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The mother [of the seven sons being executed by Antiochus Epiphanes] was especially admirable and worthy of honorable remembrance, for she watched the death of seven sons in the course of a single day, and endured it resolutely because of her hopes in the Lord. Indeed she encouraged each of them in the language of thei...
Finally, in its own way the Book of Ecclesiastes (11:5) emphasizes the mystery of the beginning of human life: "Just as you do not know the way of the wind or the mysteries of a woman with child, no more can you know the work of God who is behind it all." I have entitled this article "The Wonder of Myself' (Ps 139:14),...
With all the advances that have taken place in scientific studies of God's truth since the revelations in Scripture, many times it has been remarked how strange it is that the precise moment of each human person's entrance into and exit from life in this world remains somewhat locked away in mystery. I say "locked away...
By conception is meant the process of union by which the parental cells (sperm and ovum) unite to become the first cell of a new individual. The action of uniting is not strictly instantaneous. It is rather a process. When we speak of "the moment of conception," we mean the precise time when the process is completed. M...
The sperm upon reaching the outer membrane of the ovum finds that the ovum is not unresponsive. Rather, the ovum reacts by surrounding the sperm and helping it to come in. The genetic material brought by the sperm and the genetic material present in the ovum are in two individual packets. These move toward each other a...
The most momentous moment in the order of creation for any human being is the moment when he is called forth by our heavenly Father to be a unique person "in the image and likeness of God." If we understand at all what the scientists are telling us about ourselves and the evolving continuity of the process as one stage...
Within the past thirty years molecular biology has made tremendous advances demonstrating that this newly formed zygote or living cell is not just a glob of human stuff but a complex, highly organized, dynamic, and unique individual entity. It is an already developing individual. It is already evolving into that adult ...
The zygote has been called a blueprint of what the adult human person resulting from this cell will be. But it is not just a static blueprint of an object that must be constructed by others from external materials, as some comparably magnificent and beautiful architectural masterpiece is constructed from external mater...
In a remarkable way, modern genetics also teaches that there are "formal causes," immanent principles, or constitutive elements long before there is any shape or motion or discernible size. These minute formal elements are already determining the organic life to be the uniquely individual human being it is to be. Accor...
We have seen that...a conflict can arise within the order of creation itself, in the sense that one side of its meaning and purpose-namely, the calling into a personal, responsible relationship with the Creator, which is granted only to man-can come into conflict with another side of its meaning and purposenamely, the ...
We must notice briefly, in response to Joseph Donceel, S.J., that if Thomas Aquinas had been aware of the biological advances to which we have adverted above, namely, that the fertilized ovum is biologically a living organism of the human species with the intrinsic capability of developing into a mature human person, i...
Granted that at the start of pregnancy there is not as yet a fully developed human body; it is also true that at the eighty-day stage, and a fortiori at the forty-day stage, there is not as yet a fully developed human body. According to contemporary molecular biology, it becomes increasingly clear that the newly formed...
It would be interesting to see how Aristotle, Thomas, and Avicenna would react to learning that the egg is not a mass of homogeneous menstrual blood but a precise blueprint of the later human adult. It seems safe to surmise that their preference for postponing the advent of the rational soul derived mainly from their u...
Nonetheless, some believe that it is relatively easy to explain the origin of the second soul. The individual rational soul, assuming it to be present from the first, remains in one of the separated parts, though it is not possible to determine in which. When the other part of the egg is fully separated from informatio...
My own personal evaluation of the evidence presented by modem molecular biology, especially within the past thirty years, and by philosophical discussions that have taken place over the many centuries of developing Christian thought, guided also by my studies and understanding of developing Christian theology, is that ...
For the remainder of this article, on the basis of the evidence and reasoning we have already presented, we shall consider that the opinion which maintains the new human person to be present in the human zygote from the first moment of conception is at least solidly probably true. Whoever, therefore, deliberately and d...
It is important, to be sure, that we should always see this problem from the point of view of the destruction of human life, but certainly we should not think only of the life of the nascent child, but also of the status of the already existent parenthood. This status means that the "office" of fatherhood and motherhoo...
It is somewhat consoling also to note that strictly there is no simply unwanted child. Before each one of us was born, our parents could not have known us specifically as the unique person we really are. Our mother and father, therefore, could not have wanted us as the unique person each of us really is. In general, th...
In its own way Scripture significantly lays stress on the following truths: the dignity of man and the sacredness of human life; that in creating each new human person our heavenly Father knows and chooses and loves specifically the unique person who is to be; that our Father alone has the power of life and death; that...
Yahweh spoke to Moses and said: "You are to select towns which you will make into cities of refuge where a man who has killed accidentally may find sanctuary If he has manhandled his victim by chance, without malice, or thrown some missile at him not meaning to hit him, or without seeing him dropped a stone on him capa...
As we move now from the explicit witness of our Father's revelation into the witness of our Father's Church, I would like to delineate how the one grew out of the other. Respect and love for children in particular was demonstrated and inculcated by our Lord Himself when He taught that "Anyone who welcomes this little c...
The compelling precedent of the unborn Christ and the unborn Baptist gave this commandment [of Christian charity] a new and uterine dimension. The Gospel story is simple, a retelling of the conversation of two pregnant women. Mary, shortly after she conceived, visited her cousin Elizabeth, who was finishing the second ...
Gratian's Decretum became the model for ecclesiastical legislation and interpretation for the next five centuries, including the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX (1234). Although he does not say when the fetus is formed, he does maintain that the one who causes an abortion before the soul is in the body is not a murderer. ...
Since Pope Gregory XIV did not define the precise moment of animation, the question remained dependent upon the evidence science offered. Since canon law and theology always strive to base their directives and insights on the best relevant science of the time, the authors with great unanimity held to the common norm: t...
Spallanzani and Wolff demonstrated in the eighteenth century that both the female ovum and the male sperm were necessary for the initiation of human development, which occurred through progressive growth and differentiation. In the 1820's Von Baer's work established the foundation for the biologist's knowledge of the g...
14 Especially with these advances in the science of biology, it became more and more apparent that Aristotle's judgment of the fortieth day of gestation for the hominization of the male and the eightieth day for the hominization of the female was arbitrary and unsupported by modem scientific advance. There seemed to be...
A few individual theologians had sponsored the opinion that it was permissible, in order to save the life of the mother, either to expel the fetus after animation and before viability or to perform a craniotomy. This never became the common opinion of theologians. Lehmkuhl is an example of a nineteenth-century theologi...
It is certain that to expel a fetus, even though it be inanimate, is per se a mortal sin; and the person guilty of it is responsible for homicide... because, although he does not destroy a human life, yet his act has a close causal connection with preventing a human life. The question is raised whether, when a mother i...
In 1965 Catholic teaching on abortion is not based on a clarity of vision which reveals the answer to all relevant theoretical questions. But it is based on sufficiently solid foundation for it to maintain in practice that all direct abortion, whether as a means or as an end in itself, is contrary to divine law and adm...
In carious health, or who is very poor, or who already has more children than she can care for; a mother in a troubled frame of mind, an unmarried mother, a woman raped or involved in incest. Moved by such sympathy and compassion, the Church rejoices that modem science and medicine, sociology and psychology have achiev...
As the chair of the International Astronomical Union's US committee for membership applications, I can report that we are doing much better than the grand averages would suggest. Sciences unite for Spain's prosperity As Spain's economy recovers, the strategic application of science could help to stimulate prosperity an...
The advisory council's first forum was held in October 2017 to develop a strategy for improving this situation. It was framed around four cornerstones: health, life sciences (including philosophy, mathematics and astrobiology), Earth (including materials and water, food and energy, and climate change and biodiversity) ...
The distant roots of the term homeostasis go back to Greek antiquity, namely to pre-Socratic philosophy 2, 3 and to Hippocratic medicine 4. Early natural philosophers from the west coast of Asia Minor, southern Italy and Sicily, sought to explain the universe by pure reason. Alcmaeon of Croton introduced the term isono...
Hippocrates combined the 6th century BC achievements of the philosophers of Asia Minor with Pythago-ras/ theory, his pupil Alcmaeon´s percepts and Empedocles´ concepts about the equilibrium of dissimilar elements and of opposite qualities, thus developing the humoral theory for human physiology (Figure 1 ). According t...
The Nestorian controversy was fundamentally Christological (Nikephoros Kallistos PG 146:1160 -1164, but Mary, the mother of Christ, was the focus of this dispute between Cyril and Nestorius (Evagrius Scholasticus PG 86:2424A-D). The Bishop of Constantinople was an Antiochian in Christology. He was influenced by the tea...
It is a sickness not small, but akin to the putrid sore of Apollinarius and Arius. For they mingle the Lord's union in man to a confusion of some sort of mixture, insomuch that even certain clerks among us, of whom some from lack of understanding, some from heretical guile of old time concealed within them are sick as ...
It is obvious that, behind the description of Mary as Theotokos, he professed to detect the Arian tenet that the Son was a creature, or the Apollinarian notion that the manhood was incomplete. When Cyril read it, he realised that he had found the scandal he was seeking. The Christological argument was mainly about sote...
With an excellent knowledge of church history, Cyril realised that Nestorius's heretic falsehoods would not be solved by means of discussions or letters between him and Nestorius. A Regional Council or even an Ecumenical Council should be convened. The Patriarch of Alexandria was absolutely certain that Nestorius had m...
They say that God the Word hath taken a perfect man from out the seed of Abraham and David according to the declaration of the Scriptures, who is by nature what they were of whose seed he was, a man perfect in nature, consisting of intellectual soul and human flesh: whom, man as we by nature, fashioned by the might of ...
[H]ear that some are rashly talking of the estimation in which I hold your holiness, and that this is frequently the case especially at the times that meetings are held of those in authority. And perchance they think in so doing to say something agreeable to you, but they speak senselessly, for they have suffered no in...
He took little notice of the words of such people, because ultimately they would give an account to the Judge of all, Jesus Christ (PG 77:44C). The holy doctor also mentioned to Nestorius their obligation that their teaching as bishops should be in accordance with the teaching of the Fathers of our church. They should ...
Following this letter, Cyril made a short reference to the symbol of Nice -Constantinople. He spoke of the Incarnation of the Son and the Word of God. He explained clearly that the only begotten Son, born according to the nature of God the Father, came down, and was incarnate; he partook of flesh and blood like us; he ...
As had been the case earlier with the Trinitarian doctrine, Cyril was fully conscious of the necessity of positing the union of Incarnation at the level of person, not that of nature. As in the Trinity, there were not three natures and three persons -which would be tritheism -or one nature and one person in three diffe...
In Christ's person, there was a true union -hypostatic -of the two natures and this followed from the Exchange of Properties or Communion of Idioms. As such, one could understand that Christ suffered and rose again; not as if God the Word suffered in his own nature (the piercing of the nails, or any other wounds), for ...
The divine Word became true human with flesh and blood "not merely as willing or being pleased" ('οὐ κατά θέλησιν μόνην ἤ εὐδοκίαν) (Cyril PG 77:45C). On this point, Cyril referred to Theodorus of Mopsuestia's teaching, which was adopted by Nestorius. Cyril wrote that it would be "absurd and foolish" to say that the Wo...
Rather do we claim that the Word in an unspeakable, inconceivable manner united to himself hypostatically flesh enlivened by a rational soul, and so became man and was called son of man, not by God's will alone or good pleasure, nor by the assumption of a person alone. Rather did two different natures come together to ...
On this point, Cyril rejected Diodorus of Tarsus's teaching about the two Sons. Diodorus claimed that the divinity, comprised of the Word and the flesh, formed a substantial (or hypostatic) unity analogous to that formed by body and (rational) soul in man. In his reaction, his own theory made him view the divine and th...
In his second letter to Cyril, the Bishop of Constantinople remained steadfast in his dogmatic teaching. He did not reply to "the insults" against him as contained in Cyril's second letter (PG 77:49CD). He believed that these insults would in time be redressed by his patience and by events (PG 77:49D). It is obvious th...
Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus who though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, and so on until, he became obedient unto death, even death on a cross (Nestorius PG 77:52A) to explain that in Christ, in one person, there were both the impassibl...
The term "conjunction" (synapheia) had been used by the holy Fathers, Athanasius of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom and by Cyril himself, but now its meaning was heretic. We must not forget that the term "conjunction" was technicus terminus for the Antiochians who supported the two natures of Christ. If t...
One therefore is Christ both Son and Lord, not as if a man had attained only such a conjunction with God as consists in a unity of dignity alone or of authority. For it is not equality of honour which unites natures; for then Peter and John, who were of equal honour with each other, being both Apostles and holy discipl...
Nestorius insisted that each nature had its own prosopon. In order to avoid the assumption that, if the Son had two natures, he would also have two prosopa, he referred the conjunction of the natures to one person, Christ (Nestorius PG 77:52C): "... division of natures into manhood and godhead and their conjunction in ...
The conjunction of Christ's natures resulted in the rejection of the title Theotokos for the Virgin Mary: "... the holy virgin is more accurately termed mother of Christ (Christotokos) than mother of God (Theotokos)" (Nestorius PG 77:52C; PG 77:53B). He quoted biblical passages which were misinterpreted, and referred o...
By this presupposition, the term Theotokos declared the hypostatic union of the godhead and the manhood in one person, Jesus Christ. It is known that from the time of Gregory of Nazianzus at least the bishops of the capital seemed generally to have accepted Theotokos without any doubt (Bethune-Baker 1908:56-59). Theoto...
He was a perfect man with a body (sarx) and a soul (nous), and he was borne by the Virgin Mary. It was obvious that the holy Virgin Mary did not give birth to a common man in whom the Word of God dwelt (Cyril PG 77:112A), lest Christ be thought of as a God-bearing man. For all this, the holy Virgin should be called The...
For every Christian, Theotokos Mary is not only the mother of God, but also his/her mother. For this reason, Christians beg her with tears in their eyes to help them: "O all-praised Mother Who didst bear the Word, 14 holiest of all the saints, accept now our offering, and deliver us from all misfortune, and rescue from...
In his letters, Cyril explained to Nestorius why the Virgin Mary should be called Theotokos. He stressed that, if Nestorius refuted the title Theotokos for the Mother of God, it would be clear that Christ was not God in flesh (Theos sesarkomenos). Christ would be only a divine person and not the incarnate God. Cyril de...
There was a time in our very recent past when we were told that all-encompassing theories of art were unfruitful. But losing one's perspective in the rich field of particularity in art, or in a narrow analytical focus on art concepts, will no more produce significant understanding than will arid theories apart from exp...
What better way to do this than to re-examine the grandest of the grand schemes for a philosophy of art? There is good reason to regard Hegel's philosophy of art as a means to overcome deficiencies found in the two approaches considered above. It relates art to other aspects of human experience, nature, culture, and to...
The German refused to evade the logical exigencies of his system and proclaimed the mortality, nay the very death, of art.... He passes in review the successive forms of art, shows the progressive steps of internal consumption and lays the whole in its grave, leaving philosophy to write its epitaph.2 By a process of sh...
The very richness and complexity of Hegel's discussion of art, not to mention the relation of the material on art to the larger themes of Hegel's system, make hazardous any attempt to give a final reading of Hegel's view on the place and future of art. The same richness suggests a many-sided gem that cannot be examined...
. Characteristic of the death of art interpretation are applications of the principle of dialectic or development which are in one way or another hostile to the welfare of art. Dialectic can be applied to Hegel's view of art at two levels. It is applied to the relation between art, religion, and philosophy, which are t...
Croce, Heller, and Knox base their argument for the death of art interpretation on a mechanical view of the role of dialectic. According to their interpretation, the death of art is a necessary logical consequence of the dialectical unfolding of Absolute Spirit. As the dialectic unfolds at this level we find that beaut...
The first line of criticism of the death of art thesis can be made with respect to dialectical development in the progression from art to philosophy. It will be necessary to give a brief explanation of Hegel's view on this point to see where the death of art thesis has gone wrong. The thesis is problematic because it p...
Hegel does distinguish the points of view of the artist and the philosopher, and he clearly differentiates art from philosophy. The artist's task is to grasp reality and its forms through alert eyes and ears. Although reason acts to enable the artist to relate his perceptions to the idea of Absolute Spirit, the artist ...
Each of the forms is effective in some degree as a representation of Absolute Spirit. Symbolic art, the first, is closest to nature. The sensuous element in art and Absolute Spirit 'are brought into proximity at this level, but they are unable to achieve a unification of the sensuous form and spiritual content of art. ...
Classical art advances the development. Its sculpture takes its preferred model from the human body. Unlike the other natural animal bodies whose bodily frames are animated by animal soul (Seele), the human form also has a quality of spirit (Geist). 21 (HA, 714-15) Spirit is explained here as "being for itself of consc...
The emergence of romantiC art introduces the last of Hegel's determinate forms of art. A careful understanding of Hegel's view of the romantic form of art is very important to the clarification of the death of art issue. Advocates of the death of art thesis emphasize two themes arising from romantic art. They assert th...
The romantic arts of painting, music, and poetry each provide some synthesis of the previous forms of art. Painting takes representations of environments from architecture and uses them as background settings for the human figure which it borrows from sculpture. (HA, 797f) Poetry then combines "essential qualities" of ...
According to the death of art thesis, we should expect the workings of dialectic to produce the destruction of the lesser and prior stages of art. But quite a different effect is seen. These representative samples of dialectic synthesis taken from Hegel's discussion of romantic arts show that the lesser arts, or princi...
The development of romantic art signifies a shift of emphasis from the sensuous or visible form and its relation to Absolute Spirit to selfconscious subjectivity-the inner world of the ideal and of emotions, soul, and contemplation, of the subject. (HA, 792-96) Personal subjectivity and its involvement with Absolute Sp...
The need to communicate the inner workings of imagination suggests another way of looking at the changed role of sensuous form in romantic art. In classical art the visible form acts as a symbol participating as fully as possible in the ontological meaning of Absolute Spirit. But the visible form in romantic art acts m...
Even those who agree with the first point, that the dialectic argument fails to support the death of art thesis, may puzzle over certain of Hegel's texts that are cited in support of the thesis. The following interpretation of three principal texts will suggest that they do not necessarily uphold the thesis. The texts ...
The larger context of the quotation is the introduction to the Lectures on Aesthetics where Hegel justifies the need for a philosophy of art. Since the statement is a part of his rationale for writing a philosophy of art, it necessarily takes on a function of apology or justification. It shows in part why Hegel is doin...
Finally, it is a part of a much larger aspect of Hegel interpretation to decide whether the forward progress of the dialectic is a process in time. 29 In the Phenomenology, the dialectic is, in part, in time, and the moments in the history of a particular civilization are the movements of the dialectic. Hegel wants to ...
Osmaston's translation of the phrase, "Kunst selbst sich aufhebt," into the English, "Art commits an act of suicide," may have inadvertently served to perpetuate the death of art interpretation, especially among English readers of Hegel. However, insofar as I can determine, Hegel never actually uses the phrase, "the de...
I would like to propose an alternative to Osmaston's translation of aufheben based on the idea of dissolve. 'Dissolve' includes both the elements of "cancel" and "preserve," and it expresses the appropriate meanings of both Auseinander/allen and selbst sich aufhebt which are the principal terms in the text that is unde...
The results of my application of the principle of dissolve are visible in a comparison of a Greek "Bust of Zeus" with Rembrandt's "Portrait of a Young Man, 1662. "32 The bust acts as an ideal vehicle for reveal-ing Absolute Spirit to man's consciousn~ss, according to Hegel's category of classical art. Its universal qua...
A similar effect occurs in two different pictorial scenes. Monet's "Charing Cross Bridge, 1903" shows sensuous form in the relative absence of its domination by subjective purposes. Monet arranges color and light in a manner of scientific objectivity and shows the surfaces of both the painting and its representation of...
The differences in both sets of examples are between art works that show the sensuous qualities retaining a high degree of independence and exhibiting forms that are simply extensions of the natural qualities, and works where the artist's subjective spirit dissolves the sensuous in a more personal representation. The s...
Hegel identifies two principal ways in which poetry is superior to the other arts: in its representational powers and in its greater success at moulding sensuous form to the aims of subjectivity. (HA, 960, 966) Only the latter is important for the death of art thesis because superiority in representational powers does ...
A second qualification is with respect to changes in the natural materials of the different arts. When Hegel states that poetry ~ill have nothing to do with gross matter as such, he is simply indicating the difference between the external materials of architecture and poetry. (HA, 960) In architecture the artist strugg...
Itch in, when I behold thy banks again, Thy crumbling margin, and thy silver breast, On which the self-same tints still seem to rest, Why feels my heart the shiv'ring sense of pain? Is it-that many a summer's day has past Since, in life's morn, I carol'd on thy side? Is it-that oft, since then my heart has sigh'd, As Y...
Dear native Brook! wild Streamlet of the West! How many various-fated years have past, What happy and what mournful hours, since last I skimmed the smooth thin stone along thy breast, Numbering its light leaps! yet so deep imprest Sink the sweet scenes of childhood, that mine eyes I never shut amid the sunny ray, But s...
My conclusion is that Hegel did not intend the death of art. He uses the principle of dialectic to show the limits of art for communicating the highest religious truths of interest to man. The dialectic also shows the respective differences among the symbolic, classical, and romantic forms of art and gives a basis for ...
Beyond this shared fate of neural machinery, there is little information about Parker himself. My investigations revealed that he had proposed a mathematical theory of cortical folding based on the laws of liquid films and surface tension (see W. B. Benham Nature 55, 619-620; 1897) -ironic, considering that the laws of...
1 Birds exist just out of mankind's reach, possessing transcendent qualities in their graceful flight and mysterious song. As a result, shamans and mystics have turned to the feathered beast in search of communication with the gods for centuries. Writers too have turned to them to communicate with their readers. They e...
The nightingale is an enigmatic symbol that has been transformed from a tragic and remorseful figure into a poetic vision of beauty, but its symbolism evolves and grows through the progression from Ovid to the Romantics. The nightingale can be traced back to the Greek songs of Homer' While the nightingale emerges as th...
Roman poetry expands Greek myths of the nightingale into a gruesome story of rape and revenge that would captivate generations of authors to come. Ovid Chaucer, Gascoigne, Shakespeare, and the Romantics would build upon and reinterpret Ovid's Philomela. Ovid marked a watershed moment in the nightingale's violent and tr...
One might argue, however, when analyzing the development of tropes that the inconsistency of the nightingale's representation from the Romans to the Romantics may derive from a lack of ornithological knowledge or literary history on the part of the poets or authors that redirect the nightingale's symbolism rather than ...
It is necessary to analyze the ornithology of the nightingale, because its symbolism derives from the unique characteristics of the songbird itself, whose figurative value is captured in its ability to express emotion through physical traits and song. What characteristics of the nightingale make it such a powerful repr...
The symbolic origins of the nightingale's powerful myth lie in the Roman tragedy of Philomela made known through Ovid's Metamorphoses. As Ovid tells it, the king of Athens, Pandion, offered his daughter, Procne, to Tereus as a reward for his military prowess. From the beginning, however, their marriage was threatened b...
14 In reality, Vergil was the first writer credited with switching Philomela from the muted swallow into the melancholy nightingale. He noted that Philomela's name means "lover of song," so it fits that she attains voice in her transformation for " [w] hile Philomela sings in the wood, her sister lives under roofs, and...
Firmly establishing the male-domination in the first half of the myth, Ovid focuses on the power of Tereus, setting up a contrast between his assumed power and Philomela's innocence and vulnerability. Tereus, as a figurehead in Thrace, feels entitled, even ordained, to quench his sexual desires at the expense of Philom...
Through rape and loss of voice, Ovid immortalizes Philomela as the symbol of female abuse behind the mournful wail of the nightingale. Seemingly evocative of her fateful transformation, in the midst of the rape, "like one who mourns, she [Philomela] beats her arms and then, with outstretched arms, she cries 'What have ...
24 With this act of losing her tongue the fate of Philomela's violent retali-ation is set into motion. For "the tongue itself falls to the ground; there, on the blood-red soil, it murmurs; as a serpent's severed tail." 25 The object of voice, the tongue, now writhes with the poison of a snake, seeking to kill. Like the...
The voiceless Philomela who represents the silenced voices of women in ancient society provides both social commentary and a useful trope for repressed authors. 26 Ironically, Philomela views herself as complicit in the rape regardless of her own victimization. When speaking to Procne after her rescue, "Philomela will ...
By shifting the tone after Philomela's loss of voice, Ovid marks a change in the symbolic view from the nightingale. Many critics of Ovid problematize the extent to which Philomela participates in the violent revenge against Tereus. 29 The tone of her cry loses its innocence once the guilt of Itys' murder is on her che...
32 By committing this "distasteful" act, the sisters undergo an emotional and narrative transformation that is a harbinger of their later physical metamorphosis. Thus, the nightingale's song can also be one of triumphant revenge. I would argue that Ovid offers a counter-feminist reading of the actions of the women. Whe...
In Ovid, the nightingale may be interpreted as a symbol of repression, sorrow, or grief or a sign of revenge, fury, or taunting. From Metamorphoses, it is difficult to tell whether Ovid blames Philomela because of the inconsistency of translations. Some translators view "that her [Procne] chests still bear the signs." ...

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