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Nor is the next sense in which the term "interpretatio" was used immediately more promising. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, interpretatio played a significant role in Aristotelian logic. The third constituent treatise of Aristotle's Organon, called in Greek Peri hermenias, was known in the Latin tradition ...
in 1597, twenty years after Bacon himself had left that university: "INTERPRETATION is an articulate utterance signifying by convention the thoughts of the soul. It is said to be 'articulate' insofar as it has a sequence of syllables, which are not found in whistling, or the barking of dogs, and other such utterances. ...
Interpretation was a central part of the profession of theology or divinity, for the reason that (as was regretfully acknowledged) the sacred Scriptures were not so plain as they might be and therefore required explication. Moreover, it was worth interpreting Scripture precisely because it was sacred, and hence many po...
What were the goals of interpretation for the theologians? They were of course far too numerous to be comprehended succinctly here. But we can identify certain key preoccupations. The most ambitious defense of Protestant interpretative procedures in Bacon's England was William Whitaker's Disputation on Sacred Scripture...
We should not rule out altogether, however, the thought that interpreting the Bible might, in some way, have led Bacon's contemporaries, or at least one of them, to the idea of also "interpreting nature." I am aware of one-though only one-late Renaissance student of nature before Bacon who uses-though only once-the loc...
We do not know whether Bacon knew Vallès's popular book. But we can be sure that he was not sympathetic to his general endeavor. In the Novum organum Bacon attacks those "moderns" who, "in the height of folly," have "tried to build natural philosophy on the first chapter of Genesis, and on the book of Job, and other sa...
Answering this question leads us away from revealed theology (which rested, at least in principle, on the interpretation of Scripture) and into a different sphere: that of natural theology. Natural theology in the late Renaissance is a fluid and complex subject that has been much less well studied than its later anglop...
This situation changes slightly once we enter the world of Second Reformation natural theology, here represented by Johann Heinrich Alsted's own Theologia naturalis (1615). Alsted is concerned in the first part of his book with the knowledge of God and in the latter part with "reading the book of nature." We have alrea...
There is, however, one curious occasion on which Alsted offers a slightly different thought. He is addressing the question of whether the reader of the book of nature ought also to read the writings of good philosophers. Developing a neat Aristotelian pun, he explains that the leaves of nature's codex should be opened ...
It is the case, however, that on one particular occasion Bacon did yoke together the conventional image of the book of nature with his new vision of "interpretation." In the third part of the Instauratio magna, the Historia naturalis et experimentalis (1622), he described the "Book of the Creatures" (Volumen Creaturaru...
As we saw at the outset of this account, an important related aspect to the interpretatio naturae, at least in its earlier conceptions, involved what Bacon calls "legitimate inquisition" (inquisitio legitima). Now the idea of inquisitio, like that of interpretatio, could also be a legal one. In his Dictionary of Civil ...
Renaissance lawyers do not seem, then, to have spoken precisely about the "legitimate inquisitions" that Bacon wrote about in a philosophical vein; but they did speak about the rather similar "legitimate indications" that give rise to inquisitions. Moreover, the appearance of indicia in this legal context should make u...
What is an indicium? Like "interpretatio," the term does not appear in Goclenius's specifically philosophical lexicon. But it does appear in several legal lexicons of the late Renaissance, including those of Pardoux Duprat and Simon Schard, where it is defined as "a sign... of a crime, or of something else that is soug...
More generally, we have ruled out "interpretation" in its logical or philological senses of "enunciation" or "translation" as models for what Bacon is doing. We have identified theology and law as the intellectual realms in which interpretation was most widely practiced, albeit on words rather than on the things of nat...
The results of the research presented here therefore tend to support the long-standing suggestion that Bacon's knowledge of the law might have helped shape his philosophy of science. Among recent scholars the rather different work of Harvey Wheeler and Julian The broader implications of the case offered here extend bey...
I now leave aside Bono, whose arguments are sometimes unclear and whose handling of evidence is not always wholly convincing. 121 But Harrison is a different matter, for he has developed an ambitious thesis across a number of publications about the role of "Protestant and humanist" biblical interpretation in what he ca...
I suggest, in short, that the idea that nature might be "interpreted" was alien to the mental world of the late Renaissance-alien, that is, until Bacon proposed it. It was texts that were to be interpreted, not nature; and indeed, until Bacon yoked the idea to nature, "interpretation" was not even a goal of late Renais...
Starting in the seventies and eighties two strands of research have been productive and challenging in particular: studies on print awareness, i.e. the concepts young children develop about print and writing, and studies on language awareness of structural features of spoken language (Adams, 1990; Gombert, 1992, Morais...
Most studies in which 'illiterate' adults in Western countries were involved focused on adults who went to school in their childhood for quite some time but who were not successful in learning to read and write (cf. Barton, 1985; Greenberg, Ehri, & Perin, 2002; Hunter & Harman, 1979; Scholes, 1993; Scholes & Willis, 19...
Our 'true' illiterate adults are non-readers, but theories about non-readers' conceptions of written language and about emergent literacy are built on studies with young children, a stage in life where language and cognitive development, and exposure to print go hand in hand. It is not clear, which conceptions should b...
In addition, data on adult illiterates' print awareness can contribute to finding the answer in the dispute in adult literacy education about two different kinds of models on reading acquisition: stage models that stress the importance of explicit attention to the written code and maximal use of orthographic informatio...
The primary aim of our study was to acquire knowledge about the print awareness of non-schooled adult illiterates, living in print-rich environments such as the countries in Western Europe. We especially wanted to investigate whether the ideas they have constructed about print are comparable to what is known from prere...
Print awareness ''Research demonstrates that in the process of becoming literate, children construct original and precocious ideas about the practices of reading and writing and about the formal features of writing systems and the resulting texts. These ideas are the building blocks for further learning'' (Tolchinsky, ...
Confronted with environmental print such as inscriptions and logos, pre-reading children seem to memorize object and context as a whole. Once the visual contextual information is left out (such as the golden arches in the McDonald's logo), they lose their ability to name labels (Bialystok, 1991; Masonheimer, Drum, & Eh...
Most theories on the development of print awareness of children suppose these skills to be dependent on exposure to print at home or in pre-school (Burgess, Hecht, & Lonigan, 2002; Bus, Van Ijzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995; Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998), whereas knowledge about the nature of the relationship between writin...
The participants were predominantly unschooled illiterate adults, pre-school children before entering first grade and literate adults who had a mean of four and a half year of primary schooling. Since almost all native Dutch adults who cannot read or write have a history of formal education, illiterate adult migrants w...
Of the 14 illiterate Moroccan adults, eleven spoke Tarifit, one of the Berber languages, as their mother tongue, and three spoke Moroccan-Arabic. Of the literate Moroccans, six were Tarifit speakers and five were Moroccan-Arabic speakers. Seven Moroccan children had Tarifit as their home language. All Somalis had Somal...
The mean age of the children was 6.4 years, with a range from 5 to 7. To be sure that the differences between the two groups of adults would not be caused by differences in their backgrounds, additional background data were gathered and checked. In both groups of adults, the majority of the participants were women (19 ...
As can be seen in Table 2, the mean age of the illiterates was 39, ranging from 15 to 57, and the mean age of the literates was 34, ranging from 17 to 55. There was no difference between the groups in mean length of residence of the participants or their partners. Across both groups, the period of residence ranged from...
Almost all illiterate and literate adults used their mother tongue more often at home than their L2 Dutch. As Table 2 shows, the majority of both groups preferred to speak the mother tongue and all literate and 20 illiterate adults reported (some) knowledge of another language, mostly Arabic or Dutch. Of those who did ...
As an additional source of evidence to distinguish between readers and illiterates, next to their educational history, we administered a reading test that was used in adult education as an intake test for second language classes. The test consisted of a short text of about 150 words in short sentences in one out of 25 ...
In addition to printed material that typically enters the post box in their households (bills, advertisements, information of local authorities), 22 of the illiterate adults mentioned the presence of some reading materials at home, mainly related to school (e.g., their own or children's homework) and to religion (e.g.,...
To gather background data (all participants) and information about experiences with writing (adult illiterates) an interview guideline was developed. The questions were about early experiences with written language in their home country (Did you get any personal correspondence? Who did the reading and writing? Etc.), a...
Recognition of environmental print (street signs, shop names, billboards) is often used to assess the emergent print awareness of young children (Masonheimer, Drum, & Ehri, 1984; Sulzby & Teale, 1991). Illiterate adults are sometimes judged to be able to recognize environmental print, even when they are not able to dec...
Like inscriptions, logos belong to environmental print. Logos make use of graphic cues (font, typeface), but also of visual, non-graphic cues, such as the'swoosh' of Nikes or the yellow arches of McDonald's. In recognizing logos, young children seem to use the visual instead of the graphic cues (Masonheimer, Drum, & Eh...
Grapheme knowledge is known to be one of the most important predictors of decoding ability (Adams, 1990; Bus & Van IJzendoorn, 1999; Byrne, 1998 ). Verhoeven's (1992) standardized grapheme test was used to assess participants' knowledge of graphemes. The task consists of the 34 graphemes used in Dutch, eight of which a...
Even before they can read, children seem to have knowledge about specific features of print and to be able to distinguish between writing signs and other visual signs or symbols, such as geometrical shapes or drawings (Bialystok, 1995; Brenneman et al., 1996; Tolchinsky, 2004). To investigate the illiterates' knowledge...
One of the major cognitive burdens for beginning readers is to understand how writing relates to speech (Olson, 1994 (Olson,, 1997 and to understand that the relationship between a written word and its meaning (e.g. the word flower) is different from the emblematic relationship between a drawing and its meaning (a draw...
The term writing not only refers to a specific code, but also to a specific language register, that differs from spoken language (Blanche-Benveniste, 1994). According to Ferreiro (1985) and Blanche-Benveniste (1994), many non-readers do not understand the written register in the way readers do. For example, they would ...
Before the assessments started, some visits were made to the classes and the interviews with the adults were carried out. The researcher and one of the bilingual research assistants who were fluent in Dutch and either Tarifit, Turkish or Somali conducted the interviews. Depending on the preferred language of the partic...
All but six interviews and assessments were audio taped. Important results were obtained in the interviews with the illiterate adults, where they explain their personal histories, explain how they deal with their illiteracy, and how other persons help them to get information from written sources. For all assessments th...
Can the explanations the informants gave about their answers provide us with a better insight in their print awareness? And can subgroups of items in the assessments tasks tell us more about the print knowledge of illiterates and prereading children? All explanations the participants gave for their answers during the a...
Sixteen of the adult illiterates could not remember any concrete example of use of written language they were involved with as children, three others remembered looking at what their siblings (mostly brothers) were reading, while the six who had experienced a short period of schooling remembered, for example, some word...
All but three illiterate adults were determined to learn to read and write. For example, they made comments such as, ''Otherwise I will stay like a blind person, who can look at the newspaper, and still do not know what it says'' or ''You are not a human being if you cannot read.'' Most illiterate adults expressed a lo...
As could be expected (one of the groups consisted of readers), the main effects of group were statistically significant for all assessments, although the Eta value was not high for the signs-task. In some of the assessments, the mean scores of the pre-reading children were higher than those of the adult illiterates (lo...
The post hoc analyses, the outcomes of which are shown in Table 5, revealed that both groups of non-readers differed significantly from the literate adults in all tasks except signs (p \ 0.05 for written register, p \ 0.01 for all other tasks). This is hardly surprising, since one of the groups consisted of readers. Mo...
Figure 1 makes clear that there are two general patterns. Four of the six tasks follow the same pattern, which mainly differentiates between readers and nonreaders, while in two tasks the illiterate adults were somewhere between children and literate adults. Figure 1 illustrates that, in four of the six tasks, the chil...
Did the explanations the informants give about their answers provide us with a better insight in their print awareness? And are there relevant subgroups of items? As can be seen from Table 4, neither children nor illiterate adults were good in reading environmental print, i.e., inscriptions and logos such as Exit and M...
The illiterate adults also performed better at the correspondence writing-speech assessments than the pre-reading children. The illiterates answered on average five of the seven questions correctly (SD 2.14), the children about three (SD 1.90). As expected, the five literates who conducted this task answered all questi...
In the signs-task both writing signs and other visual signs such as drawings and geometrical shapes were used. Further analyses with different item-types revealed that the groups did not differ in identifying writing signs as ''for reading'' (81% correct by the children, 84% by the illiterates and 89% by the literates)...
In the written register task, further analyses at item level revealed that the groups did not differ in admitting that both true and grammatically correct sentences could be written (percentages correct 84%, 88% and 100% respectively for children, adult illiterates and adult readers). Most of the participants at first ...
The primary aim of this study was to acquire knowledge about the print awareness of non-schooled adult illiterates, living in print-rich environments such as the countries in Western Europe. We investigated them in a comparative study with a control group of pre-school children just before entering the first grade of e...
The results of the environmental print tasks suggest that the adult illiterates cannot recognize simple environmental print when the original context is lacking. They only recognize some logos with apparent visual (such as yellow arches) instead of graphic features (such as letters). In these tasks their outcomes were ...
The illiterate adults in our study knew more graphemes than the pre-reading children, although both groups differed significantly and negatively from the literate adults According to the letters they did know, this difference seemed to be an effect of attending adult literacy classes. The outcomes on the signs-tasks re...
The adult illiterates know better than young children about how writing relates to speech (although their ability might have been overestimated), but significantly less than low-educated readers and there is a notable variation in their level of knowledge about writing. Although this study was not meant to be developme...
The outcomes together lead to the general conclusion that what writing looks like from the outside and what it is used for did not seem to pose problems for most of the illiterate adults, as the interviews about their experiences and the outcomes of the signs-task revealed. They know better than young children where wr...
When it comes to the inside of written language, as for example the building blocks of the writing system and the relationship between writing and speech, the majority of the adult illiterates was more like the pre-reading children: they did not know exactly how writing represents speech, what is written at which place...
Our findings on the print awareness of the illiterate adults, in comparison to prereading children and literate adults appear to reveal a pattern that was found in research on the emergent literacy of children (Bialystok, 1991 (Bialystok,, 1995 Ferreiro, 1997; Gombert, 1992; Tolchinsky, 2004). There seems to be a gradu...
A secondary aim of the present study was to inform educational practice. We see two practical implications of our research results for adult literacy teachers. It turned out that these adult illiterates were not good at recognizing the environmental print that surrounded them. As for the two models of reading acquisiti...
The second implication is that teachers need to be precautious in the way they approach non-schooled illiterate adults. Our study reveals that educated adult readers (like we all are) look distinctly at writing and language (see also Kurvers, Van Hout, & Vallen, 2006) than illiterates do. Teachers should be aware that ...
The most important outcome of this study probably is that adult illiterates do not have a kind of naive behaviour towards the functions and uses of print (they know quite well about this), nor towards differences between notational systems. Teachers do not need to start from scratch in discussing the various functions ...
It was obviously my hope that the chemiosmotic rationale of vectorial metabolism and biological energy transfer might one day come to be generally accepted, and I have done my best to argue in favour of that state of affairs for more than twenty years. But, it would have been much too presumptuous to have expected it t...
I shall presently explain the difference between the physiological and the biochemical levels at which the chemiosmotic theory has helped to promote useful experimental research. But let me first say that my immediate and deepest impulse is to celebrate the fruition of the creative work and benevolent influence of the ...
During the two decades between 1940 and 1960, the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation (by which some 95% of the energy of aerobic organisms is obtained), and the basically similar mechanism of photosynthetic phosphorylation (by which much of the energy available from plant products is initially harvested from the su...
As indicated in Fig. 1, according to Keilin's chemically simple concept of the respiratory chain, the respiratory-chain carriers (or their complexes of molecular dimensions) were involved chemically only in redox reactions. However, when, following the pioneer work of Kalckar (1937), Belitser & Tsybakova (1939), Ochoa ...
By the end of the two and a half decades between 1940 and 1965, the field of oxidative phosphorylation was littered with the smouldering conceptual remains of numerous exploded energy-rich chemical intermediates; the remarkable uncoupling action of 2,4-dinitrophenate and of other chemically unrelated reagents, and of p...
Soon after 1950, it began to be recognised that the water-insoluble property of preparations of respiratory chain and photoredox chain complexes was related to the circumstance that, in their native state, these complexes were part of the lipid membrane system of bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts. But, such was t...
The level represented by Fig. 4 is essentially physiological. It aims to answer the question: what does it do? At this conceptual level one makes use of the general principle of coupling by proticity, the protonic analogue of electricity. Separate protonmotive redox (or photoredox) and reversible protonmotive ATPase co...
To promote experimental research programmes designed to test, and if possible to falsify, the physiological-level chemiosmotic coupling concept, it was explicitly and unambiguously formulated (Mitchell, 1961 (Mitchell, c, 1966 in terms of the following four fundamental postulates, corresponding to the four structural a...
4. Systems 1 to 3 are plugged through a topologically closed insulating membrane, called the coupling membrane, that has a nonaqueous osmotic barrier phase of low permeability to solutes in general and to hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions in particular. This is the cristae membrane of mitochondria, the thylakoid membrane...
The four postulates, representing the four systems with characteristic properties, are now widely regarded as experimentally established facts. Thus, we appear to have answered the question: What does it do? The plug-through respiratory chain and photoredox chain complexes generate proticity across the coupling membran...
In my opinion, the biochemical content and value of the chemiosmotic rationale depended from the outset on the feasibility of protonmotive chemiosmotic reaction mechanisms of the direct group-translocation type, exemplified by the redox loop and the hydrodehydration loop (Mitchell, 1966 (Mitchell,, 1967a, which are rel...
The photograph in Fig. 6 was taken in a tiny research room in the basement of the Department of Biochemistry in Cambridge, England, in 1942 or 1943, when I first began to do biophysical and biochemical research. It shows Jim Danielli, Joan Keilin (David Keilin's daughter), Mrs. Danielli (who was acting as Jim Danielli'...
About seven years elapsed before I had accidentally become a microbi- ologist and was involved: first, in studies of a functional aspect of the plasma membrane of bacteria, which I called the osmotic barrier (Mitchell, 1949) ; and soon after, in studies of the specific uptake and exchange of inorganic phosphate and ars...
Mechanistically, the group translocation or conduction concept was a development of the idea, put forward by Pauling in 1950, that enzymic catalysis depends on tight binding of the transition-state complex rather than of reactants and resultants. As we pointed out (Mitchell & Moyle, 1958b ), Pauling's idea required onl...
It was, of course, realised that the chemicomotive effect of group translocation -or group conduction, as I now prefer to call it -would not be manifested unless the enzyme or catalytic carrier molecules were inhomogeneously organised in space according to either of two main topological principles. According to one top...
The second case in Table 1 is shown in diagram A of Fig. 9. It represents the macroscopic chemiosmotic group-conduction principle applied to the phosphorylative translocation of the substrate GH, which could be a sugar, as in the phosphoenol pyruvate phosphotransferase system discovered in bacteria by Kundig, Ghosh & R...
Let us return to the theme of David Keilin's respiratory chain in the light of the essentially biochemical concept of direct group-translocating or group-conducting chemiosmotic mechanisms. As indicated in Fig. 14, the chemiosmotic hypothesis, at the biochemical level, permitted a return to David Keilin's notion of a c...
At equilibrium, the total protonmotive potential across the membrane would be equal to the total redox potential across each loop -that is, around 250 mV (Mitchell, 1966). Thus, we can relate quantitatively the Fig. 15. Suggested looped configuration of respiratory chain systems (after Mitchell, 1966). scalar group-pot...
A great deal of ingenious experimental work in many laboratories over the last decade has shown that these schemes require some modification of detail, but their direct group-conducting redox-loop principle has been amply confirmed, as indicated in the diagrams of Fig. 17, which, as I shall discuss in a little more det...
The photoredox chain system, shown in Fig. 17 B and Fig. 5 B, obviously has a real Z configuration that corresponds to the abstract Z scheme introduced by Hill & Bendall in 1960. It may well be remarked that the protonmotive stoichiometries of these schemes, which correspond to one proton per univalent reducing equival...
The first protonmotive device conceived by man was the electromotive hydrogen-burning fuel cell, invented by the remarkable William Grove in 1839. It is, perhaps, not self evident that such a fuel cell for generating electricity is also, potentially, a generator of proticity. This is illustrated by the diagrams of the ...
The fuel cell is a beautiful example of the truth of the principle, enunciated by Pierre Curie at the end of the last century (Curie, 1894), that effects cannot be less symmetric than their causes. The phenomena of transport in the fuel cell arise from the intrinsically vectorial disposition of the chemical reactions a...
The idea of electrochemical cells and circuits was generalised by Guggenheim in 1933 to include the chemically motivated transport of any two species of chemical particle around a suitably conducting circuit. Guggenheim's rather abstract thermodynamic treatment effectively showed that chemical transport can be coupled ...
As indicated in equation (2), the internal (trans osmotic barrier) ligand conductors in the redox-loop complex are conceived as being specific for hydrogen atoms that diffuse down their potential gradient one way, and for electrons that diffuse down their (electrochemical) potential gradient the opposite way -exactly a...
The protonmotive redox loop and hydrodehydration loop, and other possible chemicomotive loops, as generally defined here, depend on a very simple specific ligand-conduction mechanism. I have called it the direct chemiosmotic mechanism in the biological systems, where it represents a spatial extension of the conventiona...
Let me interject here that the protonic chemiosmotic theory has a much broader range of applicability than is encompassed by the central field of energy transduction in the classical oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation systems, treated in this lecture (see Mitchell, 1976a). For example: there is the protonmoti...
The respiratory chain system summarised in Fig. 17A differs from my earlier suggestion of three linearly arranged redox loops (Figs. 14 and 15) in that loops 2 and 3 are coalesced into a cyclic Loop 2 + 3 configuration, described as the Q cycle, catalysed by the cytochrome b-c 1 complex. In this way, many of the otherw...
The representation of the respiratory and photoredox chains as a set of physically compact complexes (that may be partially resolved and reconstituted) stems from work by Keilin & King (1958), by Takemori & King (1962), by the Madison group, led by Green and Hatefi (see Hatefi, 1966), and by Efraim Racker's group (see ...
There are about equal numbers of cytochrome b-c 1 and cytochrome oxidase complexes in mitochondrial respiratory chains. Counting all the different Q-linked dehydrogenases (NADH dehydrogenase, succinate dehydrogenase, electron transfer flavoprotein dehydrogenase, choline dehydrogenase, glycerol-l-phosphate dehydrogenase...
There are generally at least ten Q molecules per cytochrome b-c 1 complex, so providing for the redox pool function of Q, identified by Kröger & Klingenberg (1973). However, recent work by Ragan and colleagues Heron et al., 1978) on functional interaction between NADH-Q reductase and cytochrome b-c 1 complexes in lipos...
The possible conduction of H atoms by flavin mononucleotide (FMN) in NADH dehydrogenase is based only on the known H-binding property of the flavin group (Mitchell, 1972a; Garland et al., 1972; Gutman et al., 1975). The very wide gap between the redox midpoint potentials of FeS1 and FeS2, and the effects of np in poisi...
The notion of the net conduction of O 2groups by (ADP -+ P -)/ATP antiport in F 1 and CF 1 (Mitchell, 1972b (Mitchell,, 1977a is based on the precedent of the mitochondrial ADP/ATP antiporter, which is known to conduct ADP and ATP only in specific protonation states (Klingenberg, 1977). The protonmotive NAD(P) transhyd...
In summary, the bioenergetically efficient mechanisms, represented in outline by Fig. 17, depend on two main principles: 1, the semi-fluid bimolecular lipid membrane and the plug-through complexes form a condensed, continuous non-aqueous (protonically insulating) sheet that acts as the osmotic barrier and separates the...
There is still much to be understood about the biochemical details of the specific ligand-conduction processes, even for electron conduction (King, 1978; Dockter et al., 1978). But, I think it is fair to say that the protonmotive property of the mitochondrial cytochrome system and the photosystems of chloroplasts can p...
The present position, in which, with comparatively few dissenters, we have successfully reached a consensus in favour of the chemiosmotic theory, augurs well for the future congeniality and effectiveness of experimental research in the field of membrane biochemistry and bioenergetics. At the time of the most intensive ...
Buck and Axel changed all that. As a postdoc at Axel's Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) laboratory at Columbia University, Buck became fixated with the problem of the mysterious olfactory receptors. Picking up on recent hints in the scientific literature that smell receptors could be related to the small family o...
With all due respect to those studying corpulent gastropods or the hook-faced worms called chaetognaths, it is often said that scientists come to resemble the creatures they study. With Berwald and Staaf, the resemblance is in writing style. Spineless feels planktonic, drifting through the depth and breadth of research...
We learn what dozens of jellyfish experts think, and how Berwald's feelings evolve, flipping back and forth between technical and emotive. ("Perhaps jellyfish strike an unconscious nerve, far below what we are still certain we know, of a past before violence, before consumption, before aggression. ") The result is deli...
Anyone beguiled by dinosaurs will probably find Squid Empire irresistible. Staaf compares how both the "terrible lizards" and the "head-footed" cephalopods evolved, diversified and ate their way through their ancestors, then mostly perished in the hostile conditions at the end of the Cretaceous period, 66 million years...