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Robinson, who had left a tenured position at San Diego to work with Pauling at Stanford. Instead of working in cramped quarters at the University, they would set up their own research institute nearby. A building was rented, initial financial help was forthcoming, and the Institute for Orthomolecular Medicine was found...
In July 1976, Ava Helen underwent surgery for stomach cancer. Instead of post-operative chemotherapy or radiation treatment, she adopted vitamin C therapy to the tune of 10 g per day. She was soon well enough to accompany Pauling on his various travels, but she finally succumbed five years later, in December 1981. Paul...
The connection between vitamin C and cancer has also become a respectable topic of discussion. It was the subject of a conference organized by the U.S. National Cancer Institute in Washington D.C. in 1990. Vitamins C and E (and other anti-oxidants) inhibit the endogenous formation of TV-nitroso compounds in animals and...
The final word about the effect of large doses of vitamin C on health has still to be said. If you have a full, healthy diet, rich with fruit, grains and fresh vegetables, then you probably do not need supplemental vitamins and minerals. But in the modern world many people have, and may even prefer, an unhealthy diet. ...
I remember his lectures in Oxford in early 1948. The lecture hall was too small to hold all who wished to attend; there was standing room only. He told those of us who had never studied electrostatics to go home and read Sir James Jeans's book on that subject before coming to his lectures on chemical bonding. I had nev...
Vain? Conceited? Pauling was certainly aware of his own intellectual superiority, but he could be patient in dealing with the slowness of the slow-witted. On the whole, he was fairly tolerant of young, insecure seminar speakers, although, as I remember, he could also be intimidating at times. I am referring here to Pau...
In personal matters he kept most people at a distance. I believe he was basically rather shy. When he talked about science or politics or anything that caught his interest, there was no stopping him, he read widely and was extremely knowledgeable in many areas, a result of having pored over the Encyclopaedia brittanica...
One of the concerns highlighted by the authors of the editorial is the hype in the media, and I can assure you that it was a great surprise to the authors of these papers as well. The study was published in e-pub in February 2013, and the interest from the press and the scientific society was non-existent. We then beca...
We do agree with the authors regarding most of their comments. It is indeed necessary that the surgical and scientific communities should have a more tempered and objective response to our studies and that much remains to be done. The clinical trial needs to be replicated in a different clinical and scientific setting,...
[VOL. IX., No. 228 would seem always possible to ascertain the direction under these circumstances. The clouds presented a nlagnificent spectacle, and seemed like gigantic billows upon a boundless ocean. The sun was very hot indeed, and every effort ma8 made to observe a rising motion in the cloud, but entirely without...
The deter~llinations were made on March 4, 1885, when the temperature of the air was -12O.6 F., in the following manner : -A hole about four feet square having been cut through the ice (2.55 feet thick), the water within it was thoroughly agitated by stirring fro111 below, and during the actual operation slightly agita...
The follovr~ing from one of the local papers here mill show that the peculiar person mho has repeatedly been shown u p iu S c i e l~c eis still at large and at worlr : at least, I presume he is the same person, since it is unlilrely that there is ulore than one such perverse genius abroad. This time he turns a p as a r...
Firstly, all the observations made in doi:10.3390/microorganisms4040038 [1] about the "model/structural model" refer exclusively to material presented in Sections 3.5-3.7 in [2] -none of the comments refer to the experimentally determined crystalline structures of 3,6-DKCMO (PDB code: 4UMW) presented in Sections 3.2 an...
Secondly, Drs. Littlechild and Isupov's assertion that "In the paper [1] the lead author Willetts has described work carried out by himself and Dr David Kelly prior to 2008" is incorrect. As evidenced below (vide supra), correct facts and timelines are both important matters: therefore, to reiterate the statement made ...
Important to gaining a full comprehension of both the issues raised by Drs. Littlechild and Isupov's Comment and the prior observations made [1,3,4] regarding Isupov et al.'s modelling studies is the fact that the oxidation of reduced flavins by oxygen-dependent enzymes, including Type I and II Baeyer-Villiger monooxyg...
Both Type I and II BVMOs catalyse the same sequence of key biochemical events involving critical patterns of hydrogen bonding from key active site residues to the reduced flavin N5-H which is crucial for the successive formation and stabilisation of firstly a C4a-hydroperoxyflavin, and subsequently a Criegee intermedia...
Isupov et al.'s study [2] of 3,6-diketocamphane monooxygenase (3,6-DKCMO), an fd-TCMO from camphor-grown Pseudomonas putida NCIMB 10007, determines to a high resolution (1.9 Å and low R-values) the three-dimensional structures of both the native apo enzyme and the corresponding oxidised flavin (FMN)-bound complex, whic...
Here, for a second time, as in the case of the mistaken identity of the true nature of 3,6-DKCMO (vide infra), relative timing is a highly relevant issue with respect to Isupov et al.'s deployment of the synthetic α2 dimer [15] to aid in solving the structure of native apo 3,6-DKCMO. This is because Fisher et al.'s 22-...
In terms of function, the difference between a flavoprotein-type monooxygenase and a flavin-diffusible monooxygenase (vide infra) is crucial. In the specific case of 3,6-DKCMO, this is reflected starkly by the fact that relevant kinetics confirm that the respective Kd values for FMN and FNR differ by >500% [1]. This in...
The writer pools and preserves sera fixing 4 MHD of complement with an uncholesterinized antigen (Greval, Das and Sen Gupta, 1938; Greval, Chandra and Das', 1940 [Dec., 1943 to the antigen in the case of the fast complement (Greval, Chandra and Very briefly, in the test proper, with a 1 in 5 dilution of the unknown ser...
4. The rbc suspension.?Other things being equal, the greater the density of the suspension, the bigger will be the quantity of the complement in 1 MHD, and the less sensitive will be the hsemolytic system. A 5 per cent suspension provides a less sensitive system than a 3 per cent suspension. The density is checked and ...
and was comprehensive and covered the full embryology curriculum in an unorthodox didactic style in under 2 hrs". Not accurate: it was not "systems-based" as there was no mention of urinary, reproductive or vascular systems? The critical part of this presentation was the PowerPoint™ slides -these apparently consisted o...
Bizarrely, there was no ethical approval for this student-led educational experiment. The "study was independently run and subsequently endorsed through the student-run university societies." Seemingly, neither Cambridge or Birmingham University were aware that this "original research" had been undertaken on their firs...
These concerns aside, the article was not scholarly. Few medical courses retain a "preclinical basic science teaching" Flexnerian model; 4 modern designs favour integrated programmes, often either case-or problem-based. The paper claimed that "Although speakers in embryology appear confident in teaching the course, the...
First, the main objective of our systematic literature review was to conduct a literature search about tremor-control devices using standardized criteria regarding efficacy and comfort in patients diagnosed with essential tremor (ET). We did not include computer software/hardware to control kinetic tremor by using the ...
Sigmund Freud's basic philosophical commitments were divided between his aspirations for a positivistic science of the mind (originating in his neuroscience investigations) and an interpretative strategy that rested upon Immanuel Kant's argument about the transcendental relation of mind and nature. While Freud promoted...
Psychoanalytic theory begins with the challenge of establishing the basis of psychic cause. Freud argued, on the one hand, humans are subject to unconscious activities (framed within a biological conception), and thus subject to a form of natural determinism. On the other hand, the rational faculty of the ego permits, ...
This conception of reason is lifted directly from Kant, and, like Kant, Freud employed this rationality for both epistemological and moral ends. Epistemologically, the study of the (natural) unconscious domain of the mind followed a strategy indebted to Kant's conception of reason, namely, a faculty independent of natu...
I am not suggesting that Freud closely followed Kant to the extent of seeing the categorical imperative, the kingdom of ends, and the negation of selfinterest as the content of some true moral system. Further, I am not arguing that Freud followed Kant in terms of the content of moral philosophy, e.g. he did not subscri...
The voice of the intellect is a soft one, but it does not rest till it has gained a hearing. Finally, after a countless succession of rebuffs, it succeeds. This is one of the few points on which one may be optimistic about the future of mankind, but it is in itself a point of no small importance. And from it one can de...
So, as important as the positivist tenets were to Freud's aspirations to create a new science of the mind, an equally compelling commitment was made to Kant. Here, we will explore the fundamental dilemma of reconciling the determinism of the natural world (in this case, the influences of the unconscious) and the autono...
References to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason are sprinkled throughout Freud's writings. Indeed, Freud knew Kant well enough to dispute certain basic Kantian precepts (Freud, 1920: 28) and Kantian arguments (Freud, 1990: 110-11), or draw on detailed Kantian insights (Freud, 1905: 12 [Guttman, 1984].) In an unusual nod t...
Freud saw some connection between Kant's noumenal self and the psychoanalytic unconscious. Neither can be directly perceived, and instead each must be interpreted by emerging phenomena. Clues provided by dreams, slips of the tongue, jokes, neurotic behaviors, etc., then serve psychoanalysis with the desiderata of the u...
In our science as in the others the problem is the same: behind the attributes (qualities) of the object under examination [the unconscious] which are presented directly to our perception, we have to discover something else which is more independent of the particular receptive capacity of our sense organs and which app...
We have discovered technical methods of filling up the gaps in the phenomena of our consciousness, and we make use of those methods just as a physicist makes use of experiment. In this manner we infer a number of processes which are themselves 'unknowable' and interpolate them in those that are conscious to us. (Freud,...
Strictly, the Kantian noumenon is empty of content and resides outside nature, postulated but ever mysterious 'in itself'. The Freudian unconscious hardly fulfills that criterion and here we come to an interesting confusion: in his clinical investigations, Freud remained unhesitant in pursuing the unconscious as a natu...
We must remind ourselves that Freud adamantly rejected the equation of mind with consciousness, which served as the primary scaffolding of those philosophies inspired by Kant. In 'The Ego and the Id' (1923a), he drew a bead on the crucial philosophical issue of defining mind and went to some length to describe, as he h...
Like the physical, the psychical is not necessarily in reality what it appears to us to be. We shall be glad to learn, however, that the correction of internal perception will turn out not to offer such great difficulties as the correction of external perception -that internal objects are less unknowable than the exter...
Kant's 'criticism of reason' concerns the conditions and limits of human cognition (Velkley, 1989). For Kant, the place of reason, the role of emotions, the intuitions of the spiritual domain, and the ability to understand human psychology each requires a model of the mind that would account for their respective claims...
Kant attempted to mend these various divisions by first separating reason into two modalities, one that dealt with the natural world and the other to navigate the moral. Although dealing with different domains, reason still functioned as a whole, and Kant posited a faculty of judgment that brought unity to thought. By ...
Kant called these rational modalities, respectively, 'pure' (or theoretical) and 'practical' reason. Pure reason applied to the understanding, the Kantian faculty that spontaneously systematizes and organizes those cognitive functions by which humans address and then glean knowledge of the natural world. Such knowledge...
A second kind of thought, 'practical' reason, dealt with the moral realm by operating analogously to the workings of pure reason: each was autonomous and thus capable of following its own dictates; each operated with its own particular modes of knowing; and each corresponded to some order -natural or moral. Thus reason...
Further parallels appear: Kant meticulously derived reason's 'laws', which include the unrequited search for the unconditioned (the ground or foundation of the world) (Neiman, 1994: 86). Simply, reason becomes 'the capacity to act according to purposes' (ibid.: 88), which is comprised by the search for its own groundin...
Reason, in order to be taught by nature, must approach nature with its principles in one hand, according to which alone the agreement among appearances can count as laws, and, in the other hand, the experiments thought out in accordance with these principles -yet in order to be instructed by nature not like a pupil, wh...
Indeed, reason has 'complete spontaneity [to] make its own order according to ideas, to which it fits the empirical conditions and according to which it even declares actions to be necessary that yet have not occurred and perhaps will not occur...' (Kant, 1998: 541). Kant goes on to describe how reason possesses its ow...
In pursuing science, Freud was committed to defining the deterministic causation of natural phenomena and when studying unconsciousness, he applied this same principle to follow instinctual drives (Sulloway, 1979). Irrespective of the over-determination (multiple causes) of psychic phenomena and the inaccessibility of ...
For Freud, humans exist as a composite of a natural, biological matrix (termed unconsciousness) and another part, the conscious ego. (The biological formulation is discussed below.) Schematically in the last formulation, the rational ego (with its own laws, logic and language) and the a-rational id function with differ...
Despite confident assertions, Freud's program operates in ambiguity: given that the self-conscious, rational ego functions autonomously, what grounds that function and by what authority does Reason achieve its adjudicating role? What, indeed, is this ego, this agent, this me, she or he? And more to the point, the philo...
Some have argued that Kant held an incoherent theory of self-consciousness as understood on the subject-object model (the so-called reflection model, whereby reflection is analyzed by a two-termed relation between the subject of consciousness and the object of consciousness), because this theory presupposes the self-co...
Since Freud himself remained conspicuously silent about any philosophical allegiance beyond'science', he did not present his notion of the unconscious in explicit Kantian terms, 7 nor did he explore the relationship of language and thought, which was to dominate post-Wittgenstein philosophy (Cavell, 1993; Gomez, 2005: ...
However, in other respects Freud's implicit acceptance of Kant's formulation offers a rich philosophical mulch in which to plant psychoanalysis. The theme we will now explore concerns how Freud's philosophy arises from the deepest reaches of his humanistic interests and commitments. In a complex duet, I maintain that (...
Kant may fairly be credited with the invention of individual autonomy (Schneewind, 1992: 309-41;. His clearest exposition is found in the famous answer to the question 'What is Enlightenment?' to which he answered, 'Enlightenment is mankind's exit from its self-incurred immaturity' or as he further extolled, 'Have the ...
In an instrumental sense, reason becomes the tool by which humans become moral in each context -Kantian and Freudian. Indeed, the very possibility of self-discovery and moral choice must be predicated on notions of freedom and thereby the two endeavors powerfully resonate despite their differing domains of discourse. S...
The psychoanalytic venture eventuates in a new life-story, one re-examined historically and redirected into a purposeful future. Freud wrote of this movement in his Introductory Lectures: 'The neurotic who is cured has really become another man, though at bottom, of course, he has remained the same; that is to say, he ...
... for our capacity to turn our attention on to our mental activities is also a capacity to distance ourselves from them, and to call them into question.... The reflective mind cannot settle for perception and desire, not just as such. It needs a reason. (Korsgaard, 1996: 13) And reason serves the moral, inasmuch as w...
Freud, in building a case for the moral will as arising from unconscious sources, allows reason various degrees of freedom in determining the ethical framework in which choices must be made. Simply, I am referring to the psychoanalytic process itself, whereby insight and perspective emerge from a new appraisal of perso...
Three cardinal characteristics form Kant's depiction of reason: (1) the antecedent standards of reason are unknown and unknowable; (2) reason is like a currency -ideas must be exchanged, justifications must be accepted, options and choices must be understood, and actions must be explained; and (3) most importantly for ...
While Freud adopts the underlying premise of Kantian freedom, he departs from Kant's philosophical path by assuming a naturalistic stance. Unlike Kant, who sought to recognize and act according to a universal categorical imperative, Freud assigned the placement and character of value (and choice) within the individual'...
Insofar as Freud devised psychoanalysis to break the causal chain of instinctual drives to come under the rational control (as opposed to repression) of the ego, and thus free choice (as opposed to psychological determinism) might be achieved, a gap opened before him: reasons are not causes; retrospective reconstructio...
Freud, while pausing to acknowledge Kant, did not see his own project in the Kantian tradition, not only because he regarded that course of philosophy as hopelessly speculative and contemplative, but more deeply because it was based in idealism. So, identifying himself as a scientist, one firmly committed to the positi...
This problem was eloquently stated at the end of Kant's Second Critique, where he famously mused on the mystery of reason's ability to bridge the moral and natural domains: 'Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence... the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me'(1996c: ...
In conclusion, that Freud was indebted to Kantianism in some respects does not make him a Kantian. Indeed, he melded certain Kantian ideas with those derived from a deep appreciation of the biological character of human emotions, and in this respect he must be regarded a Darwinian, closely aligned to Nietzsche, whose p...
This interpretation builds from two distinct notions of autonomy that become fused in Freud's thought. Typically, Nietzsche's moral scheme is usually taken to be almost perfectly opposed to that of Kant, inasmuch as they are presenting two opposing conceptions of autonomy. For Kant the law that is self-dictated is one ...
In this general scheme, a complex duet is played out between Kant and Nietzsche, where psychoanalysis offers a promissory note: take one's history in hand to command the effect of emotional traumas to declare a liberation and the forthright assertion of personal autonomy for a life of meaningful love and work. Here we ...
Because of the freedom conferred by autonomous reason, humans might not only realize moral choice and accept moral responsibility (Kant's undertaking), but Romantics added that humankind might also perfect itself according to its own dictates. At this juncture, we witness an important transition in the evolution of mor...
1 According to Kant, because the shape of reality is partly formed by the mediation of the observer, the things in themselves are insurmountably a translation or an interpretation. The self thus emerges, since in the idea of a thought, every mental content embeds the notion of a subject that has an immediate and intuit...
(Note, the level at which Kantian philosophy is interpreted and applied remains a formidable challenge, not only because common consensus about much is not available, but, more to the point, the degree of detail and explanation of the various perspectives must vary according to the philosophical sophistication [and int...
In direct response to Hume, the transcendental argument moves from the nature of experience back to understanding the subject of experience, that is, it arrives at a view of what we must be like in order to have experience as we do. Thus, the observing subject is defined by inference: the self is observed as the extern...
We know two things about what we call our psyche (or mental life): firstly, its bodily organ and scene of action, the brain (or nervous system), and on the other hand, our acts of consciousness, which are immediate data and cannot be further explained by any sort of description. Everything that lies between is unknown ...
Obviously, for Freud, the two represented two entirely different modalities to express the ethical, one as a liberator, the other as part of a despotic unconscious experience. In the topographical model, the super-ego is the repository of moral consciousness, 'an agency... in the ego which confronts the rest of the ego...
[T]he super-ego is the vehicle of the phenomenon we call conscience. Mental life very much depends on the super-ego's being normally developed -that is, on its having become sufficiently impersonal. And that is precisely what it is not in neurotics.... Their super-ego still confronts their ego as a strict father confro...
Even in the non-neurotic case, the super-ego's chief function'remains the limitation of satisfactions' (Freud, 1940: 148). For Freud, the individual always remains his focus, and more particularly, individual welfare, and thus the restrictions imposed on the pleasure principle through the super-ego faculty always requi...
Reasoning... is simply a matter of striving for principled autonomy in the spheres of thinking and of action. Autonomy in thinking is no morebut also no less -than the attempt to conduct thinking (speaking, writing) on principles on which all others whom we address could also conduct their thinking.... Autonomy in acti...
In early 1957, Schrieffer, then a 25-yearold graduate student, wrote down a quantum-mechanical wave function that accounted for the behaviour of electrons in superconductors. With his thesis adviser John Bardeen and postdoc colleague Leon Cooper, he published the now-famous BCS wave function and the full theory of supe...
Bardeen suggested Schrieffer try his hand at understanding superconductivity. This was a risky proposition. After the initial success of quantum theory in describing ordinary conductors, insulators and semiconductors, there had been countless attempts to explain superconductors and all had failed. But the timing was ri...
Throughout his career, Schrieffer displayed the same flair as in his brilliant wave function insight. In 1979, he and his colleagues showed that certain conducting polymers could exhibit excitations with electrical charge, but no spin (the magnetic moment of each electron is called its spin). The opposite could also oc...
In 1980, he moved to the University of California, Santa Barbara, and joined the newly formed Institute for Theoretical Physics. Here, between 1984 and 1989, he served as its second director, helping to establish its strong reputation as a centre for theoretical physics research. His final move in 1992 was back to Flor...
Schrieffer was equally known for his warmth, charm, generosity and brilliance. When Bob discussed physics, his eyes would twinkle and a boyish demeanour would shine through. This enthusiasm and provision of wise counsel to younger physicists never waned. His unique style is captured, as if in a photograph, by the BCS w...
With the advent of pay for performance and quality standards, family doctors are now in the business of data reporting. We are paid to report "quality measures" and meet their targets. In the United States, where lawmakers, employers, and patients agree that the cost of healthcare is unsustainable, the government and i...
It is reported that physicians spend, on average, 11 minutes with their patients 1 and listen to their chief complaint for only 22 seconds before taking control of the interview. 2 During these brief encounters, to what or to whom do doctors attend? A structured history of the present illness taken by the medical assis...
True confession: I was an early adapter of electronic health records. When our practice purchased the first version in 2000, I was dazzled by how simple, legible, organized, encyclopedic, and beautiful it was. I wasn't alone. Despite the hefty price tag, increasing numbers waded into the market, from small office manag...
I had seen the paper form before as part of other employee wellness programs. But I never knew what inspired it until I read a New Yorker essay about America's best known television doctor, Dr Oz. 5 His "fifteen minute physical" identified what doctors, patients, and now employers seem to regard as the key markers of h...
Take weight. According to a recent meta-analysis, being overweight or having low level obesity carries a lower risk of death than being "normal" weight. Only with higher degrees of obesity does the risk of death rise. 7 And this news is no exception. Large longitudinal studies have reversed our long held beliefs and re...
14 Science seldom gives us lasting pearls. One critical observer of the scientific method put it bluntly, "We like to pretend that our experiments define the truth for us. But that's often not the case. Just because an idea is true doesn't mean it can be proved. And just because an idea can be proved doesn't mean it's ...
What is health? Or is that a fair question to ask experts on disease? Wendall Berry refers to health as membership. 18 In other words, health is tied to our sense of connection to community. When disease disrupts the bonds of those connections, or requires that they be broken (as for the addict or victim of domestic vi...
Similarly, adverse childhood experiences have been shown to be associated with adult health outcomes. When Vincent Felitti directed a weight loss program for Kaiser Permanente he found that though most participants lost weight, the dropout rate was unacceptably high. Follow-up interviews revealed that many of them had ...
Over the past two decades, William Miller and Stephen Rollnick have revolutionized the way in which healthcare workers perceive their role in behavioral change. They call their approach "motivational interviewing" and see it as a directive, client centered counseling style that encourages patients to change their behav...
Lastly, let's ask our patients if their concerns have been heard, our findings explained, their needs addressed. Post visit surveys might answer these questions and teach us how to better communicate with our patients and expedite our duties. 26 It is not too late to retool the primary care workshop, to redesign the "p...
"I would take us all back a thousand years," Dr Oz mused in a recent interview, "when our ancestors lived in small villages and there was always a healer in that village-and his job wasn't to give you heart surgery or medication but to help find a safe place for conversation." 5 In all fairness, Dr Oz may not be acquai...
t is an honor for me to outline the background and contributions of Mrs. Elizabeth Croll, who was selected as an ASPS Patient of Courage in 2016. Her story is a true inspiration to plastic surgeons, as well as a role model for patients by converting unforeseen tragedy into betterment of the community. After a tragic ac...
At age 28, Elizabeth received her MBA from the Harvard Business School in 1997 (Fig. 1). One month later, just before beginning her new job post-MBA, she was struck by an oncoming boat and suffered severe facial trauma, resulting in an open skull injury with loss of her right eye, accompanied by periorbital bone loss, ...
Despite her relative success in community and business endeavors, Elizabeth was plagued with ongoing deterioraReceived for publication May 3, 2017; accepted May 26, 2017 While receiving care and treatment at University Hospitals of Cleveland I came to appreciate the unique abilities that enabled Elizabeth to make so ma...
From the very beginning of his career, Sandage was a star. His 1953 PhD thesis reversed the thinking of the day that faint'main sequence' stars started their lives as red giants; his measurements of the M3 globular cluster led to the conclusion that the opposite order was correct. This was a revolution in the understan...
On the back of these predictions, Sandage single-handedly mounted a giant programme to extend the Hubble diagram, which charts redshifts of galaxies (a measure of how fast they are moving away from Earth) against their relative distances. This became the crucial piece of evidence that helped to dispel doubts about whet...
The entire process brought to mind (remember I am a journal editor and cannot help it) the issue of how cognitive and confirmation biases influence everything that we do in life. Cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, whereas confirmation bias is the interpretation of ...
The guiding principal that governs editorial decision-making at JACC: Basic to Translational Science is our focus on publishing scientific studies that we believe will lead to new therapies. As an Editorial Board, we are aware that translational science is at best an imperfect science, to which we assiduously attempt t...
First of all, I will explain how quantum mechanics and its statistical interpretation arose. At the beginning of the twenties, every physicist, I think, was convinced that Planck's quantum hypothesis was correct. According to this theory energy appears in finite quanta of magnitude hv in oscillatory processes having a ...
In 1913 Niels Bohr had solved the riddle of line spectra by means of the quantum theory and had thereby explained broadly the amazing stability of the atoms, the structure of their electronic shells, and the Periodic System of the elements. For what was to come later, the most important assumption of his teaching was t...
Theoretical physics maintained itself on this concept for the next ten years. The problem was this: an harmonic oscillation not only has a frequency, but also an intensity. For each transition in the array there must be a corresponding intensity. The question is how to find this through the considerations of correspond...
In Göttingen we also took part in efforts to distil the unknown mechanics of the atom from the experimental results. The logical difficulty became ever sharper. Investigations into the scattering and dispersion of light showed that Einstein's conception of transition probability as a measure of the strength of an oscil...

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