
"mathematician"
],
"answer_start": [
28
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105271
|
5727ea142ca10214002d9995
|
History_of_science
|
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
|
Where does the word "algebra" come from?
|
Where does the word "algebra" come from?
|
[
"Where does the word \"algebra\" come from?"
] |
{
"text": [
"al-jabr"
],
"answer_start": [
159
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105272
|
5727ea142ca10214002d9996
|
History_of_science
|
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
|
Where did Arabic numerals originate?
|
Where did Arabic numerals originate?
|
[
"Where did Arabic numerals originate?"
] |
{
"text": [
"India"
],
"answer_start": [
281
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105273
|
5727ea142ca10214002d9997
|
History_of_science
|
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
|
What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
|
What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
|
[
"What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?"
] |
{
"text": [
"decimal point notation"
],
"answer_start": [
393
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105274
|
5727ea142ca10214002d9998
|
History_of_science
|
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
|
What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
|
What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
|
[
"What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?"
] |
{
"text": [
"chemistry and medicine"
],
"answer_start": [
546
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105275
|
5727ee784b864d1900164044
|
History_of_science
|
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.
|
Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
|
Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
|
[
"Whose work did Al-Battani improve?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Hipparchus"
],
"answer_start": [
54
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105276
|
5727ee784b864d1900164045
|
History_of_science
|
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.
|
What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
|
What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
|
[
"What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?"
] |
{
"text": [
"The great treatise"
],
"answer_start": [
128
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105277
|
5727ee784b864d1900164046
|
History_of_science
|
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.
|
Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
|
Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
|
[
"Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Earth's axis"
],
"answer_start": [
251
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105278
|
5727ee784b864d1900164047
|
History_of_science
|
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.
|
The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
|
The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
|
[
"The geocentric model is similar to what other model?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Copernican heliocentric model"
],
"answer_start": [
464
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105279
|
5727ef6f2ca10214002d99fc
|
History_of_science
|
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
|
Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
|
Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
|
[
"Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Ibn Sina"
],
"answer_start": [
0
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105280
|
5727ef6f2ca10214002d99fd
|
History_of_science
|
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
|
What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
|
What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
|
[
"What method did Ibn Sina introduce?"
] |
{
"text": [
"clinical trials"
],
"answer_start": [
167
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105281
|
5727ef6f2ca10214002d99fe
|
History_of_science
|
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
|
What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
|
What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
|
[
"What does Kitab al-shifa mean?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Book of Healing"
],
"answer_start": [
249
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105282
|
5727ef6f2ca10214002d99ff
|
History_of_science
|
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
|
The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
|
The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
|
[
"The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?"
] |
{
"text": [
"standard medicinal texts"
],
"answer_start": [
321
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105283
|
5727ef6f2ca10214002d9a00
|
History_of_science
|
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
|
What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
|
What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
|
[
"What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?"
] |
{
"text": [
"contagious"
],
"answer_start": [
469
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105284
|
5727f0a62ca10214002d9a06
|
History_of_science
|
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."
|
When were medieval universities created?
|
When were medieval universities created?
|
[
"When were medieval universities created?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the 12th century"
],
"answer_start": [
92
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105285
|
5727f0a62ca10214002d9a07
|
History_of_science
|
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."
|
Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
|
Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
|
[
"Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Raymond of Toledo"
],
"answer_start": [
442
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105286
|
5727f0a62ca10214002d9a08
|
History_of_science
|
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."
|
At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
|
At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
|
[
"At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Latin"
],
"answer_start": [
536
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105287
|
5727f0a62ca10214002d9a09
|
History_of_science
|
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."
|
Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
|
Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
|
[
"Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Michael Scotus"
],
"answer_start": [
566
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105288
|
5727f2f53acd2414000df09b
|
History_of_science
|
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
|
What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
|
What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
|
[
"What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Latin"
],
"answer_start": [
69
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105289
|
5727f2f53acd2414000df09c
|
History_of_science
|
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
|
Who favored empirical methods?
|
Who favored empirical methods?
|
[
"Who favored empirical methods?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Bacon"
],
"answer_start": [
667
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105290
|
5727f2f53acd2414000df09d
|
History_of_science
|
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
|
Who favored mathematics?
|
Who favored mathematics?
|
[
"Who favored mathematics?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Grosseteste"
],
"answer_start": [
557
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105291
|
5727f2f53acd2414000df09e
|
History_of_science
|
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
|
Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
|
Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
|
[
"Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?"
] |
{
"text": [
"Pierre Duhem"
],
"answer_start": [
706
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105292
|
5727f2f53acd2414000df09f
|
History_of_science
|
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
|
What era was important for scientific advancements?
|
What era was important for scientific advancements?
|
[
"What era was important for scientific advancements?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Middle Ages"
],
"answer_start": [
992
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105293
|
5727f4004b864d190016408a
|
History_of_science
|
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
|
Who pioneered parsimony?
|
Who pioneered parsimony?
|
[
"Who pioneered parsimony?"
] |
{
"text": [
"William of Ockham"
],
"answer_start": [
174
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105294
|
5727f4004b864d190016408b
|
History_of_science
|
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
|
What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
|
What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
|
[
"What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?"
] |
{
"text": [
"impetus"
],
"answer_start": [
618
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105295
|
5727f4004b864d190016408c
|
History_of_science
|
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
|
What theory did impetus pave the way for?
|
What theory did impetus pave the way for?
|
[
"What theory did impetus pave the way for?"
] |
{
"text": [
"inertia"
],
"answer_start": [
723
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105296
|
5727f4004b864d190016408d
|
History_of_science
|
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
|
What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
|
What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
|
[
"What did the Oxford Calculators measure?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the kinematics of motion"
],
"answer_start": [
787
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105297
|
5727f4f84b864d19001640aa
|
History_of_science
|
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.
|
What year did the Black Death occur?
|
What year did the Black Death occur?
|
[
"What year did the Black Death occur?"
] |
{
"text": [
"1348"
],
"answer_start": [
3
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105298
|
5727f4f84b864d19001640ab
|
History_of_science
|
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.
|
What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
|
What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
|
[
"What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?"
] |
{
"text": [
"the Fall of Constantinople in 1453"
],
"answer_start": [
196
]
}
|
gem-squad_v2-train-105299
|
5727f4f84b864d19001640ac
|
History_of_science
|
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.
|
The invention of printing improved which society?
|
The invention of printing improved which society?
|
[
"The invention of printing improved which society?"
] |
{
"text": [
"European"
],
"answer_start": [
361
]
}
|
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