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The following lists events that happened during 1977 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,166,400.
Increase since 31 December 1976: 3000 (0.09%).
Males per 100 females: 99.4.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – Sir Denis Blundell GCMG GCVO KBE QSO, followed by The Rt Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake KG GCMG CH QSO.
Government
1977 was the second full year of the 38th Parliament. The Third National Government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Roy Jack.
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Brian Talboys.
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon.
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Brian Talboys.
Attorney-General – Peter Wilkinson.
Chief Justice — Sir Richard Wild
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Dove-Myer Robinson
Mayor of Hamilton – Bruce Beetham then Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Jim Barnes then Clifford George (Cliff) Skeggs
Events
5 January – Led by Joe Hawke, members of Ngati Whatua occupy Bastion Point reserve (Takaparawha) to protest crown sales of land taken from Māori.
6 February – Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II's accession as Queen of New Zealand
28 February – The new Executive Wing of the New Zealand Parliament, nicknamed the "Beehive" due to its shape, is officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II, despite not being fully complete yet.
26 March – 1977 Mangere by-election: David Lange (Labour) is elected to replace Colin Moyle.
21 November – God Defend New Zealand becomes the second official national anthem of New Zealand, in conjunction with God Save The Queen.
6 December – The meat pie-based fast food chain Georgie Pie opens its first restaurant in Kelston, Auckland.
23 December – the Wild Animal Control Act 1977 passed into law
New Zealand proclaims an Exclusive Economic Zone of 200 nautical miles (370 km) – the seventh largest in the world at 4.3 million km2
Mushrooms and typewriters are added to the CPI basket.
Arts and literature
Keri Hulme and Roger Hall win the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1977 in art, 1977 in literature
Music
The New Zealand Music Awards were not held this year.
Waikino music festival at Bicknel's farm, Waitawheta Valley, between Waihi and Waikino. Attendance 5500.
See: 1977 in music
Radio and television
April: Fair Go airs for the first time.
June: Wellington's Radio Active 89FM first hits the airwaves
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Current Affairs: News at Ten
Best Documentary Series: Black Future
Best Light Entertainment: Blerta
Best Play: The God Boy
Best Drama: Moynihan
Best Speciality: Country Calendar
Best Actor: Ian Mune in Winners and Losers and Moynihan
Best Actress: Judy Douglas in The God Boy
Best Script: The God Boy
Best Personality: Roger Gascoigne
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Max Cryer.
Roger Hall's Middle-Age Spread premiered at the Circa Theatre, Wellington
Television
See: 1977 in New Zealand television, 1977 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Landfall
Off the Edge
Sleeping Dogs
Solo
Wild Man
See: :Category:1977 film awards, 1977 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1977 films
Sport
Athletics
Terry Manners wins his second national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:20:40 in Hawera.
Association football
New Zealand National Soccer League won by North Shore United
The Chatham Cup is won by Nelson United who beat Mount Wellington 1–0 in the final.
Chess
The 84th New Zealand Chess Championship is held in North Shore, and is won by Ortvin Sarapu of Auckland.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Sole Command
There was no 1977 running of the Auckland Trotting Cup as the race was being rescheduled from December (1976) to February (1978)
Thoroughbred racing
Births
22 January: Jono Gibbes, rugby player
25 February: Matthew Bell, cricketer
25 March: Brooke Walker, cricketer
16 May: Melanie Lynskey, actress
20 May: Raf de Gregorio, soccer player
25 May: Michael Bevin, field hockey goalkeeper
9 July (in South Africa): Leana du Plooy, netball player
5 July: Dale Rasmussen, rugby player
11 July: Matai Smith, television presenter
13 July: Xavier Rush, rugby player
5 September: Emily Gillam, field hockey player
8 September: Sheryl Scanlan, netball player
9 September: Caleb Ralph, rugby player
13 November: Chanel Cole, musician
28 November: Greg Somerville, rugby player
15 December: Dominic Bowden, television presenter
21 December: Leon MacDonald, rugby player
:Category:1977 births
Deaths
22 January: Toby Hill, watersider and trade unionist
18 February: Ron Jarden, rugby player.
7 June (in England): Sir Rex Nan Kivell, art collector.
15 August: Margaret Escott, novelist and poet.
24 December: Sir Roy Jack, politician and 16th Speaker of the House of Representatives.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977%20in%20New%20Zealand |
The Canada Land Inventory (CLI) is a multi-disciplinary land inventory of rural Canada.
Conceptualized in the early 1960s by the Department of Forestry and Rural Development (later the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources), the CLI was a federal-provincial project that lasted from 1963 to 1995 and produced maps which indicated the capability of land to sustain agriculture, forestry, recreation and wildlife; its geographic extent was all of Canada except the North (i.e. below the tree line).
CLI used a common classification scheme and common mapping scales (1:50K 1:250K and 1:1 million). Land capability for agriculture, forestry, land-use, recreation, wildlife (ungulates and waterfowl) were mapped The large amount of data generated by the CLI saw the early adoption of the world's first geographic information system (GIS), called the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS).
Since 1995, the CLI agriculture data have been taken over by the Department of Agriculture to continue rating agricultural land capability. The CLI in this modified form consists of a soil survey with rankings from 1 to 7, with Class 1 soil having no limitations for arable crop production and Class 7 having no capability for agricultural activities. Classes 1-3 are considered prime agricultural land, and are protected by land use policies in certain provinces, including Ontario. Classes 2-6 have certain limitations for arable crop production, denoted by sub-classes which specify the limitations of the soil (for example, excessive water, adverse climate, stoniness). The results are mapped on 1:250,000 NTS grids.
External links
Canada Land Inventory (CLI) - Overview - Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Canada Land Inventory from Geogratis Natural Resources Canada
Classifying Prime and Marginal Agricultural Soils and Landscapes: Guidelines for Application of the Canada Land Inventory in Ontario - Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs
References
Government of Canada
Soil by country | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%20Land%20Inventory |
Astruc Remoch (sometimes spelled Raimuch) was a Jewish convert to Catholicism who made his mark in history by attempting the conversion of other Jews during the 14th century.
Remoch was a medical doctor in Fraga, Spain in the 14th century. He had contact with prominent Jews of his day, such as Benveniste ibn Labi of Zaragoza.
In 1391, Astruc Remoch was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, taking the name Francisco Dias-Carni. Following his conversion, Remoch's belief in the Catholic doctrine of Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus was so strong that he endangered his old Jewish friend En-Shealtiel Bonfos, (probably a son of the physician Isaac Bonfos born Shealtiel of Falces), in his efforts to get Bonfos to convert as well.
Remoch (Francisco) wrote a letter to his friend in Hebrew, critical of Judaism and supportive of the beliefs of Christianity. In response, Remoch received two letters. Bonfos composed a careful response to what was a very delicate topic during the Inquisition, avoiding any statements that the Church might find offensive.
The satirical poet Solomon ben Reuben Bonfed wrote his own much less careful reply to Remoch's arguments in a rhyming prose that attacked each of Remoch's arguments.
Solomon first apologizes for his interference in matters that are none of his business, then insists that as a Jew he cannot remain silent amidst the argument, and continues to argue that the Christian belief system was unsupportable, stating, "You twist and distort the Bible text to establish the Trinity."
Sources
JewishEncyclopedia.com - RAIMUCH (REMOCH), ASTRUC
POLEMICS AND POLEMICAL LITERATURE (Jewish Encyclopedia) - BibleWiki
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism
14th-century Catalan Jews
Spanish Roman Catholics
14th-century Aragonese Jews
Medieval Jewish physicians of Spain
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
14th-century physicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astruc%20Remoch |
The following lists events that happened during 1978 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,165,200.
Change since 31 December 1977: -1,200 (-0.04%).
Males per 100 females: 99.2.
This was the first year since 1941 in which New Zealand's population declined (due to emigration, largely to Australia).
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake KG GCMG CH QSO.
Government
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison.
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Brian Talboys.
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon.
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Brian Talboys.
Attorney-General – Peter Wilkinson until 13 December, then Jim McLay.
Chief Justice — Sir Richard Wild (until 20 January), Sir Ronald Davison (starting 3 February)
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour).
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Dove-Myer Robinson
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Clifford George (Cliff) Skeggs
Events
The Pureora Forest Park was established after a series of protests and tree sittings.
18 February – The Rangitikei by-election was won by Bruce Beetham for Social Credit.
1 April – Flag carriers Air New Zealand and the National Airways Corporation merge to form a single airline under the Air New Zealand name.
12 September – Kaimai Rail Tunnel on the East Coast Main Trunk Railway, at 8896 m the longest tunnel in New Zealand, opened.
December – Holy Name Seminary, Christchurch (Catholic) closed.
Arts and literature
Roger Hall and Peter Olds win the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1978 in art, 1978 in literature, :Category:1978 books
January
Nambassa, three-day music, crafts and alternative lifestyles festival on Phil and Pat Hulses' farm in Golden Valley, north of Waihi. Attendance 25,000.
October
Nambassa winter road show, toured the North Island of NZ, promoting the 1979 festival.
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners were as follows:
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Hello Sailor – Hello Sailor
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Golden Harvest – I Need Your Love
TOP MALE VOCALIST John Rowles
TOP GROUP Hello Sailor
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST Sharon O’Neill
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR Ian Morris – Hello Sailor
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR Rob Aicken – Hello Sailor
MOST PROMISING GROUP Citizen Band
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Kim Hart
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Dennis O’Brien
See: 1978 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to George Tumahai.
Radio and television
23 November – the AM broadcast band moves from 10 kHz spacing to 9 kHz spacing, in line with the Geneva Frequency Plan of 1975.
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Current Affairs: Dateline Monday
Best Information: Fair Go
Best Documentary: Birth with R.D. Laing
Best Light Entertainment: A Week of It
Best Drama: The Governor
Best Speciality: Sport on One
Best Actor: David McPhail on A Week of It
Best Personality: Roger Gascoigne
Best Script: He Iwi Ko Tahi Tatou: episode four of The Governor
See: 1978 in New Zealand television, 1978 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Angel Mine
Skin Deep
See: :Category:1978 film awards, 1978 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1978 films
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:17:33 on 11 March in Hastings.
Chess
The 85th New Zealand Chess Championship is held in Wellington, and is won by Craig Laird of Tauranga.
Commonwealth Games
Cricket
15 February: After 48 years of trying, New Zealand beats England in a Test match for the first time, winning the Test at the Basin Reserve.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Trusty Scot
Auckland Trotting Cup: Sole Command. From 1978–86 the race was over 2700m and there was no handicapping.
Soccer
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Christchurch United
The Chatham Cup is won by Manurewa who beat Nelson United 1–0 in the final.
Births
2 January: Dan Ward-Smith, rugby union player
5 January: Adi Dick, musician.
21 January (in the United States): Mike Chappell, basketballer.
3 February: Keith Cameron, rugby union player.
26 February: Rico Gear, rugby union player.
8 April: Nathan Mauger, rugby union player.
29 April: Donna Loffhagen, netball and basketball player.
19 May: Willie Walker, rugby union player.
28 May: John Dennison, poet.
1 June: Ben Lummis, singer and winner of New Zealand Idol (season 1).
11 June: Daryl Tuffey, cricketer.
4 July: Bianca Russell, field hockey player.
6 July: Kevin Senio, rugby union player.
12 July: Claire Chitham, actor.
26 July: David Kosoof, field hockey player.
28 July: Jacob Oram, cricketer.
14 August (in South Africa): Greg Rawlinson, rugby union player.
5 September:
Chris Hipkins, politician.
Chris Jack, rugby union player.
10 September: Nish Selvadurai, comedian.
13 September: Andrew Hore, rugby union player.
18 September: Iain Lees-Galloway, politician.
21 September: Doug Howlett, rugby union player.
10 October: Caroline and Georgina Evers-Swindell (twins), rowers, Olympic gold medallists (2004 Athens and 2008 Beijing)
26 October: Ricky Cockerill, figure skater.
6 November: Dean Kent, swimmer.
11 November: Lou Vincent, cricketer.
19 November (in Australia): Mahé Drysdale, rower, Olympic gold medallist (2012 London)
21 November: Paul Urlovic, soccer player.
William Dwane Bell, convicted murderer.
Mok TzeMing, writer.
:Category:1978 births
Deaths
6 January: Burt Munro, record-setting motorcyclist
30 March: Sir Charles William Hamilton (Bill Hamilton), inventor of the jetboat.
13 May: Alby Roberts, cricketer.
22 May: Sir Richard Wild, 9th Chief Justice of New Zealand.
23 July: Sir Ronald Algie, politician and former Speaker of the House of Representatives.
18 August: Ronald L. Meek, economist.
John Hutton, glass engraver
:Category:1978 deaths
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Gabriel Antonio José Pereira Villagrán (Montevideo, 17 March 1794 – 14 April 1861) was a Uruguayan politician who served as president first from 1838 to 1839, and again from 1856 to 1860.
He was Minister of Finance from 1830 to 1831. He served as the President of the Senate of Uruguay 1833–1834, 1836 and 1839.
References
1794 births
1861 deaths
19th-century Uruguayan people
Politicians from Montevideo
Presidents of Uruguay
Presidents of the Senate of Uruguay
Ministers of Economics and Finance of Uruguay
Uruguayan people of indigenous peoples descent
Uruguayan people of Portuguese descent | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Antonio%20Pereira |
Indiantown Gap National Cemetery is a United States National Cemetery located in East Hanover Township, in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. Administered by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, it occupies approximately , and has over 60,000 interments, as of 2021.
History
Indiantown Gap derives its name from the various Native American communities that populated the region. Starting in the 1930s, it became a training area for the United States Army and control of the facility was turned over to the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1998.
In 1976, a section of Fort Indiantown Gap Military Reservation was selected as the national cemetery for the states of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Virginia and West Virginia. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania donated land for the site to the US Veterans Administration (now known as the United States Department of Veterans Affairs), specifically the branch of the VA known as the National Cemetery Administration (NCA).
Since 1976, the Indiantown Gap National Cemetery has been administered by the NCA and is separate entity from the section of Fort Indiantown Gap assigned to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
Notable interments
Notable interments include:
Robert F. Kent (1911–1982), Pennsylvania state representative and Pennsylvania Treasurer from 1957 to 1961
Bob Montgomery (1919–1998), Lightweight Boxing Champion of the World and International Boxing Hall of Fame inductee
Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren (1924–2019), first director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps (1970–1981)
John Shumaker (1929–1999), Pennsylvania State Senator
Paul Vathis (1925–2002), Pulitzer Prize winning photographer
See also
List of Pennsylvania cemeteries
References
External links
National Cemetery Administration
Indiantown Gap National Cemetery
Photos of Indiantown Gap National Cemetery
Cemeteries established in the 1970s
Cemeteries in Pennsylvania
United States national cemeteries
Tourist attractions in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania
Buildings and structures in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiantown%20Gap%20National%20Cemetery |
Bergvliet High School is a public high school in the suburb of Bergvliet in Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa....
Background
Bergvliet High currently has a student body of approximately 1130 learners. On the 20th of August 2009, it was announced that Stephen Price had been selected to become the new principal of the school. BHS has 2 deputy principals. The school motto is Sapiens Dominabitur Astris.
History
The school was founded in 1957 soon after the relatively new suburb of Bergvliet was built. The first grade eight class was enrolled in 1957, with the first class starting on January 29 of that year. Approximately 70 students attended the first day. The first school principal was Mr. P.A.M van der Spuy, who served from the founding of the school until his retirement in 1969.
See also
BHS - The first 50 Years: Anecdotes, Tributes and Memories - Richard Hamburger
External links
Bergvliet High School website
References
Schools in Cape Town
Educational institutions established in 1957
1957 establishments in South Africa
High schools in South Africa
Meadowridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergvliet%20High%20School |
The Under Secretary of the Treasury for Domestic Finance is a high-ranking position within United States Department of the Treasury that reports to, advises, and assists the Secretary of the Treasury and the Deputy Secretary of the Treasury. The under secretary leads the department's policy on the issues of domestic finance, fiscal policy, fiscal operations, government assets, government liabilities, and other related economic and fiscal matters.
Under Secretary Mary J. Miller announced she was stepping down from the position on June 12, 2014, and the position was officially vacant until July 2021.
Matthew Rutherford served as acting Under Secretary until January 30, 2015. President Barack Obama nominated Antonio Weiss for the position on November 13, 2014. Weiss was never confirmed by the Senate, and withdrew his nomination on January 12, 2015. On April 22, 2021 President Joe Biden nominated economist Nellie Liang for Senate confirmation in the position. Liang was confirmed by the Senate on July 14, 2021.
Overview
The under secretary has oversight of the following:
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Institutions
Office of Financial Institutions
Office of Financial Institutions Policy
Office of Consumer Policy
Office of Housing, Small Business, and Community Development
Community Development Financial Institutions Fund
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Markets
Office of Financial Markets
Office of Federal Finance
Office of Government Financial Policy
Office of Capital Markets
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability
Office of Financial Stability
Fiscal Assistant Secretary of the Treasury
Office of Fiscal Service
Office of Fiscal Operations and Policy
Office of Accounting Policy
Bureau of the Fiscal Service
List of Under Secretaries of the Treasury for Domestic Finance (Incomplete)
References | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under%20Secretary%20of%20the%20Treasury%20for%20Domestic%20Finance |
Russula vesca, known by the common names of bare-toothed Russula or the flirt, is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula.
Taxonomy
Russula vesca was described, and named by the eminent Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878). The specific epithet is the feminine of the Latin adjective vescus, meaning "edible".
Description
The skin of the cap typically does not reach the margins (resulting in the common names). The cap is 5–10 cm wide, flat, convex, or with slightly depressed centre, weakly sticky, colour brownish to dark brick-red. Taste mild. Gills close apart, white. The stipe narrows toward the base, 2–7 cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm wide, white. It turns deep salmon when rubbed with iron salts (Ferrous sulfate). The spore print is white.
Distribution and habitat
Russula vesca appears in summer or autumn, and grows primarily in deciduous forests in Europe, and North America.
Edibility
Russula vesca is considered edible and good, with a mild nutty flavour. In some countries, including Russia, Ukraine and Finland it is considered entirely edible even in the raw state.
See also
List of Russula species
References
"Danske storsvampe. Basidiesvampe" [a key to Danish basidiomycetes] J.H. Petersen and J. Vesterholt eds. Gyldendal. Viborg, Denmark, 1990.
External links
vesca
Fungi described in 1836
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America
Edible fungi | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russula%20vesca |
The following lists events that happened during 1979 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,163,900.
Increase since 31 December 1978: -1,300 (−0.04%).
Males per 100 females: 99.0.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake KG GCMG CH QSO.
Government
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison.
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Brian Talboys.
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon.
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Brian Talboys.
Attorney-General – Jim McLay.
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour).
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Dove-Myer Robinson
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Clifford George (Cliff) Skeggs
Events
10 January – A fire destroys the Farmers' Co-operative Association department store in Blenheim, aided by strong northwesterly winds and a temperature.
February: Muhammed Ali came to New Zealand; staying at Upper Hutt (photos).
17 February – an Air New Zealand Fokker F27 Friendship crashed into Manukau Harbour while on final approach to Auckland Airport 1 crew and 1 company staff member were killed.
19 March – Cessna aircraft en route from Palmerston North to Taupo crashed onto the Desert Rd in bad weather, killing all 6 occupants
24 May – Labour MP Malcolm Douglas is removed from Parliament six months after the 1978 general election, after an electoral petition by National opponent Winston Peters is upheld over irregularities in the votes of the electorate. Peters subsequently replaces Douglas
30 July – The carless days scheme is introduced, restricting private motor vehicles from driving on one day of the week.
8 August – 1979 Abbotsford landslip: Sixty-nine homes in the Dunedin suburb of Abbotsford are left uninhabitable after of land slips 48 metres in 15 minutes.
20 September – The New Zealand Federation of Labour holds a 24-hour general strike to protest government intervention in the drivers' award. Around 300,000 workers, mainly in the manufacturing and transport industries, participate in the strike.
3 November – The Evening Star ceases publication. The Dunedin newspaper was founded in 1863.
28 November – Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashes in Mount Erebus, Antarctica, killing all 237 passengers and 20 crewmembers aboard.
Two years after its official opening, the new executive wing of Parliament Buildings, known as the Beehive, is completed and occupied by the Government.
Arts and literature
Michael A Noonan wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
Nambassa beach festival, touring family roadshow. Whangamatā Waihi Beach Mount Maunganui and Coromandel.
Nambassa three-day music, crafts and alternative lifestyle festival on Phil and Pat Hulses' farm in Golden Valley, north of Waihi. Attendance 75,000 plus.
Summer '79, outdoor arts festival in the parks of Wellington – including the Botanical Gardens, the Newtown Zoo, the Town Belt and several suburban parks.
See 1979 in art, 1979 in literature, :Category:1979 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Street Talk – Street Talk
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Th' Dudes – Be Mine Tonight
TOP MALE VOCALIST Rob Guest
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST Sharon O'Neill
TOP GROUP Th' Dudes
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Jon Stevens
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Tina Cross
MOST PROMISING GROUP Street Talk
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR Steve Robinson – This Heart This Song
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR Gerry Smith – This Heart This Song
BEST COVER DESIGN Geoff Chunn, Peter Burt & Dale Wrightson – Just Drove Through Town
See: 1979 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Eddie Hegan and Chic Littlewood.
Radio and television
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Current Affairs: Dateline Monday
Best Documentary: Okarito
Best Drama: The Mad Dog Gang Meets Rotten Fred and Ratsguts
Best Speciality: Spot On
Best Information: Fair Go
Best Actor: David McPhail in A Week of It
Best Actress: Barbara Ewing
Entertainer of the Year: David McPhail
Special Committee Award: Selwyn Toogood for pioneering work in Radio and Television
See: 1979 in New Zealand television, 1979 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Middle Age Spread
Sons for the Return Home
See: :Category:1979 film awards, 1979 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1979 films
Sport
Athletics
Tony Good wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:18:47.3.
Chess
The 86th New Zealand Chess Championship is held in North Shore, and is won by Ortvin Sarapu of Auckland (his 16th title).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Lord Module
Auckland Trotting Cup: Sapling
Motorsport
A New Zealand team consisting of Larry Ross, Mitch Shirra, Ivan Mauger and Bruce Cribb win the motorcycle Speedway World Team Cup held at White City Stadium in London.
Netball
5th Netball World Championships held in Trinidad and Tobago. Australia, New Zealand and Trinidad and Tobago all tied for first place.
Soccer
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Mt. Wellington AFC
The Chatham Cup is won by North Shore United who beat Mount Wellington 2–1 in the final.
Births
27 January: Daniel Vettori, cricketer
1 February: Peter Fulton, cricketer
15 February: Hamish and James Marshall, cricketers
15 March: Kyle Mills, cricketer
20 March: Keven Mealamu, rugby union player
26 March: Ben Blair, rugby union player
12 May (In Nadi, Fiji): Amasio Valence, rugby sevens player
15 May (in Samoa): Chris Masoe, rugby union player.
8 June: Adine Wilson, netball player.
2 July: Michael Papps, cricketer.
30 July: Louise Corcoran, skeleton racer.
3 October: Rodney So'oialo, rugby union player
14 November: Carl Hayman, rugby union player
20 November: Maree Bowden, netball player
3 December: Daniel Bedingfield, pop singer
Pete Wheeler, artist.
:Category:1979 births
Deaths
October: Marty Johnstone, drug trafficker ('Mr Asia')
28 November: Peter Mulgrew, mountaineer (died in Mount Erebus disaster)
:Category:1979 deaths
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%20in%20New%20Zealand |
The Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth) was an Act of the Parliament of Australia which was designed to facilitate the mass deportation of Pacific Islanders, or "Kanakas", working in Australia, especially in the Queensland sugar industry. Along with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, enacted six days later, it formed an important part of the White Australia policy. In 1901, there were approximately 10,000 Pacific Islanders working in Australia, most in the sugar cane industry in Queensland and northern New South Wales, many working as indentured labourers. The Act ultimately resulted in the deportation of approximately 7,500 Pacific Islanders.
Background
Beginning in the 1860s, tens of thousands of Pacific Islanders were brought to Australia as low-paid labourers. By the early 1890s, 46,000 labourers had arrived in Queensland, and up to 62,000 such labourers arrived in all. Many of these people had been forcibly removed from their homes, in a process called "blackbirding", by which Islanders were either kidnapped or deceived into traveling to Australia. They were brought in to meet the growing need for cheap labour in the sugar industry, since white labour was scarce and expensive. The majority of such labourers were employed under indentured labour arrangements, whereby they received either no pay or extremely small amounts of pay. By 1880, Queensland legislation prevented Pacific Islanders from working in higher paid jobs in sugar mills and other industrial areas, and limited them to manual agricultural labour.
The Act
The Act prohibited any Pacific Islanders from entering Australia after 31 March 1904, and required all those entering before then to have a licence. During 1902, the maximum number of licences that could be issued was limited to three-quarters of the number of Pacific Islanders who left Australia in 1901. During 1903, this licence quota was lowered even further, to half of the total departures in 1902. Any person who brought a Pacific Islander into the country contrary to the Act could be fined £100. It was an offence to employ a Pacific Islander in any other way than an indentured labour agreement, punishable by a fine of £100.
The most forcible component of the legislation was section 8. It provided that any Pacific Islander found in Australia after 31 December 1906 could be deported immediately by order of the Minister for External Affairs, and any Islander found in Australia before that date, who had not been employed under an indentured labour agreement at any time in the preceding month, could be deported immediately by order of a Magistrate in summary proceedings.
Section 7 provided all labour agreements made with Pacific Islander labourers no longer remained in force from 31 December 1906. The practical effect of the legislation was that by this date, Pacific Islanders were legally barred from undertaking labour contracts in Australia and ultimately compelled to return to their country of origin.
There were various grounds for exemption from deportation, including marriage to an Australian. The case of Robtelmes v Brennan (1906) 4 CLR 395, the first deportation case to come before the High Court of Australia, provides an illustration of the Act's operation.
See also
White Australia policy
Blackbirding
References
External links
Image of the assent copy of the Act, at the National Archives of Australia
Labour history of Australia
History of immigration to Australia
1901 in Australian law
Oceanian Australian
Repealed Acts of the Parliament of Australia
White Australia policy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Island%20Labourers%20Act%201901 |
Environmental issues in Kenya include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, water shortage and degraded water quality, flooding, poaching, and domestic and industrial pollution.
Water resources
Water resources in Kenya are under pressure from agricultural chemicals and urban and industrial wastes, as well as from use for hydroelectric power. The anticipated water shortage is a potential problem for the future. For example, the damming of the Omo river by the Gilgel Gibe III Dam together with the plan to use 30% to 50% of the water for sugar plantations will create significant environmental problems. Up to 50% of Lake Turkana's water capacity will be lost. Had there been no planning of the irrigation of sugar plantations, the dam itself might have had a net positive effect to the environment, due to the emission-less power generation of the dam.
Water-quality in Kenya has problems in lakes, (including water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria), have contributed to a substantial decline in fishing output and endangered fish species.
Animal poaching
There are a wide variety of wildlife species in Kenya, whose habitats are threatened by encroachment of human development and destruction. In rural Kenya, poachers are one of the main threats to endangered animals. Michael Werikhe aka Rhino Man, made huge contributions to early Kenyan wildlife conservation. Werikhe walked thousands of kilometres and raised millions of dollars to fund White Rhino conservation projects. The Blue Wildebeest is currently abundant, but like other more endangered species feels the pressure of habitat reduction. Wildlife facing threats to poaching and trophy hunting include lions, elephants, gazelles, and rhinos. In February 2020, poachers in Kenya killed two white giraffes. The female white giraffe and her calf were found dead in Garissa County, in the North-East part of the country. There now remains only one male, white giraffe left in the world. Other critically endangered species in Kenya include the Tana River Mangabey, Black Rhino, Hirola, Sable Antelope, and Roan Antelope.
Laws, regulation, and deterrence
During Kenya's colonial era (1895-1963), elephant and rhino hunting was viewed as an elite sport by British colonizers. Post-independent Kenya saw a decrease in over half of the elephant population during the period of 1970 to 1977, even though the country banned elephant hunting in 1973. In 1977, all animal hunting was banned in Kenya. The Kenya Wildlife Service was then established in 1989. The state corporation responded to high levels of poaching, insecurity in the conservation and wildlife parks, and inefficiency and low morale within Kenya's game department. The international ban on the trade in ivory was implemented through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This law contributed to a significant but temporary decline in elephant poaching, which facilitated population rehabilitation. Wildlife poaching and trafficking re-emerged in the 2000s due to increased demands of ivory and rhino horns, posing threats to extinction in the near future. The Kenyan Wildlife service works closely with Kenyan law enforcement agencies. However, some argue that conservation efforts should not be solved by what is called green militarization, wherein conservation efforts and policies are aided by increased policing and criminalization. On the other hand, there may be circumstances in which militarization is a necessary measure. In any case, scholars and policy-makers are interested in considering the effects of green washing policies in conservation and militarization.
Ivory burning is a public event meant to deter animal poaching. Kenya was the first to burn ivory in 1989, then destroyed the largest amount in 2016 (105 tonnes).
Incentives
Language and rhetoric from the media on "the war on poaching" can be dehumanizing and do not provide the full picture. The reality is that many Kenyans who face poor living conditions, live in informal housing settlements, and struggle to make a liveable income, turn to poaching. Aside from financial incentives, some of the main drivers for poaching are reported to be related to class, gender inequity, and uneven development across Kenya. These poor conditions can be attributed to Kenya's colonial history.
Illegal markets and corruption
Elephant tusks and rhino horns have high value on illegal markets. Although Kenya has many national parks and reserves protecting wildlife--elephant and rhino populations are still at risk. These threats of endangerment may be attributed to corruption within the Kenyan government and military. An independent study investigating 743 cases between January 2008 and June 2013 reveal that those found guilty of wildlife crime were rarely getting substantially fined. In many cases, corrupt government officials help poachers and trophy hunters for bribes.
Although all animal hunting was banned in Kenya in 1977, trophy hunting is still allowed--for a high price. Proponents of trophy hunting in Kenya argue that the profits support conservation efforts, and that the killing of animals by humans will not decrease since many encroach on human settlements. It is also argued that trophy hunting should not be banned, but rather reformed, because the animals will otherwise attack humans. However, there is insufficient data to assess whether trophy hunting correlates to a decrease in animal attacks on humans.
This problem is worsened by corruption and some officials supplementing their income by permitting poaching. In The Big Conservation Lie, John Mbaria and Mordecai Ogada wrote that the main problem of the crisis are not poachers, but the alienation of local people from wildlife conservation. In fact, conservation is deeply rooted in the country's coloniality. National parks were established and built for recreational purposes for the European settlers, thereby excluding locals. Today, local populations are still being displaced from their lands through the creation of wildlife parks and conservation areas. About 20% of Kenya's land are in Protected Areas (PAs), which are largely run by non-Indigenous Kenyans who earn immense profits from eco-tourism. Very little of the earnings (less than $5000 USD per year) from eco-tourism go to Kenyans working in hospitality services or as wildlife rangers.
Recently, as animal byproduct sales on the illegal markets increase at a high annual growth rate, new challenges arise in wildlife protection. Controversy over the construction of the Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway project, constructed by the China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC), prompted the Chinese contractors to initiate wildlife protection efforts.
Deforestation
Forestry output has also declined because of resource degradation. Overexploitation over the past three decades has reduced the country's timber resources by one-half. At present only 3% of the land remains forested, and an estimated 50 square kilometres of forest are lost each year. This loss of forest aggravates erosion, the silting of dams and flooding, and the loss of biodiversity. Among the endangered forests are Kakamega Forest, Mau Forest and Karura Forest. In response to ecological disruption, activists have pressed with some success for policies that encourage sustainable resource use.
Kenya is in the contient of Africa. The 2004 Nobel Peace Prize went to the Kenyan environmentalist, Wangari Maathai, best known for organizing a grassroots movement in which thousands of people were mobilized over the years to plant 30 million trees in Kenya and elsewhere and to protest forest clearance for luxury development. Imprisoned as an opponent of Moi, Maathai linked deforestation with the plight of rural women, who are forced to spend untold hours in search of scarce firewood and water.
Widespread poverty in many parts of the country has greatly lead to over-exploitation of the limited resources in Kenya. Cutting down of trees to create more land for cultivation, charcoal burning business, quarrying among other social and occupational practices are the major threats of environmental degradation due to poverty in rural Kenya. Regions like Murang'a, Bondo and Meru are affected by this environmental issue.
Kenya had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.2/10, ranking it 133rd globally out of 172 countries.
Littering and solid waste collection
Littering and the illegal dumping of rubbish is a problem in both urban and rural Kenya. Almost all urban areas of Kenya have inadequate rubbish collection and disposal systems.
Flooding
There is the risk of seasonal flooding during July to late August months. In September 2012, thousands of people were displaced in parts of Kenya's Rift Valley Province as floodwaters submerged houses and schools and destroyed crops. It was especially dangerous as the floods caused latrines to overflow, contaminating numerous water sources. The floods can also cause mudslides and two children were killed in September 2012 following a mudslide in the Baringo District, which also displaced 46 families.
Climate change
References
External links
National Environment Management Authority
Kenya Forests Working Group
Lewa Wildlife Conservancy
Poaching | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Kenya |
The major environmental issues in Kyrgyzstan, are summarized in the 2007 Concept of Ecological Security of Kyrgyz Republic and discussed in other environmental and environmental policy documents such as National Environmental Action Plan (1995), Country Development Strategy for 2009–2011, Strategy on Biological Diversity (2002), 2nd Environmental Performance Review of Kyrgyzstan (2008), etc.
The Concept of Ecological Security considers environmental issues in Kyrgyzstan within the global, regional and national spheres of influence.
Global environmental issues in Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan has a lot of problems including:
Global climate change, ozone layer depletion, desertification, and biodiversity loss are among global environmental issues presently on the agenda in Kyrgyzstan.
Global climate change. Kyrgyzstan acknowledged the problem of global climate change and in 2003 ratified the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. It is estimated that the energy sector of the country is responsible for emissions of approximately two-thirds of its total carbon dioxide, and in absolute terms this amount will likely grow, even though with the increase in share of produced hydropower. Related to global climate change in Kyrgyzstan is a problem of deglaciation. The area occupied by glaciers has decreased by 20% lately and there are concerns that glaciers in the country can disappear by 2100.
Ozone layer depletion. Kyrgyzstan acknowledged the global problem of ozone layer depletion and in 2000 it ratified the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.
Desertification. The country acknowledged the problem of desertification and in 1999 it acceded to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. Desertification poses a real threat for Kyrgyzstan. According to the Country Development Strategy for 2009–2011, of 10.6 million hectares of total agricultural land more than 88% were found to be degraded and subject to desertification, areas of soil desalinization have increased and amounts to 75% of all arable land, and approximately half of all pasture lands are classified as degraded for both vegetation and soils.
Biodiversity loss. In terms of biological diversity Kyrgyzstan holds a prominent place worldwide: it possess around 1% of all known species while its area makes up only 0.13% of world land. According to Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the threats to biodiversity are related to anthropogenic activity and include habitat loss and alteration, fragmentation of natural communities due to overuse, over harvesting, direct mortality, introduction of non-native species, environmental pollution, and climate change. The Concept of Ecological Security states that among natural factors that affect biodiversity in Kyrgyzstan are desertification and climate change. Kyrgyzstan acknowledged the problem of biodiversity and in 1996 acceded to Convention on Biological Diversity.
Regional environmental issues in Kyrgyzstan
Wastes of the mining industry. Waste of the mining industry poses a direct threat to the environment of both Kyrgyzstan and neighboring countries. Located at high elevations in a fragile mountain environment the mining industry has generated hundreds of millions of tons of waste rock and tailing in dumps and tailing ponds which serve as a source of permanent pollution of the environment by heavy metals, radioactive materials and cyanide. The bulk of the mining waste is located in river basins and since Kyrgyzstan belongs to those areas subjected to a great extent to natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides, presents high risk of trans-boundary pollution. The potentially affected population in Kyrgyzstan, and near border areas of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan is estimated as of 5 million.
Water pressures. Sharing of natural resources is a significant issue among the countries of Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have significant water resources originating from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers, which in the Soviet Era was shared with Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan in return for gas, oil, and electricity. However, modern damming projects, such as the Kambarata-1 Dam on the Naryn river and Toktogul Dam on the Syr Darya (both examples of Kyrgyz dams affecting regional water pressures), have caused Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan to lose their surplus of electricity and thus their ability to barter for water with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. By the late 1990s the Soviet resource-sharing system had completely broken down, and a new system has yet to be put in place due to lack of political will and distrust between the Central Asian republics.
National environmental issues
Air pollution. The air pollution has increased as a serious problem in urban centers during the last years. The major sources of air pollution are energy and construction materials sectors, mining and processing industries, households using coal, and transport. Air quality deterioration is related to more extensive use of coal in combined heat power plants instead of natural gas, using low-grade fuels in households, and growing vehicle fleet that involves many old, poorly maintained vehicles.
Water pollution. The major sources of water pollution are industrial wastewater, wastewater from agriculture, household wastewater, landfill leachate, and mine drainage. Municipal wastewater collection systems collect only about 70% of all municipal wastewater. Only 20% of the total volume of wastewater are discharged into wastewater treatment plants. Another problem is low capacity of surface water monitoring network that substantially degraded during the last 20–25 years.
Degradation of mountain ecosystems. Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country with 90% of its area located at altitudes of above 1,500 meters. Large-scale technological pressure on fragile mountain ecosystems by mining and infrastructure projects, and the agricultural sector served to disturb the balance and to accelerate of a number of natural hazards.
Solid waste management
Industrial waste. Management of industrial waste is an issue in Kyrgyzstan. Some 92 mining sites that contain 250 million cubic meters of toxic and radioactive waste are located in Kyrgyzstan. From 1999 to 2007, the area occupied by these sites has increased from 189.3 hectares to 381 hectares.
Municipal solid waste. Management of household waste does not comply with sanitary and environmental requirements, there is no adequate waste utilization. For example, Bishkek municipal landfill designed for 3.3 million cubic meters presently contains 24 million cubic meters of household waste.
Agricultural waste. Agricultural waste is not managed in a proper way. Specifically, it relates to waste of large-scale farms.
Natural and man-made hazards. The area of Kyrgyzstan is a subject of more than 20 natural hazards including earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, GLOFs, flooding, mudflows, rock slides, etc. that pose a threat to people's health, and cause damage to property.
Forest integrity. Kyrgyzstan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 13th globally out of 172 countries.
The role of non-profit organizations
Environmental NGOs in Kyrgyzstan constantly assess the environmental problems, and keep track of it on EKOIS , a Kyrgyz Environmental News Service. The news is mainly in Russian, but English information is available as well.
References
Issues
Kyrgyzstan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Kyrgyzstan |
The following lists events that happened during 1980 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,176,400.
Increase since 31 December 1979: 12,500 (0.40%).
Males per 100 females: 99.2.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Hon Sir Keith Holyoake KG GCMG CH QSO, followed by The Hon Sir David Beattie GCMG GCVO QSO QC.
Government
The 39th New Zealand Parliament continued. The third National Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison.
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Brian Talboys.
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon.
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Brian Talboys.
Attorney-General – Jim McLay.
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
An attempt by high-ranking ministers Derek Quigley, Jim McLay, and Jim Bolger to replace Muldoon as prime minister (known as the "colonels' coup") with the deputy prime minister Talboys collapsed as a result of Talboys' unwillingness to actively campaign against Muldoon.
Three by-elections occurred.
In East Coast Bays, the sitting National MP Frank Gill resigned to take up the post of New Zealand's ambassador to the United States. The seat was won by Gary Knapp for the Social Credit Party.
In Northern Maori the MP Matiu Rata, who had left Labour the year before, resigned and recontested the seat for Mana Motuhake. The seat was won by the Labour Party candidate Bruce Gregory.
In Onehunga a by-election was called after the death of Labour MP Frank Rogers. The seat was won again for the Labour Party by Fred Gerbic.
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour).
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Dove-Myer Robinson then Colin Kay
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Clifford George (Cliff) Skeggs
Events
24 March – A Porirua to Wellington commuter train collides with a diesel shunter on the approach to Wellington railway station, killing two and injuring 77.
A strike at Kinleith Mill lasted for 80 days, and broke the government's wage and price freeze.
The first Sweetwaters Music Festival was held near Ngāruawāhia.
The carless days scheme finished.
Saturday trading allowed (lifting the 1945 restriction), although Sunday trading by most retail outlets apart from dairies and takeaway food outlets remained banned.
Arts and literature
Philip Temple wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1980 in art, 1980 in literature, :Category:1980 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Sharon O'Neill – Sharon O'Neill
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Jon Stevens – Montego Bay
TOP MALE VOCALIST Jon Stevens
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST Sharon O'Neill
TOP GROUP The Crocodiles
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Jon Stevens
MOST PROMISING GROUP Crocodiles
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR Dave MaCrae & Kevin Oliff – Pacific Eardrum (Pacific Eardrum)
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR Tony Burns – Pacific Eardrum (Pacific Eardrum)
BEST COVER Peter Burt – Pacific Eardrum (Pacific Eardrum)
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION Terence O’Neill-Joyce
See: 1980 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Peter Evans.
Radio and television
Television One and South Pacific Television are merged into Television New Zealand.
The national newsroom is moved from Avalon in Lower Hutt to Auckland.
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Information: Country Calendar
Best Documentary: From the Ocean to the Sky
Best Drama: Children of Fire Mountain
Best Speciality: 1979 SPT International Track Series
Best Children's: Spot On
Best Script: Episode five of Children of Fire Mountain
Best Actor: Terence Cooper in Children of Fire Mountain
Best Actress: Ginette McDonald as Sandra Allenby in It's Your Child
Best Television Entertainer: David McPhail
See: 1980 in New Zealand television, 1980 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Beyond Reasonable Doubt
Goodbye Pork Pie
Lincoln County Incident
Squeeze
See: :Category:1980 film awards, 1980 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1980 films
Sport
Athletics
Don Greig wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:17:08 on 15 March in Christchurch, while the first women's championship is won by Beverley Shingles in 2:44:48.
Chess
The 87th New Zealand Chess Championship is held in Upper Hutt. There is a three-way tie between Ewen McGowen Green, Ortvin Sarapu, and Vernon A. Small.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Hands Down
Auckland Trotting Cup: Delightful Lady
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics
Only four of the 98 New Zealand competitors originally selected go to the Summer Olympics because of the Western boycott.
Winter Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of five alpine skiers.
Paralympic Games
Summer Paralympics
Winter Paralympics
New Zealand sends its first team to a Winter Paralympics, consisting of three competitors in one sport.
Rugby union
In the 1980 New Zealand rugby union tour of Australia in June / July Australia won two of the three tests, retaining the Bledisloe Cup
23 July: The All Blacks beat Fiji 30–6 at ANZ National Stadium
13 September: The All Blacks beat Fiji 33–0 at Eden Park
8 October—1 November: All Blacks tour of North America and Wales
Auckland defend the Ranfurly Shield against five challengers (Horowhenua 37–3, King Country 29–3, Poverty Bay 19–12, Southland 25–3, and Otago 43—13) before losing to Waikato 3–7. Waikato then beat Thames Valley 16—7 and Taranaki 15—0 to retain the shield at the end of the season.
National Provincial Championship winners:
Division 1: Manawatu.
Division 2 North: Waikato
Division 2 South: Mid Canterbury
The North vs South match is played in Palmerston North and is won 13–9 by North.
Soccer
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Mount Wellington
The Chatham Cup is won by Mount Wellington who beat Dunedin City 2–0 in the final.
New Zealand was unplaced in the Oceania Cup tournament held in New Caledonia
Births
7 January: Campbell Johnstone, rugby player
15 January: Jason Cayless, rugby league player.
31 January: Sam Harris, rugby league and rugby union player.
2 February: Kyle Pontifex, hockey player.
10 February: Riki Flutey, rugby union player.
21 February: Clinton Toopi, rugby league player.
4 March: Scott Hamilton, rugby union player.
6 March: Gareth Fleming, musician.
9 March: Trent Croad, Australian rules footballer.
14 April: Jeremy Smith, rugby league player.
15 April: Willie Mason, rugby league player.
16 April: David Hall, rugby union player.
22 April: Clarke Dermody, rugby union player.
25 April: Phil Burrows, hockey player.
25 April: Bruce Martin, cricketer.
7 May: Jeetan Patel, cricketer.
8 May: Steven Ferguson, canoer and swimmer.
10 May: Brad Carter, musician.
13 May: Ken Uprichard, archer.
21 May: Anika Moa, singer/songwriter.
24 May: William Trubridge, free-diver.
30 May: Henry Fa'afili, rugby league player.
16 June: Henry Perenara, rugby league player.
7 July: Benjamin Mitchell, actor.
22 July: Scott Dixon, racing car driver.
26 July: Jacinda Ardern, 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand
31 July (in Samoa): Mils Muliaina, rugby union player.
10 August: Pua Magasiva, actor.
12 August: Blair Hopping, hockey player.
14 August: Nick Evans, rugby union player.
31 August: Hayden Shaw, hockey player.
1 September: Ryan Archibald, hockey player.
4 September: Lucie Silvas, singer/songwriter.
9 September: David Fa'alogo, rugby player.
12 September: Clifford Manua, rugby player.
23 September: Shannon Paku, rugby player.
25 September: Luc Mullinder, Canadian Football player.
10 October: Tasesa Lavea, rugby union and rugby league player.
29 October: Kaine Robertson, rugby player.
4 November: Jerry Collins, rugby player.
7 November: James Franklin, cricketer.
8 November: Brent Webb, rugby player.
23 November: Kirk Penney, basketball player.
25 November: Michael Wilson, soccer player.
29 November: Aaron Mauger, rugby player.
5 December: Heath Blackgrove, cyclist.
17 December: Tim Youngson, musician.
24 December: Andrew Barron, football (soccer) player.
31 December: Richie McCaw, rugby player.
Ben Goodger, lead developer of the Firefox web browser.
Deaths
8 January: Logan Sloane, politician.
29 March: Harold David London, public servant, philatelist, cycling administrator, editor and local historian
12 April: Clark McConachy, snooker and billiards player.
15 May: Len Lye, sculptor, artist, writer and film-maker.
14 July:Norman Shelton, politician.
26 July: Bertie Victor Cooksley, politician.
2 August: Verdun Scott, cricketer.
5 August: William Perrett Mead, engineer, skier, tramper, ranger and writer.
9 August: Denis Glover, poet and publisher.
28 November: Air Commodore Keith Caldwell MC DFC, WWI flying ace.
28 November: Bernard Fergusson, Baron Ballantrae, Governor-General.
5 December: Don Taylor, cricketer.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%20in%20New%20Zealand |
The Ontario Rugby Football Union (ORFU) was an early amateur Canadian football league comprising teams in the Canadian province of Ontario. The ORFU was founded on Saturday, January 6, 1883 and in 1903 became the first major competition to adopt the Burnside rules, from which the modern Canadian football code would evolve.
History
W. A. Hewitt was vice-president of the ORFU for the 1905 and 1906 seasons, and a representative of the Toronto Argonauts. He sought for ORFU to have uniform rules of play with the Canadian Rugby Union (CRU), with a preference to use the snap-back system of play used in Ontario. When the CRU did not adopt the system, his motion was approved for the ORFU to adopt the CRU rules in 1906. In December 1906, The Gazette reported that a proposal originated from Ottawa for the ORFU and the Quebec Rugby Football Union to merge, which would allow for higher calibre of play and create rivalries. Hewitt helped organize the meeting which established the Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (IRFU) in 1907.
For most of the first half of the 20th century, the ORFU was one of the stronger unions in Canada, and its champion was a frequent fixture in the Grey Cup even as the game became increasingly professionalized in the 1930s.
During World War II, the Ontario-based military teams played in the ORFU, filling the gap during the suspension of play by the IRFU (Toronto Navy – H.M.C.S. York played out of Varsity Stadium, using the Toronto Argonauts' equipment and uniforms.) The Toronto RCAF Hurricanes were the last amateur team to win the Grey Cup in 1942. Many from the ranks of the military teams in the ORFU became stars in the CFL after the war.
With the return of peace, however, the ORFU found it increasingly difficult to compete in an environment dominated by the IRFU and the Western Interprovincial Football Union, which had both become fully professional. Indeed, by then it was the only fully amateur union still challenging for the Grey Cup. Even so, it retained enough prestige that it played the WIFU champion for a berth in the Grey Cup final. The IRFU was reluctant to accept the WIFU as a full equal even after it was clear that its quality of play had become the equal of the IRFU.
The ORFU withdrew from Grey Cup competition in 1954. Although the amateurs would not be formally locked out of Grey Cup play for another four years, this heralded the start of the modern era of Canadian football. The ORFU ceased to operate as a true senior league after 1960, but continued play at the intermediate level. Eventually the word "senior" came to replace the word "intermediate." By 1974, the ORFU had ceased to exist. However, the junior Ontario Rugby Football Union which was formed in 1890 lasted until the 1970 season.
Notable teams
Toronto Football Club (1883–1895)
Toronto Argonauts (1898–1906)
Toronto Athletic Club (1896), Toronto Athletic Club-Lornes (1897)
Hamilton Tigers 1883–1906, 1948–1949
Ottawa Football Club (1883–1897), Ottawa Rough Riders (1898–1906)
Ottawa College Football Club (1885–1889, 1892–1898)
Kingston Granites (1899–1901)
Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club (1909–1910, 1912–1913, 1920–1923) 4 time ORFU champions, lost Grey Cup in 1909, 1913
Hamilton Alerts – 1st Grey Cup Champions of the ORFU in 1912 (1911–1912, another team played by the name in 1940)
Toronto Balmy Beach – 2 time Grey Cup Champions: 1927, 1930 (1924–1957)
Sarnia Imperials – 2 time Grey Cup Champions: 1934, 1936 (1928–1955)
Toronto Amateur Athletic Club – ORFU Champion 1908 and 1910
Toronto Rugby and Athletic Association – ORFU Champion 1915, 1919 and 1920
Hamilton (Flying) Wildcats – Grey Cup Champions: 1943 (1941–1947)
Toronto Indians (1941–1948)
Toronto RCAF Hurricanes – Grey Cup Champions: 1942 (1942–1943)
Ottawa Trojans (1943–1947) ORFU Champion 1947
Windsor Rockets (1945–1950), Windsor Royals (1951–52)
Brantford Redskins (1952–1953)
Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen (1953–1959) ORFU Champion 1954–1957
London Lords (1956–1970)
Rochester Rockets (1956)
Sarnia Golden Bears ORFU Champion (1958–59)
Bramalea Satellites (1967–1970)
Champions
Most championships
12- Sarnia Imperials (1929, 1931–1939, 1951–52)
10- Toronto Balmy Beach (1924–1927, 1930, 1940, 1945–46, 1950, 1953)
8- Hamilton Tigers (1890, 1897, 1903–1906, 1948–49)
5- Ottawa College Football Club (1885–1889)
4- Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club (1909, 1913, 1921–22)
4- Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen (1954–1957)
3- Toronto Football Club 1883–84, Toronto Argonauts (1901)
3- Ottawa Rough Riders (1898, 1900, 1902)
3- Toronto Rugby and Athletic Association (1915, 1919–20)
3- Hamilton Flying Wildcats (1941, 1943–44)
2- Osgoode Hall (1891–92)
2- Queen's University (1893–94)
2- University of Toronto Varsity (1895, 1896)
2- Toronto Amateur Athletic Club (1908, 1910)
2- Hamilton Alerts (1911–12)
2- Hamilton Rowing Club (1914, 1923)
2- Sarnia Golden Bears (1958–59)
Imperial Oil Trophy
The Imperial Oil Trophy was awarded to the league's most valuable player.
1934 Norm Perry – Sarnia Imperials
1935 Hugh "Bummer" Stirling – Sarnia Imperials
1936 Syd Reynolds – Toronto Balmy Beach Beachers
1937 Ormond Beach – Sarnia Imperials
1938 John Ferraro – Montreal Nationals
1939 Eddie Thompson – Toronto Balmy Beach Beachers
1940 Nick Paithouski – Sarnia 2/26 Battery
1941 Al Lenard – Hamilton Wildcats
1942 Bill Stukus – Toronto RCAF Hurricanes
1943 Bob Cosgrove – Toronto RCAF Hurricanes
1944 Joe Krol – Hamilton Wildcats
1945 Arnie McWatters – Ottawa Trojans
1946 Frank Gnup – Hamilton Wildcats
1947 Bob Paffrath – Toronto Indians
1948 Frank Filchock – Hamilton Tigers
1949 Don "Sleepy" Knowles – Sarnia Imperials
1950 Carl Galbreath – Toronto Balmy Beach Beachers
1951 Bruce Mattingly – Sarnia Imperials
1952 John Pont – Toronto Balmy Beach Beachers
1953 Dick Gregory – Toronto Balmy Beach Beachers
1954 Bob Celeri – Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen
1955 Bob Celeri – Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen
See also
Canadian Football League
Quebec Rugby Football Union
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20110727185339/http://www.profootballresearchers.org/Coffin_Corner/07-An-245.pdf
http://www.cflapedia.com
Defunct Canadian football leagues
Canadian football in Ontario
Defunct rugby union leagues in Canada
1883 establishments in Ontario
1974 disestablishments in Ontario | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario%20Rugby%20Football%20Union |
Henry Stanislaus Rowen (October 11, 1925 – November 12, 2015) was an American national security expert, economist, and academician.
Early years
Rowen was born in Boston in 1925. He attended M.I.T. and graduated with a bachelor's in industrial management in 1949. He went on to Oxford University and earned his master's degree in economics in 1955.
Career
Rowen started his career as an economist for the RAND Corporation, a Santa Monica, California think-tank, where he worked between 1950 and 1953, and again between 1955 and 1960.
Between 1965 and 1966, Rowen was the assistant director of the U.S. Bureau of the Budget.
From 1967 to 1972, he was the president of RAND Corporation.
From 1981 to 1983, he was the chairman of the National Intelligence Council.
Between 1989 and 1991, Rowen served as Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs at the U.S. Department of Defense, under Dick Cheney.
From 2001 to 2004 he served on the Secretary of Defense Policy Advisory Board.
Between 2002 and 2003, Rowen chaired the United States Department of Energy's Task Force on the Future of Science Programs.
On February 12, 2004, President Bush named Rowen as a member of the Commission on Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction (the "WMD Commission"), a position that he held until 2005.
Since 1983, Rowen had been a senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution.
Rowen's research was most recently focused on Asia's rise in the technology sector.
Personal life
Henry Rowen was married to Beverly Griffiths. He died on November 12, 2015, in Menlo Park, California from a heart attack, at the age of 90. He was survived by his wife, three daughters, and three sons.
Affiliations
Project for the New American Century, member
Hoover Institution, senior fellow
Stanford University's Asia/Pacific Research Center, member
Stanford University, professor emeritus of public policy and management
Soar BioDynamics , Innovation Advisory Board member
Writing
Rowen wrote frequently for foreign policy publications:
"Kim Jong II Must Go," Policy Review, No. 121 October/November 2003
"The Short March: China's Road to Democracy," National Interest (fall 1996)
"Inchon in the Desert: My Rejected Plan," National Interest (summer 1995)
"The Tide underneath the 'Third Wave,'" Journal of Democracy (January 1995)
"Vietnam Made Him," National Interest (winter 1995/96).
He has also co-edited a number of books:
Greater China's Quest for Innovation (Shorenstein APARC, 2008)
Making IT: The Rise of Asia in High Tech (Stanford University Press, 2006)
The Silicon Valley Edge: A Habitat for Innovation and Entrepreneurship (Stanford University Press, 2000)
Behind East Asian Growth: The Political and Social Foundations of Prosperity (1998)
Defense Conversion, Economic Reform, and the Outlook for the Russian and Ukrainian Economies (1994)
References
Sources
Bio at the Hoover Institution
Bio at Washington Post
|-
1925 births
2015 deaths
People from Boston
RAND Corporation people
United States Department of Defense officials
United States Assistant Secretaries of Defense
Economists from Massachusetts
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Alumni of the University of Oxford
American expatriates in the United Kingdom | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Rowen |
Administrative and municipal divisions
※ - under the oblast's jurisdiction
References
Amur Oblast
Amur Oblast | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative%20divisions%20of%20Amur%20Oblast |
Environmental issues in Libya include desertification and very limited natural freshwater resources.
Environmental issues
Water supply
Annual rainfall averages only between 200 and 600 millimetres in the most arable portions of Libya. The Great Man-made River Project, designed to bring water from fossil aquifers beneath the Sahara, has no long-term viability because of the finite nature of the fossil reserves.
A major environmental concern in Libya is the depletion of underground water as a result of overuse in agricultural developments, causing salinity and sea-water penetration into the coastal aquifers. The Great Man-Made River Project, currently under development to transport water from large aquifers under the Sahara Desert to coastal cities, is the world's most extensive water supply project.
Wastewater treatment
In Libya, municipal wastewater treatment is managed by the general company for water and wastewater in Libya, which falls within the competence of the Housing and Utilities Government Ministry. There are approximately 200 sewage treatment plants across the nation, but few plants are functioning. In fact, the 36 larger plants are in the major cities; however, only nine of them are operational, and the rest of them are under repair.
The largest operating wastewater treatment plants are situated in Sirte, Tripoli, and Misurata, with a design capacity of 21,000, 110,000, and 24,000 m3/day, respectively. Moreover, a majority of the remaining wastewater facilities are small and medium-sized plants with a design capacity of approximately 370 to 6700 m3/day. Therefore, 145,800 m3/day or 11 percent of the wastewater is actually treated, and the remaining others are released into the ocean and artificial lagoons although they are untreated. In fact, nonoperational wastewater treatment plants in Tripoli lead to a spill of over 1,275, 000 cubic meters of unprocessed water into the ocean every day.
Pollution and desertification
Another significant environmental problem in Libya is water pollution. The combined impact of sewage, oil byproducts, and industrial waste threatens Libya's coast and the Mediterranean Sea generally. Libya has 0.8 cu km of renewable water resources with 87% used in farming activity and 4% for industrial purposes. Only about 68% of the people living in rural areas have pure drinking water. Libya's cities produce about 0.6 million tons of solid waste per year. The desertification of existing fertile areas is being combated by the planting of trees as windbreaks.
Endangered species
As of 2001, 11 of Libya's mammal species and 2 of its bird species were endangered. About 41 of its plant species were also endangered. Endangered species in Libya include the Mediterranean monk seal, the leopard, and the slender-horned gazelle. The Bubal hartebeest and Sahara oryx are extinct.
See also
Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa
Geography of Libya
Protected areas of Libya
Wildlife of Libya
References
Issues
Libya | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Libya |
The following lists events that happened during 1981 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,194,500.
Increase since 31 December 1980: 18,100 (0.57%).
Males per 100 females: 98.7.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Sir David Beattie GCMG GCVO QSO QC.
Government
The 39th New Zealand Parliament, led by the National Party, concluded, and in the general election the party was re-elected in the 40th New Zealand Parliament. Support for the government decreased, however, with the Labour Party receiving the largest portion of the popular vote.
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison.
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Brian Talboys then Duncan MacIntyre.
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon.
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Brian Talboys then Warren Cooper.
Attorney-General – Jim McLay.
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour).
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Colin Kay
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Clifford George (Cliff) Skeggs
Events
January – Nambassa five-day celebration of music, crafts and alternative lifestyles culture on farm at Waitawheta Valley between Waihi and Waikino. Attendance 20,000.
January – The second Sweetwaters Music Festival is held near Ngāruawāhia.
11–16 April – Flooding in the Waikato causes over 2,250 people to evacuate their homes.
27 April – The Mahon Report into the crash of Air New Zealand Flight 901 is released, in which Justice Peter Mahon famously accuses Air New Zealand of telling "an orchestrated litany of lies".
May – The first ATM in New Zealand was introduced in Wellington by the Northern Building Society.
July – Passports reintroduced for New Zealanders travelling to Australia. The Australian Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drugs says the exemption was exploited; travel had not required passports following the 1972 Trans-Tasman Travel Agreement.
13 July – The South African rugby union team ("Springboks") arrives in New Zealand to begin the 1981 Springbok Tour
25 July – 1981 Springbok Tour: The match between South Africa and Waikato at Rugby Park, Hamilton, is cancelled after 350 anti-apartheid protesters invade the pitch.
18 August – Four people are killed after a Silver Fern railcar derails near Waiouru.
13 September – The Springbok rugby team leave New Zealand.
14 October – Christopher John Lewis attempts to assassinate Elizabeth II.
The Kohanga reo scheme is established by the Department of Māori Affairs.
The Food Act 1981 is passed into law.
The Poor Knights Islands Marine Reserve is established
Arts and literature
William Sewell wins the Robert Burns Fellowship
See 1981 in art, 1981 in literature, :Category:1981 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first and in boldface with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR: Dave McArtney & The Pink Flamingos – Dave McArtney & The Pink Flamingos
Dennis O'Brien – Still in the same Dream
Hammond Gamble – Hammond Gamble Band
SINGLE OF THE YEAR: Coup D'État – Doctor, I Like Your Medicine
Blam Blam Blam – No Depression in New Zealand
Screaming Meemees – See Me Go
TOP MALE VOCALIST: Dave McArtney (Dave McArtney & The Pink Flamingos)
Deane Waretinei
Hammond Gamble
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST: Suzanne Prentice
Jenny Morris
Tina Cross
TOP GROUP: Dave McArtney & The Pink Flamingos – Dave McArtney & The Pink Flamingos
Newmatics
Coup DE'tat
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST: Dave McArtney
Paul Schreider
David Hollis
Richard Eriwata
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST: Anne Dumont
Celine Toner
Jenny Morris
MOST PROMISING GROUP: The Screaming Meemees
Blam Blam Blam
Pop Mechanix
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR: Dave Hurley & Graham Myhre – Dave McArtney & the Pink Flamingos
Graham Myhre – Remember the Alamo
Gerry Smith – Still in the Same Dream
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR: Bruce Lynch – Dave McArtney and the Pink Flamingos
James Hall – Breaking in Another Day
James Hall – Still in the Same Dream
BEST COVER DESIGN: David Hollis – Caught Alive
Mark Clare – Broadcast O.R
Hal Chapman – Dave McArtney and the Pink Flamingos
SPECIAL AWARD: Fred Smith – Services to the Recording Industry (particularly with regard to Copyright)
See: 1981 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Marcus Craig.
Radio and television
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Drama: Mortimer's Patch
Best Speciality: Sport on One – Sunday
Best Entertainment: Radio Times
Best Documentary: Moriori
Best Children's: Video Dispatch
Best Information: Country Calendar
Best Current Affairs: Close Up
Best Actor: Terence Cooper
Best Actress: Glynis McNicol
Best Script: Little Big Man Takes a Shot at the Moon
Best Television Entertainer: Hudson and Halls
Stan Hosgood Award for Allied Craft: Logan Brewer, Set designer for Hunters Gold, Gather Your Dreams, Children of Fire Mountain, I Pagliacci
See: 1981 in New Zealand television, 1981 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Pictures
Race for the Yankee Zephyr
Smash Palace
Wildcat
Dead Kids/Strange Behavior
See: :Category:1981 film awards, 1981 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1981 films
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his second national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:17:28 on 2 May in Rotorua, while Christine Munro claims her first title in the women's championship (2:56:04).
Chess
The 88th New Zealand Chess Championship is held in Christchurch. There is a three-way tie between Ewen McGowen Green, Ortvin Sarapu, and Vernon A. Small .
Cricket
1 February: Australian Trevor Chappell bowled an underarm delivery to batsman Brian McKechnie in a One-day International cricket match, the third of five matches in the final of the Benson & Hedges World Series Cup.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Armalight
Auckland Trotting Cup: Delightful Lady – 2nd win
Rugby union
13 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 11–4 at Carisbrook
20 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 40–15 at Eden Park
15 August: The All Blacks beat South Africa 14–9 at Lancaster Park as part of the 1981 Springbok Tour
29 August: The All Blacks lost 12–24 to South Africa at Athletic Park as part of the 1981 Springbok Tour
12 September: The All Blacks beat South Africa 25–22 at Eden Park as part of the 1981 Springbok Tour
24 October: The All Blacks beat Romania 14–6 in Bucharest
14 November: The All Blacks beat France 13–9 in Toulouse
21 November: The All Blacks beat France 18–6 in Paris
The North vs South match is played in Dunedin and won by North, 10-4
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Diane Blaymires (Te Puke)
Soccer
The All Whites qualify for the 1982 Football World Cup
New Zealand National Soccer League won by, Wellington Diamond United
The Chatham Cup is won by Dunedin City who beat Mount Wellington 3–1 in the final.
Births
5 January: Corey Flynn, rugby player.
10 January: Hayden Roulston, professional cyclist.
21 January: Jason Williams, rugby player.
27 January: Tony Woodcock, rugby player.
29 January: Jake Adams, musician.
12 February: Daniel Braid, rugby player.
21 February: Tainui Tukiwaho, Actor.
6 March: Tim Brown, soccer player.
20 March: Jamaal Lolesi, rugby league player.
25 March: Mose Tuiali'i, rugby player.
27 March: Sione Faumuina, rugby league player.
30 April: Ali Williams, rugby player.
4 May: Kate Elliott, actor.
6 May: Jodi Te Huna, netball player.
10 May: Lloyd Stephenson, field hockey player.
19 May: Jamie How, cricketer.
25 May: Shelley Paikea, singer.
25 May: Matt Utai, rugby league player.
25 May: Motu Tony, rugby league player.
2 June: Brad Mika, rugby player.
9 June: Dean Couzins, field hockey player.
19 June: Moss Burmester, swimmer.
28 June: Demetrius "Savage" Savelio, rapper.
3 July: Tevita Latu, rugby league player.
31 July: Paul Whatuira, rugby league player.
31 July: Scott Talbot, swimmer and swimming coach.
3 August: Daniel Koprivcic, soccer player.
6 September: Te Atirau Paki, television presenter.
22 September: James Stosic, rugby player.
27 September: Brendon McCullum, cricketer.
29 September (in Germany): Shane Smeltz, soccer player.
29 October: Dwayne Cameron, actor
29 October (in Sydney): Jamie Waugh, writer.
24 November: Ian Butler, cricketer.
10 December: Caleb Ross, actor.
10 December: Conrad Smith, rugby player.
20 December: Leo Bertos, soccer player.
:Category:1981 births
Deaths
29 January: J. A. W. Bennett, literary scholar.
23 March: Beatrice Tinsley, astronomer.
21 December: Iriaka Rātana, politician.
Keith Murray, architect and ceramic designer.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Rubidium bromide is the bromide of rubidium. It has a NaCl crystal structure, with a lattice constant of 685 picometres.
There are several methods for synthesising rubidium bromide. One involves reacting rubidium hydroxide with hydrobromic acid:
RbOH + HBr → RbBr + H2O
Another method is to neutralize rubidium carbonate with hydrobromic acid:
Rb2CO3 + 2 HBr → 2 RbBr + H2O + CO2
Rubidium metal would react directly with bromine to form RbBr, but this is not a sensible production method, since rubidium metal is substantially more expensive than the carbonate or hydroxide; moreover, the reaction would be explosive.
References
WebElements. URL accessed March 1, 2006.
Rubidium compounds
Bromides
Metal halides
Alkali metal bromides
Rock salt crystal structure | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidium%20bromide |
Sir Samuel James Way, 1st Baronet, (11 April 1836 – 8 January 1916) was an English-Australian jurist who served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of South Australia from 18 March 1876 until 8 January 1916.
Background
Way was born in Portsmouth, England. Reverend James Way, his father, was a clergyman in the Bible Christian Church, who emigrated to Adelaide, South Australia in 1850 along with his wife and four younger children to establish a mission. Samuel, the eldest child, remained behind, studying at Shebbear College in Shebbear, a small village in North Devon, and later at a school in Chatham in Kent. He left England to rejoin his family at the end of 1852, arriving in Adelaide in March 1853. He was soon employed in the office of John Tuthill Bagot, at that time a barrister, and in 1856 became an articled clerk to Alfred Atkinson (c. 1825 – 4 June 1861), solicitor of King William Street.
Legal and judicial career
On 25 March 1861, Way was admitted to the South Australian Bar to practice law, and when Atkinson died shortly afterwards, Way inherited his practice. Way practised as a barrister and quickly became a leader among the legal community, and in 1868 joined a partnership with another barrister, James Brook. In September 1871, Way was made a Queen's Counsel, despite having been admitted to the bar only ten years earlier. When Brook died in 1872, a young Josiah Symon joined Way as partner. Way continued to be highly successful, travelling to London to argue a number of cases before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In 1874, Way was elected as a member of the council of the University of Adelaide, and was also appointed to the South Australian Board of Education.
In 1875, Way was elected to the South Australian House of Assembly as the member for Sturt, and on 3 June of that year joined the Boucaut government as Attorney-General of South Australia. He was only a politician for a short time, however, since in March 1876, at the age of just thirty-nine, he was appointed Chief Justice of South Australia following the death of Richard Hanson on 4 March. Since it is the role of the Attorney-General to recommend judicial candidates to the cabinet, it has been suggested that Way probably nominated himself to be Chief Justice. Way soon gained a reputation as an excellent lawyer, and it has been said that none of his decisions were ever successfully appealed to a higher court. Later in 1876 he was appointed as the vice-chancellor of the University of Adelaide, and in 1883 became the chancellor, a position he would hold until his death.
In 1877, Way was called upon to act as acting Governor of South Australia. In January 1891 he was appointed to the position of Lieutenant-Governor of South Australia, a position subordinate to the state Governor. In January 1897, Way became the first Australian to be appointed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. In 1899 he was created a Baronet, of Montefiore, North Adelaide, and Kadlunga Mintaro, both in the Colony of South Australia.
In October 1905, it was Way who publicly pronounced that Catherine Helen Spence, writer and suffragist, social worker and feminist was the most distinguished woman in Australia.
Way was a Freemason and Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of South Australia and Northern Territory from 1884 to 1916, apart from the period 1889–95 when the position was occupied by the Governor, the Earl of Kintore.
Personal life
Way married Mrs. Katherine Gollan Blue (née Gordon) on 11 April 1898. She was the widow of Dr. William Archibald Sinclair Blue (died 18 September 1896) of Strathalbyn. The time and whereabouts of the wedding, which was the subject of great public interest, were a closely kept secret until well after the event.
Way became ill in 1914, and was diagnosed with cancer. He travelled to Sydney to have his arm amputated, in an attempt to delay the cancer. The operation failed to prevent his health from deteriorating, but he continued his work as Chief Justice until December 1915.
He died early the following year in North Adelaide.
Recognition
The baronetcy became extinct on his death. The geological feature Mount Sir Samuel and the town of Sir Samuel in the Goldfields region of Western Australia were named after him.
A statue was unveiled on 17 November 1924, located on North Terrace, Adelaide, in front of the University of Adelaide.
The Sir Samuel Way Building on Victoria Square, Adelaide, was originally a major retail outlet for Charles Moore and Co. In 1983 it was sold to the state government and was named after him.
References
Bibliography
Hannan, A. J., C. M. G., Q. C., The Life of Chief Justice Way, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1960.
Emerson, Dr. John, First Among Equals, University of Adelaide Barr Smith Press, Adelaide, 2004, pp 11–56.
|-
1836 births
1916 deaths
Chief Justices of South Australia
People educated at Shebbear College
Australian King's Counsel
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Australian members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Lawyers from Adelaide
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Adelaide
Chancellors of the University of Adelaide
Australian recipients of a British baronetcy
Colony of South Australia judges
Attorneys-General of South Australia
Lieutenant-Governors of South Australia
Members of the South Australian House of Assembly
Members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
English emigrants to colonial Australia
Judges of the Supreme Court of South Australia
20th-century Australian judges
19th-century Australian judges
Australian book and manuscript collectors
Australian Freemasons
People from Portsmouth | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Way |
Elijah Clarke (1742 – December 15, 1799) was an American military officer and Georgia legislator.
Career
Elijah Clarke was born near Tarboro in Edgecombe County, Province of North Carolina, the son of John Clarke of Anson County, North Carolina.
served in the Georgia Militia during the American Revolutionary War. When the state troops disbanded after the surrender of Savannah, he became a lieutenant colonel in the Wilkes County Militia. He fought in the southern theater and served under Col. Andrew Pickens in the Battle of Kettle Creek. He was one of three American commanders at the Battle of Musgrove’s Mill, during which he was wounded.
After the war, Clarke was elected to the Georgia legislature, serving from 1781 - 1790. In early 1794, he was asked if he'd be interested in leading a French invasion of Spanish East Florida, but the plot never materialised. Instead of invading Florida, Clarke led men from Wilkes County into Creek lands. In 1794 he organized the Trans-Oconee Republic, several settlements in traditional Creek territory. From there he attacked Creek villages, but was restrained by Georgia Governor George Matthews.
Death and legacy
Clarke died on December 15, 1799.
Clarke and his actions served as one of the sources for the fictional character of Benjamin Martin in The Patriot, a film released in 2000. He is also a major character in the historical novel The Hornet's Nest by Jimmy Carter.
Clarke County in Georgia is named after Elijah Clarke.
References
External links
Elijah Clarke, New Georgia Encyclopedia.
[Letter] 1783 Nov. 6, Augusta [to] Governor [of Georgia] Lyman Hall / Elijah Clarke
[Letter] 1788 Oct. 23, Washington, [Wilkes County, Georgia to the] Governor [of Georgia] / Elijah Clarke
[Letter] 1788 Nov. 26 [to] Geo[rge] Handley / Elijah Clark[e].
[Letter] 1789 June 24, Hickory Grove [to] Col[onel] Benj[ami]n Cleavland, Franklin County, [Georgia] / Elijah Clarke.
Letter, 1792 Dec. 4, Augusta, [Georgia to] Governor Edward Telfair / Elijah Clarke.
1742 births
1799 deaths
People from Wilkes County, Georgia
Burials in Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia (U.S. state) militiamen in the American Revolution
Heads of state of former countries
Heads of state of states with limited recognition
People of colonial North Carolina
People from Edgecombe County, North Carolina | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah%20Clarke |
The Rio Grande Compact is an interstate compact signed in 1938 in the United States between the states of Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas, and approved by the United States Congress, to equitably apportion the waters of the Rio Grande Basin.
Passage
The treaty was ratified by Colorado's legislature on February 21, 1939, then by Texas and New Mexico's legislatures on March 1. It was finally adopted on December 19, 1939, after passing through Congress (as Public Act No. 96, 76) and being signed into law on May 31, 1939.
The act was amended at the thirteenth Annual Meeting, on February 25, 1952.
Summary
Colorado committed to deliver a certain amount of water to the New Mexico state line, based on water runoff as measured at four index stations located in the area of the Rio Grande's headwaters. The compact provides for an indexed schedule of required water deliveries from Colorado, based on gauged stream flows, and, under certain circumstances, a system of debits and credits in water deliveries that also permits water storage with the combined capacity of Elephant Butte and Caballo Reservoirs.
The compact also sets a minimum quality standard, as in the event that Colorado was to construct water projects later for the purpose of delivering water into the Rio Grande from the Closed Basin, the state would not be credited with the water delivered unless the sodium ions in the water do not exceed 45% of the total positive ions when the total dissolved solids in the water exceeds 350ppm.
Results
Between 1939 and 1966, Colorado virtually ignored the compact. The result was that by 1966, due to Colorado's non-compliance with the Compact, Colorado owed New Mexico one-million acre feet (1.2 km³) of water, and New Mexico owed Texas . New Mexico and Texas collectively sued Colorado to try to force compliance, and between 1966 and 1967, the case progressed and was eventually heard by the Supreme Court of the United States.
In 1985, after several affluent years of water flow from the Rio Grande, the Elephant Butte and Caballo reservoirs reached capacity, having received more water than they could hold. The terms of the Compact state that once the Elephant Butte reservoir is filled, New Mexico and Colorado are immediately released from any water debt they have accrued. Colorado's debt to New Mexico at the time, of water, was immediately cleared, settling the balance between the two states, but leaving New Mexico in an unfortunate position in its debt to Texas.
In 1996, when the reservoir was again close to capacity, the New Mexico water districts below Elephant Butte authorized water from the reservoir to be pulled out and dumped in the New Mexico desert, to prevent the reservoir from spilling, and again clearing Colorado's water debt.
The stress now is on New Mexico to meet its obligations to Texas. During dryer years, New Mexico will be short about in its obligations, partially due to partial evaporation of the reservoir water before New Mexico can absorb it.
Compliance
The Rio Grande Compact Commission, located in El Paso, Texas, administers the Rio Grande Compact. An employee of the USGS New Mexico Water Science Center serves as Secretary to the Compact. The principal duty of the Secretary is to compile streamflow and storage data used in the annual accounting computations performed by the commission's Engineer Advisers. The Secretary also compiles provisional streamflow and storage data on a monthly basis that are distributed to interested parties, and compiles and publishes an annual data report for the commission.
The Texas Commission on Environmental Quality is Texas' representation to the commission.
Environmental issues
During a 1999 United States House of Representatives investigation of inter-state water pacts, Bennett W. Raley offered testimony revealing that efforts to comply with the demands of the Compact could be threatening a critical habitat for the Rio Grande Silvery Minnow.
See also
Colorado River Compact (1922)
List of rivers in New Mexico
Texas v. New Mexico and Colorado, interstate dispute regarding New Mexico's compliance with the Rio Grande Compact.
Sources
Rio Grande Compact (1938), Colorado State Water Knowledge web site
Text of the Compact
Rio Grande Compact Commission, TCEQ site
USGS summary
Compact drives the ties that bind, Alamosa Valley News, November 21, 2001
Economic Aspects of Water in New Mexico, Micha Gisser
Rio Grande Compact Accounting, New Mexico Texas Water Commission Management Advisory Committee, November 15, 2002
Rio Grande Basin Analysis
Treaties of the United States
Treaties concluded in 1938
Treaties entered into force in 1939
1938 in the United States
1939 in the environment
Water treaties
Water in Colorado
Water in New Mexico
Water in Texas
Water management authorities in the United States
Rio Grande
United States interstate compacts
Water resource management in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20Grande%20Compact |
The following lists events that happened during 1982 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,226,800.
Increase since 31 December 1981: 32,300 (1.01%).
Males per 100 females: 98.6.
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Sir David Beattie GCMG GCVO QSO QC.
Government
The 40th New Zealand Parliament continued. The third National Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Duncan MacIntyre
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Warren Cooper
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Bill Rowling (Labour) until 3 February, then David Lange.
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Colin Kay
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
The first Kohanga reo kindergarten, Pukeatua, opens at Wainuiomata. Within 12 years there were more than 800 nationwide.
Social Credit forms an agreement with National to back the Clyde Dam (a Think Big project) in exchange for policy concessions.
The Clutha Development (Clyde Dam) Empowerment Act was passed, overriding the High Court and Planning Tribunal.
The proposed aluminium smelter at Aramoana was cancelled.
The Social Credit Political League changes its name to the Social Credit Party.
New Zealand provided assistance to the British during the Falklands War, primarily by taking over routine patrol duties elsewhere to free up British military resources.
The Warehouse opens its first store, in Takapuna.
January: The third Sweetwaters Music Festival is held near Pukekawa.
3 February: David Lange succeeds Bill Rowling as Leader of the Opposition.
4 April: New Zealand breaks diplomatic relations with Argentina over the Falklands Crisis.
22 June: Robert Muldoon announces a 12-month wage and price freeze. The freeze actually lasts almost two years.
14 September: Samoans who take up permanent residence in New Zealand are entitled to New Zealand citizenship from this date. This follows a case referred to the Privy Council which decided in July 1982 to allow all Samoans born under New Zealand administration (i.e. prior to 1962) to claim New Zealand citizenship.
November: Mark Inglis and Philip Doole are stuck in an ice cave on Aoraki / Mount Cook for 14 days.
18 November: a suicide bomb attack was made against a facility housing the main computer database of the New Zealand Police in Wanganui by a "punk rock" anarchist named Neil Roberts. He was the only person killed, and the computer system was undamaged, see Terrorism in New Zealand.
14 December: Robert Muldoon signs a "Heads of Agreement" with Australia to allow the Closer Economic Relations agreement to come into force at the beginning of 1983.
Arts and literature
William Sewell wins the Robert Burns Fellowship
See 1982 in art, 1982 in literature, :Category:1982 books
Music
DD Smash produce their debut album, Cool Bananas.
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first and in boldface with nominees underneath.
Album of the year: DD Smash – Cool Bananas
Single of the year: Prince Tui Teka – E Ipo
Top male vocalist: Dave Dobbyn (DD Smash)
Malcolm McNeill
Monte Video
Top female vocalist: Patsy Riggir
Suzanne Prentice
Trudi Green (The Neighbours)
Top group of the year: DD Smash
Herbs
The Narcs
Most promising male vocalist: Dave Dobbyn (DD Smash)
Most promising female vocalist: Jodi Vaughan
Most promising group: Dance Exponents
Polynesian record of the year: Prince Tui Teka – E Ipo
Producer of the year: Ian Morris – Cool Bananas (DD Smash)
Engineer of the year: Paul Streekstra & Doug Rogers – Cool Bananas (DD Smash)
Sleeve design of the year: Wayne Robinson –Cool Bananas (DD Smash)
Outstanding contribution to music: Simon Grigg
See: 1982 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Don Linden.
Radio and television
FM Stereo transmissions were being tested. Radio Bay of Plenty Limited, operating 1XX (previously 1240 am then 1242 am in 1978) also in Whakatane, ran the first of many short-term summer stations.
1XX – FM 90.7 This station was the 1ST licensed FM Stereo Radio station in New Zealand. The station went to air at 4 pm on 5 January 1982 and went through to 31 January 1982 with the station on-air each day in two shifts: 4 pm – 8 pm & 8 pm – 12 am Midnight. Announcers: Chris Clarke,
Te Karere, a Māori language news program, is trialled.
Northern Television begins broadcasting morning television programs.
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Information: Country Calendar
Best Documentary: Landmarks
Best News and Current Affairs: Close Up
Best Entertainment: Gliding On
Best Drama: Under the Mountain
Best Speciality: Kaleidoscope
Best Children's: Wild Track
Best New Talent: Olly Ohlson in After School
Best Actress: Susan Wilson in Mortimer's Patch and Gliding On
Best Actor: Bruce Allpress in Jocko
Steve Hosgood Award for Allied Craft: Robert Brown, cameraman
Best Television Entertainer: David McPhail and Jon Gadsby
Special Award: Ian Watkin for Service to the Industry
Best Script: Cry Wolf from Open File
See: 1982 in New Zealand television, 1982 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Carry Me Back
Battletruck
The Scarecrow
See: :Category:1982 film awards, 1982 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1982 films
Sport
Athletics
Trevor Wright wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:19:34 on 3 April in Whangārei.
Basketball
Inaugural season of the NZ National Basketball League, won by Auckland.
Commonwealth Games
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Bonnie's Chance
Auckland Trotting Cup (2700m): Gammalite
ROWING
New Zealand men's rowing 8 win gold medal at the world rowing championships in Lucerne, Switzerland.
Stephanie Foster wins the first ever NZ women's medal at a world championships with a bronze medal in the single sculls event.
Rugby union
Australia tours and play 3 tests. These are won 2–1 by New Zealand, who win back the Bledisloe Cup
Lion National Provincial Championship:
Division 1: Auckland
Division 2 (North): Taranaki
Division 2 (south): Southland
The North vs South match is played in Wanganui and is won 22-12 by South.
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – John Hastie (Okawa)
Soccer
The All Whites reach the Football World Cup Finals in Barcelona, but lose all three games.
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Mount Wellington
The Chatham Cup is won by Mount Wellington who beat Miramar Rangers 1—0 after extra time in the final.
Births
January to June
6 January – Roy Asotasi, rugby league player.
12 January – Tony Lochhead, football (soccer) player.
17 January – Tim Weston, cricketer.
30 January – Shontayne Hape, rugby league player.
1 February – Sam Tuitupou, rugby union player.
5 March – Dan Carter, rugby union player.
6 March – Jimmy Cowan, rugby union player.
20 March – Rory Fallon, football (soccer) player.
22 March – Chris Smylie, rugby player.
24 March – James Napier, actor.
4 April – Andrea Hewitt, athlete.
19 April – Sitiveni Sivivatu, rugby union and sevens player.
3 May – Casey Laulala, rugby union player.
6 May – Eric Murray, rower, Olympic gold medallist (2012 London)
13 May – Mika Vukona, basketball player.
16 May – Jonathan Duncan, swimmer.
21 May – Ma'a Nonu, rugby union player.
22 June – Stu Mills, cricketer.
July to December
1 July – James Pritchett, football (soccer) player.
4 July – Jeff Lima, rugby league player.
6 July – Jeremy Yates, cyclist.
15 July – Neemia Tialata, rugby union player.
17 July – Eve van Grafhorst.
24 July – Anna Paquin, actress.
4 August – Juliette Haigh, rower, Olympic bronze medallist (2012 London)
15 August – Jason Eaton, rugby union player.
30 August – Russell Ward, skeleton racer.
7 September – Krystal Forgesson, field hockey player.
16 September – Lizzy Igasan, field hockey defender.
29 September – Joline Henry, netball player.
11 October – Cameron Knowles, football (soccer) player.
14 November – Sailosi Tagicakibau, Samoan rugby player
17 November – Hollie Smith, singer-songwriter.
:Category:1982 births
Deaths
3 January 1982: Bernard O'Brien, philosopher and theologian.
18 February: Dame Ngaio Marsh writer and director.
1 March: Frank Gill, Air Commodore, politician.
1 March: Frank Sargeson, writer.
24 May: William Sheat, politician.
4 March (in London): Dorothy Eden, novelist.
29 April: Ray Boord, politician.
9 June (in Canada): Richard St. Barbe Baker, silviculturist and conservationist.
11 June: Sir Valdemar Skellerup, industrialist.
13 June: John A. Lee politician and writer.
15 July: Don Beard, cricketer.
2 September: Clive Hulme, Victoria Cross winner.
19 September: Ted Badcock, cricketer.
8 October: Cora Wilding, physiotherapist and artist.
14 October: Andrew Davidson, educationalist
1 November (in Canada): Eric Arthur, architect.
22 November (in Majorca, Spain): Jean Batten aviator.
2 December: Sir Robert Macfarlane, politician.
18 December: Ray Emery, cricketer.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Environmental issues in Iran include, especially in urban areas, vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents which contribute to poor air quality. A report by the United Nations Environment Programme ranked Iran at 117th place among 133 countries in terms of environmental indexes. Water scarcity is a serious issue, and the country is also threatened by climate change.
Air pollution
The World Bank estimates losses inflicted on Iran's economy as a result of deaths caused by air pollution at $640 million, which is equal to 5.1 trillion rials or 0.57 percent of GDP. Diseases resulting from air pollution are inflicting losses estimated at $260 million per year or 2.1 trillion rials or 0.23 percent of the GDP on Iran's economy.
Most cars use leaded gasoline and lack emissions control equipment. Tehran is rated as one of the world's most polluted cities. However, buses and cars running on natural gas are planned to replace the existing public transportation fleet in the future. Also, energy prices are kept artificially low in Iran through heavy state subsidies, resulting in highly inefficient and polluting consumption patterns. Traffic management, vehicle inspection, general use of electric bicycles and electronic government are also part of the solution.
A rising incidence of respiratory illnesses prompted the city governments of Tehran and Arak, southwest of the capital, to institute air pollution control programs. These programs aim to reduce gradually the amount of harmful chemicals released into the atmosphere.
Climate change
Iran is party to the Kyoto Protocol on climate change but not its Doha Amendment. It has signed but not ratified the Paris Agreement on climate change.
Ecosystems
Much of Iran’s territory suffers from overgrazing, desertification and or deforestation.
Wetlands and bodies of fresh water increasingly are being destroyed as industry and agriculture expand, and oil and chemical spills have harmed aquatic life in the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. Iran contends that the international rush to develop oil and gas reserves in the Caspian Sea presents that region with a new set of environmental threats. Although a Department of Environment has existed since 1971, Iran has not yet developed a policy of sustainable development because short term economic goals have taken precedence.
Signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation.
Deforestation
Iran had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.67/10, ranking it 34th globally out of 172 countries.
Natural disasters
Iran experiences periodic droughts, floods, dust storms, sandstorms and earthquakes along western border and in the northeast.
Soil erosion
Iran ranked worst in the world for soil erosion in 2011.
Waste
An estimated 50,000 tons of trash is produced in the country every day of which something between 70 and 80 percent is disposed of hygienically but the rest is not. Iran produces over 8 million tons of hazardous waste annually (2016).
Water
Industrial and urban wastewater runoff has contaminated rivers, coastal and underground waters.
Water scarcity
See also
Clean Air Law of Iran
Automotive industry in Iran
Department of Environment (Iran)
Economy of Iran
Energy in Iran
Environmental issues in Tehran
Geography of Iran
International rankings of Iran
Iranian Economic Reform Plan
Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization
Wildlife of Iran
References
External links
Department of Environment – Islamic Republic of Iran
(2003)
US Dept. of Energy – Environment Overview for Iran
Iran: Environment and Nature
Iran
Climate change in Iran | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Iran |
Framlingham is a rural township located by the Hopkins River in the Western District of Victoria, Australia, about north-east of the coastal city of Warrnambool. In the 2016 census, the township had a population of 158.
The town lies within the traditional lands of the Girai wurrung (Kirrae Wuurong) people. In the decades following European settlement in the 1840s, a general store, post office, hotel, school and Presbyterian church were established in Framlingham, as increasing numbers of graziers and dairy farmers settled the area. The Framlingham Aboriginal Reserve was established by the Board for the Protection of Aborigines between Purnim and the township of Framlingham in 1861, upon the request of an Anglican mission. It was located beside the Hopkins River, not far from the boundary with the Gunditjmara people. After various attempts at closure, the reserve operated until 1916, albeit with the land reduced in size. Much of the Aboriginal community continued to live there until the present time. Some of the land that was originally part of the reserve became Framlingham Forest, which is now part of the Framlingham Forest Indigenous Protected Area (IPA).
History
1840s: White settlement
European settlement began around 1840, the village beginning with the establishment of the Brefnay Hotel in about 1848. A store opened within the next decade, and a Presbyterian church in 1870. A great deal of land was cleared of trees in order to establish dairy farms and other forms of agriculture.
1861: Aboriginal reserve established
The Church of England in Warrnambool obtained of land for an Aboriginal mission station to "ameliorate the present wretched conditions of the Aborigines", and requested establishment of an Aboriginal reserve in the area. The Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines created Framlingham Aboriginal Reserve in response. The reserve was occupied in 1865 by many of the surviving members of the Kirrae Wuurong clans, who originally inhabited the area between Mount Emu Creek and the Hopkins River, and much of whose language was recorded by a Scottish squatter, James Dawson. Members of the Djargurd Wurrung from the Camperdown area and Gunditjmara people from Warrnambool were also relocated to Framlingham, but Gunditjmara from Portland and Lake Condah refused to settle here due to tension with the other clans, leading to the establishment of the Lake Condah reserve in 1869.
In 1867 the reserve was closed by the Central Board appointed by the Government of Victoria and attempts were made to relocate the residents to Lake Condah Mission but in September 1868 the Kirrae Wuurong won the re-establishment of the reserve. Residents of Warrnambool campaigned from 1877 to 1890 to close the reserve and turn it into an experimental agricultural farm, and in 1894 the reserve was reduced to and the majority of the land given to the Council of Agricultural Education. However, the agricultural farm plans never eventuated, with this land becoming the Framlingham Forest. In 1889 the Board attempted to close the reserve again, but it finally agreed to reserve } for Aboriginal use.
In 1916 the Government of Victoria decided to concentrate Aboriginal Victorians at Lake Tyers Mission in Gippsland. The reserve was eventually closed but some residents were allowed to remain, with the community being granted ownership in 1971 of the they held at that time. In the 1930s, public concern over the conditions led the government to build extra housing and a school, and to provide rations.
When the reserve was established, it was declared to be in area, although its actual size may have been closer to . As parts of the reserve were sold to private landowners, its size diminished, until only the remained when it was closed in 1971. Some of this land was also set aside as a State Forest.
1970-1987: Land rights
In 1957 the Board for the Protection of Aborigines was abolished, and in 1970 the Aboriginal Lands Act 1970 was passed by the Parliament of Victoria. Under the provisions of that Act, ownership of Framlingham was handed over to a trust held by Aboriginal residents of the site, Framlingham Aboriginal Trust, on 1 July 1971. Along with Lake Tyers, in the eastern Gippsland region of the state, Framlingham was the last reserve to close in Victoria.
In 1976 the Framlingham community began a campaign to regain rights to the Framlingham Forest, that had been excised from the original 1861 reserve in 1894. In April 1979 the community blockaded the road to the forest picnic ground. The Victorian Government proposed allowing Aboriginal management of the forest in 1980 but maintained that it would continue as crown land. The proposal was rejected by the community, who resumed the blockade.
In 1987, the Victorian Labor government under John Cain attempted to grant some of the Framlingham State Forest to the trust as inalienable title, but the legislation was blocked by the Liberal Party opposition in the Legislative Council. However, the federal Labor government under Bob Hawke intervened, passing the Aboriginal Land (Lake Condah and Framlingham Forest) Act 1987, which gave of the Framlingham forest to the Framlingham trust. Although the title is essentially inalienable, in that it can only be transferred to another Indigenous land trust, the Framlingham trust has no rights to prevent mining on the land, unlike trusts or communities holding native title. The Kirrae Whurrong Aboriginal Corporation was established under the Aboriginal Lands Act 1970 in order to hold in trust "the land of the Framlingham Forest and Reserve returned to the Aboriginal community".
1983: Ash Wednesday
On 16 February 1983, one of the Ash Wednesday fires started here and swept through the district killing nine people, destroying many homes, farm buildings and livestock. The cause was believed to be poorly maintained power lines.
2009: Framlingham Forest IPA
In 2009, an Indigenous Protected Area was dedicated, known as the Framlingham Forest IPA, covering of native forests. It is the largest remnant of native forest containing the stringybark and manna gum savannah in the area. The Framlingham Aboriginal Trust manages the land.
Traditional ownership
The formally recognised traditional owners for the area in which Framlingham sits are groups within the Eastern Maar peoples, who are represented by the Eastern Maar Aboriginal Corporation (EMAC).
Post offices
Framlingham post office nearby opened on 1 March 1859 and closed in 1975. A Framlingham East post office was also open from 1925 until 1945.
Description
In the 2016 census, the township had a population of 158.
The town has a hall and a public reserve with tennis court and barbecue facilities. The fire station was opened in 2015. The school, established in 1872, was closed in 1993.
Notable citizens
Archie Roach, iconic singer, songwriter and musician, resided in Framlingham in his early years before forced removal of Roach and his siblings by government agencies, as described in his 1990 debut single, 'Took the Children Away'
Reg Saunders, famous Aboriginal soldier, born in Framlingham in 1920
Paul McGinness, founder of Qantas, born in Framlingham in 1896
Jamarra Ugle-Hagan, AFL football player for the Western Bulldogs, number 1 national draft pick for 2020 AFL draft
See also
Kirrae Wuurong
Gunditjmara
References
Further reading
Framlingham Community Stories
Aboriginal communities in Victoria (state)
Indigenous Australian reserves
Warrnambool
Indigenous Protected Areas of Australia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framlingham%2C%20Victoria |
GOCR (or JOCR) is a free optical character recognition program, initially written by Jörg Schulenburg. It can be used to convert or scan image files (portable pixmap or PCX) into text files.
Features
GOCR claims it can handle single-column sans-serif fonts of 20–60 pixels in height. It reports trouble with serif fonts, overlapping characters, handwritten text, heterogeneous fonts, noisy images, large angles of skew, and text in anything other than a Latin alphabet.
GOCR can also translate barcodes.
User interface
GOCR can be used as a stand-alone command-line application, or as a back-end to other programs. It comes with a gocr.tcl graphic interface. GOCR can be also used as an OCR engine in OCRFeeder.
Development
Version 0.3.0 was released in December 2000, 0.3.5 in February 2002, and 0.37 in August 2002.
Between version 0.40 (March 2005) and 0.43 (December 2006), the recognition engine was gradually replaced with a vector version.
Version 0.48 was released in August 2009.
Version 0.49 was released in September 2010.
Version 0.50 was released in March 2013.
Version 0.51 was released in August 2017.
Nomenclature
The application was originally named GOCR which stands for GNU Optical Character Recognition. When it came time to register the project on SourceForge the name GOCR was already taken so the project was registered as JOCR (Jörg's Optical Character Recognition).
As a result of this situation the project and application are known as both GOCR and JOCR. Schulenburg admits that this is problematic.
Formats
Acceptable image formats are:
PNM
PBM
PGM
PPM
PCX (some)
TGA
Other formats are automatically converted using netpbm-progs, gzip and bzip2 via the use of a unix pipe. These images types include:
pnm.gz
pnm.bz2
PNG
JPG
TIFF
GIF
BMP
References
External links
GOCR Main Page
(may be out of date)
Free graphics software
Optical character recognition software
Free software programmed in C | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOCR |
The following lists events that happened during 1983 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,264,800.
Increase since 31 December 1982: 38,000 (1.18%).
Males per 100 females: 98.6.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon. Sir David Beattie GCMG GCVO QSO QC.
Government
The 40th New Zealand Parliament continued. The third National Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon
Deputy Prime Minister – Duncan MacIntyre
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Warren Cooper
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – David Lange (Labour).
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Colin Kay then Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Michael Fowler then Ian Lawrence
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
1 January – The Closer Economic Relations Free trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand comes into force.
March – The Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) visit New Zealand, bringing their baby son Prince William with them.
28 March – Deputy Prime Minister of Australia and Minister for Trade, Lionel Bowen and New Zealand High Commissioner to Australia, Laurie Francis sign the Closer Economic Relations agreement in Canberra, Australia.
1 July –
Lorraine Downes, Miss New Zealand, is crowned Miss Universe in St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
The Official Information Act 1982 replaces the 1951 Official Secrets Act.
22 August – The New Zealand Party is launched.
1 September – Disappearance (and presumed death) of 14-year-old Kirsa Jensen.
The fourth Sweetwaters Music Festival is held near Pukekawa.
The visit of the United States nuclear-powered frigate Texas sparks widespread protests.
The first $50 notes are put into circulation, filling the large gap between the $20 and $100 notes.
Arts and literature
Rawiri Paratene wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1983 in art, 1983 in literature
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR DD Smash – Live: Deep in the Heart of Taxes
Herbs – Light of the Pacific
Dance Exponents – The Legionnaires – Live at Mainstreet
SINGLE OF THE YEAR DD Smash – "Outlook For Thursday"
Monte Video – "Shoop Shoop Diddy Wop Cumma Cumma Wang Dang"
Coconut Rough – "Sierra Leone"
TOP MALE VOCALIST Dave Dobbyn (DD Smash)
Malcolm McNeill
Monte Video
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST Suzanne Prentice
Trudi Green
Patsy
TOP GROUP OF THE YEAR DD Smash
Herbs
The Narcs
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Andrew Mclennan (Coconut Rough)
Dick Driver (Hip Singles)
Gary Smith (The Body Electric)
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Sonya Waters
Rhonda Jones
Bronwyn Jones (Precious)
MOST PROMISING GROUP Coconut Rough
Hip Singles
The Body Electric
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM The Radars – Chulu Chululu
Patea Maori Club (featuring Dalvanius) – Poi E
Kaiwhaiki Cultural Club – The Valley of Voices Vol 2
BEST FILM SOUNDTRACK/ CAST RECORDING/ COMPILATION Sharon O'Neill – Smash Palace
Schtung – The Scarecrow
John Charles – Utu
BEST MUSIC VIDEO Andrew Shaw – "Outlook For Thursday" (DD Smash)
Greg Rood – Sierra Leone (Coconut Rough)
Mark Ackerman, Craig Howard – "Shoop Shoop Diddy Wop Cumma Cumma Wang Dang" (Monte Video)
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR Dave Marett – "Sierra Leone" (Coconut Rough)
Graeme Myhre – Live: Deep in the Heart of Taxes (DD Smash)
Paul Streekstra – "Outlook For Thursday" (DD Samsh)
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR Dave Marett – "Sierra Leone" (Coconut Rough)
Dave Dobbyn – "Outlook For Thursday" (DD Smash)
Monte Video/ Bruce Lynch – "Shoop Shoop Diddy Wop Cumma Cumma Wang Dang" (Monte Video)
MOST POPULAR SONG Patsy Riggir – "Beautiful Lady"
MOST POPULAR ARTIST DD Smash
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION Murray Cammick
BEST COVER DESIGN Simon & Suzy Clark – Daring Feats
Matthew Aitken – The Tin Syndrome
Van Heusen/ O'Neill-Joyce – Space Case Two
CLASSICAL RECORD OF THE YEAR Louise Malloy – Louise
Kiri Te Kanawa/ National Youth Choir of New Zealand – Royal Occasion
Schools Polyphonics of Wellington – Tenebrae Responsorie 1585
JAZZ RECORD OF THE YEAR Rodger Fox Big Band – Heavy Company
Space Case – Space Case Two
Phil Broadhurst – Sustenance
COUNTRY RECORD OF THE YEAR Suzanne Prentice – When I Dream
Patsy Riggir – Are You Lonely
Brendan Duggan – Hands on the Wheel
See 1983 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Russell Middlebrook.
Radio and television
Te Karere becomes a regular Māori language news program.
Northern Television ceases transmission.
Feltex Television Awards:
Best Television Entertainer: Howard Morrison
Best Actor: Michael on Gliding On
Best Actress: Sarah Peirse on A Woman of Good Character
Best Drama: Gliding On
Best New Talent: Heath Lees on Opus and Kaleidoscope
Best Entertainment: McPhail and Gadsby
Best Documentary: Wild South – Black Robin
Best Information: Country Calendar
Best Speciality: Kaleidoscope
Best News and Current Affairs: Close Up
Best Script: Protesters
Steve Hosgood Award for Allied Craft: Errol Samuelson, film sound operator on National History Programmes
See: 1983 in New Zealand television, 1983 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Bad Blood
Hang on a Minute Mate!
Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence
Patu!
Strata
Savage Islands
Utu
See: :Category:1983 film awards, 1983 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1983 films
Sport
Athletics
Graham Macky wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:21:22 in Mosgiel, while Val Lindsay does the same in the women's championship (3:11:35).
Basketball
NBL won by Auckland
Cricket
World Series Cup, New Zealand finished first in the preliminary stages of this annual triangular one-day competition in Australia, which in 1982/83 received unprecedented interest and record television audiences. England missed out on a finals berth, with Australia coming qualifying second.
New Zealand's star allrounder, Richard Hadlee, tore a hamstring on the eve of the lucrative and much anticipated finals series with Australia and was forced out of the side. A demoralised New Zealand were then well beaten by the rejuvenated Australians, 2–0. Lance Cairns hit his memorable 6 sixes in front of 71, 000 in the second final at the MCG.
Glenn Turner made his long-awaited international comeback in this series after six years of self-imposed exile from the New Zealand team due to a financial disagreement with the NZCC.
In February, New Zealand whitewashed England 3–0 in the Rothmans Cup one-day series in Christchurch, Wellington and Auckland, witnessed by sell-out crowds. Sri Lanka was then convincingly beaten in both the test and one-day series at home to cap off a memorable summer of cricket.
In July history was made when the Geoff Howarth-led side won their first test match against England in England, with a five wicket victory in the second test at Headingley in Leeds. However, they lost the four match series 1–3. Prior to this series, New Zealand played in the 1983 World Cup. In a tough group with both England and Pakistan, New Zealand narrowly missed out on a semi-final place at the World Cup for the first time, after being successful in the two prior tournaments in 1975 and 1979. Glenn Turner retired from international cricket after New Zealand's exit.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Steel Jaw
Auckland Trotting Cup: Armalight
Thoroughbred racing
Kiwi wins a memorable 1983 Melbourne Cup at Flemington in a last-to-first finish in the home straight.
Netball
The 6th Netball World Championships were held in Singapore. New Zealand lost to Australia in the final.
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Rex Chilcott (Clevedon)
Soccer
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Manurewa
The Chatham Cup is won by Mount Wellington who beat Gisborne City 2–0 in the final.
Births
18 January: George Bridgewater, rower
19 January: Glen Moss, association football player
24 January: Wyatt Crockett, rugby union player
27 January: Dene Halatau, rugby league player
8 February James Ryan, (rugby player) Cory Jane, rugby union player
13 February: Bradley Shaw, field hockey player
1 March: James Mortimer, (athlete) hurdler
2 March: Dan Wootton, journalist and broadcaster
16 March: Melody Cooper, field hockey player
1 April: Tamati Ellison, rugby union player
1 April: Lance Hohaia, rugby league player
7 April: Allan Pearce, association football player
15 April: Anna Scarlett, netballer
25 April: Nick Willis, athlete
30 April: David Faiumu, rugby league player
5 May: Ben Atiga, rugby union player
22 May: Jeremy Christie, association football player
6 June: Joe Rokocoko, rugby union player
10 June: Gavin Williams, rugby union player
17 June: James Dolphin, athlete
29 June: Jimmy Gopperth, rugby union player
6 July: Brent Fisher, association football player
10 August: Rebecca Scown, rower
19 August: Tania Nolan, actress
28 August: Luke McAlister, rugby union player
7 September: Piri Weepu, rugby union player
8 September: Toni Street, television presenter and sports commentator
15 September: Richard Sherlock, cricketer
28 September: John Schwalger, rugby union player
17 October: Michelle Ang, actor
18 October: Jonny Reid, motor racing driver
8 November: Chris Rankin, actor
29 November: Jeremy Mayall, composer
2 December: Michael Wesley-Smith, actor
15 December: Brooke Fraser, singer-songwriter
20 December: Aaradhna, hip-hop artist
Deaths
7 January: Eliza Amy Hodgson, botanist
15 June: Sir William Liley, pioneering surgeon.
23 July (in Sydney): Tex Morton, musician.
6 August 1983: Patrick Murray, priest, editor, ecumenicist.(born 1931)
12 August: Giff Vivian, cricketer.
26 October: Edward Blaiklock, academic.
29 November: Sir William Stevenson, industrialist and philanthropist.
8 December: Sir Keith Holyoake, former Prime Minister.
19 December: Lancelot Eric Richdale, ornithologist.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Hagen is a 26-hectare natural park, and part of the town of Raseborg in Finland. It is located at the southwestern end of the municipality that was formerly the independent town of Ekenäs, prior to merging with Snappertuna and Tenala in January 2009. A pedestrian bridge from Hagen connects it to the island of Ramsholmen, which is itself connected to the island of Högholmen. These three areas are connected to form the Hagen-Ramsholmen-Högholmen area, roughly 58 hectares. Many of the deciduous trees found in the area are some of the largest of their species in Finland.
References
Parks in Finland
Geography of Uusimaa
Tourist attractions in Uusimaa
Raseborg | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagen%2C%20Eken%C3%A4s |
The following lists events that happened during 1984 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,293,000.
Increase since 31 December 1983: 28,200 (0.86%).
Males per 100 Females: 98.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Sir David Beattie GCMG GCVO QSO QC.
Government
The 40th New Zealand Parliament, led by the National Party, concluded, and in the general election the Labour Party was elected in the 41st New Zealand Parliament.
Speaker of the House – Richard Harrison then Basil Arthur
Prime Minister – Robert Muldoon then David Lange
Deputy Prime Minister – Duncan MacIntyre then Jim McLay then Geoffrey Palmer
Minister of Finance – Robert Muldoon then Roger Douglas
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Warren Cooper then David Lange
Chief Justice – Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – David Lange (Labour) until 26 July, then Robert Muldoon (National) until 29 November, then Jim McLay.
Social Credit Party – Bruce Beetham until 26 July, then not represented in Parliament.
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Ian Lawrence
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
27 January – A state of emergency is declared in Southland as record rainfall causes flooding which forces the evacuation of 4000 people and leaves damage totalling $55 million.
3–6 February – The fifth Sweetwaters Music Festival is held in Pukekawa, with the satellite Sweetwaters South held in Christchurch on 6 February.
6 February – Te Hikoi ki Waitangi march disrupts Waitangi Day celebrations.
27 March – A suitcase bomb explodes at the Wellington Trades Hall, killing the caretaker, Ernie Abbott. No arrest has been made, see Terrorism in New Zealand.
24 June – New Zealand's first IVF-conceived baby, Amelia Bell, is born at Auckland's National Women's Hospital.
14 July – 1984 general election: The Labour Party, led by David Lange, wins 56 of the 95 seats in the House of Representatives. The Fourth Labour Government is formed, ending 9 years of National rule.
18 July – Government devalues New Zealand dollar by 20 percent. See New Zealand constitutional crisis, 1984.
20 August – New Zealand reestablishes diplomatic relations with Argentina at a consular level.
Unknown dates
New Zealand signs the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women.
Auckland's population exceeds that of the South Island.
Arts and literature
Brian Turner wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1984 in art, 1984 in literature, :Category:1984 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Dance Exponents – Prayers be Answered
The Mockers – Swear It's True
Patsy Riggir – You'll Never Take The Country Out of Me
SINGLE OF THE YEAR The Narcs – You Took Me Heart and Soul
Pātea Māori Club and Dalvanius Prime – "Aku Raukura"
Dance Exponents – I'll Say Goodbye (Even Though I'm Blue)
TOP MALE VOCALIST Jordan Luck (Dance Exponents)
Andy Dickson (The Narcs)
Andrew Fagan (The Mockers)
TOP FEMALE VOCALIST Patsy Riggir
Jodi Vaughan
Suzanne Prentice
TOP GROUP Dance Exponents
The Mockers
Pātea Māori Club and Dalvanius Prime
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Martin Phillips (The Chills)
Ross McKenzie (The Idles)
Wayne Gillespie
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Meryl Yvonne
Janice Lampen
Sharon Dubont
MOST PROMISING GROUP The Chills
Jive Bombers
You're A Movie
BEST JAZZ ALBUM Brian Smith Quartet – Southern Excursio
Ken Avery/ Darktown Strutters – Jazz The Way It Used to Be
Rodger Fox – Something Juicy
BEST COUNTRY ALBUM Patsy Riggir – You'll Never Take the Country Out of Me
Suzanne Prentice – So Precious To Me
Jodi Vaughn – Rodeo Eyes
BEST CLASSICAL ALBUM NZSO & Others – Music By Larry Pruden
Michael Houston – Michael Houston
Schola Musica – NZ Music For Strings
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM Pātea Māori Club & Dalvanius Prime – "Aku Raukura"
The Five Stars – Musika Malie (Good Music)
Rosalio – Samoan Serenade
BEST FOLK ALBUM Phil Garland – Springtime in the Mountains
Michael Warmuth – Hammered Duclimer
Wayne Gillespie – Wayward Son
PRODUCER OF THE YEAR Dave MCartney – You Took Me Heart & Soul
Glyn Tucker Jnr / Trevor Reekie – Swear It's True
Glyn Tucker Jnr / Trevor Reekie – You Fascinate
ENGINEER OF THE YEAR Graham Myhre – You Took Me Heart & Soul
Graham Myhre/ Gyn Tucker Jnr – Caught in the Act
Glyn Tucker Jnr – You Fascinate
BEST COVER DESIGN Joe Wylie – Aku Raukura (Pātea Māori Club)
Murray Vincent – Music By Larry Purden
Mike Hutton – Vocal at the Local
BEST MUSIC VIDEO Bruce Morrison – I'm in Heaven
William Keddell – Elephunk in My Soup
Tom Parkinson – I'll Say Goodbye (Even Though I'm Blue) (Dance Exponents)
BEST FILM SOUNDTRACK Jenny Mcleod – The Silent One
Mike Nock – Strata
John Charles/ Dave Fraser – Constance
INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Tim Finn
Dragon
Split Enz
OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION TO THE MUSIC INDUSTRY Eldred Stebbing – (For his Lifelong Contribution to the Recording Arts in New Zealand)
Jacqui Fitzgerald
Peter Blake & TVNZ
MOST POPULAR SONG The Narcs – You Took Me Heart and Soul
See: 1984 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to John Maybury Senior.
Radio and television
See: 1984 in New Zealand television, 1984 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Came a Hot Friday
Constance
Other Halves
The Silent One
Vigil
The Bounty
See: :Category:1984 film awards, 1984 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1984 films
Sport
Athletics
Barry Thompson wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:19:03 on 25 March in Wanganui, while Mary Belsey does the same in the women's championship (2:41:39).
Basketball
NBL won by Wellington.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Camelot
Auckland Trotting Cup: Enterprise
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of 130 competitors across 18 sports.
Winter Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of six alpine skiers.
Paralympic Games
Summer Paralympics
Winter Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of eight competitors in one sport.
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Peter Cromwell (Cheltenham)
Soccer
New Zealand National Soccer League won by Gisborne City
The Chatham Cup is won by Manurewa who beat Gisborne City 2–1 in the final.
Births
27 January: Vince Mellars, rugby league player.
14 February: Jared Wrennall, musician.
17 February: Timothy Gudsell, cyclist.
21 February: Andy Ellis, rugby union player.
25 February: Paul Vodanovich, soccer player.
8 March: Ross Taylor, cricketer.
16 March: Hosea Gear, rugby union player.
25 March: Liam Messam, rugby union and rugby sevens player.
2 April: Meryl Cassie, actor.
6 April: Stacey Carr, field hockey player.
20 April: Fraser Anderson, rugby league player.
28 May: Beth Allen, actor.
2 June: Jack Afamasaga, rugby league player.
6 June: Antonia Prebble, actor.
7 June: Jennyfer Jewell, actor.
20 June: Jarrod Smith, soccer player.
27 June: Emma Lahana, actor.
28 June: Evarn Tuimavave, rugby league player.
13 July: Gareth Williams, actor
14 July: Fleur Saville, actor.
6 August: Jesse Ryder, cricketer.
12 September: Ben Townley, motocrosser.
6 October: Valerie Adams, athlete, Olympic gold medallist (2008 Beijing and 2012 London)
23 November: Jerome Ropati, rugby league player.
14 December: Keshia Paulse, singer.
Vicki Lin, television presenter.
:Category:1984 births
Deaths
23 January: Dean Goffin, composer
6 March: Ian Cromb, cricketer
20 March: Robin Tait, discus thrower
28 April: Sylvia Ashton-Warner, writer and educator
13 June: Ken Armstrong, soccer player
15 June: Tom Heeney, boxer
21 July: Adam Adamson, former mayor of Invercargill
13 September: Lois White, painter
26 November: Eliot V. Elliott, trade unionist
9 December: Guthrie Wilson, novelist and teacher (in Sydney)
References
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Brandon Wade Hein (born February 17, 1977) was sentenced to life imprisonment without possibility of parole for his involvement in the 1995 stabbing murder of 16-year-old Jimmy Farris, the son of a Los Angeles Police Department officer.
Hein and two other youths who were present when the murder took place, as well as the actual killer, and were convicted under the felony murder rule because the murder was committed during the course of a felony – the attempted robbery of marijuana kept for sale by Farris's friend, Michael McLoren.
Under the felony murder rule, any participant in a felony is criminally responsible for any death that occurs during its commission. In 2009, Hein's life sentence was commuted to 29 years to life.
A documentary film called Reckless Indifference was made about the murder, trial and resulting prison sentences. Hein was the only defendant interviewed in the film and has received the bulk of media attention, while equally heavy sentences were handed out to other defendants. His conviction has courted much controversy, as some feel that the life sentence was overly harsh and politically motivated, while others feel that his involvement justified the sentence.
On May 2, 2017, a book chronicling the Farris case, "One Cut" by Eve Porinchak, was released by Simon & Schuster.
In October 2019, Hein was granted parole. He is expected to be released from prison by summer 2020.
Fistfight and murder
On May 22, 1995, five youths ranging in age from 15 to 18 were drinking alcohol and cruising in a pickup truck around Agoura Hills, a suburban town in Los Angeles County, California. Less than an hour before the stabbing, one of the five, Jason Holland, 18, grabbed a wallet from an unlocked vehicle in the parking lot of a public park, an act witnessed by the wallet's owner, a mother playing in the park with her children. Shortly thereafter, she recognized the truck and confronted the five, demanding and receiving her wallet back in the face of their threats and intimidation. This theft and intimidation was used to support the prosecution's contention that the five were still acting in concert at the time of the murder.
Looking for marijuana, the five drove to the home of Michael McLoren, who was known to sell marijuana from a desk drawer in a ramshackle one-room "fort" in his backyard. A key factor in the murder trial was whether the five intended to buy marijuana or to steal it. McLoren, 17, and his friend, Jimmy Farris, 16, were in the yard outside the fort when four of the five youths hopped the fence, with Micah Holland, 15, leading the way. Micah entered the fort and Anthony Miliotti, 17, physically the largest of the group, stood in the doorway. Their entry to the property drew an additional charge of burglary.
Jason Holland testified he was drunk and lagging behind the others and did not see how the argument between his brother Micah and McLoren started. As he entered, the two dropped their heads and started fighting. Brandon Hein, 18, jumped into the fight, as did Jason, who says he was trying to get the bigger McLoren off his brother Micah's back. Jason opened a folding pocketknife and "pricked" McLoren twice in the back to get him off his brother, then stabbed him in the chest. When Farris entered the fort to help McLoren, Jason stabbed him twice and Hein punched him in the head and face. McLoren survived his wounds but Farris died in the emergency room. When Jason Holland learned from his mother that he was wanted for murder, he went into hiding but several weeks later voluntarily surrendered.
The following description of the fight and stabbing is from the "Summary of Facts and Proceedings" in the January 29, 2001 California Court of Appeal findings. Note that the term "appellants" excludes Christopher Velardo, 17, owner of the pickup truck, who remained in the truck throughout the incident and was tried separately.At approximately 7:00 p.m. McLoren and Farris were in the McLoren backyard in the immediate vicinity of the fort. Without permission or invitation, all appellants as a group entered the McLoren backyard by hopping over a fence. Micah Holland (Micah) and Miliotti entered first. Jason and Hein followed approximately ten to fifteen feet behind Micah and Miliotti. Micah immediately entered the fort and Miliotti stood in the doorway. Appellants did not have permission or invitation to enter the fort. There had not been prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana between McLoren and appellants.
Appellant Jason was carrying a folding pocketknife. There is no evidence that appellants Micah, Hein, or Miliotti carried weapons or that any of them knew Jason carried a pocketknife.
Appellant Micah unsuccessfully attempted to pull open the locked desk drawer. Next, appellants Micah and Hein, in a threatening manner, shouted words demanding that McLoren turn over the key to the locked desk drawer. Appellant Micah, when threatening McLoren and demanding the key, shouted, “Give me the key fool” and “Give me the key, ese. You want shit with Gumbys, ese?” McLoren refused to relinquish the key.
Appellants Micah, Jason and Hein then verbally and physically assaulted McLoren. The intensity and violence of the battle escalated. McLoren held Micah face down on a bed and elbowed him about the back and neck. Jason attempted to pull McLoren off of Micah. McLoren kicked Jason in the face. McLoren then heard appellant Jason say, “Let's get this fucker.” While being held in a headlock, McLoren twice felt sharp, debilitating, pulsating sensations, which later proved to be multiple stab wounds. Jason admitted stabbing McLoren.
After McLoren was stabbed, Farris entered the fort and became involved in the melee. Farris confronted Jason, who turned and, without hesitation, stabbed Farris twice in the torso. Immediately thereafter, McLoren observed Hein beating Farris in the head and face with his fists. Farris did not resist or otherwise defend himself from the blows administered by Hein.
Both McLoren and Farris broke away from the fight and ran to McLoren's house. They each reported to McLoren's mother that “. . . they (appellants) came to get our stuff . . .” and had stabbed them. Mrs. McLoren saw a stab wound in the center of Farris’ chest.
Witnesses observed appellants together leaving the McLoren yard, being met by
the Velardo pickup truck and driving away in Velardo's pickup truck. A witness testified that he observed the four appellants on the street as they left the McLoren backyard apparently talking among themselves and smiling.
Charges
Christopher Velardo, 17, who remained outside in the truck throughout the incident, was charged and tried separately.
Micah Holland, 15, Brandon Hein, 18, and Anthony Miliotti, 17, as well as the actual killer Jason Holland, 18, were charged with burglary, attempted robbery, and murder committed during the course of a burglary and an attempted robbery, and with attempted willful, deliberate, premeditated murder of McLoren.
All four were charged with felony murder because the murder was committed during the course of a felony, the alleged attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana.
California law allows felony murder charges to be "enhanced" by special circumstances if the murder is committed during the commission of certain other crimes, among them robbery and burglary. The special circumstances of robbery and burglary were both alleged in this case. Murders under special circumstances require the imposition of the death penalty or life without possibility of parole.
Trial
The severity of the charges polarized the small town of Agoura Hills and attracted international attention.
The case was heard in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County in Malibu, California, with Judge Lawrence Mira presiding.
The issue of the defendants' intent when entering the McLoren property and during the events at the fort was critical and hotly contested throughout the trial. The defendants said they had gone to the fort to buy, not steal, marijuana that day, so there was no burglary or attempted robbery. McLoren, testifying as a prosecution witness under promise of immunity from prosecution on drug charges, said there had been no prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana.
Testimony about the earlier wallet theft was introduced, with Judge Mira instructing the jury that it could be considered only to determine if it tended to show the criminal intent required for the offenses charged later that day.
The prosecution said that both incidents were alike, in that they were theft-type offenses involving group action and intimidating conduct by members of the group.
Extensive media coverage before the trial had suggested that the defendants were members of Gumbys, a local street gang. In pre-trial proceedings, Judge Mira found that there was insufficient evidence that the defendants were gang members and excluded any evidence of gang membership. Notwithstanding this ruling, during cross-examination the prosecution twice asked Jason Holland about Gumbys, including asking him if he was a member. Judge Mira instructed the jury to ignore these questions. During closing arguments, the prosecution again strongly suggested the existence of gang activity. These suggestions of gang activity were brought up in the defendants' later appeal as prejudicial misconduct that deprived them of their right to a fair trial.
Jason Holland admitted stabbing both McLoren and Farris.
On May 28, 1996 the jury found the four defendants guilty of burglary, attempted robbery, and murder committed during the course of a burglary and an attempted robbery, that is, felony murder. In addition, Jason Holland was convicted of assault with a deadly weapon. The jury also found the allegations of special circumstances to be true, and found the murder, burglary and attempted robbery to be of the first degree.
Sentences
The four were sentenced to state prison as follows:
Jason Holland - life without possibility of parole plus eight years.
Brandon Hein - life without possibility of parole plus four years.
Tony Miliotti - life without possibility of parole plus four years.
Micah Holland - 29 years to life.
Christopher Velardo pleaded guilty separately to voluntary manslaughter and conspiracy to commit robbery and was sentenced to eleven years. Velardo was released from prison in 2000.
Supporters
The case attracted international attention and support, due largely to media coverage of the charges, the application of the felony murder rule, and the long sentences imposed.
Director William Gazecki made a documentary film called Reckless Indifference about the murder, trial and resulting prison sentences.
In his film, Gazecki argues that the defendants received an unfair trial and overly harsh sentences.
A bill by former California state senator Tom Hayden to revise California's felony murder rule died in the Senate.
Actor Charles Grodin wrote and directed a sympathetic play, The Prosecution of Brandon Hein.
In 2005 Gazecki was a guest speaker at California State University Los Angeles, where his film was shown to Soren Kerk's sociology class with the question in mind, "What is Justice?"
Detractors
Although the crime occurred outside his jurisdiction (in Los Angeles County, not in the city of Los Angeles), Los Angeles police chief Willie Williams wrote to Judge Mira recommending the maximum punishment for all four defendants: life in prison without the possibility of parole.
In an interview with Farris' parents his mother asks, ”How much is too much time for killing someone? For taking away and changing our lives completely, forever?”
Controversy
Supporters of the defendants as well as opponents of the felony murder rule have expressed various concerns and criticisms.
Regarding the charges
According to William Gazecki and other critics, the prosecutor's office was spurred to lay the heaviest possible charges by the victim's father, an LAPD officer; and says that if the victim had not been a police officer's son the felony murder rule would never have been applied. In a CBS 60 Minutes II segment, a spokesman for the defendants' families charges that the boys were punished not for what they did, but for who was killed. The spokesman says, "It's about a police officer's son who died. And the only way they could convict all these kids was use the felony murder rule." James Farris Sr., the victim's father, says "The fact that I'm a policeman has nothing to do with anything. I just happen to be a policeman whose son was murdered. That's it."
The felony murder rule itself has been criticized as unjust and offensive to the basic notion of fairness, since all participants in the underlying felony are punished equally regardless of their role, or lack of a role, in the murder. Supporters of the rule regard it as an example of strict liability, whereby a person who chooses to commit a crime is considered absolutely responsible for all the possible consequences of that action.
The application of the felony murder rule in this case was also questioned by those who did not agree that an underlying felony, the attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana, had actually taken place.
Regarding the trial
Critics have accused the Los Angeles district attorney's office of being less interested in justice than in making up for their embarrassing high-visibility loss in the murder trial of O. J. Simpson a few months earlier.
The fact that the victim's father was an LAPD officer also generated suspicions that the district attorney's office was pressured for convictions, with Farris Sr. supposedly enjoying extraordinary access to authorities and attorneys, and using his influence to gain favors for the prosecution. Farris says in the film he never was present while prosecutors interviewed witnesses, while Deputy District Attorney Jeff Semow says that Farris "may have been present."
To prove felony murder, the prosecution had to prove that an underlying felony had taken place, the attempted robbery of McLoren's marijuana. On the witness stand as a prosecution witness, McLoren testified that there had been no prior arrangement for the sale of marijuana. Before he testified, the prosecution had given him immunity from prosecution for selling drugs, a fact not known to the jury.
Extensive pre-trial media coverage available to the pool of potential jurors suggested that the defendants were gang members. Judge Mira found that there was insufficient evidence of gang membership, and ruled that no evidence of this type was allowed in the trial. Notwithstanding this ruling, the prosecution several times asked questions about gang membership or otherwise suggested to the jury the existence of gang activity. After each suggestion, the judge instructed the jury to ignore it, a process likened by some critics to "trying to unring a bell". Interviewed in Reckless Indifference, Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz says the prosecutors "terrorized" the jury into believing the defendants were violent gang members.
Regarding the sentences
The sentences – 29 years to life for Micah Holland, life without possibility of parole for Hein, Miliotti, and Jason Holland – have been widely criticised as out of proportion to the nature of the crimes. Dershowitz calls the sentence "disproportional, outrageous, unconstitutional and immoral."
Appeals
State appeals
An appeal of the convictions and sentences to the California Court of Appeal for the Second District charged prosecutors with misconduct and presenting inadmissible evidence, including alleging that the defendants belonged to the Gumbys street gang. Among other things, the appeal also alleged that it was improper to present the earlier wallet theft to the jury; that the prosecution engaged in egregious personal attacks on defense counsel; and that the verdicts were inconsistent. It further alleged juror misconduct, judicial bias, and faulty instructions to the jury.
Defending the sentences, Deputy District Attorney Victoria Bedrossian argued that while only Jason Holland wielded the knife, the defendants acted "in concert."
"Each appellant was a major participant who acted with reckless indifference to Jimmy Farris' life," Bedrossian said. "The sentences in this case do not offend fundamental notions of human dignity and the penalties in this case should not be changed."
On 29 January 2001 the California Court of Appeal ruled that "In order to warrant reversal, it must be determined that the alleged misconduct has prejudiced appellants’ right to a fair trial. In this case, the evidence against appellants was overwhelming." The Court affirmed the convictions and sentencing of Jason Holland, Brandon Hein and Micah Holland. The special circumstance finding against Anthony Miliotti, who stood and watched, was struck from the record and his crime reduced to second-degree murder, and his case sent back to the trial court for resentencing, resulting in a new sentence of nineteen years to life.
The California Supreme Court denied petitions for review on April 25, 2001.
Hein filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the United States Supreme Court, which was denied on October 1, 2001.
A petition for a writ of habeas corpus with the California Supreme Court was filed on September 23, 2002, which was summarily denied on May 12, 2004.
Federal appeals
Following exhaustion of their appeals in state court, Hein, Miliotti, Micah and Jason Holland filed individual Petition for Writ of Habeas Corpus in the United States District Court for the Central District of California in May and July 2004. The petitions raised identical, overlapping, and separate claims: Brady violations, prosecutorial misconduct, ineffective assistance of counsel, improper exclusion or admission of evidence, juror misconduct, judicial misconduct, cruel and unusual punishment, and arbitrary and capricious sentence reduction. On April 3, 2007, the United States magistrate judge assigned to the case filed a joint Report and Recommendation, recommending that the petitions be denied. All four appellants filed objections to the Magistrate's report, but the United States District Judge adopted the Report and Recommendation without modification. Each appellant then requested a Certificate of Appealability to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which were all granted in whole or in part by the District Court. On January 17, 2008, the Ninth Circuit Court granted a motion to consolidate the appeals of the four appellants.
On October 7, 2009 the appeals were heard by a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Attorneys for the four alleged false testimony by McLoren and misconduct by the prosecution, including failure to disclose evidence favorable to the defense.
On April 12, 2010 the appeals were denied, with the court acknowledging some instances of prosecutorial misconduct but saying their combined effect, along with the nondisclosure of McLoren's immunity, was not sufficient to render the trial fundamentally unfair.
On May 26, 2010 attorneys for Hein, Miliotti, and Jason Holland filed a "Joint Petition for Rehearing En Banc." Attorneys for Micah Holland filed a separate "Petition for Rehearing En Banc." In the petitions, the attorneys argue that the April 12 opinion by the three-judge panel "conflicts with a well-settled body of law within the Ninth Circuit," and that "En banc review is necessary to secure and maintain the uniformity of this Court's decisions."
On July 16, 2010, the three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court issued an order stating that "The full court has been advised of the petitions for rehearing en banc and no judge has requested a vote on whether to rehear the matter en banc. The petitions for panel rehearing and the petitions for rehearing en banc are denied."
On November 15, 2010, attorneys for the four petitioners filed a petition for a writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States. The petition was denied on April 18, 2011.
Commutation to 29 years to life with the possibility of parole
On March 17, 2009, Hein's sentence was commuted by Governor Schwarzenegger, from life without possibility of parole plus four years, to 29 years to life with the possibility of parole. Hein's "Initial Suitability Hearing" is scheduled for October 30, 2019.
Current status
Brandon Hein, Micah Holland, and Jason Holland remain in prison. Their legal appeals have been exhausted. Miliotti appeared before the Board of Parole Hearings on April 28, 2011. The board found that Miliotti was "not yet suitable for parole and would pose an unreasonable risk of danger or a threat to public safety if released from prison," and gave him a ten-year denial. However, under Marsy's Law, a life inmate who is denied parole may, in three year intervals, request that his or her hearing be moved to an earlier date.
Miliotti filed a petition to advance which was approved and his next hearing was advanced from ten to seven years. His "Subsequent Parole Consideration Hearing" took place on March 8, 2018. The parole board found that, "Mr. Miliotti does not pose an unreasonable risk of danger to society or threat to public safety and is therefore suitable for parole."
On December 24, 2018, Governor Edmund G. Brown, Jr. commuted Jason Holland's sentence, from life without the possibility of parole plus eight years, to 30 years to life.
Micah Holland appeared before the Board of Parole Hearings on March 13, 2019. He was denied parole and given a seven year denial.
Bill under consideration would require re-sentencing
As of August 16, 2018, a bill which would reduce the broad scope allowed in charging "special circumstances" has been approved by the California Senate and awaits action by the Assembly. The bill would restrict the charging of special circumstances to only those who actually commit murder or who are directly involved, and would require re-sentencing of offenders such as Hein.
See also
Felony murder and the death penalty
References
External links
Hein's web site - "Life in Prison: The Felony Murder Rule in California"
Brandon Hein blog maintained by his parents
YouTube - CBS 60 Minutes news article on Brandon Hein
Brandon Hein Case - Newspaper Articles
Living people
American people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by California
American murderers of children
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by California
1977 births
Place of birth missing (living people) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Hein |
The following lists events that happened during 1986 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,313,500.
Increase since 31 December 1985: 10,400 (0.31%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.9.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 41st New Zealand Parliament continued. The fourth Labour Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Gerard Wall
Prime Minister – David Lange
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer
Minister of Finance – Roger Douglas
Minister of Foreign Affairs – David Lange
Chief Justice – Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim McLay (National) until 26 March, then Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Ian Lawrence then Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
16 February – Soviet cruise ship Mikhail Lermontov sinks in the Marlborough Sounds.
22 February–2 March – The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visit New Zealand.
26 March – Jim Bolger replaces Jim McLay as leader of the National Party.
21 June – The Wanganui Herald publishes its last issue. The paper started in 1865 as The Evening Herald.
9 July – Parliament passes the Homosexual Law Reform Bill, 49 votes to 44; the law comes into effect on 8 August.
1 October – GST is introduced at a rate of 10%.
22 November – Pope John Paul II visits New Zealand for two days.
December – The Royal Commission on the Electoral System produces a report recommending the adoption of a mixed member proportional electoral system.
13 December – The Constitution Act is passed, ending the right of the British Parliament to pass laws on behalf of New Zealand.
16 December – Māori loan affair raised by Winston Peters in Parliament.
Arts and literature
Cilla McQueen wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1986 in art, 1986 in literature, :Category:1986 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Peking Man – Peking Man
The Verlaines – Halleujah
Patsy Riggir – Patsy Riggir Country
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Peking Man – "Room That Echoes"
Ardijah – Give Me Your Number
Patea Maori Club featuring Dalvanius – E Papa
BEST MALE VOCALIST Pat Urlich
Malcolm McNeill
Sonny Day
BEST FEMALE VOCALIST Margaret Urlich
Betty Monga
Annie Crummer
BEST GROUP Peking Man
The Patea Maori Group
Satellite Spies
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Tex Pistol
Simon Alexandra
Lyonel Grant
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Tania Rowles
Ainsley Day
Liz Diamond
MOST PROMISING GROUP Ardijah
Chrome Safari
Wentworth Brewster & Co
INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Herbs
The Chills
Michael Roy Croft
BEST VIDEO Kerry Brown – As The Sun Goes Down (Everything that Flies)
Stuart Dryborough – Good Luck To You
Fetus Productions/MEC – Flicker
BEST PRODUCER Bruce Lynch – Peking Man
Ryan Monga/ Dave McArtney/ Trevor Reekie – Give Me Your Number (Ardijah)
Glyn Tucker – I Wish I'd Asked – (Satellite Spies)
BEST ENGINEER Graeme Myhre – Peking Man
Ian Morris – Ballad of Buskin Bob
Paul Streekstra/Graham Myhre – Give Me Your Number
Graham Myhre – Drive Baby Drive
BEST JAZZ ALBUM Phil Broadhurst Trio–Iris
John Niland – Inside
Alan Broadbent Trio – Further Down The Road
BEST CLASSICAL ALBUM NZ Symphony Orchestra – A Song of Islands
Besser & Prosser – Dark Wind/Spring Rain
Eugene & Nicolai Albulescu – Rhapsody
Mina Foley / Michael Gifford – Mina Foley / Michael Gifford
BEST COUNTRY ALBUM Patsy Riggir – Patsy Riggir Country
Suzanne Prentice – In Concert
Michael Roy Croft – Slow Burnin'
BEST FOLK ALBUM Various Artists – Send The Boats Away
Chris and Lyn Thompson – Together
Boys of Spirit NZ Trust – Sea Shanties
BEST GOSPEL ALBUM Samoan Congregational Christian Church Choir – Matou Te Fia Sauna
Paul and Colleen Trenwith and Friends – Brand New Day
Ray Watson – Asaph -Throne of Love
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM The Five Stars – Flower of Samoa
O Savali A Keriso – E Le Mavae Le Alofa
Mahia Blackmore – Little Tui
BEST SONG OF THE YEAR Dave Dobbyn – Slice of Heaven
Ryan Monga – Give Me Your Number
Dance Exponents – Caroline Skies
BEST COVER Phil O'Reilly – Peking Man
Ngila Dickson – As the Sun Goes Down
Paula & Graham Reid – This Sporting Life
See: 1986 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Johnny Bond.
Radio and television
The State Owned Enterprises Act requires all State-owned enterprises, including Television New Zealand, to operate as commercially successful businesses.
See: 1986 in New Zealand television, 1986 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Mark II
Pallet on the Floor
Queen City Rocker
See: :Category:1986 film awards, 1986 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1986 films
Sport
Athletics
John Campbell wins his second national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:15:19 on 1 June in Christchurch, while Sharon Higgins claims her first in the women's championship (2:45:44).
Commonwealth Games
Cricket
New Zealand achieve historic test series wins over Australia and England.
Their 1–0 victory over Alan Border's Australians in February/March 1986 was their first series win over Australia at home with a 5 wicket win in the third test at Eden Park. This followed on from their 2-1 series win in Australia in November/December 1985, where Richard Hadlee took a record 33 wickets in three tests.
In June/July 1986 New Zealand achieved their first test series win in England, 1-0, winning the second test at Trent Bridge.
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Master Mood
Auckland Trotting Cup: Comedy Lad
Shooting
Ballinger Belt –
Mark Buchanan (Australia)
Chester Burt (Ashhurst), second, top New Zealander
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by North Shore United who beat Mount Maunganui 4–2 on aggregate in the two-legged final.
Births
2 January: Nathan Cohen, rower, Olympic gold medallist (2012 London)
15 January: Isaia Toeava, rugby player.
29 January: Steven Broad, singer.
13 February: Hamish Bond, rower, Olympic gold medallist (2012 London)
17 February: Steven Old, soccer player.
4 March: Manu Vatuvei, rugby league player.
5 March: Sean Eathorne, cricketer.
17 March (in South Africa): Corney Swanepoel, swimmer.
4 April: Richard Petherick, field hockey player.
20 April: Cameron Duncan, director and screenwriter (d. 2003)
21 April (in Australia): Ryan Kersten, basketballer.
5 May: Cole Tinkler, soccer player.
6 May: Tanerau Latimer, rugby player
15 May: Jo Aleh, sailor, Olympic gold medallist (2012 London)
4 September: Michael Murphy, singer.
16 September: Willie Lonsdale, cricketer.
24 September: Todd Astle, cricketer.
30 September: Martin Guptill, cricketer.
7 October: Amy Satterthwaite, cricketer.
14 October: Teresa Bergman, singer.
:Category:1986 births
Deaths
25 January: Dennis Smith, cricketer.
24 April: Garnet Mackley, businessman and politician.
16 May: Joe Bootham, painter.
19 May: Leonard Trent, RNZAF pilot and Victoria Cross winner.
27 June: George Nēpia, rugby player.
10 August: Don McRae, cricketer and soccer player.
11 August: Peter Mahon, Queen's Counsel, judge.
25 September: Geoff Alley, rugby player, National Librarian.
References
See also
History of New Zealand
List of years in New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Almonte is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, in southwestern Spain. According to the 2022 census, it had a population of 25,448 inhabitants, ranking third within its province, just after Huelva, the capital city and Lepe. With its 859.21 km2 (33174 sq mi), it is the 19th largest municipality in Spain, with a population density of 27/km2. Its elevation is 75 m (246 ft) over sea level and it is 50 km far from Huelva.
Almonte is recognised worldwide thanks to the village of El Rocío, which had a great influence in the American Wild West culture and hosts one of the most popular pilgrimages in the world. Most of the Doñana National Park, which is Europe’s largest natural reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and the longest beach in Spain, which includes the popular Matalascañas beach, are also in Almonte. Moreover, it is one of Spain's top organic fruit exporters and the first blueberry exporter in Europe.
History
Prehistory
The region of Tartessia existed since the Chalcolithic, with river Tartessos (later renamed Baetis by Romans). There are remains left from the Bronze Age in Almonte, including Tartessian metallic tools by the San Bartolomé stream, in the northern part of Almonte's territory. It is thought that this Tartessian village had two different golden ages, one of them during the Chalcolithic and another one during the late Bronze Age, from the 9th and 6th centuries BC. The typical architecture from that age included the oval-shaped huts dug on the ground and made of sticks and mud. This settlement may have had an active trading with Greeks and phoenicians and was called San Bartolomé de Almonte, next to the current town and the ancient (Ligustinian Lake), which covered most of the territory between Seville and Cádiz, and dried completely in 700BC.
Ancient history
There are also remains of Roman presence in the area, with an ancient settlement called Alostigi which existed during the 5th century BC and could have been located where the current town of Almonte is. Archaeologists George Bonsor and Adolf Schulten, in their search for Atlantis, discovered remains of a garum fishing factory and a settlement near Cerro del Trigo (Spanish for wheat hill), which is nowadays part of Doñana. At least 15 other factories have been found throughout Almonte's coast, along with a Roman necropolis and coins dating from centuries 5th and 2nd BC.
The above-mentioned Ligustinian Lake, which was used for sea trading by Tartessian people, had been drying over time until becoming the current Guadalquivir's delta as the only major navigable connection to the Atlantic.
Middle Ages
The current town of Almonte was officially established during the 8th century AD with the name of Al-Yabal (literally, "the Mount") and was part of the Taifa of Niebla. The Umayyads were the first to tame and breed the wild horses which had inhabited the area for centuries, and were later registered as a protected species.
Almonte was reconquered by the nordics at the beginning of the 13th century, being taken over by the Crown of Castile, as a protectorate. After a major Muslim rebellion, the territory was absorbed by the Kingdom of Seville.
King Alfonso X "The Wise", wrapped up in the legend of a hunter who found the Virgin Mary deep within Woods of Las Rocinas, ordered to build in 1270 the first sanctuary devoted to Saint Mary of Las Rocinas, later becoming the worldwide-known Virgin of El Rocío. The statue of the Virgin of El Rocío is an anonymous gothic carved wood sculpture dating from the 12th century. The current version has sufferend some remodelling during the Baroque period.
In 1335, nobleman becomes owner of Almonte, which was already independent from the County of Niebla, established in 1369. In the 14th century, Almonte and Niebla went to war for territorial reasons. The conflict ended when the Duke of Medina Sidonia established the frontiers, becoming owners of Almonte, while being at the same time Counts of Niebla and Sanlúcar, neighbouring town.
Modern history
Trading flourished in Almonte during the discovery of America, when Christopher Columbus set sail from the neighbouring port of Palos de la Frontera and goods were transported from Seville. Olive oil was the main export from Almonte and the bustle of traders boosted the interest towards the Virgin of El Rocío and its sanctuary and picturesque village in the middle of the woods. Almonte exerted cultural influence over the American colonies, especially in the Wild West architecture and horse breeding. The typical sandy unpaved roads and the wooden hitching rails to tie horses up were already present in the village of El Rocío and most likely exported to the United States. The Mustang horse breed was also brought over from the surrounding areas, its name being derived from the Spanish "mostrenco" (meaning "wild"), a term which also applies to a local (cow breed from Almonte).
In the 16th century the duke purchased the surrounding woods of Las Rocinas, named after the homonymous stream that ends at the village of El Rocío, doubling its territory and becoming a coastal municipality. These woods would later become a Royal forest by order of the King and later renamed Doñana after the duchess of Medina Sidonia, Doña Ana de Silva. The Spanish monarchs would visit Doñana on a regular basis and finally established an official residence in the (Palace of Doñana).
In 1583 Almonte purchased Doñana from the duke and the locals could finally expand farming, agricultural and fishing activities there. Landowners would manage the economy up to the 19th century, when the population was about 1,500 people.
In 1598 the Virgin was taken to Almonte for the first time ever, and later this displacement became usual every time the town faced a crisis (from natural disasters to wars). This same year, a Confraternity is officially established, the Hermandad Matriz (Spanish for Matrix Confraternity). "Saint Mary of Las Rocinas", official name for the Virgin of El Rocío became patron saint of Almonte in 1653 and different surrounding towns affiliated to the Hermandad Matriz, becoming filial confraternities, the oldest ones being Villamanrique, Pilas, La Palma, Moguer and Sanlúcar. Over time, national and international confraternities would follow, including Belgium, Japan or Australia.
The Great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 swept away the entire Atlantic coast, including great parts of the city of Huelva and several fortified towers built on the coast to defend the shores. At least six of these towers were in Almonte and still remain standing, except for Torre de la Higuera (literally "fig tree tower"), which is upside down and is often referred to as a touristic symbol for the town. The sanctuary of El Rocío was damaged too and had to be rebuilt.
During the 18th and 19th centuries people from Almonte made a living with agricultural (chiefly olive grove and vineyard) and farming activities (horse, goat, sheep, pig and bees). Being one of the most extense municipal territories in Spain, its inhabitants have never lacked resources.
In 1810, during the war against France, French captain Pierre D'Oisseaux was executed in Almonte. The event brought about a response involving 1,000 French soldiers heading towards the town from the city of Seville. Unable to resist such an attack, the locals took the Virgin to town, praying for her intervention. The French troops would never arrive at Almonte and turned around at the time they were next to the neighbouring town of Pilas. People then decided to show their gratitude by celebrating an annual vow called "El Rocío Chico" (literally, the "small Rocío") every August. Several lands and properties were privatised and sold during the Spanish confiscation throughout the 19th century, boosting the number of farmers and landowners.
From 1949 on, it was established that the Virgin would be taken from her sanctuary in El Rocío to Almonte every seven years, spending nine months there. This event attracts hundreds of thousands of people to town, prompting a sophisticated security plan involving police, first aid rooms and ambulances, helicopters and firemen to ensure the festivity goes on correctly.
Within the 1940s large-scale reforestation policy in Spain, more than 30,000 hectares in Almonte were replanted with several species of blue gum, redgum, guayule, wattles and cypress. Other local species were also planted, like stone pine. 13 km south of Almonte, half between the town and the sea, a forest settlement called "Los Cabezudos" (Spanish for "the hillocks") was established. It had a school, church, doctor and several shops, being ahead of neighbouring towns regarding agricultural technology and drainage for its 300 inhabitants. These were engineers and foresters along with their families, whose job included wood, oil and cellulose extraction from trees in the factories.
Eminent people have visited the area over time, including the former Queen of Spain, who landed her helicopter in Cabezudos on her way to El Rocío in 1983. Cabezudos started to depopulate in the late 60s, ending up completely uninhabited in the late 80s. Most of the people moved to Almonte, the core town. Nowadays, Cabezudos is a ghost town in ruins within the surroundings of Doñana National Park and is therefore protected. A consensus on whether new uses can be given to the houses is currently held.
Almonte is internationally recognised today thanks to its emblematic village of El Rocío, the Doñana National Park (the largest nature reserve in Europe), its wide 50 km-length sandy beach (the longest in Spain) and its organic berry industry (one of the top exporters in Europe).
Demographics
Almonte's population boosted in the 60s, when foresters and their families left the forest settlements in the surrounding areas. Another boom started in the 2000s, due to the massive arrival of immigrants from 59 different nationalities, mainly Romania and Morocco. They make up nearly 20% of the total population (almost 5,000 people).
Almonte overtook Isla Cristina in 2007, becoming 3rd within the province's population rank, just after Huelva, the capital city and Lepe. Part of this increase is due to Matalascañas, Almonte's summer resort, which has a permanent population of nearly 3,000 people and the village of El Rocío, with around 1,700 inhabitants. Almonte's population increased by 1.19% per year between 2011 and 2014.
During the coronavirus pandemic, Almonte ranked 4th in population growing, just after Huelva, Palos and Lepe. This may have been due to people moving from big cities to the coast, looking for nature and less crowded places. Regarding the transient migrant population, which often goes beyond 15,000 people, cohabitation has developed with relative normality. In 2022 crime rate decreased by nearly 14%, with an average of 62 robberies, 40 burglaries and 3 car thefts; nearly all of them without violence.
Government and politics
Almonte's local government manages the three main urban areas in the municipality (town of Almonte, village of El Rocío and Matalascañas resort). This is a chart with the mayors in charge over the last hundred years.
The local government is made up of 21 councillors. Since democracy was established in 1978, PSOE is the one which has been in power for the longest time, while mayor Francisco Bella was its party chair. After two decades of political stability with Bella, who won in a five-term streak, there were two terms in which political parties of opposite ideologies teamed up to prevent Bella from regaining the government, even though he won the elections again. From 2011 to 2015, right-wing PP ruled with the cooperation of left-wing IU. The latter, at a regional level, sanctioned the two councillors who made it possible for PP to govern Almonte. In 2019, Bella won the elections again, this time with Ilusiona, his new political project. 61.63% of the adult population voted (10,153 people). There were 6,321 abstentions (38.7%). Ilusiona was the most voted party, with 3,513 votes, followed by PSOE (2,154) and PP (1,403). These two opposite parties and local party Mesa de Convergencia teamed up and Rocío del Mar Castellano (Mesa's candidate), with only 2 out of the 21 councillors, was invested mayoress. In the 2023 elections, Bella got a clear majority of votes, achieving a historical assignment of 12 councillors, which will allow him to lead a stable government that has an opportunity to manage such a demanding and complex administration as that of Almonte.
Owing to its extension and population increase over the second half of the 20th century, the government has faced multiple environmental, economic, social and demographic challenges. These include the waste derived from tourism that ends up polluting the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, including ditches, beaches and woods. During certain holidays, as in the summer, Matalascañas hosts more than 200,000 temporary inhabitants, mainly people from Seville and neighbouring towns, while more than one million people gather at El Rocío when the pilgrimage takes place in May. Almonte's urban core also hosts more than 200,000 people when the Virgin arrives and leaves every 7 years. Being one of the top organic fruit exporters in Europe, many paths, trails and even roads in Almonte are constantly used by all kind of agricultural vehicles of all sizes, make it difficult for hikers and bikers to enjoy nature in certain zones. There are nearly 15,000 seasonal workers as well, and many of them live in shacks or prefabricated modules, also endangering natural spaces. The international protected status of the Doñana National Park brings about constant agreements and polemics between Almonte's local government, regional government of Andalusia, the Spanish government and the European Union, mostly regarding sustainable watering of organic crops, pollution, hunting, etc.
Another main issue in the area is water. In spite of being a humid zone, illegal crops still remain in the area extracting subterranean water from the national park aquifer. Politicians often have to deal with European sanctions and create local legislation to control it. A desalination plant has also been proposed for watering crops and a water councillorship may be created in the near future.
Tourism and transport is another main issue that politics focus on. Being a main regional hub for neighbouring towns regarding work, leisure and holidays, more scheduled intercity transport is needed. Regular bus lines already operate to El Rocío and Matalascañas, but there is still need for transport with other towns concerning health services, leisure activities, etc.
In spite of having exceeded a population of 25,000 people, there are only three public health centres in the municipality, the main one in Almonte. Long queues and deficient attention are more frequent over time. The large migrant population contributes to the need of a new healthcare facility in town.
Geography
Boroughs
The urban area of Almonte has an extension of 3.2 km2 and a perimeter of 10.7 km. It can be divided into the following districts:
The Centre
The business and political centre has ended up being located in the north part of town, for the urban area has expanded more quickly towards the south. In this zone there is the town hall (a 17th-century building), the main square and the church (15th century), the museum, the theatre, the library, the music school, art gallery Jorge Camacho, the main fishmonger's, the court, the "Casino de La Paz" (social club and restaurant), the post office and the tourism office.
Northern area
This northern area has been expanded since the 60s and 70s and has been built around the road that exits town and head towards the northern part of Huelva, a mountain range. There are extense boulevards and wide pavements where many people walk and practice outdoor sport. The main sport centre is located here, with an area of 43,561m2, along with the two high schools, the park "Alcalde Mojarro" (46,500m2), the Wine Museum and the CIECEMA (a scientific centre which includes a high-tech astronomic observatory) and a rubber factory.
Western area
The western area of town has been growing since the 60s, when the urban area reached and overtook the road A-484 which comes from neighbouring town Bonares and was meant to end in Cádiz, turning a section of that road into an avenue called "Carretera del Rocío". This has become the main business street, being more than 1 km long and almost 30 metres wide. A roundabout with a statue of Alfonso X "The Wise" on top was installed in the late 2000s, breaking gridlock that worsened at rush hour with people getting in and out the town centre. Many restaurants, digital shops and other businesses have been opened in this avenue. The western zone also includes the health centre and several monuments like the one devoted to historian Lorenzo Cruz, the Winery Chimney Tower, the Discovery of America, the Bulls and the Sea Gate, the "Fuente de las Damas" park (which includes a cultural centre and a monument of an oil mill), two of the 5 petrol stations in the municipality and the bus station.
Eastern area
This area starts at the famous roundabout with the Monument to the Mares and includes the fairground, the Plaza de España square, the Padel centre, the Official Language School, the Flamenco school and the elderly's care home.Many grocery shops, cafés and other businesses are also here. It has wide streets with tree-covered pavements. It ends with the morgue and cemetery, 1 km far from town and road A-474 towards Seville.
Southern area
This is the area which has been growing the fastest. It includes the industrial estate "El Tomillar", with around 150 multipurpose units, another sport centre, a petrol station, the "Blas Infante" and the "Clara Campoamor" parks and a centre for public access to the Internet. This district is especially crowded in spring, during the pilgrimage of El Rocío, since its main street "Camino de Los Llanos" leads the way out of town towards the village of El Rocío. It is also a hot spot during the arrivals and leaves of the Virgin of El Rocío every seven years.
El Rocío and Matalascañas
The village of El Rocío, 15 km to the south, is a rectangular unpaved town next to a marsh, just in the limits of the Doñana National Park. All the streets are straight, except for the ones surrounding the sanctuary in the southern part. It has little more than 1,000 permanent inhabitants and basic services of education, health, police, etc. Its picturesque architectural style and horse culture was brought over to the American Wild West during the Age of discovery.
Finally, 26 km south from Almonte, in the Atlantic coast, the Matalascañas resort was built during the 50s. It consists of an urban area 4 km long and 1 km wide along the coast. Around 3,000 inhabitants live here permanently. From west to east, it starts with a lighthouse and the business centre. It consists mainly of detached one-floor houses with big gardens and swimming pools, most of them are taken for rent during the summer holidays. There are also tall residential flats, many 4-star hotels and restaurants, a golf course and wide turf spaces with a cycle lane throughout town.
Physical location
Almonte, as a municipality, is one of the largest in Spain and is located in southeastern Huelva, as part of the Costa de la Luz, which stretches from the Guadiana River to Tarifa, the southernmost point in Spain. Almonte's coast is the longest in Spain, with a 50 km straight uninterrupted sandy beach, from the archaeological ruins of the Torre del Río de Oro (literally, Tower of the Gold River) up to the Guadalquivir River. 28 of these 50 kilometers are protected as part of the Doñana National Park, and only 4 are urbanised, the ones at Matalascañas resort. Most of this coast is made up of semi-fossil dunes with low vegetation, without any rocky structure or cliff. The sand is light in colour and fine. However, along several kilometers between “Torre del Oro” and “Cuesta Maneli”, a 100-metre high dune cliff can be found. It’s “El Asperillo” and it’s the highest dune cliff in Europe, declared a Natural Monument of Andalusia.
Almonte is bordered by Bollullos to its north, Hinojos to its east, river Guadalquivir and Sanlúcar de Barrameda to it southeast, Rociana and Moguer to its west and the Atlantic Ocean to its south. It is located in the northern part of its municipality, 15 km north from the village of aldea del Rocío and 26 km from its coastal resort, Matalascañas.
Climate
This area has a combination of mediterranean and oceanic climate, due to its location near the limits of the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Being an extense territory, it has a variety of microclimates and an average temperature of 17 °C (62.6 °F). It has warm summers and winters, without the extreme variations that can be found in landlocked provinces of Spain. Rain is not usual, barely reaching 700mm a year.
Within Doñana, there is certain humidity in winter and little rain in summer, being a spot where polar fronts and subtropical high pressures combine. In Spring and Autumn, torrential rain may occur, while anticyclones may appear in winter.
Even though Almonte's average temperature is mild due to oceanic influence, there are heavy storms in the coast during winter which leave important damages to the seafront structures, like restaurants and pavements. The council spends large quantities of money to rebuild certain zones, sometimes more than a million euros.
Almonte received in 2022 an investment of more than 170 million euros to build PV pannels. These will be installed by American company Matrix Renewables and Spanish Rolwind, with more than 115,000 cutting-edge photo-voltaic cells which will make the area get on top position regarding renewable sources at a European level.
In 2022 the Spanish government announced an investment of more than 365 million euros to restore part of the Doñana National Park. The meeting between the Minister of Environment and the mayoress of Almonte was held at Almonte's theatre "Salvador Távora" the 30th of November 2022. The plan will focus on watering, biodiversity, territory and environmental awareness. Besides, the Regional Government of Andalusia, announced an investment of 900 million euros exclusively for sanitation and drainage.
Flora and fauna
In the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, several species, including endangered ones, can be found. Regarding flora, there is typical mediterranean scrub (sabins, bulrush, eucalyptus, pines, reeds, wattles, cork oaks, ferns, crowberries, palmettos, sedges, rosemary, brooms, thyme, junipers). Fauna includes the precious Iberian lynx, deers, wild boars, foxes, herons, mongooses, rabbits, ducks, eagles, hawks, griffon vultures, eels, pikes, snakes, lizards, and chameleons. Likewise, there are extensive areas of pine repopulated in the 1950s and of underbrush (with rockrose and multiple species of aromatics). Throughout its 122,000 hectares, microclimates and very different areas appear, from jungles in the purest tropical style to desert dunes, including wetlands, beaches, meadows, etc. Almonte was declared in July 2022 “Hub of European Biodiversity” by the World Biological Corridor, an international project with scientists, universities and different organisations involved.
Culture
Inhabited since prehistoric times and having reached the Atlantic coast with its territorial expansion during the Middle Ages, Almonte has its own definite customs and a rich heritage. Some of them are worldwide-known, as explained in the historical section. Different civilisations, from Tartessians to the nordics, without forgetting Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans, Visigoths and Muslims have all shaped the traditions that settled over the centuries, usually focused on its privileged natural resources. Nowadays, these cultural and natural elements still attract around a million people from all over the world, from tourists who enjoy its extensive shorelines to the highest personalities of the country, such as the presidents of the government and the Monarchy, who visit Almonte regularly and even have an official residence in there.
Historical heritage
From the Bronze Age to modernity, a wide variety of historical elements can be found in Almonte. They include the following:
Holocene fossil footprints and marks
In Almonte's shore, nearby "Pichilín" restaurant, several extinct ungulate's tracks were found on the clay substratum that lies beneath the sand. They date back from 100,000 BC. They can be observed only when the tide is low and the sand moves back. There is an environmental association called "Parque Dunar", which organises free guided tours that include historical and geological commentaries and a voluntary litter collection. In a recent research published by Quaternary Science Reviews and carried out by the University of Huelva, it has been confirmed that the humanoid footprints belong to Neanderthals.
Tartessian metallic remains
As mentioned in the history section, there are remains of a settlement of 40 hectares, with pottery and metallic tools (gold, silver, cupper and lead) nearby the San Bartolomé stream, as well as a 3-metre high oven. Almonte was one of the two main silver producers and traders in the area, along with Huelva.
Roman fishing factory at "Cerro del Trigo
These ruins can be observed inside the Doñana National Park. Adolf Schulten and Jorge Bonsor were searching for the legendary capital of Atlantis when they discovered them. But they were overlooked, as the archaeologists were frustrated for not being able to find Atlantis. Scientists from the university of Huelva reaffirmed in 1999 that it was a garum factory from the 2nd century AD, buried 18 feet under a dune. Amphoras and other recipients used to ferment fish could be recovered, being the most important discovery out of the 16 archaeological places found in the coast. Archaeologists are still finding remains today, including ovens and necropolises.
Fortified towers along the coast
King Philip II of Spain ordered the construction of a series of watchtowers during the 16th century to prevent invasions from the sea, given the multiple wars that Spain was waging at that moment. At least six of these towers are located within Almonte's territory. These are, from east to west: Torre del Río de Oro, Torre del Asperillo, Torre de la Higuera, Torre Carbonero, Torre Zalabar and Torre San Jacinto. All of them are declared Bien de Interés Cultural, a protected cultural status in Spain. The three first towers are in ruins, while the last three can be observed as they originally were. One of the watchtowers, Torre de la Higuera (literally, "Tower of the Fig Tree") is located at the beginning of the Matalascañas resort and has become a symbol for Almonte, often appearing in postcards and other touristic elements.
Church and town hall
From centuries 15th and 16th, respectively. There may have been a secret subterranean tunnel connecting both buildings, but it was never searched for. The current church is a Baroque extension of the original building, from which a chapel has remained untouched, containing a tombstone of a girl from the 6th century. The original building of the town hall had a single floor and was remodeled in 1612, being a second floor added six years later. A third floor completed the building in 1927.
World War II bunkers
There are several bunkers from World War II in the shore next to the delta of river Guadalquivir in different coastal points. A programme called "Descubre tus fortalezas" (literally "Discover your fortresses") organises guided tours to these remains, with historians, architects and archaeologists participating. The bunkers were built by order of Franco in 1943 in fear of being invaded by the allied troops during the North African campaign.
Almonte's flute and tabor
They are part of the musical tradition in Almonte and can be heard at any moment, but especially during the Pilgrimage of El Rocío. The typical flute is called "gaita rociera" and is made of high-quality wood. The drum is called "tamboril rociero" and is typically painted with the Andalusian flag. Handmade one tend to be rather expensive.
Wineries and oil mills
In the first half of the 20th century, there were 58 wineries and 10 oil mills in Almonte. Many of them have been restored and are currently used as either public offices or museums, restaurants, etc. Others are in ruins, but can be identified by their typical towers. Wineries emerged after the Spanish confiscation, using former religious buildings. During the 60s, Almonte stood out for its solera wine.
Palace of "El Acebrón
Nearby the stream of La Rocina, 5 km away from El Rocío, there is a neo-classical palace embedded in the woods, within the surroundings of the Doñana National Park. It was finished in 1961 as the private residence of eccentric aristocrat Luis Espinosa Fontdevila, whose initials are printed in relief on the front. After all the sumptuous parties and expensive works to complete the palace and its garden, he ended up broke, so he sold all the area to the government, which used it to plant eucalyptus and use its wood. The stairs that lead to the entrance door are made of the remains or a Roman road and red marble stairs lead to the second floor. A two-headed eagle decorates the stone chimney. Today it has become a centre for visitors, hosting a museum about the customs of the traditional inhabitants of the area. It includes mockups of the traditional huts and information about hunting, fishing, farming and modern uses of nartural resources. The rooftop terrace offers fantastic views of the pine woods. Along with the palace, visitors can hike using a circular wooden path deep within the woods, passing by a beautiful lake.
Local festivities
Almonte has a wide variety of traditional festivities and holidays, many of which are related to the Doñana National Park and the economic activities carried out over the centuries all along the municipality, from the northern town to the southern coast. Some of these customs date back to the Tartessian age. Although some of the most popular traditions have a religious origin, only a small percentage of the population in Almonte currently declare themselves religious and it is unusual to attend mass, as the average population in Spain.
Romería de El Rocío
It is the most popular holiday in Almonte, declared an International Touristic Holiday by the Spanish government in 1980 and gathering more than one million people in town. These visitors include pilgrims from around 120 national and foreign filial confraternities, which get to the temple of El Rocío from different points over the world, walking or by horse or car, to worship Almonte's patron saint, the Virgin of El Rocío. It is a 12th-century anonymous gothic wooden carved sculpture. From the 60s on, the number of regular visitors boosted, reaching its peak at a religious level with the visit of Pope John Paul II in 1993. In order to successfully organise such a massive event, a security planning called "Plan Romero" has been executed since 1983. These preventive measures are carried out by the town hall, the regional government and Almonte's confraternity in a synchronous way in Seville, Huelva and Cádiz, the three main provinces from which the confraternities come. It involves more than 6,000 professionals (police, medical services, firefighters, etc.) and AML and GPS technologies, becoming one of the most expensive security deployments in Europe. The confraternities that have been affiliating to Almonte over the last centuries include include Madrid (1961), Barcelona (1969), Toledo (1986), Valencia (1991), Gijón (1998), Argentina (1993), Brussels (2000) or Australia (2000s). Besides the religious aspect, there's a strong cultural and festive interest and many visitors who are not into any religious feelings and do not participate in the religious part, in spite of being part of the pilgrimage. There's an environmental interest too, for the last part of the journey to the village is through the Doñana National Park, the largest natural reserve in Europe. The holidays take an entire week for the local people of Almonte, with two key days: Wednesday, when the "Hermandad Matriz" (Almonte's confraernity) makes the pilgrimage from Almonte to El Rocío and Monday, when the Virgin is taken out from the temple to tour the village.
La Venida de la Virgen
From 1589 on, the virgin has been taken from El Rocío to Almonte on a round trip each 7 years, staying in Almonte for 9 months. During these months, it tours the streets twice, after the arrival and then before leaving. The streets of Almonte are decorated with handmade white flowers and many lights, rosemary and fronds and arches. A huge structure called "Ephemeral Cathedral of Almonte" is also built on the main square. Nearly 200,000 people gather in the town during these special days when the Virgin tours the streets. The places involved in the route are completely closed to traffic and the entire town gets under a kind of siege with high security measures involving police, firefighters, helicopters and ambulances ready to act. Although originally a religious event, it is now a leisure festivity that brings a great economic benefit to the town, with dozens of businesses temporarily becoming pubs, cafés and restaurants exclusively during the nine months that the Virgin stays in town.
Saca de las Yeguas
The "Gathering of the Mares" is an annual livestock event that has been celebrated in Almonte for more than 500 years. It takes place each 26 June. The breeders, horsemen called "yegüerizos" get deep into the Doñana National Park to gather the semi-feral horses and take them out from the woods, swamps, meadows and marshes to Almonte, where they are sheared, cleaned and chipped before being sold. Early in the morning, thousands of horses are led to El Rocío, where they first gather in front of many visitors that attend the event. Later on, they head towards the town of Almonte, 15 km to the north, where they arrive at in the evening. There the horses parade through the crowded streets until they reach the livestock enclosure "Huerta de la Cañada", a fenced outdoor area in the northern outskirts of town. Next day "la tusa" is carried out, which is the process by which the horses are cleaned and sheared in order to be sold. The following days the town fair is held, and several activities are carried out regarding the horses. These include a morphological evaluation of the royal pattern of the mares and new foals of the ancient Marismeño breed, which is endangered and genetically related to the American Mustang horse. There are also photo contests and a horse race. When the fair ends, the horses which have not been purchased get back to the wild.
Feria de Almonte
It is an annual event whose origins can be traced as back as horse breeding and cow farming itself, around the 13th century. It was in 1872 that the fair was officially established as "Feria de San Pedro", held in the last days of August until 1896, when it was brought forward to June, so that it coincided with Saint Peter's day, as he's the patron saint of Almonte. The fair holidays take five days, just after the Gathering of the Mares has finished at the livestock enclosure, for the fair has a farming trade origin. The fair is held at the "Recinto Ferial", a trapezoidal area of 30,000m2 locally known as "El Chaparral", located in the town's eastern zone, with paved, unpaved and turf zones. Around 22 casetas with an average area of 400m2 are built, leaving five main temporary streets, including the main one or "Real". In the northeast part, different amusement rides for all ages are installed, including ferris wheels, rollercoasters, dodgems, pendulums, merry-go-rounds, drop tower, funhouses, tagadas, etc. The fair is typically inaugurated by an artist or celebrity, sometimes nationally recognised, like singer Rocío Jurado. Almonte's fair is the only one in Andalusia which has not got a flamenco dress code, but a smart casual one. that has because flamenco dresses in Almonte are reserved for El Rocío. The fair typically ends with some livestock show. All these particularities make it gather people from many neighbouring towns.
Transition Festival
It is an international alternative music festival launched in 2011 and held deep within the pine woods, 4 km southeast from Almonte. It is typically celebrated on the second week of May. Nature, music and art merge at a unique event which attracts people from all ages and nationalities. It consists of a main stage, an alternative second stage, a market, a workshop and a camping area. Trees are decorated with bright-coloured clothing and lights that provide the area with a fairytale atmosphere, especially at night. A clear sign that the festival is approaching is the arrival of motley caravans and hippie families to town, along with goths and other minorities. The idea of taking advantage of the stunning natural landscape and ideal temperature to organise a musical event was followed by the creation of Global Tribe, an ecovillage located just a few kilometers from where the festival is held. This community has its own organic vegetable garden and huts which are for rent. It also receives visitors from all over the world.
Christmas in Almonte
Something unique regarding Christmas in Almonte is the way they celebrate it at the Matalascañas resort. Environmental association "Aires Africanos" allows three of the camels they have at their natural reserve to be mounted by the Three Magi and walk along the coast, until they finally arrive at the end of the urban area. Some of the camels may be taken to Almonte and El Rocío as well to participate in the parade. Another original aspect of this holiday is the amusement park installed at "El Chaparral", the fairground, in the town's eastern zone. The main attraction is the 420m2 ice rink, along with multiple rides, food stands and Christmas decoration.
El Rocío Chico
It is a celebration held every 19 August whose origins can be traced back to a vow some people from Almonte offered to their patron saint, the Virgin of El Rocío. During the war against France, French captain Pierre D'Oisseaux was executed in Almonte and Napoleon sent more than 1,000 soldiers from neighbouring Seville to take revenge, but they never arrived at Almonte. Many believers thought it was a divine intervention by the Virgin, for they had prayed that the soldiers did not make it to their town. Nowadays, a mass may be held at the temple of El Rocío, but beyond its religious origin, it is also a day for people to make the most of their leisure time.
Cultural institutions
Almonte has several buildings with cultural purposes, but also playing a research or touristic role. Many of them are free of admission charges and have been created in the 90s and 2000s, using old wineries and oil mills purchased and remodelled by the town hall.
La Ciudad de la Cultura
With an area of 6.445m² and a perimeter of 396 m, this space is located in the northern part of town. It was inaugurated in 2011 and part of it was a former winery, property of the Count of Cañete. It consists of 5 main buildings embedded within an outdoor paved area decorated with pictures, benches, lamp posts and plants. These 5 buildings are:
Theatre "Salvador Távora", a modern square-shaped building designed by architect Juan Pedro Donaire Barbero and inaugurated by Spanish filmmaker Salvador Távora. It has a seating capacity of 512 people, ranking 2º in the province of Huelva, just after the capital's theatre. Almonte's theatre hosts nationwide-known plays and other national events, having been visited by Spanish ministers and well-known actors such as Pablo Carbonell, Lola Herrera, María Castro or Gorka Otxoa. Apart from the theatre itself, the building includes an indoor space for exhibitions and a second-floor terrace with a café.
Cultural Centre "Baler Church": it is a 162.27m² replica of the famous fortified church of Baler (Philippines), which became famous during the war between Spain and the United States. In 1898, during the Siege of Baler, Spanish soldiers quartered in the church were surrounded by the Filipinos. The Americans, already fighting against Filipinos, tried to rescue the Spanish soldiers. Spain finally surrendered on the 2nd of June 1899. One of the Spanish survivors, José Jiménez Berro, was from Almonte. The replica was inaugurated by former Filipino president Gloria Macapagal and is used for administrative purposes. It also hosts an exhibition explaining the involvement of Almonte in that war. There is also a street in Almonte named "Heroes de Baler", in honour of the soldiers.
Public Library "Ana María Matute". It is a 1,000 m² two-floor library with more than 15,000 works. Apart from the different spaces for reading and studying, it has a multimedia room. It was inaugurated by Cervantes prize-winner Ana María Matute.
Art School "Manolo Sanlúcar", inaugurated by the homonymous Spanish musician. It includes a music school and several guitar, singing, dancing and painting workshops.
Templete: it is a small open temple located on the former winepress, where grapes where squeezed. It is the only original element left from the former winery.
Town's Cultural Centre
It has replaced the former 15th-century Hermitage of James the Great and is located in the "Fuente de las Damas" park, in the west side of town. It is used for multiple cultural purposes, but chielfy as the headquarters of the Municipal music band.
Town Museum
It has replaced a former oil mill, the "Molino de Cepeda" and shows Almonte's local customs, including wine, wheat and oil production and the ancient agricultural and farming tradition linked to the Doñana National Park. The extensive ethnographic collection focuses on the symbiotic relationship between the urban and the natural environment and is divided into three main blocks: coast and marsh (farming, fishing and hunting), Almonte's agriculture (cereal, vineyards and olive) and industry (beekeeping, charcoal and tree oil, pine nut and wood extraction).
It also hosts a great exhibition about El Rocío, including a replica of the "Abuelas Almonteñas" monument, whose original version is located in the east side of town. It also has a replica of the ephemeral cathedral built each seven years during the Venida de la Virgen.
Museo Forestal
The Wood Museum is a protected area of around 60 hectares at km8 of the (A-483 road), which connects Almonte with its other two urban areas, El Rocío and Matalascañas resort. Beyond the importance of the natural landscape itself, there is an organic farm school, a research centre for the Iberian lynx (which includes several multimedia rooms) and another one for the local pine tree, with a huge hollow trunk which people can visit. There is also a recreation ground integrated within the natural environment, with more than 162 different rides on trees including nets, bridges and walkways, hoops, bars and zip wires, some of them hanging at a height of eight metres above the ground.
Wine Museum
The "Museo del Vino de Almonte (MUVA) is a 1,000 m²building inaugurated in 2014, after a ten-year remodelling of a 19th-century winery which belonged to the Escolar brothers, pioneers in wine technology. The museum offers guided tours, restaurants, shops and wine tastings. Local wines from Almonte, like Raigal or Orange Wine are promoted and explained throughout its five main rooms, including their history and elaboration.
Central patio: it is a 280 m2 outdoor area from which visitors can either enter the museum or the restaurant. Tables are usually laid on a corner for tasting products and there is a central decorative structure made of wine bottles. This patio included the former winepress, the fermentation and ageing tanks, the laboratory and an area for bottling and shipping. Big trunks and trailers unloaded the grapes here. Once the patio is finished, there is a covered area to access the museum.
Winery: it is the main indoor room, with a separated area containing several American oak wine casks and a strong smell and another room with potographs explaining the harvest, elaboration and transportation of wine. It contains relics such as an iron weight, a still, a screw press, etc.
Storeroom: this room includes a cellar, glass boxes to smell different raw materials and three of the eighteen original concrete tanks with a capacity of 10,000 litres.
Gastronomy
Almonte's mediterranean cuisine is pretty varied, but mostly focus on either game meat or fish, for it is a territory where the Atlantic Ocean and the Doñana National Park merge. Wild rabbits, deers, boars and partridges are the most common recipes regarding meat, due to hunting in the Doñana surroundings, a very traditional activity. As for fish, the worldwide-known "gamba blanca" (white prawn) is the signature dish, along with atlantic mackerels and sardines. Berries have also become trendy over the last decades, since it is one of the top berry exporters in Europe Concerning vegetables, wild asparagus and beans are quite frequent. There are also many desserts which have a Muslim origin and whose main ingredient is honey, a traditional ingredient of the zone. Some of the most typical dishes include:
Stuffed atrichokes
It is a traditional recipe consisting of artichokes stuffed with jamón, garlic, onion, boiled eggs and parsley. Once stuffed, they are wrapped up in breadcrumb and after being stir-fried, they are cooked. There is a separate typical dish in which the hearts are stir-fried with oil, garlic and small ham cubes.
Caracoles and cabrillas
These are small and big snails, respectively. They are typically eaten in Spring and served in taverns and outdoor establishments, being seldom offered at restaurants. Unlike in certain places of Cádiz, snails are not eaten before drinking its soup in a glass, but rather served straight on a plate. Cabrillas are typically cooked in a sauce, like tomato or others.
Lamb stew
Lamb recipee usually cooked with vegetables, bread and wine. Offals are often included in the dish.
Cocido almonteño
This is an original version of the typical Spanish cocido consisting of chickpeas, green beans and pumpkin, along with chicken and beef. It ends up with an orange colour.
Coquinas a la marinera
Alike typical wedge clams, they are stir-fried with oil, garlic and parsil, but adding onion, tomato, saffron and paprika.
Stone bass in almond sauce
A sliced salted bass cooked in its soup and complemented with a sauce of fried almond, onion, garlic, bay and wine. Rice or potatoes may be added too.
Habas Enzapatás
It is a signature dish from Almonte consisting of big broad beans cooked with garlic, pennyroyal or coriander and salt. It can also be found with some different ingredients in neighbouring towns.
Hallullas
These are crunchy half moon-shaped toasted bread, stuffed with a wide variety of ingredients, the most common being pringá, cod, salmon, chorizo, frigate tuna with tomato, blue cheese and pork.
Pan bazo
It is the signature bread of Almonte, with a very dense texture and typically sold by local bakery Martín Naranjo, so they are locally known as "pan de Naranjo" (Naranjo's bread). It also produces the "Roscos Almonteños", very famous breadsticks.
Stewed partridge
It is the signature game dish in Almonte. Partridges are cleaned and salted. Then they are stir-fried with garlic and paprika. they are finally cooked as a hotpot and served with either rice or chips.
Pezuñas
It is a local dessert consisting of a hoof-shaped sponge cake, soaked in syrup and filled with pastry cream. Egg yolk cream is then spread on top.
Poleá con miel
It is a typical Spanish poleá, but in Almonte they often spread some honey and add clove to the original recipe.
Revuelto de Matalascañas
This is a scrumbled eggs recipee with fresh cod, stir-fried with garlic, onion, bay and parsil.
Repápalos
These are traditional pieces of wheat, leavening, water and salt fried in olive oil. They can be soaked in hot chocolate, honey or sugar, but can also be eaten alone.
Goose Marismeña Soup
It is a recipee made of fried goose cooked with several spices which is served over slices of bread soaked in the stew soup. Egg, spearmint and garlic may also be added.
Marismeña cow with rice
This is another signature game dish from Almonte. Local marismeña cow is used. The meat is cooked with carrots, wine and spices. Then rice is added.
Doñana Cake
It is one of the most traditional dishes in Almonte. It consists of whipped cream and jelly, dry figs, pine nuts, raisins, almonds, dates, walnuts and honey.
Almonte's Strawberry Cake
Like the previous dessert, it also has whipped cream and jelly, but mixed with a sponge cake and soaked in syrup and orange or lemon juice. Then it is covered with a layer of organic strawberry jam.
Raigal Wine
It is a dry white wine made in Almonte, using organic zalema grape. It comes in at 10.5% ABV. It has a greenish colour and a soft flavour.
Sports
Almonte’s stable warm weather has made it possible for the town to focus on outdoor sports. The council and different local sport organisations invest great quantities of time and money in promoting sports, having people of all ages participate actively. Many of them have been awarded with gold and silver medals both at a national and international levels, in sports like duathlon, judo, cycling, motocross, or rhythmic gymnastics. Another important activities focus on horse riding, with several contests regarding sport but also fashion and horse and camel rental to enjoy natural spaces. Almonte is the only city in eastern Huelva with an olympic swimming pool, located in the northern sport centre, one of the main ones in the province.
There are three main public centres, two of them in Almonte and a third one in El Rocío. The main one has an area of 43,561m2 and is located in the northern part of town. It has two football pitches, three tennis courts, an outdoor olympic swimming pool, an indoor swimming pool and another one for children, a running track and a covered stadium. The second one is “Los Llanos”, in the southern area of town, with four padel courts, a basketball court and a covered court. A little bit southwards there is an outdoors pétanque boulodrome. Outside town, to the south, there is a motocross circuit and an aeromodelling runway.
The third one, called “Campo Municipal del Deporte”, is located in the eastern outskirts of the village of El Rocío. It has a 25-metre swimming pool and another one for children, four basketball courts, two padel courts, an unpaved football pitch and a covered court.
As for the private sector, there are 4 gyms in Almonte, three of them in the main urban core and a fourth one in the Matalascañas resort, area which also counts with a paragliding club, a saliling and fishing club and several organisations for horse and camel riding.
Several sport schools also offer training and degree certificates at several levels, for example the Regional Judo School, which provides middle and advanced titles. Other schools which also offer advannced certificates are football, indoor football, basketball, handball, athletics and lifeguarding. The “Almonte Balompié” is a top-class football team established in 1985. Its equipment consists of red t-shirt and socks and blue shorts. It plays both at the Top Andalusian League and Huelva’s Regional League.
Cycle sport also plays a main role in Almonte, both at professional and amateur levels. Local María Isabel Felipe won the European XCM in Laissac (France) in 2023. Regional cross-country race Huelva Series XCM is often organised in the area and there are important cycle clubs like Atrochamonte, which organises MTB marathons like “Doñana Natural”, an annual race started a decade ago. Matalascañas has also a 30-km cycle path which stretches from the easternmost point of the urban area up to Mazagón, a town 25 km to the west.
Hunting, both at a sport level and for animal overpopulation purposes has always played a key role in Almonte, being the main reason behind the establishment of the Doñana National Park, which was for centuries a royal forest. There are more than 700 hunting licenses and three main organisations. Hunters and amateur locals have long been demanding a shooting range in town, for the one located at the coast is restricted to military activities. Almonte is soon expected to build the first olympic shooting range in the province, which would host contests both at a national and international levels.
Almonte currently keeps on investing and innovating on sports. The first Inline Alpine Slalom club in Andalusia was founded in 2022, with the first track ever built in the southeastern part of town, within Clara Campoamor park. The town participated in the Spanish Cup in Barcelona and got the 1st position in the masculine U11 category.
Sister cities
Almonte has six twin towns established in the last decades, the more recent ones being Clare and Céret. They share different cultural activities and economic deals with each other. Sanlúcar de Barrameda, for example, shares frontier with Almonte, being separated by the Guadalquivir river and Sanlúcar's filial confraternity is one of the first to participate in Almonte's pilgrimage and holiday, El Rocío. Baler was the city where some Spanish soldiers, including one from Almonte, got surrounded by the Filipinos during the Spanish American War. Clare was the first Australian town to apply for membership to El Rocío, becoming a filial confraternity. Farsia's adhesion to the list focuses on some exchange programmes by which Sahrawis spent their summer holidays in Almonte, being hosted by local families, as a sign of solidarity with this African community.
Céret (France) /
Clare (Australia) /
Farsia (Western Sahara) /
Baler (Philippines) /
La Estrada (Spain) /
Sanlúcar (Spain)
Cinema
Almonte, thanks to its diverse and extensive territory, has been set for several films, shorts, documentaries, TV programmes and shows. Key landmarks include its long beaches, the village of El Rocío and the dunes inside the Doñana National Park.
Films shot in Almonte
Some worldwide-known films that have been shot in Almonte include: The Neverending Story or Lawrence of Arabia, shot in the dunes of Doñana.
French thriller Anything for Her was shot in the town Almonte and the village of El Rocío, as well as Dutch The Flying Liftboy
German film Sunburned (2009), directed by Swedish filmmaker Carolina Hellsgård, was shot in the Matalascañas beach.
As for Spanish cinema, some of the films set in Almonte are: Tenemos 18 años (1959), Canción de cuna (1961), Armas para el Caribe (1965), La Cólera del Viento (1972), El Viento y el León (1975), Mi Bello Legionario (1977), Made in Japón (1985) o La Cruz de Iberia (1990).
Film industry
The Film School of Almonte has been training filmmakers since the 90s, including the authors of cartoons "Aventuras en Doñana", which later inspired film The Missing Lynx (2009). This film won a Goya Award for Best Animated Film and was produced by Antonio Banderas, who visited Almonte the previous year to sign a commitment to save the Iberian lynx.
In 2001, the film company Producciones Doñana S.L was founded, having produced several works, including the short "Hambre" (2011), directed by Spanish filmmaker Mario De la Torre.
Almonte joined the Andalusian Film Commission and celebrates the Doñana International Scientific and Environmental Film Festival, promoting nature and sustainability. This festival sponsors new filmmakers and train scientific popularisers. Film sessions are usually held at the CIECEMA, in Almonte. A contest is also held, in which a professional jury awards the best film.
Economy, resources and transportation
Almonte has an extensive private industry due to two main factors: its vast amount of natural resources and tourism. The locals have traditionally made a living out of olives, vineyards, acorns, honey, pine nuts, salt, wood, charcoal, farming, agriculture and fishing. In the 50s, Almonte had 58 wineries, 10 oil mills, 4 wheat mills, two soda factories, 10 butcher's, 8 fishmonger's, 12 fruit shops and 20 grocery shops.
Schools
Almonte has 28 schools, from which 13 are elementary schools, 7 primary schools and 3 high schools. "I.E.S. Doñana" is the largest high school in the region, located in the northern part of town. More than 1,300 students and around 110 teachers work there. Neighbouring high school "I.E.S. La Ribera" is also in this area.
Almonte is the only town in Huelva, excluding the capital, with an Official School of Languages. It has also 3 public libraries.
Transportation
The main road to get to Almonte is motorway A-483, a turn-off at km49 of motorway A-49, between Seville and Huelva. It bypasses Almonte and passes by El Rocío, ending at the Matalascañas resort, in the Atlantic coast. Secondary road A-484 departs from Bonares and get to Almonte, passing by neighbouring Rociana. Secondary road A-474 connects Almonte to Seville, passing by neighbouring towns Pilas or Castilleja de la Cuesta.
Around 20 taxi companies work in Almonte.
Almonte has a regular bus line to reach its urban areas of El Rocío and Matalascañas. The bus station, in the east part of town, is often busy due to local transport either related to temporary workers going to the berry fields or to summer transport to the beach. It also has regional lines to Huelva and Seville and international lines to Portugal and Romania. The street with busiest traffic is Carretera del Rocío, the main business avenue, where two roundabouts have been installed over the last two decades to smooth gridlocks at rush hour. Busiest road is A-483, which connects Almonte to the Atlantic coast. In the summer, especially at weekend evenings, long-lasting traffic jams are produced in this road. Nearest train station is located 10 km to the north, at neighbouring town La Palma. There is another one in Huelva and high-speed train in Seville. Nearest airports are: Seville Airport (58 km away), Faro Airport (Portugal), 132 km away) and Jerez Airport (144 km away). Almonte has a sailing and fishing club at Matalascañas resort and a ferry route across the Guadalquivir river that gets to neighbouring fishing town Sanlúcar.
Primary sector
Agriculture
Almonte has 2,843 hectares of arable crops (chiefly strawberries and sunflowers) and 4,334 to wood crops, mainly blueberries and olives. Around 20 companies have its headquarters in Almonte, some of them topping European charts. Almonte is the first blueberry exporter in Europe.
Fishing
Even though nearly half of the coast of Huelva belongs to Almonte, it hasn't got a great fishing industry. It's due to three main factors: the distance between the town and the coast (around 26 km) and its rather "recent" acquisition of the coastal territory (16th century). Also, with the establishment of the Doñana National Park, 28 km of Almonte's coastal territory have been restricted to authorised fishing only. Most fishers are self-employed restaurant owners and fishmongers who sell at a retail level. Virtually all the restaurants in Almonte offer high-quality fresh fish.
Secondary sector
There were 1,677 manufacturing businesses in Almonte, 561 devoted to car repairing; 284 to restaurants, 232 to construction, 103 to science and 80 to manufacturing.
There are two main industrial states: "El Tomillar", in the south of town, with an area of 110,000m² and 150 multipurpose units which focus on steel, furniture, meat production, ice, rubber, etc. and "Matalagrana", located between Almonte and El Rocío, with 200,000m² and chiefly focused on agriculture (berries and honey), with international-scope companies such as Bionest, Atlantic Blue or Fresmiel.
Tertiary sector
Leisure areas
Almonte has 9 public parks, the largest being "Alcalde Mojarro", with an area of 44,831m². It has several tree species, a central lake which hosts migratory birds, fish and amphibians, several recreative areas with swings and other rides and calisthenics devices, a bonsai workshop, a skating rink, two captive donkeys, an open-air cinema, a gardening worshop and a multipurpose building for conferences. The Matalascañas resort has another open-air summer cinema, an amusement park and an outdoor enclosure for festivals called Surfasaurus.
Tourism
Almonte has 23 accommodation establishments, of which 11 are hotels and 12 are hostels, the total number of beds being around 3,500. Most of them are located in El Rocío and Matalascañas and some of them are 4-star hotels. The town of Almonte has three main public parking areas, from which two are free. "Martín Villa" parking, located in the homonymous street, has three floors with an area of 768m² each and space for around 90 vehicles. The Carrefour supermarket, located in that same street, has a parking lot for 35 vehicles and the Dia supermarket, at the small roundabout in Carretera del Rocío street, offers around 40 spaces. The two free parking lots are both located in Picasso street, nearby the town centre, with a conjoined area of 1,500m2 and capacity for 120 vehicles. When massive events such as "La Saca de las Yeguas", El Rocío or "La Venida de la Virgen" take place, alternative parking areas are made available, such as the one in street Avenida de los Cabezudos, with 2,600m².
There's also an ecovillage called Global Tribe, 5 kilometers southeast from Almonte, at km.16 of road A-483. it was founded by two participants of the Transition Fest. This community offers accommodation for rent in sustainable tents and has its own organic vegetable garden. It hosts visitors from all over the world, mainly German and Dutch travellers. They sell organic berries, clothing, etc.
Almonte has been participating in Fitur (the International Tourism Trade Fair) for more than 40 years, promoting its extensive touristic offer. Apart from the Doñana National Park and its surroundings, beach tourism and El Rocío, there's also the flamenco fashion industry, with popular designers such as Rocío Cabrera, José Joaquín Gil, Rima Prociviecene or Juan Francisco Gil Ortiz and contests like SIMOF (International Flamenco Fashion Week).
Almonte ranked 10th in the list of the 22 most beautiful Spanish towns by magazine Viajar, being first in its province. It has also featured in TV documentaries and programmes such as "Callejeando", highlighting some of its most emblematic streets. A great part of this comes from the cultural investment over the last decades.
Despite being one of Almonte's main economic source, this massive tourism has also brought about some environmental damages, such as litter on the ditches bordering road A-483, which connects the town to the coast. Light and noise pollution are also a main concern, specially in urban areas located in the Doñana National Park surroundings. That's why the town council has taken several measures, including fines of more than €30,000.
Restaurants
Almonte has more than 100 establishments, excluding coffee shops, from which more than 30 are located within the town. Around 23 are in the village of El Rocío and around 37 in Matalascañas. They typically focus on its traditional cuisine.
Science and technology
Almonte's coastal location and biodiversity thanks to Doñana provides its territory with great opportunities to develop all kinds of scientific research. It was in the 40s when forest engineering arose, with many forest settlements focused on oil and wood extraction. In the 60s, Doñana was established, and more than half of the park is in Almonte, making up 35% of the municipality. In this decade, the focus of study turned into biology and botany. In this same decade, making the most of the optimal average weather conditions, several military facilities were installed at the beach, widening the scientific focus on defense and technology. Finally, an interest in astrophysics has been rising since the 2000s, reaching its peak with the building of an astronomical observatory in town.
Astrophysics
Almonte has an astronomical observatory inaugurated in 2010 by CSIC's astrophysicist and cosmologist Juan P. Mercader. It's located in the CIECEMA (International Centre for Environmental Studies), in the north part of town. It has a 500mm-diameter mirror and a high-resolution CCD camera, being unique in the region. It's managed by Almonte's Astronomical Association, whose headquarters are in this same building.
Many scientists and amateur people meet nearby the Matalascañas's lighthouse to observe lunar eclipses, for the area has little light pollution and the sky is clear at night. The town of Almonte also organises an event called "Ciencia al Fresquito", held at night in the summer at park "Clara Campoamor", which is rather elevated. Anyone can use several telescopes to observe the night sky at this event.
I.N.T.A.
In 1966, as requested by NASA, a rocket launch station was installed at the coast, in the border area between Almonte and Moguer. More than 500 sounding rockets have been launched so far, most of them focusing on weather research. It is currently run by the Spanish National Institute for Aerospace Technology. NASA has also provided high-tech radar technology and there are both European and American scientists working in there.
In April 2022, the first recoverable launch vehicle in Europe, the Spanish-manufactured Miura 1, will be launched from this site.
Biology
Captive breeding centre "El Acebuche"
This space, created in 1992, has an area of 120,000m² and is located at km 37 of road A-483. It has 18 different sections to breed the Iberian Lynx So far, there have been around 128 births and 33 releases. Scientists, veterinarians, watchers and security guards work at the facility, along with the Supervisory Committee for the Lynx, which has members from 15 international organisations. Next to this scientific building, there is a centre for visitors where two of the lynxes can be directly observed. It has a parking lot and restaurant.
Estación Biológica de Doñana
The "Doñana Biological Station" is a national research complex founded in 1965 and administered by the CSIC, with headquarters in Seville. It studies and preserves a protected area of vital biological importance within the Doñana National Park, in Almonte. Unlike the rest of the park and its surroundings, which are controlled by Almonte's council and Andalusian Junta, this biological reserve is under the Spanish government's control. They have a scientific collection of more than 100,000 species, making up almost 20% of the world's total vertebrate species.
La Semana de la Ciencia
This Science Week was launched by schools with the cooperation of the town council, the Junta, the CSIC, the Ministry of Equality and environmental organisations like Ecoembes. Experiments, layouts, lectures and workshops related to biology, physics, chemistry and maths are organised. Botany and virtual reality are the main disciplines. There is also an open laboratory in which citizens can present their scientific ideas, which are analysed and may end up becoming real measures and pilot projects.
Military technology
Almonte is the only place in Spain where surface-to-air missiles can be launched. There is a 257-hectare facility and military training area founded in 1981 in a zone known as "Médano del Loro", in the westernmost tip of the coast. Many soldiers are posted to this facility for short-term training and the area appears pixelated on satellite maps, so as to provide privacy and keep it secret. The access to the beach from the road is restricted along a 2.5 km stretch. Patriot and Hawk are some examples of missiles launched from this facility.
References
External links
- Almonte's City Council
- Tourism is Almonte
Almonte - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
- AlMontrealDia.com - Digital News for Almonte, El Rocío and Matalascañas
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almonte%2C%20Spain |
Alosno is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, Spain. According to the 2013 census, the village has a population of 1,840 inhabitants.
The Filon Sur Mine, in Alosno municipality, is a notable source of fine specimens of the mineral goethite. Nearby is a 4500+ year old copper smelting archeological site named Cabezo Juré.
The region is notable for production of fine ham, Jamon Serrano, through a system of pasturing and finishing on Holm oak's sweet acorns ( Bellotas ). The chorizo and local Manchego sheep cheeses are also outstanding. Much of the best land is also planted with green olives, for oil or for storage whole in brine. The town's style is very mediterranean with whitewashed walls and cobbles or concrete walks. Approximately 15 Bar/Grills and a number of more formal dinner restaurants line the main street in/out of town, with a main market and outdoor market also selling produce from stalls. Very low humidity makes up for the heat, and ocean moderating winds are common. Green countrysides start the year off with spring rains and progresses on to gold with the dry summers. Frost and snow are very rare.
Proximity to a prominent rock climbing face and centuries old nunnery and chapels.
Alosno is "Cuna del Fandango" and is famous within Spain for flamenco players and festivals. Other important festivals are Cruces de Mayo, San Juan, Visperas, and many more.
Notable people
The noted Spanish boxer Pedro Carrasco, and the fandango singer Paco Toronjo were born in Alosno.
Demographics
Villages
Tharsis, Huelva
References
External links
Ayuntamiento de Alosno ( Town Leadership )
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alosno |
The following lists events that happened during 1987 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,342,100.
Increase since 31 December 1986: 28,600 (0.86%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.9.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 41st New Zealand Parliament, led by the Labour Party, concluded, and in the general election the party was re-elected in the 42nd New Zealand Parliament. The election also saw the elimination of the Democratic Party (formerly known as the Social Credit Party) from Parliament, leaving Labour and National as the only parties with representation.
Speaker of the House – Gerard Wall then Kerry Burke
Prime Minister – David Lange
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer
Minister of Finance – Roger Douglas
Minister of Foreign Affairs – David Lange then Russell Marshall
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
January, February – Māori loan affair continues.
17 February – A bus on a field trip from Woodford House school in Havelock North rolls down a bank near Kereru, west of Hastings. Five people (two students, two teachers and the bus driver) are killed and at least 17 are injured.
2 March – Edgecumbe earthquake in the Bay of Plenty.
19 May – Air New Zealand Flight 24, en route from Tokyo to Auckland, is hijacked at Nadi International Airport, Fiji while on a scheduled refuelling stop.
22 May–20 June – Inaugural Rugby World Cup hosted by both New Zealand and Australia, and won by New Zealand.
June – The New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act is passed.
19 June – Six-year-old Teresa Cormack goes missing in Napier. Her body is found eight days later.
July – The Māori Language Act makes Māori an official language.
1 August – The first Lotto draw takes place.
15 August – The 1987 general election is held.
August – Telecom launches New Zealand's first mobile phone network.
20 October – The New Zealand stock market crashes following Black Monday on Wall Street. Share prices fell by 59 percent over four months.
3 November – McDonald's opens its first restaurants in the South Island at Linwood and Merivale, Christchurch.
December – New Zealand's first heart transplant takes place at Green Lane Hospital, for Brian Lindsay.
Arts and literature
Robert Lord wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1987 in art, 1987 in literature, :Category:1987 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Herbs – Sensitive to a Smile
Dave Dobbyn – Footrot Flats
Ardijah – Ardijah
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Dave Dobbyn – You Oughta Be in Love
Shona Laing – Glad I'm Not A Kennedy
The Chills – Leather Jacket
BEST MALE VOCALIST Dave Dobbyn
Charles Tumahai (Herbs)
Martin Phillips (The Chills)
BEST FEMALE VOCALIST Shona Laing
Betty-Anne Monga (Ardijah)
Patsy Riggir
BEST GROUP The Chills
Ardijah
Herbs
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Al Hunter
Wayne Elliot (Knightshade)
David Parker (Rhythm Cage)
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Moana Maniapoto Jackson Moana and the Moahunters
Darlene Adair
Kara Pewhairangi
MOST PROMISING GROUP Bonga And Harwood
Rhythm Cage
Knightshade
INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Neil Finn
Dave Dobbyn
The Chills
Shona Laing
Kiri Te Kanawa
BEST VIDEO Matt Box Films – Sensitive to a Smile (Herbs)
Kerry Brown/ Bruce Sheridan – Glad Im Not A Kennedy (Shona Laing)
Paul Middleditch – The Game of Love (Tex Pistol)
BEST FILM SOUNDTRACK Dave Dobbyn – Footrot Flats
Various Artists – Queen City Rocker
BEST PRODUCER Dave Dobbyn – Footrot Flats
Billy Kristian – Sensitive to a Smile (Herbs)
Ian Morris – The Game of Love (Tex Pistol)
BEST ENGINEER Ian Morris – The Game of Love (Tex Pistol)
Roland Morris / Nick Morgan – Ardijah
Doug Rogers / Rhys Moody – Brand New Doll
Tim Field – Out for the Count
BEST JAZZ ALBUM Mike Nock / Frank Gibson, Jr. – 'Open Door'
Brian Smith – Brian Smith
The Umbrellas – The Umbrellas
BEST CLASSICAL ALBUM Gillian Weir – Music to the Sun King
NZ Symphony Orchestra – Music By Douglas Lilburn
Margaret Neilson – Sea Changes
BEST COUNTRY ALBUM Al Hunter – Neon Cowboy
Jodi Vaughan – Straight From The Heart
Patsy Riggir – Close To Thee
BEST FOLK ALBUM Beverly Young – Bushes & Briar
Phil Garland – Hunger in the Air
Paul Mesters – Pacific Pilgrim
BEST GOSPEL ALBUM Jules Riding – Heart Strings
Patsy Riggir – Close To Thee
Darlene Adair – Darlene Adair
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM Herbs – E Papa – Jah Knows
Kahurangi – Kahurangi
Moana – Kua Makona
BEST CAST ALBUM Stewart Macpherson – Pirates of Penzance
Philip Norman – Love Off The Shelf
Thomas Baker – The Conductor's Shoes
BEST SONGWRITER Charles Tumahai/ Dilworth Karaka – Sensitive to a Smile (Herbs)
Dave Dobbyn – You Oughta Be in Love
Shona Laing – Glad Im Not A Kennedy
BEST COVER Philip Trusttum – Songdance (Mike Herron)
Peter Bennett – Elephunkin
Reston Griffiths – Footrot Flats
See: 1987 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Silvio De Pra.
Radio and television
See: 1987 in New Zealand television, 1987 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Auckland Radio 1ZB becomes Newstalk 1ZB creating the first Newstalk ZB station.
1ZM Auckland becomes Classic Hits 1251 creating the first Classic Hits station, other New Zealand radio stations do not take the Classic Hits branding until 1993/94.
20 April: British children's television series Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends makes its debut on Network 2.
Film
Bad Taste
Ngati
Starlight Hotel
See: :Category:1987 film awards, 1987 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1987 films
Sport
Rugby
The All Blacks win the inaugural Rugby World Cup.
Athletics
Peter Renner wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:15:32 on 22 November in Wiri, while Jillian Costley claims her first in the women's championship (2:39:33).
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Lightning Blue
The Auckland Trotting Cup was run twice in 1987 as it was being rescheduled from January back to December.
January (2700m): Master Mood
December (3200m): Luxury Liner
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Diane Collings (Te Puke)
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Gisborne City who beat Christchurch United 7-3 on aggregate in a two-leg final.
Births
7 January: Michael McGlinchey, football player
27 January: Ben Te'o, rugby league player
28 January: Steven O'Dor, football player
13 February: Frank-Paul Nu'uausala, rugby league player
18 February: Maria Tutaia, netball player
22 February: Lesley Cantwell, race walker
3 March: Jacob Spoonley, football player
17 March: Krisnan Inu, rugby league player
18 March: Clarissa Eshuis, hockey player
20 March: David Richardson, actor
27 March: Victor Vito, rugby union player
7 April: Jaimee Kaire-Gataulu, actor
10 April: Hayley Westenra, soprano
11 April: Joseph Sullivan, rower Olympic gold medallist (2012 Summer Olympics 2012 London)
29 April: Tim Winitana, rugby league player
6 May: Katrina Grant, netball player
29 May: Issac Luke, rugby league player
7 June: Daniel Logan, actor
4 July: Chris James, football player
8 July: Alana Barber, race walker
22 July: Sam Bewley, racing cyclist
1 September: Dann Hume, singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer
16 September: Rongo Brightwell, singer
2 October: Anita Punt, hockey player
7 October: Jeremy Brockie, football player
10 October: Colin Slade, rugby union player
30 November: Miguel Start, rugby league player
9 December: Polly Powrie, sailor, Olympic gold medallist (2012 Summer Olympics 2012 London)
14 December: Lauren Boyle, swimmer
23 December: Owen Franks, rugby union player All Black (2009–)
:Category:1987 births.
Deaths
16 January Colin Scrimgeour, minister and broadcaster.
13 February: Curly Page, cricketer.
29 May: Bryan Todd, businessman (born 1902)
31 May: Wilfrid Mervyn Lusty, journalist, drama critic, theatre administrator and adult educationalist
16 July: Harry Ayres, guide and mountaineer.
4 August: Cecil Burke, cricketer.
14 October: John Rangihau, academic and leader of Tuhoe iwi.
27 December: Rewi Alley, writer and member of the Chinese Communist Party.
Alfred E. Allen, politician.
Johnnie Hoskins, motorcycle speedway pioneer.
Norman Jones, politician.
Colin McCahon, artist.
Denis Rogers, mayor of Hamilton.
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Aracena () is a town and municipality located in the province of Huelva, south-western Spain. , the city has a population of 7,814 inhabitants.
The town derived its name from the Sierra de Aracena, which is part of the Sierra Morena system.
Aracena is the largest town in the Parque Natural Sierra de Aracena y Picos de Aroche. In 2006, Aracena was named a Tourist Municipality of Andalucía and became the first town in the province of Huelva to achieve this status.
Main sights
Aracena Castle
Prominent attractions in the town include Aracena Castle and the Priory Church, together known as the Castillo-Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, built between the 13th and 15th centuries over the ruins of an earlier castle. The oldest sections are of late Gothic-Mudéjar style.
Aracena Castle was erected in the thirteenth century, during the Islamic period, and was itself built on the site of an ancient Moorish castle. The walled enclosure was partitioned inside, with the tower of homage, or castle keep, defending the barrier that divided its interior. The population of Aracena settled around this structure, giving rise to the current urban landscape. During the late Middle and Modern Ages, Aracena continued growing from the Cerro del Castillo [Castle Hill] into the valley, first as unattached land dependent on Seville and later, in the seventeenth century, as a feudal estate under the jurisdiction of the Count-Duke of Olivares. Still later, it was under the Count of Altamira, who carried the title of Prince of Aracena.
The fortress consists of the alcazaba, or citadel, with its watch tower, cistern and walls; these are flanked by other towers, as well as a fence line that, in its interior, once accommodated medieval living quarters.
Prioral Church
When Aracena was ceded by the Crown of Castile to the Knights Templar, that Order authorized the raising of the current Moorish-style church, noted for the glazed clay sculptures of Pedro Vazquez and which takes its name from the local patron saint, Nuestra Señora del Mayor Dolor [Our Lady of the Greatest Suffering].
The church is emblematic of Aracena and is the oldest church in the town. It consists of three naves of equal height with its choir at the feet and a polygonal presbytery to which, on the side of the chapel, there is attached its Mudéjar-style tower.
Also in the town is the church of Santa María de la Asunción, built in 1522.
Groto of the Marvels
Also located in the town is the Gruta de las Maravillas, one of the most spectacular cave systems in Spain. The caves are located below the hill on which stands Aracena Castle. Opened to the public in 1913, it includes a total of 2130 meters of subterranean passages.
Several caverns and lakes are linked by these narrow passages. Coloured lighting adds to the effects of its unusual mineral formations. In the complex is a geological museum. The caves are said to have been found by a boy looking for a lost pig.
Ham Museum
El Museo del Jamón de Aracena (Ham Museum of Aracena) consists of 7 rooms which trace the history, cultures and traditions surrounding the famous Iberian pigs.
Gallery
References
External links
Official Web of Aracena in Internet - The Official Web of Aracena in Internet
Aracena - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
- Natural Park Sierra de Aracena and Picos de Aroche
http://www.discoverhuelva.com/town/aracena-0
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aracena |
Foreign Aid to Thailand On July 31, 2003, Thailand repaid its outstanding obligations under a standby arrangement made with the International Monetary Fund designed to help it recover from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. The payment was made four years ahead of schedule, reflecting Thailand's achievement of macroeconomic and balance-of-payments stability.
Since 2002, Thailand is no longer an Economic aid recipient. Instead, Thailand contributed $60 million in economic aid to the neighboring countries in 2005.
Foreign aid history
During the Vietnam War period Thailand, along with other US allies such as Cambodia, received considerable amounts of US economic aid and military subsidies.
From the early 1980s onwards internal problems in Myanmar have led to large numbers of people seeking refuge in Thailand. Various agencies, including the European Commission's Humanitarian Aid department, have helped to assist the displaced people.
Historically Thailand was one of the biggest recipients of Japanese overseas aid. The bulk of the aid took the form of loans for large-scale infrastructure projects. Japan's government explained its relative generosity by citing friendly relations and Thailand's special problems arising from rapid growth, while some scholars have suggested that Japan's own business interests were the main motivation.
See also
SUMERNET
References
Thailand
Foreign relations of Thailand
Economy of Thailand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20aid%20to%20Thailand |
Aroche () is a municipality of Spain located in the province of Huelva, Andalusia. According to the 2005 census, the town had a population of 3,319.
History
Similarly to Moura and Serpa, Aroche and Aracena may have been conquered by the Order of the Hospital and incorporated to the Kingdom of Portugal during the reign of Sancho II, circa 1230–1233, although it has been suggested the Christian occupation may have had to wait to the void of Muslim power in the area caused by the Fall of Seville in the late 1240s. The area, occupied by Afonso III of Portugal by 1251, was theoretically granted together with Aracena to the Crown of Castile in 1253, although the effective and definitive transfer happened in 1267 as settled in Treaty of Badajoz. In fact, Afonso III granted Aroche a fuero in 1255.
Demographics
Gallery
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Aroche - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aroche |
The World Bank’s assistance program of foreign aid to Vietnam has three objectives: to support Vietnam's transition to a market economy, to enhance equitable and sustainable development, and to promote good governance. From 1993 through 2004, Vietnam received pledges of US$29 billion of Official Development Assistance (ODA), of which about US$14 billion, or 49 percent, has been disbursed. In 2004 international donors pledged ODA of US$2.25 billion, of which US$1.65 billion was disbursed. Three donors accounted for 80 percent of disbursements in 2004: Japan, the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank. During the period 2006–10, Vietnam hopes to receive US$14 billion–US$15 billion of ODA.
History
In the late 1970s, Vietnam relied on the assistance of West German, Italian, and Canadian companies for offshore oil exploration. This ended in 1981, but resumed subsequently with Soviet technical assistance. Aid from China, reportedly close to US$300 million in 1977 and 1978, dropped to zero in 1979, and Vietnamese recovery in coal production was profoundly affected by the accompanying loss of ethnic Chinese workers. In 1979 Japan suspended its Official Development Assistance funds (a mixture of grants and low-interest loans amounting to US$135 million) and made renewal contingent upon Vietnamese withdrawal from Cambodia. Loss of other Western aid in hard currencies crippled Vietnam's ability to continue importing needed modern machinery and technology from its West European trading partners. Following Vietnam's occupation of Cambodia, only Sweden continued to provide any significant amount of economic help. Some multilateral assistance, such as that for development of the Mekong River, was made available by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, however. Western and multilateral assistance, therefore, did not stop entirely, although the yearly average of about US$100 million through 1986 provided only a fraction of the country's hard-currency needs. In 1986 Vietnam's current account deficit with major industrial countries was some US$221 million. The conflicts with Cambodia and China in 1978 and 1979 proved particularly costly in terms of continuing economic ties with Western and neighboring Asian countries. As a result, Hanoi was forced to rely even more heavily on Soviet-bloc assistance.
The Soviet Union and other members of Comecon increased their aid commitments as their own planning became more closely coordinated with Vietnam's following Hanoi's entry into Comecon in June 1978. Soviet economic aid in 1978, estimated at between US$0.7 and 1.0 billion, was already higher than Western assistance. By 1982 it had increased to more than US$1 billion annually, close to US$3 million per day, and it remained at this level through the mid-1980s. The Soviet Union and other Comecon countries provided aid in all categories—project assistance, technical training, price subsidies, loans, and trade credits. Soviet publications emphasized the importance of project assistance to Vietnam's economic recovery, but about 75 percent of the value of aid disbursed during the Third Five-Year Plan was used to finance Vietnam's bilateral trade deficit with the Soviet Union, which averaged about US$896 million a year. Trade subsidies in the form of reduced prices for Soviet oil also declined sharply in the early 1980s as the Soviet Union brought Vietnam into the Comecon oil-pricing system based on world market values.
Although the details of Comecon assistance to Vietnam since the 1970s had not been made public as of late 1987, Soviet sources gave some indications of the type of project assistance provided and were quick to claim credit for production increases attributable to Soviet technical and plant assistance. Soviet-aid goals from 1978 to 1981 included helping with balance-of-payments problems, assisting with key projects, introducing industrial cooperation, accelerating scientific and technical cooperation, and assisting with the improvement of Vietnamese professional skills. During this period, the Soviet Union also signed numerous agreements calling for financial and technical assistance in matters ranging from traffic-improvement programs for the railroad from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City to completing construction of the Thang Long Bridge over the Red River.
See also
Vietnam and the World Bank
Foreign relations of Vietnam
References
Vietnam
Foreign relations of Vietnam
Economy of Vietnam | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20aid%20to%20Vietnam |
The following lists events that happened during 1988 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,345,200.
Increase since 31 December 1987: 3,100 (0.09%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued. The fourth Labour Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke
Prime Minister – David Lange
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer
Minister of Finance – Roger Douglas until 14 December, then David Caygill
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall
Chief Justice — Sir Ronald Davison
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs
Events
The number of unemployed reaches 100,000.
The Federation of Labour and Combined State Unions merge to form the Council of Trade Unions.
New Zealand Post closed 432 post offices.
Fisheries quota package announced for Mäori iwi.
The Hokitika Guardian and Star ceases publication.
6 February: Waitangi Day celebrations at Waitangi are suspended.
7 March: Cyclone Bola strikes the East Coast of the North Island
30 March: The State Sector Act is passed to reform the Public Service.
April: The Royal Commission on Social Policy issues its report.
5 April: Gibbs Report ("Unshackling the Hospitals") released.
May: Picot Report on educational administration released.
June: The electrification of the North Island Main Trunk railway between Hamilton and Palmerston North is completed.
1 July: The Government announces the return of Bastion Point to its Ngāti Whātua owners.
1 July: Commercial TV goes 7 days a week, except Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and Christmas Day.
Arts and literature
John Dickson wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1988 in art, 1988 in literature, :Category:1988 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
ALBUM OF THE YEAR Dave Dobbyn – Loyal
Shona Laing – South
The Warratahs – Only game in Town
SINGLE OF THE YEAR Holidaymakers–Sweet Lovers
Dave Dobyyn – Love You Like I Should
Tex Pistol / Rikki Morris – Nobody Else
BEST MALE VOCALIST Dave Dobbyn
Herbs
Barry Saunders
BEST FEMALE VOCALIST Shona Laing
Aishah
Annie Crummer
BEST GROUP Herbs
The Chills
The Warratahs
MOST PROMISING MALE VOCALIST Peter Marshall
Rikki Morris
Thom Nepia
MOST PROMISING FEMALE VOCALIST Mara Finau
Tracey Birnie
Helen Mulholland
MOST PROMISING GROUP Holidaymakers
Straightjacket Fits
The Tunnellers
INTERNATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Neil Finn
The Chills
Shona Laing
BEST VIDEO Fane Flaws – Sweet Lovers (Holidaymakers)
Janine Morell – Haere Mai
Paul Middleditch – Nobody Else
BEST FILM SOUNDTRACK Dalvanius Prime / Dave Hurley – Poi E
Dalvanius / Ginane / Smith – Ngati
BEST PRODUCER Nigel Stone–Holidaymakers (Holidaymakers)
Tex Pistol – Nobody Else
Stephen McCurdy/ Shona Laing/ Graeme Myhre – South
BEST ENGINEER Nigel Stone–Holidaymakers (Holidaymakers)
Rhys Moody – Brazier'
Rhys Moody/ Doug Rogers – Sensation
BEST JAZZ ALBUM Beaver – Live at Ronnie Scott's
Frank Gibsons Jazz Mobile – Spreading The Word
Sustenance – Sustenance 3
BEST CLASSICAL ALBUM NZ Symphony Orchestra – Prodigal Country
NZ Symphony Orchestra – War and Peace/ Jack Winters Dream
BEST FOLK ALBUM Mike Harding – From The Edge
Wayne Gillespie – Hearts For
David Hollis – With Love
BEST COUNTRY ALBUM The Warratahs – Only Game in Town
Patsy Riggir – The Best OF (Plus Four)
Al Hunter – Jealous Guy
BEST GOSPEL ALBUM Derek Lind – Strange Logic
Barry McGuire – Sailing Free
Stephen Bell Booth – Timeless
BEST POLYNESIAN ALBUM Pātea Māori Club – Poi E
Kahurangi – Magically Maori
Dalvanius Prime/ Patea Maori/ Moana/ Dave Dobbyn Guinney/ Kara Pewhairangi – Ngoi Ngoi
BEST SONGWRITER Rikki Morris – Nobody Else
Hona/ Lundon/ Cassells – Listen
Dave Dobbyn – Love You Like I Should
BEST COVER Lesley Maclean – Pagan in a Pagan Land
John Collie – Bird Dog
Susan Pryor – You Don't Need Me
See: 1988 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Alma Woods MBE and Ricky May.
Radio and television
1 December: The Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand is split into Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand. The Avalon studio becomes a separate subsidiary of TVNZ.
See: 1988 in New Zealand television, 1988 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Illustrious Energy
Mauri
Send a Gorilla
The Grasscutter
The Navigator: A Mediaeval Odyssey
See: :Category:1988 film awards, 1988 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1988 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his third national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:16:05 on 30 April in Rotorua, while Jillian Costley claims her second in the women's championship (2:39:20).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Luxury Liner
Auckland Trotting Cup: Luxury Liner – 2nd win
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of 83 competitors in 16 sports.
Winter Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of nine competitors across three sports.
Paralympic Games
Summer Paralympics
Winter Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of three competitors in one sport.
Rugby
League
17 July – The 1988 Great Britain Lions tour concludes with New Zealand defeating Great Britain in a Test match at Addington Showground, Christchurch before a crowd of 8,525.
9 October – In the 1988 Rugby League World Cup final Australia defeats New Zealand at Eden Park, Auckland before a crowd of 47,363.
Union
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – John Whiteman (Upper Hutt)
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Waikato United who beat Christchurch United on the basis of away goals (2-2 and 1–1 in a two-leg final).
Births
January
2 January – Joseph Paulo, rugby league player
3 January – Steven Kent, swimmer
4 January – Peter Saili, rugby union player
6 January – Esther Lanser, cricketer
11 January – Andre Taylor, rugby union player
12 January – Ben Afeaki, rugby union player
15 January – Riki Hoeata, rugby union player
17 January – Kade Poki, rugby union player
18 January – Andrew Wheeler, basketball player
20 January – Rushlee Buchanan, cyclist
23 January – Shaun Kenny-Dowall, rugby league player
February
1 February – Katie Duncan, association footballer
2 February – Kieron Fonotia, rugby union player
3 February – Daniel O'Regan, rugby league player
7 February – Mataupu Poching, rugby league player
8 February
Graham Oberlin-Brown, rower
13 February – Eddy Pettybourne, rugby league player
15 February
Sam Anderson-Heather, rugby union player
Claire Garrood, cricketer
16 February
James Baker, cricketer
Sarah Murphy, biathlete
20 February – Troy Garton, boxer
23 February – Ashley Cooper, singer
24 February
Levi Hanssen, association footballer
Emma Hayman, tennis player
25 February – Lagi Setu, rugby league and rugby union player
March
6 March
Marina Erakovic, tennis player
Frank Halai, rugby union player
8 March – Hannah Broederlow, netball player
9 March – Ash Moeke, rugby union player
10 March – Josh Hoffman, rugby league player
17 March – Patrick Ah Van, rugby league player
18 March – Grace Rasmussen, netball player
20 March – Sonny Fai, rugby league player
21 March – Anthony Cherrington, rugby league player
23 March – Suaia Matagi, rugby league player
24 March – Matt Todd, rugby union player
30 March – Petrea Webster, field hockey player
31 March – Curtis McGrath, canoeist
April
5 April – Quade Cooper, rugby union player
14 April
Francis Mossman, actor
Dan Pryor, rugby union player
16 April – Simon Child, field hockey player
18 April
Sam Belkin, amateur wrestler
Erin Bermingham, cricketer
21 April – Niall Williams, rugby union and touch player
24 April – Junior Tia-Kilifi, rugby league player
25 April – Liam Foran, rugby league player
May
3 May – Brent Renouf, Australian rules footballer
4 May – Westley Gough, cyclist
5 May
Jaimee Lovett, canoeist
Ant Pedersen, motor racing driver
6 May
Evie, professional wrestler
Rhys Phillips, cricketer
11 May – Stephen Paea, American football player
13 May – Trent Renata, rugby union player
16 May
Marty Kain, cricketer
Daniel Quigley, rowing coxswain
17 May – Scott Curry, rugby union player
20 May – Nikki Hamblin, athlete
29 May – Tom Furniss, comedian
30 May – Antonio Winterstein, rugby league player
June
1 June – Natalie Rooney, sports shooter
6 June – Israel Dagg, rugby union player
8 June – Charlotte Kight, netball player
19 June – Grayson Hart, rugby union player
23 June – Nick McLennan, rugby union player
24 June – Ryan Sissons, triathlete
25 June – Eliana Rubashkyn, transgender refugee
28 June – Alana Millington, field hockey player
July
1 July – Kendra Cocksedge, cricketer and rugby union player
3 July
Cole Peverley, association footballer
Winston Reid, association footballer
6 July
Andrew de Boorder, cricketer
Jesse Sergent, cyclist
7 July – Katie Perkins, cricketer
8 July – Mike Harris, rugby union player
10 July – Sarah Walker, BMX rider
11 July – Paula Griffin, netball player
13 July – Robbie Fruean, rugby union player
16 July – Lyndon Sheehan, freestyle skier
18 July – Andrew Horrell, rugby union player
20 July – B. J. Anthony, basketball player
21 July – Julian Matthews, athlete
26 July
Derek Carpenter, rugby union player
Tetera Faulkner, rugby union player
27 July – John Hardie, rugby union player
31 July
Alex Glenn, rugby league player
Brackin Karauria-Henry, rugby union player
August
1 August
Tim Perry, rugby union player
Bodene Thompson, rugby league player
6 August – Kayla McAlister, netball and rugby union player
8 August – Brad Cachopa, cricketer
12 August – Suliasi Taufalele, rugby union player
14 August – Dave Thomas, rugby union player
15 August – Nasi Manu, rugby union player
18 August – Michael Boxall, association footballer
22 August – Sarah Major, actor
24 August
Cathryn Finlayson, field hockey player
Manu Maʻu, rugby league player
28 August – Kane Hames, rugby union player
29 August
Fritz Lee, rugby union player
Lewis Marshall, rugby union player
September
1 September – Ash Dixon, rugby union player
4 September – David Eade, rower
5 September – Jackson Willison, rugby union player
7 September – Tevita Koloamatangi, rugby union player
14 September
Callum Gibbins, rugby union player
Sean Maitland, rugby union player
16 September – Nathaniel Neale, rugby league player
17 September – Michael Fitzgerald, association footballer
18 September – Joe Moody, rugby union player
19 September – Rebecca Spence, triathlete
22 September – Jeet Raval, cricketer
23 September
Hayley Crofts, netball player
Ryan Crotty, rugby union player
25 September
Quentin MacDonald, rugby union player
Josh Rowland, rugby union player
30 September – Joelle King, squash player
October
3 October – Helen Collins, association footballer
4 October – Mitchey Greig, freestyle skier
5 October – Luke Braid, rugby union player
7 October
Kurt Baker, rugby union player
Michael Leitch, rugby union player
10 October – Rose McIver, actor
12 October – Sam Whitelock, rugby union player
14 October – Terefe Ejigu, athlete
16 October
Fiona Bourke, rower
Karl Filiga, rugby league player
18 October – Luuka Jones, slalom canoeist
19 October – Naturalism, Thoroughbred racehorse
27 October – Rodney Ah You, rugby union player
29 October
Roman Van Uden, cyclist
Kayne Vincent, association footballer
November
1 November
Nick Barrett, rugby union player
Hamish Carson, athlete
4 November – Paea Faʻanunu, rugby union player
8 November – Shaun Teasdale, archer
10 November
Lord Gyllene, Thoroughbred racehorse
Jeremy Su'a, rugby union player
14 November – Mitchell Crosswell, rugby union player
18 November – Lucy Oliver, athlete
20 November – Vicky Rodewyk, actor, model and dancer
21 November – Aaron Smith, rugby union player
22 November – Tu'u Maori, rugby league player
23 November – Tony Goodin, cricketer
25 November – Mat Luamanu, rugby union player
28 November
Daniel Kirkpatrick, rugby union player
Nic Mayhew, rugby union player
Christy Prior, snowboarder
29 November – Corey Webster, basketball player
30 November – Edward Purcell, rugby league player
December
1 December – Taione Vea, rugby union player
7 December – James Marshall, rugby union player
8 December – Simon van Velthooven, cyclist
11 December – Tim Southee, cricketer
12 December – Isaac John, rugby league player
13 December – James Tamou, rugby league player
16 December – Robin Cheong, taekwando competitor
17 December – Steve Rapira, rugby league player
Exact date unknown
Eli Kent, playwright and actor
Sam McCarthy, songwriter and musician
Deaths
January–February
2 January – Bill Crawford-Compton, World War II air ace, air force commander (born 1915)
10 January – Ron King, rugby union player and selector (born 1909)
11 January – Arthur Collins, rugby union player (born 1906)
9 February – Zelma Roberts, writer (born 1915)
17 February – Reginald Uren, architect (born 1906)
23 February – Charlie Jackman, cricketer (born 1906)
29 February – Sister Mary Gabriel, nun, pharmacist (born 1904)
March–April
16 March – Harold Turbott, medical practitioner, public health administrator, broadcaster and writer (born 1899)
23 March – Cyril Walter, cricketer, field hockey player and coach, sports writer (born 1912)
30 March – Sir Donald McKay, politician (born 1908)
7 April – Christopher Rollinson, boxer (born 1928)
16 April – Doug Mudgway, amateur wrestler (born 1924)
17 April – Ormond Wilson, politician (born 1907)
May–June
9 May – Robert Alexander, cricketer (born 1911)
14 May – Fred Atkins, professional wrestler (born 1910)
22 May – Leslie Stephen-Smith, cricketer (born 1904)
24 May – Tom Burtt, cricketer (born 1915)
26 May – Neta Neale, theatre director, speech and drama teacher (born 1904)
27 May – Alwyn Warren, Anglican bishop, university chancellor (born 1900)
28 May – Evelyn Page, artist (born 1899)
1 June – Ricky May, musician (born 1943)
3 June – Christabel Robinson, vocational guidance and community worker (born 1898)
4 June – Elizabeth Turnbull, woollen mill worker (born 1885)
5 June – Brian Ashby, Roman Catholic bishop (born 1923)
17 June – Cyril Crawford, cricketer (born 1902)
24 June
Alexander Astor, rabbi, community leader (born 1900)
Anthony Rohrs, cricketer (born 1961)
25 June – Neville Pickering, politician, mayor of Christchurch (1971–74) (born 1923)
30 June – Hubert Ryburn, university administrator (born 1897)
July–August
8 July – Enga Washbourn, artist and writer (born 1908)
12 July – Robert Monteith, cricket umpire (born 1937)
18 July – Ralph Bulmer, ethnobiologist (born 1928)
21 July – Dame Cecily Pickerill, plastic surgeon (born 1903)
24 July – May Smith, painter, engraver, textile designer (born 1906)
1 August – G. S. Carter, surveyor and road engineer (born 1910)
4 August – Brian Brake, photographer (born 1927)
5 August – Nora Sipos, humanitarian and welfare worker (born 1900)
28 August – Paul Whitelaw, cricketer (born 1910)
30 August – Sir Jack Marshall, politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (born 1912)
31 August – Ivan Tomašević, political activist (born 1897)
September–October
4 September – Rona Stevenson, politician (born 1911)
6 September – Mary Martin, netball player (born 1915)
11 September – Bernard Holman, artist (born 1941)
13 September – Ron Rangi, rugby union player (born 1941)
17 September – Jim Watt, rugby union player, paediatrics academic (born 1914)
9 October – Bob Goslin, boxer (born 1927)
31 October – Gwen Somerset, teacher, adult education director, educationalist, writer (born 1894)
November–December
1 November – Louis Johnson, poet (born 1924)
4 November – Saul Goldsmith, political candidate (born 1911)
7 November
Aubrey Begg, politician (born 1929)
Sir Douglas Carter, politician (born 1908)
12 November – Pat Perrin, potter (born 1921)
28 November – Robert Stewart, sailor (born 1906)
29 November – Thomas Lemin, cricketer (born 1905)
5 December – Monica McKenzie, dietitian (born 1905)
8 December
Airini Grennell, singer, pianist, broadcaster (born 1910)
Sir Andrew McKee, air force leader (born 1902)
10 December – Beau Cottrell, rugby union player, Rotarian (born 1907)
16 December – John Cameron, cricketer (born 1898)
21 December
Bruce Ferguson, army officer (born 1917)
Charlie Peek, child welfare administrator, billiards player (born 1904)
27 December – William Fea, rugby union and squash player (born 1898)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Formerly Russula mairei (Singer), and commonly known as the beechwood sickener, the now re-classified fungus Russula nobilis (Velen.) is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula. This group of mushrooms are noted for their brittle gills and bright colours.
Taxonomy
It was previously named in honour of French mycologist René Maire by Rolf Singer in 1929, but found to be the same taxon as the earlier 1920 Russula nobilis, which has naming priority.
Description
The cap is a red or rosy colour, 3–6 cm wide, convex to flat, or slightly depressed, and weakly sticky. It peels only to a third of its radius, which reveals pink flesh. The flesh is firm and white or sometimes yellowish, smells of coconut, and tastes peppery. It is often damaged by slugs. The stem is 2–5 cm long, 1–1.5 cm wide, cylindrical, (firmer than its conifer dwelling namesake, Russula emetica), and white. The gills are narrowly spaced, adnexed, rounded, and white, often with a faint blue-green sheen. The spore print is white.
Distribution and habitat
The species is mycorrhizal with beech (Fagus) in woodland areas. It is widespread and common in Europe, Asia, and North America, where these trees grow.
Edibility
Russula nobilis is inedible, and probably poisonous in quantity, but not deadly. Many bitter tasting red-capped species can cause problems if eaten raw; the symptoms are mainly gastrointestinal in nature: diarrhoea, vomiting and colicky abdominal cramps. The active agent has not been identified but thought to be caused by chemical compounds known as sesquiterpenes, which have been isolated from the related genus Lactarius and from Russula sardonia.
See also
List of Russula species
References
"Danske storsvampe. Basidiesvampe" [a key to Danish basidiomycetes] J.H. Petersen and J. Vesterholt eds. Gyldendal. Viborg, Denmark, 1990.
External links
nobilis
Inedible fungi
Fungi of North America
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of Asia
Fungi described in 1920
Taxa named by Josef Velenovský | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russula%20nobilis |
Ayamonte (; ) is a town and municipality of Spain belonging to the province of Huelva, Andalusia. It is located near the border with Portugal on the mouth of the Guadiana River. According to the 2015 census, the city had a population of 20,357 inhabitants.
History
In the municipality are located parts of the megalithic site La Torre-La Janera which is assumed to date back to the 5th millennium BC. The town was seized away from Muslim control in 1240 during the reign of Sancho II of Portugal, and it was donated afterwards to the Order of Santiago. Ayamonte became part of the Crown of Castile in 1263.
Fishing and salting of tuna and sardine was already practised in Ayamonte since the Middle Ages. The town suffered due to the War with Portugal and the plague pandemics in the 17th century. In the following century, Catalans and other eastern merchants installed in the town and gave impetus to the local canning and salt industry.
Location
The township of Ayamonte preserves its old medieval quarter in the central district of the town, with many very narrow streets and historical buildings; this central area is a designated car-free zone.
The beach area of Ayamonte is Isla Canela and is reached by a causeway across the Marismas del Guadiana; the marismas (salt marshes) are a wildlife reserve, providing a home to many waterfowl, including herons and flamingos. Isla Canela is built along several kilometers of sandy beaches, and provides an area for windsurfing, kitesurfing and sailing. There are a number of golf courses in and around the area, including one built into the Marismas itself.
Transport
The ferry link between Ayamonte and Vila Real de Santo António was the traditional crossing point between Spain and Portugal. A modern bridge over the Guadiana River has now been built to the north of the town, linking the motorway systems of both countries, but the ferry still runs and provides an inexpensive mode of transport between the two countries.
Culture
The city is also famous for its local festivities, the "Fiestas de las Angustias", in honor of their patron "Nuestra Señora de las Angustias". The festivities in the beginning of September are a moment of celebration not only from the Ayamontin population, but also for many Andalucians, and Portuguese. The festivities are graced by the local band, "Banda Ciudad de Ayamonte" and the Portuguese "Banda da Sociedade Filarmónica Progresso e Labor Samouquense" from the Portuguese village of Samouco.
Climate
Ayamonte has a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) with mild, somewhat humid winters and dry, warm to hot summers. Autumn is the wettest season.
Demographics
People
Antonio León Ortega (1907–1991), Sculptor. He had his professional education in Madrid and he created a personal style in the Andalusian imagery of the 20th century.
María Isabel, singer.
References
External links
Ayuntamiento de Ayamonte*** changed to www.ayamonte.es **
Ayamonte - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía
Municipalities in the Province of Huelva
Portugal–Spain border crossings | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayamonte |
Today, environmental problems in the Philippines include pollution, mining and logging, deforestation, threats to environmental activists, dynamite fishing, landslides, coastal erosion, biodiversity loss, extinction, global warming and climate change. Due to the paucity of extant documents, a complete history of land use in the archipelago remains unwritten. However, relevant data shows destructive land use increased significantly in the eighteenth century when Spanish colonialism enhanced its extraction of the archipelago's resources for the early modern global market. The Philippines is projected to be one of the most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change, which would exacerbate weather extremes. As the Philippines lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to natural disasters, like earthquakes, typhoons, and volcanic eruptions. In 2021, the Philippines ranked the fourth most affected country from "weather-related loss events", partly due to the close proximity of major infrastructure and residential areas to the coast and unreliable government support. One of the most devastating typhoons to hit the archipelago was Typhoon Haiyan, known locally as Yolanda, in 2013 that killed 6,300 people and left 28,689 injured. Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1999, the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, the Climate Change Act of 2009 to address environmental issues. The country is also a signatory to the Paris Agreement. However, research has found that outside of cities, the general public doesn't feel equally informed. Environmental activists and land defenders, consisting mostly of Indigenous communities who have been attempting to bring attention to the environmental issues in the country have been met with violence or murder. As a result, the Philippines has been ranked one of the most dangerous places in the world for environmental activists.
Broad Environmental Issues
Climate change
Air pollution
Air pollution causes significant health and economic problems in the Philippines. An estimated 66,000 deaths annually have been directly linked to air pollution.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is tasked with implementing the Clean Air Act of 1999 to monitor and prevent air pollution in the country.
Deforestation
Over the course of the twentieth century, the forest cover of the Philippines dropped from 70 percent down to 20 percent. In total, 46 species are endangered, and 4 have been eradicated completely. Only 3.2 percent of total rainforest is left. Based on an analysis of land use pattern maps and a road map, an estimated 9.8 million acres of forests were lost in the Philippines from 1934 to 1988. Illegal logging occurs in the Philippines and intensifies flood damage in some areas.
According to scholar Jessica Mathews, short-sighted policies by the Filipino government have contributed to the high rate of deforestation:
The government regularly granted logging concessions of less than ten years. Since it takes 30–35 years for a second-growth forest to mature, loggers had no incentive to replant. Compounding the error, flat royalties encouraged the loggers to remove only the most valuable species. A horrendous 40 percent of the harvestable lumber never left the forests but, having been damaged in the logging, rotted or was burned in place. The unsurprising result of these and related policies is that out of 17 million hectares of closed forests that flourished early in the century only 1.2 million remain today.
The Philippines had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.91/10, ranking it 91st globally out of 172 countries.
Water pollution
Although water resources have become scarce in some regions and seasons, the Philippines as a whole has more than enough surface and groundwater. However, neglecting to have a coherent environmental policy has led to the contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the Philippines. The main source of pollution is untreated domestic and industrial wastewater. Only one third of Philippine river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.
It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins. Besides severe health concerns, water pollution also leads to problems in the fishing and tourism industries. The national government recognized the problem and since 2004 has sought to introduce sustainable water resources development management (see below).
Only 10% of the total population is connected to a sewer network. The vast majority uses flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and disposal facilities are rare, most effluents are discharged into the ecosystem without treatment. According to the Asian Development Bank, the Pasig River is one of the world's most polluted rivers, running through the capital city of Manila. In March 2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant will be constructed in Taguig. The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700 households was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan which has been used to resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access to safe water supply and sanitation facilities.
According to a report in 2003, the Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with 150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.
Destructive fishing
General
Commercial fishing is causing environmental problems, exhausting food supply, and threatening livelihoods in the Philippines and around the world. The Philippines has a strong fishing culture due to its historically productive and diverse marine ecosystems. In 2018, 927,617 people were officially reported as being involved in "capture fishing", and fish contributes to 50% of a Filipinos protein consumption. This fish reliance has contributed to the current overfishing of 70% of Philippine fishing grounds and about 40% of fish caught being done illegally. Coastal communities and local fishers organized themselves to implement sustainable fishing practices and protect fishing grounds from commercial fishing fleets that are destroying marine habitats.
COVID-19 lockdowns seem to have allowed an increase in illegal fishing. Karagatan Patrol ships using VIIRS (visible infrared imaging lure lights) have detected an increase in apparent commercial fishing vessels from 3,602 in February 2020 (before COVID-19 lockdowns) to 5,950 in March, which went back down to 1,666 in May when lockdown eased. These vessels were detected in waters that only allow small artisanal fishermen using passive fishing methods, due to the area being a spawning ground for most fish species.
Dynamite and cyanide fishing
Dynamite fishing, cyanide fishing, and bottom trawling are fishing methods that cause extensive damage to coral reefs. These practices are major threats to Philippine marine life and ecosystems.
Dynamite fishing, also known as blast fishing and fish bombing, was outlawed in 1932. It is a practice of throwing bombs into the water to kill and stun the fish caught in the blast, and then collecting the fish. The process kills both fish eggs and fish too young to sell. It also destroys the surrounding habitat, including coral reefs in the area. This damage is estimated to have cause $99.2 billion in losses a year, according to a study by Rhodora Azanza of the University of the Philippines. As such, average fish yields have been reported to be decreasing. Jimely Flores, a senior marine scientist for Oceana, described the situation saying, “In some dynamited areas, if you dive you don’t see any fish at all.”
Commercial fishing vessels have used cyanide to stun and capture coral reef fish in the Philippines.
Solid waste
According to Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA), the country produces an average of 41 kilotons of garbage daily with almost 10 ktons/day coming from Metro Manila alone.
While most local government units establish a Material Recovery Facility (MRF), implement segregation at the source, and collect and process all recyclable and biodegradable materials, most of the municipal solid wastes are either disposed in the dump sites or openly burned, which further worsen the quality of heavy polluted air in the cities.
Rising Sea Levels
One of the problems of environmental issues is about the sea level rise. Sea level rise is an increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of global warming. Burning fossil fuels is one of the causes of global warming because it releases carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gasses into the atmosphere. The oceans then absorb the majority of this heat. Sea levels are rising as a result of climate change. This rise is likely to accelerate over the coming century and continue for centuries. The impacts of sea level rise include permanent flooding (inundation) of low-lying areas, and increased frequency, extent and depth of tidal inundation. Sea level rise will also cause most sandy beaches to recede (where beaches will move further inland) and erode.
The Philippines is experiencing sea-level rise, which is threatening more than 40% of the population that live in coastal areas. The rising sea levels are causing increased flooding, erosion, and salinization of freshwater resources. These impacts have significant economic, social, and environmental consequences, including the displacement of people and destruction of coastal infrastructure. To address the impacts of climate change, the Philippine government has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate. The country has committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 70% by 2030, which will require significant changes in the energy and transportation sectors. The government is also implementing measures to increase the resilience of the population to the impacts of climate change. These measures include the construction of flood control infrastructure, disaster risk reduction policies, and programs to promote sustainable agriculture.
In conclusion, climate change is a significant issue in the Philippines that is already causing significant economic, social, and environmental impacts. The country is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its location and its high population density. The government has taken steps to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the changing climate, but much more needs to be done to reduce the impacts of climate change on the country and its people. The Philippines must continue to prioritize climate action to build a more sustainable and resilient future.
Environmentalism
Anti-nuclear movement
Climate movement
Activists in the Philippines have organized activities to call for government action to address climate change. They have protested government policies that have allowed reclamation projects and mining activities and the killing of activists.
Activists have called for higher emission cuts in the Philippines and in developed countries.
Youth Strike for Climate
Philippine youth activists have participated in the global Youth Strike for Climate by organizing protest actions in different parts of the country. Youth activists have also protested the building of coal energy plants and their funding by multinational banks such as Standard Chartered.
Threats to environmentalists
The Philippines is sometimes considered the most dangerous country for environmental activists. According to environmental watchdog Global Witness, at least 30 land and environmental defenders were killed in the Philippines in 2018, many of whom were in conflict with private business groups. Kalikasan People's Network for the Environment recorded 46 deaths in 2019. The group said activists have also been harassed, vilified, "red-tagged," and labeled as terrorists or "enemies of the state."
Environmental groups have asked Congress to pass a Human Rights Defenders Bill to help protect activists and their families.
Government policy
Environmental protection
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources is responsible for creating, supporting, and enforcing policies on environmental protection by the Philippine government. The department is also tasked with ensuring sustainable management of the Philippines' natural resources. The Philippine Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) is responsible for environmental impact assessments, pollution prevention and control, as well as enforcing six main environmental laws in the Philippines. The Philippines has also signed into several international environmental treaties, with CITES protecting species from overexploitation due to international trade, and ratified the Paris Agreement.
Sustainable development
The Philippines formulated the Sustainable Development Strategy to tackle environmental issues and address the need to sustain development and growth. The Sustainable Development Strategy proposes policies for assimilating environmental considerations in administration, apposite pricing of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of ecosystems, control of population growth and human resources development, inducing growth in rural areas, promotion of environmental education, strengthening citizens' participation, and promoting small to medium-sized enterprises and sustainable agricultural and forestry practices. One of the initiatives signed in part of the strategy was the 1992 Earth Summit.
Upon signing the 1992 Earth Summit, the government of Philippines has been constantly looking into many different initiatives to improve the environmental aspects of the country.
Writ of Kalikasan
Clean Air Act
Republic Act No. 8749, also known as the Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999, mandates the government to create and implement a national program for preventing and managing air pollution. The law also tasks the government to monitor air quality throughout the country. The Department of Environment and Natural Resources issued Administrative Order No. 81 in 2000 outlining its implementing rules and regulations for the Clean Air Act. It also issued in 2004 Administrative Order No. 2004-26 amending Rule XIX of DENR Administrative Order No. 2000-81.
See also
Ecoregions in the Philippines
List of protected areas of the Philippines
Species:
Wildlife of the Philippines
List of threatened species of the Philippines
References
Further reading | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20the%20Philippines |
Environmental issues in Paraguay include deforestation.
Between 1990 and 2000, Paraguay had an average deforestation rate of 1%. The rate increased between 2000 and 2005 to 1.92%. Paraguay also has a growing pollution problem. Many of the country's rivers suffer from toxic dumping. Tanneries are particularly harmful, releasing mercury and chromium into rivers and streams. Runoff from toxic chemicals used by farmers also seeps into Paraguay's waters. In the Chaco, the salination of already arid land makes farming even more difficult. Furthermore, poachers have almost
Paraguay had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.39/10, ranking it 74th globally out of 172 countries.
References
Issues
Paraguay
Environmental crime | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Paraguay |
Environmental issues in Pakistan include air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, climate change, pesticide misuse, soil erosion, natural disasters, desertification and flooding. According to the 2020 edition of the environmental performance index (EPI) ranking released by Yale Center for Environmental Law & Policy, Pakistan ranks 142 with an EPI score of 33.1, an increase of 6.1 over a 10-year period. It ranked 180 in terms of air quality. The climatic changes and global warming are the most alarming issues risking millions of lives across the country. The major reasons of these environmental issues are carbon emissions, population explosion, and deforestation.
These are serious environmental problems that Pakistan is facing, and they are getting worse as the country's economy expands and the population grows. Although some NGOs and government departments have taken initiatives to stop environmental degradation, Pakistan's environmental issues still remain. Pakistan is facing a significant challenge as its natural resources and ecosystems encounter increasing pollution and strain. The foremost environmental concerns in the country revolve around the excessive use of limited natural resources, contamination of air and water, diminishing energy reserves, the reduction of forests, and the management of waste.
Economic consequences of environmental degradation
The majority of Pakistan's industrial sectors, for example fishing and agriculture, which account for more than one-fourth of the output and two-fifths of employment in Pakistan, are highly dependent on the country's natural resources. Hence, in order to sustain economic growth there is a high demand on already scarce natural resources. However it is ironic that what the country depends on for its growth is also what threatens the future welfare and success of the country. According to the World Bank, 70% of Pakistan's population live in rural areas and are already stricken by high poverty levels. These people depend on natural resources to provide income and tend to overuse these resources. This leads to further degradation of the environment and subsequently increases poverty. This has led to what the World Bank refers to as a "vicious downward spiral of impoverishment and environmental degradation."
Pollution
The World Bank report in 2013 stated that Pakistan's top environmental issues include air pollution, inadequate supply of uncontaminated drinking water, noise pollution and the health deterioration of urban and rural populations due to pollution. These environmental concerns not only harm Pakistani citizens but also pose a serious threat to the country's economy. The report also stated that the increase in industrialization, urbanization and motorization will inevitably worsen this problem. Pakistan holds the dubious distinction of being the world's third-most polluted country when it comes to air quality, compounding its environmental challenges. The swift pace of urbanization, coupled with population growth, presents further intricacies in this regard.
Water pollution
Pakistan is classified as a water stressed nation by the World Bank. There are seven main rivers that enter Pakistan from upper riparian states, including the Kabul River that enters from Afghanistan, and the Indus River, Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, and Sutlej River that enter from India. Among these, the Ravi and Sutlej are diverted in upstream India, for which consumptive use was awarded to India under the Indus Waters Treaty signed in 1960 by India and Pakistan. Canal networks from the Indus (main stem), Jhelum River, and Chenab River supply water throughout the agricultural plains in Punjab and in Sindh, while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water. Potential scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan's economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis.
Lower flows due to the Indus Waters Treaty, as well as diversion to canals, means that lower dilution flows are available within the rivers of Pakistan. On the other hand, water pollution generation is increasing largely due to the growing economy and population, and an almost complete lack of water treatment. The sources for water pollution include the overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the dumping of industrial effluent into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into rivers and the ocean, and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall waterborne diseases.
According to researchers, Pakistan is projected to become the most water-stressed country in the region by the year 2040.
Noise pollution
The megacities of Pakistan, such as Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and Rawalpindi, face the issue of noise pollution. The main source of this pollution is the traffic noise caused by buses, cars, trucks, rickshaws and water tankers. A study showed that on one of Karachi's main roads, the average noise level was around 90 dB and was capable of reaching about 110 dB. This is much higher than the ISO's noise level standard of 70 dB, which is not meant to be harmful to the human ear. However, the study also concluded that in Pakistan, "the traffic noise levels limit as laid down by National Environment Quality standards, Environmental Protection Agency is 85 dB".
This high level of noise pollution can cause auditory and non-auditory health issues. Auditory issues include the loss of auditory sensory cells; non-auditory health issues include sleep disturbance, noise and cardiovascular disease, endocrine response to noise and psychiatric disorder. There are very few, vague laws and policies in regards to noise levels. There is no accountability, and while the federal and provincial environmental protection agencies receive dozens of complaints on noise pollution from the public, these agencies are unable to take action due to legal constraints and the absence of national noise level standards.
Air pollution
Air pollution is a growing environmental problem in most major cities of Pakistan. According to a World Bank report, "Karachi's urban air pollution is among the most severe in the world and it engenders significant damages to human health and the economy". The inefficient use of energy, an increase in the number of vehicles used daily, an increase in unregulated industrial emissions and the burning of garbage and plastic have contributed the most to air pollution in urban areas. According to a recent study, the Sindh Environment Protection Department claims that the average level of pollution in big cities is approximately four times higher than the World Health Organisation's limits. These emissions have detrimental effects, including "respiratory diseases, reduced visibility, loss of vegetation and an effect on the growth of plants".
One of the greatest contributors to air pollution is industrial activity. The inadequate air emission treatments and lack of regulatory control over industrial activity has contributed to the deterioration of ambient air quality in major cities. In addition, the common practice of burning massive amounts of solid waste, including plastic and rubber, on street corners by the public, releases toxic gases, which are extremely harmful for residents in the area.
In 2018, a young entrepreneur in Karachi, Abid Omar, launched the Pakistan Air Quality Initiative to monitor air quality in Pakistan's big cities. The project aims to increase the availability of air quality data in Pakistan and make citizens more aware of the health impacts of air pollution. The US State Department has set up three high-quality air quality monitoring stations at three locations in Pakistan.
Specifically, studies have revealed the negative consequences air pollution can have on the welfare of those impacted. Studies have revealed how the constant fluctuation of particulate matter poses a major threat to Pakistan's citizens who are frequently exposes to harmful levels of air pollution. Suspended Particulate Matter, which has been linked to respiratory illnesses has been found in harmful quantities in Pakistan's major urban areas. Some strategies that can be used to effectively manage Pakistan's urban air pollution problems include the advancements to road design and improvement of transport sustainability, increased use of abatement policy by the Pakistani government, and a conversion to clean fuel energy alternatives like CNG.
Climate change
Natural disasters
Due to Pakistan's diverse land and climatic conditions, it is prone to different forms of natural disasters, including earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, droughts, cyclones and hurricanes. A disaster management report claims that the provinces of Gilgit-Baltistan (GB), Balochistan and AJK are vulnerable seismic regions and hence highly susceptible to earthquakes, while Sindh and Punjab constantly suffer from floods because they are low-lying areas.
Some of the worst natural disasters that Pakistan has faced include the 1935 Quetta earthquake when around 60,000 people were killed, the 1950 floods when an estimated 2900 people died and 900,000 people were left homeless, the 1974 Hunza earthquake where around 5300 people were killed, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake that killed at least 73,000 and affected more than 1.5 million people, and the 2010 floods, where 20 million people were affected.
Forests
Pakistan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking it 41st globally out of 172 countries. Yet, deforestation is happening at an alarming rate in Pakistan. The country currently relies heavily on imported wood-based products due to a lack of self-sufficiency in this sector, resulting in substantial resource expenditure. Furthermore, these resources are depleting at a rate of one percent, which is having a significant impact on the well-being of the Pakistani population.
Conservation efforts
The government has expressed concern about environmental threats to economic growth and social development and since the early 1990s has addressed environmental concerns with new legislation and institutions such as the Pakistan Environment Protection Council. However, foreign lenders provide most environmental protection funds, and only 0.04 percent of the government's development budget goes to environmental protection. Thus, the government's ability to enforce environmental regulations is limited, and private industries often lack the funds to meet environmental standards established by international trade organizations. Government of Pakistan start new campaign with Clean and Green Pakistan to overcome environmental issues.
Clean Green Champion Program
An initiative named Clean Green Pakistan was launched in 2019 by the Government of Pakistan. The idea of the initiative was to hold a competition between cities of Pakistan in cleanliness and greenery. A web portal was launched where citizens can get registered and report their activities to earn points. Citizens would also be awarded medals when they reach a certain threshold of points.
Billion Tree Tsunami
The Billion Tree Tsunami was launched in 2014 by the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) as a response against the challenge of global warming. Pakistan's Billion Tree Tsunami restores 350,000 hectares of forests and degraded land to surpass its Bonn Challenge commitment. The project aimed at improving the ecosystems of classified forests, as well as privately owned waste and farm lands, and therefore entails working in close collaboration with concerned communities and stakeholders to ensure their meaningful participation through effectuating project promotion and extension services. In just a year it has added three-quarters of a billion new trees, as part of a “tree tsunami” aimed at reversing worsening forest loss. The project was completed in August 2017, ahead of schedule.
The initiative was acknowledged by international media, namely The Washington Post, VoA News, The Hindu, Reuters, Al Jazeera, and many others. Short films such as Green Election Campaign and Stop are a part of Clean Green Pakistan Effort.
National Conservation Strategy
The Conservation Strategy Report has three explicit objectives: conservation of natural resources, promotion of sustainable development, and improvement of efficiency in the use and management of resources. It sees itself as a "call for action" addressed to central and provincial governments, businesses, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local communities, and individuals.
The primary agricultural nonpoint source pollutants are nutrients (particularly nitrogen and phosphorus), sediment, animal wastes, pesticides, and salts. Agricultural nonpoint sources enter surface water through direct surface runoff or through seepage to ground water that discharges to a surface water outlet. Various farming activities result in the erosion of soil particles. The sediment produced by erosion can damage fish habitat and wetlands, and often transports excess agricultural chemicals resulting in contaminated runoff. This runoff, in turn, affects changes to aquatic habitat such as temperature increases and decreased oxygen. The most common sources of excess nutrients in surface water from nonpoint sources are chemical fertilizers and manure from animal facilities. Such nutrients cause eutrophication in surface water. Pesticides used for pest control in agricultural operations can also contaminate surface as well as ground-water resources. Return flows, runoff, and leach ate from irrigated lands may transport sediment, nutrients, salts, and other materials. Finally, improper grazing practices in riparian areas, as well as upland areas, can also cause water quality degradation. The development of Pakistan is viewed as a multigenerational enterprise.
In seeking to transform attitudes and practices, the National Conservation Strategy recognizes that two key changes in values are needed: the restoration of the conservation ethic derived from Islamic moral values, called Qantas, and the revival of community spirit and responsibility, Haqooq ul Ibad.
The National Conservation Strategy Report recommends fourteen program areas for priority implementation: maintaining soils in croplands, increasing efficiency of irrigation, protecting watersheds, supporting forestry and plantations, restoring rangelands and improving livestock, protecting water bodies and sustaining fisheries, conserving biodiversity, increasing energy efficiency, developing and deploying renewable resources, preventing or decreasing pollution, managing urban wastes, supporting institutions to manage common resources, integrating population and environmental programs, and preserving the cultural heritage. It identifies sixty-eight specific programs in these areas, each with a long-term goal and expected outputs and physical investments required within ten years. Special attention has been paid to the potential roles of environmental NGOs, women's organizations, and international NGOs in working with the government in its conservation efforts. Recommendations from the National Conservation Strategy Report are incorporated in the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993–98).
In a recent study conducted by the Global CLEAN campaign, it was found that the average temperature in Pakistan had risen by 0.2 degrees in only two years. This is a dramatic change and puts emphasis on climate change campaigns.
Land use
Arable land - 27%
Permanent crops - 1%
Permanent pastures - 6%
Forests and woodland - 5%
Other - 61% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land - 171,100 km2 (1993 est.)
Protected areas
Pakistan has 14 national parks, 72 wildlife sanctuaries, 66 game reserves, 9 marine and littoral protected areas, 19 protected wetlands and a number of other protected grasslands, shrublands, woodlands and natural monuments.
International agreements
Pakistan is a party to several international agreements related to environment and climate. The most prominent among them are:
See also
Green economy
Geography of Pakistan
Health care in Pakistan
Hydrogen economy
Leapfrogging from natural gas to hydrogen
List of environmental issues
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency
Protected areas of Pakistan
Wildlife of Pakistan
References
External links
Environment Protection Agency, Pakistan
Resources on Pakistan, Environment and Sustainable Development | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Pakistan |
Environmental issues in Nepal include a number of issues, such as deforestation, climate change, energy and species conservation. Many of these issues have been precipitated by rapid industrialization without major environmental regulation.
Biodiversity
Agro-biodiversity is under threat due to use of high yielding varieties, destruction of natural habitat, overgrazing, land fragmentation, commercialization of agriculture and the extension of modern high yielding varieties, indiscriminate use of pesticides, population growth and urbanization, and changes in farmer's priorities (MFSC, 2000).
More factors for loss of biodiversity include landslide and soil erosion, pollution, fire, overgrazing, illegal trade, hunting and smuggling.
Non-timber forests are threatened by deforestation, habitat degradation and unsustainable harvesting. Major threats to some protected areas are grazing all year around, poaching for high value products, illegal timber harvesting and unsustainable tourism. Rangelands are suffering from an enormous grazing pressure and wetland biodiversity is threatened by encroachment of wetland habitat, unsustainable harvesting of wetland resources, industrial pollution, agricultural runoff, the introduction of exotic and invasive species into wetland ecosystems, and siltation. Mountain biodiversity is suffering due to ecological fragility and instability of high mountain environments, deforestation, poor management of natural resources, and inappropriate farming practices.
Water and air pollution
Sedimentation and discharge of industrial effluents are prominent sources of water pollution, and the burning of wood for fuel is a significant source of indoor air pollution and respiratory problems. Vehicular and industrial emissions increasingly have contributed to air pollution in urban areas.
The death rate from both indoor and outdoor air pollutants was 133.3 per 100,000 populations(2017) which is the second-highest death rate after due to Cardiovascular diseases in Nepal. There is no complete combust when coal and biomass fuels are burned. They leave some variety of chemicals and gases behind which are usually breathable and can be associated with long-term chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, cardiovascular disease, and adverse reproductive outcomes. The most vulnerable groups are women and children in household air pollution.
Mainly in rural and mountainous areas of the country, where people often have no ventilation in the home due to cold outdoor temperatures, they tend to use solid and biomass fuel. Almost 64% of indoor cooking is done with firewood, and 10% of households burn cow dung due to lack of improved stoves, gas for cooking, and better ventilation. This is a major problem to cause environmental health issues like conjunctivitis, upper respiratory irritation, and acute respiratory infection. In Kathmandu, ambient air pollution due to construction projects, the high population which results in an increased number of vehicles, and bad conditions of the road lead to hazardous pollution.
In Nepal, Diarrhea is the 4th leading cause of death. There is still limited systemic monitoring of the water system and water quality. Although 48% of households have access to safe drinking water, 38% still do not have proper sanitation, and 14% practice open defecation or have a lack of sanitation facility. Due to the lack of toilet facilities, inadequate sanitation, and solid waste disposal, children suffer from diarrhea and vector-related diseases.
Deforestation
Deforestation and land degradation appear to affect a far greater proportion of the population and have the worst consequences for economic growth and individuals’ livelihoods. Forest loss has contributed to floods, soil erosion, and stagnant agricultural output. Estimates suggest that from 1966 to 2000 forest cover declined from 45 to 29 percent of the total land area. Often cited causes of deforestation include population growth, high fuelwood consumption, infrastructure projects, and conversion of forests into grazing- and cropland. According to government estimates, 1.5 million tons of soil nutrients are lost annually, and by 2002 approximately 5 percent of agricultural holdings had been rendered uncultivable as a result of soil erosion and flooding.
Land degradation is attributed to population growth, improper use of agro-chemicals, and overly intensive use of landholdings that are too small to provide most households with sufficient food. Since the late 1980s, government policies have attempted to address these numerous and related problems. Policies often are hampered by lack of funding, insufficient understanding of Nepal's mountain ecosystems, bureaucratic inefficiency, and sometimes contentious relations between the central government and local communities.(MFSC, 2000)
Nepal had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.23/10, ranking it 45th globally out of 172 countries.
Climate change
Health impacts
Environmental Health issues are a not major risk factors for the Global Burden of Diseases. The 3rd leading cause of death in low and middle-income countries is COPD, 5th leading cause is Lower Respiratory Infections and seventh is Diarrheal diseases. In Nepal, COPD is the second major cause of death after Ischemic Heart Diseases. Diarrhea and Lower Respiratory Infections are the 4th and 5th causes of death respectively.
See also
National Trust for Nature Conservation
References
External links
Ministry of Environment
Nepal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Nepal |
San Felice del Molise (also called Filić or Štifilić) is a small town and comune in the province of Campobasso in the Molise region of Italy, near the Trigno river.
Like Acquaviva Collecroce and Montemitro, San Felice del Molise is home to a community of Molisian Croats, most of whom speak a particular Croatian dialect (they call it simply naš jezik, 'our language') as well as Italian and Molisian.
Main sights include the Norman Chapel of S. Felice and the church of Santa Maria di Costantinopoli.
See also
Molise Croats
International relations
San Felice del Molise is twinned with:
Omiš, Croatia
References
External links
UNESCO Red Book on endangered languages and dialects: Europe
Cities and towns in Molise | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Felice%20del%20Molise |
Alec Newman (born 27 November 1974) is a Scottish actor best known for portraying Paul Atreides in the Sci Fi Channel's 2000 miniseries adaptation of Frank Herbert's Dune.
Early life
Newman was born in Glasgow, Scotland. His father is Sandy Newman, a member of Scottish band Marmalade. He has a brother, John James Newman, who appeared on The Voice UK in 2012. Prior to joining the National Youth Theatre in London at age 17, Newman considered becoming a professional footballer. He trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.
Career
After graduating from LAMDA Newman built up a steady list of television and film credits before landing the lead role in the Sci Fi channel's Emmy award winning miniseries Frank Herbert's Dune. This led to a string of appearances in US TV and film, which culminated in winning the coveted role of Barnabas Collins in a WB reboot of Dark Shadows. The show was not picked up for series despite promising performances.
The 2004 Hallmark Channel version of Frankenstein with Newman leading an all star cast including William Hurt and Donald Sutherland, met with favourable reviews and won an Emmy. This period also found Newman consistently working on film - in Penny Woolcock's The Principles of Lust and in the Stephen Fry directed Bright Young Things. Both played at festivals around the world including Cannes Film Festival, Sundance Film Festival and the BFI London Film Festival.
Series regular roles in Kurt Sutter's The Bastard Executioner, Amazon's Rogue, and HBO's Strike Back saw him in edgier and often action oriented territory, yet in Guy Pitt's 2014 film Greyhawk Newman's more intimate and emotional performance contributed to a nomination for the Michael Powell award at the Edinburgh International Film Festival. He has since worked with directors Tomas Alfredson, Amma Asante and George Clooney.
Newman has often played edgy and complex characters. Performances in the BBC's Showtrial and World Production's Karen Pirie are recent examples of roles with a moral conflict at their core.
He regularly returns to work in the theatre. The Donmar Warehouse production of King Lear in which he played Edmund, transferred to the Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York. The National Theatre's 2015 production of The Motherfucker with the Hat featured Newman in the title role and was nominated at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards for Best Play. More recently, he played Bruno Bischofberger in the Young Vic production of Anthony McCarten's new play The Collaboration opposite Paul Bettany, Jeremy Pope and Sofia Barclay.
He is also a prolific voice artist appearing in numerous video games including Cyberpunk 2077, Assassin's Creed Valhalla, and Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga.
Personal life
In February 2013, Newman became engaged to Heather Stewart. They married in Ayrshire in June 2014.
Newman is a huge football fan and has indulged a love for the outdoors, twice trekking in the Everest region of Nepal.
He lives with his family in Surrey, England.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
References
External links
Male actors from Glasgow
Scottish male film actors
Scottish male stage actors
Scottish male television actors
Scottish male video game actors
Scottish male voice actors
National Youth Theatre members
Living people
1974 births
20th-century Scottish male actors
21st-century Scottish male actors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec%20Newman |
Beinsdorp () is a village in the Dutch province of North Holland. It is a part of the municipality of Haarlemmermeer, and lies about southwest of Hoofddorp along the Ringvaart, adjacent to Hillegom. Beinsdorp is named after a former island in the former Haarlemmer Lake.
The village was first mentioned in 1851 as Beinsdorp, and means "Ben's village".
Gallery
References
External links
Populated places in North Holland
Haarlemmermeer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinsdorp |
Galicians ( ; ) are a European ethnic group from Spain; it is closely related to the Portuguese people and has its historic homeland in Galicia, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Two Romance languages are widely spoken and official in Galicia: the native Galician and Spanish.
Etymology
The ethnonym of the Galicians (galegos) derives directly from the Latin Gallaeci or Callaeci, itself an adaptation of the name of a local Celtic tribe known to the Greeks as Καλλαϊκoί (Kallaikoí). They lived in what is now Galicia and northern Portugal and were defeated by the Roman General Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in the 2nd century BCE and later conquered by Augustus. The Romans later applied that name to all the people who shared the same culture and language in the north-west, from the Douro River valley in the south to the Cantabrian Sea in the north and west to the Navia River. That encompassed such tribes as the Celtici, the Artabri, the Lemavi and the Albiones.
The oldest known inscription referring to the Gallaeci (reading Ἔθνο[υς] Καλλαικῶ[ν], "people of the Gallaeci") was found in 1981 in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey; a triumphal monument to Roman Emperor Augustus mentions them among other 15 nations that he conquered.
The etymology of the name has been studied since the 7th century by authors such as Isidore of Seville, who wrote, "Galicians are called so because of their fair skin, as the Gauls" and related the name to the Greek word for "milk," γάλα (gála). However, modern scholars like J.J. Moralejo and Carlos Búa have derived the name of the ancient Callaeci either from Proto-Indo-European *kl̥(H)‑n‑ 'hill', through a local relational suffix -aik-, also attested in Celtiberian language and so meaning 'the highlanders'; or either from Proto-Celtic *kallī- 'forest' and so means 'the forest (people)'.
Another recent proposal comes from the linguist Francesco Benozzo, who is not specialized in Celtic languages and identified the root gall- / kall- in a number of Celtic words with the meaning "stone" or "rock", as follows: gall (old Irish), gal (Middle Welsh), gailleichan (Scottish Gaelic), galagh (Manx) and gall (Gaulish). Hence, Benozzo explains the name Callaecia and its ethnonym Callaeci as being "the stone people" or "the people of the stone" ("those who work with stones"), in reference to the ancient megaliths and stone formations that are so common in Galicia and Portugal. Specialists of the Celtic languages do not consider there is a hypothetical Gaulish root *gall meaning "stone" or "rock", but *galiā "strength" (> French gaill-ard "strong"), related to Old Irish gal "berserk rage, war fury", Welsh gallu and Breton galloud "power". It is distinct from Gaulish *cal(l)io- "hoof" or "testicle", related to Welsh caill, Breton kell "testicle" (> Gaulish *caliavo > Old French chaillou, French caillou), all from the Proto-Indo-European root *kal- "hard hardness" (perhaps via suffixed zero-grade *kl̥H-no-(m)). For instance, in Latin callum "hard or thick substance" is also found and so both E. Rivas and Juan J. Moralejo relate the toponym Gallaecia / Callaecia with the Latin word callus.
Languages
Galician
Galician is a Romance language belonging to the Western Ibero-Romance branch; as such, it derives from Latin. It has official status in Galicia. Galician is also spoken in the neighbouring autonomous communities of Asturias and Castile and León, near their borders with Galicia.
Medieval or Old Galician, also known by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, developed locally in the Northwest of the Iberian Peninsula from Vulgar Latin, becoming the language spoken and written in the medieval kingdoms of Galicia (from 1230 united with the kingdoms of León and Castille under the same sovereign) and Portugal. The Galician-Portuguese language developed a rich literary tradition from the last years of the 12th century. During the 13th century it gradually replaced Latin as the language used in public and private charters, deeds, and legal documents, in Galicia, Portugal, and in the neighbouring regions in Asturias and Leon.
Galician-Portuguese diverged into two linguistic varieties – Galician and Portuguese – from the 15th century on. Galician became a regional spoken language under the influence of Castilian Spanish, while Portuguese became the international one, as language of the Portuguese Empire. The two varieties are still close together, and in particular northern Portuguese dialects share an important number of similarities with Galician ones.
The official institution regulating the Galician language, backed by the Galician government and universities, the Royal Galician Academy, claims that modern Galician must be considered an independent Romance language belonging to the group of Ibero-Romance languages and having strong ties with Portuguese and its northern dialects.
However, the Associaçom Galega da Língua (Galician Language Association) and Academia Galega da Língua Portuguesa (Galician Academy of the Portuguese Language), belonging to the Reintegrationist movement, support the idea that differences between Galician and Portuguese speech are not enough to justify considering them as separate languages: Galician is simply one variety of Galician-Portuguese, along with European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, African Portuguese, the Galician-Portuguese still spoken in Spanish Extremadura, (Fala), and other variations.
Nowadays, despite the positive effects of official recognition of the Galician language, Galicia's socio-linguistic development has experienced the growing influence of Spanish and persistent linguistic erosion of Galician due to the media as well as legal imposition of Spanish in learning.
Galicia also boasts a rich oral tradition, in the form of songs, tales, and sayings, which has made a vital contribution to the spread and development of the Galician language. Still flourishing today, this tradition shares much with that of Portugal.
Surnames
Galician surnames, as is the case in most European cultures, can be divided into patronymic (originally based on one's father's name), occupational, toponymic or cognominal. The first group, patronymic includes many of the most frequent surnames and became fixed during the Low Middle Ages; it includes surnames derived from etyma formed with or without the additions of the patronymical suffixes -az, -ez, -iz: Alberte (Albert); Afonso (Alfons); Anes, Oanes, Yanes (Iohannes); Arias; Bernárdez (Bernard); Bermúdez (Medieval Galician Uermues, cf. Wermuth); Cristobo (Christopher); Diz (from Didaci); Estévez (Stephan); Fernández; Fiz (from Felici); Froiz, Frois (From Froilaci, from the Gothic personal name Froila, "lord"); Giance (Latin Iulianici); González; Henríquez (Henry); Martís (Martin); Méndez (Menendici); Miguéns, Miguez (from Michaelici, equivalent to Michaels); Páez, Pais, Paz (from Pelagici, Pelagio); Ramírez; Reimúndez (Raymond); Rodríguez; Sánchez; Sueiro (from Suarius); Tomé (from Thomas); Viéitez, Vieites (Benedictici, Benedict), among many others.
Because of the settlement of Galician colonists in southern Spain during the Reconquista, some of the more frequent and distinctively Galician surnames also became popular in Spanish (which had its own related forms) and were taken later into the Americas, as a consequence of the expansion of the Spanish empire:
The largest surname group is the one derived from toponyms, which usually referred to the place of origin or residence of the bearer. These places can be European countries (as is the case in the surnames Bretaña, Franza, España, Portugal) or nations (Franco, "Frenchman"); Galician regions (Bergantiños, Carnota, Cavarcos, Sanlés); or cities, towns or villages, which gave origin to a few thousand surnames. Another related group is formed with the preposition de, usually contracted with the definite article as da or do, and a common appellative: Dacosta (or Da Costa), "of the slope", Dopazo or Do Pazo ("of the palace/manor house"); Doval, "of the valley" (cfr. French Duval), Daponte ("of the bridge"), Davila ("of the town", not to be confused with Spanish Dávila), Daporta ("of the gate"); Dasilva ("of the forest"), Dorrío ("of the river"), Datorre ("of the Tower"). Through rebracketing, some of these surnames gave origin to others such as Acosta or Acuña.
A few of these toponymic surnames can be considered nobiliary, as they first appear as the name of some Galician noble houses, later expanding when these nobles began to serve as officials of the Spanish Empire, in Spain or elsewhere, as a way of maintaining them both far from Galicia and useful to the Empire: Andrade (from the house of Andrade, itself from the name of a village), Mejía or Mexía (from the house of Mesía), Saavedra, Soutomaior (Hispanicized Sotomayor), Ulloa, Moscoso, Mariñas, Figueroa among others. Some of these families also served in Portugal, as the Andrade, Soutomaior or Lemos (who originated in Monforte de Lemos). As a result, these surnames are by now distributed all around the world.
The third group of surnames are the occupational ones, derived from the job or legal status of the bearer: Ferreiro ("Smith"), Carpinteiro ("Carpenter"), Besteiro ("Crossbow bearer"), Crego ("Priest"), Freire ("Friar"), Faraldo ("Herald"), Pintor ("Painter"), Pedreiro ("Stonemason"), Gaiteiro ("Bagpiper"); and also Cabaleiro ("Knight"), Escudeiro ("Esquire"), Fidalgo ("Nobleman"), Juiz ("Judge").
The fourth group includes the surnames derived from nicknames, which can have very diverse motivations:
a) External appearance, as eye colour (Ruso, from Latin roscidus, grey-eyed; Garzo, blue-eyed), hair colour (Dourado, "Blonde"; Bermello, "Red"; Cerviño, literally "deer-like", "Tawny, Auburn"; Cao, "white"), complexion (Branco, "White"; Pardo, "Swarth"; Delgado, "Slender") or other characteristics: Formoso ("Handsome"), Tato ("Stutterer"), Forte ("Strong"), Calviño ("Bald"), Esquerdeiro ("Left-handed").
b) Temperament and personality: Bonome, Bonhome ("Goodman"), Fiúza ("Who can be trusted"), Guerreiro ("Warlike"), Cordo ("Judicious").
c) Tree names: Carballo ("Oak"); Amieiro, Ameneiro ("Alder"); Freijo ("Ash tree").
d) Animal names: Gerpe (from Serpe, "Serpent"); Falcón ("Falcon"); Baleato ("Young Whale"); Gato ("Cat"); Coello ("Rabbit"); Aguia ("Eagle")
e) Deeds: Romeu (a person who pilgrimaged to Rome or the Holy Land)
Many Galician surnames have become Castilianized over the centuries, most notably after the forced submission of the Galician nobility obtained by the Catholic Monarchs in the last years of the 15th century. This reflected the gradual spread of the Spanish language through the cities, in Santiago de Compostela, Lugo, A Coruña, Vigo and Ferrol, in the last case due to the establishment of an important base of the Spanish navy there in the 18th century. For example, surnames like Orxás, Veiga, Outeiro, became Orjales, Vega, Otero. Toponyms like Ourense, A Coruña, Fisterra became Orense, La Coruña, Finisterre. In many cases this linguistic assimilation created confusion, for example Niño da Aguia (Galician: Eagle's Nest) was translated into Spanish as Niño de la Guía (Spanish: the Guide's child) and Mesón do Bento (Galician: Benedict's house) was translated as Mesón del Viento (Spanish: House of Wind).
History
Prehistory
The oldest human occupation of Galicia dates to the Palaeolithic, when Galicia was covered by a dense oak temperate rain forest. The oldest human remains found, at Chan do Lindeiro, are from a woman who lived some 9,300 years ago and died because of a landslide, apparently while leading a pack of three aurochs; the genetic study of her remains revealed a woman that was an admixture of Western Hunter-Gatherer and Magdalenian people. This type of admixture has been observed in France, also.
Later on, some 6,500 years ago, a new population arrived from the Mediterranean, bringing agriculture and husbandry with them. Half of the woodland was razed to pasture and farmland, almost replacing all of the woodland some 5,000 years ago. This new population also changed the landscape with the first permanent human structures, megaliths such as menhirs and barrows, cromlechs and menhirs. During the Neolithic Galicia was one of the foci of Atlantic European Megalithic Culture, putting in contact the Mediterranean and south Iberia with the rest of Atlantic Europe.
Some 4,500 years ago a new culture and population arrived and presumingly admixed with the local farmers, the Bell beaker people, coming ultimately from the Pontic steppe, who introduced copper metallurgy and weaponry, and probably also new cultivars and breeds. Some scholars consider that they were the first people to bring Indo-European languages into Western Europe. They lived in open villages, only protected by fences or ditches; local archaeologists consider that they caused a very large culture impact, replacing collectivism with individualism, as exemplified by their burial in individual cists, along with the reuse of old Neolithic tombs. From this period and later dates a rich tradition of petroglyphs, which find close similarities in the British Isles, Scandinavia or northern Italy. Motives include cup and ring marks, labyrinths, Bronze Age weaponry, deer and deer hunting, warriors, riders and ships.
During the Late Bronze Age and until 800-600 BCE the contacts with both southern Spain to the south, and Armorica and the Atlantic Isles to the north, intensified, probably fuelled by the abundance of local gold and metals such as tin, which allowed the production of high quality bronze. It is at this moment that began the deposition or hoarding of prestige items, frequently in aquatic context. Also, during the Late Bronze Age a new type of ceremonial henge-like ring structures, of some 50 metres in diameter, are built all along Galicia.
This period and interchange network, usually known as Atlantic Bronze Age, which appears to have had its centre in modern-day Brittany, was proposed by John T. Koch and Sir Barry Cunliffe as the one that originated Celtic languages —as a product of pre-existing and closely related Indo-European languages— which could have expanded along with the elite ideology associated with this cultural complex (Celtic from the west theory). Alleged difficulties with this theory and with pre-existing theories ("Celtic from the east") have led Patrick Simms-Williams to propose an intermediate "Celtic from the centre" theory, with an expansion of Celtic languages from the Alps during the Bronze Age. A recent study shows the large scale admixture of an earlier population from Britain with people arriving probably from France during the late Bronze Age. These people, in the opinion of the authors, constitute a plausible vector for the expansion of Celtic languages into Britain, as no further Iron Age people movement of relevant scale is shown in their data.
The Bronze Age - Iron Age transition (locally 1000-600 BCE) coincides with the hoarding of large quantity of bronze axes, unused, both in Galicia, Brittany, and southern Britain. During this same transitional period, some communities began to protect their villages, settling in very protected areas where they built hill-forts. Among the oldest of these are Chandebrito in Nigrán, Penas do Castelo in A Pobra do Brollón and O Cociñadoiro in Arteixo, on a sea cliff and protected by a 3-metre-tall wall, it was also a metal factory, perhaps dedicated to the Atlantic commerce, all of them founded some 2,900-2,700 years ago. These earlier fortified settlements seem to be placed to control metallurgical resources and commerce. This transitional period is also characterized by the apparition of longhouses of ultimately north European tradition which were replaced later in much of Galicia by roundhouses. By the 4th century BCE hill-forts have expanded all along Galicia, also on lowlands, soon becoming the only type of settlements.
These hill-forts were delimited usually by one or more walls; the defences also include ditches, ramparts and towers, and could define several habitable spaces. The gates were also heavily fortified. Inside, houses were originally built with perishable materials, with or without a stone footing; later on they were entirely made with stone walls, having up to two storeys. Specially in the south, houses or public spaces were adorned with carved stones and warrior sculptures. Stone heads, mimicking severed heads, are found at several locations and were perhaps placed near the gates of the forts. A number of public installations are known, for example saunas of probable ritual use. Of ritual use and great value were also items such as bronze cauldrons, richly figured sacrificial hatchets and gold torcs, of which more than a hundred exemplars are known.
This culture is now known as Castro Culture; another characteristic of this culture is the absence of known burials: just exceptionally urns with ashes have been found buried at foundational sites, acting probably as protectors.
Occasional contacts with Mediterranean navigators, since the last half of the second millennium BCE, became common after the 6th century BCE and the voyage of Himilco. Punic importations from southern Spain became frequent along the coast of southern Galicia, although they didn't penetrate very far to the north or to the interior; also, new decorative motives, as the six-petal rosettes, are popularized, together with new metallurgical techniques and pieces (ear pendants) and some other innovations as the round hand mill. In exchange, Punics obtained tin, abundant in the islands and peninsulas of western Galicia (probable origin of the Cassiterides island myth) and probably also gold. Incidentally, Avienus' Ora Maritima says after Himilco that the Oestrymni (inhabitants of western Iberia) used hide boats to navigate, an assertion confirmed by Pliny the Elder for the Galicians.
Roman conquest
First recorded contact with Rome happened during the Second Punic War, when Gallaecians and Astures, together with Lusitanians, Cantabrians and Celtiberians —that is, the major Indo-European nations of Iberia— figured among the mercenary armies hired by Hannibal to go with him into Italy. According to Silus Italicus's Punica III:
Fibrarum, et pennæ, divinarumque sagacem
Flammarum misit dives Callæcia pubem,
Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina linguis,
Nunc, pedis alterno percussa verbere terra,
Ad numerum resonas gaudentem plaudere cætras.
Hæc requies ludusque viris, ea sacra voluptas.
Cetera femineus peragit labor: addere sulco
Semina, et inpresso tellurem vertere aratro
Segne viris: quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum,
Callaici conjux obit inrequieta mariti.
"Opulent Galicia sent her youth, expert in divination through the entrails of beasts, the flight of birds and the divine lightnings; sometimes they delight to chant rude songs in their fatherland's tongues, other times they make the ground tremble with alternative foot while happily clashing their caetra at the same time. This leisure and diversion is a sacred delight for the men, the feminine laboriosity do the rest: adding the seed to the furrow and working the ground with the plough while the men idle. Everything which must be done, with the exception of the hard war, is made restlessly by the wife of the Galician." He later also mentions the Grovii of southern Galicia and northwestern Portugal, with their capital Tui, apart from the other Galicians; other authors also marked the distinctness of the Grovii: Pomponius Mela by addressing that they were non Celtic, unlike the rest of the inhabitants of the coasts of Galicia; Pliny by signalling their Greek origin.
After ending victoriously the Lusitanian war with the assassination of Viriathus, consul Caepio tried to wage war, unsuccessfully, on Gallaecians and Vettones, for the help they lent to the Lusitanians. In 138 BCE, another consul, Decimus Junius Brutus, in command of two legions, passed de Douro river and later the Lethes or Oblivio (Limia, which frightened his troops because of its other name), in a successful campaign, managing to conquer many places of the Galicians. After reaching the Minho river, and in his way back, he attacked (again successfully) the Bracari, who had been harassing his supply chain: Appian describe the Bracari women fighting bravely side by side with their men; of the women who were taken prisoners, some killed themselves, and others killed their children, preferring death to servitude. The spoils of war allowed Decimus Junius Brutus to celebrate a triumph back in Rome, receiving the name Callaicus. Recently a very large marching Roman camp was discovered at high altitude, in Lomba do Mouro, at the very frontier of Galicia with Portugal. In 2021 a C-14 dating showed that it was built during the 2nd century BCE; since it is north of the Limia, it probably belonged to this campaign.
The Roman contact had a very large impact on the Castro Culture: an increase in commerce with the south and the Mediterranean; adoption or development of sculpture and stone carving; the warrior ethos appear to increase in social importance; some hill-forts are built new or rebuilt as true urban centres, oppida, with streets and definite public spaces, as San Cibrao de Las (10 ha) or Santa Trega (20 ha).In 61 BCE Julius Caesar, commanding thirty cohorts, launched from Cádiz a maritime campaign along the Atlantic shores which ended in Brigantium. According to Cassius Dio, the locals, who had never seen a Roman fleet, surrendered in awe. Finally, in 29 BCE Augustus launched a campaign of conquest against Gallaecians, Asturians and Cantabrians. The most memorable episode of this war was the siege on the Mons Medullius, who Paulus Orosius placed near the Minho river: it was surrounded by a 15 mille trench before a simultaneous Roman advance; according to Anneus Florus the besieged decided to kill themselves, by fire, sword, or by the venon of the yew tree. Tens of Roman camps have been found related to this war, most of them corresponding to the later stages of the war, against Asturians and Cantabrians, some tweenty of them in Galicia. Augustus' victory over the Gallaecians is celebrated in the Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, Turkey, where a triumphal monument to Augustus mentions them among other fifteen nations conquered by him. Also, the triumphal arch of Capentras probably represents a Gallaecian among other nations defeated by Augustus.
Languages and ethnicity
Pomponius Mela (a geographer from Tingentera, modern day Algeciras in Andalusia) described, circa 43 CE, the coasts of northwestern Iberia:
Frons illa aliquamdiu rectam ripam habet, dein modico flexu accepto mox paululum eminet, tum reducta iterum iterumque recto margine iacens ad promunturium quod Celticum vocamus extenditur.
Totam Celtici colunt, sed a Durio ad flexum Grovi, fluuntque per eos Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius et cui oblivionis cognomen est Limia. Flexus ipse Lambriacam urbem amplexus recipit fluvios Laeron et Ullam. Partem quae prominet Praesamarchi habitant, perque eos Tamaris et Sars flumina non longe orta decurrunt, Tamaris secundum Ebora portum, Sars iuxta turrem Augusti titulo memorabilem. Cetera super Tamarici Nerique incolunt in eo tractu ultimi. Hactenus enim ad occidentem versa litora pertinent.
Deinde ad septentriones toto latere terra convertitur a Celtico promunturio ad Pyrenaeum usque. Perpetua eius ora, nisi ubi modici recessus ac parva promunturia sunt, ad Cantabros paene recta est.
In ea primum Artabri sunt etiamnum Celticae gentis, deinde Astyres. In Artabris sinus ore angusto admissum mare non angusto ambitu excipiens Adrobricam urbem et quattuor amnium ostia incingit: duo etiam inter accolentis ignobilia sunt, per alia Ducanaris exit et Libyca
"That ocean front for some distance has a straight bank, then, having taken a slight bend, soon protrudes a little bit and then it is drawn back, and again and again; then, lying on a straight line, the coast extends to the promontory which we call Celtic. All of it is inhabited by Celtics, except from the Durio until the bend, where the Grovi dwelt —and through them flow the rivers Avo, Celadus, Nebis, Minius and Limia, also called Oblivio—. On the bend there is the city of Lambriaca and the receding part receives the rivers Laeros and Ulia. The prominent part is inhabited by the Praestamarci, and through them flow the rivers Tamaris and Sars —which are born not afar— Tamaris by harbour Ebora, Sars by the tower of Augustus, of memorable title. For the rest, the Supertamarici and Neri inhabit in the last tract. Up to here what belongs to the western coast. From there all the coast is turned to the north, from the Celtic promontory to the Pyrenees. Its regular coast, except where there are small retreats and small headlands, is almost straight by the Cantabrians. On it first of all are the Artabri, still a Celtic people, then the Astures. Among the Artabri there is a bay which lets the sea through a narrow mouth, and encircles, not in a narrow circuit, the city of Adrobrica and the mouth of four rivers." The Atlantic and northern coast of today's Galicia was inhabited by Celtic peoples, with the exception of the southern extreme. Others geographers and authors (Pliny, Strabo), as well as the local Latin epigraphy, confirm the presence of Celtic peoples.
As for the language or languages spoken by the Galicians previously to their romanization, most scholars usually perceive a primitive Indo-European layer, another later one hardly distinguishable from Celtic and identifiable with Lusitanian, most notable in the south, the Gallaecia Bracarense (as a result, Lusitanian is sometimes called Lusitanian-Gallaecian) and finally Celtic proper; as stated by Alberto J. Lorrio: "the presence of Celtic elements in the Northwest is indisputable, but there is no unanimity in considering whether there was an only Indo-European language in the West of Iberia, of Celtic kind, or either a number of languages derived from the arrival of non-Celtic Indo-Europeans first, and Celts later on". Some academic positions on this issue:
Francesco Benozzo, proponent of the Palaeolithic continuity theory, considers that Celtic language is autochthonous in Galicia. Since recent genetic studios show that European and Iberian Palaeolithic population was assimilated by larger migrant populations proceeding first from the Balkans and Anatolia, and later from Central Europe and ultimately from the Pontic steppe, this theory is probably flawed.
For John T. Koch and Barry Cunliffe, proponent of the Celtic from the West theory, the Celtic language would have expanded during the late Bronze Age from the European Atlantic fringe, including Galicia, to the east. For Patrick Simms-Williams, Celtic expanded from modern day France during the late Bronze Age.
Joan Coromines, lexicographer and author of the Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, considered that Galician language had a very important substrate attributable to at least two different Indo-European languages, an older non Celtic one who he derived from the Urnfield people and thought was present in most of northern Iberia, and another one he named Artabrian, the Celtic language of the Celts of Galicia.
Blanca M. Prósper and Francisco Villar defend that Lusitanian is a non Celtic Indo-European language related to Italic languages because, in their opinion, the Indo-European aspirated stops have evolved into /f/ and /h/. At the same time, all along the area of this language, and specially in modern-day Galicia, a Celtic language was spoken; this language, a q-Celtic language similar to Celtiberian, is the Western Hispano-Celtic.
Joaquín Gorrochategui, José M. Vallejo, Alberto J. Lorrio, García Alonso, E. Luján and others, consider that Lusitanian is not a Celtic language, but they don't consider it closer to Italic, neither, but part of a group of IE dialects which later evolved into Celtic, Italic and Lusitanian. On the other hand, Celtic speakers lived in close proximity to the Lusitanian. In this context, Gallaecia Bracarensis was clearly in communion with the Lusitania, while Gallaecia Lucensis had its own Celtic profile.
Jürgen Untermann, continued by his disciple Carlos Búa, defended that along the westernmost part of Iberia there was essentially just one language or group of languages, Gallaecian-Lusitanian or Lusitanian and Gallaecian, which in their opinion was definitely Celtic and not Italoid, as shown by the ending of dative plural (-bo, -bor < PIE -*bhos) and the evolution of the syllabic consonants, in particular -r̥- > -ri-.
Local scholars and researchers of toponymy and lexicon of pre-Latin origin (J. J. Moralejo, Edelmiro Bascuas) saw at least two layers of Indo-Europeans: one early layer of a very primitive IE language which preserved p, most notable in river names, and a later Celtic layer.
Roman period
After the Roman conquest, the lands and people of northwestern Iberia were divided in three conventi (Gallaecia Lucensis, Gallaecia Bracarensis and Asturia) and annexed to the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. Pliny wrote that the Lucenses comprised 16 populi and 166,000 free heads, and mentions the Lemavi, Albiones, Cibarci, Egivarri Namarini, Adovi, Arroni, Arrotrebae, Celtici Neri, Celtici Supertamarci, Copori, Celtici Praestamarci, Cileni among them (other authors mention also the Baedui, Artabri and Seurri); the Astures comprised 22 populi and 240,000, of whom the Lougei, Gigurri and Tiburi dwelt lands now in Galicia; finally the Bracarenses 24 civitates and 285,000, of whom the Grovi, Helleni, Querquerni, Coelerni, Bibali, Limici, Tamacani and Interamici dwelt, at least partially, in modern-day Galicia. The names of some of these peoples have been preserved as the names of regions, parishes and villages: Lemos < Lemavos, Cabarcos, Soneira < *Sub Nerii, Céltigos < Celticos, Valdeorras < Valle de Gigurris, Trives < Tiburis, Támagos < Tamacanos. Some other Galician regions derive from some populi or subdivision not listed by the classic authors, among them: Bergantiños < Brigantinos, from Briganti, Nendo < Nemetos, from Nemeton, Entíns < Gentinis ('the chieftains').
A common characteristic of both Gallaecians and western Astures were their onomastic formula and social structure: while most of the other Indo-European peoples of Hispania used a formula such as:
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + Gens / Family (gen. pl.), as, for example,
: 'Turaesius son of Marsi, of the Letondi clan'
Gallaecians and western Astures used, until the 2nd century of our era, the formula:
Name + Patronimic (gen. s.) + [Populi/Civitas] (nom. s.) + [⊃] (abreviature of castellum) Origo (abl. s.) as:
: Nicer, son of Clutosios, from castle Cauria, prince of the Albion
: Cailio, son of Cadroilo, Cilenus from castle Berisamo
: Fabia, daughter of Eburios, Lemava from castle Eritaico
: Eburia, daughter of Calugenos, Celtica Supertamarca from castle Lubris
: Anceitos, son of Vacceos, Limicus from castle Talabriga
The known personal names used by locals in northern Gallaecia were largely Celtic: Aio, Alluquius, Ambatus, Ambollus, Andamus, Angetus, Arius, Artius, Atius, Atia, Boutius, Cadroiolo, Caeleo, Caluenus, Camalus, Cambauius, Celtiatus, Cloutaius, Cloutius, Clutamus, Clutosius, Coedus, Coemia, Coroturetis, Eburus, Eburia, Louesus, Medamus, Nantia, Nantius, Reburrus, Secoilia, Seguia, Talauius, Tridia, Vecius, Veroblius, Verotus, Vesuclotus, among others.
Three legions were stationed near the Cantabrian mountains after the war, later reduced to the Legio VII Gemina in León, with three auxiliary cohorts in Galicia (the Cohors I Celtiberorum in Ciadella, Sobrado dos Monxes, near Brigantium; other unity at Aquis Querquennis, and another one near Lucus Augusti) and others elsewhere. Soon Roma began to recruit auxiliary troops locally: five cohorts of Gallaecians from the conventus Lucenses, other five of bracarenses, two mixed ones of Galicians and Asturians, and an ala and cohort of Lemavi.
Also, Gallaecia and Asturia became the most important producers of gold on the Empire: according to Pliny Lusitania, Gallaecia and, especially, Asturia, produced the equivalent to 6,700 kg per year. It has been stimated that the eight hundred Roman gold mines known in Galicia produced in total in between 190,000 and 2,000,000 kg.
During the Diocletian reforms, late third century, Gallaecia was upgraded to province.
Germanic era: 5th – 8th centuries
In 409 the Vandals, Suebi and Alans, who had entered in the Roman Empire in 405 or 406 crossing the Rhin, passed into the Iberian Peninsula. After a year of war and plundering, they were pacified by the offering of lands where to settle. The Roman province of Gallaecia (including Gallaecia proper and the regions of Asturia and Cantabria) were assigned to the Suebi and the Hasding Vandals. Both groups clashed soon, in 419, and so the Vandals left to southern Iberia, where they incorporated the last remnants of Alans and Silingi Vandals, who had been crushed by Rome in previous years. In 429 the Vandals left for Africa.
In 430 a long term conflict broke in between the Suebi and locals who chronicler Hydatius called gallaecos (i.e. galegos, the endonym of modern day Galicians) and, initially, plebs ("folk, common people"), in contrast with whom he called romani: the rural landowners in Lusitania and the inhabitants of the cities. Soon, among those Galicians, appear also local noblemen and churchmen. As the Britons in southern Great Britain, the Galician were forced to act autonomously from Rome, exercising home rule. They reoccupied old Iron Age hill-forts and built new strongholds and fortification all along Galicia; the largest known today are at Mt. Pindo, Mt. Aloia and at Castro Valente. These fortresses were later used by locals against Visigoths, Arabs and Norsemen. In this conflict in between Galicians and Suebi, Rome and local bishops acted frequently rather as intermediaries than as a part, and peace our truce was obtained or warranted with the interchange of prisoners and hostages.
In 438 both people attained a peace that would last for twenty years; by then old king Hermeric, who had lead their people at least since their arrival from Central Europe, ceded the crown to his son Rechila, who would expand the kingdom to the south and east, conquering Emerita Augusta, Mértola and Seville, and moving his troops into eastern Hispania, defeating both Roman and Visigoth armies along the way. His successor and son, Rechiar, converted from paganism to Catholicism upon being crowned, and married a Visigoth princess. He negotiated with Rome a new status for his kingdom and became the first post-Roman Germanic king to mint coins in his name. Soon, he tried to expand into the last Roman province in Hispania, Tarraconense; eventually this led to open conflict with Rome and the Visigoths. In 456 a large army of foederati commanded by the kings of the Visigoths and the Burgundians entered Hispania and defeated the Suebi army near the city of León. Rechiar fled to Porto, but he was captured and later executed. Notwithstanding, the Visigoths left in a hurry the theatre of operation, returning to France. That allowed the Suebi to regroup. After a period of petty-kings rivalry, accompanied by devastation and pillage on Galicians, Remismund was recognized as only and legitimate king by the Suebi, and accepted by the Visigoths; he also promoted the Arianism among the Suebi. As result, the Suebi kingdom came to its limits, encompassing modern day Galicia, northern Portugal until Coimbra, and large parts of Asturias, León and Zamora.
The chronicle of Hydatius also records naval raids of both Vandals and Heruli on the Galician coasts during the 5th century.
Medieval era
In 718 the area briefly came under the control of the Moors after their conquest and dismantling of the Visigothic Empire, but the Galicians successfully rebelled against Moorish rule in 739, establishing a renewed Kingdom of Galicia which would become totally stable after 813 with the medieval popularization of the "Way of St James".
Geography and demographics
Political and administrative divisions
The autonomous community, a concept established in the Spanish constitution of 1978, that is known as (a) Comunidade Autónoma Galega in Galician, and as (la) Comunidad Autónoma Gallega in Spanish (in English: Galician Autonomous Community), is composed of the four Spanish provinces of A Coruña, Lugo, Ourense, and Pontevedra.
Population, main cities and languages
The official statistical body of Galicia is the Instituto Galego de Estatística (IGE). According to the IGE, Galicia's total population in 2008 was 2,783,100 (1,138,474 in A Coruña, 355.406 in Lugo, 336.002 in Ourense, and 953.218 in Pontevedra). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centres, are Vigo (in Pontevedra), Pontevedra, Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Ferrol (in A Coruña), Lugo (in Lugo), and Ourense (in Ourense). The official languages are Galician and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory according to the Spanish constitution and virtually universal. Knowledge of Galician, after declining for many years owing to the pressure of Spanish and official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support. Currently about 82% of Galicia's population can speak Galician and about 61% have it as a mother tongue.
Culture
Celtic revival and Celtic identity
In the 19th century a group of Romantic and Nationalist writers and scholars, among them Eduardo Pondal and Manuel Murguía, led a Celtic revival initially based on the historical testimonies of ancient Roman and Greek authors (Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder, Strabo and Ptolemy), who wrote about the Celtic peoples who inhabited Galicia; but they also based this revival in linguistic and onomastic data, and in the similarity of some aspects of the culture and the geography of Galicia with that of the Celtic countries as Ireland, Brittany and Britain, as well as in the Bronze and Iron Age archaeological cultures. These similarities included legends and traditions, and decorative and popular arts and music. It also included the green hilly landscape and the ubiquity of Iron Age hill-forts, Neolithic megaliths and Bronze Age cup and ring marks, which were and are popularly seen as "Celtic", also among foreigners who travelled to Galicia.
During the late 19th and early 20th century this revival permeated Galician society: in 1916 Os Pinos, a poem by Eduardo Pondal, was chosen as the lyrics for the new Galician hymn. One of the strophes of the poem says: Galicians, be strong / ready to great deeds / align your breast / for a glorious end / sons of the noble Celts / strong and traveller / fight for the fate / of the homeland of Breogán. The Celtic past became an integral part of the self-perceived Galician identity: as a result an important number of cultural association and sport clubs received names related to the Celts, among them Celta de Vigo, Céltiga FC, CB Breogán, etc.
From the 1970s on a series of Celtic music and cultural festivals were also popularized, the most notable being the Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira, at the same time that Galician folk musical bands and interpreters became usual participants in Celtic festivals elsewhere, as in the Interceltic festival of Lorient, where Galicia sent its first delegation in 1976.
Folklore and traditions
Myths and legends
Galician folklore is similar to that of the rest of western Europe, especially to that or northern Portugal, Asturias and Cantabria. Among its most notorious myths are the following:
Before the world was inhabited by humans, animals could speak: many traditional tales about animals begin with the phrase aló cando os animais falaban, 'back then, when animals used to speak', which has become equivalent to English once upon a time.
Our world is connected to an underworld dwelt by the mouros ('the dark ones' or perhaps 'the dead ones', mistaken by Andalusian Moors in many tales), an ancient and sombre race who inhabited the upper world before ourselves and who dislike humans. They can still travel to our world to interact with us through the ruins of the places they built or inhabited, such as barrows, dolmens, stone circles, hill-forts, etc., which are still traditionally called with names such as Eira dos Mouros ('Mouros' threshing floor'), Casa dos Mouros ('Mouros' house'), Forno dos Mouros ('Mouros' oven'). This kind of place names are already attested in Latin documents dating to circa 900 CE and later. Humans can also travel to the underworld, either becoming very rich or suffering for their greed as a result. Some mouros or encantos can appear as tall and strong men riding large horses and there are specific spells to ask them for riches.
Fairies and nymphs (who also belong to the netherworld) receive many names, among them mouras, encantos ('apparition; spell'), damas ('ladies'), madamas ('miladies'), xás (from Latin dianas). They are frequently portrayed as women of incredible beauty and riches and long golden blonde hair that can be found by the aforementioned prehistoric ruins or at fountains and ponds, where they comb their hair. Other times, they are gigantic women of incredible strength, enough to move massive boulders, who can be found with a spinning distaff or a baby. Under this appearance they are the same with the Vella ("the Old Lady"), who is somehow also responsible for the weather: the rainbow is called arco da vella in Galician ("Old Lady's bow"), a myth which is probably related to the Cailleach, 'Old Woman', 'Hag', of Ireland and Scotland.
Lavandeiras (washerwomen) are eerie fairies that are found at a river of pond washing clothes, under the aspect of women, especially at night. They can ask a passer-by to help twits the clothes: if the passer-by mistakenly twists in the same direction, the clothes turn into blood.
The trasnos, tardos or trasgos (goblins) are mischievous, household creatures, who like to annoy and confound people. They can cause nightmares by siting on the chest of the people, move things and cause other troubles. In Galician trasnada (~'goblin-ery') means 'trick, mischief'.
Other sign of the netherworld is the apparition of a golden hen followed by his golden chicks (a galiña dos pitos de ouro), which, no matter how hard one tries, can't be caught. There is a similar myth in Bulgaria.
Maruxaina was a vicious siren who lived near the town of San Cribrao and who eventually was captured and executed by the locals.
The barrows are also inhabited by other entities called ouvas ('elfs').
Other beings with control of the weather are the nubeiros ('cloud-ers'). George Borrow in his book The Bible in Spain narrates how he met a nubeiro while travelling Galicia circa 1835. Other similar beings are the tronantes and escoleres.
Many lakes are believed to be the result of the drowning of ancient cities (frequently called Lucerna, Valverde, 'Green Valley', or Antiochia in tales and legends) when the inhabitants failed to give shelter to Jesus or a saint, or when a king of the mouros used his magic out of spit. Some nights the city's bells can still be heard. This legend was first recorded in the 12th century Codex Calixtinus and in that version is Charlemagne who prays God and Saint James to drown a Moor city reluctant to commit to him. This myth appear to be related to the Breton myth of Ys.
Another mythical being associated with drowned cities is the boi bruador, a bellowing ox which can be heard at night near lakes, a legend first recorded circa 1550.
Olláparos are giants similar to cyclopes who sometimes have also an eye on the back of the head. They are related to the Cantabrian Ojáncanu.
Bruxas and meigas (witches) can take the form of animals. In particular, the chuchonas ('suckers') can take the form of a blowfly to feed on the blood of babies and children, causing anaemia.
Lobishomes (werewolves) are humans who sometimes turn into wolves because of a curse. Manuel Blanco Romasanta was a Galician serial killer sentenced to death in 1853 for thirteen assassinations. His legal defence was based in his condition of werewolf as consequence of a curse.
Anciently, there were giant serpents (serpe, there's a mountain range called Cova da Serpe, 'Sepents' dem', so named since at least the 10th century), some of them winged, and dragons (dragón) which could feed on cattle. On the legend of the transfer of the body of Saint James from the Holy land to Galicia, recorded in the 12th century Codex Calixtinus, the local queen, Queen Lupa, commanded the disciples of Saint James to go grab a pair of meek oxen she had by the hill known as Pico Sacro ("Sacred Peak"), where a dragon dwelt, with the hope that either the dragon or the oxen (which were actually fierce bulls) would kill them. There were also cocas (cockatrices), which were taken out in procession in certain dates, as attested since 1437. In the town of Redondela this procession is still held each year.
The compaña ('retinue'), hoste ('army'), estantiga ( < hoste antiga, 'anciente army'), Santa Compaña ('holy retinue') is the local version of the wild hunt. In its modern form is a nocturne procession of the dead, who, porting candles or torches, and frequently a coffin, announce the imminent decease of a neighbour. This procession can "capture" a living person, who is then obliged to precede the Santa Compaña all night long, through forest, streams and brambles, or until another one takes his place. One can protect himself from being taken by the Compaña by tracing a circle and getting inside it, or by throwing oneself to the ground and ignoring the Compaña while it passes over. A solitary phantom related to the Compaña is the estadea. This myth is also related to the fairy host in Ireland, sluagh in Scotland and toili in Wales.
The urco (güercu in Asturias) is a giant black dog who emerges from the sea or from a river to cause terror to the locals. They are also, per se, a bad omen.
Traditions and beliefs
While Galician was traditionally a profoundly Catholic society, in its beliefs there are many remnants of previous religious systems, in particular the belief on a pantheon of gods, now saints; in the reincarnation in form of an animal, when there are unfinished business; the evil eye and the sickness caused by curses; the holiness of crossroads and fountains, etcetera. The first attestation of the beliefs of the Galicians in a Christian context is offered by the Pannonian Martin of Braga who in his letter De Correctione Rusticorum condemns, among others, the belief in the Roman gods or in the lamias, nymphs and dianas, and also in practices as putting candles to trees, springs and crossroads.
Sanctuaries are socially important places for pilgrimage (romaría) and devotion, each one under the protection of a saint or virgin Mary. There are different beliefs associated with each one: the sanctuary of Santo André de Teixido in Cedeira is associated with reincarnation, as it is said that a Santo André de Teixido vai de morto o que non foi de vivo ('to Saint Andrew at Teixido —yew-tree-copse— goes as dead the ones that didn't went while alive'). It is advised not to kill lizards or any other animal while in the vicinity. The Corpiño sanctuary near Lalín and San Campío near Tomiño are associated with the treatment of mental illness and evil eye or meigallo. Virxe da Barca in Muxía is built by the place where it is said that Mary arrived aboard a stone boat, a recurring myth in Galicia also present in Ireland and Brittany. Many of these places were probably built over pagan cult places.
High crosses and calvaries, locally named cruceiros or peto de ánimas, are usually placed at crossroads, before sacred places, or marking a pilgrimage road. Placing flowers or lit candles before that monuments are common practices. In 1996 the Galician community in Ushuaia, Argentine, the southernmost city on the world, built a cruceiro with the legent 'Galicia shines in this land's end'.
Traditional medicine was administered by menciñeiros and menciñeiras, who used both herbs and spells to treat illness. Also compoñedores and compoñedoras: healers specialized in mending bones and joints.
Popular feasts
Aside from Catholic feasts and celebrations, there are other annual celebrations of pagan or mixed origin:
Entroido (Shrovetide, Carnival). The Entroido ('entering; prelude') is usually a period of indulgence and feasts, which contrast with the soberness of the Holy Week and Easter. Parades and festivals (which were prosecuted by the Catholic Church) are held all along Galicia and, specially in Ourense, masks such as the peliqueiros, cigarróns, boteiros, felos, pantallas, who can commit minor mischiefs to other attendants, are central to the celebrations.
Noite de San Xoán (Saint John's eve). Saint John's eve is celebrated around bonfires which are lit at dusk; young people jump over the fire three, seven or nine times. Other traditions associated to this night is the nine-waves bath in the beach, for having children, and the preparation of the auga de San Xoán (Saint John's water) by letting a bowl with a mixture of selected herbs outdoors all night. This water is used to wash one's face in the morning.
Rapa das bestas.
Traditional costume
Traditional Galician costume, as understood today, got conformed fundamentally during the second half of the 18th century. Notwithstanding, some very characteristic elements, as the monteira (an embroidered felt hat), breeches and jacket are already present in 16th century depictions. Although there are some regional variance, males attire is generally composed of monteira and sometimes pano (headcloth), camisa (shirt), chaleco (vest), chaqueta (jacket), faixa (sash), calzón (breeches), cirolas (underwear), polainas (gaiters, spats) and zocas, zocos (clogs or boots).
Female costume was composed of cofia (coif) or, later, pano (headcloth); dengue (short cape worn as a jacket) or corpiño (bodice); camisa (shirt), refaixo (petticoat), saia (skirt), mantelo (apron) and faltriqueira (pouch or bag).
Traditional music
The most characteristic instruments in traditional music is probably the gaita (bagpipe). The gaita have a conical double-reed chanter, and usually have one to four drones. The bag is usually inflated through a blowpipe, but in the gaita de barquín it is inflated by the operation of a bellows. In the past the gaita was usually accompanied just by tamboril (snare drum) and bombo or caixa (bass drum), but since the middle of the twentieth century the groups and bands have become very popular. Pieces which are usually interpreted with gaita are the muiñeira, often in time and very similar to Irish jigs; the alborada, played during the early mornings of holydays; the marcha (march) which accompanies processions and retinues. Some renowned compositions are the 19th century Muiñeira de Chantada and the traditional Aires de Pontevedra (an alborada) and Marcha do Antigo Reino de Galicia (March of the Old Kingdom of Galicia).
Another very representative instrument is the pandeireta (tambourine), which along or together with other drums as the pandeiro, castanets, etc., usually accompanied the songs and celebrations of the working women and men during the seráns (evenings), foliadas or fiadas.
Other genres include de alalá, which can be sung a cappella, or the cancións de cego'' (blindman's songs), interpreted with violin of zanfoña.
Literature
Painting, plastic arts and architecture
Science
Music
Sport
Cinema and TV
People of Galician origin
See also
List of Galician people
Galician nationalism
Fillos de Galicia
Spanish people
Nationalities and regions of Spain
References
External links
Galician Portal
A collaborative study of the EDNAP group regarding Y-chromosome binary polymorphism analysis
Galician language portal
Galician Music, Culture and History
Galician Government
Galician History and Language
Santiago Tourism
Page about The Way of St James
Official page about The Way of St James
Arquivo do Galego Oral – An archive of records of Galician speakers.
A Nosa Fala – Sound recordings of the different dialects of the Galician language.
Ethnic groups in Spain
Ethnic groups in Argentina
Ethnic groups in Brazil
Ethnic groups in Chile
Romance peoples | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicians |
The following lists events that happened during 1989 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,369,800.
Increase since 31 December 1988: 24,600 (0.74%).
Males per 100 Females: 97.1.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Rt Revd. Sir Paul Reeves GCMG GCVO QSO
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued. The fourth Labour Party government was in power.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke
Prime Minister – David Lange then Geoffrey Palmer
Deputy Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer then Helen Clark
Minister of Finance – David Caygill
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall
Chief Justice – Sir Ronald Davison (until 4 February), Sir Thomas Eichelbaum (starting 4 February)
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National).
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard
Mayor of Hamilton – Ross Jansen then Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Hamish Hay then Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Cliff Skeggs then Richard Walls
Events
First annual balance of payments surplus since 1973.
The Reserve Bank Act sets the role of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand as maintaining price stability.
The Tomorrow's Schools reforms shift substantial financial and administrative responsibilities for managing schools to elected boards of trustees.
Local Government elections under a revised structure.
The Māori Fisheries Act passed.
The Sale of Liquor Act passed; it provided for supermarkets to sell wine (but not beer; this happened in 1999). Two amendments were also passed in 1989.
April – Swedish tourists Urban Höglin and Heidi Paakkonen disappear while backpacking in the Coromandel, leading to the largest land-based search undertaken in New Zealand.
9–12 April – British Airways Concorde G-BOAF visits Christchurch Airport on a world tour.
25 April – David Lange suggests New Zealand should withdraw from the ANZUS council.
29 April – The Taranaki Herald publishes its last issue. The newspaper had published since 1852, and was New Zealand's oldest newspaper from 1935.
1 May – Jim Anderton forms the NewLabour Party.
7 August – David Lange resigns as Prime Minister of New Zealand and is replaced by Geoffrey Palmer.
26 November – TV3 begins broadcasting.
28 November – The Abolition of the Death Penalty Act received Royal assent.
10 December – Sunday trading begins.
Arts and literature
Renee wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1989 in art, 1989 in literature, :Category:1989 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: Margaret Urlich–Safety in Numbers
Fan Club – Respect The Beat
The Front Lawn – Songs from The Front Lawn
Single of the Year: Margaret Urlich – "Escaping"
Fan Club – I Feel Love
Double J and Twice the T/ Ray Columbus – She's A Mod
Best Male Vocalist: Tim Finn
Howard Morrison
Barry Saunders
Best Female Vocalist: Margaret Urlich
Moana Jackson
Aishah
Best Group: When The Cat's Away
The Warratahs
The Fan Club
Most Promising Male Vocalist: Paul Ubana Jones
Greg Johnson
Darren Watson
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Janet Roddick
Belinda Bradley
Julie Collier
Most Promising Group: The Front Lawn
Double J and Twice the T
Upper Hutt Posse
International Achievement: The Front Lawn
Kiri Te Kanawa
Straitjacket Fits
Outstanding Contribution to the Music Industry: Tony Vercoe
Best Video: Paul Middleditch / Polly Walker / Debbie Watson – I Feel Love (Fan Club)
Warrick (Waka) Attewell – St Peter's Rendezvous (Barry Saunders)
Tony Johns – She's A Mod/ Mod RAP (Double J and Twice the T)
Best Film Soundtrack / Compilation: The Front Lawn – Songs From The Front Lawn
Rahda and the Brats -Kid in the Middle
Various – This Is The Moment
Best Producer: Ian Morris – Nobody Else
Mike Chunn – All Wrapped Up
Ross McDermott/Annie Crummer – Melting Pot (When The Cat's Away)
Best Engineer: Nigel Stone/ Tim Farrant – Everything Will Be Alright
DC Bell – Please Say Something
Nick Morgan – Melting Pot
Best Jazz Album: No Award
Best Classical Album: Stanley Friedman – The Lyric Trumpet
Various Artists – Bold is Brass
Michael Houston – Scriabin/ Chopin
Best Folk Album: Paul Ubana Jones – Paul Ubana Jones
Phil Powers – The Light of the Lions Eye
Phil Garland – Wind in the Tussock
Best Gospel Album: Stephen Bell-Booth–Shelter
Guy Wishart – Another Day in Paradise
Steve Apirana – Steve Apirana
Best Polynesian Album: Howard Morrison – Tukua Ahau
Moana & The Moa Hunters – Pupurutia
Black Katz Trust – Ko Wai Ka Hua
Best Songwriter: Barry Saunders – St Peters Rendezvous
Tim Finn – Parihaka
Don McGlashan / Harry Sinclair – Andy
Best Cover: Polly Walker / Debbie Watson – Safety in Numbers (Margaret Urlich)
Gavin Blake – Workshop
Anthony Donaldson/ Cadre Communications- The Hills Are Alive
See: 1989 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Sylvia Rielly.
Radio and television
3 April: Paul Holmes makes his first broadcast.
1 July: The Broadcasting Act 1989 removes restriction of broadcasting. The public broadcasting fee of NZ$110 per annum is established.
1 July: The Dunedin station is reduced to the Natural History Unit.
6 November: Channel 2 introduces morning television by commencing transmission at 6.30am weekdays and 7am weekends.
26 November: TV3 begins broadcasting with a two-hour preview show, with regular programming to follow at 7am the next morning.
See: 1989 in New Zealand television, 1989 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
See: :Category:1989 film awards, 1989 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1989 films
Sport
Athletics
Paul Ballinger wins his fourth national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:18:21 on 29 April in Rotorua, while Bernardine Portenski claims her first in the women's championship (2:46:02).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Inky Lord
Auckland Trotting Cup: Neroship
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Ken Meade (Petone)
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Christchurch United who beat Rotorua City 7–1 in the final.
Births
January
1 January – Willie Isa, rugby league player
3 January
Ben Matulino, rugby league player
Ben O'Keeffe, rugby union referee
6 January – Peter Betham, rugby union player
8 January – Aaron Cruden, rugby union player
18 January – Bryce Heem, rugby union player
20 January – Jared Waerea-Hargreaves, rugby league player
21 January
Brayden Mitchell, rugby union player
Dominique Peyroux, rugby league player
Nafi Tuitavake, rugby union player
26 January
Nicole Lewis, water polo player
Shaun Treeby, rugby union player
28 January – Emma Crum, road cyclist
29 January – Bradley Rodden, cricketer
February
1 February – Robert Eastham, sport shooter
2 February
Shane Archbold, racing cyclist
Codey Rei, rugby union player
6 February – Greg Morgan, cricketer
7 February – Hayley Saunders, netball player
8 February – Zac Guildford, rugby union player
9 February – Frae Wilson, rugby union player
12 February – Ellen Barry, tennis player
13 February – Daniel Faleafa, rugby union player
14 February – Sam Johnson, community activist
16 February
Phillipa Gray, Paralympic track cyclist
Ria van Dyke, beauty pageant contestant
19 February – Olivia Jobsis, artistic gymnast
21 February – Gareth Dawson, basketball player
24 February – Germaine Tang, rhythmic gymnast
28 February – Kevin Proctor, rugby league player
March
2 March – James So'oialo, rugby union player
10 March – Reta Trotman, road cyclist
11 March
Annabelle Carey, swimmer
Tom Taylor, rugby union player
14 March – Katie Glynn, field hockey player
16 March – Patrick Leafa, rugby union player
17 March – Richard Kingi, rugby union player
20 March
Karl Bryson, rugby union player
Andrew Pohl, cross-country skier
24 March – Leighton Price, rugby union player
27 March – Camilla Lees, netball player
28 March – Rachel Mercer, road cyclist
30 March – Adam McGeorge, association footballer
April
3 April – Te Huinga Reo Selby-Rickit, netball player
4 April – Kevin Locke, rugby league player
6 April – Joe Matapuku, rugby league player
7 April – Michael Guptill-Bunce, cricketer
15 April – Arana Taumata, rugby league player
17 April – Fa'atiga Lemalu, rugby union player
19 April – Lauren Ellis, track cyclist
22 April – Arun Panchia, field hockey player
26 April – Lucy Talbot, field hockey player
27 April – Hamish Rutherford, cricketer
30 April – Milo Cawthorne, actor
May
3 May – Jesse Bromwich, rugby league player
6 May – Rocky Khan, rugby union player
8 May
Tinirau Arona, rugby league player
Hayley Palmer, swimmer
9 May – Shane van Gisbergen, motor racing driver
10 May – Sean Reidy, rugby union player
11 May – Te Amo Amaru-Tibble, basketball and netball player
14 May – Vanessa Vandy, pole vaulter
15 May – Bailey Junior Kurariki, convicted criminal
17 May – Mose Masoe, rugby league player
21 May – Emily Robins, actor
27 May
Richard Buckman, rugby union player
Bailey Mes, netball player
31 May – Chase Stanley, rugby league player
June
2 June – Willy Moon, musician
7 June – James Hamilton, snowboarder
9 June – Baden Kerr, rugby union player
10 June – William Whetton, rugby union player
12 June – Tim Nanai-Williams, rugby union player
15 June – Katie Pearce, rhythmic gymnast
21 June – Albert Anae, rugby union player
23 June – Lisa Carrington, flatwater canoer
July
5 July – Lizzie Marvelly, singer, songwriter
9 July
Ella Gunson, field hockey player
Claire Kersten, netball player
13 July – Joel Abraham, cricketer
19 July – Sam McKendry, rugby league player
21 July
Jordan Selwyn, actor
Maama Vaipulu, rugby union player
22 July – Trent Boult, cricketer
25 July – Blair Tuke, sailor
27 July
Penelope Marshall, swimmer
Jason Schirnack, rugby league player
31 July – Charlotte Harrison, field hockey player
August
3 August – Teddy Stanaway, rugby union player
11 August – Eddie Dawkins, track cyclist
13 August – Greg Draper, association footballer
15 August
Kendall Brown, snowboarder
Jordan Rapana, rugby league player
16 August – Alistair Bond, rower
21 August – Natasha Hind, swimmer
22 August – Robbie Robinson, rugby union player
23 August – George Worker, cricketer
31 August – James Lassche, rower
September
1 September – Sophie Devine, cricketer and field hockey player
4 September – Elliot Dixon, rugby union player
8 September – Jessica McCormack, basketball and netball player
11 September – Brendon O'Connor, rugby union player
13 September – Kenny Edwards, rugby league player
14 September
Constantine Mika, rugby league player
Pana Hema Taylor, actor
15 September
David Ambler, sprint athlete
Chetan Ramlu, musician
16 September – Nick Beard, cricketer
19 September
Marty Banks, rugby union player
Belgium Tuatagaloa, rugby union player
20 September – Evan Williams, squash player
21 September – Sandor Earl, rugby league player
23 September – Michael Arms, rower
24 September
Cathryn Finlayson, field hockey player
Leilani Van Dieren, rhythmic gymnast
October
7 October – Ben Botica, rugby union player
8 October – Sione Lousi, rugby league player
9 October – Russell Packer, rugby league player
10 October – Andrew Mathieson, cricketer
11 October – Robbie Manson, rower
12 October – Sarah Miller, artistic gymnast
13 October – Izaac Williams, basketball player
15 October – Dominic Storey, motor racing driver
19 October – Junior Fa, boxer
21 October – Ivana Palezevic, actor
23 October – Lauren Sieprath, water polo player
25 October – Tim Bond, rugby union player
28 October
Kelly Brazier, rugby union player
Claire Broadbent, rhythmic gymnast
Sam Dickson, rugby union player
November
1 November – Alehana Mara, rugby league player
2 November – Michael Pollard, cricketer
3 November – The Phantom Chance, Thoroughbred racehorse
8 November – Jessica Moulds, netball player
9 November – Marcus Daniell, tennis player
10 November – Brendon Hartley, motor racing driver
12 November – Dean Robinson, cricketer
13 November – Alex Feneridis, association footballer
14 November
Jake Robertson, athlete
Zane Robertson, athlete
15 November – Natasha Hansen, track cyclist
15 November – Courtney Abbot, actor
18 November – Brady Barnett, cricketer
19 November – Andrew Marck, baseball player
20 November – Abby Erceg, association footballer
29 November – Jonathon Bassett-Graham, cricketer
December
2 December – Jack Wilson, rugby union player
4 December – Buxton Popoali'i, rugby union player
7 December – Ria Percival, association footballer
8 December
Jono Lester, motor racing driver
Jesse Sene-Lefao, rugby league player
14 December – Amini Fonua, swimmer
15 December
David Ambler, track athlete
Ian Hogg, association footballer
20 December – Leeson Ah Mau, rugby league player
21 December – Ashley Smallfield, water polo player
22 December – Josh Junior, sailor
29 December – Michael Stanley, rugby union player
Exact date unknown
Ben Sanders, crime writer
Owen Walker, computer hacker
Deaths
January–March
8 January – Giovanni Cataldo, fisherman, search & rescue organiser (born 1927)
21 January – Tiny Leys, rugby union player (born 1907)
22 January – Fred Ladd, aviator (born 1908)
29 January – Seton Otway, racehorse owner and breeder (born 1894)
2 February
Harry Highet, engineer, designer of the P-class yacht (born 1892)
Sir Arnold Nordmeyer, politician (born 1901)
9 February – Bill Dalley, rugby union player and administrator (born 1901)
13 February – Archie Strang. rugby union player (born 1906)
15 February – Hōri Ngata, lexicographer, local-body politician (born 1919)
20 February – Stuart Black, athlete (born 1908)
24 February – Leila Hurle, educator, school inspector (born 1901)
4 March
Harold Miller, librarian, historian (born 1898)
Randolph Rose, athlete (born 1901)
7 March – Nevile Lodge, cartoonist (born 1918)
8 March – Alf Budd, rugby union player (born 1922)
April–June
2 April – Sir James Henare, soldier, Ngāpuhi leader (born 1911)
6 April – Marjorie Chambers, nurse, nursing tutor and administrator (born 1906)
13 April – Frank Hofmann, photographer, musician (born 1916)
22 April
Mary Campbell, librarian, Quaker (born 1907)
Vi Farrell, cricketer (born 1913)
23 April – Rupert Worker, cricketer (born 1896)
30 April – Nelson Dalzell, rugby union player (born 1921)
2 May – Freddie French, rugby league player (born 1911)
5 May – Dame Sister Mary Leo, music teacher (born 1895)
13 May – Sir Lance Cross, basketball player, sports administrator and broadcaster (born 1912)
4 June – Vernon Cracknell, politician (born 1912)
12 June – Cath Vautier, netball player, coach and administrator (born 1902)
26 June – Earle Riddiford, lawyer and mountaineer (born 1921)
July–September
1 July
Eric Holland, politician (born 1921)
Olga Sansom, botanist, broadcaster, museum director (born 1900)
15 July – Jack Scholes, sailor (born 1917)
14 August – Sir Dove-Myer Robinson, politician, mayor of Auckland (1968–80) (born 1901)
28 August – Sir Robert Macintosh, anaesthetist (born 1897)
1 September – Mac Cooper, agricultural scientist (born 1910)
4 September – Sir Ronald Syme, historian (born 1903)
11 September
Roy Traill, wildlife ranger (born 1892)
Freddie Wood, historian (born 1903)
14 September – Eddie McLeod, cricketer (born 1900)
15 September – Harry Cave, cricketer (born 1922)
18 September – Sir Peter Phipps, military leader (born 1908)
October–December
1 October – David Penman, Anglican archbishop (born 1936)
2 October – Bert Grenside, rugby union player (born 1899)
7 October
Keith Elliott, soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross (born 1916)
Pat Twohill, actor and radio announcer (born 1915)
11 October – Joe Procter, rugby union player (born 1906)
14 October – Rodney Kennedy, artist, art critic, pacifist (born 1909)
23 October – Howard Alloo, cricketer (born 1895)
24 October – Eileen Soper, journalist, writer, Girl Guide commissioner (born 1900)
26 October – Andrew Roberts, cricketer (born 1947)
18 November – Pat Hond, police officer, teacher, Taranaki Māori leader (born 1927)
25 November – Kōhine Pōnika, composer of waiata Māori (born 1920)
28 November
Beethoven Algar, rugby union player (born 1894)
Stan Cawtheray, association footballer (born 1906)
30 November – Wiremu Heke, rugby union player (born 1894)
2 December – Norman Davis, English language and literature academic (born 1913)
8 December – Jack Rankin, rugby union player and coach (born 1914)
9 December – Brett Austin, swimmer (born 1959)
13 December – Peter de la Mare, physical organic chemist (born 1920)
27 December – Ron Ulmer, track cyclist (born 1913)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
NZ Internet History
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Russula ochroleuca is a member of the genus Russula. A group that have become known as brittlegills. It has been commonly known as the common yellow russula for some years, and latterly the ochre brittlegill. It is widespread, and common in mixed woodland.
Taxonomy
Russula ochroleuca was first noted and named as a species of Agaricus by the pioneering South African mycologist Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801.
Description
The cap is dull yellow and wide, initially convex, later flat, or slightly depressed. The cap margin becomes furrowed when mature, and it is two-thirds peeling. The gills are white to greyish white, and are adnexed. The stipe is long, wide, cylindrical, white or later greyish. The taste is mild to moderately hot.
It could be confused with the similar-looking and much better tasting Russula claroflava.
Distribution and habitat
Russula ochroleuca grows in deciduous and coniferous forest, where it (at least in Northwestern Europe) is very common. In the USA it is fairly common under conifers; birch, and aspen in the Northern States.
Edibility
Although considered edible, it is not known as particularly tasty. It is mild to moderately hot.
See also
List of Russula species
References
"Danske storsvampe. Basidiesvampe" [a key to Danish basidiomycetes] J.H. Petersen and J. Vesterholt eds. Gyldendal. Viborg, Denmark, 1990.
ochroleuca
Fungi described in 1801
Fungi of Europe
Taxa named by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russula%20ochroleuca |
The Romani in Spain, generally known by the endonym Calé (also spelled "Kalé"), or the exonym (), belong to the Iberian Romani subgroup known as Calé, with smaller populations in Portugal (known as ) and in Southern France. Their sense of identity and cohesion stems from their shared value system, expressed among the as the ('Gypsy laws').
Traditionally, they maintain their social circles strictly within their patrigroups, as interaction between patrigroups increases the risk of feuding, which may result in fatalities. The emergence of Pentecostalism has impacted this practice, as the lifestyle of Pentecostal gitanos involves frequent contact with Calé people from outside their own patrigroups during church services and meetings. Data on ethnicity are not collected in Spain, although the public pollster CIS estimated in 2007 that the number of Calé present in Spain is probably around one million.
Name
The term gitano evolved from the word egiptano ("Egyptian"), which was the Old Spanish demonym for someone from Egipto (Egypt). "Egiptano" was the regular adjective in Old Spanish for someone from Egypt, however, in Middle and Modern Spanish the irregular adjective egipcio supplanted egiptano to mean Egyptian, probably to differentiate Egyptians from Gypsys. Meanwhile, the term egiptano evolved through elision into egitano and finally into gitano, losing the meaning of Egyptian and carrying with it a specific meaning of Romanis in Spain. The two peoples are now unambiguously differentiated in modern Spanish, "egipcios" for Egyptians and "gitanos" for Roma in Spain, with "egiptano" being obsolete for either.
Though etymologically the term gitano originally meant "Egyptian", the use itself of the Old Spanish word meaning "Egyptian" (egiptano) to refer to Romanis in Spain developed in the same way that the English word "Gypsy" also evolved from the English adjective "Egyptian" to refer to Romanis in Britain. Some Romanis, a people originating in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, upon their first arrivals to Europe, either claimed to be Egyptians for a more favourable treatment by local Europeans, or were mistaken as Egyptians by local Europeans.
Identity
The group's identity is particularly complex in Spain for a variety of reasons that are examined below. Nevertheless, it can be safely said that both from the perspective of gitano and non-gitano (payo) Spaniards, individuals generally considered to belong to this ethnicity are those of full or near-full gitano descent and who also self-identify as such. A confusing element is the thorough hybridization of Andalusian and Roma culture (and some would say identity) at a popular level. This has occurred to the point where Spaniards from other regions of Spain commonly mistake elements of one for the other. The clearest example of this is flamenco music and Sevillanas, art forms that are Andalusian rather than gitano in origin but, having been strongly marked by gitanos in interpretative style, are now commonly associated with this ethnicity by many Spaniards. The fact that the largest population of gitanos is concentrated in Southern Spain has even led to a confusion between gitano accents and those more typical of Southern Spain even though many Kale populations in the northern half of Spain (such as Galicia) do not speak Andalusian Spanish.
Origin
The Romani people originate from northwestern Hindustan, presumably from the northwestern Indian state of Rajasthan and the Punjab region shared between India and Pakistan.
The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that roots of Romani language lie in the Indian subcontinent: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indic languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts, daily routines and numerals.
More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali. Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be classed as a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left the Indian subcontinent significantly earlier than AD 1000, finally reaching Europe several hundred years later.
Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent and migrated as a group.
According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the "Ḍoma", are the likely ancestral populations of modern "Roma" in Europe.
Migration to Spain
How and when the Romani arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Northern India is a question whose consensus is far from being reached. A popular theory, although without any documentation, claims they came from North Africa, from where they would have crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to meet again in France with the northern migratory route. Thus, gitanos would be a deformation of Latin Tingitani, that is, from Tingis, today Tangier. Another, more consistent theory, and well documented, is that they entered the Iberian Peninsula from France. Although there is controversy over the date of the first arrival, since there is evidence of a safe conduct granted in Perpignan in 1415 by the infante Alfonso of Aragon to one Tomás, son of Bartolomé de Sanno, who is said to be "Indie Majoris". Or instead, it could be the so-called Juan de Egipto Menor, who entered through France, when in 1425 Alfonso V granted him a letter of insurance; he is mostly accepted as the first Romani person to reach the peninsula.
In 1435 they were seen in Santiago de Compostela. Gitanos were recorded in Barcelona and Zaragoza by 1447, and in 1462 they were received with honors in Jaén. Years later, to the gitanos, the grecianos, pilgrims who penetrated the Mediterranean shore in the 1480s, were added to them, probably because of the fall of Constantinople. Both of them continued to wander throughout the peninsula, being well received at least until 1493, year in which a group of gitanos arrived at Madrid, where the Council agreed to "... give alms to the gitanos because at the request of the City passed ahead, ten reales, to avoid the damages that could be done by three hundred people who came ... ".
In those years safe conducts were granted to supposedly noble Calé pilgrims. The follow-up of these safe-conducts throughout Spain has provided some data to historians according to Teresa San Román:
The number of Romani that entered or inhabited the Peninsula in the 15th-century is estimated at 3,000 individuals.
The Roma traveled in variable groups, of 80-150 people, led by a man.
Each autonomous group maintained relations at a distance with one of the others, there being perhaps relations of kinship among them (something common today among Spanish Romani).
The separation between each group was variable and sometimes some followed the others at close range and by the same routes.
The most common survival strategy was to present as Christian pilgrims to seek the protection of a noble.
The way of life was nomadic and dedicated to divination and performance (spectacle).
In 1492, the Roma auxiliaries helped the army of the Kingdom of Castile and León in the Reconquista in Granada ending the reign of Muslims in Spain.
Gitanos have a low and little politically committed role, with some particular exceptions; Andalusian nationalism and identity is strongly based on a belief in the oriental basis of Andalusi heritage, which acted as a bridge between occidental-western and oriental-eastern Andalusian culture at a popular level. The father of such a movement, Blas Infante, in his book Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo, etymologically, went as far as alleging that the word flamenco derives from Andalusian Arabic fellah mengu, supposedly meaning "escapee peasant". Infante believed that numerous Muslim Andalusians became Moriscos, who were obliged to convert, were dispersed, and were eventually ordered to leave Spain , but stayed and mixed with the Romani newcomers instead of abandoning their land. These claims have been rejected by many historians and genetic research papers.
For about 300 years, Romanies were subject to a number of laws and policies designed to eliminate them from Spain as an identifiable group. Romani settlements were broken up and the residents dispersed; sometimes, Romanies were required to marry non-Roma; they were prohibited from using their language and rituals, and were excluded from public office and from guild membership. In 1749, a major effort to get rid of the Calé population in Spain was carried out through a raid organized by the government.
During the Spanish Civil War, gitanos were not persecuted for their ethnicity by either side. Under the regime of Francisco Franco, gitanos were often harassed or simply ignored, although their children were educated, sometimes forcibly, much as all Spaniards are nowadays.
In the post-Franco era, Spanish government policy has been much more sympathetic, especially in the area of social welfare and social services. In 1977, the last anti-Romani laws were repealed, an action promoted by Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, the first Romani deputy.
Beginning in 1983, the government operated a special program of Compensatory Education to promote educational rights for the disadvantaged, including those in Romani communities. During the heroin epidemic that afflicted Spain in the 1980s and 1990s, gitano shanty towns became central to the drug trade, a problem that afflicts Spain to this day. Nevertheless, Spain is still considered a model for integration of gitano communities when compared to other countries with Romani populations in Eastern Europe.
Language
Historically, gitanos spoke Caló, also known as Romanés, fluently, often alongside the language spoken in the region they inhabited. Caló is a type of para-Romani, combining the phonology and grammar of the Catalan or Castilian, with a lexicon derived from Romani. The para-Romani resulting from the combination of Basque and Romani is called Erromintxela. Very few gitanos maintain a comprehensive and functional knowledge of Caló. A study on the actual usage patterns of Caló among a group of mainly Andalusian gitanos concluded that the language currently consists of between 350 and 400 unique terms, the knowledge of which varies considerably among gitanos. This would exclude a similar number of Calo words that have entered mainstream Spanish slang. According to the authors of the study, the majority of gitanos acknowledge that the language is in a terminal state, with many asserting that the language is totally lost.
Religion
In Spain, gitanos were traditionally Roman Catholics who participated in four of the Church's sacraments (baptism, marriage, confirmation, and extreme unction). They follow traditions such as the cult of the Virgin of El Rocío.
In 1997, Pope John Paul II beatified the Catholic gitano martyr Ceferino Giménez Malla, in a ceremony reportedly attended by some 3,000 Roma. Sara-la-Kali is the patron saint of Romani people.
They rarely go to folk healers, and they participate fully in Spain's state-supported medical system. Gitanos have a special involvement with recently- dead kin and visit their graves frequently. They spend more money than non-gitanos of equivalent economic classes in adorning grave sites.
The Spanish New-Protestant/New-Born Federation (mostly composed of members of the Assemblies of God and Pentecostal) claims that 150,000 gitanos have joined their faith in Spain. The Romani Evangelical Assembly is the only religious institution entirely led and composed by Roma. The gitano Evangelical church (Iglesia de Filadelfia) asserts the gitano people originate from a group of Jews who got lost during Moses' lifetime and eventually became the gitanos.
Marriage
The traditional Spanish Romani place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young.
A traditional gitano wedding requires a pedimiento (similar to an engagement party) followed by the casamiento (wedding ceremony), where el yeli must be sung to the bride to celebrate the virginity and honour of the bride (proven by the ritual of the pañuelo). In the pañuelo ritual, a group consisting of an ajuntaora (a professional who is skilled in performing the ritual and is paid by the family), along with the married women of the family, take the bride into a separate room during the wedding and examine her to ascertain that she is a virgin. The ajuntaora is the one who performs the ritual on the bride, as the other women watch to be witnesses that the bride is virgin. The ajuntaora wraps a white, decoratively embroidered cloth (the pañuelo) around her index finger and inserts it shallowly into the vaginal canal of the bride. During this process, the Bartholin's glands are depressed, causing them to secrete a liquid that stains the cloth. This action is repeated with three different sections of the cloth to produce three stains, known as "rosas". This process is conceived by the women as the retrieval of the bride's "honra", her honour, contained within a "grape" inside her genitals which is popped during the examination, and the spillage collected onto the pañuelo.
When finished with the exam, the women come out of the room and sing el yeli to the couple. During this, the men at the wedding rip their shirts and lift the wife onto their shoulders and do the same with the husband, as they sing "el yeli" to them. Weddings can last very long; up to three days is usual in Gitano culture. At weddings, gitanos invite everyone and anyone that they know of, (especially other gitanos). On some occasions, payos (gadjos) may attend as well, although this is not common. Through the night, many bulerías are danced and especially sung. Today, rumba gitana or rumba flamenca are usual party music fixtures.
Gitanos may also marry by elopement, an event that garners less approval than a wedding ceremony.
Marginalisation
Marginalisation occurs on an institutional level. Gitano children are regularly segregated from their non-gitano peers and have poorer academic outcomes. In 1978, 68% of adult gitanos were illiterate. Literacy has greatly improved over time; approximately 10% of gitanos were illiterate as of 2006-2007 (with older gitanos much more likely than younger gitanos to be illiterate). Ninety-eight percent of gitanos live below the poverty line. Health outcomes and housing - including reduced access to clean water and electricity supplies - is worse amongst Roma compared to non-Roma in Spain and Portugal, in common with the other surveyed European countries.
Roma continue to experience discrimination on an interpersonal level, such as by being refused entry to bars and clubs or losing their jobs if their ethnicity is made known to their employer. In 2016, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights reported that its survey showed 71 percent of Portuguese cigano, and 51 percent of Spanish gitano had suffered an episode of discrimination within the previous five years. A traditional discriminatory practice in Portugal, where shops and businesses display toad figurines at entrances to dissuade ciganos from entering, was reported as being still widely seen in Portugal in 2019. (Toads are viewed as symbolic of evil and ill-omen in Roma communities in Portugal.) Ciganos and anti-discrimination activists complained of hostility to Roma being commonplace. Some shopkeepers were noted as defending their discouragement of Roma as appropriate.
The 2016 Pew Research poll found that 49% of Spaniards held unfavorable views of Roma.
In literature
The gitano in Spanish society have inspired several authors:
Federico García Lorca, a great Spanish poet of the 20th century, wrote Romancero Gitano ("Gypsy Ballad Book")
Candela, the female protagonist of the story El Amor Brujo, by Manuel de Falla is Romani.
Prosper Mérimée's Carmen (1845) features the protagonist as a femme fatale, ready to lie, or attack and degrade men's lives. His work was adapted for Georges Bizet's opera of the same name.
The beauty of a dark-haired Gitana has inspired artists such as Julio Romero de Torres.
La Gitanilla ("The little Gypsy girl"), short story by Miguel de Cervantes and part of his Exemplary Novels
Rocio Eva Granada, the escort in the novel Digital Fortress by Dan Brown
Music and dance
The art of Flamenco was developed in the Calé Romani culture of Southern Spain. Many famous Spanish flamenco musicians are of Romani ethnicity.
Notable gitanos
Following are notable Spanish people of Calé (gitano) ethnicity:
Leaders and politicians
Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party MEP
Sara Giménez Giménez, Spanish Roma politician in Citizens political party
Séfora Vargas Spanish Gypsy political activist and lawyer
Historians, philologists and writers
Silvia Agüero, feminist writer
Joaquín Albaicín, writer, lecturer and columnist for the artistic life
Matéo Maximoff, French writer born in Barcelona
Poets, novelists and playwrights
José Heredia Maya, poet and dramaturge
Luis Heredia Amaya, sculptor
Antonio Maya Cortés, artist painter and sculptor
Fabian de Castro, artist painter
Catholic saints and martyrs
Ceferino Giménez Malla, blessed
Painters and sculptors
Helios Gómez, artist, writer and poet
Juan Vargas, sculptor
Actors, comedians and entertainers
Rogelio Durán, theatre actor and father of Swedish actress Noomi Rapace
Pastora Vega, actress
Alba Flores, actress; granddaughter of Antonio González (El Pescaílla) and daughter of singer Antonio Flores
Jesús Castro (actor), actor of film The Niño.
El Comandante Lara, comedian and singer
Juan Rosa Mateo, comedian of Duo Sacapuntas
Footballers and football coaches
José Antonio Reyes, ex-footballer, for Arsenal F.C., Sevilla FC...
José Rodríguez Martínez, footballer, currently plays for Maccabi Haifa F.C.
Jesús Seba, footballer, ex-Real Zaragoza
Diego, former footballer, with Sevilla Fútbol Club (Sevilla FC)
Carlos Muñoz, former footballer, with Real Oviedo
Carlos Aranda, former footballer, with Sevilla FC
Ivan Amaya, former footballer, with Atletico Madrid
Antonio Amaya, footballer, for Rayo Vallecano
Marcos Márquez, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
López Ramos, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
Antonio Cortés Heredia footballer for Málaga
Ezequiel Calvente ex-footballer Real Betis
Téji Savanier footballer frech of the origin calo Spanish, footballer Montpellier
Jesús Navas, footballer, with Sevilla FC
Other athletes
Rafael Soto, equestrian and Olympic medalist
Faustino Reyes, boxer
José Antonio Jiménez, boxer
Patxi Ruiz Giménez, Basque pelota champion
Singers and musicians
Carmen Amaya, Flamenco dancer
Isabel Pantoja, singer, partially Calé
Los Chunguitos, singers, brother duet
Azúcar Moreno, singers, sister duet
Manolo Caracol, Flamenco singer
El Pescaílla, singer and composer, husband of Lola Flores
Lolita Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Antonio Flores, singer and actor, son of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Rosario Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
Vicente Escudero, dancer and choreographer of Spanish Flamenco; occasionally painter, writer, cinematographic actor and flamenco singer
Gipsy Kings, French group of Flamenco Rumba
Nicolas Reyes, lead vocalist of the Gipsy Kings
Camarón de la Isla, Flamenco singer
Farruquito, Flamenco dancer
Los Niños de Sara, French fusion musicians
Ketama, fusion musicians
Kendji Girac, French singer
Diego "El Cigala", Flamenco singer
Joaquín Cortés, star flamenco dancer
Beatriz Luengo, singer and actress
Natalia Jiménez, singer and vocalist of La quinta estacion
Jorge González, singer
Manitas de Plata, guitar player
Peret, Catalan singer, guitar player and composer of Catalan rumba
Camela, singers of Spanish musical group of techno rumba and flamenco pop.
Los Chichos singers
Las Grecas singers
Estrella Morente singer
Niña Pastori singer and composer
Belén Maya bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Juan Villar, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
José Mercé, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
El Príncipe Gitano, cantaor (Flamenco singer) and bailaor (Flamenco dancer)
Dolores Vargas, "La Terremoto" cantaora (Flamenco singer) and bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Gerardo Núñez, guitarist and composer
Mario Maya, cantaor and bailaor
Tomatito, Flamenco guitarist and composer
Remedios Amaya, cantaora
Falete cantaor (Flamenco singer)
La Chunga bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
Manuel Agujetas cantaor
Antonio Mairena cantaor
Manuel Torre cantaor
La Niña de los Peines cantaora (Flamenco singer)
Pastora Imperio bailaora
Chiquetete cantaor
El Lebrijano Flamenco guitarist
Paco Cepero Flamenco guitarist
Vicente Soto Sordera cantaor
Cancanilla de Marbella cantaor and bailaor
Perla de Cádiz cantaora
Manzanita singer and guitarist
Moraito Chico guitarist of Flamenco
Diego Carrasco cantaor and guitarist
Mala Rodríguez singer
La Serneta cantaora
Antonia La Negra cantaora
Lole y Manuel Flamenco singers
Alba Molina singer
Rancapino c
Pilar Montoya bailaora
Juana la Macarrona cantaora
Antonio Carmona singer of Flamenco
La Macanita cantaora
Pansequito cantaor
Gitano surnames
Due to endogamy, several Spanish surnames are more frequent among the Gitanos, though they are not exclusive to them:
Altamira or Altamirano
Amaya
Antunes or Antúnez (alternatively, Antuñez)
Calaf (Catalan Gypsy)
Cortés
Fernández
Flores
Gabarri (Catalan Gypsy)
Gutiérrez or Guiterez
Heredia
Jiménez or Giménez
Malla or Maya
Molina
Montoya
Monge or Monje
Moreno
Morgade
Motos
Pereiro or Pereira
Pubill (Catalan Gypsy)
Ravelino or Rabellino
Reyes
Sandoval
Salazar
Santi
Santiago
Vargas LP
Villar or Vilar
Viso
Carretero
Pérez
González
Escudero
Ximénez
See also
Triana, Seville, a neighbourhood traditionally linked to Gitano history.
Sacromonte, the traditional Gitano quarter of Granada.
George Borrow, an English missionary and traveller who studied the Calé of Spain and other parts of Europe.
Quinqui, a nomad community of Spain with a similar lifestyle, but of unrelated origin.
Cagot, similarly historically persecuted people in France and Spain.
, an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots.
Cleanliness of blood, ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime.
, an ethnic group in Spain who were also discriminated against and have unknown origins.
, a discriminated group of cowherders in Northern Spain.
a persecuted ethnic minority in Mallorca, often referenced in works discussing the persecution of Cagots in Spain.
References
Sources
The Situation of Roma in Spain. The Open Society Institute, 2002 (PDF).
Worth, Susannah and Sibley, Lucy R. "Maja Dress and the Andalusian Image of Spain." Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Summer 1994, Vol. 12, pp. 51–60.
Notes
External links
Romani union (English exonym present)
Romani presence in European Music
Spain
Ethnic groups in Spain
Romani in Spain | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitanos |
Rev. William Bantom (born 1946?) was mayor of Cape Town from 1995 to 2000.
He became the city's first black mayor following the first non-racial local government elections in 1995. He was forced to resign as mayor and expelled from the New National Party in 2000 after being caught downloading pornography from the internet.
He was a minister in the Church of the Nazarene.
References
Mayors of Cape Town
Living people
1940s births
Church of the Nazarene ministers
South African members of the Church of the Nazarene
National Party (South Africa) politicians | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bantom |
Jay Gorney (December 12, 1896– June 14, 1990) was an American theater and film song writer.
Life and career
Gorney was born Abraham Jacob Gornetzsky on December 12, 1896, in Białystok, Russia (now part of Poland), the son of Frieda (Perlstein) and Jacob Gornetzsky. His family was Jewish. In 1906, he witnessed the Bialystok pogrom, which forced his family into hiding for nearly two weeks; they soon fled to the United States, arriving on 14 September 1906. The family settled in Detroit, Michigan, where Jacob Gornetzsky became an engineer at the newly formed Ford Motor Company. Frieda Gornetzsky bought a piano for her children. At age 14, after two years of lessons, Gorney was offered a job as a pianist at a local Nickelodeon.
He worked his way through the University of Michigan (Class of 1917) and the University of Michigan Law School (Class of 1919) as a pianist. His studies were interrupted by World War I, during which he enlisted in the Navy. After graduating, he practiced law briefly before pursuing a career in music.
Gorney relocated with his wife to New York City, where he began his song writing career on Tin Pan Alley. He contributed numerous songs to musicals by the Shubert brothers. Ira Gershwin introduced Gorney to lyricist Yip Harburg, who became a frequent collaborator. The pair's most famous song was "Brother Can You Spare a Dime," based on a lullaby that Gorney learned as a child in Russia. It first appeared in the 1932 Shubert production of New Americana and became the anthem of the Great Depression.
The Gorney-Harburg writing partnership ended when Harburg had an affair with Gorney's wife, whom he subsequently married.
Gorney is credited with bringing Shirley Temple to 20th Century-Fox (then known as Fox Films). As he was leaving a viewing of her latest picture, Frolics of Youth, Gorney saw Temple dancing in the movie theater lobby. Recognizing her from the screen, he arranged for her to have a tryout for the movie Stand Up and Cheer!, which he was working on as a songwriter. The role, which featured Temple singing "Baby Take a Bow" (which was co-written by Gorney) with James Dunn, turned out to be a breakthrough role for Temple. The song would become the title for Baby Take a Bow, the first film by Fox to feature Temple in a starring role.
Gorney's second marriage was to Sondra Karyl (Kattlove), a public relations consultant. Their daughter, Karen Lynn Gorney, is an actress and dancer who was in the original cast of All My Children, and starred opposite John Travolta in Saturday Night Fever. Gorney has two sons, Dr. Roderic Gorney (with first wife Edelaine Roden) and Dan Gorney (with Sondra Karyl).
Gorney's 2005 biography, Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? The Life of Composer Jay Gorney, was written by his widow Sondra.
References
External links
SondraGorney.com - Website of Jay Gorney's widow, Sondra, featuring information on her late husband
GorneyMusicPublishing.com - Jay Gorney's website created by Sondra Gorney, Daniel Gorney, and Karen Lynn Gorney
Jay Gorney's scores are housed in the Music Division of the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Jay Gorney papers, 1896-1993, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
A collection of material relating to Jay Gorney is housed in the Great American Songbook Foundation archives
1896 births
1990 deaths
Jewish American songwriters
People from Białystok
Lawyers from Detroit
Military personnel from Detroit
University of Michigan Law School alumni
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American Jews | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay%20Gorney |
Kingsteignton ( ), is a town and civil parish in south Devon, England. It lies at the head of the Teign Estuary to the west of Teignmouth in the Teignbridge district. It is bypassed by the A380 and is also on the A383, A381, B3193 and B3195. Kingsteignton is currently represented in Parliament by Anne Marie Morris, as part of the Newton Abbot constituency. Local schools include: Rydon Primary School, Teign School and Saint Michael's Church of England School.
Kingsteignton has a population of over 11,000. The threat of being incorporated into the nearby town of Newton Abbot prompted the parish council to change Kingsteignton's status to a town. The change took effect from 1 January 2009. The town has two electoral wards (east and west). Their combined populations at the 2011 census was 11,147.
History
Founded in the early 8th century by the kings of Wessex as the centre of a vast Saxon estate that extended from Teignmouth to Manaton, Kingsteignton was a key settlement in Saxon times and gave its name to the Saxon hundred of Teignton. The hundred moot or court was held in the village, but it appears that by the time of the Domesday Survey the name of the hundred had been changed to Teignbridge, possibly indicating that the site of the court had been moved. As a royal vill Kingsteignton provided rich pickings for Danish raiders who plundered it in 1001.
Medieval prosperity funded the rebuilding of the parish church (St Michaels) in the 15th century. Its 85-foot (26 metre) tower was built in the 1480s. From the medieval period to the mid-19th century the parish church held an important position as the mother church of Highweek and Newton Bushell.
The Fairwater Leat, fed by the springs at Rydon, superseded the Honeywell Spring as the established water supply in the Middle Ages and also supplied the power for three mills. A drought is said to have given rise to the annual Ram Roasting fair. According to legend there was insufficient water to baptise a child, so a ram was sacrificed to the gods of the local spring. Water sprang forth and a ram has been roasted ever since at the fair, held nowadays on the late May bank holiday. Whit Tuesday was the traditional day for the fair, but it was switched to Whit Monday in the early 1950s to fit in with school holidays. The later switch to the late May bank holiday was made for the same reason when the bank holiday was fixed as the last Monday in May.
Until the 13th century the Manor of Kingsteignton was a crown demesne. In 1509 the manor passed to the Clifford family, who still hold the title of Lord of the Manor today.
The area gained minor publicity in July 2017, when local MP Anne Marie Morris used a racist remark in a speech concerning Brexit. She was subsequently suspended by the Conservative Party.
Culture
The local secondary school is Teign School, which also includes a 6th form college. Primary schools are St Michaels and Rydon. A third primary school has been built opposite Teign School called Kingsteignton School. The principal of the school is called Dr Penny Fitch. The town is twinned with Orbec, France.
Transport
Bus Services
The main bus operator is Stagecoach South West who run a network of regular services to places such as Exeter, Torquay, Paington and Teignmouth.
Local independent operator, County Bus also run services from the Town.
Coach Services
Lomax Tours run coach excursions from Kingsteignton to places of interest such as Cardiff Christmas Market, Weymouth, Looe, Clarks Village ect.
Road
The town is near the A380 dual carriageway.
Geology and quarrying
Fine quality ball clay beds created some 40–30 million years ago during the Oligocene Period lie on the eastern edge of the Bovey Basin near Kingsteignton. The exploitation of these clays began in the late 17th century when it was discovered that their properties made them eminently suitable for pipe making. Their white firing properties attracted interest from potters looking for materials to improve their wares, and their exploitation was boosted in 1791 when Josiah Wedgwood first purchased Kingsteignton clay. Over the past 200 years clay mining has brought continued employment and prosperity to Kingsteignton.
Limestone has been extensively quarried at various times on either side of Golvers Hill at Rydon, Coombesend and Gildons. Kingsteignton Quarry at Rydon (now infilled) supplied stone for the building of Buckfast Abbey. Numerous limekilns, some still in existence, were found along the dry valley that extends from Rydon to Lindridge and along the Coombesend valley. The kiln at Kiln Forehead was demolished during the extension of Calvados Park, whilst the kiln beside Rydon school was partly demolished and buried under an earth bank when the lane to Rydon Quarry was widened.
Sand and gravel has also been extensively quarried at Babcombe Copse, Sands Copse and Heathfield, the latter becoming a large landfill site.
Lysons' Magna Britannia mentions that the ancient Britons extracted alluvial tin from the gravels deposited by the river Teign.
Historic estates
The parish of Kingsteignton includes various historic estates including:
Whiteway, a Domesday Book manor and later a seat of the Yard family, today a farmhouse known as Whiteway Barton.
Sport and leisure
Newton Abbot RFC (established 1873) are based in Kingsteignton, playing home games at Rackerhayes. Kingsteignton AFC, known as the Rams, play at Broadpark and compete in the South Devon Football League.
References
External links
Kingsteignton Town Council
Towns in Devon
Former manors in Devon
Teignbridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsteignton |
Education in the Syrian Arab Republic is given the necessary attention and care by the Syrian state, as the Syrian Constitution guarantees the right to education to every citizen, which is compulsory and free at primary level. It is free but not compulsory at the secondary level and higher education is available for a symbolic fee. the primary level includes 3 stages, 1 which include grades 1 to 6, while 2 (middle school)includes grades 7 to 9,and lastly 3 (secondary school) grades 10 to 12
Education is free and compulsory from ages 7 to 15. Arabic is the medium of instruction in the Syrian Arab Republic. English is taught from grade 1, and French or Russian is taught from grade 7 in the basic learning stage as the primary second language.
According to the 2007 census, 98 percent of schools in Syria were public (state run), 1.8 percent were private, and 0.2 percent were United Nations Relief and Works Agency schools for children who are refugees.
In 2007, there were 8 million students in the education system of Syria (4 million in basic education, 1.4 million in secondary and 2.3 million in tertiary). Given the current growth rate in the school age population, it is projected that by 2015, the education system in Syria will need to cater to an additional 1 million students in basic and secondary education.
The school system in Syria is divided into basic and secondary education levels:
1st to 6th grade: Primary Education Level. From 1st to 4th grade, it’s called the First Ring (; halaka oula) while 5th & 6th grade are called Second Ring (; halaka thania)
7th to 9th grade: Pre-Secondary Education Level (; taelim 'edady )
10th to 12th grade: Upper Secondary Education (; taelim thanawi), which is the equivalent of High School.
Higher Education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education.
Early childhood care and education (ECCE)
The Government of Syria is also responsible for providing pre-primary or early childhood education. Up until the early 1990s, ECCE programs were provided by mostly non-governmental institutions, of which few belonged to the government sector, while others were either private or run by the Teacher's Syndicate, General Union of Workers (GUW) or the Women's Federation.
In 1990 only 5 percent of the children between the ages of 3 and 5 were enrolled in 793 kindergartens. Ten years later 7.8 percent of that age group was enrolled. Data from the Syrian Ministry of Education showed an increase in the number of kindergartens from 1096 to 1475 in 2004.
Basic education
The gross enrollment rate in primary education under basic education level in 2000 was 104.3 and it has been steadily rising, reaching to about 126.24 percent in 2007. Still, the enrollment of females is lower than males. The gender parity index, ratio of female enrollment to male enrollment, since 2006 was 0.955.
The enrollment level in all programs at the lower secondary level rose significantly from early 2000, with the current gross enrollment rate of 95.3 percent.
At the secondary lower level final exams of the 9th grade are carried out nationally at the same time. The result of these exams determines if the student goes to the "general" secondary schools or the technical secondary schools. Technical secondary schools include industrial and agricultural schools for male and female students, crafts school for female students, and commercial and computer science schools for both. It is mandatory for all Syrians to attend this basic level of education.
Secondary education
The upper secondary education is for three years from grade 10 to grade 12. At the beginning of the 11th grade, those who go to "general" secondary school have to choose to continue their study in either the "literary branch" or the "scientific branch".
The final exams of the 12th grade, commonly known as the Baccalauréat, are also carried out nationally and at the same time. The result of these exams determines which university, college and specialization the student attends. To do that, the student has to apply through a complicated system called "mufadalah" ().
There are wide regional disparities in post-basic education. There are lower secondary and university enrollments in rural than urban areas. Even the higher income households in rural areas do not have access to post-secondary education opportunities.
The secondary gross enrollment rate in 2007 stood at 72 percent, higher than the preceding years and one percentage point higher than the 2007 MENA regional gross enrollment rate at the secondary level.
Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
At the secondary level, the education system also includes three years of general or vocational education. Syria has a relatively large proportion of secondary school students in vocational schools; about 36 percent of total secondary school students in 2004 are in vocational schools. According to UIS the total enrollment in technical and vocational education (both private and public) in 2007 decreased to 103 from 113,994 students in 2006. Out of the total number, 41898 were female students enrolled in TVET.
In 1990s, the government aimed to increase TVET enrollment and at one time decided to allocate 70 percent of the lower secondary graduates to vocational schools, which meant doubling the share of TVET in total enrollment from 20 percent in 1990 to 40 percent in 2000. However, this later proved unsustainable. Then in 2000 a new policy stipulated 50:50 distributions of secondary students between general and vocational secondary education, and this was later decreased to 40 percent. Students enrolled in four main specializations:commercial,industrial, agricultural and handicrafts. The TVET system in Syria is very rigid with no options of reentering the formal school system.
University education
The earliest colleges founded in Syria were the School of Medicine (established 1903) and the Institute of Law (established 1913). The university education was founded in 1919 on a free of charge basis.
The Ministry of Higher Education was established in 1966 to supervise the scientific and educational institutions, such as universities, academic councils, the Arabic Language Academy and educational hospitals. Most post-secondary education is state-provided, but legislation passed in 2001 allows the establishment of some private universities and colleges. Resources for education have risen in absolute terms over the past decade, but it is difficult to match the rate of population growth. Colleges charge modest fees ($10–20 a year) if the student achieves the sufficient marks in their Baccalaureate exams. If not, the student may opt to pay higher fees ($1500–3000) to enroll. There are some private schools and colleges but their fees are much higher.
Domestic policies emphasize engineering and medicine in Syria’s universities, with less emphasis on the arts, law, and business. Most universities in Syria follow the French model of the high education, the university stages and the academic degrees are:
First stage: the License awarded after four to six years depending on the field.
Second stage: the DEA or DESS one to two years postgraduate degree equivalent to the master's degree in the American-English systems.
Third stage: the doctorate three to five years after the DEA or an equivalent degree.
20 private universities have been given licenses, 14 of which have actually opened and 6 to be opened soon.
Private universities will have an independent academic and management structure representing the owner and will be headed by the president of the university. There will also be a university board consisting of either: chancellor, faculty or division.
Private Universities
Syrian Private University
Al Rasheed International Private University for Science & Technology - Damascus
International University for Sciences and Technology (IUST) - Damascus
University of Kalamoon - Deir Atiyah
The Arab European University - Sahnaya
Al-Jazeera University - Deir ez Zor
Al-Manara University - Latakia
Al-Andalus University - Qadmous
Al-Sham Private University - Damascus
Arab International University (AIU) - Damascus
International University for Science and Technology - Damascus
Wadi International University
Arab Academy for E-Business - Damascus
Public Universities
Damascus University in Damascus
Aleppo University in Aleppo
Al-Baath University in Homs
Hama University in Hama
Al-Furat University in Deir ez Zor
Tishreen University in Lattakia
University of Tartus in Tartus
Syrian Virtual University in Damascus
Rojava University in Qamishli
The Centre for Measurement and Evaluation in Higher Education (CME), which was established in 2012, assesses the performance of students, programs, and educational institutions. The centre was founded to set clear criteria for cross-border certificates based on the methodology, techniques and institutional standard measurement tools. its aim is to measure knowledge, skills and attitudes in a scientific way, to ensure the quality of higher education outputs to meet developmental needs.
Higher technical institutes
Higher Institute of Marine Research
Higher Institute of Water Resource Management
Higher Institute of Business Administration
Higher Institute for Applied Sciences and Technology
Virtual university
In September 2002, the first virtual university was founded. through which students can obtain degrees from international institutions.
The university is called Syrian Virtual University.
Institution Ranking in Syria
The ranking of the Syrian Higher education institutions in Syria has been effected by the Syrian crisis. In the year 2023, the ranking of Damascus University within the QS Ranking has risen to become in the field 1201-1400. Several factors such as sustainable development goals-related research and citations have influenced this. The ranking of Damascus University has also increased within the Webometrics ranking linked to the university's website, to become less than 3150 in the second edition of the year 2023 of this ranking.
Baathism education
The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party heavily influences the educational system in Syria, in which primary school students called “Al-Ba’ath Vanguards” (), elementary school students led by "Revolutionary Youth Union" (), and college students headed by “National Union of Students” (), are injected with Baathism ideology, Pan-Arabism and socialist beliefs.
According to the Constitution of Syria of 1973, Chapter 3: Educational and Cultural Principles, Article 21, it is written:
The article was later scrapped in the new Constitution of 2012. Nevertheless, the students are still being taught to Baathism through a subject known as "Political Arab Sociology".
Computer literacy
This measure and others, such as making computer literacy mandatory at the high-school level and English- and French-language instruction compulsory in the elementary schools, have the goal of equipping students with computer and language skills in order to modernize the economy through the education system.
Challenges
Syria has shown great progress in providing access to basic education and to some extent, post basic education to the growing population. Still Syria has a long way to go to bring about a comprehensive change in the education system.
Access to pre-primary level education is low in Syria when compared to other lower-middle income countries. The enrollment at the pre-primary level is 10 percent in Syria whereas it is 15.7 percent in the MENA region in 2007. The Government of Syria has to make substantial investments in infrastructure to improve access to preprimary education. The government needs to prioritize expansion of schools especially in underserved areas with vulnerable populations. According to research findings, children of disadvantaged backgrounds are the ones that benefit the most from early childhood programs by developing basic skills necessary for employment thereby moving them out of abject poverty. Currently, most of the Early Childhood Care and Education services in Syria are delivered through private kindergartens and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) based in urban areas.
Despite increasing quantity of human capital through increasing access to education at all levels, the improvement of quality of the education and training system and consequently the quality of human capital is another challenge that Government of Syria needs to address. Weak growth in labor productivity over the past two decades has been associated with low quality and relevance of education in Syria. The results of International test scores TIMSS show that 44 percent of students who appeared in this international exam performed below the lowest international benchmark. Therefore, there is a greater need to improve the quality of overall education system. This also involves the need to incorporate the use of communication and technology to better prepare students to the demands of the globalised world. Currently, Syria’s computer and internet usage is very low compared to a number of neighboring countries and is much lower than the average for lower middle income countries.
Syria also faces high repetition and dropout rates. The repetition rate at primary level has been very high, almost 12 percent in 2006 and has been steadily rising since 2003. At the secondary level, repetition rate has reached almost 20 percent. According to the latest data in 2004/05 the average repetition rate was 6 percent for grade 1-6, 13.3 percent for grades 7-9, and 7.3 percent for grades 10-12.Drop-out rates stood at 2.2 percent for grades 1-6, 8 percent for grades 7-9, and 7.3 percent for grades 10-12. Along with high repetition and dropout rates, a fairly low student–teacher ratio also signals internal inefficiency in the education system. The ratio in Syria is low due to the relatively high recruitment of teachers in comparison to the growth of students. The number of teachers grew at an annual rate of 7 percent between 2000 and 2006, which is almost twice the growth rate for students, which resulted in STR of 19:1 in basic education and 9:1 in secondary education. To increase the internal efficiency, the government should focus on hiring trained and competent teachers, reform the curriculum and develop testing, evaluation and measurement.
Then the increasing unemployment rate, especially among youth, implies poor education quality along with lack of infrastructure to absorb the rising population. The youth unemployment rate in Syria stood at 19 percent in 2003. The current system is unable to provide with the skills and competencies demanded in the labor market. Therefore, there is a need to connect education institutions, especially higher education and vocational institutes, to the labor market and to align the curricula with skills that could increase employability of the graduates. Apart from improving the curriculum the government needs to make major infrastructure adjustments to absorb the rising population of the country into the already burdened education system. In 2007, the education system in Syria catered for about 8 million students. Given the current growth rate of 4.3 percent per annum of school age population, it is projected that by 2015, the education system in Syria will need to cater for an additional 1 million students in basic and secondary education.
Impact of the Syrian Civil War
The Syrian Civil War is a major barrier to quality education for all in Syria, reversing development gains in the country. In addition to causing widespread destruction of learning spaces, the crisis has forced more than 2.1 million children and youth out of school in Syria; an additional 3.3 million in Syria need educational assistance, and 1.4 million Syrian children and youth are refugees in the five main host countries (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey). In 2011, Syria had achieved universal primary enrolment and was near universal enrolment in lower secondary education. More concretely, 91% of primary school-aged children were in school in 2011, but by 2015 the rate had plummeted to 37%.
See also
Newcomer education
Education in emergencies and conflict areas
Sources
References
External links
Joshua Landis,"Islamic Education in Syria" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Syria |
Michael Netzer (born 9 October 1955) is an American-Israeli artist best known for his comic book work for DC Comics and Marvel Comics in the 1970s, as well as for his online presence.
Early life
Michael Nasser (later Netzer) was born in Detroit, Michigan, U.S. His father was Adel Nasser a-Din, a Druze doctor of philosophy who worked most of his life in a Ford factory. His mother, Adele Ghazali, is a daughter to a Druze-Lebanese father and a Jewish-Lebanese mother who settled in New York in the 1920s. He contracted polio at the age of eight months which partially paralyzed his left hip and leg. After two years of medical treatment, he was sent with his mother and siblings to his father's Druze hometown, Dayr Qūbil in Lebanon. In 1967, at the age of 11, he returned to Detroit. In school, he became interested in comic book illustration and storytelling, and began developing skills as an artist. He used his art for a campaign that won him election of vice-president of his senior class in Redford High School, where he also gained the rank of lieutenant colonel in the JROTC program.
During high school, Netzer met Greg Theakston, who introduced him to the world of professional comics art. He worked as a sign painter and graphic designer while attending Wayne State University in Michigan for two years. Theakston later introduced him to Neal Adams at the Detroit Triple Fan Fair comics convention in 1974. Adams took interest in Netzer's art and invited him to join Continuity Studios.
In September 1981, Netzer traveled to Lebanon to visit his father, intending to continue afterwards to Israel. When the Lebanon War broke out, he became stranded there until the fighting subsided. In August 1983, he hired a taxi that brought him to the Lebanon-Israel border, where he crossed into Israel. While settling in Israel, he studied the Hebrew language and the Jewish faith at several kibbutzim. Nezter then converted to Judaism, and changed his Arabic last name Nasser to the Hebrew name Netzer. In May 1985, he moved to Ofra, an Israeli settlement in the West Bank, where he currently resides. He is married to Elana Yosef and they have five children.
Comics career
Early work
In late 1975, Netzer was invited to join Arvell Jones and Keith Pollard for a drive to New York City, where the two artists shared an apartment. They offered Netzer accommodations while he tried to gain work in comics. He joined Continuity Studios, which became his base as a freelancer. He began work producing storyboards and advertising art for the studio, while procuring his first comics assignment, a two-part back-up story in Kamandi: "Tales of the Great Disaster". He gained quick recognition as an illustrator at DC Comics and Marvel Comics, producing art for Kobra, Challengers of the Unknown, Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes and Wonder Woman at DC, as well as various covers for Marvel. Other characters he became known for were the Martian Manhunter, Green Arrow and Black Canary, Batman, Black Lightning and Spider-Man. Netzer became active in efforts to form a Comics Creators Guild, that were based at Continuity. By late 1977, he was scheduled to pencil the new series John Carter, Warlord of Mars for editor Marv Wolfman at Marvel. Reconsidering the direction his life and career were taking, and the general conditions of the comics industry, Netzer declined the project and decided to take a break away from drawing comic books.
In November 1977, Netzer left his career in New York and hitchhiked across the United States. Arriving in San Francisco, he contacted Star*Reach magazine publisher Mike Friedrich to decline a commitment he had made for the publication's first color installment. Friedrich asked Netzer to produce a story that would tell of his new-found aspirations, resulting in "The Old, New and Final Testaments", an eight-page vignette weaving socio-religious history with humanity's ambitions for the colonization of the solar system. Friedrich published the story in Star*Reach #12 (1977) and wrote about his meeting with Netzer in the editorial.
For the next several years, Netzer produced sporadic comic book art for DC and Marvel, including a Batman story in DC Special Series, Black Lightning in World's Finest Comics, Spider-Man in Marvel Team-Up and numerous covers for Marvel. He was one of several artists to draw the comics adaptation of Xanadu in Marvel Super Special #17 (Summer 1980). During this period, he traveled through the United States and promoted the idea of a new political hierarchy through the comic book medium. His colleagues described this activity as messianic and expressed concerns about his behavior. In a 1980 interview with Whizzard Magazine, editor Marty Klug noted: "Since 1977 his work, most notably in Star*Reach, has often professed a creative politico-religious theme derived from diverse sources ranging from superhero adventure to Biblical prophecy. Nasser's speculations—frequently intriguing, often controversial and, at times, somewhat outrageous—espouse a refreshing optimism rarely found in such works. Currently, he is assembling these perspectives in book form and may well be one of the first comic illustrators to branch off in such a unique direction."
Israel comics
In 1984–1988, he contributed covers, accompanying illustrations and a comic strip, Milk and Honey, to Counterpoint, an Israeli English-language publication of Gush Emunim edited by Rachelle Katsman and Yisrael Medad.
In 1987, he produced Israel's first Super Hero color comic book, with partners Jonathan Duitch and Yossi Halpern, "Uri-On", (אורי-און) under their Israel Comics imprint. This came at a time of a surge in comics activity in the country and was featured in an Israel Museum Comics Exhibit alongside the work of his national peers, Dudu Geva, Michel Kichka, Uri Fink and others. Michael's design of the Menorah symbol for Uri-On was featured in a later Israel Museum exhibit highlighting various Menorah designs through the ages. Netzer's prominence as a former American comic book artist and controversial choice of residence in the occupied West Bank, provided a platform for the artist to appear on local television talk shows, receive varied media coverage and give lectures on the comic book medium as a tool for advancing a peaceful solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict.
Return to U.S. comics
In 1991, Netzer returned to New York and Continuity Comics, where he produced art for several issues of Megalith. He and Neal Adams entered into a dispute over intellectual property rights to Ms. Mystic, a character they had worked on jointly in 1977, which Adams had published under the Pacific Comics and Continuity Comics imprints, leading to a lawsuit against Adams in New York Federal Court in 1993. The case was dismissed in 1995, citing the statute of limitations.
Netzer left Continuity and produced a series of comic book projects during this period, including Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2, Detective Comics, The Huntress, Babylon 5, Team Titans, and Green Arrow for DC Comics, and Neil Gaiman's Lady Justice for Tekno Comix. His art in this period demonstrated a notable shift into a darker and moodier art style, such as in The Huntress mini-series, which merged his high-contrast style in the 1978 Hot Stuff with the dark noir art of the popular Frank Miller's Sin City series. In his Sin City: The Big Fat Kill #1 (1994) letter column, Miller criticized Netzer, along with artists Jim Lee and Tim Sale, who also produced dark noir art in that period, for drawing influence from Sin City. Miller also criticized Netzer's lawsuit against Adams for Ms. Mystic in the same letter column. In 2011, Netzer responded to Miller at CBR's Comics Should Be Good, saying he'd worked in a similar style before Miller became known for it. He added that no artist develops without visible influences, and that creators who preceded Miller were not known to criticize artists whom they inspired.
In 1994 Netzer returned to Israel. In 1998, he teamed up with Sofia Fedorov to establish a visual media production studio called Netzart Fedorov Media which allowed Netzer to develop his skills in computer-generated illustration, advertising and web design.
In 2010, Netzer returned to mainstream comics, producing art for Kevin Smith's Green Hornet from Dynamite Entertainment, along with illustrating a chapter of Erich Origen and Gan Golan's The Adventures of Unemployed Man from Little, Brown, publishers of the satire Goodnight Bush by the same writers. Netzer also returned to producing collector art commissions, including a series of classic cover recreations with artist Gene Colan, represented by writer/agent Clifford Meth. In 2011, he produced three covers for Kfir from Israeli Zanzuria Comics.
Web activism
A 40-day retreat to the Dead Sea resort of Ein Gedi in February 2003 inspired Netzer to go back to his early spiritual themes and activism. In January 2004, Netzer launched his first web site, "The New Comic Book of Life", outlining his theories on superhero mythology and the role it plays in cultural evolution. On the site, Netzer revealed unpublished material espousing this manifesto from 1977 to 1981, which had never seen publication. He also apologized to colleague Neal Adams for his lawsuit against him in the previous decade, though in 2018 Netzer renewed his assertion that he created the character of Ms. Mystic, leading to a great deal of public acrimony between the two. In November 2004, he launched a second web site, "The Comic Book Creator's Party", calling on comics creators to form a political union for participating in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, and quoting notable comics creators' references to the socio-political climate in America and abroad. Netzer has since launched several other web sites, including "The Comic Book Creators' Guild", "Growing Earth Consortium" and "Michael Netzer Online", the site-complex portal.
While producing no mainstream comics art from the mid-1990s until 2010, Netzer maintained a web presence, speaking on comics community issues, including a campaign to bolster comic fandom's support for J'onn J'onzz The Martian Manhunter, facing a rumored demise in DC Comics Final Crisis miniseries. In early 2009, Netzer founded and launched Facebook Comic Con.
Following his conviction that art should contribute towards the betterment of society, Netzer joined Comics For All in May 2010, a collective of Israeli comics artists that aims to promote the medium as a cultural and educational tool for aiding underprivileged children. The organization operates under the auspices of comic book retailer chain Comics N' Vegetables, and contributed to the retailer winning the Will Eisner Spirit of Comics Retailer Award in 2011. Netzer participates in various activities on a pro bono basis.
Save the Comics campaign
In early 2011 Netzer launched a campaign, Save the Comics, to bring public attention to the undercurrents of a decades-long sales slump for printed comic books. The initiative came on the heels of his participation in an industry-wide debate on a revolution in creator-owned properties.
On 10 February 2011, Netzer lodged an online complaint at the Federal Trade Commission web site against DC Comics and Marvel Comics calling for industry leaders to turn their attention back to the business of comic book publishing.
In June 2011, Netzer responded to the controversial story in Action Comics #900, in which Superman is compelled to renounce his American citizenship after participating in an Iranian anti-government demonstration. He produced a two-page short satire, wherein Superman returns to Tehran with Batman and Wonder Woman, who all participate in an anti-American demonstration. An image of the three heroes burning American and Western Allies flags, drew sharp criticism from the Bleeding Cool audience. Netzer responded by burning the original art of the controversial image, and filming a video clip of it, to demonstrate the value of the satire.
In May 2013, Netzer led a campaign on behalf of comics writer Don McGregor when Dynamite Entertainment promoted the revival of Lady Rawhide, created by McGregor and Mike Mayhew. Dynamite publisher Nick Barrucci responded in dismissal of McGregor's publicly aired frustration at hearing about his creation being revived in press releases, and that the creators' credits were omitted from the announcements. Netzer's campaign at Bleeding Cool, The Beat, Facebook and his own site led the publisher to appear at Netzer's Facebook profile and apologize to McGregor. The campaign received some criticism for its intensity, but was also noted by others for helping bring the issue of creators' rights and their treatment by publishers to the forefront of industry dialogue.
Published works
DC Comics
Adventure Comics #449–451 (Manhunter from Mars) (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Terry Austin, 1977); (The Flash) #466 (with Cary Bates, inks by Vince Colletta, 1979)
Armageddon: The Alien Agenda #2 (with Jonathan Peterson, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1991)
Armageddon: Inferno #1–2, 4 (1992)
Babylon 5 #1–2, 4 (with J. Michael Straczynski, inks by Rob Leigh, 1994)
Batman/Green Arrow: The Poison Tomorrow one-shot (with Dennis O'Neil, 1992)
Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2 (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Luke McDonnell, 1993)
Challengers of the Unknown #81–82 (with Gerry Conway, inks by Bob Wiacek and Josef Rubinstein, 1977)
DC Special Series #1 (Batman) (with Martin Pasko, 1977); #15 (with David V. Reed, in both cases, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1978); #11 (Doctor Fate) (with Paul Levitz and Joe Staton, 1978)
Detective Comics #654–655, 657–658 (with Chuck Dixon, inks by Scott Hanna and Luke McDonnell, 1992–1993)
Ghosts #97 (1981)
Green Arrow #89, 96 (with Kevin Dooley and Chuck Dixon, inks by Rob Leigh and Jim Aparo, 1994–1995)
House of Mystery #276 (1980)
Isis #2 (with Steve Skeates, inks by Vince Colletta, 1976–1977)
The Huntress #1–4 (miniseries) (with Chuck Dixon, 1994)
Jonah Hex and Other Western Tales #3 (1980)
Kamandi #45–46 ("Tales of the Great Disaster"), inks by Josef Rubinstein (1976)
Kobra #6–7 (with Martin Pasko, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1977)
Men of War #15 ("The Sentry", two–pages, inks by Bob Smith, 1979)
Secrets of Haunted House #24 (with Laurie S. Sutton, inks by Vince Colletta, 1980)
Star Hunters #3 (with David Michelinie, inks by Bob Layton, 1978)
Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes #222, 225–226, 230–231, 233, 236 (with Jim Shooter and Paul Levitz, inks by Bob Layton, Bob Wiacek, Jack Abel and Josef Rubinstein, 1976–77)
Team Titans #1 Nightrider (with Marv Wolfman, inks by George Pérez, 1992)
Time Warp #4 (1980)
Wonder Woman #232 (with Alan Brennert and Martin Pasko, inks by Vince Colletta, 1977)
World's Finest Comics #244–246 (Green Arrow and Black Canary) (with Tony Isabella and Jack C. Harris, inks by Terry Austin, 1977); #259–260 (Black Lightning) (with Dennis O'Neil, inks by Vince Colletta, 1979)
Marvel Comics
Howard the Duck #16 (with Steve Gerber, inks by Terry Austin, 1976)
Marvel Comics Super Special #17 (with J. M. DeMatteis and other artists, 1980)
Marvel Preview #7 (1976)
Marvel Spotlight #33 (with David Anthony Kraft, Rich Buckler and Arvell Jones, inks by Klaus Janson, Marvel, 1977)
Marvel Tales #100 (with Scott Edelman, inks by Terry Austin, 1979)
Marvel Team-Up #89 (with Chris Claremont, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1980)
Marvel Two-In-One #70 (with Mark Gruenwald and Ralph Macchio, inks by Gene Day, 1980)
Savage Sword of Conan #20, 29, 70–71 (pinups only, 1977–81)
Star Trek #7 (with Tom DeFalco, inks by Klaus Janson, 1980)
The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu #28 (with Lao Tzu, pinup only, 1976)
Web of Spider-Man Annual #3 (with Roger Stern, inks by Josef Rubinstein, 1987)
Other publishers
"12 Parts" in Hot Stuff #6, (Sal Quartuccio Productions, 1978)
1984 #5 (with Len Wein, inks by Alfredo Alcala, Warren Publishing, 1979)
Civil Wardrobe (with Rich Johnston, Brain Scan Studios, 2006)
Ms. Mystic #1 (with Neal Adams, Pacific Comics, 1982)
Neil Gaiman's Wheel of Worlds #0 (with C. J. Henderson, Tekno Comix, 1995)
Neil Gaiman's Lady Justice #1–2 (with C.J. Henderson, inks by Rick Magyar, Tekno, 1995)
Megalith #5–7 (with Peter Stone, Continuity Comics, 1991)
Star Reach #12 (Star Reach Productions, 1978)
Uri-On #1–4 (Israel Comics, 1987–1988)
War Dancer #5 (with Jim Shooter, inks by Brad Vancata Defiant Comics, 1994)
Dose #2 (Bankshot Comics, 2008)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet Annual #1 (with Phil Hester, inks by Josef Rubinstein Dynamite Entertainment, 2010)
The Adventures of Unemployed Man graphic novel (with Origen and Golan, inks by Josef Rubinstein Little, Brown, 2010)
Rich Johnston's ScienTHORlogy one shot satire (with Rich Johnston, Boom! Studios, 2012)
Jewish Comix Anthology short story (with Clifford Meth, Alternate History Comics, 2014)
Note: From 1987 (Uri-On #1), he is credited as Michael Netzer; previously, he was credited with his birth name, Michael Nasser.
Covers
Netzer has also provided the art for these covers:
Adventures on the Planet of the Apes #7 (Marvel, 1976)
Tomb of Darkness #22 (Marvel, 1976)
Chamber of Chills #24, inks, (Marvel, 1976)
Kobra #6–7 (DC, 1977)
Challengers of the Unknown #81–82 (DC, 1977)
Wonder Woman #231–232 (DC, 1977)
Shazam! #35 (DC, 1978)
The Spectacular Spider-Man #37 (Marvel, 1979)
Defenders #87–89 (Marvel, 1980)
Star Trek #7 (Marvel, 1980)
Marvel Team-Up #101 (Marvel, 1980)
The Amazing Spider-Man #207, 228 (Marvel, 1980, 1982)
Uri-On #1–4, (Israel Comics, 1987–1988)
Armageddon: Inferno #1–4 (DC, 1992)
The Shadow Strikes #30 (DC, 1992)
Batman #480 (DC, 1992)
The Comet #9–12, 14–18 (DC, 1992)
Batman/Green Arrow: The Poison Tomorrow (DC, 1992)
Robin III: Cry of the Huntress #3 {DC, 1993}
Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2 (DC, 1993)
The Huntress #1–4 (DC, 1994)
Babylon 5 #2, 4, (DC, 1994)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet #3 (4 alternate covers, Dynamite 2010)
Kevin Smith's Green Hornet Annual #1 (Dynamite, 2010)
Avatar of the Futurians #2 (David Miller Studios, 2010)
Kfir #1–3 (Zanzuria, 2011)
WWE Superstars #3 (Super Genius, Papercutz, 2013)
References
Bibliography
Michael Netzer at the Big Comic Book DataBase
External links
Michael Netzer Online Portal, official homepage (archived)
"DC Profiles #14" at the Grand Comics Database
Netzart Fedorov Media, company with which Netzer is involved
Marty Klug, A Revealing Conversation, Wizzard Magazine, Fall 1980 (archived)
Daniel Best, Interview, Adelaide Comics and Books, 17 July 2004
Brian Doherty, But What Has He Done for the Purple Skins?, Reason Magazine, 11 January 2005
Rik Offenberger, , Silver Bullet Comic Books, 4 May 2005
Facebook Comic Con Gala Premiere
Campaign to Save the Comics at Netzer's web site (archived).
1955 births
20th-century American male artists
20th-century Israeli male artists
21st-century American male artists
21st-century Israeli male artists
American comics artists
American emigrants to Israel
Jewish American artists
American people of Lebanese-Jewish descent
Artists from Detroit
Converts to Judaism from Druzism
Converts to Judaism
DC Comics people
American Druze
Israeli Druze
Israeli comics artists
Jewish Israeli artists
Israeli people of Lebanese-Jewish descent
Israeli settlers
Lebanese Jews
Living people
Marvel Comics people
People from Ofra
Redford High School alumni
Wayne State University alumni | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Netzer |
Public education—from primary education through college—is open to every Saudi citizen. Education is the second-largest sector of government spending in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, which is nearly double the global average of 4.6%. Islamic studies are part of the education system alongside scientific and social studies that vary from educational institution to another.
Before 1957, when King Saud University was founded, many Saudi Arabians immigrated to other countries to attend universities.
Background
Saudi education is noted for its religious content. As of 2016, religious studies average a total of nine periods a week at the primary school level, compared to an average about 23 periods a week total for mathematics, science (physics, chemistry, biology and geology), social studies, Arabic language, English language and physical education. At the university level, nearly two-thirds of graduates are women.
The education system was also criticized in the 1980s and 1990s for "poorly trained teachers, low retention rates, lack of rigorous standards, weak scientific and technical instruction", despite generous budgets, that have compelled the kingdom to depend on large numbers of expatriates workers to fill technical and administrative positions. Cultural theology has also historically held influence over women's education in Saudi Arabia as well. By 2019, however, the Saudi embassy in the U.S. noted that "While the study of Islam remains at its core, the modern Saudi educational system also provides quality instruction in diverse fields of arts and sciences."
Education management system
Education is free at all levels. The education system in Saudi Arabia is primarily under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation (TVTC). Other authorities such as the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the Presidency of the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior provide their affiliates and children with education at all levels, consistent with Ministry of Education guidelines. The highest authority that supervises education in Saudi Arabia is the Supreme Committee for Educational Policy, established in 1963.
According to the World Bank database, public spending on education is 6.8 percent of GDP, and public spending on education as a percentage of government expenditure was 27.6 percent in 2004. Education spending as a percentage of overall spending tripled from 1970 to 2000, and neither economic growth nor the price of oil had much impact on this trend.
The Ministry of Education developed The Ministry of Education Ten–Year Plan 1425–1435, which set the following goals:
The education of 4- to 6-year-old children and the consideration of kindergarten as an independent stage as compared with other educational stages in terms of its buildings and syllabi
Accommodation of all age categories from 6 to 18 years old at various stages of education
Deepening the spirit of loyalty and pride of the country through intellectual awareness of Saudi Arabia's national issues
Preparing students academically and culturally at the local and international levels to be able to achieve advanced international posts in the fields of mathematics and science for various age categories, taking into account International tests' standards
Organization of girls' technical education
Development of an educational system for students with special needs
Development and growth of educational and administrative training for the Ministry's personnel
Improvement of internal and external sufficiency for the educational system
Development of syllabi based on Islamic values leading to the development of male and female students' personality and to their integration in society as well as to the achievement of scientific and thinking skills and life characteristics resulting in self-education and lifelong learning
To improve the quality of male and female teachers and to increase the citizens' rate in the education sector to achieve the full use of Saudi human resources
To develop the educational structure and to update the school map to meet the expected quantitative and qualitative changes in the next stage
To develop the infrastructure of information and communication technology and its employment in education and learning
To develop male and female adults' education and to eradicate illiteracy
The Ministry's comprehensive administrative development
Expansion of social participation in education
To establish integrated systems for accountability
Pre-primary education
In Saudi Arabia, children aged 3–5 years go to kindergarten. However, attendance of kindergartens is not a prerequisite for enrollment of first grade of primary education and kindergartens are not part of the official education ladder. Some private numbers have been established with technical and financial first aid-kit from the government.
According to government data, 100,714 children (51,364 male and 49,350 female) were in pre-primary education in 2007. The gross enrollment percentage was 10.8%, for boys 11.1 percent and for girls 10.4 percent.
Intermediate and secondary education
Intermediate education in Saudi Arabia lasts three years.
According to government data, 1,144,548 students (609,300 male and 535,248 female) were in intermediate education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 108,065 (54,034 male and 54,031 female) in 2007. According to gross enrollment the total rate was 95.9 percent in 2007.
Secondary education in Saudi Arabia also lasts three years and is the final stage of general education. After the intermediate education, students have the opportunity for both general and specialized secondary education. Technical secondary institute which provide technical and vocational education and training programs lasts three years in the fields of industry, commerce and agriculture.
According to the educational plan for secondary (high school) education 1435–1438 Hijri, students enrolling in the "natural sciences" path are required to take five religion subjects which are tawhid, fiqh, tafsir, hadith and Islamic education and Quran. However, in 2021 the Saudi Ministry of Education merged the multiple Islamic subjects into one single book as part of a series of reforms to revamp the school education system. In addition, students are required to take six science subjects which are math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology and computer.
According to government data, 1,013,074 students (541,849 male and 471,225 female) were in secondary education in 2007 and the number of teachers totaled 87,823 (41,108 male and 46,715 female) in 2007.
As of 2007, gross enrollment rates were 91.8% in secondary education.
Post-secondary/higher education
Investment in higher education has outstripped the western world in some cases.
Higher education in Saudi Arabia lasts four years in the field of humanities and social sciences, and five to six years in the field of medicine, engineering and pharmacy. The establishment of the King Saud University in 1957 was the starting point of the modern higher education system in Saudi Arabia. This was also the first university in all the Arab states of the Arabian Gulf.
There are 24 government universities in Saudi Arabia, established in a short span of time. Among them, Taibah University, Qassim University and Taif University were established under the Seventh Development Plan. The universities consists of colleges and departments that offer diplomas, and bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various scientific and humanities specializations. Some colleges and departments also provide distance learning. There also exist private colleges, community colleges affiliated to universities, and girls colleges, in addition to government agencies and institutions that provide specialist university-level education.
According to a World Bank report, more than 70 percent of the students in Saudi Arabia are in the fields of humanities and social sciences, a figure similar to that of other Arab countries, like Djibouti, Egypt, Morocco, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and West Bank and Gaza.
According to government data, a total of 636,245 (268,080 male and 368,165 female) students were enrolled in higher education in 2006. Among them, 528,146 students (187,489 male and 340,657 female) were in Bachelor programs, 9,768 students (5,551 male and 4,217 female) were in Master programs, and 2,410 students (1,293 male and 1,117 female) were in Ph.D. programs. Another 93,968 students (72,199 male and 21,769 female) were in Intermediate Diploma courses and 1,953 students (1,548 male and 405 female) were in Higher Diploma course. According to the World Bank, in 2006 the gross enrollment ratio for females was 36.1 percent, the gross enrollment ratio for males was 24.7 percent, and the total gross enrollment ratio was 30.2 percent.
In 2005, King Abdullah implemented a government scholarship program to send young Saudi nationals to Western universities for undergraduate and postgraduate studies. The program offers funds for tuition and living expenses for up to four years. An estimated 5,000 Saudi students received government scholarships to study abroad for the 2007/2008 academic year. Students mostly studied at universities in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland, France, and Germany.
The universities in the United Kingdom which provide distance learning in Saudi Arabia include the University of Leicester. It has ranked in the top 1% of universities in the world by THE World University Rankings.
In the United Kingdom alone, more than 15,000 Saudi students, 25% of whom are women, attend universities. The large number of students also includes Saudis paying their own tuition. The large influx of Saudi students to the United Kingdom prompted the Saudi Ministry of Higher Education in 2010 to close access to the country for further study.
Girls' and women's education
In 1957, the Dar al-Hanan and Nassif private schools for girls opened in the city of Jeddah. The openings were prompted by Iffat, the wife of Faisal of Saudi Arabia. Afterwards the Saudi government began opening state-operated girls schools. Religious fundamentalists protested the openings of the schools. In 1963 King Faisal brought soldiers to control protesters when a girls' school opened in Buraydah. During Saudi Arabia's first oil boom many Saudi males who studied abroad brought foreign wives back to Saudi Arabia. This caused concern among Saudi fathers with daughters eligible for marriage. In the late 1970s the Saudi government greatly increased university spots for women as a way of slowly progressing and not to clash with traditional culture at the time.
The General Administration of Girls' Education (also called the General Presidency for Girls' Education) was established independently from the Ministry of Education when girls education was started in Saudi Arabia 1960. Girls education was put under the control of a separate administration controlled by conservative clerics as "a compromise to calm public opposition to allowing (not requiring) girls to attend school".
60% of university students in Saudi Arabia are Saudi females. In Saudi Arabia, women in the labor force are mainly in the education sector. The first group of women graduated from a law program in 2008. On 6 October 2013, the first four women received their legal licences to practice law, not only as legal consultants but as lawyers in courtrooms and before the Saudi judiciary.
According to the World Bank report, female students in higher education in Saudi Arabia outnumber those in Jordan, Tunisia and West Bank and Gaza.
According to the World Bank, gross enrollment rate for female is 36.1 percent, gross enrollment rate for male is 24.7 percent, and gross enrollment rate for total was 30.2 percent in 2006. There are thousands of female professors throughout Saudi Arabia.
Around 2009, an expert on girls' education became the first female minister in Saudi Arabia. Nora bint Abdullah al-Fayez, a US-educated former teacher, was made deputy education minister in charge of a new department for female students. In addition, Saudi Arabia provides female students with one of the world's largest scholarship programs. By this program, thousands of women have earned doctorates from Western universities.
The building of colleges and universities for women, which was recently announced by the government, is critically important. Women constitute 60% of Saudi Arabia's college students but only 21% of its labor force, much lower than in neighboring countries. 85% of employed Saudi women work in education, 6% in public health, and 95% in the public sector. Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University (PNU) is the first women's university in Saudi Arabia and largest women-only university in the world, composed of 32 campuses across the Riyadh region.
According to the Saudi Ministry of Education, Saudi women’s undergraduate enrollment rates surpassed those of men in 2015, with women comprising 52 percent of all university students in the kingdom.
Gifted education
The early interest in gifted education in Saudi Arabia began in 1969 when the official educational policy was approved by the Council of Ministers, highlighting the need for special care and opportunities for gifted individuals.
Subsequent developments in the field of gifted education in Saudi Arabia can be summarized in seven major historical movements, including the establishment of a national program for identifying and nurturing gifted students, the establishment of a foundation for giftedness and creativity, the implementation of school-based enrichment programs, and the establishment of the first special school for gifted students. More recent developments include the adoption of academic acceleration methods and the establishment of gifted education classes in public schools.
Despite early policies and regulations, formal gifted education programs in public schools were established only in 2002. The vision for Saudi Arabia in 2030 emphasizes the importance of supporting gifted youth, creativity, and innovation, with strategic objectives aimed at improving the learning environment to stimulate creativity and innovation. This vision plays a leading role in reforming the policy and practices of gifted education in Saudi schools, paving the way for further advancements and opportunities for gifted students.
The concept of giftedness in Saudi Arabia
The Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia defines gifted students as those who demonstrate exceptional abilities requiring special educational care not provided in regular academic programs. The definition of giftedness was developed based on Marland’s definition of gifted children in 1972.
Challenges faced by gifted students in Saudi Arabia
Lack of Suitable Curriculum: The general education system in Saudi Arabia does not cater to the needs of gifted students. The domination of religious studies and a standardized curriculum restricts the ability of gifted students, particularly those with talents in mathematics and science, to expand and develop their exceptional abilities.
Insufficient Differentiation: Gifted students require differentiated and challenging curricula that match their intellectual abilities and talents. However, in regular classrooms, where many gifted students are taught, the curriculum often fails to meet their needs, leading to unfulfilled potential.
Untrained Educators: Teachers in public schools, where many gifted students are educated, often lack professional training in dealing with gifted students. The absence of specialized training programs in universities and limited workshops on gifted education hinders teachers' ability to understand and support the unique needs of gifted students.
Gap Between Theory and Practice: Although the goal of identifying and supporting gifted students is stated in policies and regulations, the implementation of effective gifted education practices lags behind in reality. Gifted students are often left without appropriate curricular adjustments or specialized instruction.
Negative Teacher Attitudes: Some teachers may lack adequate knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and needs of gifted students, leading to negative attitudes toward gifted education. This may result in a less supportive and conducive learning environment for gifted students.
Special educational needs for gifted students
1) Need for Challenging Education: Gifted students require education tailored to their intellectual level and areas of talent. A common and enriched curriculum may not be sufficient to meet their needs. Research shows that the speed and complexity of learning increase with a child's educational level. However, current educational practices often do not adequately challenge gifted students. They may have already mastered a significant portion of the curriculum before the school year begins, and regular classroom teachers may struggle to simultaneously provide individualized curriculum at multiple levels.
2) Need for True Peers: Gifted students benefit from interacting with other children of similar ability and age, often referred to as "true peers." Finding peers who share their intellectual interests and abilities can provide a supportive social environment.
3) The Need for Responsive Parenting:
The myth surrounding gifted children having pushy parents can have detrimental consequences, as it may lead professionals to dismiss or downplay parental concerns about their child's giftedness. However, research has shown that parents are often adept at identifying exceptional development in their children at various stages of their growth. Their keen observations and insights into their child's abilities play a crucial role in recognizing giftedness and understanding their unique needs. As gifted children tend to make more requests and demands for enrichment opportunities, parental involvement naturally comes into play. Instead of dismissing parental input, professionals should recognize the valuable role parents play in identifying and supporting the development of gifted children. Embracing parents as key partners in the educational journey of gifted learners can lead to more comprehensive and effective support systems, ultimately fostering the growth and success of these exceptional young minds.
4) The Need for Adult Empathy: Highly and exceptionally gifted children possess extraordinary cognitive abilities that enable them to think in qualitatively different ways. While these abilities offer immense potential, they also present distinct challenges, such as early exposure to abstract concepts and heightened emotional sensitivity. Exceptionally gifted children often grapple with abstract concepts like the meaning of life and death, moral dilemmas, and ethical issues at a much younger age compared to their peers. Their heightened sensitivity can lead to strong emotional reactions, necessitating empathetic and understanding responses from adults. Due to their quick analytical abilities and social perceptiveness, they may develop interpretations of events that are remarkably sophisticated, but at times, these interpretations can also be incorrect. As educators, understanding and embracing the unique characteristics of highly gifted children is paramount to providing them with the support and guidance they need to thrive intellectually and emotionally. By responding with sensitivity, empathy, and an open mind, adults can truly connect with these exceptional young minds and foster their development to new heights.
Significance of Talented Program Mawhiba
Children present a spectrum of educational abilities which are applied when determining the learning approaches that teachers will use in school to maximize their learning. However, there are children who portray the extremely positive end, which is associated with intelligence beyond the normal. They are referred to as gifted or talented children because their high capacity for and of knowledge is considered a talent. Educating such children requires learning methods that are out of the normal as observed by most countries, including Saudi Arabia. Developing and implementing educational programs that will cater for such children requires extensive research and trials to ensure their abilities are maximized. Programs for gifted education are helpful to both the student and the society. It allows educators to identify gifted learners early enough so they can be integrated in areas with maximum opportunities leading to the realization of maximum potential. It also assists the society to increase the space for individuals that would be essential in solving problems.
Saudi Arabia efforts
Efforts to differentiate education for gifted children in Saudi Arabia began as early as 1969 when the Council of Ministers approved an official educational policy which had three main regulations. They included a directive to the state to offer specialized care that developed and opened opportunities for talents, a framework for determining talented children be developed by authorities and talented individuals to be exposed to scientific research. Further policies were enacted from the Companions Foundations for Giftedness and Creativity in 2002 also commonly known as Mawhiba, to establishment of special education classes in schools by 2018. The definition of a gifted student in the country has also been subject to change. the current definition as prescribed by the country’s Ministry of Education is "student who has extraordinary aptitudes and abilities or outstanding performance ... in the areas of mental excellence, educational achievement, creativity and innovation, and special skills and abilities..".
Enrichment programs
The government has specialized on enrichment programs which talented students are enrolled in after identification based on set scientific standards and bases. The enrichment programs provide a variety of education with more depth and breadth than in normal schools. The programs are in different types and students’ access is not limited meaning students can experience more than one. An example is the summer enrichment program (SEP) which mainly focuses on STEM subjects. SEP is mainly implemented as research in schools and impacts both students and teachers. The program is driven by Mawhiba and yields significant results e.g., in 2019, over 6000 students benefitted from the program. The Ministry of Education has not focused much on the SEPs compared to Mawhiba, but its significant improvement spearheaded by Mawhiba shows the success it has had.
Self-contained classroom program
The program is slowly growing and has not yet covered all gifted students. However, its impact on gifted students is evident as it helped 32% of the gifted students in the 2019–2020 school year. Enrollment into the program involves selection where the gifted kids are passed through other criteria. The reason for extra criteria is the limited classrooms and facilities available. While in the classrooms, the gifted students receive the normal curricular followed by an extra curricular that is based on their abilities. The extra curricular mainly focuses on STEM subjects and are taught after the normal curricular. Mawhiba works in conjunction with the Ministry of Education to improve the self-contained classroom programs. Mawhiba focuses on developing textbooks for the extra curricular education while the ministry focuses on adopting standards that are used in deciding on enriching the talented children.
Gifted Educational Centers
The Ministry of Education has worked on improving educational standards for gifted children by offering gifted educational centers. The ministry currently has 91 educational centers, and the country has 94 school districts around the kingdom. The educational centers focus on research and problem-solving skills. The program aimed to serve at least 1% of students in each educational district.
Recommendations:
Researchers have proposed the need for improving the educational programs from the limited educational context to a more social context. The suggestion has been termed as the differentiated paradigm where gifted children will be more involved in social programs. A differentiated program also aims at using the children’s skills in social context so they can be well integrated with the society. Another important finding regarding the talented programs included a prevalence for teachers in the programs to be appreciated by the students compared to teachers in normal curricular. Teachers are also motivated when enrolled into such programs but improvements would be essential in the teaching methods. The country has been keen on gifted education and further changes are on the way with the help of Mawhiba and the Ministry of Education.
Special education
Students with severe disabilities and autism are educated in special institutions. Students with less serious disabilities receive educational services at regular schools. Students with disabilities who attend regular schools might be partially mainstreamed, in which case they attend self-contained classrooms, or fully mainstreamed, in which case they learn in mainstream classrooms but may use special education services outside the classroom at times. However, not all schools offer mainstreaming. In the capital city of Riyadh, there are thirty inclusive elementary schools, eighteen inclusive middle schools, and eleven inclusive high schools.
Despite the prevalence of students with disabilities attending regular schools, general education teachers do not have much knowledge of working with students with autism, as they have received minimal training on this topic. A small study by Gibbs & Bozaid found that special education teachers in Saudi Arabia need more educational resources and professional development in order to successfully implement inclusive education practices.
A 2019 study by Alnahdi, et. al found that teachers in Saudi Arabia may agree with the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classrooms, but they feel that the burden of ensuring inclusion happens should be the responsibility of someone else. 62% of participant teachers felt that inclusive education would increase their workload.
Students with disabilities in Saudi Arabia may use assistive technology (AT) such as smartboards, tablets, software, and computers to help them meet educational goals. Of eight teachers from the Makkah province surveyed, all believed that AT helps students with disabilities learn. Results found that AT also helps students with disabilities feel empowered, be motivated to complete assignments, and feel engaged.
Special education teachers work with students in planning for life post-school. Part of these transition services require schools to partner with local businesses, which help students’ career development. In a 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh, researchers found that special education teachers view these partnerships between schools and businesses positively, as the partnerships provide students with opportunities to volunteer, intern, and get general employment exposure. Most teachers surveyed believe that school-business partnerships help students improve social, communication, personal, and work skills. Another 2021 survey of special education teachers in Riyadh found that parents are not as involved in transition plans as they ought to be because schools do not provide them with enough guidance. Teachers also said that parents’ busy lives and lack of knowledge on the importance of transition services are another barrier to parental participation. Additionally, schools do not have transition coordinators whose job it would be to help advise students on their transition plans. Instead, special education teachers are often required to take on this additional role.
In a 2020 survey of special education teachers and mainstream teachers in Riyadh, special education teachers viewed school culture and climate negatively when it came to collaborative leadership, respect for diversity, relationships, and collegial support and safe environment. 97.6% of special education teachers responded that their physical school buildings do not easily accommodate students with disabilities. Special education teachers additionally do not see principals and administrators as being knowledgeable and skillful in developing a positive school culture and climate. 74% of special education teachers perceive mainstream teachers in their schools as having negative views towards students with disabilities. However, smaller schools involved in the study were seen as having more positive culture and climate, while schools with more than 600 students were seen as having the most negative culture and climate.
Private education
In Saudi Arabia, private education is one of the elements supporting governmental education at all education levels. The General Department for Private Education at the Ministry of Education supervises private schools for boys and private schools for girls and government provides private schools with free textbooks and an annual financial aid. Government also appoints and pays for a qualified director in every private school.
According to UNESCO, in 2007, 48.9 percent of children enrolled in pre-primary schools, and 8.2 percent of children enrolled in primary school. As for the intermediate education, 6.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 70.3 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. As for the secondary education, 13.4 percent of students enrolled in general programs were in private schools and 61.6 percent of students enrolled in technical and vocational programs were in private schools. According to the World Bank, in 2004, 7.4 percent of students in tertiary education enrolled in private schools.
Before 2018, a large number of private schools (including international and foreign ones) were run in rented villas or buildings in several cities of the country. In April 2004, Asharq Al-Awsat reported that the education ministry crafted a plan to get rid of schools functioning in rented buildings by 2011. Several columnists and parents frequently expressed their displeasure and grievances regarding schools being run in villas and often asked the Saudi education authorities implement stringent rules for the same. In May 2013, the education ministry updated rules and regulations for schools operating in leased villas, instructing institution's authorities to ensure the premises strictly adhere to the building code and added that building owners and real estate companies were required to obtain approval prior to renting the premises to schools. In September 2013, Arab News reported that around 35% of the schools in Saudi Arabia were being operated in villa-turned campus buildings.
In June 2016, the education ministry led by Dr. Ahmed al-Issa stopped issuing licenses to private schools that did not have infrastructure designed for educational purposes and asked investors and stakeholders to shift their schools to educational buildings by 2018. In 2017, the education ministry announced that it would be closing down all the schools operating in rented buildings in Saudi Arabia despite the two year deadline, prompting severe reactions from owners and investors which forced the ministry to review and subsequently rescind its decision. In May 2018, after reaching the deadline, the Saudi authorities closed down 113 schools across the country after they failed to shift their premises to buildings designed for educational purposes.
International education
Saudi Arabia hosts almost 9 million foreign workers of various nationalities as of 2013, mostly from underdeveloped Asian and African countries. The Saudi government has granted permission to the diplomatic missions of the respective countries to operate community-based schools in the country to cater the educational needs of their children. According to the International Schools Statute issued by the Saudi Ministry of Education, schools implementing curricula other than Saudi ones are regarded as foreign schools. Foreign schools are further categorized as international schools who offer American or British curricula and community-based schools that teach national curricula of their home country and are run or sponsored by their respective diplomatic missions whereas being mostly owned by Saudi investors.
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Saudi Arabia as having 203 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country's national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist.
In Saudi Arabia some international schools are owned by communities of foreign nationals, while others are private schools owned by individuals with Saudi citizenship.
The Saudi government limits community schools to one per locality or city per nationality; diplomatic missions either supervise or directly operate the community schools. These community schools are not required to separate male and female students into separate campuses and are allowed to host social activities with men and women mixed. They are not required to have Saudi citizens as sponsors since the Saudi authorities consider the schools to be under the sponsorship of the diplomatic missions. Czarina Valerie A. Regis and Allan B. de Guzman, authors of "A system within a system: the Philippine schools overseas," wrote that the Saudi Ministry of Education "still exercises restraint in implementing its regulatory functions" on community schools.
There may be more than one private school per nationality per city: the number of private schools that may be established is dependent upon the number of Saudi nationals willing to open a school in that city. Unlike community international schools, private international schools are required to follow Saudi regulations, including those related to gender segregation.
The British International School, Riyadh teaches from foundation one to high school. Over 80% of its students are British nationals, and the school follows the British curriculum.
International Schools Statute
The International Schools Regulations issued by the Ministry of Education, are:
Article 1
The following terms shall have the meanings assigned thereto:
International Schools: Schools using curricula other than the Saudi curricula.
Minister: Minister of Education
Ministry: Ministry of Education
Article 2
These Regulations shall regulate international schools of communities residing in the Kingdom so as to provide adequate education to children according to specific guidelines in a manner which enables them to pursue their education upon their return to their countries.
Article 3
The Ministry shall, through the relevant department, license and supervise international schools and their branches.
Article 4
International schools are private educational institutions which are financed by tuition fees, donations, and gifts.
Article 5
Saudi students may not be admitted to international schools. As an exception, the Minister may approve the admission of Saudi students arriving from abroad who have difficulties joining Saudi schools for a period to be assessed for each student on a yearly basis.
Article 6
A license for an international school shall be granted pursuant to the Minister’s approval upon the recommendation of the Supervisory Council provided for in Article 8 of these Regulations.
Article 7
Education at international schools shall be limited to pre-school, elementary, intermediate, and secondary stages, or their equivalent.
Article 8
A supervisory council shall be formed to oversee international schools. Said Council shall be chaired by the Minister and shall comprise the following members:
The Deputy Minister of Interior
The Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs
The Deputy Minister of Education
The Deputy President of Girls’ Education
The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry shall be the secretary of the Council.
Article 9
The Supervisory Council shall set the instructions and rules required for the implementation of these Regulations, and shall in particular have the power to approve the following:
Licensing rules and procedures.
Applications for establishing international schools.
Educational programs and curricula.
Tuition fees.
Donations and gifts granted to international schools.
The Council may consider an embassy’s request –referred thereto by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs– to purchase a school building or land for establishing a school thereon, based on the principle of reciprocity, subject to the following:
The provisions of the Regulations.
The land shall not be State-owned or allocated to an educational institution.
The title of the land shall be registered, upon approval, under the name of the embassy, and shall only be used for the licensed purpose.
The Council shall decide on the embassy’s request within 30 days from the date of completion of all requirements and the request shall be referred to the Council of Ministers by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. If the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or its license is revoked, the school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Council in coordination with the relevant agencies.
Article 10
The Supervisory Council shall convene at least twice a year, and it may convene upon the call of its chairman or at the request of one of its members and the approval of the chairman.
Article 11
Each international school shall assume all aspects of school management, in addition to matters related to its level within the various educational and academic communities.
Article 12
Each international school shall have a board of directors to oversee its interests. Student parents shall be represented in the board, and the Ministry may attend its meetings.
Article 13
Each international school shall assign at least one hour a week for teaching basic Arabic, Islamic culture, and history and geography of the Kingdom.
Article 14
Each international school shall, prior to the beginning of each academic year, submit to the Supervisory Council an estimated annual budget in the Arabic language. Said budget shall include information on the school’s administrative, technical, and financial needs, as well as sources of funding.
Article 15
Each international school shall submit to the Supervisory Council an annual report on the workflow, budget implementation, and causes of violations and breaches, if any.
Article 16
A person violating the provisions of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof shall be subject to one or more of the following penalties:
A warning.
A fine not exceeding 50,000 riyals.
Revocation of license.
In all cases, the Minister may order the removal of the violation within a maximum period of two weeks from the date of notification.
Article 17
A committee shall be formed at the Ministry pursuant to a decision of the Minister, chaired by the Deputy Ministry and comprising the following members:
A representative from the Ministry of Interior.
A representative from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
The Supervisor of International Schools at the Ministry.
A specialist in Sharia.
Said Committee shall investigate violations of these Regulations or the decisions issued in implementation thereof, and shall recommend appropriate penalties therefor.
Article 18
A penalty shall be imposed pursuant to a decision by the Minister upon recommendation of the Committee referred to in Article 17 of these Regulations. Penalty decisions imposing fines or providing for revocation of the license may be appealed before the Board of Grievances.
Article 19
An international school shall be liquidated under the supervision of the Ministry, and in coordination with the relevant agencies if the purpose for which the school was established ceases to exist or the license is revoked.
Article 20
International schools existing at the effective date of these Regulations shall adjust to conform with the provisions of these Regulations within 12 months from the date of entry into force.
Article 21
These Regulations shall be published in the Official Gazette, and shall enter into force 90 days from the date of publication thereof and shall repeal any conflicting provisions.
SEK International School Riyadh (under RCRC patronage)
The Ministry of Investment and the Royal Commission for Riyadh City (RCRC) announced on July 13, 2021 that they have partnered with SEK Education Group to open SEK International School Riyadh, its first campus in Saudi Arabia. The new international school will welcome students from Pre-K (age 3 years) to Grade 12 (age 17/18 years), and will become one of the few schools in Riyadh accredited to offer the International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary Years Programme (PYP), Middle Years Programme (MYP), and Diploma Programme (DP).
SEK International School Riyadh will showcase the best of SEK International Schools: education innovation, a unique learning model, top ranked academic results, and a clear focus on the many challenges and opportunities the 21st century presents to all its students.
As a Spanish education group, SEK will provide all the students the opportunity of learning the Spanish language, as well as Arabic, in a multilingual, English-based environment.
This is the second international school for the SEK Education Group in the Middle East. SEK International Schools offer education to more than 6,000 students, of more than 70 nationalities, from four months to 18 years of age, in their campuses in Spain, France, Qatar and Ireland.
Philippine schools
As of February 2006 about 75% of the Philippine international schools represented by the Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) were located in Saudi Arabia. Community-owned Philippine schools, including the International Philippine School in Al Khobar (IPSA), the International Philippine School in Jeddah (IPSJ), and International Philippine School in Riyadh (IPSR), were by 2006 managed by independent school boards but were initially managed by the diplomatic missions themselves. As of 2006 Riyadh has 13 Philippine private schools and Jeddah has five Philippine private schools.
Large numbers of Philippine children came to Saudi after many Filipino workers arrived in Saudi Arabia in the 1980s. The first Philippine school in Saudi Arabia, Philippine School in Jeddah was established after the Philippine Consulate in Jeddah began making efforts to start a school in 1983, and Philippine schools were later established in Riyadh and other Saudi cities. In 2000 Saudi Arabia had nine accredited Philippine schools. By 2005 Jeddah alone had four Philippine international schools, with two more scheduled to open shortly. By 2006 there were 21 Philippine schools recognized by the CFO, reflecting a 133% growth rate from 2000. Regis and Guzman stated that in private Philippine schools many Saudi rules that are not consistent with the culture of the Philippines are enforced.
Literacy
According to the results of the demographic survey conducted by the Department of Statistics and Information, Ministry of Economy and Planning in 2007 the incidence of illiteracy among the Saudi population was 13.7%. The illiteracy rate stood at 1.4% for the age group 10 to 14 years, while the highest level in the age group between the ages of 65 and more than 509,573 people to the rate of 73.9%. With regard to the spread of illiteracy among Saudi Administrative Regions, as the study showed a large disparity between the regions of the Kingdom, while the figure for both sexes was at its lowest level in the Riyadh region, at 9.9%, the highest level was found in the Jizan area at 23.5%, and the lowest rate of illiteracy among males was in Riyadh region, as the minimum rate of 5.1% and in Jizan higher rate of 14.8%, while the lowest rate of illiteracy of Saudi women was in the eastern region at 14.7% and the highest rate was in the region of Jizan at 31.6%.
According to the World Bank, there is gender disparity in the literacy rate. In 2007, 85.0 percent of adult (people ages 15 and above) were literate and 98.1 percent of youth (people ages 15–24) were literate, 89.1 percent of male adults were literate and 79.4 percent of female adults were literate. As for youth literacy rate (people ages 15–24), 97.0 percent were literate, 98.1 percent of male youths were literate, and 95.9 percent of female youths were literate.
One of the World Bank reports suggested the relatively high adult literacy rate of Saudi Arabia, considering the continued low level of primary enrollment, derived from the successful use of religious organizations, particularly local mosques and local religious institutions such as Koranic schools for the provision of ancillary educational services, which is a trend of particular note in the MENA region.
King Abdullah Project for General Education Development
The King Abdullah Project for General Education Development is a SR9 billion (US$2.4bn) project to be implemented over the next six years to create a skilled and work force for the future. A number of schools in Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam have been selected for the implementation of this project. More than 400,000 teachers will be trained for the new program. In addition, this project will emphasize extracurricular activities for the purpose of developing intellectual, creative and communicative skills.
Criticism of the Saudi education system and reform proposals
The Saudi education system has been criticised. One observation was, "The country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction."
The study of Islam dominates the Saudi educational system. In particular, the memorization by rote of large parts of the Qu'ran, its interpretation and understanding (Tafsir) and the application of Islamic tradition to everyday life is at the core of the curriculum. Religion taught in this manner is also a compulsory subject for all university students. Saudi youth "generally lacks the education and technical skills the private sector needs". Similarly, The Chronicle of Higher Education wrote in 2010 that "the country needs educated young Saudis with marketable skills and a capacity for innovation and entrepreneurship. That's not generally what Saudi Arabia's educational system delivers, steeped as it is in rote learning and religious instruction." Indeed, such control has stifled critical thought, and as a result, the education system does not necessarily foster innovation and creativity, both of which are essential to development. Saudi education has also been strongly criticized for promoting intolerance, including antisemitic views, anti-Christian rhetoric, and referring to non-Muslims as "infidels", enemies of God, and enemies of all Muslims.
The religious sector of the Saudi national curriculum was examined in a 2006 report by Freedom House which concluded that "the Saudi public school religious curriculum continues to propagate an ideology of hate toward the 'unbeliever', that is, Christians, Jews, Shiites, Sufis, Sunni Muslims who do not follow Wahhabi doctrine, Hindus, atheists and others". The Saudi religious studies curriculum is taught outside the kingdom via Saudi-linked madrasah, schools, and clubs throughout the world. Critics have described the education system as "medieval" and that its primary goal "is to maintain the rule of absolute monarchy by casting it as the ordained protector of the faith, and that Islam is at war with other faiths and cultures".
The consequence of this approach is considered by many, including perhaps the Saudi government itself, to have encouraged Islamist terrorism. To tackle the twin problems of extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education, the government is aiming to modernise the education system through the Tatweer reform program. The Tatweer program is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyze and problem-solve as well as creating a more secular and vocationally based education system.
A comprehensive Human Rights Watch review of the Education Ministry-produced school religion books for the 2016-17 school year found that some of the content that first provoked widespread controversy for violent and intolerant teachings in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks remains in the texts today, despite Saudi officials' promises to eliminate the intolerant language. The texts disparage Sufi and Shia religious practices and label Jews and Christians "unbelievers" with whom Muslims should not associate.
In 2021, The Washington Post newspaper published a report on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered anti-Semitic and anti-women. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, and expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Anti-Semitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League in Washington, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down, noting the deletion of paragraphs that talk about killing gays, infidels and witches. The US State Department expressed in an email that it welcomed the changes to the materials affecting Saudi educational curricula. The Foreign Ministry supports a training program for Saudi teachers.
See also
List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia
Educational technology in Saudi Arabia
Libraries in Saudi Arabia
Najd National Schools
Youth in Saudi Arabia
References
Mackey, Sandra. The Saudis: Inside the Desert Kingdom. Updated Edition. Norton Paperback. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. 2002 (first edition: 1987). pbk.
Notes
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Saudi%20Arabia |
The following lists events that happened during 1990 in New Zealand.
New Zealand celebrated its sesquicentennial, 150 years since the signing of The Treaty of Waitangi.
In the general election in October, National was elected in a landside victory.
GDP was $40.2 billion, unemployment was at 7.4% (March) and the exchange rate was 1 NZ$ per US$1.6750. This year New Zealand produced 8,000 million kWh of electricity.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,410,400.
Increase since 31 December 1989: 40,600 (1.20%).
Males per 100 females: 97.3.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – Paul Reeves followed by Catherine Tizard
Government
The 42nd New Zealand Parliament continued, until the general election, held 27 October. The governing Labour Party was defeated. and The National Party, led by Jim Bolger, formed the new government.
Speaker of the House – Kerry Burke then Robin Gray
Prime Minister – Geoffrey Palmer then Mike Moore then Jim Bolger
Deputy Prime Minister – Helen Clark then Don McKinnon
Minister of Finance – David Caygill then Ruth Richardson
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Russell Marshall then Mike Moore then Don McKinnon
Chief Justice — Sir Thomas Eichelbaum
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Jim Bolger (National), until 2 November, then Mike Moore (Labour) .
NewLabour Party – Jim Anderton (after 2 November General election)
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Catherine Tizard then Les Mills
Mayor of Hamilton – Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Richard Walls
Events
Unknown
Telecom sold for $ 4.25 billion.
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act passed
The Tongariro National Park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list for its natural values.
Creation of Te Wahipounamu World Heritage site
The Royal New Zealand Navy tanker and the frigates and were deployed to Bougainville as a neutral venue for peace talks between the government of Papua New Guinea and secessionist leaders of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army.
New Zealand ratifies the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
New Zealand and the Netherlands signed a reciprocal Social Security Agreement in October 1990, which came into effect in 1992.
Banning of wood chip exports.
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand is formed.
Establishment of the Forest Heritage Fund (later renamed "Nature Heritage Fund").
Ministry for the Environment Green Ribbon Award established
Penny Jamieson, Anglican Bishop of Dunedin, was ordained the first women Diocesan bishop in the world.
January
24 January: Commonwealth Games are officially opened by Prince Edward in Auckland.
February
1–16 February: Her Majesty Elizabeth II of New Zealand visits.
3 February: Commonwealth Games are officially closed by Elizabeth II in Auckland, with New Zealand winning 58 medals,
6 February: New Zealand celebrates its sesquicentennial.
March
1 March – Royal New Zealand Navy discontinues the daily rum ration.
April
30 April: One- and two-cent coins are withdrawn from legal tender.
May
13 May: 6.2 Magnitude earthquake in Hawke's Bay
June
July
1 July: Tariffs were eliminated between Australia and New Zealand under the Closer Economic Relations agreement. This was five years ahead of schedule
August
September
4 September: Geoffrey Palmer: resigns as Prime Minister and is replaced by Mike Moore.
October
1 October: The Health Research Council of New Zealand is formed.
27 October – New Zealand general election returns National with record number of seats – 67; Labour 29, NewLabour 1
27 October: Referendum to increase Parliamentary term from three to four years defeated: 30.7% For, 69.3% Against.
November
2 November:Jim Bolger becomes Prime Minister.
2 November: Don McKinnon becomes Deputy Prime Minister
2 November: Ruth Richardson became the first woman Minister of Finance.
13 November: David Gray, an Aramoana resident, began a 22-hour shooting spree that left 13 people and Gray dead.
December
Government announces $1.275 Billion worth of social welfare cuts.
12 December: Dame Catherine Tizard becomes first woman Governor-General of New Zealand.
Arts and literature
David Eggleton wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1990 in art, 1990 in literature, :Category:1990 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: The Chills – Submarine Bells
Brian Smith – Moonlight Sax
Straitjacket Fits – Melt
Single of the Year: The Chills – "Heavenly Pop Hit"
Margaret Urlich – Number One
Ngaire – To Sir With Love
Top Male Vocalist: Barry Saunders
John Grenell
Barry Saunders
Top Female Vocalist: Margaret Urlich
Patsy Riggir
Aishah
Top Group: The Chills
Straitjacket Fits
Fan Club
Most Promising Male Vocalist: Guy Wishart
Alan Galloway
John Kempt
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Merenia
Ngaire
Caroline Easther
Most Promising Group: Strawpeople
Merenia & Where's Billy
D-Faction
International Achievement: Fan Club
The Chills
Margaret Urlich
Best Video: Niki Caro – Bad Note for a Heart (Straitjacket Fits)
Paul Middleditch – One Good Reason (Strawpeople)
Lance Kelliher – Don't Let Me Fall Alone (The Fan Club)
Best Producer: Ian Morris – Heartbroke
Carl Doy – Moonlight Sax (Brian Smith)
Murray Grindlay – Welcome To Our World
Best Engineer: Strawpeople – Hemisphere
Ian Morris – Heartbroke (Rikki Morris)
Murray Grindlay – Welcome To Our World
Best Jazz Album: No Award
Best Classical Album: Dame Kiri Te Kanawa / Nszo — Kiri's Homecoming
Dame Malvina Major – Malvina Major
Kiri Te Kanawa/NZSO – Kiri at Aotea
Best Country Album: The Warratahs – Wild Card
John Grenell – Welcome To Our World
Bartlett/ Duggan/ Vaughn – Together Again
Best Folk Album: Rua — Commonwealth Suite
Martha Louise – Changing Tides
Iain Mitchell/Paul Yielder – Every Man And His Dog
Best Gospel Album: Cecily Phio — Light in the Darkness
Sound Ministry – Lead Me to the Rock
Scripture in Song – We Will Triumph
Best Polynesian Album: Herbs – Homegrown
National Maori Choir – Stand Tall
Te Mokai – Totara Tree
Best Songwriter: Martin Phillips — Heavenly Pop Hit (The Chills)
Shayne Carter – Bad Note for a Heart (Straitjacket fits)
Barry Saunders – Wild Card
Best Cover: John Collie – Melt (Straitjacket Fits)
Steve Garden/ Giles Molloy/ Kim Wesney – State of the Harp
Marc Mateo/ John Pitcairn – Hole
Outstanding Contribution to the Music Industry: Murdoch Riley
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Billy T. James MBE.
Radio and television
1 January: Avalon becomes a separate limited liability company.
5 February: The Auckland Television Centre is opened by Elizabeth II.
May: TV3 goes into receivership but continues broadcasting.
May: Sky Television launches with three channels.
May: CTV takes over TVNZ's Christchurch assets.
See: 1990 in New Zealand television, 1990 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
An Angel at My Table
Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree
Meet the Feebles
Ruby and Rata
See: :Category:1990 film awards, 1990 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1990 films
Literature
Once Were Warriors published.
Sport
Athletics
Tom Birnie wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:17:33 on 3 March in New Plymouth, while Jillian Costley claims her third in the women's championship (2:36:43).
Commonwealth Games
Cricket
State Championship, won by Auckland.
Hockey
Netball
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Neroship
Auckland Trotting Cup: The Bru Czar
Thoroughbred racing
Auckland Cup: Miss Stanima
Rugby union
Ranfurly Shield
Retained by Auckland.
Auckland beat King Country 58-3 in Auckland.
Auckland beat Poverty Bay 42-3 in Gisborne.
Auckland beat Southland 78-7 in Auckland.
Auckland beat Otago 45-9 in Auckland
Auckland beat North Auckland 41-21 in Auckland
Auckland beat North Harbour 18-9 in Auckland
Auckland beat Canterbury 33-30 in Auckland
16 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 31 – 16 at Carisbrook.
23 June: The All Blacks beat Scotland 21 – 18 at Eden Park.
21 July: The All Blacks beat Australia 21 – 6 at Lancaster Park.
4 August: The All Blacks beat Australia 21-18 at Eden Park.
18 August: The All Blacks lose to Australia 9 – 21 at Athletic Park.
3 November:The All Blacks beat France 24-3 at Stade de la Beaujoire.
10 November: The All Blacks beat France 30-12 at Parc des Princes.
Rugby league
Shooting
Ballinger Belt – Alistair "Sandy" Marshall (Kaituna/Blenheim)
Squash
Susan Devoy wins the World Championship beating Martine Le Moignan 9-4, 9–4, 9–4.
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Mount Wellington who beat Christchurch United 3–3 (4-2 on penalties) in the final.
New Zealand National Soccer League: Waitakere City
The inaugural Winfield Provincial Championship was held between regional representative teams. The winner was Canterbury, who beat Auckland 2-1 (after extra time) in the final.
Tennis
Births
January
3 January – Monikura Tikinau, rugby league player
4 January
Liaki Moli, rugby union player
Augustine Pulu, rugby union player
5 January – Larissa Harrison, netball player
10 January – Dion Prewster, basketball player
11 January – Vaughn Scott, taekwondo practitioner
12 January – Neccrom Areaiiti, rugby league player
13 January
David Bishop, gymnast
Teneale Hatton, flatwater canoeist
14 January – Tom Scully, road and track cyclist
15 January – Kane Morgan, rugby league player
16 January
Jason Hicks, association footballer
Sam Prattley, rugby union player
17 January – Cameron Leslie, Paralympic swimmer
18 January – Taioalo Vaivai, rugby league player
19 January – Kerry-Anne Tomlinson, cricketer
22 January – Dean Whare, rugby league player
24 January – James Fuller, cricketer
25 January – Liam Coltman, rugby union player
29 January – Kalifa Faifai Loa, rugby league player
February
3 February – Martin Taupau, rugby league player
7 February – Elias Shadrock, netball player
10 February – Nathan Vella, rugby union player
11 February – Joe Tomane, rugby union player
12 February – Tamati Clarke, cricketer
13 February – Dan Hooker, mixed martial artist
19 February – Kosta Barbarouses, association footballer
20 February
Mark Abbott, rugby union player
Samuel Brunton, rugby league player
24 February – Morna Nielsen, cricketer
27 February - Elijah Taylor, rugby league player
March
1 March – Julianna Naoupu, netball player
3 March – Nardia Roselli, netball player
8 March – Gemma Dudley, track cyclist
9 March
Joel Everson, rugby union player
Matt Robinson, rugby league player
11 March – Aroha Savage, rugby union player
13 March – Josh Bloxham, basketball player
15 March – Rebecca Torr, snowboarder
16 March – Moira de Villiers, judoka
17 March - Billy Guyton, rugby union player(died 2023)
18 March – Lou Guinares, weightlifter
19 March – Fraser Colson, cricketer
22 March – Angus Ta'avao, rugby union player
24 March – Keisha Castle-Hughes, actor
26 March – Uini Atonio, rugby union player
27 March
Kimbra Johnson, recording artist
Leivaha Pulu, rugby league player
31 March – Tommy Smith, association footballer
April
1 April – Alecz Day, cricketer
2 April – Drury Low, rugby league player
7 April
Bundee Aki, rugby union player
George Bennett, road cyclist
Ronald Raaymakers, rugby union player
10 April
Kelsey Bevan, rower
Siuatonga Likiliki, rugby league player
13 April – Shane Pumipi, rugby league player
14 April – Sean Polwart, rugby union player
16 April – Kane Barrett, rugby union player
19 April – Benny Tipene, singer-songwriter
24 April – Amaka Gessler, swimmer
26 April
Terri-Amber Carlson, association footballer
Ashika Pratt, fashion model
May
2 May – Gemma Flynn, field hockey player
3 May
Sam Beard, rugby union player
Lama Tasi, rugby league player
9 May – Daniel Bell, swimmer
10 May – Oliver Leydon-Davis, badminton player
11 May – Blair Tarrant, field hockey player
14 May – William Lloyd, rugby union player
16 May – Renee Leota, association footballer
17 May
Charlie Gubb, rugby league player
Susannah Pyatt, sailor
Jason Woodward, rugby union player
18 May – Jossi Wells, freestyle skier
23 May – Pippa Hayward, field hockey player
28 May
Cody Cole, weightlifter
Gillies Kaka, rugby union player
30 May – Nigel Ah Wong, rugby union player
31 May – Tyler Bleyendaal, rugby union player
June
1 June – Frances Mackay, cricketer
4 June – Shay Neal, field hockey player
5 June – Amber Bellringer, netball player
6 June
Ben Funnell, rugby union player
Paige Hareb, surfer
7 June – Stephen Jenness, field hockey player
8 June – Todd Barclay, politician
15 June – John Gatfield, swimmer
17 June – Paul Lasike, American football player
21 June – Nafe Seluini, rugby league player
22 June – Abigail Guthrie, tennis player
24 June – Kalolo Tuiloma, rugby union player
26 June – Jake Gleeson, association footballer
29 June – Te Rina Keenan, discus thrower
July
2 July
Elias Shadrock, netball player
Bill Tupou, rugby league player
5 July – Tom Marshall, rugby union player
6 July – Willis Halaholo, rugby union player
9 July – Earl Bamber, motor racing driver
12 July – Simon Berghan, rugby union player
13 July – Kieran Foran, rugby league player
16 July – Bureta Faraimo, rugby league player
18 July – Gerard Beale, rugby league player
20 July
Jess Hamill, Paralympic athlete
Will Tupou, rugby union and rugby league player
24 July – Danny Lee, golfer
25 July – Ellen Halpenny, netball player
30 July - Myron Simpson, road and track cyclist
31 July – Orinoco Faamausili-Banse, swimmer
August
4 August – Betsy Hassett, association footballer
5 August – Anurag Verma, cricketer
6 August
Daniel Willcox, sailor
Nick Wilson, field hockey player
7 August – Julian Savea, rugby union player
8 August – Kane Williamson, cricketer
9 August
Darryl Fitzgerald, sprint canoeist
Michael O'Keeffe, association footballer
11 August – Tom Franklin, rugby union player
15 August – Tawera Kerr-Barlow, rugby union player
16 August – Matt Duffie, rugby union and rugby league player
17 August – Charlie Ngatai, rugby union player
20 August
Anna Green, association footballer
Jordan Hunter, basketball player
21 August – Rachel Maree Millns, beauty pageant contestant
28 August – James Coughlan, field hockey player
September
1 September
Tom Blundell, cricketer
Ben Seymour, rugby union player
3 September – Paul Snow-Hansen, sailor
6 September
Andrew Cox, ice hockey player
Pama Fou, rugby union player
7 September
Paki Afu, rugby league player
Logan van Beek, cricketer
9 September – Shaun Johnson, rugby league player
11 September – Elijah Niko, rugby union player
12 September – Anna Peterson, cricketer
16 September – Emily Collins, road cyclist
17 September
Tim Myers, association footballer
Jimmy Neesham, cricketer
21 September – Sam Kasiano, rugby league player
23 September – Lea Tahuhu, cricketer
24 September
Kayne Hammington, rugby union player
Johnny McNicholl, rugby union player
Namatahi Waa, rugby union player
25 September – Genevieve Behrent, rower
27 September – Finn Tearney, tennis player
28 September – Doug Bracewell, cricketer
October
1 October – Finn Lowery, water polo player
7 October – Popsy, Thoroughbred racehorse
12 October – Shannon Francois, netball player
15 October – Harry Boam, cricketer
18 October – Anthony Gelling, rugby league player
23 October – Stan Walker, recording artist, actor, television personality
24 October – Tipene Friday, cricketer and basketball player
28 October
Sarah Gray, rower
Tim Johnston, cricketer
29 October – Craig Millar, rugby union player
November
2 November – Kane Radford, swimmer
4 November – Zane Tetevano, rugby league player
5 November – George Moala, rugby union player
8 November – Sacha Jones, tennis player
11 November
Sir Vancelot, standardbred racehorse
Merissa Smith, association footballer
12 November – Simon Evans, motor racing driver
17 November – Doriemus, Thoroughbred racehorse
18 November – Jackie Thomas, singer
19 November
Hayden Parker, rugby union player
Jeffery Toomaga-Allen, rugby union player
21 November - Jackson Ormond, rugby union player
22 November – Jason Saunders, sailor
26 November – Aaron Gate, track cyclist
28 November
Declan O'Donnell, rugby union player
Brendon Edmonds, rugby union player
December
2 December – Glen Fisiiahi, rugby union and rugby league player
3 December – Mark Ioane, rugby league player
4 December – Blade Thomson, rugby union player
5 December – Curtis Rapley, rower
7 December – Simon Berghan, rugby union player
11 December – Elizabeth Milne, association footballer
13 December – Corey Anderson, cricketer
15 December
Nehe Milner-Skudder, rugby union player
Ella Nicholas, slalom canoeist
Skye Lourie, actress
20 December – Robert Whittaker, mixed martial artist
22 December – Jason Christie, cyclist
26 December – Telusa Veainu, rugby union player
27 December – Priyani Puketapu, beauty pageant contestant
31 December – Marlon Williams, singer-songwriter
Exact date unknown
Avianca Böhm, beauty pageant contestant
Catherine Irving, beauty pageant contestant
Jamie Love, softball player
Deaths
January
1 January – Bill Pullar, athlete (born 1913)
7 January – Esther James, fashion model (born 1900)
20 January – Freda Cook, social and peace campaigner (born 1896)
22 January – William Stodart, rower (born 1904)
February
7 February – Tony Fomison, artist (born 1939)
12 February – Hilcote Pitts-Brown, politician (born 1905)
17 February – Rusty Robertson, rowing coach (born 1927)
27 February – Torchy Atkinson, horticultural scientist, science administrator (born 1909)
March
6 March
Joan Faulkner-Blake, broadcaster (born 1921)
Arthur Pearce, broadcaster (born 1903)
8 March – Donald Cameron, cricketer (born 1908)
11 March – Francis Ward, rugby union player (born 1900)
31 March – Bill Murray, police officer, unionist (born 1896)
April
8 April – Zamazaan, Thoroughbred racehorse (foaled 1965)
11 April – Leonard Leary, lawyer, writer (born 1891)
12 April – John Brown, cyclist (born 1916)
14 April – Doris Lusk, artist, potter (born 1916)
23 April – Alan Robilliard, rugby union player (born 1903)
26 April – Arthur Knight, rugby union player (born 1906)
28 April – Neil Watson, Mayor of Invercargill (born 1905)
May
4 May – Jack Lewin, union leader, public servant (born 1915)
7 May – Ashley Lawrence, conductor (born 1934)
10 May – Hilda Buck, cricketer (born 1914)
14 May – Ruth Mason, botanist (born 1913)
27 May
Clarrie Heard, swimmer (born 1906)
June Sutor, crystallographer (born 1929)
31 May – Hamilton Walker, engineer and inventor (born 1903)
June
3 June – Phil Gard, rugby union player (born 1947)
9 June – John Holland, athlete (born 1926)
11 June – Joan Stevens, English literature academic (born 1908)
14 June – Adrian Hayter, soldier, sailor, Antarctic leader, author (born 1914)
15 June – Eruera Manuera, Ngāti Awa leader (born 1895)
19 June – Isobel Andrews, writer (born 1905)
20 June – Lois Suckling, optician, family planning reformer (born 1893)
July
1 July – Lorrie Hunter, politician (born 1900)
3 July – Vic Olsson, rower (born 1903)
4 July – Ces Devine, harness racing driver (born 1915)
9 July – Jack Sullivan, rugby union player, coach and administrator (born 1915)
24 July – Marcel Stanley, philatelist (born 1918)
August
6 August – Frank Waters, politician (born 1907)
8 August – Bill Gallagher, inventor, businessman (born 1911)
16 August – Pat O'Connor, professional wrestler (born 1924)
September
4 September
Sir Henry Cooper, cricketer, educator (born 1909)
Leslie Groves, cricketer (born 1911)
23 September – Bill Broughton, jockey (born 1913)
28 September – Dan Davin, author (born 1913)
October
2 October – Eric Giles, cricketer (born 1939)
3 October – Esmond de Beer, literary editor, collector, philanthropist (born 1895)
9 October – John Holland, Anglican bishop (born 1912)
10 October – Nitama Paewai, rugby union player and administrator, doctor, politician (born 1920)
12 October – John O'Brien, politician (born 1925)
November
9 November – Harry Evans, exploration geologist (born 1912)
13 November – Stewart Guthrie, police officer (born 1948)
15 November – Oswald Denison, rower (born 1905)
18 November – Murray Ashby, rower (born 1931)
22 November
James Barron, cricketer (born 1900)
Noel Chambers, swimmer (born 1923)
25 November – Ernest Duncan, mathematician (born 1916)
27 November – Joan Wood, educationalist and music teacher (born 1909)
December
14 December – Sam Cusack, community character (born 1919)
17 December – Frank Hutchison, cricketer (born 1897)
18 December – Greta Stevenson, mycologist (born 1911)
24 December – Alex O'Shea, farming leader (born 1902)
25 December
Viola Bell, sports administrator, community leader (born 1897)
Warwick Snedden, cricketer (born 1920)
Exact date unknown
Bruce Campbell, lawyer, politician, jurist (born 1916)
See also
History of New Zealand
List of years in New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Jakobshavn Glacier (), also known as Ilulissat Glacier (), is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland. It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat (colonial name in ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord.
Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5% of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10% of all Greenland icebergs. Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year. Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large (up to 1 km in height) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas, sometimes for years, until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord. Studied for over 250 years, the Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop modern understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology.
Ilulissat Icefjord () was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, in part because of the importance of the Jakobshavn Glacier in contributing to the current scientific understanding of anthropogenic climate change.
Name
Jakobshavn has been a name used for this glacier in scientific literature since 1853 when Danish geologist Hinrich Johannes Rink referred to it as Jakobshavn Isstrøm (Danish for Jakobshavn Ice Stream).
It is sometimes referred to in the international scientific literature (by glaciologists) as Jakobshavn Isbræ glacier. Isbræ is Danish for glacier. It is also commonly known by the anglicised version, Jakobshavn Glacier.
The local name for this glacier is Sermeq Kujalleq, where "sermeq" is Greenlandic for 'glacier' and "kujalleq" means 'southern'. It lies south of the town Ilulissat (colonial name Jakobshavn). UNESCO's World Heritage Site website uses this name, in connection with mention of the Ilulissat Icefjord world heritage site, which includes the downstream end of the glacier.
There is evidence that people have inhabited the area around the glacier for up to 4000 years. The recently abandoned settlement of Sermermiut (which means 'place of the glacier people') lies just to the north of the glacier, much nearer than Ilulissat.
The glacier is sometimes referred to as Ilulissat Glacier. This form simply replaces Jakobshavn with Ilulissat because of the change in the name of the town.
Acceleration and retreat
Jakobshavn is one of the fastest moving glaciers, flowing at its terminus at speeds that used to be around per day but are over 45 metres (150 ft) per day when averaged annually, with summer speeds even higher (as measured 2012–2013). The speed of Jakobshavn Glacier varied between per year between 1992 and 2003. The ice stream's speed-up and near-doubling of ice flow from land into the ocean has increased the rate of sea level rise by about per year, or roughly 4 percent of the 20th century rate of sea level rise. Jakobshavn Isbrae retreated from 1850 to 1964, followed by a stationary front for 35 years. Jakobshavn has the highest mass flux of any glacier draining the Greenland Ice Sheet. The glacier terminus region also had a consistent velocity of per day (maximum of per day in the glacier center), from season to season and year to year, the glacier seemed to be in balance from 1955 to 1985. The position of this terminus fluctuated by around its annual mean position between 1950 and 1996. After 1997 the glacier began to accelerate and thin rapidly, reaching an average velocity of per day in the terminus region. On Jakobshavn, the acceleration began at the calving front and spread up-glacier in 1997 and up to inland by 2003. In 2012 a significant acceleration of Jakobshavn was observed, with summer speeds up to 4 times its speed in the 1990s, and average annual speeds of 3 times its 1990s speed. Movement reached more than 17,000 metres per year. Jakobshavn has afterwards slowed to near its pre-1997 speed, with the terminus retreat still occurring until 2015. In 2016, researchers found the water temperatures in its fjord had dropped to levels as cool as those in the 1980s. Airborne altimetry and satellite imagery show that until early 2019, this temperature drop likely caused the glacier to re-advance, slow down, and thicken (by over 100 feet from 2016 to 2018).
Large calving events where the glacier produces icebergs have also been found to trigger earthquakes due to ice-ice and ice-bottom of the fjord interactions. and from the longer-duration forces exerted on the solid Earth during the capsize of very large (e.g., > 1 km3) calved ice volumes. Especially large calving events at Jakobshavn have produced glacial earthquakes that are detectable on seismographs worldwide with moment magnitudes in excess of 5.0. A large calving of approximately 7 km2 took place on 15 February 2015. On 16 August 2015 a calving was identified via satellite images as the largest ever recorded at Jakobshavn, with an area of 12.5 km2.
Mechanisms
The first mechanism for explaining the change in velocity is the "Zwally effect" and is not the main mechanism, this relies on meltwater reaching the glacier base and reducing the friction through a higher basal water pressure. A moulin is the conduit for the additional meltwater to reach the glacier base. This idea, proposed by Jay Zwally, was observed to be the cause of a brief seasonal acceleration of up to 20% on the Jakobshavns Glacier in 1998 and 1999 at Swiss Camp. The acceleration lasted 2–3 months and was less than 10% in 1996 and 1997 for example. They offered a conclusion that the "coupling between surface melting and ice-sheet flow provides a mechanism for rapid, large-scale, dynamic responses of ice sheets to climate warming". The acceleration of the three glaciers had not occurred at the time of this study and they were not concluding or implying that the meltwater increase was the cause of the aforementioned acceleration. Examination of rapid supra-glacial lake drainage documented short term velocity changes due to such events, but they had little significance to the annual flow of the large outlet glaciers.
The second mechanism is a "Jakobshavn effect", coined by Terry Hughes, where a small imbalance of forces caused by some perturbation can cause a substantial non-linear response. In this case an imbalance of forces at the calving front propagates up-glacier. Thinning causes the glacier to be more buoyant, even becoming afloat at the calving front, and is responsive to tidal changes. The reduced friction due to greater buoyancy allows for an increase in velocity. The reduced resistive force at the calving front is then propagated up glacier via longitudinal extension in what R. Thomas calls a backforce reduction.
This mechanism is supported by the data indicating no significant seasonal velocity changes at the calving front and the acceleration propagating upglacier from the calving front. The cause of the thinning could be a combination of increased surface ablation and basal ablation as one report presents data that show a sudden increase in subsurface ocean temperature in 1997 along the entire west coast of Greenland, and suggests that the changes in Jakobshavn Glacier are due to the arrival of relatively warm water originating from the Irminger Sea near Iceland.
Evidence also exists for a deep subglacial trench beneath the glacial outlet, identified through seismic reflection methods. There are theories that Greenland consists of three large islands under the ice sheet, separated at the coast by three narrow straits, one of them Jakobshavn Glacier.
Chasing Ice
In the 2012 documentary entitled Chasing Ice by cinematographer Jeff Orlowski, nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey (EIS) team, there is a 75-minute segment showing the Jakobshavn Glacier calving. Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier, and were finally able to witness of ice crashing off the glacier. It was the longest calving ever captured on film.
See also
Glacier mass balance
Glacial motion
List of glaciers in Greenland
Retreat of glaciers since 1850
West Greenland Current
References
External links
Jakobshavn Glacier Flow Animation of the glacier by NASA.
Researchers Witness Overnight Breakup, Retreat of Greenland Glacier - July 2010
Authorized place names in Greenland By Oqaasileriffik, The Language Secretariat of Greenland
Cold Water Currently Slowing Fastest Greenland Glacier
Glaciers of Greenland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakobshavn%20Glacier |
Education in Bulgaria is guided and overseen by Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science. Compulsory education includes three years of pre-primary education, primary education, and secondary education. Education is compulsory until age of 16. Compulsory education at state schools is free of charge. The state and private higher education schools, colleges and universities charge fees, although they offer students scholarships.
In 1998 enrollment in the primary grades was 93 percent of eligible students, and enrollment in the secondary grades was 81 percent of eligible students. With the gender ratio of female to male students in primary schools was 0.97, and the ratio in secondary schools was 0.98. Because of the prior Bulgaria's low birthrate during the postcommunist period, total primary and secondary school enrollment was in a slightly decreased level in the beginning of the post-communist period, that was causing some reductions in teaching staff and facilities. But at the same time, private schools and colleges appeared and their number quickly increased by 10 times during the 1990s. Bulgaria's higher education system was reorganized in the mid-1990s. Between 1995 and 2002, the number of university graduates increased from 33,000 to 50,000. In 2002 in higher learning 42 universities and colleges were in operation, and 215,700 students were enrolled. In 2003 some 4.9 percent of Bulgaria's national budget was devoted to education.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that Bulgaria is fulfilling only 75.7% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income. HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Bulgaria's income level, the nation is achieving 62.1% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education and 89.3% for secondary education.
History of Bulgarian education
The first schools in Bulgaria were opened in the 9th century by the Tsar Simeon The Great. Two notable linguistic literary church schools that taught the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets to the Christianized Bulgarian slavs were also established in that period at Ohrid and Preslav, with the one in Ohrid having more than 3000 students at one point.
Modern schools began opening in the early 19th century (during the National Revival) first for boys and then for girls. Those schools provided only basic education, such as reading, writing, and basic arithmetic. Students who wished to continue their education had to go study abroad. After Bulgaria overturned the Ottoman rule in 1878, it started laying the foundations of its educational system. In 1878 the government passed the Temporary Law on National Schools. This law stimulated the establishment of schools in villages. However, many peasants did not let their children attend school because they thought education was not relevant to peasant life. Furthermore, several universities were established in the period 1878 - 1918. Educational process in Bulgaria was disrupted during the Balkan Wars (1912 - 1913) and World War I. By the mid-1920s normal function of schools had been restored.
During the communist era, the Soviet Union had a great impact on Bulgarian educational system. A new form of education was brought in. Emphasis on liberal arts was replaced by increased technical training. In 1979 Zhivkov created the Unified Secondary Polytechnical School, which was a twelve-grade program focusing mainly on technical subjects. After the end of the Zhivkov Era, the Bulgarian educational system was completely reconstructed. The government sought to depoliticize the system and take the opinions of others into consideration.
Structure of the educational system
The system consists of four levels:
Preschool education
Pre-primary education (preschool education) accepts children between 3 and 6/7 years old, who attend kindergarten optionally, with the requirement that prior to starting school, children must attend three years of pre-school education.
During the school year 2007/2008, 74.8% of children aged 3–6 years were enrolled in kindergartens.
Primary education
Elementary education (grades 1 - 7) includes primary school (grades 1 - 4) and junior high school/middle school (grades 5 - 7). Children usually start primary education at age 7, but may be start from age 6 upon their parents' request. Certificate for Primary Education and Certificate for Elementary Education are obtained upon successful completion of grade 4 and 7 respectively. High schools use grades from the Certificate for Elementary Education as a major admissions criterion.
Secondary education
Secondary education comprises selective/comprehensive high schools and vocational school. The admission to comprehensive schools is based upon grades from entry exams, usually in literature and/or mathematics as well as grades in junior high school. Students can enroll in high school after the successful completion of grades 7 or 8 (for students who finished school before 2017). Usually, those who want to study languages, mathematics, or informatics in-depth apply to high school after 7th grade. Students graduating from high-school must successfully complete 12 Grade and sit matriculation exams in Bulgarian language and Literature, as well as one (or two) subject(s) of choice. They obtain a Диплома за средно образование / Diploma za sredno obrazovanie (Diploma of Secondary Education) with GPA composed of their grades from mandatory and specialist modules in 11 and 12 Grade and the grades from the matriculation exams.
Higher education
The types of higher education institutions are Universities, Colleges and Specialized Higher Schools. Universities, as in most countries worldwide, have three stages: Bachelor's (undergraduate), Master's (graduate), and Doctoral degrees. Undergraduate stage lasts for at least four years and graduate stage lasts for five years after completion of secondary education or one year after obtaining a bachelor's degree. The third stage of higher education results in obtaining a Ph.D. Degree. Specialized higher schools offer degrees in one or more areas of science, arts, sports, and defense. Usually, the names of these institutions indicate the area of specialization. Colleges are former semi-higher institutes. Some of them are part of universities and use their equipment and facilities.
Structure and curricula of the school year
The curriculum of Bulgarian Educational system focuses on eight main subjects: Bulgarian language and literature, foreign languages, mathematics, information technologies, social sciences and civics, natural sciences and ecology, music and art, physical education and sports. The school year starts on September 15 and ends in May or June, depending on the grade level of the students. The school year is divided into two terms with Christmas, Easter and Summer holidays. Students usually spend half a day in school; with many schools operating in "shifts": either in the morning or in the afternoon, although younger students usually study in the morning. In some elementary schools there is the option of extended care, where students spend the other half of the day in school preparing their homework under the supervision of a teacher, upon the request of parents.
Grading
The grading system is based on numerals, where 6 is the highest and 2 is the lowest grade a student can obtain, where 6 is excellent, 5 is very good, 4 is good, 3 is sufficient, and 2 is poor. The grades are divided into 100 points and any mark over .50 is considered part of the upper bracket. For example, 5.50 is excellent, 5.75 is also excellent but 5.25 is very good. 6.00 is the highest possible mark. Generally, anything under 3.00 is considered a fail. These points are mainly used when grading tests which give specific points per correct answer.
Educational behaviour
Following "numerous reports over the past decade about school violence", the Education Minister in 2009 introduced stricter regulations about student behaviour, including inappropriate dress, being drunk, and carrying mobile phones. Teachers were to be given new powers to punish disruptive students.
Literacy
In tradition, Bulgaria has very high knowledge and literacy rate, with usually trying to follow best study destination countries, schools and universities.
In 2003 Bulgaria’s literacy rate was estimated at 98.6 percent, with approximately the same rate for both sexes. Bulgaria traditionally has had high educational standards. In the post-communist era, low funding and low teacher morale have damaged the system to some extent, particularly in vocational training. Adherence to classical teaching methods has handicapped development in some technical fields. The current system of education, introduced in 1998, has 12 school grades. In 2003, one year of preschool education was made mandatory, and in 2012 this was extended to two mandatory years of preschool education.
See also
List of schools in Bulgaria
List of universities in Bulgaria
Education in Europe
References
External links
Eurydice Summary Factsheet on Education Systems in Europe on Bulgaria
Upper Secondary Education Background in Bulgaria
Bulgarian Education
The Education in Bulgaria, Eurybase
Bulgarian Education Law
Bulgarian Education System
Organization Chart
Structure of Education System in Bulgaria, European Education website | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Bulgaria |
Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 and higher education, which is under the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education. In 2021, there were nearly 10 million students and 220,000 teachers in Afghanistan. The nation still requires more schools and teachers. Soon after the Taliban takeover of the country in August 2021, they banned girls from secondary education. Some provinces still allow secondary education for girls despite the ban. In December 2022, the Taliban government also prohibited university education for females in Afghanistan, sparking protests and international condemnation.
According to Acting Education Minister Noorullah Munir, "Afghanistan has 20,000 official schools in which 9,000 are of no use, 5,000 have no building and the remaining 4,000 needed rehabilitation." Compulsory education in Afghanistan is through the ninth grade. "The academic year consists of 2 semesters, and runs from March to January." Since the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, officials under the Islamic Emirate have suspended secondary education to teenage girls.
Education improved in Afghanistan after the Taliban government was deposed in 2001. In 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, including 3.2 million girls. Only 1.2 million Afghans attended school in 2001, with fewer than 50,000 being girls. 39% of girls were attending school in 2017 compared to 6% in 2003. In 2021, and a third of students at university were women. The literacy rate has risen from 8% in 2001 to 43% in 2021.
Some of the major universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan (apparently defunct as of 2021), Kabul University, Kabul Polytechnic University, Al-Beroni University, Kardan University, Balkh University, Herat University, Nangarhar University, Shaikh Zayed University, Kandahar University, Bost University, Paktia University, Kunduz University, Badakhshan University, and Ghazni University.
History
One of the oldest schools in Afghanistan is the Habibia High School in Kabul, which was built by King Habibullah Khan in 1903 to educate students from the nation's elite class. In the 1920s, the German-funded Amani High School opened in Kabul, and about a decade later two French lycées (secondary schools) began, the AEFE and the Lycée Esteqlal. Kabul University was established in 1932.
Education was improved under the rule of King Zahir Shah between 1933 and 1973, making primary schools available to about half the population who were younger than 12 years of age and expanding the secondary school system and Kabul University. Of the 10.3 billion Afghans. spent on the first "Five Year Plan" (1956-1962), "7.7% was appropriated for education and health as compared to 49.5% for transportation and communication, 26.5% on industrial development, 12.6% for agriculture, and 3.8% for miscellaneous development works." By the end of the program, "the number of students (primary, secondary, and vocational) rising from 96.34 to 169.06 per 10,000 of population. The number of students receiving higher education per 10,000 of population, rose from 0.66 to 1.44, and construction of a new campus for the Kabul University was taken in hand. After the Taliban took over in 2021, the number of students acquiring higher education per 10,000 people decreased substantially. This is due to lost of jobs of their tuition supporters who were in the previous government. Many of the students also fled the country.
During the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, the government of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) reformed the education system; education was stressed for both sexes, and widespread literacy programs were set up.
After the overthrow of the Taliban in late 2001, the Karzai administration received substantial international aid to restore the education system. Around 7,000 schools were operating in 20 of the 32 provinces by the end of 2003, with 27,000 teachers teaching 4.2 million children (including 1.2 million girls). Of that number, about 3.9 million were in primary schools.
An estimated 57 percent of men and 86 percent of women were reported to be illiterate, and the lack of skilled and educated workers was a major economic disadvantage. When Kabul University reopened in 2002, some 24,000 male and female students enrolled for higher education. In the meantime, five other universities were being rehabilitated. Public school curricula have included religious subjects but detailed instruction is left to religious teachers.
By 2006, over 4 million male and female students were enrolled in schools throughout Afghanistan. At the same time school facilities or institutions were also being refurbished or improved, with more modern-style schools being built each year. The American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) in Kabul was established in 2006. Other universities were renovated or rebuilt, such as Kandahar University in the south, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east, Herat University in the west and Balkh University in the north. Despite these achievements, there were still significant obstacles to education in Afghanistan, many of which stem from a lack of funding. Planning curricula and school programs is difficult for the Ministry of Education because a significant amount of the budget for education comes from external donors, making it difficult to predict the annual budget.
The obstacles to education were even more numerous for Afghan girls. Afghanistan's then Education Minister, Mohammad Hanif Atmar, said in 2007 that 60% of students were studying in tents or other unprotected structures, and some parents refused to let their daughters attend schools in such conditions.
In 2009, another concern was the destruction of schools by the Taliban, especially schools for females. Following the destruction of over 150 schools in a year, many parents had doubts about the government's ability to protect them.
The following achievements were made in the first decade of the 2000s:
Between 2001 and 2016, primary school enrollment rose from around 1 million to 9.2 million (a nine-fold increase in fifteen years) and the proportion of girls from virtually zero to 37%. UNESCO estimates that 129 million females are out of school around the world, with 32 million in primary school and 97 million in secondary school.
The number of teachers in general education has risen sevenfold, but their qualifications are low. About 31% are women.
Between 2003 and 2011, over 5,000 school buildings were rehabilitated or newly constructed. Just over 50% of schools have usable buildings.
Enrollment is low: The average is 1,983 students per institution; three institutions have fewer than 200 students. Furthermore, there is a deficiency of qualified faculty members: only 4.7% (166 of total 3,522) of the teaching staff held a Ph.D. In “addition to problems of inadequate resources, and lack of qualified teaching staff are issues of corruption.”
In 2010, the United States began establishing Lincoln Learning Centers in Afghanistan. They serve as programming platforms offering English language classes, library facilities, programming venues, Internet connectivity, educational and other counseling services. A goal of the program is to reach at least 4,000 Afghan citizens per month per location.
According to the Human Development Index, in 2011, Afghanistan was the 15th least developed country in the world.
In 2009 and 2010, a 5,000 OLPC – One Laptop Per Child schools deployment took place in Kandahar with funding from an anonymous foundation. The OLPC team seeks local support to undertake a larger deployment.
In June 2011, officials from the United States signed a joint statement with Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak to expand opportunities for direct financial support from USAID to the Afghan Ministry of Education. In December 2011, the Baghch-e-Simsim (Afghan version of Sesame Street) children's television series was launched in Afghanistan. It is funded by the U.S. Department of State and is produced in consultation with Afghanistan's Ministry of Education. The project is designed to help educate Afghans from pre-school stage and onward.
It was reported in May 2013 that there were 16,000 schools across Afghanistan, with 10.5 million students. Education Minister Wardak stated that 3 million children remained deprived of education and requested $3 billion to construct 8,000 additional schools over the next two years.
Afghanistan's story in education is still confronted by major challenges. Three and a half million children – 75% of them girls – are still out of school. Poverty, the lack of qualified female teachers in rural schools (which is especially linked to girls' education), and substandard school facilities all account for low enrollment. Furthermore, nearly half of all schools do not have a building or facilities.
Education for female students
Modern social reform for Afghan women began when Queen Soraya, wife of King Amanullah, made rapid reforms to improve women's lives and their position in the family, marriage, education and professional life. She founded the first women's magazine (Irshad-e Naswan, 1922), the first women's organization (Anjuman-i Himayat-i-Niswan), the first school for girls (Masturat School in 1920), the first theatre for women in Paghman and the first hospital for women (the Masturat Hospital in 1924). In 1928, Amanullah sent fifteen female graduates of the Masturat middle school, daughters of the royal family and government officials, to study in Turkey. Soraya Tarzi was the only woman to appear on the list of rulers in Afghanistan, and was credited with having been one of the first and most powerful Afghan and Muslim female activists. However, Queen Soraya, along with her husband's, advocacy of social reforms for women led to a protest and contributed to the ultimate demise of her and her husband's reign in 1929. King Amanullah Khan's deposition caused a severe backlash, the girls 'schools were closed, the female students who had been allowed to study in Turkey was recalled to Afghanistan and forced to put on the veil and enter purdah again, and polygamy for men was reintroduced.
Successors Mohammed Nadir Shah and Mohammed Zahir Shah acted more cautiously, but nevertheless worked for the moderate and steady improvement of women's rights Women were allowed to take classes at the Masturat Women's Hospital in Kabul in 1931, and some girls' schools were reopened; the first High School for girls was officially called a 'Nursing School' to prevent any opposition to it.
After the Second World War modernization reforms were seen as necessary by the government, which resulted in the resurrection of a state women's movement. In 1946 the government-supported Women's Welfare Association (WWA) was founded with Queen Humaira Begum as patron, giving school classes for girls and vocational classes to women, and from 1950 women students were accepted at the Kabul University.
Students of every gender and ethnic background were enrolled in public schools. By 1978, women made up 40 percent of the doctors and 60 percent of the teachers at Kabul University; 440,000 female students were enrolled in educational institutions and 80,000 more in literacy programs. Despite improvements, a large percentage of the population remained illiterate. Not only was the constitution of the government styled after that of the Soviet Union, but also changes in academia started to resemble the Soviet approach to education. However, during the Taliban's first period of rule (1996–2001), girls could not receive formal education.
In 2015 at Kabul University the first master's degree course in gender and women's studies in Afghanistan began.
When the Taliban returned to power there were concerns that access to education, especially for the female population, would be heavily set back. Though the Taliban claimed that it respected their rights. An issue later began that resulted in temporary suspension of females attending schools. This move would later be criticized by some Pakistani clerics. As of August 2022, teenage girls and female teachers are still prevented from returning to secondary schools. They are also developing a new curriculum for all students. On the 20 December 2022, women were banned from University education, the next day from education in elementary school.
A lack of women teachers was another issue that concerned some parents, especially in more conservative areas. Some parents were not allowing their daughters to be taught by men. But this often meant that girls were not allowed to attend school, as the international aid agency Oxfam reported in 2007 that about one quarter of Afghan teachers were women.
On 20 December 2022, the Taliban banned women from attending universities in Afghanistan, sparking protests and international condemnation. This decision followed the exclusion of girls from secondary schools since the Taliban came to power the previous year. The United Nations and several countries condemned the move. In 2023, the Taliban arrested female education campaigner Matiullah Wesa after he traveled to remote parts of the country to improve access to education for all children. The Taliban previously arrested another outspoken critic of the ban on women's education Ismail Mashal in February, but he was released from custody on March 5.
Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and the Day Kundi provinces still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up.
Challenges to education development
Violence and sexual abuse
Afghanistan has been one of the countries worst affected by violence against educational institutions, with 770 incidents of attacks on education in 2008. Violence against students prevented nearly 5 million Afghan children from attending school in 2010. The country saw 439 teachers, education employees, and students killed between 2006 and 2009, one of the highest death rates in the world.
Women were fearful of attending institutions of primary, secondary, or tertiary education as a result of increased rates of sexual harassment and violence. According to the Ministry of Public Health in Afghanistan, these occurrences have resulted in significantly higher rates of suicide, as the number of casualties exceed the number of war deaths. Evidently, not only is the physical health of women threatened by instances of sexual assault, but also their mental well-being, as many become depressed and suffer from low self-esteem.
Teacher credentials
Since 2002, up to 6 million girls and boys started attending school. In 2012, the supply of students far exceeded the pool of qualified teachers. According to statistics provided by the Ministry of Education, 80 percent of the country's 165,000 teachers had achieved the equivalent of a high school education or did not complete their post-secondary studies.
In addition to the aforementioned limitations in the adequacy of educators who are available to provide an effective education for the Afghan population, the current government continues to place bans on female teachers that would inhibit them from participating. This regulation is founded upon the Islamic interpretation of Sharia law that requires women to be accompanied by a Mehram, or male relative such as their father, husband, or son, when present in public. Firing thousands of female teachers not only makes it more difficult for women to feel comfortable attending educational institutions, but also strengthens gendered stereotypes that characterize women as being sensitive and weak, and therefore, unable to be active members of society.
Curriculum
Since 2002, under the combined efforts of Afghan and international experts, the curriculum has been changed from Islamic teachings; there are new books and better training. Yet, there remains no standard curriculum for secondary school textbooks, and high school textbooks remain woefully inadequate in number and content. The current government of Afghanistan stated repeatedly that students must be taught according to Islamic law, without elaborating on what that entails. The government reassured the public, as well as the international community, that it will reopen schools in rural and urban areas to both male and female students. Nonetheless, there has been a suspension of such efforts as officials in charge of education claim to be waiting for the development of new curriculum that will focus less on secular subjects, such as mathematics or science, and rather on Islamic studies. Furthermore, the educators responsible for operating educational institutions lack the formal training to teach advanced curriculum in schools, discouraging families from ensuring their children ultimately earn degrees with which they may enter the labor force.
Infrastructure
In 2012, there were insufficient schools. Around 4,500 schools are being built according to a recent government report. 40 percent of schools were housed in permanent buildings. The rest held classes in UNICEF shelters or were "desert schools" with students and teachers gathering in the desert near a village.
Child labor
In 2007, more than half of the population of Afghanistan was under the age of 18. UNICEF estimates that close to a quarter of Afghan children between the ages of seven and fourteen were working. In rural areas, the problem is worse, and there are more girls working than boys. This disrupts children's education and possibly prevents them from attending school completely. The number of working children has increased recently. According to a Save the Children report, an estimated one million children are currently involved in child labor in Afghanistan as family finances have collapsed in the last six months.
See also
List of universities in Afghanistan
Higher education in Afghanistan
List of schools in Afghanistan
Afghanistan Scout Association
Help Afghan School Children Organization
References
External links
Education Plans and Policies in Afghanistan, Planipolis, IIEP-UNESCO
Vocational Education and training in Afghanistan, UNESCO-UNEVOC(TVET database)
History of Education in Afghanistan, Encyclopædia Iranica | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education%20in%20Afghanistan |
Jacques Laurent or Jacques Laurent-Cély (5 January 1919 – 29 December 2000) was a French writer and journalist. He was born in Paris, the son of a barrister. During World War II, he fought with the Algerian Tirailleurs.
Laurent was elected to the Académie française in 1986.
Laurent belonged to the literary group of the Hussards, and is known as a prolific historical novelist, essay writer, and screenwriter under the pen name of Cecil Saint-Laurent. The 1955 film Lola Montès, directed by Max Ophüls, was based on his historic novel based on the life of Lola Montez. He wrote Jean Aurel's Oscar-nominated 1963 World War I documentary, 14-18. He also directed the film Quarante-huit heures d'amour/48 Hours of Love (1969).
Another noteworthy novel by Saint-Laurent was Darling Caroline (written in 1947), a powerful book set in the early days of the French Revolution. This also became a film. This was released in France in 1951, directed by Jean-Devaivre and starring Martine Carol in the title role. Saint-Laurent was one of the scriptwriters of the film.
The 1961 "Les Passagers pour Alger" (translated to English as "Algerian Adventure") was a contemporary thriller, set against the background of the then raging Algerian War, and like many of his books written from the point of view of adventurous, daring young woman.
Laurent received the Prix Goncourt in 1971 for his novel Les Bêtises.
Revolutionary insurgent Ukrainian Anarchist and ally of Nestor Makhno appears in the novel "Clarisse", by Cecil Saint-Laurent.
Bibliography
As Jacques Laurent
As J.C Laurent
As Cecil Saint-Laurent
As Albéric Varenne
1948 : Quand la France occupait l'Europe (éditions le Portulan)
Other pseudonyms Laurent Labattut, Gilles Bargy, Dupont de Mena, Luc d’Ébreuil, Roland de Jarnèze, Alain Nazelle, Jean Parquin, Gonzague de Pont-Royal, Marc de Saint-Palais, Alain de Sudy, Edgar Vuymont.
Filmography
Quay of Grenelle, directed by Emil-Edwin Reinert (1950, based on the novel La Mort à boire)
Darling Caroline, directed by Richard Pottier (1951, based on the novel Caroline Chérie)
A Caprice of Darling Caroline, directed by Jean Devaivre (1953, based on the novel Les Caprices de Caroline)
Mata Hari's Daughter, directed by Carmine Gallone and Renzo Merusi (1954, based on the novel La Fille de Mata-Hari)
Caroline and the Rebels, directed by Jean Devaivre (1955, based on the novel Le Fils de Caroline chérie)
Frou-Frou, directed by Augusto Genina (1955, based on the novel Frou-Frou)
, directed by Pierre Gaspard-Huit (1955, based on the novel Sophie et le crime)
Les mauvaises rencontres, directed by Alexandre Astruc (1955, based on the novel Une sacrée salade)
Lola Montès, directed by Max Ophüls (1955, based on the novel La Vie Extraordinaire de Lola Montes)
Darling Caroline, directed by Denys de La Patellière (1968, based on the novel Caroline Chérie)
Screenwriter
1953: Lucrèce Borgia, directed by Christian-Jaque
1956: Maid in Paris, directed by Pierre Gaspard-Huit
1959: Le secret du Chevalier d'Éon, directed by Jacqueline Audry
1962: Le Masque de fer, directed by Henri Decoin
1963: 14-18, directed by Jean Aurel
1964: All About Loving, directed by Jean Aurel
1967: Sept hommes et une garce, directed by Bernard Borderie
1967: Lamiel, directed by Jean Aurel
1968: Manon 70, directed by Jean Aurel
1969: , directed by Jacques Laurent
1969: Les Femmes, directed by Jean Aurel
References
External links
Obituary http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20010101/ai_n9662871/pg_1?tag=artBody;col1
1919 births
2000 deaths
Writers from Paris
20th-century French essayists
French male screenwriters
French screenwriters
Lycée Condorcet alumni
Members of the Académie Française
People affiliated with Action Française
French military personnel of World War II
Prix Goncourt winners
20th-century French novelists
French male essayists
French male novelists
Grand prix Jean Giono recipients
20th-century French male writers
2000 suicides
20th-century French screenwriters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Laurent |
NGC 3766 (also known as Caldwell 97) is an open star cluster in the southern constellation Centaurus. It is located in the vast star-forming region known as the Carina molecular cloud, and was discovered by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille during his astrometric survey in 1751–1752. At a distance of about 1745 pc, the cluster subtends a diameter of about 12 minutes of arc.
There are 137 listed stars, but many are likely non-members, with only 36 having accurate photometric data. It has a total apparent magnitude of 5.3 and integrated spectral type of B1.7. NGC 3766 is relatively young, with an estimated age of log (7.160) or 14.4 million years, and is approaching us at 14.8 km/s. This cluster contains eleven Be stars, two red supergiants and four Ap stars.
36 examples of an unusual type of variable star were discovered in the cluster. These fast-rotating pulsating B-type stars vary by only a few hundredths of a magnitude with periods less than half a day. They are main sequence stars, hotter than δ Scuti variables and cooler than slowly pulsating B stars.
See also
New General Catalogue
References
External links
NGC 3766 at SEDS
Astrophotograph Link
WEBDA Data on NGC 3766 by Lynga
Open clusters
3766
Centaurus
097b | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203766 |
Nidau District is one of the 26 administrative districts in the canton of Bern, Switzerland. Its capital, while having administrative power, was the municipality of Nidau.
From 1 January 2010, the district lost its administrative power while being replaced by the Biel/Bienne (administrative district), whose administrative centre is Biel/Bienne.
Since 2010, it remains therefore a fully recognised district under the law and the Constitution (Art.3 al.2) of the Canton of Berne.
Although the district is officially German speaking, a small French-speaking minority lives in the area. The district has an area of 113 km2 and consisted of 25 municipalities:
References
Former districts of the canton of Bern | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidau%20District |
Antioch Cantemir may refer to either of:
Antioch Cantemir, Prince of Moldavia (d. 1726)
Antioch Cantemir, Prince of Russia (d. 1744), his nephew | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioch%20Cantemir |
NGC 6231 (also known as Caldwell 76) is an open cluster in the southern sky located half a degrees north of Zeta Scorpii. NGC 6231 is part of a swath of young, bluish stars in the constellation Scorpius known as the Scorpius OB1 association. The star Zeta1 (HR 6262) is a member of this association, while its brighter apparent partner, Zeta2 (HR 6271), is only 150 ly from Earth and so is not a member.
This cluster is estimated to be about 2–7 million years old, and is approaching the Solar System at 22 km/s. The cluster and association lie in the neighboring Sagittarius Arm of the Milky Way. Zeta1 Scorpii (spectral type O8 and magnitude 4.71.) is the brightest star in the association, and one of the most radiant stars known in the galaxy. NGC 6231 was used to measure the binary fraction of B-type stars: 52 ± 8%, indicating that B-type stars are commonly found in binary systems, but not as commonly as in O-type stars.
NGC 6231 also includes three Wolf-Rayet stars: HD 151932, HD 152270, and HD 152408.
Discovery
The cluster was discovered by Giovanni Batista Hodierna before 1654. Hodierna listed it as Luminosae in his catalogue of deep sky observations. This catalogue was included in his book De Admirandis Coeli Characteribuse published in 1654 at Palermo. It was independently observed by other astronomers after Hodierna, including Edmond Halley (1678), Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux (1745–46), and Abbe Lacaille (1751–52).
Common names
The cluster forms the head of the False Comet, a wider collection of stars from Scorpius OB1 running northward from Zeta Scorpii and NGC 6231 roughly halfway toward Mu Scorpii. The tail is formed by two clusters, Collinder 316 and Trumpler 24. Trumpler 24 is surrounded by the emission nebula IC 4628, also known as the Prawn Nebula, where the tail appears to fan out.
The cluster is also sometimes known as The Northern Jewel Box, due to its similar appearance to the NGC 4755, the Jewel Box cluster, which is further south in the sky.
See also
New General Catalogue
Notes
External links
SEDS
NGC 6231 at DOCdb (Deep Sky Observer's Companion)
Open clusters
6231
076b
Scorpius | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206231 |
NGC 4833 (also known as Caldwell 105) is a globular cluster discovered by Abbe Lacaille during his 1751-1752 journey to South Africa, and catalogued in 1755. It was subsequently observed and catalogued by James Dunlop and Sir John Herschel whose instruments could resolve it into individual stars.
The globular cluster is situated in the very southerly constellation Musca at a distance of 21,200 light years from Earth. It is partially obscured by a dusty region of the galactic plane. After corrections for the reddening by dust, evidence was obtained that it is in the order of 2 billion years older than globular clusters M5 or M92.
See also
New General Catalogue
References
CCD Photometry of the Globular Cluster NGC 4833 and Extinction Near the Galactic Plane, Melbourne et al., 25 September 2000, Astrophysical Journal
External links
Basic information and data
Photographed by the Antilhue amateur astronomical observatory
CCD Photometry of the Globular Cluster NGC 4833 and Extinction Near the Galactic Plane
Position relative to nearby cluster NGC 4372
Globular clusters
4833
Musca
105b | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204833 |
John Allen Livingston (November 10, 1923 – January 17, 2006) was a Canadian naturalist, broadcaster, author, and teacher. He was most known as the voice-over of the Hinterland Who's Who series of television zoological shorts in the 1960s.
Born in Hamilton, Ontario, he enlisted in the Royal Canadian Navy at the beginning of World War II and earned a degree in English literature in 1943 while on active service. He joined the Audubon Society of Canada in 1955 as managing director and editor of its newsletter. He later became head of the science unit at the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), most notably serving as the first executive producer of the long-running documentary series The Nature of Things. He left the CBC in 1968, but remained an occasional contributor of documentary films to The Nature of Things, most notably the Canadian Film Award-winning Wild Africa in 1970. He then formed LDL: Environmental Research Associates, an environmental consulting company, with Aird Lewis and Bill Gunn of the Nature Conservancy of Canada; the firm became most noted for their work on the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry.
Livingston was the author of several books, including The Fallacy of Wildlife Conservation (1981) and the Governor General's Award-winning Rogue Primate (1994). In his later years, he was a professor emeritus of environmental studies at York University.
Selected bibliography
Darwin and the Galapagos (1966) (with Lister Sinclair)
Birds of the Northern Forest (1966) (with J. F. Lansdowne)
Arctic Oil (1981)
The Fallacy of Wildlife Conservation (1981)
Canada: A Natural History (1988)
Rogue Primate: An Exploration of Human Domestication (1994)
One Cosmic Instant (1968)
References
1923 births
2006 deaths
20th-century Canadian non-fiction writers
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian television personalities
Canadian television producers
Canadian nature writers
Canadian naturalists
Canadian environmentalists
Canadian male non-fiction writers
Canadian people of British descent
Writers from Hamilton, Ontario
Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction writers
Canadian Screen Award winners
Canadian documentary film directors
Film directors from Ontario
Directors of Genie and Canadian Screen Award winners for Best Documentary Film
Academic staff of York University
Royal Canadian Navy personnel of World War II | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Livingston%20%28naturalist%29 |
The following lists events that happened during 1991 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,516,000.
Increase since 31 December 1990: 40,900 (1.18%) Note that there is a discontinuity between the 1990 and 1991 figures as Statistics NZ switched from using the de facto population concept to estimated resident population.
Males per 100 Females: 99.7
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Dame Catherine Anne Tizard, GCMG, GCVO, DBE, QSO
Government
The 43rd New Zealand Parliament continued. Government was The National Party, led by Jim Bolger. National controlled nearly seventy percent of the seats in Parliament.
Speaker of the House – Robin Gray
Prime Minister – Jim Bolger
Deputy Prime Minister – Don McKinnon
Minister of Finance – Ruth Richardson
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Don McKinnon
Chief Justice — Sir Thomas Eichelbaum
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Mike Moore (Labour) .
NewLabour Party – Jim Anderton
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Les Mills
Mayor of Hamilton – Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich
Mayor of Christchurch – Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Richard Walls
Events
January
2 January: description
February
March
April
17 April: Prime Minister Jim Bolger stated, "We intend to keep New Zealand nuclear-free this term, next term, and the term after that."
June
July
22 July The Resource Management Act 1991 passes into law after a third reading speech by Simon Upton.
August
September
October
1 October The Resource Management Act 1991 commences
November
December
Arts and literature
Lynley Hood wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1991 in art, 1991 in literature, :Category:1991 books
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Debbie Dorday.
Radio and television
CanWest takes management control of TV3.
See: 1991 in New Zealand television, 1991 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
A Soldier's Tale
Chunik Bair
Grampire
Old Scores
Te Rua
The End of the Golden Weather
See: :Category:1991 film awards, 1991 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1991 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
Athletics
Paul Herlihy wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:13:34 on 2 March in New Plymouth, while Lee-Ann McPhillips claims her first in the women's championship (2:40:12).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup – Christopher Vance
Auckland Trotting Cup – Christopher Vance
Thoroughbred racing
Shooting
Ballinger Belt –
Graeme Berman (Australia)
Geoffrey Smith (Malvern), second, top New Zealander
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Christchurch United who beat Wellington United 2–1 in the final.
Births
January
1 January – Peter Burling, sailor
3 January – Joe Kayes, water polo player
4 January – Olivia Tennet, actor
5 January – Shane Savage, Australian rules footballer
7 January
Stephen Shennan, rugby union player
Ben Smith, cricketer
13 January – Mako Vunipola, rugby union player
16 January – James Lentjes, rugby union player
17 January
Kate Chilcott, road cyclist
Slade Griffin, rugby league player
Brad Weber, rugby union player
27 January
Beth Chote, actor
Sebastine Ikahihifo, rugby league player
28 January
Jordan Kahu, rugby league player
Mike Kainga, rugby union player
29 January – Luke Whitelock, rugby union player
30 January
Mitchell Graham, rugby union player
Matthew Wright, rugby league player
February
2 February
Caitlin Campbell, association footballer
Solomona Sakalia, rugby union player
3 February – Lima Sopoaga, rugby union player
7 February – Ben Murdoch-Masila, rugby league player
14 February – Michael Bracewell, cricketer
15 February - Matt McEwan, cricketer
16 February – Francis Saili, rugby union player
18 February
Danielle Hayes, fashion model
Stacey Michelsen, field hockey player
19 February – Ethan Mitchell, track cyclist
20 February – Julia Edward, rower
March
2 March – Mitchell Scott, rugby union player
4 March – Sue Maroroa, chess player
12 March
Alofa Alofa, rugby union player
Jed Brown, rugby union player
14 March
Taylor Gunman, road cyclist
Kurt Pickard, BMX racer
16 March – Michael Barry, cricketer
17 March – Dylan Dunlop-Barrett, swimmer
19 March – Colin Murphy, association footballer
20 March – Liam Squire, rugby union player
22 March
Jordan Grant, field hockey player
Amy McIlroy, lawn bowls player
23 March – Jenny Hung, table tennis player
25 March – Ryan Duffy, cricketer
26 March – Courteney Lowe, road cyclist
30 March – Jono Hickey, cricketer and rugby union player
31 March – Codie Taylor, rugby union player
April
1 April
Graham Candy, singer-songwriter
Iopu Iopu-Aso, rugby union player
2 April
Kara Pryor, rugby union player
Brad Shields, rugby union player
4 April – Sam Meech, sailor
6 April – Paratene McLeod, basketball player
9 April – Dominic Bird, rugby union player
10 April - Kirsten Pearce, field hockey player
17 April – Augusta Xu-Holland, actor
20 April – Daniel Hawkins, rugby union player
26 April – Isaac Liu, rugby league player
27 April – Dylan Collier, rugby union and rugby league player
29 April – Steven Luatua, rugby union player
30 April – Brett Hampton, cricketer
May
2 May – Patrick Bevin, road cyclist
3 May – Hannah Wall, association footballer
5 May – Joel Faulkner, rugby union player
7 May – Kenny Ardouin, cleft lip and palate community advocate
8 May – Waisake Naholo, rugby union player
9 May
Sosaia Feki, rugby league player
Harriet Miller-Brown, alpine skier
10 May – Gareth Anscombe, rugby union player
11 May – Tony Ensor, rugby union player
12 May
Elizabeth Chuah Lamb, high jumper
Greg Pleasants-Tate, rugby union player
15 May – Matt Moulds, rugby union player
20 May – Daryl Mitchell, cricketer
24 May – Ian McPeake, cricketer
25 May
Maritino Nemani, rugby union player
James Raideen, professional wrestler
27 May
Beauden Barrett, rugby union player
Kayla Pratt, rower
31 May – Brodie Retallick, rugby union player
June
3 June
Sarah McLaughlin, association footballer
Ava Seumanufagai, rugby league player
4 June
Matt McIlwrick, rugby league player
Ben Stokes, cricketer
5 June – Chloe Tipple, sports shooter
7 June – Amanda Landers-Murphy, squash player
9 June – Ben Lam, rugby union player
11 June – Nepo Laulala, rugby union player
13 June – Lachie Ferguson, cricketer
19 June – Zoe Stevenson, rower
23 June – Mikhail Koudinov, gymnast
25 June – Heiden Bedwell-Curtis, rugby union player
26 June – Dakota Lucas, association footballer
July
1 July
Annalie Longo, association footballer
Ruby Muir, endurance athlete
7 July – Matt Hewitt, surfer
12 July – Portia Woodman, rugby union player
16 July – Sam Webster, track cyclist
20 July
Jarrad Butler, rugby union player
Sam Lousi, rugby league and rugby union player
24 July – Derone Raukawa, basketball player
27 July – Ricky Wells, speedway rider
28 July – Priyanka Xi, actor
31 July – Tony Lamborn, rugby union player
August
2 August
Tom Bruce, cricketer
Rob Thompson, rugby union player
5 August
Gareth Evans, rugby union player
Konrad Hurrell, rugby league player
Robert Loe, basketball player
13 August – Michael Cochrane, athlete
16 August – Angie Smit, athlete
22 August - Kenny Bromwich, rugby league player
29 August – Samantha Harrison, field hockey player
30 August – Ben Tameifuna, rugby union player
September
2 September – Adam Henry, rugby league player
4 September – Chevannah Paalvast, basketball player
5 September – Nepia Fox-Matamua, rugby union player
9 September – Adam Ling, rower
11 September – Rebecca Sinclair, snowboarder
13 September – Lee Allan, rugby union player
14 September – Ryan De Vries, association footballer
16 September – Luke Rowe, association footballer
19 September – Owen Ivins, cricketer
23 September – Cardiff Vaega, rugby union player
26 September – Look Who's Talking, thoroughbred racehorse
29 September – Stefi Luxton, snowboarder
October
5 October – Gareth Kean, swimmer
7 October – Stefan Marinovic, association footballer
12 October – Nabil Sabio Azadi, artist
15 October – Mandy Boyd, lawn bowls player
19 October – Michael Allardice, rugby union player
22 October – Levi Sherwood, freestyle motocross rider
26 October – Blair Soper, cricketer
27 October – Il Vicolo, standardbred racehorse
28 October – Duane Bailey, basketballer
29 October – Parris Goebel, dancer, choreographer and actor
31 October – Charles Piutau, rugby union player
November
5 November – Marco Rojas, association footballer
6 November – Matt Faddes, rugby union player
10 November - Ben Wheeler, cricketer
11 November – Kate Broadmore, cricketer
13 November – David Light, boxer
15 November – Henry Nicholls, cricketer
20 November – Tim Simona, rugby league player
21 November – Peni Terepo, rugby league player
22 November – Michael Vink, cyclist
24 November – Richie Stanaway, motor racing driver
27 November – Brooke Duff, singer-songwriter
December
1 December – Richard Moore, motor racing driver
3 December – Jarrod Firth, rugby union player
7 December
Samantha Charlton, field hockey player
Chris Wood, association footballer
11 December – Kahurangi Taylor, beauty pageant contestant
13 December – Ruby Tui, rugby sevens player
14 December
Ben Henry, rugby league player
Matt Henry, cricketer
22 December – Paul Alo-Emile, rugby union player
Exact date unknown
Holly Cassidy, beauty pageant contestant
Annah Mac, singer-songwriter
Deaths
January–March
4 January – Vernon Sale, cricketer (born 1915)
12 February – Norman Fisher, boxer (born 1916)
17 February – Fuzz Barnes, political activist (born 1902)
18 February – Elizabeth Lissaman, potter (born 1901)
9 March – Esther Blackie, cricketer (born 1916)
14 March – Emily Carpenter, consumer advocate (born 1917)
17 March – Peter Gordon, politician (born 1921)
21 March – William Ditchfield, cricketer (born 1903)
28 March – Henry Field, educational psychologist (born 1903)
April–June
3 April – Peter Hooper, writer (born 1919)
9 April – June Litman, journalist (born 1926)
14 April – Bob Page, rowing coxswain (born 1936)
20 April – Clare Mallory, children's writer (born 1913)
28 April – Ngata Pitcaithly, educationalist (born 1906)
18 May – Horace Smirk, medical academic (born 1902)
31 May – Ian Milner, public servant, academic, alleged spy (born 1911)
6 June – Stella Jones, playwright (born 1904)
10 June – Jim Burrows, rugby union player and coach, cricketer, military leader (born 1904)
18 June – Eric Halstead, politician and diplomat (born 1912)
23 June – Charles Begg, radiologist and historian (born 1912)
28 June – Sydney Josland, bacteriologist (born 1904)
July–September
3 July – Trevor Horne, politician (born 1920)
17 July – John O'Sullivan, cricketer (born 1918)
21 July – Allan Wilson, biochemistry academic (born 1934)
7 August
Billy T. James, entertainer (born 1948)
Reginald Keeling, politician (born 1904)
8 August – John Marsdon, cricketer (born 1928)
22 August – Reuel Lochore, public servant and diplomat (born 1903)
25 August – Charles Willocks, rugby union player (born 1919)
17 September – Herb Mullon, philatelist (born 1905)
25 September – Te Reo Hura, Rātana leader (born 1904)
29 September – Sir Henry Kelliher, businessman and philanthropist (born 1896)
October–December
6 October – Bob Loudon, rugby union player (born 1903)
10 October – Jack Hunt, speedway rider (born 1921)
12 October – Murray Kay, association footballer (born 1905)
13 October – Sir William Gentry, military leader (born 1899)
22 October – Francis O'Brien, cricketer (born 1911)
25 October – Roy Parsons, bookseller (born 1909)
26 October – Clive Boyce, local-body politician (born 1918)
8 November – Billy Savidan, athlete (born 1902)
9 November – Jack Newton, rugby league player (born 1920)
10 November
Bill Gwynne, cricket umpire (born 1913)
Colin Johnstone, rower (born 1921)
11 November – Sir Tom Skinner, politician and trade union leader (born 1909)
12 November – Kamal Bamadhaj, human rights activist (born 1970)
24 November – Allan Pyatt, Anglican bishop (born 1916)
28 November – Te Kari Waaka, Ringatū minister and community leader (born 1916)
1 December
Zin Harris, cricketer (born 1927)
Jim Knox, trade union leader (born 1919)
2 December – Ted Spillane, rugby league player (born 1905)
6 December – Bill Beattie, photographer (born 1902)
12 December – Julia Wallace, educationalist, politician, community leader (born 1907)
20 December
Beatrice Beeby, Playcentre pioneer (born 1903)
Wi Huata, clergyman (born 1917)
21 December – Frank Solomon, rugby union player (born 1906)
24 December – Muriel Moody, potter and sculptor (born 1907)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Offensive realism is a structural theory in international relations that belongs to the neorealist school of thought and was put forward by the political scholar John Mearsheimer in response to defensive realism. Offensive realism holds that the anarchic nature of the international system is responsible for the promotion of aggressive state behavior in international politics. The theory fundamentally differs from defensive realism by depicting great powers as power-maximizing revisionists privileging buck-passing and self-promotion over balancing strategies in their consistent aim to dominate the international system. The theory brings important alternative contributions for the study and understanding of international relations but remains the subject of criticism.
Theoretical origins
Offensive realism is a prominent and important theory of international relations belonging to the realist school of thought, which includes various sub-trends characterised by the different perspectives of representative scholars such as Robert Gilpin, Randall Schweller, Eric J. Labs and Fareed Zakaria. Yet, to date, the most important variant of offensive neorealism is that of John J. Mearsheimer as fully developed in his book The Tragedy of Great Power Politics.
While Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism theory does reiterate and build on certain assumptions elaborated by classical realists, it departs completely from this branch by using positivism as a philosophy of science and by adding a system-centric approach to the study of state behaviour in international politics based on the structure of the international system. Accordingly, his offensive neorealism pertains to the sub-branch of neorealism alongside other structural theories such as defensive realism.
Main tenets
The theory is grounded on five central assumptions similar to the ones that lie at the core of Kenneth Waltz's defensive neorealism. These are:
Great powers are the main actors in world politics and the international system is anarchical
All states possess some offensive military capability
States can never be certain of the intentions of other states
States have survival as their primary goal
States are rational actors, capable of coming up with sound strategies that maximize their prospects for survival
Like defensive neorealism, offensive realism posits an anarchic international system in which rational great powers uncertain of other states' intentions and capable of military offensive strive to survive. Although initially developed from similar propositions to those of defensive neorealism, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism advances drastically different predictions regarding great power behaviour in international politics.
Mainly, it diverges from defensive neorealism in regards to the accumulation of power a state needs to possess to ensure its security and the issuing of strategy states pursue to meet this satisfactory level of security. Ultimately, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism draws a much more pessimistic picture of international politics characterised by dangerous inter-state security competition likely leading to conflict and war.
Status quo v. power-maximizing states
John Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism intends to fix the "status quo bias" of Kenneth Waltz's defensive neorealism. While both neorealist variants argue that states are primarily concerned with maximising their security, they disagree over the amount of power required in the process. To the contrary of defensive neorealism according to which states are status quo powers seeking only to preserve their respective positions in the international system by maintaining the prevailing balance of power, offensive neorealism claims that states are in fact power-maximising revisionists harbouring aggressive intentions. Indeed, in offensive neorealism, the international system provides great powers with strong incentives to resort to offensive action in order to increase their security and assure their survival.
The international system characterised by anarchy (the absence of a central authority capable of enforcing rules and punishing aggressors) and uncertainty as to state intentions and available offensive military capabilities leads states to constantly fear each other and resort to self-help mechanisms to provide for their survival. In order to alleviate this fear of aggression each holds of the other, states always seek to maximise their own relative power, defined in terms of material capabilities. As Mearsheimer puts it: "they look for opportunities to alter the balance of power by acquiring additional increments of power at the expense of potential rivals", since "the greater the military advantage one state has over other states, the more secure it is". States seek to increase their military strength to the detriment of other states within the system with hegemony—being the only great power in the state system—as their ultimate goal.
John Mearsheimer summed up this view as follows: "great powers recognize that the best way to ensure their security is to achieve hegemony now, thus eliminating any possibility of a challenge by another great power. Only a misguided state would pass up an opportunity to be the hegemon in the system because it thought it already had sufficient power to survive." Accordingly, offensive neorealists such as Mearsheimer believe that a state's best strategy to increase its relative power to the point of achieving hegemony is to rely on offensive tactics. Provided that it is rational for them to act aggressively, great powers will likely pursue expansionist policies, which will bring them closer to hegemony.
Since global hegemony is nearly impossible to attain due to the constraints of power projection across oceans and retaliation forces, the best end game status states can hope to reach is that of a regional hegemon dominating its own geographical area. This relentless quest for power inherently generates a state of "constant security competition, with the possibility of war always in the background". Only once regional hegemony is attained do great powers become status quo states.
Balancing v. buck-passing
The emphasis offensive neorealism puts on hegemony as states' end aim stands in sharp contrast to defensive neorealism's belief that state survival can be guaranteed at some point well short of hegemony. In a defensive neorealist mindset, security increments by power accumulation end up experiencing diminishing marginal returns where costs eventually outweigh benefits. Defensive neorealism posits that under anarchy there is a strong propensity for states to engage in balancing—states shouldering direct responsibility to maintain the existing balance of power—against threatening power-seeking states, which may in turn succeed in "jeopardiz[ing] the very survival of the maximizing state". This argument also applies to state behavior towards the most powerful state in the international system, as defensive neorealists note that an excessive concentration of power is self-defeating, triggering balancing countermoves.
Mearsheimer challenges these claims by making the argument that it is rather difficult to estimate when states have reached a satisfactory amount of power short of hegemony and costly to rely extensively on balancing as an efficient power-checking method due to collective action issues. According to him, when a great power finds itself in a defensive posture trying to prevent rivals from gaining power at its expense, it can choose to engage in balancing or intervene by favoring buck-passing—transferring the responsibility to act onto other states while remaining on the sidelines.
In order to determine the circumstances in which great powers behave according to one or the other, Mearsheimer builds on Waltz's defensive neorealism by including a second variable—geography—alongside the distribution of power. On one hand, the choice between balancing and buck-passing depends on whether the anarchic international system is of a bipolar, balanced, or unbalanced multipolar architecture. On another hand, state geographic location in terms of border sharing and stopping power of water also influences great powers' strategy preference. Combined, these two variables allow him to establish that great powers tend to favor—to the contrary of defensive neorealism predictions—buck-passing over balancing in all instances of multipolarity except for those that include a potential hegemon.
Responding to defensive neorealists' posture on state behaviour towards the most powerful state in the international system, Mearsheimer believes that threatened states will reluctantly engage in balancing against potential hegemons but that balancing coalitions are unlikely to form against a great power that has achieved regional hegemony. This lack of balancing is best explained by the regional hegemon's newly acquired status quo stance, which follows from the geographical constraints on its power projection capability. Instead of relying on offensive actions, a regional hegemon finds itself in a defensive position seeking to avert threats to its hegemonic status by preventing the rise of any peer competitors in other areas. As such it will behave as an offshore balancer, passing the buck to local neighbours of the potential hegemon and engaging in balancing only as a last resort.
Contributions and criticism
Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism represents an important contribution to international relations theory yet also generated important criticism. While the inputs and critics below provide a good sample of the theory's contributions and the kind of arguments that have been addressed against it, the listing should in no case be considered as exhaustive.
Theoretical inputs
Firstly, scholars believe that Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism provides an alternative complement to Waltz's defensive neorealism. The theory adds to defensive neorealists' argument that the structure of the international system constrains state behavior. Setting to rectify the status quo bias pertaining to defensive neorealism by arguing that anarchy can also generate incentives for states to maximize their share of power, offensive neorealism solves anomalies that Waltz's theory fails to explain. Mainly, the theory is able to provide an explanation for the amount of conflict occurring among states in the international system. As Snyder states, Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism "enlarges the scope of neorealist theory by providing a theoretical rationale for the behavior of revisionist states".
Moreover, this complementarity could signify theoretical interrelation with the two theories working in alternation to explain state behavior, thereby allowing for a "more complete structural realist theory that can more accurately account for both defensive and offensive state behavior". Secondly, these scholars uphold the argument that Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism significantly contributes to foreign policy theory and alliance theory. More specifically, Mearsheimer's theory goes a step further than structural defensive realism by successfully theorising both international politics and foreign policy.
Contrary to Waltz's rejection of defensive neorealism as a theory capable of explaining foreign policy on top of international politics, offensive neorealism includes explanations of both international outcomes pertaining to the systemic level of analysis and individual state behavior. Additionally, the inclusion of new variables such as geography alongside the distribution of power enhances offensive neorealism's potential to make specific assumptions about states' pursuit of aggressive actions and resort to balancing and buck-passing.
Theoretical flaws
To begin with, scholars have pointed out several logical issues within Mearsheimer's offensive neorealism. Snyder rejects Mearsheimer's view of the security dilemma as "a synoptic statement of offensive realism". He argues that offensive neorealism's positing of all states as revisionists removes the central proposition—uncertainty about other states' intentions—on which the whole concept of security dilemma is grounded. Aggressive great powers' measures to maximize their security threaten others which leads to an actual justified security competition between states rather than an unnecessary one based on hypothetical threats.
Toft indicates flaws relating to offensive neorealism's level of analysis. According to him, the inclusion of the non-structural geography variable to explain great power behavior shifts the theory's focal point of analysis from system-wide dynamics to regional ones. Considering the theory's regional security analyses, he further argues that offensive neorealism fails to clearly define what constitutes a region with "entities like Europe or North-East Asia (taken) for granted", leaving room for scholarly disapproval.
Christopher Layne further highlights problems associated with the geographic variable. He criticizes Mearsheimer's reasoning according to which the "stopping power of water" prevents a great power from achieving global hegemony as this constraint does not seem to apply to the case of an emerging rival's capacity to exercise influence beyond its own neighborhood. As Layne states, "apparently water stops the United States from imposing its powers on others in distant regions, but it does not stop them from threatening American primacy in the Western Hemisphere". Moreover, he finds offensive realism's classification of regional hegemons as status quo powers difficult to reconcile with the theory's emphasis on great powers as relentless power-maximizers. In this sense, Layne questions the ability of the water constraint to transform a power-maximizing state into a status quo power and contradicts Mearsheimer by arguing that a regional hegemon remains subjected to the quest for security, thereby striving to attain global hegemony.
A second group of criticism addresses the issue of offensive neorealism's restrictive focuses. Scholars have criticized Mearsheimer's theory for failing to take into account domestic politics. No attention is paid to a rising power's internal political functioning, its economy or society, which play a role in a state's decision-making process, in turn influencing its behavior in international politics. Moreover, Snyder argues that no consideration is given to transnational threats such as terrorism, and that Mearsheimer's emphasis on security makes him ignore states' non-security interests such as ideology, national unification and human rights as an essential aspect of international politics alongside power competition.
Additionally, Toft points out that Mearsheimer's concentration on military capabilities and issuing state capacity for territorial conquest "implies a risk that his analyses miss a host of other ways of gaining and exercising influence". Similarly, political scientists whose primary focus is bargaining models of international conflict note that offensive neorealism ignores the fact that war is costly.
Since those costs in turn make war inefficient, states (even those who do not have hegemony) have incentive to construct bargained settlements. For instance, in a bipolar world with a 70%-to-30% power breakdown, states would prefer an analogously proportioned breakdown in resources rather than having some of those resources destroyed over the course of fighting. Due to this inefficiency—war's inefficiency puzzle—the constant fighting Mearsheimer proposes would actually make states less secure because the repeated costs of fighting eventually deplete all of that state's power.
Most importantly, scholars have questioned the theory's empirical validity and prediction ability, which in turn can negatively affect the validity of offensive neorealism's prescriptions for state behavior in international politics. In addition to mentioning the theory's failure to account for Japan's 20th century territorial acquisitions, NATO's continuation or Germany's non-achievement of regional hegemony in the post-Cold war era, they have also expressed serious doubts regarding offensive neorealism views on China's rising power and U.S. regional hegemony. According to them, there is no reason to believe that China as a rational power wanting to ensure its survival will seek hegemony rather than rely on cooperative mechanisms.
They similarly contradict Mearsheimer's arguments regarding the United States. Firstly, weak opposition or balancing inefficiencies rather than geographical constraints are taken as explanations for the uniqueness of the United States' regional hegemonic position.
Toft and Layne go a step further by asserting that Mearsheimer misjudges the United States as a regional hegemon engaged in offshore balancing. Instead of being a regional hegemon with the strategic aim of dominating the Western hemisphere while preventing the rise of peer competitors in Europe and Northeast Asia, these scholars believe that empirical data points to the fact that the United States has sought and achieved global hegemony, which in turn biases Mearsheimer's predictions regarding future U.S. strategic behavior, mainly in terms of its military involvement overseas.
See also
Lesser of two evils principle
Cult of the offensive
Notes
References
Hendrickson, David C. "The Lion and the Lamb: Realism and Liberalism Reconsidered." World Policy Journal 20:1 (2003): 93–102.
Kirshner, Jonathan. "The Tragedy of Offensive Realism: Classical Realism and the Rise of China." European Journal of International Relations 18:1 (2012): 53–75.
Labs, Eric. "Beyond Victory: Offensive Realism and the Expansion of War Aims." Security Studies 6:4 (1997): 1–49.
Lake, David A. "Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist Explanations of the Iraq War." International Security 35:3 (2010/11): 7–52.
Layne, Christopher. "The Poster Child for Offensive Realism: America as a Global Hegemon." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 120–163.
Lee, Gerald Geunwook. "To be Long or Not to Be Long—That is the Question: The Contradiction of Time-Horizon in Offensive Realism." Security Studies 12:2 (2002/2003): 196–217.
Levy, Jack S. and William R. Thompson. "Balancing on Land and at Sea: Do States Ally Against the Leading Global Power?" International Security 35:1 (2010): 7–43.
Lieber, Keir A. and Gerard Alexander. "Waiting for Balancing Why the World Is Not Pushing Back." International Security 30:1 (2005): 109–139.
Lim, Y.-H. China's Naval Power, Surrey, New York, Ashgate, 2014, 234 p. ().
Mearsheimer, John J. "The False Promise of International Institutions." International Security 19:3 (1994–1995): 5–49.
Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2001.
Mearsheimer, John J. "China's Unpeaceful Rise." Current History 105:690 (2006): 160–162.
Rynning, Sten and Jens Ringsmose. "Why Are Revisionist States Revisionist? Reviving Classical Realism as an Approach to Understanding International Change." International Politics 45 (2008): 19–39.
Shiping Tang. "From Offensive to Defensive Realism: A Social Evolutionary Interpretation of China's Security Strategy." In China's Ascent: Power, Security, and the Future of International Politics, edited by Robert Ross and Zhu Feng, 141–162. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
Snyder, Glenn H. "Mearsheimer's World—Offensive Realism and the Struggle for Security: A Review Essay." International Security 27:1 (2002): 149–173.
Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1979).
Waltz, Kenneth N. "Realist Thought and Neorealist Theory." Journal of International Affairs 44:1 (1990): 21–37.
Waltz, Kenneth N. "International Politics Is Not Foreign Policy." Security Studies 6:1 (1996): 54–57.
Wang, Yuan-Kang. "Offensive Realism and the Rise of China." Issues & Studies 40:1 (2004): 173–201.
Further reading
Robert Giplin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
Randall L. Schweller, "Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In", International Security 19 :1 (1994): 72–107.
Fareed Zarkaria, From Wealth to Power: the Unusual Origins of America's World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
Political realism
International relations theory
pl:Realizm strukturalny#Realizm strukturalny ofensywny | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offensive%20realism |
Environmental issues in Vietnam are numerous and varied. This is due in part to the effects of the Vietnam War, and also because of Vietnam's rapid industrialization following the economic reforms in 1986 known as Doi Moi, amongst other reasons. Officially, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam lists environmental issues to include land, water, geology and minerals, and seas and islands, amongst others.
According to the State of the Environment 2001 published by the government, the main environmental issues in Vietnam are land degradation, forest degradation, loss of biodiversity, water pollution, air pollution and litter or solid waste management. However, the issues which the environmental movement in Vietnam is concerned with sometimes fall outside these official categories. For example, according to a World Bank study in 2007, climate change has become a major concern because Vietnam is expected to be seriously impacted by climate related consequences in the years to come.
As regards the responsibility for the management of environmental issues in Vietnam, under the aforementioned MONRE, the Vietnamese Environment Administration (VEA) was established by the Prime Minister on 30 September 2008. The VEA manages environmental issues in Vietnam at the national level. At the provincial level, the Departments of Natural Resources and the Environment (DONRE) are responsible.
Environmental protection has generally gained policy and public attention. A large number of environmental regulations have been issued since the country's economic reform in the 1990s. The regulations include the Law on Environmental Protection, first issued in 1993, revised in 2005, 2012, and 2020. Political wishes of international integration and increasing public demand for cleaner environment have been key drivers for Vietnam’s environmental policy.
The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) and Vietnamese party-state are not the only actors playing key roles as far as environmental issues are concerned. The environmental movement, part of Vietnam's civil society, consisting of grassroots organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Institute of Ecological Economics, is also a significant actor. In this entry, the history of the role which the environmental movement in Vietnam has played in influencing how environmental issues have unfolded and been perceived by the state and by society will be examined.
History
From 1975 onwards, when Vietnam was reunified under VCP leadership, commentators have often claimed that civic life diminished under tight state control. However, the commonplace impression of Vietnam as an ostensibly communist authoritarian state where social and community movements are either rare or do not have much effect on government or policy decisions has been demonstrated not to be the case. Neither is it the case that all instances of resistance or dissent are met monolithically with a uniform strategy of repression by the Vietnamese party-state. For example, Benedict Kerkvliet has documented repeated instances of citizen criticisms of authorities' alleged tolerance when it came to Chinese economic malpractices in bauxite mining activities, which were at least to a limited extent tolerated by the authorities. While Kerkvliet frames the anti-bauxite movement in terms of anti-Chinese sentiments, it can also be framed as indicative of growing socio-political opposition, as Jason Morris-Jung does (see section on "2007 anti-bauxite environment movement" below).
Prior to Doi Moi and the Vietnam War, it is not the case that there was a complete lack of an environmental consciousness in Vietnam. In fact, the history of environmental issues in Vietnam goes as far back as at least the 1950s. For example, environmental issues had surfaced in the context of industrial and economic activities, such as the detrimental environmental effects of highly polluting industries. However, there is little by way of evidence that social movements organized around the cause of the environment were specifically a feature of Vietnamese civic life at the time. Part of the reason for the absence of a concerted, mobilized environmental movement in the past could be due to the extent of control wielded by the VCP over the country's civil sphere. However, apart from claims which rely on the power of the party-state to explain the lack of an environmental movement in Vietnam in the past, it has also been noted that right up until the early 1990s, a significant proportion of the national population still continued to earn less income than the poverty threshold of US$1.90 per day, and in light of these circumstances, it was understandable that environmental issues did not feature highly on Vietnamese people's list of priorities.
Much ink has been spilt in attempting to understand the impact of the Second Indochina War, commonly referred to as the Vietnam War, on the historical progression of environmental issues in Vietnam, especially after the War ended in 1975. Many of these commentaries have dwelt on the destructive effects of military action on Vietnam's landscape and environment, with a focus on American military action. For instance, it has been well researched that between 1961 and 1971, U.S military forces dispersed more than 19 million gallons of herbicidal agents over the Republic of Vietnam, including more than 12 million gallons of the dioxin-contaminant commonly known as Agent Orange. As large as these numbers appear to be, the environmental issues which their contaminative elements have given rise to, although significant, have been shown to have limited subsequent effects, such as consequences for planting crops on available arable land, based on World Bank data up to 2009.
The focus of commentary on American military action is probably attributable to two reasons. First, the scale of American operations, by virtue of their relative economic and military power, were carried out at a completely different order of magnitude from that of the North Vietnamese. Second, primary sources, such as photographic and documentary archival records which recorded the American side of events, are also more readily available. That being said, other scholars have sought to expand the understanding of the environmental issues which arose as consequences of the War. For example, David Biggs highlights in his environmental history of Central Vietnam that the effect of the War left on the landscape (what he calls "footprints") were not exclusively destructive, but also had constructive or creative dimensions as well.
What sort of environmental movement, if any, emerged to address the environmental damage precipitated by the War? For the Vietnam War's environmental issues, unlike other environmental issues which will be elaborated upon subsequently, efforts such as decontamination were driven primarily by governmental and civic movements originating primarily in the United States, such as USAID and the Ford Foundation. Even in the present day, after fifty years of clean up have elapsed, it is foreign international bodies like the World Health Organization, rather than domestic ones, which continue to take the lead in the environmental movement to rectify the scars of military history on Vietnam's natural landscape.
Doi Moi, civil society and environmental movements
As regards the question of when the environmental movement in Vietnam really took off, historians point to various start dates, including the 1950s as previously mentioned in the case of O'Rourke, all the way up until the early 1990s, as in the case of Kerkvliet's observations about citizen discontent being voiced out by environmental activists. However, there is broad consensus that environmental issues began featuring more prominently in Vietnam's civic sphere following the Doi Moi reforms which were initiated from 1986 onwards by a new generation of more progressive Vietnamese political leaders. Empirically, records of environmental movement activities such as protests seeking to address environmental issues show that these have mostly taken place with greater frequency starting from after major examples (for instance, the movements or activism relating to the preservation of Hanoi’s Reunification Park, as recounted by Andrew Wells-Dang, and that relating to the bauxite controversy as recounted by Jason Morris-Jung) had created greater overall awareness and concern, which Stephan Ortmann argues is from around 2010 onwards, where there have been at least 13 major environmental protests involving hundreds, if not thousands, of protesters.
At one level, new types of environmental issues were created as a byproduct of new and increased economic activities, given that the primary objective of reforms was to boost business growth in an attempt to eradicate poverty. For example, while business and agricultural reforms led to the creation of more than 30,000 new private businesses and reduced the percentage of the Vietnamese population living under the poverty line from about 50 percent to 29 percent, an environmental consequence of this growth reported in a 2003 publication jointly produced by MONRE, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Fisheries was the conflict created between demands for land development and planning on the one hand, and area conservation plans on the other.
How did the Doi Moi reforms, which were primarily economic in nature, relate to the 11 growth of civil society, including the environmental movement, in Vietnam? This has been a matter of some historiographical debate, with tensions pulling in multiple directions. By and large, the party-state has hinted at the importance of local participation at the grassroots level in social issues including the environment. That being said, obstacles to active involvement in the environmental movement and civil society continued to persist, some of which were had always been present in Vietnam, while others, ironically, were consequences of economic reforms. For instance, some historians stressed the persistence of Leninist structure which made it difficult for bottom-up initiatives to gain any real traction, while also highlighting the resistance of strong economic interest groups whose businesses would not have benefited from tighter environmental controls and regulations, were these to come into reality as a product of greater awareness of environmental issues and successful activism15. The role of international NGOs and international donors of foreign aid, formally known as official development assistance or ODA, in applying pressure to involve more people and societal actors in the environmental movement has also been emphasized.
Whether or not the environmental movement can be considered a civil society actor in its own right is unclear. This is because it has so far had mixed successes and failures in bringing about changes to positively address environmental issues in Vietnam. While a more detailed discussion of the bauxite controversy will proceed in the following section, it suffices to note here that the case of the anti-bauxite movement could be used to demonstrate the limits of bottom-up pressures from environmental activists. Nevertheless, there have been some successes, such as the involvement of the environmental movement in pushing for the Law on Environmental Protection which came into effect on 2015, expanding the space that civil society could occupy by legitimating the involvement of community-based organizations in environmental issues. Further on, the case of the environmental movement which pursued as its goal the preservation of the Reunification Park in Hanoi could show that civil society networks have developed in the Vietnamese context.
Not everyone would agree that the Law on Environmental Protection was as significant for the environmental movement or for addressing environmental issues in Vietnam as it has been made out to be. A more cynical perspective claims that compliance with the new legislation merely took the form of nominal environmental divisions by economic agencies such as the Ministry of Construction18. Disparities and tensions also existed at different levels of government, such as between central and provincial authorities. Nevertheless, nominal or otherwise, there exists evidence, at least to a limited extent, of instances in Vietnam where environmental regulations, and enforcement of those regulations, were motivated because of community complaints or demands. Historians refer to this phenomenon as community-driven regulation, with a key example being the actions taken by the provincial Departments of Science, Technology and Environment (DOSTEs) in the 1990s. The way that community pressures or civic opposition came to bear upon authorities’ decisions and actions continued into the 2000s and 2010s. Beyond just environmental issues, however, the environmental movement has come to be understood as playing a contributory role to wider social activism in the context of Vietnam's civil society. Environmental movement groups such as Green Group Hanoi frame their campaigns by situating conservation and sustainability issues within the language of responsible and accountable government. In agitating for good governance, the movement goes beyond environmental issues into a new space of political contestation.
2007 anti-bauxite environmental movement
As mentioned earlier, the anti-bauxite environmental movement in Vietnam in 2007 has been understood in various ways, including as an example of Vietnamese people speaking out about an environmental issue they care about in a socialist authoritarian context, and an instance where bottom-up community pressures had limited success in addressing the status quo. Another way it has been made sense of is as a new mode of political contestation and compromise between the environmental movement and the party-state. Although historians generally agree that the movement may not have had much success in stopping bauxite mining in the Central Highlands, it did manage to resist the attempted repressions of public discourse about the mining projects.
Moreover, the activities of the anti-bauxite environmental movement demonstrated the digitalization of social action, which has come to characterize how a wide range of other priority issues in contemporary Vietnamese civil society are being championed. Specifically, the use of online petitions during the bauxite controversy has become a recurring mode of activism. The significance of this environmental issue is plainly evident from Morris-Jung’s description of a post-bauxite politics in Vietnam.
2016 Vietnam marine environment disaster
In April 2016, another significant environmental issue in Vietnam surfaced due to the illegal discharging of toxic industrial waste into the ocean near the coast of Central Vietnam by a steel plant (Formosa Ha Tinh Steel) owned by a Taiwanese corporation (Formosa Plastics), which affected Hà Tĩnh, Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên–Huế provinces. Fish carcasses were reported to have washed up on the beaches of Hà Tĩnh province from at least 6 April 2016. Later, a large number of dead fish were found on the coast of Hà Tĩnh and three other provinces (Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị and Thừa Thiên–Huế) until 18 April 2016.
The resultant water pollution contributed to the destruction of marine life and affected the lives of Vietnamese people whose livelihoods depended on the health of the ecosystem. Although Formosa denied being responsible, protests in April and May 2016 by ordinary Vietnamese citizens, not all of whom were necessarily directly or personally affected by the disaster, were successful in pressuring authorities to levy penalties after the company was found to be responsible on June 30, 2016, and compensations were disbursed to affected parties accordingly.
Other environmental issues in Vietnam
Over the course of the history of the environmental movement in Vietnam, different types of issues have come to the fore at one time or another:
Conservation of Hang Sơn Đoòng cave: Similar to the preservation of Hanoi's Reunification Park mentioned earlier, the environmental movement in Vietnam has come out to oppose the proposed plans for building a cable car, at a cost of between $112 and $211 million, through the cave, located in Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park, and considered the world's largest cave (by volume).
Air pollution: Due to increased vehicular transportation, industrial activities, solid fuel burning and poor urban planning, air pollution, especially when measured by the concentration of PM2.5 particles in the air, is becoming an environmental issue of significance in big cities such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, which are now among the top polluted cites in South East Asia. One possible way to address this environmental issue is through the development of renewable energy solutions such as solar and wind power which have the potential to reduce air pollution. Furthermore, citizens' demands for action on air pollution are an important factor in the government's choice to reduce emissions.
Accessibility to clean water. Vietnamese citizens generally have high levels of freshwater accessibility, although there is some variability between larger and smaller cities, and between cities and rural areas. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi. However, in rural areas, hand-dug wells remain the most important source of water as 39%-44% still rely on it. Only 10% of the rural population is supplied with piped water. Like air pollution, water pollution levels are also increasing due to increased industrial activity, especially in the Mekong Delta. In a region where most people depend on the surface water of the river, this environmental issue has had human health consequences, such as high rates of diarrhea. Overall in Vietnam, the number of reported diarrhea diseases was 296000 in total in 2009. Other examples of waterborne diseases in Vietnam include cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and hepatitis A. Reported cases of cholera is still significantly high. Caused by drinking water contaminated by bacterium, the number of reported cholera is well above 500, reaching 1900 in 2007, and 600 in 2010. However, the fatality rate of cholera has been close to 0% since 1999.
Wetlands: Wetlands in Vietnam, along with their biodiversity, have decreased significantly. In the case of mangrove forest areas in the Mekong Delta, these have decreased by 80 per cent between 1943 and 2000. Key causes of wetland degradation include ad hoc dyke construction. To address this environmental issue, development planning ought to take into consideration the costs, benefits and impacts on wetlands. For example, revisions to water management governance have contributed to recent improvements in the wetland degradation situation.
Forests: The integrity of Vietnam's forest landscape is relatively low; on the 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index, Vietnman ranked 104th globally out of 172 countries, with a mean score of 5.35/10.
Environmental issues relating to free trade: Vietnam is committed to multilateral environmental agreements, including those on climate change and biodiversity, including the EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement and Investment Protection Agreement. To comply with these commitments, Vietnam would need strengthen regulations and enforcement on the illegal wildlife trade, as well as illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing practices, to enable Vietnam to fully reap the "benefits" from "free" trade.
Pesticide misuse: The misuse of pesticides on a global scale has led to pesticide poisoning becoming a global health concern; based on the World Health Organization’s Mortality Database, approximately 385 million cases of unintentional, acute pesticide poisoning occur world-wide each year. Despite larger quantities of pesticides being sold in developed countries, pesticide-related poisonings occur more frequently in developing countries such as Vietnam. In the case of Vietnam, since the Doi Moi economic transformation in 1986, pesticide use has doubled in the 1990s– totaling over 40,000 tons in 1998. Despite this rapid increase in the use of pesticides, the regulatory aspects of pesticides have failed to keep pace with the growth of pesticide use: a survey conducted by the Vietnam’s Plant Protection Department in 2000 indicated that numerous pesticide retailers were operating without a business license or sold pesticides that failed to meet domestic safety requirements. The lack of regulation and enforcement regarding pesticide use has led to farmer carelessness, ultimately leading to a variety of public health and environmental issues. For instance, a study conducted in the Red Delta River region of Hanoi indicated that farmers were concocting pesticide cocktails or using inappropriate levels of pesticides in order to conserve capital and labor; concocting “pesticide cocktails” can alter the properties of the pesticides by making the solution ineffective or more toxic and can lead to high levels of pesticide residues in crops. Another environmental concern is the improper disposal of pesticide waste. According to a survey result of 60 farmers in Hanoi, 17% of the surveyed farmers disposed pesticide waste in garbage bins or pits and another 17% collected the waste in batches and disposed them into the garbage. Most of the pesticides used in Vietnam are rarely biodegradable and often not biodegradable at all. Consequently, there currently is increasing concern regarding infiltration of pesticides into public water resources in Vietnam. Currently, there is increasing public effort and awareness into better pesticide management; efforts include but are not limited to introducing frameworks such as the Vietnam National Integrated Pest Management Program and Farmer Field School.
Litter or solid waste pollution, including trash or garbage, often ending up washed into rivers or water bodies, has also become a major concern associated with more urban areas of Vietnam. Products that were single-use plastic were highlighted as contributing most to litter, land and water pollution. A lack of public garbage disposal bins promoted littering, in which litter would then be washed away by rainwater, which blocked the sewerage system, causing flash floods during severe rainstorms.
See also
Deforestation in Vietnam
Environmental impact of coffee production in Vietnam
Environmental impact of war
Operation Ranch Hand
2016 Vietnam marine environment disaster
References
Issues
Vietnam | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Vietnam |
Suillus luteus is a bolete fungus, and the type species of the genus Suillus. A common fungus native all across Eurasia from Ireland to Korea, it has been introduced widely elsewhere, including North and South America, southern Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Commonly referred to as slippery jack or sticky bun in English-speaking countries, its names refer to the brown cap, which is characteristically slimy in wet conditions. The fungus, initially described as Boletus luteus ("yellow mushroom") by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, is now classified in a different fungus family as well as genus. Suillus luteus (literally "yellow pig", from its greasy look in rain) is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms. It is commonly prepared and eaten in soups, stews or fried dishes. The slime coating, however, may cause indigestion if not removed before eating. It is often sold as a dried mushroom.
The fungus grows in coniferous forests in its native range, and pine plantations in countries where it has become naturalized. It forms symbiotic ectomycorrhizal associations with living trees by enveloping the tree's underground roots with sheaths of fungal tissue. The fungus produces spore-bearing fruit bodies, often in large numbers, above ground in summer and autumn.
The fruit body cap often has a distinctive conical shape before flattening with age, reaching up to in diameter. Like other boletes, it has tubes extending downward from the underside of the cap, rather than gills; spores escape at maturity through the tube openings, or pores. The pore surface is yellow, and covered by a membranous partial veil when young. The pale stipe, or stem, measures up to 10 cm (4 in) tall and thick and bears small dots near the top. Unlike most other boletes, it bears a distinctive membranous ring that is tinged brown to violet on the underside.
Taxonomy and naming
The slippery jack was one of the many species first described in 1753 by the "father of taxonomy" Carl Linnaeus, who, in the second volume of his Species Plantarum, gave it the name Boletus luteus. The specific epithet is the Latin adjective lūtěus, meaning "yellow". The fungus was reclassified as (and became the type species of) the genus Suillus by French naturalist Henri François Anne de Roussel in 1796. Suillus is an ancient term for fungi, and is derived from swine. In addition to the British Mycological Society approved name "slippery jack", other common names for this bolete include "pine boletus" and "sticky bun"—the latter referring to its resemblance to the pastry.
German naturalist August Batsch described Boletus volvatus (the specific epithet derived from the Latin volva, meaning "sheath", "covering" or "womb") alongside B. luteus in his 1783 work Elenchus Fungorum. Batsch placed both of these species, along with B. bovinus and the now obsolete names Boletus mutabilis and B. canus, in a grouping of similar boletes he called "subordo Suilli". Boletus volvatus is now considered a synonym of Suillus luteus. Several authors have placed the slippery jack in other genera: Finnish mycologist Petter Karsten classified it as Cricunopus luteus in 1881—the genus Cricinopus defined by yellow adnate tubes; Lucien Quélet classified it as Viscipellis luteus in 1886, and Ixocomus luteus in 1888; and Paul Christoph Hennings placed it in the section Cricinopus of the genus Boletopsis in 1900.
In works published before 1987, the slippery jack was written fully as , as the description by Linnaeus had been name sanctioned in 1821 by the "father of mycology", Swedish naturalist Elias Magnus Fries. The starting date for all the mycota had been set by general agreement as 1 January 1821, the date of Fries's work. Furthermore, as Roussel's description of Suillus predated this as well, the authority for the genus was assigned to British botanist Samuel Frederick Gray in the first volume of his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. The 1987 edition of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature changed the rules on the starting date and primary work for names of fungi, and names can now be considered valid as far back as 1 May 1753, the date of publication of Linnaeus's work. In 1986, a collection of fruit bodies from Sweden was designated as the neotype of Suillus luteus.
In their 1964 monograph on North American Suillus species, Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers classified S. luteus in the series Suilli of the sectionSuillus in genus Suillus. This group is characterized by the presence of either a ring on the stipe, a partial veil adhering to the cap margin, or a "false veil" not attached to the stipe but initially covering the tube cavity. Species closely related to Suillus luteus include S. pseudobrevipes (a sister species), S. brevipes and S. weaverae (formerly Fuscoboletinus weaverae). A genetic study of nucleotide DNA reinforced the species' monophyly and low genetic divergence, with material of S. luteus from the United Kingdom, Austria, Germany and North America forming a clade, in contrast with some other species, such as S. granulatus, which were shown to be polyphyletic.
Chemical analysis of pigments and chromogens showed that Suillus was more closely related to Gomphidius and Rhizopogon than to other boletes, and hence Suillus luteus and its allies were transferred from the Boletaceae to the newly circumscribed family Suillaceae in 1997. Molecular studies have reinforced how distantly related these fungi are from Boletus edulis and its allies.
Description
The cap is chestnut, rusty, olive brown, or dark brown in color and generally 4–10 cm (rarely to 20 cm) in diameter at maturity. The cap has a distinctive conical shape, later flattening out. It is slimy to the touch, bare, smooth, and glossy even when dry, and the cuticle is easily peeled off. The tiny, circular pores of the tubes are initially yellow but turn olive to dark yellow with maturity. Like the skin of the cap, they can be readily peeled away from the flesh.
Tubes comprising the hymenophore on the underside of the cap are deep, with an attachment to the stipe ranging from adnate to somewhat decurrent. The pores are tiny, numbering 3 per mm in young specimens and 1–2 per mm in maturity. The stipe is tall and wide. It is pale yellow and more or less cylindrical but may bear a swollen base. A membranous partial veil initially links the stipe with the edge of the cap. When it ruptures, it forms a membranous, hanging ring. The top side of the ring is whitish, while the underside is characteristically dark brown to violet. This species is one of the few members of the genus Suillus that have such a ring. Above the ring, the stipe features glandular dots—minute clumps of pigmented cells. Below the ring, the stipe is dingy white, sometimes streaked with brownish slime. In humid conditions, the ring has a gelatinous texture. The white flesh of the entire fungus does not discolour when damaged, and is soft—particularly in mature specimens. It has a "pleasant" taste and lacks any distinctive odour.
The spore print is ochre or clay coloured, the elongated elliptical spores measuring 7–10 by 3–3.5 μm. Basidia (spore-producing cells) are four spored, with dimensions of 14–18 by 4–5 μm. Cystidia are present on both the tube faces (pleurocystidia) and edges (cheilocystidia), either scattered or, more rarely, as bundles. They measure 20–35 by 5–7 μm and have a narrow club shape. Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of S. luteus.
Similar species
Good field characteristics for Suillus luteus include the slimy brown cap, glandular dots on the upper stipe, and prominent purplish ring. A frequent lookalike is Suillus granulatus, which is another common, widely distributed and edible species occurring in the same habitat. Suillus granulatus is yellow fleshed and exudes latex droplets when young, but most conspicuously bears neither a partial veil nor a ring. Other than that, Suillus luteus is unlikely to be confused with other mushrooms, especially if its preferred habitat under pine trees and the whitish partial veil are considered. In Europe, the related Suillus grevillei is found under larch and has a yellow cap, while immature fruit bodies of Gomphidius glutinosus may look comparable from above but have gills rather than pores underneath. In North America, Suillus borealis and S. pseudobrevipes also have partial veils, but lack the distinctive ring of S. luteus. S. cothurnatus forms a band-like ring on the stipe that tends to be brownish rather than purplish.
In some specimens of S. luteus, the partial veil separates from the stipe (rather than the cap margin), leaving cottony patches of veil hanging from the cap margin. In this state, fruit bodies can be confused with those of S. albidipes. Unlike S. luteus, however, S. albidipes does not have glandular dots on its stipe.
Distribution and habitat
Suillus luteus can be found all over the Northern Hemisphere. Native to Eurasia, it is widespread across the British Isles. To the east it has been recorded from Pakistan, where it was found along canals in Dashkin in the district of Astore, and as far east as South Korea. It has also been widely introduced elsewhere by way of pine plantations around the globe. It is very commonly found in Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) plantations, despite the tree being native to California and hence not in the fungus' native range. In North America it is found in the northeastern, northwestern, and southwestern United States. According to Ernst Both, it was Charles Horton Peck who first suggested in 1887 that the fungus was introduced to New York State on Pinus sylvestris. DNA studies show that the North American populations differ little genetically from European populations, supporting the idea that the fungus arrived to North America relatively recently as a result of human activity. Suillus luteus is found in coastal and mountainous pine forests and exhibits a tolerance of the northern latitudes. Southern Hemisphere locales where the slippery jack grow with plantation pines include South America, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. In southwestern Australia, the bolete is limited to areas of greater than 1000 mm (40 in) annual rainfall. It has been recorded as far north as the Darling Downs and southern Queensland, and occasionally in Tasmania. The fungus fruits in spring, summer and fairly prolifically in autumn, following periods of wet weather. Mushrooms can appear in large troops or fairy rings.
In Ecuador, Pinus radiata plantations were planted extensively around Cotopaxi National Park, and Suillus luteus boletes appear in abundance year-round. A 1985 field study estimated production to be 3000–6000 mushrooms per hectare—up to (dry weight) of mushrooms hectare per year. This continuous production contrasts with the bolete's seasonal appearance elsewhere. The fungus is not found in adjacent areas of native vegetation. The fruiting is so bountiful that the harvest of slippery jacks has become the main reason that pine plantations are established or maintained in parts of Ecuador.
In southern Brazil, it has been recorded in plantations of slash pine (P. elliottii) in the municipalities of Pelotas, Nova Petrópolis and Canela in Rio Grande do Sul, and Colombo in Paraná. It is particularly common in plantations in Patagonia. Suillus luteus is the commonest bolete encountered in the Falkland Islands, where it is found in windbreaks and gardens.
In South Africa, Suillus luteus has been occasionally recorded under pines in Bloemfontein, Johannesburg and Royal Natal National Park.
Ecology
Suillus luteus is a pioneer species that typically establishes itself in the early stages of forest succession. The fungus forms mycorrhizal associations with various species of pine, including Scots pine (P. sylvestris), black pine (P. nigra), and Macedonian pine (P. peuce) in Europe, and red pine (P. resinosa) and white pine (P. strobus) in North America. An in vitro experiment demonstrated that the species could form an ectomycorrhizal association with Aleppo pine (P. halepensis), a key species used in reforestation in the Mediterranean. A study of the ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with a lodgepole pine (P. contorta) invasion front near Coyhaique, Chile, showed that many invasive trees were supported by S. luteus as the sole mycorrhizal partner.
The ectomycorrhizae formed between the fungus and host plant can be influenced by soil microorganisms present in the mycorrhizosphere. For example, soil bacteria from the genera Paenibacillus and Burkholderia alter the branching structure of the root, whereas Bacillus species increase root growth and mycorrhizal colonization. The fungus does not require a specific soil but seems to prefer acidic and nutrient-deficient soil. Suillus luteus produces hydroxamic acid-based siderophores, which are compounds that can chelate iron and extract it from the soil in nutrient-poor conditions. Ignacio Chapela and colleagues analysed the carbon uptake of S. luteus in Ecuador, concluding pine plantations accompanied by S. luteus deplete carbon stored in the soil and raising concerns that these might not be a remedy for rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.
The fungus has been shown to provide a protective effect against heavy metal toxicity when associated with the host Pinus sylvestris, preventing copper accumulation in the needles, and protecting seedlings against cadmium toxicity. Owing to its frequent rate of sexual reproduction and the resulting extensive gene flow within populations, the fungus can rapidly evolve a trait to tolerate otherwise toxic levels of heavy metals in the environment. The genetic basis of this adaptation—intriguing to researchers investigating the bioremediation potential of metal-adapted plants and their fungal associates—are contained in the genome sequence of S. luteus, published in 2015.
Suillus luteus fruit bodies are sometimes infested with larvae, though not nearly as often as S. granulatus or B. edulis. Damage from maggots is much more common in warmer months, and rare late in the season with cooler weather. In a Finnish study, researchers found that 70–95% of fruit bodies collected from typical forest habitats were infested with larvae; the most common species were the flies Mycetophila fungorum, Pegomya deprimata, and Pegohylemyia silvatica. In contrast, other studies have shown that fruit bodies collected from pine plantations are relatively free of larvae. The fungus produces microscopic crystals of oxalic acid at the surface of its hyphae, a feature that is thought to help deter grazing by the springtail species Folsomia candida.
Edibility
Suillus luteus is an edible mushroom, but the slime/pileipellis must be removed. Although some authors regard it as one of low quality, and generally inferior to co-occurring species such as Boletus pinophilus, the species is considered a delicacy in Slavic cultures (known as maslyata in Russian or maślaki in Polish, deriving from words meaning "buttery"). It was highly regarded in Calabria, even more than Boletus edulis, until the 1940s when increased interest in the latter species eclipsed the former. Mushrooms conforming to Suillus luteus are exported from Chile to Italy, and, since the 1970s, the United States. As of 2002, harvesters in Chile were paid on average US$0.5 per kilogram of fruit bodies.
In Burundi, Suillus luteus mushrooms are sold to Europeans as cepes in Bujumbura but not generally eaten by the Barundi. Based on samples collected from Chile, the boletes contain (as a percentage of dry weight) 20% protein, 57% carbohydrates, 6% fat, and 6% ash. Pinus radiata plantations in southeastern Australia have become tourist attractions as people flock to them in autumn to pick slippery jacks and saffron milk-caps (Lactarius deliciosus); Belanglo State Forest in particular has attracted large numbers of Polish foragers.
Slippery jacks do not keep for long after picking,. Zeitmar considers them unsuitable for drying, as their water content is too high. They are suited for frying, or cooking in stews and soups, either alone or with other mushroom species. Puréeing the mushroom is not recommended, however: "We once made the mistake of running it through a blender to make a soup. The result was a substance recommending itself for use when hanging wallpaper." S. luteus and other Suillus species may cause allergic reactions in some people or digestive problems that appear to result from consuming the slimy skin. The fungus is better cooked before eating, and some authors recommend discarding the glutinous cuticle and tubes before cooking. Moreover, the skin can spoil other fungi with which slippery jacks are collected.
Inexpensive powdered S. luteus fruit bodies are sometimes added to the more expensive B. edulis mushroom soup powder, a fraudulent practice that is difficult to detect by microscope because the tissues are no longer intact. This adulteration can be determined chemically, however, by testing for increased levels of the sugar alcohols arabitol and mannitol. The practice can also be determined with a DNA-based method that is sensitive enough to detect the addition of 1–2% of S. luteus to B. edulis powder.
See also
List of North American boletes
References
External links
Suillus luteus at MykoWeb
luteus
Edible fungi
Fungi of Europe
Fungi described in 1753
Fungi of Africa
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Central America
Fungi of New Zealand
Fungi of the United States
Fungi found in fairy rings
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suillus%20luteus |
Thailand's dramatic economic growth has caused numerous environmental issues. The country faces problems with air, declining wildlife populations, deforestation, soil erosion, water scarcity, and waste issues. According to a 2004 indicator, the cost of air and water pollution for the country scales up to approximately 1.6–2.6% of GDP per year. As such, Thailand's economic growth has come at great cost in damage to its people and environment.
Thailand's Twelfth National Economic and Social Development Plan (2017-2021) warns that, "At present the country's natural resources and environmental quality are deteriorating, and have become a weakness in maintaining the basis of production, services and sustainable living. A large volume of the natural resources stock has been utilized for development, resulting in their continuous degradation. The forests have been depleted, the soil has become infertile, and biodiversity has been threatened. While exhibiting a future risk of water shortages, the existing supply of water has not been able to meet the demands of the various sectors. Conflicts over the use of natural resources stem from the unfair allocation of access and exploitation. Moreover, environmental problems have risen along with economic growth and urbanization. All of these problems have affected the quality of life and have added greater economic costs."
Climate change
Deforestation
Forest cover in Thailand has been greatly reduced as people convert forested land to agriculture, or misappropriate public lands for private use, with related estimates varying. The Sueb Nakhasathien Foundation reports that 53% of Thailand was covered by forest in 1961, but that forested areas had shrunk to 31.6% in 2015. An estimate by the World Wildlife Fund concluded that between 1973 and 2009, Thailand's forests declined by 43%. During the period 2001–2012, Thailand lost one million hectares of forest, while restoring 499,000 hectares. Between 1990 and 2005, Thailand lost 9.1% of its forest cover, or around 1,445,000 hectares. , Thailand has an average annual deforestation rate of 0.72%. Wetlands have been converted to rice paddies and urban sprawl. With government measures in place to prohibit logging, deforestation rates have dropped, but the impacts of deforestation are still being felt.
Thai government numbers show an increase in the extent of Thai forests. Figures from the Center for Agricultural Information of Thailand's Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives show an increase in the extent of Thailand's forested area over the period 2006-2015 (from 99 million rai to 103 million rai), with decreases in every other type of land use. In 2019, the Forest Department said that forest cover has steadily increased due to its anti-encroachment measures under the regime's reclaim forest land policy. According to the department, the country's forest areas in 2018 covered 102.4 million rai, a 330,000-rai increase from the previous year. The increase, equivalent to an area the size of Phuket, increases forest coverage to 31.58% of the country's total land.
In early-2017, the government reaffirmed its 1975 commitment to increase its forest cover to 40% within 20 years. The aim was to have "conserved forests" blanket 25% of the nation and 15% blanketed by "commercial forests". To achieve this goal in 2018, Thailand would need to convert 27 million rai into forests. Thailand has three square meters of green area per capita. Singapore has 66 m2 per capita and Malaysia, 44 m2.
In November 1988, heavy rains washed away the soil of newly deforested slopes, causing massive floods. Villages and agricultural land were swamped, and almost 400 people and thousands of domestic animals were killed. The Thai government banned logging on 14 January 1989, revoking all logging concessions. Consequences included the price of timber tripling in Bangkok, in turn increasing illegal logging.
In June 2015, as a severe drought gripped northeastern Thailand, Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha urged farmers to forgo a second rice crop in order to save water. He attributed the drought to massive deforestation. At least 26 million rai (4.2m ha) of forested land, especially forests in the mountainous north, had been denuded, according to the prime minister, who said that forests were needed for the generation of rainfall.
In July 2015, a Bangkok Post editorial summed up Thailand's forestry issues: "Forests have rapidly declined under state policies over the past four decades. Factors include logging, mining, anti-insurgency strategies, promotion of cash crops on the highlands, construction of big dams and promotion of the tourism industry. Corruption is also deep-rooted in forestry bureaucracy." Valuable hardwood tree species, such as Siamese Rosewood, are being extracted illegally for sale, mostly to the Chinese furniture market. These trees are so valuable that poachers are armed and are prepared fight forest rangers. Both rangers and poachers have been killed in gunfights. The rates of logging now threaten the Siamese Rosewood with extinction within 10 years, according to Al Jazeera in 2014.
Mangroves and beach erosion
Deforestation creates a host of environmental problems: soil erosion, sedimentation of rivers, and loss of natural habitat. Wetlands and mangroves in coastal areas have been seriously degraded by expansion of commercial fishing, shrimp aquaculture, industry, and tourism, causing much of Thailand's biodiversity losses. Mangrove wetlands are among the leading habitats in carbon sequestration, and degradation of these habitats poses risks to global carbon accumulation. They are hypothesized to dampen the intensity of tsunami force, which would protect both human and biodiversity interests. It is estimated that Thailand in 1961 had 3,500 km2 of mangrove forests. By 2004 that number was less than 2,000 km2 according to the Thai government.
According to Thailand's deputy transport minister, some of Thailand's attractive beaches may be lost within ten years. "If we don't do anything, there will be no attractive beaches left", he said. The marine department, part of the transport ministry, manages Thailand's 3,000 km of shoreline in 23 coastal provinces. Some 670 km of shoreline exhibits severe erosion, with land being lost to the sea at a rate of more than five metres per year. To combat erosion, sections of Pattaya Beach in Chonburi Province are being topped up with more than 300,000 m3 of sand at a cost of 429 million baht. A two kilometer stretch of Chalatat Beach in Songkhla is being restored at a cost of 300 million baht.
Thailand had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.00/10, ranking it 88th globally out of 172 countries.
While conservationists have advocated for creation of marine protected areas in mangrove forests, coastal communities in Thailand are concerned these protections may interfere with their economic growth. Mangroves provide these communities with profit opportunities, mainly through agriculture and tourism practices including the operation of rubber plantations, aquaculture, and fishing. The Thailand central government has enacted stricter, community-based mangrove restoration laws which shift emphasis from regulating mangrove removal to promoting mangrove conservation. This initiative provides flexibility for local government to approach mangrove conservation efforts as they see fit, which has proved successful for communities in the Phuket, Phang Nga, and Trang provinces. Communities without the financial means to enact these recent policy changes rely on private entities to fund restoration efforts. Another solution to satisfy environmental and economic concerns may be payment for ecosystem services (PES), a method of conservation that incentivizes sustainable environmental practices. PES helps support communities transitioning to sustainable practices, however a lack of funding challenges wide scale support for PES and its implementation.
Air pollution
The World Bank estimates that deaths in Thailand attributable to air pollution have risen from 31,000 in 1990 to roughly 49,000 in 2013.
Industrial growth has created high levels of air pollution in Thailand. Vehicles and factories contribute to air pollution, particularly in Bangkok, which experienced high levels of air pollution in the winter of 2019. Recent research (2019) points to agricultural burning as the root cause of PM 2.5 pollution in Thailand. PM 2.5 is a measurement of particulates in the atmosphere smaller than 2.5 microns.
The Bangkok metropolitan region, which consists of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) and the four surrounding provinces (Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Nakhon Pathom, and Samut Prakan), holds about 20% of the national population and over half of the country's factories. Due to a lack of treatment facilities, increasing volumes of hazardous substances generated by industrial activities have caused serious dumping issues. Unless treatment facilities are built and institutions starts to regulate strictly, environmental contamination caused by hazardous waste threatens to become Thailand's worst environmental problem in the future.
Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) and other agencies have developed standards in order to reduce air pollution. The standards focus on shifting to lower-emissions vehicle engines and improving public transportation. In 1999, 80% of the motorcycles on the road in Bangkok had environmentally unfriendly two-stroke engines. Diesel trucks and buses also contribute many pollutants. In most areas of the country, air pollutants for vehicles are now within acceptable levels according to national standards.
Factories and power plants have been required to reduce emissions. In 2002, Bangkok and the rest of the central region contributed between 60 and 70% of the country's industrial emissions. Most power plants rely on burning fossil fuels.
Other sources of air pollution include garbage burning, open cooking, and agricultural burning practices, including deliberate forest fires.
Agricultural burning in Southeast Asia often creates haze. In 2003 Thailand ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to reduce the haze from forest fires, but issues throughout the region are still common. Wildfires are started by local farmers during the dry season in northern Thailand for a variety of purposes, with February and March as the two months when conditions are at their worst. In research conducted between 2005 and 2009 in Chiang Mai, average PM10 rates during these months were found to be well above the country's safety level of 120 μg/m3 (microgrammes per cubic metre), peaking at 383 μg/m3 on 14 March 2007. They are the main cause of the intense air pollution in the Thai highlands and contribute to the floods in the country by completely denuding forest undergrowth. The dry forest soil leads to lower water intake for trees to extract when the rains arrive.
In February 2016, Director-General Chatchai Promlert of the Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Department, said that the haze affecting northern Thailand has reached levels that can be considered harmful to health. He said that the Pollution Control Department had reported that the levels of particulates measuring less than 10 micrometres—known as PM10—had crossed the prescribed safe threshold of 120 in four out of nine provinces where monitoring was conducted. The level of PM10 in the nine regions—Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, Mae Hong Son, Nan, Phrae, Phayao and Tak—was measured at between 68 and 160. The haze level was considered unhealthy in Chiang Mai, Lampang, Lamphun, and Phrae Provinces.
During the burning season 2016 (February–April), air pollution has shown no improvement despite the government's purported efforts to ameliorate the burning. The Mae Sai District of Chiang Rai Province recorded a record 410 μg/m3 of harmful air particles in the early morning of 25 March 2016.
From January–July 2016 the five Thai cities with the highest annual average concentrations of PM2.5 were Chiang Mai, Lampang (Mae Moh), Khon Kaen, Bangkok and Ratchaburi. Seven out of the eleven cities measured (63.6%) did not reach the National Ambient Air Quality Standard annual limit of 25 μg/m3 for PM2.5 and all 11 cities measured did not reach the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline annual limit of 25 μg/m3. Thailand's national air quality standards are weak when compared to WHO recommendations. In the first six months of 2017, Greenpeace Thailand monitored PM2.5 in 14 provinces, as they have done since 2015, and found that every station recorded levels higher than the WHO recommendation of less than 10 milligrams per cubic meter of air. PM2.5 refers to airborne particulates smaller than 2.5 microns, particles so small that they can be inhaled into the blood system and cause cancer and heart disease. Chiang Mai, Tak, Khon Kaen, Bangkok, and Saraburi were among the worst cities with the highest PM2.5 levels in 2017.
In February 2018 and 2019, Bangkok suffered under a haze of smog and ultra-fine dust. The Pollution Control Department issued warnings that particulate levels had soared to 94 micrograms per cubic metre of air in some areas, almost double the safe limit of 50 mcg. Residents were urged to wear N95 or KN95 protective dust masks. Bangkok City Hall reassured residents that conditions will "permanently improve" in 11 years (2029) with the launch of many new and improved modes of public transport. Bangkok City Hall failed to mention that it is constructing 1,047 km of new roads due to be completed by 2029 or that in the decade 2008 to 2018 the number of cars registered in Bangkok rose from 5.9 million to 10.2 million. In January 2019, Bangkok authorities employed cloud seeding to ease air pollution in parts of the city. That month, high-pressure cannons were blasted around Bangkok's City Hall and other areas to combat the smog, leading to debate as to whether the method was effective at washing away the particularly harmful smaller particles. In January 2020, a National Institute for Development Administration survey showed that "81% of the 1,256 local residents questioned agreed that the [Thai] government" was ineffective at solving Bangkok's air pollution, with 2.7% of respondents approving the government's efforts.
Field and forest burning
Fires in Thailand fall into three main categories: forest fires, agricultural burning, and roadside burning.
Forest fires are set deliberately, as they are thought to increase forest product yields, especially the earth star mushroom (Astraeus hygrometricus (Pers.) Morgan; or in Thai), which has seasonal availability and a high market price. In order to collect these fungi, local farmers use fire either to clear the forest floor to make it easier to find the mushroom or because fire is thought to stimulate the growth of this mushroom. The burning of agricultural fields and forested areas in Southeast Asia is a yearly event, mainly during the "burning season", January through March. It is particularly widespread in the northern and northeastern provinces of Thailand. Northern Thailand has the highest rates of lung cancer in the country. The incidence of other chest diseases and cardiac conditions is also high.
According to the Bangkok Post, corporations in the agricultural sector, not farmers, are the biggest contributors to smoke pollution. The main source of the fires is forested area being cleared to make room for new crops. The new crops to be planted after the smoke clears are not rice and vegetables to feed locals. A single crop is responsible: maize. The haze problem began in 2007 and has been traced at the local level and at the macro-market level to the growth of the animal feed business. "The true source of the haze ... sits in the boardrooms of corporations eager to expand production and profits. A chart of Thailand's growth in world corn markets can be overlaid on a chart of the number of fires. It is no longer acceptable to scapegoat hill tribes and slash-and-burn agriculture for the severe health and economic damage caused by this annual pollution." These data have been ignored by the government. The end is not in sight, as the number of fires has increased every year for a decade, and data show more pollution in late-February 2016 than in late-February 2015.
Charoen Pokphand (CP) Group, Thailand's largest agro-industrial and food conglomerate, and the leading purchaser of northern maize, in March 2016 announced an "agricultural social enterprise" to steer Nan Province's Pua District villagers away from maize farming. CP Group has incurred criticism for the way it purchases maize harvests for animal feed from farmers in Nan and other provinces. Suphachai Chearavanont, vice-chairman of CP Group, said that corn planters will be encouraged to grow cash crops such as coffee, which requires less farmland and makes a higher profit than maize. Not only will this address deforestation, he said, but it will also help reduce the spring haze in the north which is caused by slash-and-burn practices to prepare land for the next maize season. Chearavanont said crops like coffee take about 3½ years to show a yield, but stated that CP Group would stand by farmers and provide assistance in the meantime.
The Thai government has encouraged farmers to abandon rice farming and cultivate sugarcane instead. As a consequence, fields planted in sugarcane have soared from 6.8 million rai in harvest year 2008–2009 to 11.5 million rai in 2017–2018. Sugarcane fields are a major locus of open fires. Despite anti-burning regulations, 66% of the sugarcane that entering processing mills in 2019 had been burned prior to harvesting.
"Cheap and fast" is a shorthand explanation for the intentional use of fire to clear overgrown roadsides and open areas. Cattle herders also burn areas to stimulate the growth of Imperata grass which is able to quickly produce new leaves during the hot-dry season. New leaves produced on burnt areas have a higher nutrient value, which is perfect for cattle grazing. Roadside fires are set to clear vegetation from encroaching on roadways. Fires produce large amounts of smoke which stagnates low lying areas, causing eye irritation and respiratory ailments. Large areas of degraded forest are destroyed by fire each year.
Fisheries
Overfishing
In 1950, the newly constituted Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimated that, globally, Thailand was catching about 20 million metric tons of fish (cod, mackerel, tuna) and invertebrates (lobster, squid, clams). That catch peaked at 90 million tons per year in the late-1980s, and it has been declining ever since. Thailand is no exception to this decline, despite having had 57,141 fishing vessels and more than 300,000 people employed by the fishing industry. According to the Thai Department of Fisheries, Thailand had 11,000 registered trawlers and "about" 2,000 illegal trawlers (2016). In 2018 Thailand completed its first-ever census of fishing boats permitted to catch fish in Thai waters: 10,743.
The sheer number of Thai fishing vessels is a key contributor to overfishing. Even the president of the Thai Tuna Industry Association (TTIA), Chanintr Chalisarapong, acknowledges this. "You don't need to be a scientist to know that we're overfishing,..." said Chalisarapong. "We have to stop building new boats. Catch has to come from local fishermen using pole and line methods....We need to have less [sic] boats and less gear." Thailand has made progress in this area: Thailand's fishing fleet numbers 38,956, down from 50,023 in 2015, a 22% reduction.
Thailand is a peninsular country of 514,000 km2 with over 3,565 km of coastline, 2,700 km on the Gulf of Thailand and 865 km on the Andaman Sea. Its exclusive economic zone extends over 306,000 km2. Historically, fish from Thailand's off-shore waters have been a significant provider of protein to the population. In 2001, the average yearly fish consumption was 32.4 kg per capita and provided on average 10–14 grams of protein per capita per day. It provides 40.5% of animal protein sources and 17.6% of total protein. Consumption of fish is almost certainly higher than reported as many fish are caught by smallholders and consumed without passing through the marketplace. But numbers are dwindling: small-scale fishers were able to catch up to eight times as much fish in the 1980s than possible in the 2000s.
Thailand's marine fish resources are over-exploited. Thailand's marine capture averaged 2,048,753 tonnes from 2003 to 2012; in 2014 the catch was 1,559,746 tonnes, a decrease of 23.9%. The catch per unit of effort (CPUE) has decreased markedly. Average catches in Thai waters have fallen by 86% since the industry's large expansion in the 1960s. In 2014, Thailand was 12th in the world (of 215 nations) (1=worst, 215=best) in terms of fish species at risk (96 species).
The over-exploitation of fish stocks in Thailand has led to the creation of a huge aquaculture industry, human trafficking to man fishing vessels voyaging ever further out to sea, and the depletion of "trash fish" as well as marketable juvenile fish to feed the increasing demand for fish meal for farmed shrimp. The wisdom of using captured fish to feed domesticated fish is dubious, according to a researcher. "Using fishmeal in aquaculture,...is not ecologically sustainable because we are still relying on wild-caught fish as an input for farmed fish, so producing more farmed fish as a solution to food security does not lessen the pressure on wild-caught fish."
A twelve-month analysis of the catch composition, landing patterns, and biological aspects of sharks caught by Thai commercial fishing boats in the Andaman Sea off Thailand showed a significant difference from the results of a similar study done in 2004. Sixty-four species were observed in the 2004 study, but only 17 in the most recent. Largely absent were slow-growing, late–maturing, low-fecundity species. Their absence suggests that the populations of these groups of apex predators may be close to collapse.
Thai surimi production has fallen from around 100,000 tonnes in 2012 to just over 52,000 tonnes in 2017. Fish prices for the species from which tropical surimi is typically made—itoyori, eso, flying fish, sea bream, and ribbonfish—are rising in spite of stable low wages. Surimi expert Jae Park of Oregon State University says of Thai surimi fish: "They're overharvested, they're really overharvested".
One response of the government has been a program to buy back 1,300 sub-standard trawlers to reduce overfishing. Thailand has 10,500 registered commercial trawlers. The 1,300 boats to be purchased by the government failed licensing standards after the government imposed more stringent, environmentally friendly laws. The cabinet in December 2017 approved the buyback to pacify boat owners. Buyback costs are equivalent to 40,000 baht per gross ton, equating to 400,000 baht to 2.4 million baht per boat. the government has not disbursed buyback funds. The National Fisheries Association of Thailand says its members will stop fishing unless the government pays for the 1,300 decommissioned trawlers. On 3 August 2018, the Fisheries Department announced that it would buy-back 680 unlicensed fishing boats for three billion baht.
Climate change poses a serious threat to the sustainability of the fisheries industry in the ASEAN region including Thailand.
Illegal fishing
On 21 April 2015 the European Commission threatened Thailand, the third-largest seafood exporter in the world, with a trade ban if it did not take action on illegal fishing. The EU, the world's largest importer of fish products, since 2010 has taken action against countries that do not follow international overfishing regulations, such as policing their waters for unlicensed fishing vessels and imposing penalties to deter illegal fishing. Thailand has failed to certify the origin and legality of its fish exports to the EU and now has six months, until October 2015, to implement a satisfactory action plan to address the shortcomings. EU fisheries commissioner Karmenu Vella declared that, "Analyzing what is actually happening in Thailand, we noticed that there are no controls whatsoever, there are no efforts whatsoever." The EU imported 145,907 tons of fish products worth €642 million from Thailand in 2014. In the view of the Bangkok Post, "The [Thai] fisheries bureaucracy's record is extremely shabby, resulting in a breakdown in state regulation of commercial trawlers. Fisheries officials are also known to have cozy relationships with trawler operators."
In a press release dated 21 April 2016, the European Commission updated its assessment of Thailand's progress, saying, "The dialogue is proving difficult and there remain serious concerns about the steps taken by Thailand to fight IUU [illegal, unreported and unregulated] fishing activities. This means that further action by the Commission cannot be ruled out. A meeting with the Thai authorities in May [2016] will be a new opportunity for them to show their good will and commitment." In addition to Thailand's illegal fishing concerns, what is often overlooked are abusive labor practices. The labor abuses, often referred to as sea slavery, involve the trafficking of workers onto fishing boats quite frequently in the form of force, fraud, or coercion, including debt bondage. The problem of sea slavery is connected to environmental concerns in this and other fleets because overfishing of near-shore stocks have caused a collapse in the number of fish, resulting in fishing boats needing to go further out at sea to catch bare minimum quotas. The price of venturing further from shore has given rise to a dependence on forced debt bonded or captive labor as a cost-saving measure.
Fishing practices
The Thai Department of Marine and Coastal Resources reported that the deaths of "400 rare marine animals" in 2017 were due to destructive fishing practices and equipment. Of the death toll, 57% were sea turtles, 38% dolphins and whales, and five percent dugongs. Fishing gear was the major cause, followed by disease and pollution. The death toll has hovered around 400 for three consecutive years and represents less than 10% of the 5,000 rare species found in Thailand's territorial waters. The department estimates that there are around 2,000 dolphins and whales, 3,000 sea turtles, and 250 dugongs living in Thai waters. All are protected as rare species.
Sharks were once common in Thai waters. Marine scientists now say that they may be close to collapse. Researchers examined bycatch on returning fishing boats at several Thai ports over a year. They discovered a sharp decline in the shark population. They also noted shifts in population composition compared to a previous study in 2004. They managed to count 2,123 sharks, and recorded only 17 species, compared with 64 species reported in 2004. In Thailand, sharks are often caught as bycatch when other species are being targeted. Bycatch in Thailand is largely unregulated, leaving, for example, only about 100 whale sharks in Thai waters, according to the Department of Coastal and Marine Resources. Thailand has been attempting to protect the species following an international commitment, the "International Plan of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks", initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It has been developing the "National Plan of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks", but it is not yet implemented as of 2018.
The period from 2012 to 2016 saw Thailand export 22,467 tons of shark fins, the primary ingredient in shark fin soup—a Chinese dish signifying wealth and privilege—making it the world's leading exporter. , 52 nations have implemented some form of ban on shark finning or fishing. Twelve countries have banned shark fishing altogether. But Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand still permit shark fishing. A study commissioned by WildAid, found that 57% of urban Thais have consumed shark fin at some point and 61% plan to consume shark fin in the future. More than 100 Bangkok restaurants serve shark fin soup
Waste management
When Thailand was a rural, agrarian society, garbage was of no concern as everything was made of natural products such as banana leaves. Waste could be discarded to decompose naturally. Today, according to one observer, "...it would not be an exaggeration to say that every locality in the country is...mired in its own garbage." Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) estimates that each Thai produces a daily average of 1.15 kg of solid waste, amounting to over 73,000 tonnes daily nationwide. According to Interior Ministry statistics, refuse nationwide in 2016 amounted to 27 million tonnes, up about 0.7% from the previous year. Of this, 4.2 million tonnes was generated in Bangkok. Thailand had 2,490 dump sites in 2014, but only 466 of them were of sanitary landfill caliber. Twenty-eight million tonnes of waste were left unprocessed. Bangkok's canals are awash in sewage, but also serve as dump sites. After recent severe flooding, tonnes of refuse blocked water gates, preventing drainage. At one water gate, more than five tonnes of debris had accumulated, consisting of everything from everyday consumer product waste to large items such as mattresses and furniture.
Organic waste
The PCD estimates that in 2017 organic waste collected by municipalities across Thailand accounted for nearly two-thirds of the country's total waste output: a reported 7.6 million tonnes— 64%—of the refuse collected was organic waste. It is thought that a significant portion of this waste is not merely fruit and vegetable peelings, but edible surplus food. This in a nation where 400,000 to 600,000 children may be undernourished due to poverty, yet ten percent of all children are obese. Prevailing attitudes do not encompass composting or waste sorting: 64 percent of the Thai population do not sort their rubbish according to one study.
Plastic waste
, Thailand generated two million tonnes of plastic waste. One quarter of that (500,000 tonnes) is reused. Thais throw away 45 billion single-use plastic bags per year, 12% of all household waste. Wet markets are the source of 18 billion plastic bags. Grocery and department stores each account for 13.5 billion bags.
Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) estimates that plastic waste in the country is increasing at an annual rate of 12%, or around two million tonnes per year. And yet, Thailand imported 480,000 tonnes of plastic garbage from abroad in 2018, and is set to import an additional 220,000 tonnes before existing contracts expire in September 2020.
Increasingly, plastic is the scourge of Bangkok's network of storm water pumping stations, clogging pumps during seasonal downpours and regularly turning thoroughfares into muddy rivers. Thailand is considered to be one of the world's largest consumers of plastic bags. Government figures suggest that the average Thai uses eight plastic bags a day. In contrast, the average person in France uses around 80 a year. In a 2015 report, the conservation group Ocean Conservancy estimated that just five countries—China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, and Thailand—were responsible for over half of plastic waste dumped into the ocean. Mr Narong Ruengsri, head of Bangkok's drainage department, said removing plastic from the canals and drainage system is a constant battle. "Every day we go fish out around 2,000 tons of waste from the drainage channels," he told AFP. Official figures show the 11,500 tonnes of garbage Bangkok produces each day, at least one tonne of which is plastic, is growing by 10% a year. Officially, only 16% is recycled.
The PCD estimates that Thailand consumes 4.4 billion plastic water bottles per year. Sixty percent of containers are capped with plastic wrap covering the cap, an unnecessary feature in the eyes of the PCD and due to be phased out by 2019. The cap seals alone contribute 520 tonnes of plastic per year to the environment. In February 2018 the PCD reached agreement with five leading water bottlers to cease using plastic cap seals by 1 April 2018, with all other bottlers to follow by 2019. The Environment Ministry claims that Thailand's 24 coastal provinces produce 10 million tonnes of waste per year. Ten percent of that finds its way into the sea.
In February 2017, a 10 kilometer-long patch of plastic refuse was found floating off Chumphon Province. The Thai Marine and Coastal Resources Department has noted that at least 300 sea animals on average—60 per cent of which are whales and dolphins—die from eating plastic fishing gear and trash each year. Filter feeding invertebrates tested off the coast of Chonburi Province showed high levels of microplastics, leading the authors to warn that, "Health risks are possible when people consume these contaminated marine organisms, particularly shellfish."
In May 2018 a juvenile pilot whale in southern Thailand beached and died. An autopsy revealed the creature had consumed 80 plastic bags weighing eight kilograms. A rescue attempt failed to save the whale. A marine biologist from Kasetsart University, said the bags made it impossible for the whale to eat any nutritious food. "If you have 80 plastic bags in your stomach, you die," he said. At least 300 marine animals including pilot whales, sea turtles and dolphins perish each year in Thai waters after ingesting plastic.
In June 2018, all Thai governmental agencies committed to reducing use of plastic. The move followed Prime Minister General Prayut Chan-o-cha's 17 April order for the Interior Ministry and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment to mount a campaign for reduced use of plastic. Its goal is to halve the amount of plastic ocean waste Thailand produces by 2027.
In 2017, the Thai government said that it might tax plastic bags. An "endless debate" ensued in government, but no action. Petrochemical firms maintain that plastic is not an issue if it is reused and recycled. Thai exports of polyethylene pellets and plastic goods amounted to 430 billion baht or five percent of total Thai exports in 2017 according to the Thai Plastic Industries Association. Finally, a ban on single-use plastic bags at major retailers was enacted to take effect on 1 January 2020. The ban exempts, until 2021, the 40% of total volume of single-use bags used at wet markets and restaurants. Bag manufacturers have cried foul, arguing that the solution to plastic pollution is proper disposal of bags and recycling. To make matters worse for the manufacturers, eight TV channels signed an agreement with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment on 2 January 2020 to blur images and footage of single-use plastic bags on-screen, as is done in Thailand for firearms, cigarettes, and alcohol.
In 2018, the Thai government awakened fully to the dangers of plastic pollution. The Thai Cabinet banned the use of plastic bags and Styrofoam food containers on the premises of state agencies. Concurrently, the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation launched a program to ban plastic bags, Styrofoam containers, plastic cutlery, and plastic straws in Thailand's 154 national parks. Park vendors may not use plastics and park visitors will be prohibited from bringing single-use plastic items into the parks.
In April 2019 the Thai Cabinet approved the "Plastic Waste Management Road Map 2018-2030". The plan prohibits the use of microbeads, cap seals, and OXO-degradable plastics by the end of 2019. Four single-use plastics to be prohibited by 2022 are lightweight plastic bags less than 36 microns thick, Styrofoam takeaway food containers, plastic cups, and plastic straws. All plastic used in Thailand by 2027 is to be recycled plastic.
On World Environment Day 2019, 5 June, the Pollution Control Department (PCD) said that the first year of the country's effort to reduce plastic waste has been a success. It claimed an 80% reduction in the plastic wrap used to keep dust off plastic water bottle caps. The Environment Ministry has created a National Roadmap to Tackle Plastic Waste, 2018-2030. PCD data shows that 0.5 million tonnes of plastic waste in Thailand was recycled in 2018 of the total two million tonnes of plastic waste generated.
In April 2019, Marium, an abandoned and ailing baby dugong washed up on a beach in southern Thailand. She was found to be suffering from an infection exacerbated by ingesting plastic waste. Overnight, she became the nation's sweetheart. Authorities did everything in their power to save her. In August, she died. Within a day the environment minister announced a national dugong conservation master plan named "Marium Action". Marium's body would be preserved for educational and awareness-raising purposes and 17 August was proposed as National Dugong Day. New dudong conservation zones were proposed. The prime minister pledged to "leave no one behind, including animals". In the same appearance, the prime minister delayed a ban on single-use plastic bags until 2022.
Finally, a ban on single-use plastic bags at major retailers was enacted. taking effect on 1 January 2020. The ban exempts, until 2021, the 40% of total volume of single-use bags used at wet markets and restaurants. Bag manufacturers have cried foul, arguing that the solution to plastic pollution is proper disposal of bags and recycling. To make matters worse for the manufacturers, eight TV channels signed an agreement with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment on 2 January 2020 to blur images and footage of single-use plastic bags on-screen, as is done in Thailand for firearms, cigarettes, and alcohol. Concomitantly, Thailand imported 480,000 tonnes of plastic garbage from abroad in 2018, and is set to import an additional 220,000 tonnes before existing contracts expire in September 2020. Between 2014 and 2018 Thailand imported 906,521 tonnes of plastic from 81 countries, according to the Commerce Ministry. Plastic imports nearly doubled between 2018 and 2019 due to increased Chinese imports.
Electronic waste
Thailand is a signatory to the Basel Convention, which prohibits the transnational movement of hazardous waste. The Thai government—sometimes acting through free-trade agreements—circumvents the convention, using legal techniques to skirt the prohibition and instead import hazardous waste, mostly electronic waste. Thai agencies tasked with preventing negative environmental impacts from e-waste have failed to perform their regulatory missions. They have allowed operators of waste management plants to reduce operational costs by disposing of hazardous waste improperly. That has contributed to serious environmental degradation and degraded the health of locals. Thailand legally imports about 53,000 tonnes of e-waste annually. Thailand permits 1,761 factories to manage electronic waste. Of these, 539 are electronic waste recycling plants. Another 1,222 plants dispose of e-waste in land-fills or by incineration. Most of these plants are in Rayong Province, Chonburi Province, and Chachoengsao Province.
In June 2018 Thailand banned all imports of foreign e-waste. China banned the import of foreign e-waste in 2018 also. Since the e-waste ban, 28 new recycling factories, most dealing with e-waste, have opened in Chachoengsao Province. In 2019, 14 businesses in Chachoengsao were granted licenses to process electronic waste, six of them in the Ko Khanun Subdistrict of Phanom Sarakham District. An official of the Basel Action Network, which campaigns against dumping waste in poor countries, said, "E-waste has to go somewhere, and the Chinese are simply moving their entire operations to Southeast Asia. The only way to make money is to get huge volume with cheap, illegal labour and pollute the hell out of the environment," he added.
Water pollution
Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical regions: north, northeast, central, south, and east. In those regions, Thailand has a total of 25 river basins. Thailand's annual rainfall averages around 1,700 mm.
Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." According to the Department of Water Resources, national water demand averages 152 billion m3 per year against a supply of 112 m3. The agricultural sector accounts for 75% of demand, the industrial sector three percent, households four percent, and preserving ecological systems 18%.
Dams and reservoirs supply 66% of water, 15% from surface water sources, and 13% is mined from underground.
Non-potable water is a result of untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. According to the Pollution Control Department, the agricultural sector is the largest polluter as the nation's farms discharged up to 39 million m3 of wastewater per day in 2016. The industrial sector ranked second, discharging 17.8 million m3 per day. The residential sector ranked third with 9.6 million m3 per day. Wastewater treatment processes in the residential sector were only 18% effective, while only 52% of wastewater was treated.
Surface waters
In 2003, Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) monitored the quality of 49 rivers and four lakes in Thailand. Findings revealed that 68% of water bodies surveyed were suitable for agriculture and general consumption. Only less than 40% of Thailand's surface waters were in poor or very poor quality. According to the survey of major rivers and lakes by PCD, no surface water was categorized as "very good" quality (clean water suitable for aquatic animals and human consumption after normal treatment).
Surface water quality varies widely in the different regions in Thailand. Surface water monitored in the northern, central, and southern regions appear to have poor quality, while water in the eastern region was fair. Compared to other regions, the rivers and lakes monitored in the northeastern region had good quality surface water.
In terms of dissolved oxygen (DO), surface water in the northern region ranks the best, approximately 6 mg/L, followed by the northeastern region with DO concentrations of around 4 mg/L. The central, eastern, and central regions rank the lowest, about 2 mg/L. The highest concentration of total coliform bacteria (TCB), among surface waters monitored, was found in the central region with concentrations of TCB higher than 4,000MPN (most probable number)/100mL.
Coastal waters
In 2003, PCD set up 240 monitoring stations in Thailand's 23 coastal provinces and on significant islands. In 2003, monitoring results showed that coastal water of 68 percent of the stations were in "very good" and "good" quality. Thirty percent of the stations were in "fair" condition and only three percent were in "poor" quality. Compared with past data, coastal water quality was shown to have deteriorated, specifically in the areas into which four main rivers flow. The chief indicators of pollution were DO and TCB.
Water quality in the inner Gulf of Thailand, into which the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, Pak Panang, and Rayong Rivers and several canals discharge, revealed high concentrations of domestic pollutants. Very low DO levels (0.3, 1.8, 3.5 mg/L) were found in the areas of Klong 12 Thanwa, Mae Klong, and Tha Chin. Additionally, TCB and heavy metal levels appeared to be higher than allowable standards in the same areas. In Bang Pakong District the level of total suspended solids (TSS) appeared to be high.
The western seaboard generally appeared to have "good" water quality. However, TCB levels in some areas where domestic waste water discharged into the sea without treatment exceeded the standard. Water quality in most areas of the eastern seaboard was in "good" condition, except for high levels of total suspended solids and TCB in the areas of Laem Chabang and Map Ta Phut. Despite rapid growth, overall coastal water quality in the Andaman Sea were still in "very good" condition, except for the few areas that revealed concerns of DO and TCB levels.
Water pollution has become obvious in many areas. In 1997, hundreds of thousands of fish and other aquatic life in the Nam Phong River died as a result of industrial pollution. Large amounts of arsenic were found in the groundwater in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, a result of mining in the area. Pollution affects the marine environment. Red tides, caused by excessive algae growth and a result of pollution, oil spills, and invasive species are some of the factors that are affecting Thailand's marine biodiversity.
Another major source of pollution are the heavy metals that have seeped into the rivers of Thailand. In the Chao Phraya estuary, mercury levels have far exceeded normal standards, and high concentrations of heavy metals on the river bed pose a serious threat to ecosystems.
In March 2017 Associate Professor Thon Thamrongnawasawat, vice dean of the fisheries faculty of Kasetsart University, said, "... there is something terribly wrong with the Thai sea [Gulf of Thailand]." His observation followed on the deaths of two Bruda whales and two whale sharks in the Gulf of Thailand since the beginning of the year. The latest casualty is a 12-metre Bruda whale weighing about two tonnes. It washed ashore in Village Nine of Tambon Thongchai, Bang Saphan District, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. Earlier, one six-month old Bruda whale was found dead on the beach of Ban Kung Tanod in Tambon Khao Daeng, Kui Buri District of Prachuap Khiri Khan. Two dead whale sharks that washed ashore in the past 70 days were entangled in ropes. there are only an estimated 100 whale sharks and about 50 Bruda whales remaining in the gulf.
Thai coral reefs have been degraded by tourism, sediment from landfills in coastal areas, and polluted water released by beachfront hotels, resorts, and homes. Water contamination is the largest contributor to the degeneration of coral reefs in Thailand, as 70% of polluted water is returned to coastal waters untreated. The damage is exacerbated by plastic trash, which can infect coral and cause long-term harm. , 77% of a total of 107,800 rai of coral reefs in Thai seas is "in a sorry state". In 2008, the percentage of degraded reefs was 30%.
Groundwaters
The Thai governmental agency charged with responsibility for groundwater is the Department of Groundwater Resources, part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
Groundwater is mainly recharged by rainfall and seepage streams. Aquifers yield a large amount of water throughout Thailand, with the exception of the eastern region. The largest source of groundwater is found in the lower central region, particularly in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) and surrounding provinces, and is being used to meet the growing water demand, growing at 10% annually. The depletion of the water table around Bangkok has led to land subsidence which has exacerbated flooding.
Agricultural run-off, coastal aquaculture, industrial effluents, and domestic sewage are responsible for the pollution of groundwater in Thailand. Also, the lack of an appropriate pricing policy is leading to over-exploitation of groundwater beyond sustainable yield. There is limited information at the national level on groundwater extraction rates, or the extent of contamination.
An on-going case of surface- and groundwater pollution has prompted one critic to charge that, "...Thai environmental protection mechanisms including environmental laws and law enforcement are not functioning." He is referring to a case in Ratchaburi Province: there, since at least 2001, villagers of tambon Nam Pu have complained about toxic wastewater from an industrial waste treatment plant they suspected of contaminating their water. Wax Garbage Recycle Centre, an industrial waste treatment plant, began its operation in the upstream area of Nam Pu Creek about the same time as contamination became evident. The pollution spread to tambon Rang Bua of Chom Bueng District. Responding to complaints, the Thai Pollution Control Department tested creek water and groundwater. It found that levels of heavy metals (lead, nickel, and barium) exceeded their standards. They also found high levels of volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, benzene, 1,1,2-trichloromethane and Cis-1,2-dichloroethylene. The Department of Industrial Works and Ratchaburi's Industry Office, since 2002, have sent 19 letters ordering the plant to improve its operation, and at least six orders for the plant to shut down parts of its facility. Despite efforts by the authorities, the plant is still in operation and toxic wastewater contamination continues unabated. A failing of Thai environmental governance is the lack of balance in regulatory power among authorities. The Pollution Control Department, for instance, has no power to revoke the plant's operating licences. That power resides with the Department of Industrial Works, but state agencies place greater importance on industrial economics than the environment.
Health effects
Water pollution results in typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, trachoma, hookworm, and diarrhea. In 1999, hospitalization rates were:
Typhoid: 4,000 hospitalizations
Dysentery: 7,000 hospitalizations
Diarrhea: 95,000 hospitalizations
Exposure to toxins and heavy metals in water causes skin disease, liver cancer, and birth defects. Klity Creek in Kanchanaburi Province was found to carry dangerous levels of lead from a lead separation plant upstream. Lead levels are apparently the cause of many cases of Down syndrome in village children, unidentified illnesses in adults, and many cattle deaths. In 1998, the plant was closed and the creek dredged, although as of 2017 lead levels were still considered unsafe and clean-up efforts continued to be needed.
Improvement efforts
In 1992, the government passed several pieces of legislation to prevent water pollution. The laws primarily limit industrial water contamination:
Enhancement and Conservation of National Environment Quality Act (NEQA) of 1992
Factories Act of 1992
Navigation in Thai Waterways Act (Volume 14 ) as amended in 1992
Public Health Act of 1992
Cleanliness and Tidiness of the Country Act of 1992
The government continues to invest in wastewater treatment plants. In 2000, enough treated water was available to support 29% of the population, with more treatment plants under construction. Upon completion, treated water will support 65% of the population. The most common water treatments are inexpensive to build and maintain. They include oxidation ditches, aerated lagoons, and stabilization ponds. The government is also investigating more effective and modern techniques such as constructed wetlands.
Wildlife
Thailand's wildlife is threatened by poaching, habitat loss, and an industry that sells wild animals as pets.
The elephant is Thailand's national symbol. Although there were 100,000 elephants in Thailand a century ago, the population of elephants in the wild has dropped to an estimated 2,000. Poachers have long hunted elephants for ivory, meat, and hides. Young elephants are often captured for use in tourist attractions or as work animals, although their use has declined since the government banned logging in 1989. There are now more elephants in captivity than in the wild, and environmental activists claim that elephants in captivity are often mistreated.
Poaching of protected species remains a major problem. Hunters have decimated the populations of tigers, leopards, and other large cats for their valuable pelts. Many animals (including tigers, bears, crocodiles, and king cobras) are farmed or hunted for their meat, which is considered a delicacy, and for their supposed medicinal properties. Although such trade is illegal, the famous Bangkok market Chatuchak is still known for the sale of endangered species.
The practice of keeping wild animals as pets threatens several species. Baby animals are typically captured and sold, which often requires killing the mother. Once in captivity and out of their natural habitat, many pets die or fail to reproduce. Affected populations include the Asiatic black bear, Malayan sun bear, white-handed lar, pileated gibbon and binturong.
Large-scale deforestation and development have encroached on many former wildlife habitats, and pesticides in their food supply has reduced bird populations. Many species are listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss and over-exploitation. The World Bank estimates that, of 214 countries studied, Thailand ranks ninth (1=worst, 214=best) in the world in the number of mammal species (55 species) under threat.
Despite Buddhism's professed reverence for life, even Thai clergy have been guilty of overt animal abuse. One such case, that of Kwan, a Malayan sun bear, egregiously mistreated at Wat Aungsuwan (aka Wat Nong Hoy) in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province has been thoroughly documented by the Wildlife Friends Foundation Thailand (WFFT). First alerted to abuse at the temple in January 2012, it was not until three years later that Thai wildlife officials acted on behalf of the mistreated animals.
In 2016, the body of the last known dugong in the Gulf of Thailand, identified by marine biologists as DU-391, was found off the coast of Rayong. Number 391 refers to it being the 391st dead dugong to be found there. The decline of vulnerable species in the gulf continued unabated, as 355 protected animals died since January 2016, a 10% increase over 2015. The 355 dead marine animals included 11 dugongs, 180 sea turtles, and 164 dolphins and whales.
Conservation in theory
Conservation bills passed by the government include:
1960 Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act
1961 National Park Act
1964 National Forest Reserve Act
1989 Logging ban in natural forests
1992 Forest Plantation Act
1992 Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act
1992 Wild Animals Reservation and Protection Act (WARPA), which forbids or restricts the hunting, breeding, possession, and trade of fifteen reserved animal species and two classes of protected species.
Until the acts of 1989–1992, conservation policies were difficult to enforce, and often took a back seat to economic development. These acts represented a major shift in Thai policy, and are part of the government's cooperation with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), an international wildlife protection agreement.
The government now requires that at least 15% of its land area be protected as forest, and 22% is currently protected as wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. To enforce CITES, the government also maintains border checkpoints to prevent animal smuggling, and works to educate the public about wildlife preservation. Thailand's Buddhist culture, with its emphasis on respect for all life, has become a key component of the country's conservation efforts.
Conservation in practice
Current (2015) national law allows for ivory from domesticated Thai elephants to be sold legally. As an unintended consequence, large quantities of African ivory can be laundered through Thai shops. Only by closing the domestic trade in ivory can Thailand help eliminate the threat to African elephants. Thailand's ivory market is the largest in the world and trade is largely fuelled by ivory from poached African elephant's tusks that are smuggled into the country.
In July 2014, at a CITES intercessional meeting, Thailand agreed to a strict timetable to address the illegal ivory trade or face the threat of trade sanctions. One week before the meeting, the TRAFFIC had released a survey of Bangkok that found significantly more retail shops and three times as much ivory on sale as in 2013. Thailand was given until 30 September 2014 to submit a revised national ivory action plan, to include a number of CITES specified measures. Thailand was to be next assessed by CITES on 31 March 2015. If found lacking, CITES will vote on whether trade sanctions should be imposed against the country. The impact of punitive sanctions on the national economy would be significant: all trade in CITES-listed species would be prohibited. The export of orchids by the country's horticultural sector, for example, would be stopped, resulting in a loss of more than US$80 million in annual sales based on the 2013 value of this trade.
A study published in 2018 by USAID Wildlife Asia said about 500,000 Thais are believed to own ivory products, and 250,000 own artifacts made from tiger parts. At Kanchanaburi's infamous Tiger Temple, nine tiger fangs, more than 1,000 amulets containing tiger skin and dozens of jars filled with dead animals and animal parts were found in a pick-up truck driven out of the Tiger Temple by a monk and two disciples. The temple has profited handsomely from tourism while billing itself as a spiritual organization dedicated to wildlife conservation since it opened in 1994.
Domestic animal welfare
Thailand introduced its first animal welfare laws in 2014. The Prevention of Animal Cruelty and Provision of Animal Welfare Act came into being on 27 December 2014.
The law protects animals "raised as pets, as animals for work, as beasts of burden, as friends, as livestock, as performing show animals, or for any other purpose, no matter with or without owners". Owners of animals are now required by law to "raise, nurture and keep the animals in appropriate conditions with good health and sanitation and with sufficient food and water". Within the act, the term "owner" is deemed to cover all family members and domestic help, as well as any friends assigned to take care of a pet.
Menus featuring live vertebrates are now illegal in Thailand. Trading in and consuming dog and cat meat is now illegal in Thailand under the 2014 act. Feeding live prey to snakes, crocodiles or other animals is also prohibited.
The act prohibits neglect, torture, or uncaring transport of live animals. Neglect includes improper housing and transportation of animals. An infraction is punishable by law, which may impose a two-year prison term and a fine of up to 40,000 baht (US$1,663), or both. Persons who dump unwanted pets at temples can now be charged with abandoning and endangering the animal.
Governmental indifference
The National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO), the military junta that took power in Thailand in May 2014, has taken a cavalier attitude towards environmental concerns. In early-March 2016, the NCPO issued Order No. 9/2016, designed to cut short the process of conducting environmental impact assessments (EIA) on mega-projects. This makes it possible for state agencies to fast track public projects related to transportation, water management, public health, and prevention of public dangers. The order allows state projects to be proposed to the cabinet before a full EIA is completed.
Junta order No.4/2016, signed on 20 March 2016 by Prime Minister Gen Prayut Chan-o-cha in his capacity as the chair of the Committee on National Energy Policy was published in the Royal Thai Gazette on 31 March 2016. It exempts 29 plants, 27 of them run by the state, from all laws related to city planning. The planned construction of coal-fired plants in Thepha District in Songkhla Province and in Nuea Khlong District of Krabi Province have both met with strong opposition from locals who are concerned about their environmental impact.
On 22 October 2019, the 26-member National Hazardous Substances Committee (NHSC) changed the hazardous agricultural chemicals paraquat, glyphosate, and chlorpyrifos from Type 3 toxic substances to Type 4, effectively prohibiting their production, import, export, or possession. Their use will be prohibited as of 1 December 2019. On 27 November 2019, the NHSC amended that timetable, moving the date for the ban of paraquat and chlorpyrifos to 1 June 2020. They lifted the ban on glyphosate, albeit with restrictions on usage: glyphosate will be used only on six major crops: corn, cassava, sugarcane, rubber, oil palms, and fruit. It is not permitted in watershed areas and other sensitive environment zones, and farmers must submit proof of use including the type of crops and the size of their farms when purchasing glyphosate. Industry Minister Suriya Jungrungreangkit, who chairs the NHSC, said the committee reached its decision after reviewing information provided by the Department of Agriculture and the Ministry of Public Health. NCHS member Jirapon Limpananon, chair of the Pharmacy Council of Thailand, announced her resignation from the NCHS Wednesday night following the meeting. The government's u-turn on the ban of dangerous chemicals prompted a columnist at the Bangkok Post to fume that, "...no further proof is required to show how some unscrupulous Thai mandarins are being held hostage by the agro monsters. With a wishy-washy prime minister, who clearly has no political will to make the right decision on this matter, we are indeed in a helpless situation."
Intimidation of environmental activists
In November 2016, the UN's regional human rights office (OHCHR) condemned Thailand for a series of murders of land activists which have gone unpunished, drawing attention to the kingdom's poor record in solving such killings. The office said it was compelled to speak out after an appeals court in Thailand's south upheld the acquittal of the sole suspect in the murder of an activist in 2015. Thailand has long been a dangerous place in which to take on powerful interest groups. A 2014 report by Global Witness said Thailand was the eighth most dangerous country in the world to be a land rights activist, the second most dangerous in Asia after the Philippines. Rights groups say between 50 and 60 rights defenders have been murdered in the last 20 years. There are also at least 81 open cases of enforced disappearance dating back as far the mid-1990s, according to the Asian Federation Against Involuntary Disappearances.
On 21 June 2004, Charoen Wat-aksorn was assassinated as he alighted from a bus returning to Prachuap Khiri Khan after he gave testimony about environmental destruction in Bo Nok and Ban Krut to the Senate in Bangkok. Charoen was a human rights defender and leader of the Love Bo Nok group who fought for over ten years until his death against coal-fired power, large-scale shrimp farming, and other environmental destruction in Prachuap Khiri Khan.
Porlajee Rakchongcharoen, known as "Billy", a Karen environmental activist, was reportedly arrested on 17 April 2014, in Kaeng Krachan National Park in Phetchaburi Province by a park superintendent and four other park officers. He was detained because he was found with a protected wild bee honeycomb and six bottles of honey. He has not been seen since. It is feared that he was murdered because of his activism. Billy's disappearance came three years after he assisted Karen villagers of Pong Luk Bang Kloy to file a lawsuit against the superintendent for ordering the eviction and burning of the village in May 2011. On 30 January 2017, Thailand's Department of Special Investigation (DSI) said that it would not investigate his disappearance, leaving it in the hands of the regular police despite three years of no progress in the case. However, after continued pressure from the Karen community, and especially Billy's wife Pinnapa Prueksapan, the DSI took on the case in April 2019. Possibly their late willingness to investigate was influenced by UNESCO turning down Thailand's application for Kaeng Krachan to be declared a world heritage site due to ongoing conflicts with the indigenous Karen communities. In September 2019 the DSI announced they had found an oil drum containing burned human remains, in a dam near to the area where Billy was last seen. DNA evidence matched Billy's mother and the case was re-classsifed as a murder investigation.
The NGO Global Witness reports that in 2014, four Thai environmental activists were murdered due to their work on local environmental issues. From 2002-2014, Global Witness estimates the total to be 21 deaths.
South Thailand's "Southern Peasants Federation" (SPF) names four of its members who were murdered between 2010–2015.
The New York Times reports that "Thailand is among the world's most dangerous countries in which to oppose powerful interests that profit from coal plants, toxic waste dumping, land grabs or illegal logging. Some 60 people who spoke out on these issues have been killed over the past 20 years,..."
On 5 August 2019, a prominent human rights activist, Eakachai Itsaratha, was abducted by ten men as he was entering a mosque to attend a public hearing on a rock quarry project planned for Phatthalung Province. He was taken to a hotel and held against his will until the completion of the hearing. Upon being released he was threatened. He was told not to return to the quarry site in Tamot District again, saying that his activities had adversely affected the quarry project and the process of obtaining permission from the government. Eakachai is secretary-general of Thailand's Non-Governmental Organizations Coordinating Committee on Development for the southern region (NGO COD-South), as well as the former deputy leader of the grassroots-based Commoner Party.
See also
Agriculture in Thailand
Deforestation in Thailand
Office of the National Water Resources
Waste management in Thailand
References
Further reading
Hamilton, John; Pratap, Chatterjee, 1991. "Developing disaster: The World Bank and deforestation in Thailand", in: Food First Action Alert, Summer issue.
Hunsaker, Bryan, 1996. "The political economy of Thai deforestation", in Loggers, Monks, Students, and Entrepreneurs, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA.
External links
Air Quality Index, Thailand Pollution Control Department
WWF summary
Environmental Issues and Environmental Education in the Mekong Region
Overview of Environmental Issues and Environmental Conservation Practices in Thailand
Environmental Problems and Green Lifestyles in Thailand
Environmental Policies in Thailand and their Effects
Issues | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Thailand |
Major environmental issues in Syria include deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, desertification, water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage and wastes from petroleum refining, and inadequate supplies of potable water.
Water shortages, exacerbated by population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution, are a significant long-term constraint on economic development. The water shortages in Syria turned into five successive years of drought, prolonging the environmental issues that Syria already had.
The Assad government (Arab Socialist Ba'ath
Party – Syrian Region) came into power in Syria in 1970. Hafez al-Assad ruled as President from 1971 to 2000, and following his death the presidency passed to his son, Bashar al-Assad. The lack of change in environmental policies contributed to the five successive years of drought. Also, the continuous ‘stability and peace’ movement for four decades that was instilled by the Assad government transformed into institutionalizing fear and violence amongst its own people had a effect in the 2011 Arab spring. The 2011 Arab Spring, which began as a civil uprising, quickly transformed into the Syrian Civil War.
The outbreak of the Civil War in Syria has been detrimental to the economy and environment. The toxicity of weapons used during the war such as mortar bombs, artillery shells, barrel bombs, aircraft bombs and missiles have been the leading cause for the damage to Syria's oil production, industrial areas, infrastructure, and waste management. Therefore, the Ministry of Environmental Affairs in Syria (State Minister: Nazira Farah Sarkis) has participated in the United Nations Conference to create the Sustainable Development Plan. This plan was created as an effort to combat desertification, biodiversity, and climate change. Unfortunately, at the General Assembly, it was declared that the plan had failed in terms of the setbacks that were found within the degrading land and eroding development gains. These environmental issues were ultimately related to the Syrian war.
Introduction
The Syrian government under the Ba'ath party has been around since 1970, and has managed to stay in power until the present day by instilling an authoritarian rule on Syria and its people. The ideology of fear and violence against Syria's people was perpetrated by former President Hafez al Assad (1971–2000). Upon Hafez al-Assad's death, his son – Bashar al-Assad – was named head of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party, and is the current President of Syria (2000–present).
Syria has various ethnic and religious cleavages that divided but also instilled a sense of loyalty amongst certain parts of the country. The main minorities in Syria include the Alawites (12 percent), the Greek Orthodox Christians and other Christian sects (9 percent), the Kurds (9 percent), and the Druze (3 percent). The Sunni religious group is considered to be the majority amongst the Syrian population. The ethnic and religious diversity in Syria has caused an unequal distribution of power. The Sunni Muslims dominated politically and ensured that the Alawites were denied any political input. The Alawites – a minority – wanted to have an input in their country, causing them to claim the armed forces and the Ba’ath Party. This created a secular and unstable Syria.
The lack of stability in the country originated from the formation of the Ba’ath party in 1963. The Ba’ath party was led by ex-peasant military officers who took power with a radical point of view creating quite a few oppositions such as the old oligarchs, the Muslim Brotherhood, and Nasserists. The Ba’ath Party wanted to become “the most important and ultimately successful of the radical movements that arose in post-independence Syria”, which meant that they were less likely to prevail if they mobilized from below, and more likely to succeed if they launched a “revolution from above”. When the Ba’ath Party gained control of the economy, it also created instability between the government and the opposition.
In 1970, when Hafez al-Assad came to power, it was ensured that he would leave behind the radical Ba’athist ideology that the leaders before him had held on to, leading him to opt for a more monarchical presidency. His presidency was the beginning of a façade presidential republic. There were no real oppositions because he made sure to concentrate the power in his hands. Even if the opposition were to happen, Hafez had run a patronage-based community which allowed him to control any form of chaos that were to happen in Syria. The government used coercion to keep Syria stable and under control. There were various coercive tactics that were used such as the Massacre of the Muslim Brotherhood in Hama in 1982, and the ‘incommunicado’ detention centers and military prisons where they mistreated and dehumanized the prisoners. Hafez was sure to make an example out of those who opposed him to keep the control within the hands of his government.
The various ethnic and religious cleavages were used to maintain control over the party, military and police forces, and government institutions. Since Hafez and the armed forces were both Alawite, he was able to ensure loyalty. The loyalty that was given by the military and police forces allowed him to keep any opposition from rising against his government.
After ensuring his authority, Hafez was able to begin his transition towards a market economy through institutionalizing a “social contract”. The state would provide the people of Syria subsidized food and public employment with the exception of completely surrendering their political rights. To reinforce the economic liberalization, he would also go on to creating a cross-sectarian coalition between the Sunni bourgeoisie and the Alawite military elites – helping him gain power and instill a stable Syria.
In 2000, Hafez al-Assad died, and the power was passed on to his eldest son – Bashar al-Assad. He was not involved in political affairs and was not expected to fill his father's shoes, but he rose to the task and assured that his father's legacy would live on.
Environmental issues prior to Syria's civil war
Water mismanagement
Five years of drought (2006-2011)
In the years of 2006-2011, Syria experienced five successive years of drought that created one of the biggest humanitarian crisis Syria has ever known. Although, the climate change has significantly impacted the drought in Syria, affecting the agriculture resources, the Assad government has demonstrated a long-term mismanagement and neglect of natural resources.
It is natural for droughts to occur in countries with semi-arid climate. Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine were similarly affected by the drought in 2007-2008, but Syria was the only country in the region that experienced a humanitarian crisis. The region that was severely affected by the drought is the greater Fertile Crescent. Being the main source for agriculture and animal herding, the drought caused agricultural failures and livestock mortality. The lack of change in policy setting – agricultural policies – has been one of the perpetrators of this issue. Hafez al-Assad had instilled policies to improve Syria's agricultural production including the redistribution of land, and irrigation projects. The land redistribution exploited the limited land affecting the level of groundwater as a consequence causing water shortage in Syria.
In 2003, 25 percent of Syria's GDP came from agriculture. In fact, Syria's agriculture depended on their 6-month winter season where they accumulated their rainfall to grow the crops. In 2007 and 2008, Syria failed to produce wheat due to having had the driest winter on record causing the agricultural share to fall to 17 percent. Farmers and herders were producing zero or near-zero livestock (such as wheat, and rice), forcing them to begin importing products for the first time in 15 years. This caused prices of wheat and rice to drastically increase. In 2010, the drought completely demolished the environment causing malnutrition and nutrition related diseases among children of 6 to 12-months old were suffering from anemia in Raqqa. People began migrating towards the urban areas causing an 80 percent lack of enrolment in schools.
The drought caused such distress to the environment and the people of Syria that it is speculated to have been the reason behind the Arab Spring that occurred in 2011. The Assad government had an over-concentration of benefits of economic reform, patronage and it was assured that the opportunities landed in the hands of the President's family and elite groups causing a mismanagement of natural resources. This affected the agricultural sector causing the government to put an end to subsidies in 2008 and 2009. Tensions began rising when the people of Syria could no longer afford basic necessities such as food and gasoline.
The lack of water resources management during the drought caused the water quality to become poor and contaminated. The water shortage in rural parts of the country caused farmers to reuse untreated waste water to water their livestock resulting in the pollution of the groundwater and the surfaces. The health risks were undeniable as people were beginning to drink contaminated water and falling ill with diseases such as kidney stones and E-coli.
The severe drought caused an abnormal population growth amongst the urban area of Syria. Poor infrastructure, youth unemployment, and crime rates began rising due to the serge of migrants causing instability in Syria. In fact, it is estimated that 1.5 million people from the rural areas, and 1.2 million Iraqi refugees migrated. The four decades of the Assad government's authoritarian leadership and lack of policy change was the product of the uprising, leading up to the current Civil war.
Waste mismanagement
The waste management in Syria prior to the war was already hazardous and weak. There are two types of Hazardous Waste Production in Syria such as Industrial Hazardous Waste and Medical Hazardous Waste. In 1997, 21,730 tonnes of industrial hazardous waste were collected from five of Syria's largest cities, and 470,000 tonnes of phosphogypsum were also produced. In 2000, 3,000 tonnes of medical hazardous waste were produced and it is estimated that annually by 2010, there will be an increase to 4,500 tonnes. To be more precise, 5 percent radioactive waste, 15 percent chemical waste, and 80 percent infectious waste composed the medical hazardous waste in Syria, and the lack of policy or government change perpetuated these issues. is relatively collected by municipalities or private companies but it was reported that approximately 80 per cent of domestic solid waste was disposed at open dump sites on the outskirts of town. The Assad government's long-term mismanagement of the waste produced dioxin and other gases causing air pollution in Damascus and Aleppo. In fact, whether the waste is hazardous or non-hazardous, it is not separated from domestic waste which began contaminating the water, the soil and of polluting the air. Medical hazardous waste is mismanaged as well. The medical centers in Syria do not have designated waste disposal causing the equipment at hospitals to get mixed and disposed with domestic waste. There are health risks implemented from the waste management of medical hazardous waste on health risks for health care workers, waste handlers, patients, and the rest of the Syrian population.
Mining pollution
The phosphate industry has had a negative impact on the environment. In fact, phosphate rocks have a high level of radio activity. The phosphate is exposed on the population and environment through mining and transportation of phosphate fertilizers. These fertilizers contain uranium. Also, the waste mismanagement of phosphogypsum is being dumped in undesignated areas, affecting the mining industry. When it evaporates in the air, it affects the environment, the workers, and the rest of the population.
The phosphate mines are situated near Palmyra and are transported and disposed of in an irresponsible manner. The waste from the mines is dumped near the Mediterranean Sea, and the pollution produced by the mining industry has contributed to the Mediterranean Sea's deteriorating state. The perpetuation of the Syria's pollution has not only affected Syria's environment, and its people, but has made its way into neighbouring regions. It has affected Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, West Bank and Gaza Strip, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovenia, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey. The pollution that is inflicted on the Mediterranean Sea are land-based such as sewage and urban run-off, urban solid wastes, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, organohalogen compounds, radioactive substances, nutrients, suspended solids, and hazardous wastes.
Effects of the Civil War
Damage to oil production
ISIS has taken control of the oil refineries in Syria and has begun selling on the black market for less than oil would normally be sold. It has become an economic incentive to purchase oil from ISIS even if it means to fund a terrorist organization. Since September 2014, the United States, government of Syria, Russia, and other allies, have begun blowing up the oil refineries with airstrikes to cut off the source of funding of ISIS. Because of this ISIS has become desperate for oil. They began digging holes to find oil, and when found, lighting up the oil on fire to refine it. When the oil is released in the air, it releases hazardous substances such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and lead. These substances have long term negative effects such as respiratory disorders, livers problems, kidney disorders, and cancer. The short term effects can also affect soils, people and the wild life.
Damage to industrial areas and infrastructure
The current Civil war has had negative repercussions on Syria's infrastructure and industrial areas such as Homs, Hama, Damascus, and Aleppo. Adraa, al-Sheikh Najjar, Hasya and Deir ez-Zor are industrial zones for which plans were established, but were interrupted by the outbreak of the civil war. The fight between ISIS and the Syrian Army over Aleppo has affected its infrastructure but also neighboring industrial zones such as al-Sheikh Najjar. Since the outbreak, 52 percent of Aleppo's infrastructure has been destroyed or damaged. ISIS was occupying Damascus affecting neighboring industrial city, Adraa which hosts heavy industry facilities such as cement factories, chemical plants, oil and gas storage and military production sites.
Toxicity of weapons
The toxicity of weapons such as mortar bombs, artillery shells, barrel bombs, aircraft bombs and missiles have taken a toll on the environment and the population's health. These weapons have ammunitions with common metal parts that contain lead, copper, mercury, antimony, and tungsten. Missiles and rockets contain solid or liquid propellants and nitroglycerin, nitroguanidine, nitrocellulose, 2,4-dinitrotoluene.
Degradation of Soil and Vegetation
Vegetation degradation and soil erosion are among the greatest environmental impacts caused by the Syrian Civil War. The war has caused the displacement of 13 million people, 8 million being internally displaced. Many of the internally displaced refugees have sought to avoid the conflict by migrating to Syria's coastal region. The humid coastal region contains more than 90% of Syria's vegetation and is an important hotspot of biodiversity, carbon storage, timber and recreation in the country.
Vegetation Loss
The internal displacement has put immense pressure on the area's natural resources, causing the degradation of this vegetated area. The high rates of vegetation destruction can be attributed to several factors. First, much of the civil war has taken place in fossil fuel rich areas, creating a shortage of energy. The Syrian electricity network has also been a target during the conflict. By 2013, more than 30 power stations were inactive and 40 percent of the countries power lines had been attacked. Those living in the coastal area are forced to cut down timber as fuel for heating and electricity. Second, the high influx of refugees has created the need for more housing. This need has caused the expansion of urban areas, encroaching on the dense vegetation and causing degradation. Third, vegetation fires have been set to produce wood charcoal. The most intense vegetation loss has been in areas with dense vegetation cover.
As previously mentioned, much of the fighting has occurred near fossil fuel extraction sites, specifically oil refineries. Attacks on oil refineries can cause oil fires which release harmful chemicals into the air, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The sulphur and nitrogen compounds are linked to acid rain which can have dire impacts on vegetation as well as cause soil acidification. PAHs persist in the environment for long periods of time and are known carcinogens. Syria also extracts heavy crude oil, which generally has a higher proportion of noxious substances, including heavy metals, making it especially dangerous when these substances seep into the soil. Syria has two oil refineries. The Syrian oil refinery in Homs has been under a large-scale attack for times since the beginning of 2012. Each attack has caused significant oil fires. In September 2014, the United States also targeted several oil installations in eastern and northern Syria, causing oil fires. There is the potential for these harmful substances to impact existing vegetation cover, either aerially or by changing the soil chemistry.
Syria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion occurs when wind and water remove soil from an area. If the topsoil and organic nutrients are removed, the land will become desert like and it will be difficult to support plant or animal life, in a process known as desertification. The soil resources in Syria's coastal region is very fertile, however vulnerable to erosion. The consistent droughts, relieved by occasional high intensity rain, create ideal conditions for erosion. The area also has steep slopes which further the erosion risk. Soil degradation poses a threat to land productivity as it loses the organic matter that allows plant material to thrive. This poses a risk, not only to Syria's biodiversity, but also to the potential rebound of the agricultural sector after the war.
The loss of vegetation cover in the coastal area is a factor that increases erosion. Plant roots help to keep the soil in place as well as shield it from heavy rainfall and high winds. Plants also absorb excess water, slowing runoff and reducing the risk of erosion. The rapid change in vegetation, caused by the influx of refugees, have created the conditions for increased erosion in the Syrian region.
2015 Dust Storm
In 2015, an unprecedented dust storm hit Syria and Iraq. It is believed that this storm was caused by the increased erosion in Syria due to the civil war and the prolonged drought. Syria's drought, which may have inflamed the civil conflict, as well as the mismanagement of Syrian water resources, resulted in a water shortage in Syria's agricultural region. The Turkish removal of dams along the Euphrates River may have also contributed to the water shortage. This shortage forced approximately 1.5 million agricultural workers to abandon their farms and head to urban areas. Without irrigation to keep the vegetation alive, the crops failed. This reduction in vegetation made the soil vulnerable to erosion and allowed for it to be picked up on a massive scale, causing the dust storm. The intense bombing also stirred up soil, contributing to soil erosion by making the soil easier to transport by wind and water.
Waste
Solid waste management was already a problem prior to the Syrian Civil War, however the violent conditions have significantly worsened the situation. The conflict has caused a shutdown of government operated waste management services. This has led to uncontrolled burning and dumping. Both of these have the potential to pollute the environment with airborne toxins or through chemicals seeping into the soil and groundwater resources. As the war continues and poverty increases, more people are looking through the waste to find food, construction materials, or items that can be sold. Municipal, medical, and hazardous waste are being mixed because of this collapse, which makes handling the waste especially dangerous. The excess waste can also promote the spread of diseases and parasites throughout the country. People have started to create their own waste programs alongside those in place by the UNDP, ICRC, and the Syrian Arab Red Crescent.
Ministry of Environmental Affairs
The Ministry of Environmental Affairs is led by State Minister Nazira Farah Sarkis. It was established in 1991, and is responsible for national policy making and for coordinating environmental activities and the adoption of environmental legislation and regulations. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs has made numerous efforts to reverse the environmental issues that were inflected prior to the war such as Law No. 50 created in 2002. It was the Environmental Protection Law which was to protect the environment sector such as forestry, agriculture, water, fisheries. However, the Assad government may have funded these plans too late for the Ministry of Environment to make major improvements. By the time they began their plans, the uprising had irrupted and not long after, the civil war.
Sustainable Development Plan
Before the UN Sustainable Development Plan was initiated, there were several conferences conducted working towards improving the environment in Syria. In 1992, within the Environment and Development Conference, there were conferences that were conducted. The Earth Summit for Environment and Development focused on combatting desertification, biodiversity, and climate change. Within the Environment and Development Conferences covered several other topics such as poverty, development, environment protection, human rights, good governance, women empowerment, children and youth issues.
In 2002, the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) conference was conducted. The summit planned the sustainable action plan, which would be renewed in the United Nation's conference on sustainable development in 2012. The WSSD was focused on implementing the policies to work towards a more sustainable Syria. The Ministry of Environmental Affairs implemented the State Five-Year Plan while focusing on poverty, quality of life, education, health, women empowerment, and environment protection. Prior to the 2011 uprising, the Ministry was determined to improve the environment while also improving social and economic issues as well.
In 2012, sustainability priorities were not the same for all actors. The producers, consumers, government institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and Private sector all have different priorities for Syria, and may not be focusing on the Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) that was initially set out to accomplish with all three aspects such as economical, environmental and social. In fact, they were focused on mainly improving the economy demonstrating the lack of achievement towards the Five-Year Plan and a sustainable Syria.
Failure of Sustainable Development Plan
In the 2012 National Report on Syria about the UN Conference on Sustainable Development, it was reported that there are several weaknesses that would cause the Sustainable Development Plan. There is a lack of understanding in the working sector in terms of sustainable development. The Assad government and the elites are concerned with only one aspect of sustainability causing the neglect of the other issues in Syria. Focusing on improving the economy but ignoring the social and environmental aspects is detrimental to the Sustainable Development Plan. Considering the pressing economic issues in Syria, it would cause the government to make impulsive decisions and causing the failure of the plan.
On October 20, 2015, the United Nations held a General Assembly to conclude the debate on sustainable development. It was concluded that the sustainable plan had the potential of improving the quality of life in Syria, but after the 2011 uprising which erupted into a Civil war, it became impossible for the plan to succeed.
Citations
References
Issues
Syria | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20issues%20in%20Syria |
The Andalusians () are the people of Andalusia, an autonomous community in southern Spain. Andalusia's statute of autonomy defines Andalusians as the Spanish citizens who reside in any of the municipalities of Andalusia, as well as those Spaniards who reside abroad and had their last Spanish residence in Andalusia, and their descendants. Since reform in 2007, the Andalusian statute of autonomy identifies the territory as a historic nationality in the preamble.
The Spanish Language Academy recognizes Andalusian Spanish as a set of diverse dialects. Andalusian nationalism is the belief that Andalusians are a nation separate from other ethnicities within Spain.
History and culture
In Antiquity, Andalusian people used to trade with Phoenicians and Sephardi Jews some thousand years before the Common Era, and they were called as Tarshish or Tartessos in the Old Testament and Greek texts. The genesis of modern Andalusian culture can be traced to the incorporation of the Moors territory to the Crown of Castile during the Middle Ages at the end of the Reconquista. It also coincides with the arrival of the Gitanos in the mid 15th century who also contributed to the culture of modern Andalusia and the expels of non-converted Muslims and Jews in 1492, and finally with the forced expulsion of all moriscos of Spain between 1609 and 1613. Subsequently the region was influential in the development of the Columbian exchange and global trade where Seville and Cadiz took a fundamental part. In fact, Blas Infante, the creator of Andalusian nationalism, drew heavily from the Regenerationism movement in Spain after the loss of Spain's last territories in the Caribbean and Asia in the Spanish–American War conflict.
There is a binomial denomination of Andalusia as High and Low, where High refers to the territory in the Baetic system and Low to the valley of the Guadalquivir river (that descends from the Baetic system to the Atlantic Ocean). The autonomous community institutions are in a good part in Low Andalusia (Seville). When that has been seen as a source of centrism there have been groups formed to make the problems visible. An example was the lack of a Spanish high speed train to Granada. The service has since launched, starting in 2019.
The Andalusians have a rich traditional culture which includes Flamenco style of music and dance developed in Andalusia and the Americas in the 19th and 20th centuries. Another example of traditional culture is the Holy Week ("Semana Santa"), shared with other Hispanic countries in America or the Philippines (see Holy Week in Spain, Holy Week observances and Holy Week in the Philippines). Spanish Catholic religion constitute a traditional vehicle of Andalusian cultural cohesion and the levels of participation seems to be independent of political preferences and orthodoxy. All the different regions of Andalusia have developed their own distinctive customs, but all share a connectedness to Catholicism as developed during baroque Spain society.
Genetics
Genetic tests show a strong presence of Y-DNA J-M172 (Levant) and E-M81 in Andalusian Men, with E-M81 (North Africa) being most commonly found in the Province of Huelva and J-M172 being most common in the Province of Granada.
Geographical location and population
Andalusian people live mainly in Spain's eight southernmost provinces: Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga, and Sevilla, which all are part of the region and modern Autonomous Community of Andalucía. In January 2006 the total population of this region stood at 7,849,799; Andalucía is the most populous region of Spain. In comparison with the rest of Spain, Andalusia population growth has been slower and it continues to be sparsely populated in some rural areas (averaging just 84 inh. per km2). Since 1960, the region's share of total population has declined, despite birth rates being about 40 percent higher than the Spanish average during past decades (currently it is only 13% higher.)
Between 1951 and 1975, over 1.7 million Andalusian people emigrated out of the region to other areas of Spain. This figure was approximately a 24% of the population of Andalusia as a whole, mostly hitting the countryside areas. The main recipients of this migration were Catalonia (989,256 people of Andalusian origin in 1975), Madrid (330,479) and Valencia (217,636), and to a lesser level, the Basque Country and Balearics.
During 1962 to 1974, around 700,000 people — almost all of them male — moved abroad for economic reasons, mainly originating from the provinces of Granada, Jaén and Córdoba. Their preferred destinations were France, West Germany and Switzerland, followed by the United Kingdom, Netherlands and Belgium. There are no official recorded figures for previous decades.
In South America in the last twenty years of 19th century, over 150,000 Andalusians emigrated to the Americas as a result of crop failures caused by the Phylloxera plague. Many Andalusian peasants moved to Brazil to work in the coffee plantations, mainly in rural areas of São Paulo State. Spanish immigrants to Hawai'i who were solicited to work in the sugar industry, arrived in October 1898, numbering 7,735 men, women and children by 1913. Most of them came from Andalusia, home of Don Marin. However, unlike other plantation immigrant groups, the Spanish moved on, and by 1930 only 1,219 remained, including a scant eight children born in Hawai'i. Most Spanish people left for the promising fields of California to make higher wages and live among relatives and friends who had settled in greater numbers there.
Additionally, Andalusians formed the major component of Spanish immigration to certain parts of Spain's American and Asian empire and the largest group to participate in the colonisation of the Canary Islands. Principally, Andalusians and their descendants predominate in the Canary Islands (Spain), Mexico, the Caribbean islands (Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and Cuba), and the circum-Caribbean area (Guatemala, Costa Rica, Panama, the Caribbean coast of Colombia, and in Venezuela). They were also predominant in the Rio de la Plata region of Argentina and Uruguay and in the coastal areas of Chile, Peru, and Ecuador.
Migration rationale
Some descriptions of the south of Spain highlights the landownership system, in the past often formed by large estates called latifundios, as a relevant force in shaping the region and migratory past dynamics. These wide expanses of land have their origins in landowning patterns that stretch back to Roman times; in grants of land made to the nobility, to the military orders, and to the church during the Reconquest (Reconquista) as well as in laws of the nineteenth century by which church and common lands were sold in large tracts to the urban middle class. The workers of this land, called jornaleros (peasants without land), were themselves landless.
This economic and cultural system produced a distinctive perspective, involving class consciousness and class conflicts as well as significant emigration. In contrast to the much smaller farm towns and villages of northern Spain, where the land was worked by its owners, class distinctions in the agro-towns of Andalusia stood out. The families of the landless farmers lived at, or near, the poverty level, and their relations with the landed gentry were marked by conflict at times. Conditions were often improved by the opportunities to migrate to other parts of Spain, or to other countries in Western Europe. Some of this migration was seasonal; in 1982, for example, 80,000 farmers, mostly Andalusians, migrated to France for the wine harvest. Part of the migration consisted of entire families who intended to remain in their new home for longer periods or perhaps forever.
Economic growth and social mobility, although dispersed and not homogeneous in the region, fundamentally started in the 1960s, increased in the 1970s and were intensified by the development of agroindustrial, tourism, and services sectors during democracy in the 1980s. Since 1990 Andalusia and other regions followed a dynamic convergence process and has moved closer in development to the most advanced regions in Europe; more and more it comes closer to overcome the average of European living standards. This has caused that some provinces areas are, in the last decades, net immigration recipients as well.
See also
Andalusian cuisine
Andalusian nationalism
Andalusian language movement
List of Andalusians
Medieval Arabic female poets#Andalus Period (711–1492 CE)
Music of Andalusia
Nationalities in Spain
Spanish people
References
Ethnic groups in Spain
Romance peoples | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusians |
The following lists events that happened during 1992 in New Zealand.
Population
Estimated population as of 31 December: 3,552,200.
Increase since 31 December 1991: 37,200 (1.06%).
Males per 100 females: 97.0.
Incumbents
Regal and viceregal
Head of State – Elizabeth II
Governor-General – The Hon Dame Catherine Anne Tizard, GCMG, GCVO, DBE, QSO
Government
The 43rd New Zealand Parliament continued. Government was The National Party, led by Jim Bolger. National controlled nearly seventy percent of the seats in Parliament.
Speaker of the House – Robin Gray
Prime Minister – Jim Bolger
Deputy Prime Minister – Don McKinnon
Minister of Finance – Ruth Richardson
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Don McKinnon
Chief Justice — Sir Thomas Eichelbaum
Parliamentary opposition
Leader of the Opposition – Mike Moore (Labour).
Alliance – Jim Anderton
Main centre leaders
Mayor of Auckland – Les Mills
Mayor of Hamilton – Margaret Evans
Mayor of Wellington – Jim Belich then Fran Wilde
Mayor of Christchurch – Vicki Buck
Mayor of Dunedin – Richard Walls
Events
6 February – Ruby Jubilee of Elizabeth II's accession as Queen of New Zealand
15 June – A by-election is held in the Tamaki electorate after the resignation of former Prime Minister Robert Muldoon. Clem Simich wins the seat and retains it for the National Party.
19 September – An indicative referendum on the voting system is held, with 85% of voters voting to change from the existing First Past the Post system, and 70% voting for Mixed Member Proportional as the replacement system.
27 October – New Zealand is elected to the United Nations Security Council for two years (1993–94) on the third ballot
12 December – A by-election is held in the Wellington Central electorate after Fran Wilde resigns to become Mayor of Wellington. Chris Laidlaw wins the seat and retains it for the Labour Party.
The country experiences an electricity crisis after drought conditions result in low South Island hydro lake levels.
Kapiti Marine Reserve is established
Arts and literature
Owen Marshall wins the Robert Burns Fellowship.
See 1992 in art, 1992 in literature, :Category:1992 books
Music
New Zealand Music Awards
Winners are shown first with nominees underneath.
Album of the Year: Headless Chickens – Body Blow
Midge Marsden – Burning Rain
MC OJ & The Rhythm Slave – What Can We Say
Single of the Year: The Exponents – Why Does Love Do This To Me
Headless Chickens – Cruise Control
Push Push – Trippin
Best Male Vocalist: Jordan Luck – (The Exponents)
Mikey Havoc (Push Push)
Shayne Carter (Straitjacket Fits)
Best Female Vocalist: Fiona McDonald – (Headless Chickens)
Moana
Ngaire
Best Group: Push Push
The Exponents
Headless Chickens
Most Promising Male Vocalist: David Parker – (Parker Project)
Jon Toogood (Shihad)
James Gaylyn
Most Promising Female Vocalist: Teremoana Rapley – (Moana & the Moahunters)
Christina Fuemana (House Party)
Lorina Harding
Most Promising Group: Shihad
The Exponents
These Wilding Ways
International Achievement: Crowded House
Jenny Morris
Straitjacket Fits
Best Video: Mauger Bros – Trippin' (Push Push)
Moana & The Moahunters – AEIOU
Headless Chickens – Cruise Control
Best Producer: Steve Garden – Burning Rain (Midge Marsden)
Rex Visible/ Headless Chickens – Body Blow
Carl Doy – Standing Ovation
Best Engineer: Nick Morgan – Burning Rain (Midge Marsden)
Tony Moan /Steve Smith – World Gone Wild
Ian Morris/ Tim Farrant – What's The Time Mr Wolf
Best Jazz Album: Various / Broadbent / Chisholm / Gibson / Brown – Fine & Dandy
Nairobi Trio – Nairobi Trio
Liz Braggins – Liz Braggins
Best Classical Album: Mcintyre / Doig / Marc – Wagner
Dorian Choir – Images of Light
Viva Voce – Sounds & Sweet Airs
Best Folk Album: Lorina Harding – Lucky Damn Woman
Angela Dixon – Takin A Chance
Martin Curtis – The Daisy Patch
Best Country Album: John Grenell – Windstar
Barbie Davidson – Borderline
Renderers – Trail of Tears
Best Gospel Album: Pacific Island Choir – O Mai Ia Ia Iesu
Congregational Christian Church – Oe Le Faitoaga Moi
Ambassador Gospel Singers – Hear The Call
Best Polynesian Album: Charles & Andre – CÉst Toi Ma Vie
The Five Stars – Children of Polynesia
Tumuenua Dance Group – Drums, Songs And Chants
Best Māori Album: Moana & The Moahunters – AEIOU
John Rowles – E Te Tamaiti
The Whanau Funksters – Funky Whanau Feeling
Best Songwriter: Neil Finn – Fall at Your Feet (Crowded House)
Jordan Luck – Why Does Love Do This To Me
Neil & Tim Finn – It's Only Natural
Best Cover: Hamish Kilgour – Pink Flying Saucers Over The Southern Alps (Various Artists)
Richard Gourley -'Hold Onto Your Face
Dick Frizzell -What Can We Say?
See: 1992 in music
Performing arts
Benny Award presented by the Variety Artists Club of New Zealand to Carl Doy ONZM.
Radio and television
25 May: Shortland Street first airs.
See: 1992 in New Zealand television, 1992 in television, List of TVNZ television programming, :Category:Television in New Zealand, TV3 (New Zealand), :Category:New Zealand television shows, Public broadcasting in New Zealand
Film
Alex
Braindead
See: :Category:1992 film awards, 1992 in film, List of New Zealand feature films, Cinema of New Zealand, :Category:1992 films
Internet
See: NZ Internet History
Sport
Athletics
Mark Hutchinson wins his first national title in the men's marathon, clocking 2:16:32 on 25 October in Auckland, while Lee-Ann McPhillips claims her second in the women's championship (2:40:00).
Horse racing
Harness racing
New Zealand Trotting Cup: Blossom Lady
Auckland Trotting Cup: Master Musician
Thoroughbred racing
Olympic Games
Summer Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of 134 competitors in 17 sports.
Winter Olympics
New Zealand sends a team of nine competitors across three sports.
Annelise Coberger wins New Zealand's first Winter Olympics medal.
Paralympic Games
Summer Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of 13 competitors.
Winter Paralympics
New Zealand sends a team of seven competitors in one sport.
Shooting
Ballinger Belt –
Micheil Sweet (Australia)
Diane Collings (Te Puke), sixth, top New Zealander
Soccer
The Chatham Cup is won by Miramar Rangers who beat Waikato United 3–1 in the final.
Births
January
1 January
Dane Cleaver, cricketer
Aaron James Murphy, actor
Nathaniel Peteru, rugby league player
3 January
Scott Kuggeleijn, cricketer
Daniel McLay, racing cyclist
Sio Siua Taukeiaho, rugby league player
5 January
Abby Damen, actor
Hagen Schulte, rugby union player
6 January – James McDonald, jockey
7 January – Tohu Harris, rugby league player
9 January – Joseph Parker, boxer
10 January – Carlos Tuimavave, rugby league player
12 January – Cole McConchie, cricketer
13 January – Sam Cane, rugby union player
14 January – Te Paea Selby-Rickit, netball player
15 January
Matthew Stanley, swimmer
Chris Ulugia, rugby league player
16 January – Ihaia West, rugby union player
17 January – Craig Cachopa, cricketer
21 January – Gafatasi Su'a, rugby union player
23 January – TJ Perenara, rugby union player
24 January – Christian Lloyd, rugby union player
29 January – Jordan Taufua, rugby union player
February
1 February
Christian Huriwai, unicyclist
Milford Keresoma, rugby union player
3 February – Bryn Hall, rugby union player
4 February – Kayla Imrie, canoeist
5 February – Mitchell Santner, cricketer
9 February – Caitlin Ryan, canoeist
11 February – Ope Peleseuma, rugby union player
13 February – Kayla Cullen, netball player
14 February – Paterika Vaivai, rugby league player
15 February – Leigh Kasperek, cricketer
18 February – Matt Taylor, cricketer
23 February – Jamison Gibson-Park, rugby union player
24 February – Bevan Small, cricketer
25 February – Rose Matafeo, comedian, television presenter
26 February – Michael Chee Kam, rugby league player
March
1 March – Tom Walsh, athlete
4 March – Omar Slaimankhel, rugby union and rugby league player
8 March – Nathan Harris, rugby union player
14 March – Joe Wright, rower
16 March
Olivia Merry, field hockey player
Siate Tokolahi, rugby union player
17 March – Jake Heenan, rugby union player
19 March
Alex Maloney, sailor
Api Pewhairangi, rugby league player
25 March – Mosese Fotuaika, rugby league player
29 March – Morgan Figgins, figure skater
April
1 April
Alex Gilbert, adoption advocate
James Musa, association footballer
Adam Thomas, association footballer
2 April – Tom Latham, cricketer
3 April – Byron Wells, freestyle skier
4 April – Reggie Goodes, rugby union player
6 April – Francie Turner, rowing coxswain
7 April
Sitaleki Akauola, rugby league player
Joe Latta, rugby union player
9 April – Anna Willcox-Silfverberg, freestyle skier
13 April – Adam Milne, cricketer
17 April
Ambrose Curtis, rugby union player
Erin Nayler, association footballer
19 April - Ofa Tu'ungafasi, rugby union player
20 April – Sauaso Sue, rugby league player
28 April – Lakyn Heperi, musician
May
3 May – Will Skelton, rugby union player
8 May – Wayne Ulugia, rugby league player
9 May – Paul Coll, squash player
10 May – Malakai Fekitoa, rugby union player
13 May – Josh Papalii, rugby league player
19 May
Kwabena Appiah, association footballer
Felise Kaufusi, rugby league player
24 May
Ethan Rusbatch, basketball player
Jack Whetton, rugby union player
26 May
Isaac Grainger, rower
Curtis Rona, rugby league player
28 May - Hannah Wilkinson, association footballer
June
5 June – Tupou Sopoaga, rugby league player
6 June – Nela Zisser, model
8 June – Sean Lovemore, association footballer
14 June – Penani Manumalealii, rugby league player
30 June
Tom Doyle, association footballer
Grace Prendergast, rower
July
3 July – Ryan Cocker, rugby union player
4 July – Brooke Neal, field hockey player
5 July – Felicity Milovanovich, actor
8 July – James Lowe, rugby union player
16 July – Gerard Cowley-Tuioti, rugby union player
23 July – Seta Tamanivalu, rugby union player
24 July – Shaun Kirkham, rower
26 July – Samantha Lucie-Smith, swimmer
30 July – Adam Barwood, alpine skier
31 July – John Palavi, rugby league player
August
6 August – Hamish Northcott, rugby union player
7 August – Albert Nikoro, rugby union player
8 August – Jimmy Tupou, rugby union player
14 August
Liam Graham, association footballer
Marty McKenzie, rugby union player
17 August - Alex Elisala, rugby league player
20 August – Sulu Tone-Fitzpatrick, netball player
24 August – James Hunter, rower
28 August – Willis Feasey, alpine skier
September
3 September – Michael Davidson, cricketer
4 September – Princess Chelsea, musician
5 September – Teimana Harrison, rugby union player
6 September – Joe Walker, cricketer
10 September – Hugh Blake, rugby union player
14 September – Michael Fatialofa, rugby union player
21 September – Avalon Biddle, motorcycle racer
24 September
Pita Ahki, rugby union player
Darcina Manuel, judoka
27 September – Eve MacFarlane, rower
October
7 October – Hayley Jensen, cricketer
8 October – Octagonal, thoroughbred racehorse
9 October – Jay White, professional wrestler
11 October – Ligi Sao, rugby league player
12 October – Rhys Marshall, rugby union player
13 October – Alex Kennedy, rower
19 October – Scott Eade, rugby union player
20 October – Maddy Green, cricketer
21 October – Aaron Barclay, triathlete
22 October – Nathan Flannery, rower
24 October – Roysyn, thoroughbred racehorse
26 October
Matt Proctor, rugby union player
Sam Vaka, rugby union player
29 October – Eric Sione, rugby union player
31 October – Ish Sodhi, cricketer
November
3 November
Lance Beddoes, squash player
Jamie McDell, singer-songwriter
9 November – Bridgette Armstrong, association footballer
20 November – Lara Custance, actor
22 November
Natalie Dodd, cricketer
Will Young, cricketer
December
4 December – Peta Hiku, rugby league player
8 December
David Correos, comedian
Julia King, field hockey player
9 December – Sarah Goss, rugby union player
11 December – Megan Craig, squash player
12 December – Sophia Fenwick, netball player
17 December – Joe Carter, cricketer
21 December – Cameron Lindsay, association footballer
22 December – Aki Seiuli, rugby union player
23 December – Damon Leitch, motor racing driver
25 December – Christobelle Grierson-Ryrie, model
Exact date unknown
Stevie Tonks, singer
Deaths
January–March
6 January – Steve Gilpin, musician (born 1949)
18 January – Desmond O'Donnell, rugby union player (born 1921)
20 January – Snow Bowman, rugby union player (born 1915)
3 February – Merv Corner, rugby union player, soldier, sports administrator (born 1908)
19 February – Sir Gordon Minhinnick, cartoonist (born 1902)
25 February – F. Russell Miller, politician (born 1914)
9 March – Ethel Gould, politician, MLC (born 1895)
15 March – Allan Dick, politician (born 1915)
April–June
21 April – Barry Dallas, doctor, politician (born 1926)
28 April – Allan Highet, politician (born 1913)
2 May –
Trevor Hatherton, geophysicist, scientific administrator (born 1924)
Kel Tremain, rugby union player (born 1938)
9 May – Alex Stenhouse, association footballer (born 1910)
23 May – Ernst Plischke, architect (born 1903)
29 May – Mavis Rivers, jazz singer (born 1929)
4 June – Mortie Foreman, plastics manufacturer (born 1902)
5 June – Rangitaamo Takarangi, Māori welfare officer and community leader (born 1901)
9 June – Jim Clayton, rower (born 1911)
July–September
4 July – Jimmy James, dancer, dance teacher, cabaret proprietor (born 1915)
10 July – Laurie Haig, rugby union player (born 1922)
11 July – Douglas St John, cricketer (born 1928)
17 July – Frank Haigh, lawyer, social reformer (born 1898)
27 July – Audrey Gale, lawyer, politician (born 1909)
30 July – John Scott, architect (born 1924)
July (date unknown) – Mervyn Thompson, playwright, theatre director, drama academic (born 1936)
2 August –
Alf Cleverley, boxer (born 1907)
Roderick Finlayson, writer (born 1904)
5 August – Sir Robert Muldoon, politician (born 1921)
6 August – Jack Brooke, yachtsman, yacht designer, research engineer (born 1907)
14 August – Bill Hamilton, agricultural scientist, scientific administrator (born 1909)
15 August – Ronald Moore, soldier (born 1915)
29 August - Ian Hamilton, cricketer (born 1906)
19 September – Percy Allen, politician (born 1913)
October–December
1 October – Samantha Dubois, radio presenter (born 1955)
4 October – Denny Hulme, motor racing driver (born 1936)
13 October – Ruth Page, political activist (born 1905)
24 October – Oswald Sanders, Christian teacher, missionary and writer (born 1902)
6 November – Gordon Innes, rugby union and rugby league player (born 1910)
18 November – Ken Gray, rugby union player, politician (born 1938)
22 November –
Ronald Sinclair, child actor, film editor (born 1924)
Sir Gerard Wall, surgeon, politician (born 1920)
12 December – Sir Robert Rex, Niuean politician (born 1909)
19 December – Eve Sutton, children's author (born 1906)
26 December – Eve Poole, Mayor of Invercargill (born 1924)
28 December – Paul Beadle, sculptor and medallist (born 1917)
29 December – Avice Bowbyes, home science academic (born 1901)
31 December – Sir Denis Barnett, air force officer (born 1906)
See also
List of years in New Zealand
Timeline of New Zealand history
History of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
Timeline of the New Zealand environment
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
References
External links
New Zealand
Years of the 20th century in New Zealand | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20in%20New%20Zealand |
Nieuwebrug is a hamlet in the western Netherlands. It is located in the municipality of Haarlemmermeer, North Holland, about 11 km west of Amsterdam.
Nieuwebrug has a population of around 360.
References
Populated places in North Holland
Haarlemmermeer | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwebrug%2C%20North%20Holland |
The Second Sino-Japanese War began on 7 July 1937 with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in the Republic of China and is often regarded as the start of World War II as full-scale warfare erupted with the Battle of Shanghai, and ending when the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies in August 1945. The Chinese Air Force faced the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy Air Forces and engaged them in many aerial interceptions, including the interception of massed terror-bombing strikes on civilian targets, attacking on each other's ground forces and military assets in all manners of air-interdiction and close-air support; these battles in the Chinese skies were the largest air battles fought since the Great War, and featured the first-ever extensive and prolonged deployment of aircraft carrier fleets launching preemptive strikes in support of expeditionary and occupational forces, and demonstrated the technological shift from the latest biplane fighter designs to the modern monoplane fighter designs on both sides of the conflict.
Although a largely dismissed and forgotten war in the Western thinking, the significance and impact of the airwar between China and the Empire of Japan cannot be denied; it was the best opportunity for the Western powers to learn about the development and technological prowess of the enemy that would shock the West with the rude awakening by the end of 1941 when Imperial Japanese ambitions expanded into the Pacific.
Overview
China was not an aviation-industrial power at the time, and relied on foreign countries for its military aircraft, but did have a fledgling aircraft industry that produced a few indigenous experimental aircraft designs and foreign aircraft designs under license, including about 100 Hawk III fighter-attack planes, China's frontline fighter-attack plane of choice when war broke out in 1937, at the CAMCO plant based at the Hanzhou Jianqiao Aerodrome. 15 Chinese-American pilots along with Chinese pilots of other foreign nationalities formed the first unofficial volunteer group of pilots to join provincial/warlord air force units in the early-mid 1930s, and ultimately integrating into the front-line air units of the centralized command of the Nationalist Air Force of China by 1937, in the unified-front for imminent war against Imperial Japan. These volunteers included future ace-fighter pilots Art Chin, John "Buffalo" Huang, Wong Pan-Yang, plus Hazel Ying-Lee (who was not allowed to fly in combat as a female), Louie Yim-qun, Chan Kee-Wong et al.
As the battles of Shanghai, Nanjing, Taiyuan, and other regions dragged on near the end of 1937, the initial Chinese Air Force inventory of mostly American-made aircraft had become largely depleted, and the Soviet Union came to China's aid by supplying the bulk of aircraft to the Chinese Air Force for the next four years of war under the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1937, and dispatching a Soviet Volunteer Group of aviators to assist with the combat operations in China; Chinese fighter pilots having mostly converted into the Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 series of fighter aircraft by early-1938. According to records from the USSR, 563 fighter planes and 322 bombers were provided to China by the Soviet Union, and these included the twin-engined Tupolev SB medium bombers and 4-engined Tupolev TB-3 heavy bombers, with the addition of Polikarpov I-153 fighters; the Chinese Air Force would remain with these increasingly obsolescent aircraft through 1941 as the Japanese made tremendous technological advancements to their combat aircraft designs and powerplant technology.
Following the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the United States took actions to assist the Republic of China against Imperial Japan, with the oil and scrap metal embargo and freezing of Japanese assets in the summer of 1941, and along with the Lend-Lease Act of which China was included as a beneficiary on 6 May 1941, the American Volunteer Group (a.k.a. "Flying Tigers") entered the war in December 1941 with the task of protecting the main Allied supply-line into China; the cross-Himalayan air-route known as "The Hump", between the Harbor of Rangoon in Burma, British bases in India, and the Chinese wartime port-of-entry in Kunming, China, and consequently, with the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. officially joined the war against Japan.
1937
Battle of Shanghai/Nanjing
At the outbreak of full-scale conflict of the Second Sino-Japanese War/World War II in August 1937, the Chinese Air Force had 645 combat aircraft, of which about 300 were fighter planes. Japan had 1,530 army and navy aircraft, of which about 400 were deployed in China. The frontline Chinese fighter squadrons were equipped primarily with the Curtiss Hawk IIIs and Hawk IIs, followed by Boeing P-26 Model 281 Peashooter, and Fiat CR.32. Bomber-attack aircraft consisted primarily of the Curtiss A-12 Shrikes, Douglas O-2s, Heinkel He-111, Martin B-10s and Northrop Gammas. The air war in China had become a testing-zone for the latest biplane fighter designs confronting the new generation of monoplane fighter and bomber aircraft designs; the world's first aerial combat and kills between modern monoplane fighter would occur in the skies of China.
In August 1937 Claire Lee Chennault accepted the offer to assume position as an "air combat adviser" of Chiang Kai-shek, and to train new fighter pilots at the Republic of China Air Force Academy, which was forced to move from the Jianqiao to the Wujiaba Aerodrome due to the war situation.
On 14 August 1937 the Chinese Air Force fighter squadrons sortied for the defense of Shanghai and Nanjing, capital of the Republic of China. In the afternoon of 14 August 1937, two groups of nine Japanese Mitsubishi G3M long-range bombers were launched from Japanese-occupied Taiwan on a mission to bomb Jianqiao Airfield in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, and Guangde Airfield in Anhui. The 21st and 23rd Squadrons, led by Kao Chih-hang, the Group Commander of the Chinese 4th Pursuit Group, took off from Jianqiao Airfield to intercept the Japanese bombers, despite the fact that some of the fighters had just flown in from Zhoukou and had not been refueled. Kao attacked a G3M bomber and scored a direct hit sending it plummeting to the ground in flames, and he also damaged another G3M bomber; it was the first air-to-air victory for the Chinese Air Force. Meanwhile, three other Hawk IIIs attacked a third G3M bomber and shot it down. The second group of Japanese G3M bombers attacking Guangde Airfield was intercepted by the 22nd Squadron of the 4th Pursuit Group and the 34th Squadron. Squadron Commander Cheng Hsiao-yu of the 22nd Squadron shot up the right engine and the wing fuel tank of one G3M bomber, forcing it to ditch before returning to its air base. The aerial battles in the afternoon of 14 August were a resounding victory for the Chinese Air Force, in which the Chinese Hawk III fighters destroyed four Japanese G3M long-range bombers without losing a single plane to the Japanese. In addition, two G3Ms were also shot down by ground anti-aircraft fire.
On the following day at dawn 15 August, 12 Japanese Type 89 torpedo bombers were intercepted over Hangzhou by 21 Hawk IIIs of the Chinese 4th Pursuit Group led by Group Commander Kao Chi-hang. The Chinese shot down eight bombers. In the afternoon 20 Japanese G3M bombers on a raid to Nanjing were intercepted by 26 Chinese fighters from the 8th, 17th, 28th and 34th Squadrons flying eight Boeing 281 P-26 Peashooters, five Gloster Gladiators, 13 Hawk IIIs and Hawk IIs. The Chinese shot down four and damaged six Japanese G3M bombers.
On 16 August, the Japanese launched two raids with a total of 11 Japanese G3M bombers on the airfield near Nanjing; they were intercepted by five Chinese fighters from the 17th and 28th Squadrons. The Chinese shot down three Japanese bombers, and lost three fighters. On 17 August Chinese Hawk III fighters flew 17 sorties shooting down one Japanese bomber; the Chinese lost two aircraft. From 20 August to the end of the month, daily aerial engagements took place between the Chinese and Japanese planes, and the Japanese facing unexpected tenacity from the Chinese pilots, suffered prohibitive losses made worse by the sacrifice of armored protection in exchange for supposed-advantage of lighter-weight and higher-performance of the newer Japanese aircraft designs. In that period the Chinese shot down 24 Japanese planes and lost 11 aircraft.
While seeking to better compete against the highly advanced Mitsubishi A5M fighters of the IJNAF, Colonel Kao Chih-hang on a morale-boosting shakedown of his men and performance-boosting of his machines, had his maintenance crews remove the bomb-racks, fuel tank cowlings, landing lights, etc., to save weight and reduce drag off the Hawks, and on 12 October 1937, he led an aggressive seek-and-destroy mission consisting of six Hawk IIIs, two Boeing P-26/281 "Peashooters", and a Fiat CR.32 in the opportunity to engage any approaching Japanese fighter aircraft. A group of Mitsubishi A5Ms soon appeared on approach to Nanking and Col. Kao led his group into a melee, where Maj. John Wong Pan-Yang, a Chinese-American volunteer pilot from Seattle flying one of two P-26 "Peashooters", drew first blood shooting down the A5M piloted by PO1c Mazazumi Ino. Capt. Liu Cuigang shot down another A5M that was sent crashing down into a "Mr. Yang's residence in southern Nanking", and Colonel Gao scored a double-kill against the A5Ms, including that of shotai leader WO Torakuma, all before jubilant spectators of the city of Nanking. This was a monumental moment of air-superiority exhibited by the Chinese pilots due to the great experience of Col. Gao, Maj. Wong and Capt. Liu in particular, as they were outnumbered and yet so convincingly defeated the Japanese fighter group flying the far-more advanced Mitsubishi A5M "Claudes".
Battle of Taiyuan
As the frontline battlefields raged at the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanking, pressing demands for aerial support at the Battle of Taiyuan in the northern front and Canton in the southern front, forced the Chinese Air Force to split the 28th PS, 5th PG based at Jurong Airbase in the Nanking defense sector into two smaller squadrons, and then dispatching half of the squadron to the south in Guangdong under the command of Lt. Arthur Chin, and the other half to the north at Taiyuan under the command of Capt. Chan Kee-Wong.
Battle of Nanchang
The Japanese launched pre-emptive airstrikes against Chinese Air Force assets at the Laoyingfang and Qingyunpu Airbases beginning in 1937; these were engaged by new Chinese Polikarpov fighters obtained under the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1937.
Summary of 1937
In the first four months of the war from July to November 1937, the Chinese Air Force flew 137 sorties, attacking Japanese army positions, and engaged in 57 air battles with Japanese airplanes; the Chinese Air Force shot down 94 Japanese planes and damaged 52 on the ground, but lost 131 aircraft. The Chinese Air Force pilots fought well despite their airfields being under constant Japanese air attacks. To commemorate the heroic acts and sacrifices of the Chinese pilots in defense of their homeland, the Republic of China declared 14 August the Chinese Air Force Day known as the "814 Day", the day on which the Chinese Air Force scored its first air-to-air victory. In this initial phase of the war, the outnumbered Chinese had no replacements for their lost planes and many experienced pilots killed in action, while the Western powers turned its back to the war situation, the Chinese began turning to the Soviet Union for new aircraft and various other combat equipment and war materials, while the Japanese were able to replace their lost planes with even more advanced aircraft, and continued to train new pilots.
1938
Battle of Taierzhuang
Chinese B-10 bombers over Nagasaki
The Chinese Air Force deployed two Martin B-10 (a.k.a. Martin Model 139) bombers led by pilots Capt. Hsu Huan-sheng and 1Lt. Teng Yan-po on 19 May 1938 in an infiltration mission over into Japan for the "leaflet bombing" of Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Saga, and other cities in the effort to solicit Japanese citizen's moral anti-war solidarity against Imperial Japan's violent aggressions and war crimes in China.
Battle of Wuhan
Battle of Guangzhou
1939
From mid-1938 to mid-1939, Japanese forces intensified their attacks on the front near Lanzhou. The Japanese air units were operating from airfields in Shanxi at the margin of the operating range of their fighters, and their bombers were often not escorted by fighter planes. On 20 February 1939, thirty Japanese bombers flying in 3 formations were intercepted over Lanzhou by 40 USSR volunteer and Chinese fighters taking off in small groups at 5-minute intervals. In the ensuing battle, nine Japanese bombers were shot down, killing 63 crew members, and one USSR pilot was wounded. Three days later on 23 February, the USSR fighters intercepted 57 Japanese bombers on bombing raids to the city and airfield of Lanzhou; the USSR fighters shot down six Japanese bombers and forced the Japanese to abandon the airfield target. In the battles of February, the Chinese pilots of the 17th Squadron fought alongside the USSR volunteers.
Battle of Chongqing-Chengdu
The massive IJAAF and IJNAF joint-strike terror-bombing campaigns and all-airwar which began in earnest on 3 May 1939 under the codename Operation 100 (100 号作战) as the Chinese Air Force was reorganizing from the Battle of Wuhan.
In March 1939, the Chinese 4th Air Group, comprising 21st, 22nd, 23rd and 24th squadrons, was transferred to the airbase at Guangyangba for the defense of Chongqing. On 3 May, the 4th Air Group led by Group Commander Dong Mingde intercepted 54 Japanese bombers on their bombing raid to Chongqing, and shot down 7 Japanese bombers; deputy squadron commander Zhang Mingsheng (plane R-7153) was shot down and later died of his wounds. On 11 July, Chongqing was bombed by 27 Japanese bombers, which were met by eight I-15s led by Squadron Commander Zheng Shaoyu; Zheng's I-15 (No. 2310) had 38 bullets holes and I-15 (No. 2307) flown by pilot Liang Tianchen was shot down in flames.
Battle of South Guangxi
The battle over Nanning City, China last wartime access to seaport, including the Battle of Kunlun Pass. The final combat missions for Chinese-American volunteer pilot and fighter-ace Arthur Chin. In December 1939, the USSR fighter group, up to 50 planes under the command of S. P. Suprun was transferred to south Yunnan where Japanese air attacks on communications lines along the Chinese portion of the Burma Road had become more intense. Suprun's group participated in the Battle of South Guangxi, flying missions together with Chinese I-15 fighters from the 4th Air Group, the 27th and 29th Squadrons (Arthur Chin) from the 3rd Air Group, part of the 18th Squadron with Curtiss Hawk 75, and even the 32nd Squadron equipped with the ancient Douglas O-2MC scout/light bombers, led by former Guangxi warlord air force commander Wei Yiqing.
The USSR volunteer squadrons often flew their missions together with Chinese squadrons. From the beginning of 1938 to May 1940, USSR squadrons participated in more than 50 major air battles and together with Chinese squadrons shot down 81 Japanese aircraft, damaged 114 and 14 Japanese warships. In the summer of 1940, the USSR withdrew their volunteer pilots, leaving only a small number of advisers and technical personnel in China. They continued to supply aircraft to China until June 1941 when Germany invaded the Soviet Union
Curtiss Hawk 75, a new version of the Curtiss P-36 Hawk flown by Chinese pilots also took an active part in combat but did not achieve any special success. The Chinese 25th Squadron was the first unit to receive the new Hawk 75 and began to train in July 1938 under the direction of Claire Lee Chennault. On 18 August 1938, Squadron Commander Tang Pu-sheng led three Hawk 75s and 7 Polikarpov I-15s to intercept 27 Japanese planes over Hengyang; the Hawk 75s shot down one enemy plane and damaged another. Tang was shot down and killed; the other two Hawk 75s crashed during landing. The 16th Squadron of the 6th Bomber Air Group, having earlier flown the V-92 Corsair light bombers, was changed to a fighter squadron on 1 October 1938 and was sent to Zhiqiang, Hunan, to take possession of nine Hawk 75s. The pilots retrained under the direction of Chennault. At the end of the year, they were redeployed to Yibin, Sichuan, for air defense of the Chinese wartime capital of Chongqing. In January 1939, the squadron flew to Kunming, Yunnan, where it was disbanded in August the same year. Prior to 1 November 1938, the 18th Squadron was also included in the 6th Bomber Air Group, flying the Douglas O-2MC scout/light bombers; it was re-equipped with nine Hawk 75 fighters, and independently began retraining with its Squadron Commander Yang Yibai in Yibin.
In January 1939 the 18th Squadron relocated to Kunming to defend the city from air attacks. On 1 August the squadron was rebased to Chongqing, and in December took part in the Battle of South Guangxi. At the beginning of 1940 it moved to Yunnan for defense of the Kunming-Mengzi railroad, which was subjected to massive air attacks. At the end of May the squadron returned to Chonqing; it did not have enough serviceable Hawk 75s, and was supplemented with nine old Hawk III biplanes from the 22nd Squadron.
1940
On 8 February 1940, 27 Japanese planes heading for Mengzi were intercepted at 3.05 pm by three Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron taking off from Kunming. In the ensuing dogfight, one Hawk 75 (No. 5024) was damaged and forced to crash land; its pilot Yang Tzu-fan was injured. On 13 February 1940 three Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron intercepted 27 Japanese bombers which were on their way to bomb the bridge near Siulungtam. The Hawk 75s hit one Japanese bomber and were later joined by three I-15 biplane fighters. Together they made many passes at the damaged bomber, killing the upper gunner. The Chinese claimed to have finally shot down the hapless plane. Several of the Chinese planes were slightly damaged and one pilot, Tseng Pei-fu, was injured.
While the Mitsubishi A5M was the most-advanced fighter in the Chinese theatre since September 1937, the Japanese were soon to introduce the world's most advanced fighter aircraft into China in the summer of 1940; the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero". The new Zero was far superior to the A5M predecessor, the Soviet I-16 and American Hawk 75 fighter planes. The Chinese Air Force issued a general directive to its air units to adopt an "air dispersal tactics", and to avoid direct confrontation with Japanese fighters whenever possible.
On 4 October 1940 six Hawk 75s of the 18th Squadron were following the order to disperse to Guanxian when 27 Japanese Mitsubishi G3M bombers escorted by eight Japanese A6M Zeros led by Lieutenant Tamotsu Yokoyama on a bombing raid to Chengdu. The Japanese Zeros caught up with the Hawk 75s and shot one down, wounding the pilots of another two and forcing them to crash land, and set two Hawk 75s on fire on the ground while refueling. By December 1940 the 18th Squadron had ceased to exist in reality, and was disbanded in January 1941. The Hawk 75 fighters in the Chinese Air Force were later replaced by the American Curtiss P-40.
The Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm
The Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm was established for the puppet government of Manchukuo's army under the auspices of the Empire of Japan in the summer of 1940, and with it the Central Air Force Flight Academy that trained aviators for both civil and military. Equipped primarily with Nakajima Ki-27 fighters, the Manchukuo Imperial Army Air Arm were primary based in Fengtian (Shengyang) and Harbin. Towards the end of World War II, the Manchukuo Orchid Special Attack Force (kamikaze attack squadron) was established to counter the USAAF B-29 bomber raids on Manchukuo/NE territories.
1941
After withdrawing its volunteer pilots from China in the summer of 1940, the Soviet Union continued to supply aircraft to China until June 1941. Fighting continued on the northern front near Lanzhou, which was the Chinese terminus of the Chinese-Soviet transportation route. Chinese pilots were left to defend the northern front against Japanese air attacks.
On 21 May 1941 eight I-15s of the 21st Squadron and one I-15 from the 29th Squadron flying in 2 formations on patrol encountered 27 Japanese bombers over Lanzhou. The first group of I-15s led by Squadron Commander Chen Sheng-hsing shot down one of the Japanese Mitsubishi G3M long range bombers and damaged another. On 22 May, 25 Japanese G3M bombers from the unit of Mihoro Kōkūtai were on a morning raid on Lanzhou. Seven Chinese I-16s of the 24th Pursuit Squadron and one Tupolev SB bomber of the 9th Bomb Squadron were ordered to disperse. Due to bad weather, the I-16s landed at Chung Chuan Chun Airfield just north of Lanzhou. As the Japanese bombers were sighted overhead, one of the I-16s flown by Kao You-hsing having just landed with the engine still running, took off to attack the Japanese planes, and shot down a G3M bomber flown by Lieutenant Shin-Taro Hashimoto and damaged another. The remaining six I-16s were able to take off and dispersed. On 26 May, Japanese fighters encountered 18 I-15s from the 29th Pursuit Squadron flying from Gansucheng to Lanzhou; two I-16s were shot down, both pilots bailing out, and the other 16 I-16s were destroyed on the ground when they landed for refuelling.
Since World War II erupted in Europe on 1 September 1939 after Nazi Germany invaded Poland, the United States had maintained its neutrality until the unannounced Japanese air attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. In October 1940, China appealed to American president Franklin D. Roosevelt to allow the sale of military aircraft to China along with the recruitment of American pilots for the resistance war against the Japanese invasion. In December, Washington approved China's request to recruit American pilots who would resign from U.S. military services and volunteer to serve in the Chinese Air Force with significant monetary compensation. On 11 March 1941, the U.S. passed the Lend-Lease Act, which permitted the U.S. government to provide war equipment and material to Britain, France and other allied countries. On 6 May 1941, this policy was extended to China as well. With the full-scale war between the Soviets and Nazi Germany, all new fighter aircraft produced by the Soviets were now directed to the battlefronts against Nazi Germany. While the decision was made by the Americans to support Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the War of Resistance against the Japanese with the Lend-Lease Act, much needed help also came by way of the American response to the Japanese invasion of French Indochina, which motivated the Americans to enact the U.S. scrap metal and oil embargo against Japan and the freezing of Japanese assets in summer of 1941.
In August 1941, American Lockheed Hudson A-29 bombers arrived in China (22 planes turned over to Chinese Air Force). The Chinese 9th and 30th Bomber Squadrons were re-equipped with the Hudson A-29. In October 1941 the 9th Bomber Squadron was combat ready and flew bombing missions on Yuncheng, Shanxi, Hankou and other Japanese-occupied cities in China.
The American Volunteer Group, better known as the Flying Tigers, was officially formed on 1 July 1941, consisting of three squadrons of 30 planes each under the direct control and command of Claire Lee Chennault. In August, through the efforts of Chennault, 100 American volunteer pilots and about 200 mechanics and ground personnel were recruited. Curtiss-Wright Company also agreed to provide China 100 Curtiss Tomahawk P-40Bs, which had previously been rejected by Britain and later allocated to Sweden.
The Flying Tigers began to train in September 1941 in Taungoo, Burma, and with the help of the high speed and heavy armament (six 12.7mm machine guns) of the heavily armored P-40 Warhawks and dissimilar air combat tactics against the dangerously nimble, though lightly armored Japanese fighters, the Flying Tigers saw immediate success. On 12 December 1941 the 3rd Squadron stationed in Rangoon joined the British Royal Air Force in defense of Rangoon. The 1st and 2nd Squadrons were sent to Kunming on 18 December, guarding Kunming and the Chinese section of the Burma Road against Japanese air attacks. On 20 December, the Flying Tigers saw their first action in the skies of Kunming when the 1st and 2nd Squadrons intercepted a formation of Japanese planes on a bombing raid; the Flying Tigers shot down nine of ten Japanese bombers and lost one P-40. Three days later, the Flying Tigers' 3rd Squadron inflicted comparable damage on a formation of Japanese planes on a bombing raid to Rangoon. For the next six months, the aerial battles of the Flying Tigers' P-40s with Japanese fighter and bomber aircraft were regular sights in the skies over south Yunnan and Burma.
When Rangoon fell to Japanese forces in early March 1942, Chennault withdrew all Flying Tigers squadrons to the Wujiaba airbase in Kunming. The Japanese fighter aircraft were more maneuverable as compared to the Flying Tigers's P-40. However, the Flying Tigers' pilots were able to take advantage of the fast diving speed and heavy firepower of their P-40s in "boom and zoom" (hit and run) tactics to gain an advantage over the agile but armorless Japanese fighters. The American Volunteer Group was officially disbanded on 4 July 1942 when its one-year contract expired. The Group celebrated its final day by shooting down five Japanese fighters over Hengyang and escorting B-25 bombers of the United States Army Air Forces to bomb the Japanese air base at Guangzhou. In the short period of some six months from 20 December 1941 to the beginning of July 1942, the Flying Tigers had flown on more than 50 combat missions, destroying 299 Japanese planes including bombers, Nakajima Ki-43 fighters, and 153 probables; the Flying Tigers lost 12 planes in air battles and 61 on the ground; 13 pilots were killed and three were captured as prisoners of war. Those were incredible records in aerial combat. However, the Japanese immediate voiced their discontent with the American tactics through their English-language propaganda broadcasts by Tokyo Rose, who called the Americans "cowards", and continuously challenged the American pilots to "stop running away" (to the general amusement of the American pilots who tuned in to her broadcasts).
1942
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, with the top-units of the Japanese Army and Navy air forces dispatched to the Pacific War theater, the Chinese Air Force was in preparation for transition from the older Soviet-made combat aircraft to newer American-made aircraft, however, the CAF continued combat operations with Soviet-made aircraft in this interim period, including a major offensive-strike operation on 22 January 1942, in which CAF Tupolev SB-2 bombers from Taipingsi air base in Sichuan, rendezvoused with AVG fighter escorts (a total of over four dozen aircraft), and flying to Gia Lam Airport in Vietnam to bomb the occupying Japanese forces based there; Major Shao Ruilin who commanded from an SB-2 was shot down by anti-aircraft fire and was killed over Hanoi.
By the time the American Volunteer Group was officially disbanded on 4 July 1942, the United States had been a combatant in World War II for nearly seven months. Chennault was recalled to active duty in the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF); he was promoted to brigadier general to take command of the China Air Task Force (CATF), which was established on 14 July 1942 as a part of the 10th Air Force of USAAF. The 10th Air Force was activated on 12 February 1942 for operations in the China-Burma-India theatre of the war. Later in June 1942, Chennault was given the command of the 10th Air Force after the transfer of Commanding General Lewis Brereton to Egypt on 6 June 1942. The CATF included the four squadrons of P-40s of the 23rd Fighter Group and the 11th Bomber Group of B-25 Mitchells. Many of the fighter pilots in the CATF were former pilots of the Flying Tigers.
One of the aircraft contracts to be funded by the American Lend-Lease was to supply China with 125 P-43 Lancer fighter planes. In early 1942, shipments began of the P-43s in crates to China via Karachi, India, and they included some Vultee P-66 Vanguard fighters. The 4th Air Group of the Chinese Air Force was selected to receive and ferry the P-43s from India to Kunming. Many were lost in test flights and ferrying accidents. By August 1941, according to Chinese sources, the Chinese Air Forces received 41 operable P-43s. The 4th Air Group was sent to Chengdu to train on the new P-43s, and joined in the defense of Chengdu with the I-15s of the 17th Squadron and I-16s of the 29th Squadron. During the first half of 1942, there were few combat operations by pilots of the Chinese Air Force.
As of 13 August 1942, Chennault's CATF had also received five P-43s with five more promised. At this time, the CAFT consisted of 56 operational fighters, including P-40Bs, P-40Es and a few P-43s in four squadrons (the 16th, 74th, 75th and 76th) and eight B-25Cs of the 11th Bomb Squadron at Kunming, Guilin, Hengyang and Yunnan.
On 3 September, a P-43 flown by Lieutenant Martin Cluck of the 75th Squadron had to abort a reconnaissance mission due to mechanical trouble, Japanese fighters attacked him at low altitude near the air base and riddled his P-43. Cluck landed safely and escaped from his aircraft, but the P-43 was destroyed by Japanese strafing. One P-40 was also destroyed on the ground.
On 27 October 1942, 12 P-43s of the Chinese Air Force flying from Taipingsi, Sichuan, escorted nine A-29 Hudsons in a raid on Yungcheng, Shanxi. They destroyed one Japanese aircraft on the ground without suffering losses. In November, a mission of A-29 Hudsons was flown with escorts of P-66 Vanguards. In November, another bombing mission were flown escorted by P-43s. On 27 November, a bombing mission of A-29s was joined by Soviet SB bombers; in this mission one A-29 and three SB bombers were lost due to bad weather. On 30 December, three P-43s and six P-40s from the CATF flew an escort mission to Lashio, Burma; the P-43s provided top cover to the P-40s, enabling the P-40s to claim one of the six Japanese fighters encountered.
1943
On 10 March 1943, Claire Lee Chennault was promoted to Major General, taking command also of the 14th Air Force, that was newly formed on 5 March 1943. On 19 March 1943, the CATF was incorporated into the United States Army as the 14th Air Force. The 10th and 14th Air Forces became the major American combat forces in the China-Burma-India theatre. The 14th Air Force took on the name of Flying Tigers. In the eight-month operations of the CATF from July 1942 to March 1943, they shot down 145 Japanese planes and 85 probables, and flew 65 bombing missions; they lost 16 P-40s and one B-25 Mitchell bomber.
In May 1943, the Japanese launched a ground offensive advancing into the area of Dongting Lake in northeastern Hunan and the region of the Yangtze River feeding to the lake. The objectives of the offensive were to secure the communication line and capture the fertile Chinese "Rice Bowl" region. To counter the Japanese offensive, both the 14th Air Force and the Chinese Air Force's 4th Air Group flying P-40s and P-43s provided air support to the Chinese ground troops. The 4th Group went into action on 19 May with 8 P-40Es and 4 P-43s escorting A-29 Hudson bombers over the enemy positions. On this mission, the Deputy Group Commander Xu Baoyun, flying a P-40E, was shot down by anti-aircraft gunfire. On 31 May Lieutenant-Colonel John Alison, an American ace and two USAAF wingmen led seven P-40s from the 4th Air Group escorting nine B-24 bombers to Yichang; Alison's P-40 was badly shot up by Captain Ohtsubo Yasuto, leader of the 1st Chutai (squadron) of the 33rd FR. Lieutenant Tsang Hsu-Lan, nicknamed "Bulldog" (plane No. 2304) of the 4th Group shot down Ohtsubo, saving Alison's life. Tsang was awarded the American Silver Star as well as China's highest decoration.
On 6 June, eight Japanese light bombers escorted by 14 fighters were on a raid on Liangshan. 13 P-40s from the Chinese Air Force led by Colonel Li Hsiang-yang were returning to Liangshan from a mission. Having just landed, Captain Chow Chin-kai, commander of the 23rd Squadron and veteran of many years combat ran from his P-40 to a P-66 parked nearby, and took off to attack the Japanese formation. While the Japanese fighters were strafing the airfield, Chow attacked the bombers and destroyed three. Despite Chow's heroic act, 12 P-40s and one fleet trainer were destroyed on the ground. Chow received the Blue-Sky-White-Sun (Chinese Nationalist emblem) award personally from Chiang Kai-shek.
By June 1943, the ground operations on the front of the "Rice Bowl" campaign were stabilized. In that campaign from 19 May to 6 June 1943, the Chinese Air Force flew on 336 fighter sorties and 88 bombing missions. The "Rice Bowl" campaign took its toll on the Chinese Air Force, which suffered heavy losses in combat and on the ground. At the end of the campaign the Chinese Air Force units numbered no more than a total of 77 combat aircraft, including seven A-29s, ten SBs, five P-40Es, nine P-43s and 46 P-66s, and of the total only 59 were serviceable. In May, the 14th Air Force received about 50 new P-40K, P-40M and P-40A fighters, and high-altitude Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters in July, phasing out the old P-40s.
From July to September 1943, Japanese air units carried out concentrated attacks in three consecutive phases each targeting on a different area. The first phase from 22 July to 22 August concentrated on American air bases centered on Guilin, resulting in 50 American planes destroyed by the Japanese. The second phase began on 23 August, in which they targeted their attacks on Chongqing, Chengdu and eastern China air bases. At dawn on 23 August, 21 bombers escorted by 17 fighters took off from Hankou and were joined en route by another 14 fighters to strike an arsenal just to the west of Chongqing. A total of 29 fighters including ten P-40s, eight P-43s and 11 P-66s of the Chinese Air Force from the 4th and 11th Group at Peishiyi Airfield scrambled and took to the air to intercept. A flight of American fighters also scrambled from a distant air base but was too far to intercept. In the ensuing battle, the Japanese shot down two P-66s, one each of the P-40s and P-43s, and lost one bomber. The Chinese reported to have shot down three Japanese fighters and five bomber probables. In the third phase beginning in September, the Japanese resumed their attacks on targets in Guilin and Yunnan.
As a part of the 14th Air Force, Chennault created a special unit known as the Chinese-American Composite Wing (Provisional) (CACW) under his command. The CACW comprised the 1st Bomber Group, and the 3rd and 5th Fighter Groups with American pilots, and Chinese pilots from the Chinese Air Force, as well as American and Chinese ground crews. Since many of the Chinese pilots were young pilots of the Chinese Air Force, who had recently returned after completion of their training in the United States, lacking any combat experience, the unit was under an American commander, assisted by a staff of Chinese officers. The CACW was officially formed on 31 July 1943, and activated on 1 October 1943. The newly formed CACW were sent to Karachi, India, where they were re-equipped with B-25s and new P-40Ns, and trained under American supervision. Members of this unit including P-40N pilot Chen Bingjing escorted bombing missions against Japanese army positions in Vietnam beginning in October 1943.
On 25 November 1943, six B-25s from the 2nd Bomber Squadron of the CACW took off from Guilin at 6 am and staged through Suichwan, where they were refueled and joined by eight B-25s of the 11th Bomber Squadron and 16 fighter escorts of P-38s and P-51s from the 23rd Fighter Group of the 14th Air Force to attack Japan's largest air base in Taiwan, hitting a parking area, hangars, barracks, and buildings. The formation crossed the Taiwan Strait, flying at low altitude and caught the Japanese unprepared. 32 Japanese planes were destroyed in the air and on the ground while the Chinese did not lose a single plane. Seeing no opposing interceptors and only minimum anti-aircraft gun fire, Lieutenant Colonel Irving Branch of the CACW led his flight of bombers on a sweep down low strafing the airfield. The raid was the most successful thus far in the history of the 14th Air Force. Branch was awarded a Distinguish Flying Cross.
1944
From late 1943 to the end of the war in August 1945, operations of the combined forces of the American and Chinese air units began to shift increasingly from defensive to offensive, and they eventually achieved air supremacy in China over Japanese air forces. It was made possible by the Americans' continuous supply of the latest war planes, fuel and material to China, and more importantly, the activation of the CACW as a unique Chinese component of the U.S. 14th Air Force, which was deployed in the China-Burma-India theatre, as well as the training by Americans of young Chinese pilots in the United States.
From 1944 onward, the CACW and other units of the Fourteenth Air Force were able to mount attacks against Japanese forces on all fronts in China, military installations, airbase in Taiwan, vital terminals of Japanese supply lines, which included Japanese-occupied river ports along the lower Yangtze River and Yellow River, seaports in southern China including Hong Kong and Hainan.
Separate missions were often flown daily by the CACW and other units of the 14th Air Force from different airbases with B-25 and B-24 bombers, P-40, P-38 and P-51 fighters. The following are some of the notable bombing missions and air combat on records during 1944.
On 11 February, six B-25 bombers escorted by 20 P-40 and P-51 fighters from the 14th Air Force including Chinese P-40s from the 32nd Fighter Squadron of the CACW bombed the storage area at Kai Tak Airfield, Hong Kong. The incoming formation encountered Japanese fighters from the 85th Sentai patrolling the area. In the ensuing air engagement the P-40s shot down five Japanese fighters and one probable, while the Japanese shot down one B-25, four P-40s and two P-51s and two probable fighters.
On 9 March, 18 CACW B-25s escorted by 24 P-40s bombed a foundry and floating docks at Huangshi in Hubei. They were intercepted by Japanese fighters from the 25th and 9th Sentai and lost 2 P-40s.
On 10 March, 2 bombers from the 2nd Bomber Squadron of the CACW bombed Japanese ships on the lower Yangtze; on returning flight one B-25 ran out of fuel and crash-landed killing its crew. On the same day, B-25s of the 14th Air Force escorted by P-38s attacked the river port at Anqing in Anhui. They sank a motor launch, damaged two cargo vessels and a barge; one of the Japanese intercepting fighters from the 25th Sentai flown by Moritsugu Kanai shot down one P-38.
On 29 March, 12 P-40s and three P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked the railroad station area at Nanchang, and strafed the airfield and attacked a nearby bridge. Corporal Yasuzo Tanaka (Ki-44 Shoki-11) of the 25th Sentai was killed in Nanchang.
On 5 April, 26 Japanese A6Ms from the Sanya and Kaiko Kōkūtai took off from Hainan and carried out a major attack on Nanning in Guangxi; they destroyed two B-25s and three P-40s on the ground, and shot down nine P-40s (two unconfirmed), while eight A6Ms were shot down and their pilots killed.
By mid April, various Japanese air units had suffered heavy losses and had been replenished. The 25th Sentai was brought up to full strength with young pilots from Japan.
On 28 April, 26 B-24s from the 14th Air Force escorted by ten P-51 fighters carried out a bombing mission on the storage area north of Zhengzhou at the lower reaches of the Yellow River. The Japanese warning radar at Kaifeng was out of order, and the 9th Sentai stationed at Xinxiang with 10 Ki-44s failed to intercept. The B-24s pounded the storage area and damaged the Bawangcheng Bridge and another bridge on Yellow River.
On 3 May, seven B-25s of the CACW bombed Mihsien and hit numerous vehicles and Japanese troops northeast of Mihsien near Yueyang in northeastern Hunan, and strafed the town of Hsiangcheng. On the same day, ten CACW P-40s hit and damaged a bridge on the Yellow River northwest of Chenghsien near Luoyang, and destroyed 15 trucks and many troops.
On 2 June in a battle at China's Central Plain, seven P-40Ns from the 7th fighter Squadron of the CACW made an attack on an airfield at Zhengzhou where a Japanese air transport unit was based. Seven Japanese K-44 fighters of the 9th Sentai led by Captain Kobayashi intercepted the Chinese P-40Ns, and shot down five, including the one flown by the Flight Commander Zhang Lemin. The 9th Sentai lost one flown by Sergeant Fumio Oguri over Bawangcheng.
On 12 June, about 100 P-40s and P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked numerous supply boats and other river and lake traffic in the Dongting Lake area, and hit docks and warehouses at Yuanjiang, and also villages and troops in Changsha.
Battle of Gui-Liu
Capt Weng Xinhan, deputy commander of the 41st PS (the former French Volunteer Group Squadron that was disbanded in October 1938), died in course of the Battle of Gui-Liu on 12 September 1944 after being hit by anti-aircraft fire in his P-40, and crash-landing.
On 28 August, 32 P-40s from the 14th Air Force, including 11 from the 5th Fighter Squadron of the CACW, attacked the Japanese air base at Pailuchi and targets of opportunity at Hengyang. They were intercepted by Japanese K-43s from the 48th Sentai and Ki-84s from the 22nd Sentai. In the air battle, the Japanese destroyed one Chinese and three American P-40s while the CACW shot down six enemy planes; one of the pilots from the 49th Sentai reportedly parachuted from his burning Ki-84 but drowned in the Yangtze River.
On 29 August, 13 P-40s from the 3rd Fighter Group of the CACW bombed and strafed shipping and dock facilities at Shayang in Hubei. After the attack, they were intercepted by 21 Japanese fighters near Jiayu. The CACW claimed a total of seven victories with Group Commander Lieutenant Colonel Bill Reed and his wingman Lieutenant Tan Kun each shooting down one Ki-43, and the other Chinese P-40s claiming five Japanese fighters. Commander Meng Shao-yi of the 28th Squadron of the CACW was shot down and killed.
On 29 August around 1 pm, 13 Japanese Ki-84s from the 22nd Sentai and 16 Ki-43s from the 25th Sentai, a total of 29 fighters engaged a large number of B-24s, P-40s and P-51s of the 14th Air Force near Yueyang in northeastern Hunan. The Japanese shot down four P-40s and one P-51, and damaged four B-24s, four P-40s and one P-51, and lost one Ki-43 and one Ki-84, and suffered damage on one Ki-84.
On 12 September, two separate groups from the 5th Fighter Group of the CACW engaged in air battles over northeastern Hunan. First Lieutenant Phil Colman of the 26th Squadron claimed one damaged Ki-43, and his wingman Lieutenant Yang Shaohua claimed one Ki-43 shot down over Xiangtan; Colman further claimed one Ki-43, two damaged Ki-43s and a probable "Hamp" (A6M Type Zero) over Changsha. Another group of eight P-40s fought 12 Japanese fighters including six Ki-84s over Hengshan just south of Xiangtan; Captains Reynolds and Ramsey each claimed a damaged Japanese fighters, but Lieutenant Tom Brink was shot down while strafing, and one P-40 flown by Lieutenant Su Yinghai was badly damaged and written off after returning to base.
On 26 October B-24s and B-25s of the 14th Air Force attacked shipping off the east Leizhou Peninsula situated opposite to Hainan in the South China Sea. Major Horace S. Carswell Jr. of the 308th Bomber Group was awarded the Medal of Honour for his action on that day when he attacked a Japanese convoy in the South China Sea under intense anti-aircraft fire. His B-24, No. 44-40825 (MARC 9612) was so badly damaged that when his plane reached over land, he ordered the crew to bail out. One crew member could not jump because his parachute had been ripped by flak, so Carswell remained with the aircraft to try to save the crew member by attempting to crash land. Before Carswell could attempt a crash landing, the bomber struck a mountainside and burned.
By the end of 1944, the continued bombings and attacks on Japanese supply lines and storage facilities in Japanese-occupied China had caused a severe shortage of fuel greatly hampering the operations of Japanese air units. The American and Chinese air forces in China had inflicted heavy losses to the Japanese air forces operating in China, and forced the Japanese to adopt a defensive stance.
1945
On 28 January 1945, the Burma Road was fully restored as a land transport route for war material supplied to China by the Allies. It had been cut off when Japanese invaded Burma in 1942, leaving available only the air supply route over "The Hump", from Assam, India, over the eastern end of the Himalayas. The re-opening of the Burma Road greatly increased the supply of aircraft, spare parts, fuel and other war material as required for the successful prosecution of the war.
In the beginning of 1945, the total numbers of the Chinese and American air forces exceeded 800 aircraft. During the concluding period of the war from January to June 1945, the Chinese pilots and their American counterparts participated actively in battles supporting ground forces on all fronts in central, southern and eastern China.
The CACW unofficial combat record in the time from its activation on 1 October 1943 to the end of the war in August 1945 included 190 Japanese aircraft destroyed in the air, 301 on the ground. At the same time, they lost 35 fighters and eight bombers to enemy ground fire, and 20 fighters to Japanese aircraft. However, not a single CACW bomber was lost to enemy fighters, a tribute to the abilities of the Wing's B-25 aircrews, and the quality of the escort protection provided by the Wing's fighter pilots. The CACW produced five American air aces and three Chinese air aces, and was disbanded on 19 September 1945.
The following are some of the notable air operations in 1945.
On 5 January a combined group of 28 P-40N and P-51D fighters from the 14th Air Force flew from Laohekou in Hubei to attack the Japanese airfield at Wuhan, destroying 50 Japanese aircraft in the air and on the ground. One Chinese pilot was shot down and killed in the air battle.
On 9 March about 50 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force on armed reconnaissance attacked railroad targets, river and road traffic, bridges, gun positions, and troops at several locations, particularly around Guiyi, Hengyang, Nanjing and Xinyang.
On 10 March about 60 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force hit targets in rivers, on roads and railroads, gun positions, warehouses, airstrips, and troops around Xinyang, Yiyang, Changsha, Qiyang, Yueyang, Hengyang in Hunan, and Hankou, and Wuchang in the neighboring Hubei province.
On 16 March, 32 B-24s from the 14th Air Force escorted by 10 P-51s pounded the north railroad yards at Shijiazhuang.
On 15 April, about 200 fighters and bombers from the 14th Air Force attacked Japanese targets in areas from southern China to the northern China plain hitting numerous targets including bridges, river shipping, town areas, trucks, railroad traffic, gun positions, storage areas, and general targets of opportunity.
On 8 May, Japanese forces moved the bulk of their 5th Kokugun to Korea. It involved the relocation of some 10,000 ground support personnel, leaving a skeleton of air units in China. The move was completed by the end of the month with only minor losses.
On 10 August, about 50 P-47s and P-51s from the 14th Air Force attacked river and railroad targets, troops, trucks, and bridges at several points in southern and eastern China.
On 15 August, Japan's unconditional surrender was announced, and all offensive operations against Japan ended.
On 18 August, the vice-commander of the 24th Pursuit Squadron from the Chinese Air Force, Guo Fengwu flew over Guisui (known as Hohhot after 1954) in Inner Mongolia to drop leaflets which contained the text of Japanese Emperor Hirohito's surrender decree. He was shot down by Japanese anti-aircraft gun fire, and became the last casualty of the Chinese Air Force in the eight-year-long war.
On 2 September 1945, hostilities with Japan ended officially with the signing of the instrument of surrender aboard the in Tokyo Bay.
CACW Composition
Chinese-American Composite Wing (CACW)
1st Bombardment Group
1st Bombardment Squadron
2nd Bombardment Squadron
3rd Bombardment Squadron
4th Bombardment Squadron
3rd Fighter Group
7th Fighter Squadron
8th Fighter Squadron
28th Fighter Squadron
32nd Fighter Squadron
5th Fighter Group
17th Fighter Squadron
26th Fighter Squadron
27th Fighter Squadron
29th Fighter Squadron
Aircraft types used
Some of the aircraft types used in the Second Sino-Japanese War:
Chinese and American Air Units
Italian built: Fiat CR-32, biplane fighter
British built: Gloster Gladiator, biplane fighter
German Built: Heinkel He 50, biplane dive bomber
Japanese Built: Nakajima Type 91, parasol monoplane fighter
U.S. built:
Douglas O-2MC, biplane scout/light bomber
Boeing Model 281 (P-26C) Peashooter, monoplane fighter
Curtiss XF11C Goshawk (P-6 Hawk II), biplane fighter
Curtiss BF2C Goshawk (Hawk III), biplane fighter
Curtiss Hawk 75M, monoplane fighter
Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk, Warhawk, Kittyhawk, monoplane fighter
Vultee P-66 Vanguard, monoplane fighter
Republic P-43 Lancer, monoplane fighter
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, monoplane fighter
North American P-51 Mustang, monoplane fighter
Lockheed P-38 Lightning, twin booms fighter/bomber
Lockheed A-29 Hudson, 2-engine medium bomber/reconnaissance
North American B-25 Mitchell, 2-engine medium bomber
Consolidated B-24 Liberator, long range 4-engine heavy bomber
Soviet built:
Polikarpov I-15, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-152, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-153, biplane fighter
Polikarpov I-16, monoplane fighter
Tupolev SB, 2-engine medium bomber
Tupolev TB-3, 4-engine long-range heavy bomber
Japanese Air Units
Kawasaki Ki-10, Army Type 95, biplane fighter (Allied codename Perry)
Mitsubishi A5M, Navy type 96, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Claude)
Mitsubishi A6M, Navy type 0, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Zeke)
Mitsubishi Ki-21, Army type 97, twin engine medium bomber (Allied codename Sally)
Nakajima Ki-27, Army type 97, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Nate)
Mitsubishi Ki-30, Army type 97, single engine light bomber (Allied codename Ann)
Kawasaki Ki-32, Army type 98, single engine light bomber (Allied codename Mary)
Nakajima Ki-43, Army type 1, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Oscar)
Nakajima Ki-44, Army type 2, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Tojo)
Nakajima Ki-84, Army type 4, monoplane fighter (Allied codename Frank)
Kawasaki Ki-48, Army type 99, twin-engine medium bomber (Allied codename Lily)
Mitsubishi G3M, Navy Type 96, land-based attack bomber (Allied codename Nell)
Mitsubishi G4M, Navy Type 1, attack bomber twin-engine long-range bomber (Allied codename Betty)
Italian built: Fiat BR.20, 2-engine medium bomber
See also
Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)
Flying Tigers
Order of Battle for Battle of South Guangxi
Soviet Volunteer Group
References
Notes
Cheung, Raymond. Osprey Aircraft of the Aces 126: Aces of the Republic of China Air Force. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2015. .
Caidin, Martin. Zero Fighter: Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II Weapons Book No. 9. New York, NY: Ballantine Books Inc, 1969. .
Xú, Lùméi. Fallen: A Decryption of 682 Air Force Heroes of The War of Resistance-WWII and Their Martyrdom东城区, 北京， 中国: 团结出版社, 2016. .
External links
Changing from "Donkeys" to "Mustangs" Chinese Aviation In The War With Japan, 1940-1945 at j-aircraft.com
Battles of the Second Sino-Japanese War
World War II aerial operations and battles of the Pacific theatre
Articles containing video clips | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial%20engagements%20of%20the%20Second%20Sino-Japanese%20War |
Datsun 280 ZZZAP, also known as Midnight Racer or 280 ZZZAP, is a 1976 arcade racing video game released by Midway Manufacturing, designed by Jamie Fenton. Based on Nissan's Datsun 280Z, it is one of the earliest games with authorized branding. An unbranded version was released as Midnight Racer, originally in November 1976. The branded version Datsun 280 ZZZAP was then released in Japan by Taito in February 1977, and then in North America by Midway in March.
Gameplay
The title was named after the US advertising campaign for Nissan's Datsun 280Z. Players can drive up to while navigating a tricky road course at night. Players must watch out for treacherous turns, nasty competitors, and the ever-present time limit.
Release
Midway demonstrated Midnight Racer at the AMOA show in November 1976. It drew comparisons to Night Driver, demonstrated at the same show by Atari, Inc. In turn, both games drew comparisons to an earlier German night driving video game (Nürburgring 1) demonstrated at the German IMA show in Spring 1976. The branded version Datsun 280 ZZZAP was later released in Japan by Taito in February 1977, and then in North America by Midway in March.
Reception
On the US Play Meter arcade chart, 280 ZZZAP was the year's ninth highest-grossing arcade game of 1977. On the US RePlay arcade chart, it was the tenth highest-grossing arcade video game of 1977. On Japan's Game Machine arcade chart, it was among the top 20 highest-grossing arcade video games of 1977.
References
1976 video games
Advergames
Arcade video games
Arcade-only video games
Midway video games
North America-exclusive video games
Racing video games
Video games developed in the United States
280 ZZZAP | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datsun%20280%20ZZZAP |
Russula virescens is a basidiomycete mushroom of the genus Russula, and is commonly known as the green-cracking russula, the quilted green russula, or the green brittlegill. It can be recognized by its distinctive pale green cap that measures up to in diameter, the surface of which is covered with darker green angular patches. It has crowded white gills, and a firm, white stipe that is up to tall and thick. Considered to be one of the best edible mushrooms of the genus Russula, it is especially popular in Spain and China. With a taste that is described variously as mild, nutty, fruity, or sweet, it is cooked by grilling, frying, sautéeing, or eaten raw. Mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates and proteins, with a low fat content.
The species was described as new to science in 1774 by Jacob Christian Schaeffer. Its distribution encompasses Asia, North Africa, Europe, and Central America. Its presence in North America has not been clarified, due to confusion with the similar species Russula parvovirescens and R. crustosa. R. virescens fruits singly or scattered on the ground in both deciduous and mixed forests, forming mycorrhizal associations with broadleaf trees such as oak, European beech, and aspen. In Asia, it associates with several species of tropical lowland rainforest trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae. R. virescens has a ribonuclease enzyme with a biochemistry unique among edible mushrooms. It also has biologically active polysaccharides, and a laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry.
Taxonomy
Russula virescens was first described by German polymath Jacob Christian Schaeffer in 1774 as Agaricus virescens. The species was subsequently transferred to the genus Russula by Elias Fries in 1836. According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank, Russula furcata var. aeruginosa (published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1796) and Agaricus caseosus (published by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Wallroth in 1883) are synonyms of Russula virescens. The variety albidocitrina, defined by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1876, is no longer considered to have independent taxonomic significance. According to Rolf Singer's 1986 classification of Russula, R. virescens is the type species of subsection Virescentinae in section Rigidae, a grouping of mushrooms characterized by a cap surface that breaks into patches of bran-like (furfuraceous) particles. In a molecular phylogenetic analysis of European Russula, R. virescens formed a clade with R. mustelina; these two species were sister to a clade containing R. amoenicolor and R. violeipes.
The specific epithet virescens is Latin for "becoming green". The characteristic pattern of the cap surface has earned the species common names such as the green-cracking russula, the quilted green russula, and the green brittlegill. In the mid-Atlantic United States, it is also known locally as the moldy russula.
Description
Described by mushroom enthusiast Antonio Carluccio as "not exactly nice to look at", the cap is at first dome or barrel-shaped, becoming convex and flattened with age with a diameter of up to . The cap center is often depressed. The cuticle of the cap is green, most profoundly in the center, with patches of the same color dispersed radially around the center in an areolate pattern. The color of the cuticle is often of variable shade, ranging from gray to verdigris to grass-green. The extent of the patching of the cuticle is also variable, giving specimens with limited patches a resemblance to other green-capped species of Russula, such as R. aeruginea. The green patches of the cap lie on a white to pale green background. The cap, while frequently round, may also exhibit irregular lobes and cracks. The cap cuticle is thin, and can be readily peeled off the surface to a distance of about halfway towards the cap center.
The gills are white to cream colored, and fairly crowded together; they are mostly free from attachment to the stipe. Gills are interconnected at their bases by veins. The stipe is cylindrical, white, and of variable height, up to tall and wide; it is roughly the same thickness at both the top and the base. The top portion of the stipe may be farinose—covered with a white, mealy powder. It may turn slightly brown with age, or when it is injured or bruised from handling. Like other mushrooms in the Russulales, the flesh is brittle, owing to the sphaerocyst cytoarchitecture—cylindrical cells that contrast with the typical fibrous, filamentous hyphae present in other orders of the basidiomycota.
The spores of R. virescens are elliptical or ellipsoid with warts, translucent (hyaline), and produce a white, pale or pale yellow spore print; the spore dimensions are 6–9 by 5–7 µm. A partial reticulum (net-like pattern of ridges) interconnects the warts. The spore-bearing cells, the basidia, are club-shaped and have dimensions of 24–33 by 6–7.5 µm; they are colorless, and each hold from two to four spores. The pleurocystidia (cystidia on the gill face) are 40–85 by 6–8 µm and end abruptly in a sharp point.
Similar species
Russula parvovirescens, found in the eastern United States, can be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller stature, with caps measuring wide and stipe up to long by thick. Compared to R. virescens, it tends to be more bluish-green, the patches on its cap are larger, and it has a lined cap margin. Microscopically, the terminal cells in the cap cuticle of R. parvovirescens are more swollen than those of R. virescens, which has tapered and elongated terminal cells. Another green-capped Russula is R. aeruginea, but this species may be distinguished from R. virescens by its smaller size and smooth cap. Other green russulas with a smooth cap include R. heterophylla and R. cyanoxantha var. peltereaui. Russula crustosa, like R. virescens, also has an areolate cap, but the cap becomes sticky (viscid) when moist, and its color is more variable, as it may be reddish, yellowish, or brown. Also, the spore print of R. crustosa is a darker yellow than R. virescens. R. redolens has a cap that is "drab-green to blue-green", but unlike R. virescens, is smooth. R. redolens has an unpleasant taste and smells of parsley.
Edibility
Russula virescens is an edible mushroom considered to be one of the best of the genus Russula, and is popular in Europe, particularly in Spain. In an 1875 work on the uses of fungi, English mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke remarked about the mushroom that "the peasants about Milan are in the habit of putting [it] over wood embers to toast, and eating [it] afterwards with a little salt." The mushroom is often sold as a dried product in Asia; in China, it can be found in roadside markets, and used in traditional herbal medicines. Its smell is not distinctive, but its taste has been described as mild, nutty, fruity, or even sweet. Old specimens may smell of herrings. Drying the mushrooms enhances the nutty flavor. Mushrooms can be sautéed (the green color disappears with cooking), and young specimens that are prepared this way have a potato taste that pairs well with shallots. They are also fried or grilled, or used raw in salads. Young specimens are pale and can be hard to identify, but the characteristic pattern of older fruit bodies makes them hard to confuse with other species. When collecting R. virescens for consumption, caution is of vital importance to avoid confusion with the dangerously poisonous Amanita phalloides (better known as the death cap), a mushroom that can be most easily identified by its volva and ring.
The nutritional components of R. virescens mushrooms have been characterized. Fresh mushrooms contain about 92.5% moisture. A sample of dried mushroom (100 g dw) has 365 kcal (1527 kilojoules). Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the fruit bodies, comprising 62% of the dry weight; 11.1% of the carbohydrates are sugars, the large majority of which (10.9%) is mannitol. The total lipid, or crude fat, content makes up 1.85% of the dry matter of the mushroom. The proportion of fatty acids (expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids) are 28.78% saturated, 41.51% monounsaturated, and 29.71% polyunsaturated. The most prevalent fatty acids include: palmitic acid, 17.3% of total fatty acids; stearic acid, 7.16%; oleic acid, 40.27%; and linoleic acid, 29.18%. Several bioactive compounds are present in the mushroom. One hundred grams (dry weight) contains 49.3 micrograms (µg) of tocopherols (20.0 µg alpha, 21.3 µg beta, and 8.0 µg gamma) and 0.19 milligrams (mg) of the carotenoid pigment lycopene. There are 4.46 g of organic acids per 100 g of dry mushrooms, including oxalic acid (0.78 g), malic acid (2.71 g), citric acid (0.55 g), and fumaric acid (0.23 g). Mushrooms have 22.6 mg/100 g dw of the phenolic compound 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, and 15.8 mg/100 g dw of cinnamic acid.
Habitat and distribution
Russula virescens can be found fruiting on soil in both deciduous forests and mixed forests, forming ectomycorrhizal symbiotic relationships with a variety of trees, including oaks (Quercus), European beech (Fagus sylvatica), and aspen (Populus tremula). Preliminary investigations suggest that the fungus also associates with at least ten species of Dipterocarpaceae, an important tree family prevalent in the tropical lowland forests of Southeast Asia. Fruit bodies may appear singly or in groups, reappear in the same spots year after year, and are not common. In Europe, fruiting occurs mainly during the months of summer to early autumn. A Mexican study of the seasonal occurrence of several common mushroom species in subtropical forests in Xalapa showed that the fruiting period of R. virescens occurred in April, before the onset of the rainy season.
The distribution of R. virescens in North America is subject to debate, where a number of similar species such as R. parvovirescens and R. crustosa are also recognized. One author even suggests that R. virescens "is strictly a European species", citing Buyck and collaborators (2006), who say "the virescens-crustosa group is much more complex than suspected and embraces at least a dozen taxa in the eastern US". As in Europe, Russula virescens has a widespread distribution in Asia, having been recorded from India, Malaysia, Korea, the Philippines, Nepal, China, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is also found in North Africa and Central America.
Chemistry
Russula virescens has a limited capacity to bioaccumulate the micronutrients iron, copper, and zinc from the soil. The concentration of these trace metals is slightly higher in the caps than the stipes. A meal of fresh mushroom caps would supply 16% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of copper for an adult male or female (ages 19–50); 16% or 7.3% of the RDA of iron for an adult male or female, respectively; and 16–22% of the adult RDA of zinc. The mushroom is a poor bioaccumulator of the toxic heavy metals arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, and nickel.
Biologically active mushroom polysaccharides have been a frequent research topic in recent decades due to their possible stimulatory effect on innate and cell-mediated immune responses, antitumor activities, and other activities. Immunostimulatory activity, antioxidant activity, cholesterol-lowering, and blood sugar-lowering effects have been detected in extracts of R. virescens fruit bodies, which are attributed to polysaccharides. A water-insoluble beta-glucan, RVS3-II, has been isolated from the fruit bodies. Sulfated derivatives of this compound have antitumor activities against sarcoma tumor cell lines. RVP, a water-soluble polysaccharide present in the mushroom, is made largely of galactomannan subunits and has antioxidant activity.
Ribonucleases (or RNases) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), and collectively they play a critical role in many biological processes. A RNase from R. virescens was shown to be biochemically unique amongst seven edible mushroom species in several ways: it has a co-specificity towards cleaving RNA at poly A and poly C, compared to the monospecific RNases of the others; it can be adsorbed on chromatography columns containing DEAE–cellulose as the adsorbent; it has a pH optimum of 4.5, lower than all other species; and, it has a "distinctly different" N-terminal amino acid sequence. The mushroom contains a unique laccase enzyme that can break down several dyes used in the laboratory and in the textile industry, such as bromothymol blue, eriochrome black T, malachite green, and reactive brilliant blue. Laccases are being used increasingly in the textile industry as environmental biocatalysts for the treatment of dye wastewater.
See also
List of Russula species
References
External links
virescens
Edible fungi
Fungi described in 1774
Fungi of Africa
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Central America
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of North America | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russula%20virescens |
Foxes' Oven is a novel by the English writer Michael de Larrabeiti. It is set in the village of Offham near Arundel in West Sussex in 1940. It was published by Robert Hale in 2003.
External links
Free PDF of the first chapter of Foxes' Oven
References
2003 British novels
Novels by Michael de Larrabeiti
Fiction set in 1940
Novels set in Sussex
Novels set during World War II
Robert Hale books | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxes%27%20Oven |
The Cowles Foundation for Research in Economics is an economic research institute at Yale University. It was created as the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics at Colorado Springs in 1932 by businessman and economist Alfred Cowles. In 1939, the Cowles Commission moved to the University of Chicago under Theodore O. Yntema. Jacob Marschak directed it from 1943 until 1948, when Tjalling C. Koopmans assumed leadership. Increasing opposition to the Cowles Commission from the department of economics of the University of Chicago during the 1950s impelled Koopmans to persuade the Cowles family to move the commission to Yale University in 1955 where it became the Cowles Foundation.
As its motto Theory and Measurement implies, the Cowles Commission focuses on linking economic theory to mathematics and statistics. Its advances in economics involved the creation and integration of general equilibrium theory and econometrics.
The thrust of the Cowles approach was a specific, probabilistic framework in estimating simultaneous equations to model an economy. Its ultimate goal in doing so was to gain policy insight. The Cowles approach structured its models from a priori economic theory. One of its main contributions was in exposing the bias of ordinary least squares regression in identifying coefficient estimates. Consequently, Cowles researchers developed new methods such as the indirect least squares, instrumental variable methods, the full information maximum likelihood method, and the limited information maximum likelihood method. All of these methods used theoretical, a priori restrictions. According to an article by Carl F. Christ, the Cowles approach was grounded on certain assumptions:
1. simultaneous economic behavior;
2. linear or logarithmic equations and disturbances;
3. systematic, observable variables without error;
4. discrete variable changes as opposed to continuous;
5. a priori determination of exogeneity and endogeneity;
6. the existence of a reduced form;
7. independence of the explanatory variables;
8. a priori identified structural equations;
9. normally distributed disturbances with zero means, finite and constant covariances, a nonsingular covariance matrix, and serial independence;
10. a dynamically stable system of equations.
Several Cowles associates have won a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for research done while at the Cowles Commission. These include Tjalling Koopmans, Kenneth Arrow, Gérard Debreu, James Tobin, Franco Modigliani, Herbert A. Simon, Joseph E. Stiglitz, Lawrence Klein, Trygve Haavelmo, Leonid Hurwicz and Harry Markowitz.
The Cowles Foundation is located at 30 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, Connecticut.
References
External links
Cowles Foundation at Yale
Source HET
Research institutes in Connecticut
Economic research institutes
Yale University
Research institutes of the University of Chicago
Research institutes established in 1932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowles%20Foundation |
Dan III is one of the legendary Danish kings described in Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum.
Text
See also
Dan (king)
Notes
References
Davidson, Hilda Ellis (ed.) and Peter Fisher (tr.) (1999). Saxo Grammaticus : The History of the Danes : Books I-IX. Bury St Edmunds: St Edmundsbury Press. . First published 1979-1980.
Elton, Oliver (tr.) (1905). The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus. New York: Norroena Society. Available online
Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931). Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum. Available online
Mythological kings of Denmark
| https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20III |
John Parkinson is the name of:
John Parkinson (botanist) (1567–1650), English herbalist
John B. Parkinson (1861–1935), English architect in Los Angeles
John Parkinson (politician) (1870–1941), British Labour Party MP for Wigan, 1918–1941
John Parkinson (cardiologist) (1885–1976), English cardiologist, a namesake of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome
John Edward Parkinson (1955–2004), British academic in UK company law
John Parkinson (footballer) (born 1944), Australian rules footballer
See also
Jack Parkinson (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Parkinson |
Buckingham Mountain (Lenape: Pepacating ) is located in Buckingham Township in Central Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is the second most elevated land in all of Bucks County at 520 feet.
History
On top of Buckingham Mountain stands the Mount Gilead African Methodist Episcopal Church, built in 1835, and rebuilt in 1852 out of stone. It was founded by runaway slaves and was considered to be one of the more prominent refuges for runaway slaves in Southeastern Pennsylvania.
References
External links
Mountains of Pennsylvania
Gravity hills
Landforms of Bucks County, Pennsylvania | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckingham%20Mountain |
Garlieston (, IPA:[ˈpaləʝeaːᵲʎis̪]) is a small planned coastal village in the historical county of Wigtownshire in Dumfries and Galloway, south west Scotland. It was founded in the mid 18th century by Lord Garlies, later 6th Earl of Galloway.
Location and history
The village lies northwest of Whithorn and a few miles north of Cruggleton Castle which was abandoned in the 17th century. The former seat of the Earls of Galloway, Galloway House, is situated on the edge of the village, with the settlement being planned along Georgian lines.
The port became an important import point for goods being brought into the Machars throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1876 the Wigtownshire Railway was extended to the settlement and goods flowed regularly through the port, with the maritime industries of shipbuilding and associated activities taking place in the village.
Second World War
During the Second World War the village became part of the secret Mulberry Harbour project in preparation for D-Day. The profile of the beach and sea bed at Garlieston was similar to that of the proposed harbour sites in Normandy and that, coupled with the remote nature of the locality, led to Garlieston and the surrounding area being selected as the development region for the artificial harbours. Prototypes of three designs were trialled in Garlieston Harbour and at nearby Rigg Bay and Portyerrock. A concrete caisson (code-named Hippo) from the harbours could be seen in Cruggleton (or Rigg) Bay until it was destroyed by a storm on Sunday 12 March 2006. Remnants of the prototypes, in particular concrete Beetles that supported the floating roadways, can be seen at Eggerness, Portyerrock and Rigg Bay. The remains are now scheduled as national monuments by Historic Scotland.
Currently
Today the village is in general a quiet sleepy place, with much of the local industry and port activity having ceased over the past 50 years. A bowling green sits on the waterfront and the village caravan site attracts tourists, with the harbour providing berthing facilities for those who are touring by boat. Although Galloway House is privately owned, the gardens, managed separately by the Galloway House Gardens Trust are open to the public and pay and display parking provides easy access to the gardens and Rigg Bay.
Notable natives
Charles Gordon McClure (1885–1933), also known as Dyke White, cartoonist
Earls of Galloway at Galloway House.
Gallery
External links
Garlieston community website Garlieston
Garlieston's Secret War The story of the Mulberry Harbours and the men who made it happen
Combined-ops Information on the Mulberry Harbours & the role Garlieston played in their development
Ports and harbours of Scotland
Villages in Dumfries and Galloway | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garlieston |
Lieshout is a village located in the province of North Brabant in the south of the Netherlands, about 15 kilometres northeast of Eindhoven. There are 4,300 inhabitants, and the village is known for its brewing company Swinkels Family Brewers.
The spoken language is Peellands (an East Brabantian dialect, which is very similar to Standard Dutch).
Archeology
During archaeological excavations on Lieshout's territory several flint objects from the Stone Age were found, as well as features of agrarian settlements from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The excavations also revealed remains of Roman buildings and several wells, apparently belonging to a medium scale settlement. The peasant society comprised probably three to four farmhouses with outbuildings, where 30 to 40 people have been living. Moreover, also remains of a medieval settlement were found.
In total some 15,000 objects were unearthed, most of them from the period 1100 BC to 1100 AD. The finds indicate that the area was continuously inhabited from 1100 BC onwards. The objects include spearheads, fibulas and grave goods like small jars and colored plates and beakers, and a gold Ambiani stater, a coin minted around 50 BC.
History
The present village was established in the 8th century as a Frankish allodium. At the end of the 12th century the lord of Lieshout donated the allodium to the Floreffe Abbey. In 1698 the abbey sold most of their property in Lieshout to the farmers.
The remaining land and buildings and the manorial rights were sold in 1714 to a noble family from Holland. This family sold the manorial rights in 1842 to a textile manufacturer from Helmond. With the revision of the Dutch Constitution in 1848 the feudal system was abolished in the Netherlands, whereby Lieshout lost its manorial status. In 1851 the "municipality of Lieshout" was established.
Improved accessibility of Lieshout at the end of the 19th century led to the rise and flourishing of industrial activities, including the Bavaria Brewery. In 1997 the independence of Lieshout came to an end when the village became part of the new municipality of Laarbeek.
Places of interest
"Gate to Binderen". A gateway from 1474 to the Binderen Abbey in Helmond. The gate was transferred to Lieshout around 1800. Here it gave access to a site surrounded by a moat, where the Ribbius mansion was located. In 1962 the mansion was demolished and replaced by a church devoted to Saint Servatius.
"Manor house", also called "Hunting lodge" at Havenweg 10. This is the oldest building in Lieshout. The house was built between 1719 and 1725 by Jan Bout, at the time lord of Lieshout. Originally, the house was surrounded by a moat.
Several farmhouses, including the official monuments "De Plashoeve" at Provincialeweg 10 and the farmhouse at Dorpsstraat 76.
"" at the Molendreef. This mill was built in 1819 to replace the late 18th century mill, which was blown down in 1817.
"" from 1899 at the Molenstraat. In front of the mill is the national monument "De Mulder" (The Miller), a bronze statue from 1989.
Gallery
Notable resident
Guus Meeuwis (born Mariahout, 23 March 1972) is a Dutch singer and songwriter who grew up in Lieshout
References
Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 1997
Populated places in North Brabant
Former municipalities of North Brabant
Laarbeek | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieshout |
Mohawk State Forest, also known as Mohawk State Forest/Mohawk Mountain State Park, encompasses over in the towns of Cornwall, Goshen, and Litchfield in the southern Berkshires of Litchfield County, Connecticut. As overseen by the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection, the area is used for hiking, picnicking, and winter sports by the public, while being actively managed to produce timber and other forest products.
History
The forest bears the name of the Mohawk Indians, although the tribe did not live in the area. Historians believe the Tunxis and Paugussett used the mountain peak for signal fires that warned neighboring communities further south that Mohawks were approaching from the northwest.
Mohawk is the sixth oldest forest in the Connecticut state forest system. The forest's first five woodland acres were donated to the Connecticut State Park Commission by Andrew Clark in 1917 and were known as Mohawk Mountain Park until the 1920s. In 1921, Alain C. White donated another 250 acres with the White Memorial Foundation contributing a total of more than of land.
Crews of Civilian Conservation Corps workers were active in the forest during the 1930s. Their work included the construction of roads that remain in use, the planting of hundreds of acres of trees, and the creation of breaks for fire control.
Points of interest
Black Spruce Bog
One of the few bogs in the state, the 19-acre Black Spruce Bog is considered an outstanding example of a late stage peat bog. Plants such as sheep laurel, leatherleaf, sphagnum moss, sundew, and pitcher plant are found here, with white pine, black spruce, eastern hemlock, and tamarack comprising the overstory. The bog is accessed via a boardwalk designed to minimize the impact of visitors.
Cunningham Tower
An old, gutted stone tower stands along a trail in the northern section of the forest. It was constructed by Litchfield resident Seymour Cunningham after he bought land for sheep farming on Mohawk Mountain in 1912.
Mohawk Mountain
Mohawk Mountain (elev. 1683 feet) is the highest point on the blue-blazed Mattatuck Trail. The summit offers views of the Taconic Mountains and Berkshire Mountains to north and northwest including Bear Mountain, Canaan Mountain, and Cream Hill in Connecticut as well as peaks in Massachusetts (Race Mountain, Mount Everett, Mount Greylock) and the eastern Catskills in New York State.
Mohawk Pond
The southern section of the state forest encompasses Mohawk Pond, a 16-acre kettle pond stocked with trout and noted for largemouth bass. The pond has a maximum depth of 26 feet (8 m), an average depth of 15 feet (4.5 m), and a boat launch on its southern shore.
Red Mountain
Accessible on foot via the blue-blazed Mohawk Trail (a former alignment of the Appalachian Trail), Red Mountain (elev. 1652 feet) occupies the northernmost section of Mohawk State Forest. Its eastern slope is the site of the Red Mountain Shelter, a log cabin built by CCC crews based in Housatonic State Forest. Due to the shallow bedrock of the peak, the higher elevations of the mountain sport shrubby oak trees and distant vistas.
Activities and amenities
The area offers hiking, picnicking, fishing and youth group camping, opportunities for leaf color viewing in fall, and cross-country skiing in winter. Skiers and snowboarders use the adjacent privately operated Mohawk Mountain Ski Area.
References
External links
Mohawk State Forest/Mohawk Mountain State Park Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
Mohawk State Forest/Mohawk Mountain State Park Map (north) Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
Mohawk State Forest/Mohawk Mountain State Park Map (south) Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection
Land Gifts of the White Memorial Foundation
Connecticut state forests
State parks of Connecticut
Cornwall, Connecticut
Goshen, Connecticut
Litchfield, Connecticut
Parks in Litchfield County, Connecticut
Protected areas established in 1921
1921 establishments in Connecticut
Civilian Conservation Corps in Connecticut | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohawk%20State%20Forest |
Beek en Donk is a town in the province North Brabant, Netherlands. There are 10,028 inhabitants. The spoken language is Peellands (an East Brabantian dialect, which is very similar to colloquial Dutch).
History
The area of nowadays Beek en Donk has been inhabited for a long time. Tools of Stone Age nomadic people have been found. The first permanent inhabitants come around 700 AD.
In the Middle Ages, the basis was made for the current towns. First Beek grew around the Oude Toren, and Heereind. In the 13th century, the role of Heereind was taken over by the expanding Donk. Heereind is noted in a document in 1314, where it was given the same importance as Aarle, Rixtel and Beek.
On Saint Barbara day (December 4) in 1300, duke Jan II of Brabant gave the inhabitants of 'Rikestele, Arle ende Beke' (Rixtel, Aarle and Beek) the right to use common lands around the towns. In the 14th century, Beek en Donk got its first church. In 1809, it was demolished, but the tower remains, like the Oude Toren (old tower)
During the reign of Johanna van Brabant, Beek was together with Aarle and Stiphout, was sold to Dirk de Roovere, for 1.700 gulden. In later ages, the area changed owners a few times, until in 1798 the feudal system was abolished, inspired by the French revolution.
During the 80-year war, the town suffered from passing enemy armies. After the war, Beek en Donk remained poor. Only in the late 18th century, when there was more land cultivated, the situation slowly got better. In the 19th century, the town started to develop more. In 1836 the Zuid-Willemsvaart was dug by hand, and in 1880-1881, the steam tram between Den Bosch and Helmond was built, having a stop in Beek en Donk. The tram was broken up later; the canal still remains.
In 1997, Beek en Donk, Lieshout, Aarle-Rixtel and Mariahout formed the municipality Laarbeek. The town hall of Beek en Donk serves as the town hall of the new municipality.
In 2020, at a future construction site in Beek en Donk, phosphor was found in the ground at the site, dating back to explosives used by Germans during World War II. The construction was postponed.
Gallery
References
Municipalities of the Netherlands disestablished in 1997
Populated places in North Brabant
Former municipalities of North Brabant
Laarbeek | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beek%20en%20Donk |
Metropolitan Police Act (with its variations) is a stock short title used for legislation relating to the Metropolitan Police.
List
The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 (10 Geo 4 c 44)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 & 3 Vict c 47)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1856 (19 & 20 Vict c 2)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict c 64)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1860 (repealed by Part I of Schedule 10 to the Police Act 1964, except as applied by the Special Constables Act 1923)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict c 51) (repealed by Part I of Schedule 10 to the Police Act 1964)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1864 (27 & 28 Vict c 55)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1884 (47 & 48 Vict c 17)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1886 (49 & 50 Vict c 22)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1887 (50 & 51 Vict c 45)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1899 (62 & 63 Vict c 26)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1912 (2 & 3 Geo 5 c 4)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1918 (7 & 8 Geo 5 c 61)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo 5 c 33)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict c 124)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1867 (30 & 31 Vict c 39)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1895 (58 & 59 Vict c 12)
The Metropolitan Police (Borrowing Powers) Act 1897 (60 & 61 Vict c 42)
The Metropolitan Police (Borrowing Powers) Act 1935 (25 & 26 Geo 5 c 16)
The Metropolitan Police (Borrowing Powers) Act 1952 (15 & 66 Geo 6 & 1 Eliz 2 c 19)
The Metropolitan Police Staff (Superannuation) Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict c 28)
The Metropolitan Police Staff Superannuation Act 1885 (48 & 49 Vict c 68)
The Metropolitan Police (Staff Superannuation and Police Fund) Act 1931 (21 & 22 Geo 5 c 12)
The Metropolitan Police (Employment in Scotland) Act 1914 (4 & 5 Geo 5 c 44)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (Amendment) Act 1958 (6 & 7 Eliz 2 c 48) (repealed by the Criminal Justice Act 1967).
The Metropolitan Police (Compensation) Act 1886 (49 & 50 Vict c 11)
The Metropolitan Police (Commission) Act 1906 (6 Edw 7 c 6)
The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1839 (2 & 3 Vict c 71)
The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1840 (3 & 4 Vict c 84)
The Metropolitan Police Court (Buildings) Act 1871 (34 & 35 Vict c 35)
The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1897 (60 & 61 Vict c 26)
The Metropolitan Police Courts (Holidays) Act 1897 (60 & 61 Vict c 14)
The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1898 (61 & 62 Vict c 31)
The Metropolitan Police Magistrates Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict c 3)
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1884 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Act 1884 (47 & 48 Vict c 17), and the Acts listed in the Schedule to that Act.
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1895 is the collective title of the following Acts:
The Metropolitan Police Act 1829 (10 Geo 4 c 44)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 & 3 Vict c 47)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1856 (19 & 20 Vict c 2)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1857 (20 & 21 Vict c 64)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1860 (23 & 24 Vict c 135)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict c 51)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict c 124)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1864 (27 & 28 Vict c 55)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1867 (30 & 31 Vict c 39)
The Police Rate Act 1868 (31 & 32 Vict c 67)
The Metropolitan Police Staff (Superannuation) Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict c 28)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1884 (47 & 48 Vict c 17)
The Metropolitan Police Staff Superannuation Act 1885 (48 & 49 Vict c 68)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1886 (49 & 50 Vict c 22)
The Metropolitan Police Act 1887 (50 & 51 Vict c 45)
The Police Act 1890 (53 & 54 Vict c 45)
The Metropolitan Police (Receiver) Act 1895 (58 & 59 Vict c 12)
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1909 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1899 and, so far as it amended those Acts, the Police Act 1909.
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1912 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1909, and the Metropolitan Police Act 1912 (2 & 3 Geo 5 c 4).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1918 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1912, and the Metropolitan Police Act 1918 (7 & 8 Geo 5 c 61).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1931 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1912, and the Metropolitan Police (Staff Superannuation and Police Fund) Act 1931 (21 & 22 Geo 5 c 12).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1935 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1931, and the Metropolitan Police (Borrowing Powers) Act 1935 (25 & 26 Geo 5 c 16).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1946 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1935, and section 16 of the Police Act 1946 (9 & 10 Geo 6 c 46).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1952 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1946, the Metropolitan Police Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo 5 c 33), and the Metropolitan Police (Borrowing Powers) Act 1952 (15 & 66 Geo 6 & 1 Eliz 2 c 19).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1958 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1952, and the Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (Amendment) Act 1958 (6 & 7 Eliz 2 c 48).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1959 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1946, the Metropolitan Police Act 1933 (23 & 24 Geo 5 c 33), and the Metropolitan Magistrates' Courts Act 1959 (7 & 8 Eliz 2 c 45).
The Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1963 was the collective title of the Metropolitan Police Acts 1829 to 1959, and section 76 of the Local Government Act 1963 (c 33).
See also
List of short titles
References
Lists of legislation by short title and collective title
Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning London | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan%20Police%20Act |
Joseph "Cowboy" McCoy (December 21, 1837 – October 19, 1915) was a 19th-century entrepreneur known for promoting the transport of Longhorn cattle from Texas to the eastern United States.
Early life
Joseph Getting McCoy was one of eleven children born to Mary (née Kirkpatrick) and David McCoy. He was born on 21 December 1837 in Sangamon County, Illinois. The McCoy family were farmers. Joseph went to school, including one year at Knox College. He went into business as a stockman, breeding and selling mules. A big financial break came for McCoy in 1861 when he sold a stockcar-load of mules in Kentucky. Delivery requiring transport over five different rail lines, the experience was also an important lesson in rail logistics that would serve him in his major career venture six years later. The venture sufficiently established him that he was able to propose to Sarah Epler, a neighbor. The earnings from the Kentucky sale allowed McCoy to expand both the diversity and the national reach of his livestock dealings.
Transporting cattle
In the 1860s, cattle ranchers in Texas faced difficulties getting their longhorn cattle to market. Kansas homesteaders objected to the cattle crossing their land because the cattle might carry ticks which could spread a disease called Texas Fever (or Spanish Fever) fatal to some types of cattle. The disease could make a Longhorn sick, but they were hardier stock than the northern cattle and Longhorns seldom died from the disease. McCoy himself said of the disease:
In 1868 a great number of cattle arrived in Kansas and the mid-west from Texas; appx. 40,000. With them came a tick born disease called "Spanish Fever". The local shorthorn breeds were seriously affected and in some towns the loss of the cattle was almost 100%. The result was a great predice against Texas cattle in Eastern Kansas and Missouri.
McCoy expected that the railroads companies were interested in expanding their freight operations and he saw this as a good business opportunity. McCoy built a hotel, stockyard, office and bank in a little village along the Kansas Pacific Railway (currently the Union Pacific). This village became known as Abilene, Kansas - one of the first cow towns. McCoy's plan was for cattle to be driven to Abilene from Texas and taken from there by rail to bigger cities in The Midwest and the East.
Abilene sat near the end of the Chisholm Trail (named after Jesse Chisholm) established during the American Civil War for supplying the Confederate army. This trail ran to the west of the settled portion of Kansas, making it possible to use the trail without creating hostility from the Kansas homesteaders.
McCoy advertised extensively throughout Texas to encourage cattle owners to drive their cattle to market in Abilene. By 1870 thousands of Texas longhorn cattle were being driven over the Chisholm Trail to the shipping center at Abilene. By 1871 as many as 5,000 cowboys were being paid off during a single day, and Abilene became known as a rough town in the Old West. Due to their long legs and hard hoofs, Longhorns were ideal trail cattle, even gaining weight on their way to market. One story says that McCoy bragged before leaving Chicago that he would bring 200,000 head in 10 years and actually brought two million head in 4 years, leading to the phrase "It's the Real McCoy"
Later life
McCoy was also the author of Historic Sketches of the Cattle Trade of the West and Southwest, which was published in 1874.
Joseph McCoy died in Kansas City, Missouri on October 19, 1915.
In 1967, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
References
Bibliography
External links
People of the American Old West
People from Sangamon County, Illinois
American cattlemen
1837 births
1915 deaths
People from Abilene, Kansas | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20McCoy |
James Crawford Thom (March 22, 1835 – February 16, 1898) was an American painter. Born in New York City, he studied at an artist colony in Perth Amboy, New Jersey along with Louis Comfort Tiffany of stained glass fame. He also studied with Edouard Frere, among others. He painted "By the River-Side" "Returning from the Wood", "Tired of Waiting", "Going to School", and "The Monk's Walk". Thom died in 1898 and is buried at the Chestnut Hill Cemetery in the Old Bridge section of East Brunswick, New Jersey.
Career
Thom studied at the National Academy in 1853. In 1859, he went to France with Corot and Frere in Ecouen. He was the first American painter joining the School of Ecouen created by Pierre edouard Frere. In the local census of 1861, he is registered as living in Ecouen, 13 "rue de Paris" under the name of Croquefort Tom. From 1864 to 1873, he worked in England, often exhibiting at the Royal Academy. His landscapes showed the influence of the second-generation Hudson River school painters. His genre paintings such as "Feeding the Ducks" and "Circus Scene".
Personal life
Thom was born March 22, 1835, in New York City, New York, the son of sculptor James Thom (April 19, 1802 - April 17, 1850 ) and Jessie Thom (d. December 5, 1868). James married Louise Giles and had a son Salvatore Thom (b. 1865) born in France and Ada (b. 1866), James (b. 1867), Blanche and Jessie all born in England. Louise Giles Thom died in 1881. Thom then married Sarah Bloodgood, in 1884, the daughter of a carriage maker.
They lived at 10 Willow St (now Kossman St) Old Bridge (now East Brunswick). According to the 1861 Map of Middlesex, NJ, this house belonged to J.H. Bloodgood, Sarah's father. He had a carriage building shop next store to his house.
And through Salvatore (1867-1946), his son Salvatore Jr. (1894-1976) and his son Francis Crawford Thom (1931-2012) the Thoms have remained sculptors and painters.
Ada married Frank Hoffman of New Jersey and had four sons; the future Governor of New Jersey Harold G. Hoffman, Donald Hoffman, Fletcher Hoffman and Peter Hoffman. Harold G. Hoffman became known as the "most crooked governor New Jersey ever had." James Crawford Thom is buried in the Thom family plot in the Old Bridge Cemetery, Old Bridge, NJ.
From 1884 to his death, Thom lived in Old Bridge. He died of pneumonia in Atlantic Highlands.
Works
Works : Returning from the Wood (1864); Love in the Kitchen; Return of the Conscript; Going to Church, Christmas Eve (1876); Le jour de la Toussaint (1878); Watering his Horse, Morning Ride (1880); Rustic Sport, Summer Afternoon (1882); Old Farm House, South River, River Bank (1884); The Pets (1885)
References
External links
http://boards.ancestry.com/surnames.thom/58.67.69/mb.ashx
1835 births
1898 deaths
American people of Scottish descent
19th-century American painters
American male painters
People from East Brunswick, New Jersey
Painters from New York City
19th-century American male artists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20C.%20Thom |
A black box is a device, object, or system whose inner workings are unknown; only the "stimuli inputs" and "output reactions" are known characteristics.
Black box may also refer to:
Science and technology
Black box (phreaking), a device to defeat telephone toll charges
Eucalyptus largiflorens, a tree species with the common name black box
Transportation
Accident data recorder, an optional vehicle installable device to record information related to (near) traffic accidents
Event data recorder, a device installed in some automobiles to record information related to vehicle crashes or accidents
Flight recorder, an aircraft-borne device used in disaster investigation, consisting of a flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder
Flight operations quality assurance
Quick access recorder
Train event recorder, a device that records data about the operation of train controls and performance
Voyage data recorder, a device designed to collect data from various sensors on board a ship
Computing
Black box theory, a systems engineering theory for black boxes
Black-box testing, a form of software testing that involves adjusting inputs to an application without reference to the source code of the application
Blackbox, a window manager that works on X Window System platforms
BlackBox Component Builder, software development environment for Component Pascal
Sun Modular Datacenter, prototype name Project Blackbox
Medicine
Any of a number of devices developed and sold by Albert Abrams, based on the pseudo-science of radionics
Black box warning, a type of warning that may be applied to medicines in the United States
Film and television
Black Box (1978 film), an American short film by Scott B and Beth B
Black Box (2002 film), an Argentine drama film (Caja Negra)
Black Box (2013 film), an American drama film
Black Box (2020 film), an American science-fiction horror film
Black Box (2021 film), a Franco-Belgian mystery thriller film
Black Box (TV series), a 2014 ABC television series
Black Box (The Outer Limits), an episode from the 1995 revival of that TV series
Survival in the Sky, a TV series on the investigations of aviation accidents known as Black Box in the UK
The Black Box (2005 film), a French mystery film
The Black Box (serial), a 1915 film serial
Black Box (video magazine), a Hungarian documentary video magazine and filmmaking group
Games
Black Box (game), board and computer game
Blackbox (video game), an iOS puzzle game
EA Black Box, the video game studio formerly known as Black Box Games
The Black Box, a canceled video game; See The Orange Box
Literature
Black Box (short story), a short story by Jennifer Egan
Black Box (novel), by Israeli writer Amos Oz
Black Box (comics) a fictional character in the Marvel Comics Marvel Universe
Black Box, a novel by Mario Giordano
Black Box, a memoir by Shiori Itō
Blackbox (novel) by Nick Walker
The Black Box (novel) by Michael Connelly
La boîte noire ("The Black Box"), a Spirou et Fantasio comic album
Music
Black Box (band), Italian electro-dance music group
"Black Box" (song), debut single of Australian Idol winner Stan Walker
A Black Box, an album by Peter Hammill
Black Box – Wax Trax! Records: The First 13 Years, a Wax Tax Box set album
Black Box (Brown Eyed Girls album), album by South Korean group Brown Eyed Girls
Black Box (Naked City album), compilation album by Naked City
Black Box: The Complete Original Black Sabbath 1970–1978, a Black Sabbath album
The Black Box (album), a box set album by Danish rock band Gasolin'
Other uses
Black box (fiction), a fiction trope
Black box theater, simple unadorned performance space
Nuclear football, the briefcase that accompanies the President of the United States and contains nuclear missile launch codes, nicknamed "Black Box"
Censor bars
Black box trading or algorithmic trading
Black Box Corporation, a supplier of computer network hardware based in Mumbai, India and Dallas, Texas
Black box approach to the function of states in international relations in theories such as realism and neorealism
BlackBox (radio station), a radio station in Bordeaux, France
See also
Blackboxing, a social process in science studies
Black box warning, U.S. warning on a prescription drug
Black Box Affair, a 1966 Eurospy film
Box (disambiguation)
Black body | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20box%20%28disambiguation%29 |
Fred Harris is a British comedian and children's television presenter. Formerly a schoolteacher, he began his television career as a presenter of the BBC children's programme Play School, on which he appeared regularly between 1973 and 1988. During this time he was also a presenter on Ragtime and Chock-A-Block.
During the rise of the microcomputer in the early 1980s he fronted several home computing BBC programmes, including Micro Live (which formed part of BBC's ongoing Computer Literacy Project). He also presented a number of educational and schools programmes on the subject of maths, including ATV's Figure it Out (memorable for having a set which included a giant pocket calculator), Central Television's Basic Maths and Channel 4's Make It Count. In 1980 Harris appeared as a contestant on the first episode of The Adventure Game.
His career in comedy involved regular appearances in radio shows such as Huddwinks, The Half-Open University, The Burkiss Way and Star Terk II and in the television show End of Part One.
In the 1990s, he presented the Radio 4 programme The Litmus Test.
From the late 1990s to the present day he has worked on the British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) children's programme Room 785. On this show he presents the "Broom Cupboard" slot introducing the forthcoming programmes.
References
British television presenters
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
BBC television presenters | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Harris%20%28presenter%29 |
The Supreme Court of Finland (, abbreviated as KKO; , abbreviated as HD), located in Helsinki, is the court of last resort for cases within the private law of Finland (that is, civil and criminal cases). The Court's counterpart is the Supreme Administrative Court, which is the court of last resort for cases within the administrative law.
The Supreme Court consists of a President and at minimum 15, currently 18, other Justices, usually working in five-judge panels. The most important function of the Supreme Court is to rule on important points of law in cases which are significant for the entire legal order, guiding the administering of justice in future cases. Decisions of the Courts of Appeal (, ), as well as certain decisions of the Insurance Court may be appealed against to the Supreme Court, provided that it grants leave to appeal. In the rare criminal cases where a Court of Appeal acts as the court of first instance, the leave to appeal is not needed.
The Supreme Court may annul final decisions of courts on the grounds provided in Chapter 31 of the Code of Judicial Procedure. The Court also handles complaints concerning errors in procedure. In some cases the Court may restore the right of appeal after the expiration of a specified period of time.
The Supreme Court gives advice to the President in cases concerning the right to grant a pardon, and to the Ministry of Justice in cases concerning extradition. It may provide legal opinions on Government Bills at different stages of the legislative process, and the President may consult it on Bills passed by Parliament before ratifying them. The Supreme Court may also approach the President on its own initiative, and propose enactment of a new Parliament Act or an amendment to an existing Act.
The Supreme Court mainly relies on written evidence when deciding on a case. The Court may, however, hold oral hearings in which the parties, witnesses and experts are heard in person. The oral hearings are public.
Precedents
The precedents are usually created in cases for which the applicable Acts of Parliament and decrees do not provide a clear solution for a question of law, or in which there is room for interpretation. Approximately 150 such precedents are decided each year.
Under the Finnish legal system, a judicial precedent is not binding. Courts of Appeal and even District Courts may depart from earlier decisions made by the Supreme Court, for example when the social circumstances have considerably changed. In practice, however, precedents of the Supreme Court are followed in cases arising after the precedent has been created and involving a similar point of law. The Supreme Court may also itself depart from its earlier precedents, provided that the case is considered by an enlarged chamber (11 members) or by a full court.
Precedents in the Supreme Court cases are published every six months. In addition they are available in at the Finlex database. The panel of the Court deciding the precedents also makes the decisions concerning their publication.
The title of a judgment briefly sets forth the point of law to which the precedent applied and which constitutes the reason for its publication. In cases containing to precedents, the Supreme Court will also have to take a position on questions other than those outlined in the title. However, such positions are like any other judgments of the Court, which do not create precedents. A precedent contributes to the development of national law by providing consistency in case law. The objective is that courts throughout the country interpret the law in a uniform manner and apply legal principles by means of consistent assessment and deliberation. Precedents are also used in research, for the purpose of analysing the contents of existing law.
Proceedings
In cases before the Supreme Court where leave to appeal must first be granted before an appeal is allowed from a decision of a lower court, the proceedings before the Court have two stages: decision on admissibility and decision on the merits of the case. The admissibility of the case, the granting of leave to appeal, must be decided on by two members of the court upon presentation by a referendary. This means that the two members make the decision on the basis of the preliminary work and opinion of the referendary. Under certain circumstances, the decision on admissibility may be made by three members of the Court instead of two. In case an application for leave to appeal is rejected, the case will be closed and the judgment of the court of appeal will remain final.
Should leave to appeal be granted, the merits of the case, the allegations presented in the appeal petition, is decided on by five members of the Court. Also the decision on the merits is made upon presentation by a referendary, meaning that the referendary prepares the case and is partly responsible for the outcome of the case. Apart from documentary evidence and applicable legislation, the sources of law on which the decision of the Supreme Court may be based include case law, the legislative history of Acts of Parliament, textbooks and international conventions.
If a question of law to be resolved involves significant principles or if the Supreme Court wishes to depart from an earlier precedent, the case shall be decided on by a grand chamber (11 members) or by a full court (all the members). Administrative matters, including the appointment of judges, shall be decided on by a full court.
Referendaries of the Supreme Court prepare cases for the Court and present them in the hearing. The referendaries are also mainly responsible for contacting the parties to the case and for the administrative work relating to hearings, as well as for sending court documents to the parties. The referendaries are to a certain extent specialised in different areas of law.
The Supreme Court mainly relies on written evidence when deciding on a case. The Court may, however, hold oral hearings in which the parties, witnesses and experts are heard in person. The oral hearings are public. The Supreme Court may also decide to arrange an on-site inspection, for example, of a place which is the subject matter of the court proceedings.
Leave to appeal
When the requirement of leave to appeal was introduced at the beginning of 1980, the position of the Supreme Court as the court changed considerably. The earlier system of appeal with a hierarchy of three court instances was replaced by a system with two instances: a decision of a court of first instance may usually be appealed against to one superior court. Thereby the courts of appeal are the highest instance for most court proceedings, whereas the role of the Supreme Court clearly is that of creating precedents. Leave to appeal is also required for appeal against decisions of specialised courts.
Grounds for leave to appeal
The preconditions to the granting of leave to appeal are as provided in Chapter 30, section 3 (1) of the Code of Judicial Procedure, under which the Supreme Court may only grant leave to appeal on the following grounds:
a decision of the Supreme Court is necessary for the application of law in identical or similar cases or for the consistency of case law;
an error in procedure or other error has taken place in the case, which by virtue of law requires that the decision be quashed;
there are other weighty reasons for granting leave to appeal.
The purpose of the requirement of leave to appeal is to enable the Supreme Court to concentrate on guiding judicial practice through precedent. Therefore, the first alternative ground for the granting of leave to appeal is the most important one. A precedent may relate to the application of law in identical or similar cases or to the consistency of case law. In the first-mentioned case, the precedent provides guidance for resolving similar questions of law in the future. In the latter case, the precedent provides guidance for such practice of lower courts as is inconsistent or contradicts the case law of the Supreme Court. The granting of leave to appeal on the grounds that the case creates a precedent always suggests that the decision of the Supreme Court has general legal relevance.
The other grounds for the granting of leave to appeal are seldom applied. They are mainly applied when there is need to rectify a clearly erroneous, unreasonable or unfair court decision.
A decision on the granting of leave to appeal is made upon application. The application must indicate the grounds on which leave to appeal should be granted: whether the case creates precedent, involves an error in procedure or there are other weighty reasons. The application must further indicate the reasons on the basis of which the applicant considers that there are grounds for granting leave to appeal. In brief, the application for leave to appeal must set out the grounds.
Members
The President and other members (justices) of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of the Republic. As of 1 September 2019, the President is Tatu Leppänen.
The justices of the Supreme Court have usually earlier experience from different branches of the legal profession, most often in courts of law, but also in the drafting of legislation, academic positions and as legal practitioners.
According to law, the Supreme Court must have a President and at least 15 members. The Court now consists of 18 members. The average age of the current justices, while having been appointed, is 48. Like many other Finnish employees, the justices must retire at 68. Otherwise, they enjoy the constitutional right to remain in office, unless they are impeached by the High Court of Impeachment or found medically incapable by the Supreme Court. The referendaries enjoy a similar constitutional right to remain in office, but their work-related offences are handled by the Court of Appeals of Helsinki, instead of the High Court of Impeachment.
Current members
Presidents
See also
Constitution of Finland
Further reading
Sevón, Leif, The relations of the Court of Justice of the European Communities and the national courts, 2002.
Notes
References
External links
– database of Supreme Court precedents
Courts in Finland
Law of Finland
Judiciary of Finland
Finland | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20Finland |
White Jazz is a 1992 crime fiction novel by James Ellroy. It is the fourth in his L.A. Quartet, preceded by The Black Dahlia, The Big Nowhere, and L.A. Confidential. James Ellroy dedicated White Jazz "TO Helen Knode." The epigraph for White Jazz is "'In the end I possess my birthplace and I am possessed by its language.' -Ross MacDonald."
Lieutenant David Klein is a veteran policeman who moonlights as a hitman for organized crime. When he is assigned to investigate a robbery at the home of the Los Angeles Police Department's (LAPD) sanctioned heroin dealer, he uncovers a plot to bring the city's crime syndicates into collusion with the channels of justice.
The stories of many characters that appeared in earlier L.A. Quartet novels, including Edmund Exley and Dudley Smith, have their ends tied up in White Jazz, which also introduces Pete Bondurant, one of the central characters in Ellroy's Underworld USA Trilogy.
Prologue
White Jazz'''s prologue is told by protagonist David Douglas Klein, years after the events have taken place:
All I have is the will to remember. Time revoked/fever dreams-I wake up reaching, afraid I'll forget. Pictures keep the woman young. L.A., fall 1958. Newsprint: link the dots. Names, events-so brutal they beg to be connected. Years down-the story stays dispersed. The names are dead or too guilty to tell. I'm old, afraid I'll forget: I killed innocent men. I betrayed sacred oaths. I reaped profit from horror. Fever-that time burning. I want to go with the music-spin, fall with it.
Plot
Dave Klein is a lieutenant in the LAPD's vice unit. He has a sister named Meg, with whom he shares an incestuous attraction, and performs contract killings for the mob to cover the costs for law school. Klein has committed several murders, including the unsolved killings of Tony Brancato and Tony Trombino, who were killed in revenge for hurting Meg. He seeks to get out of mob work and begs the dying Jack Dragna to let him go. When he refuses, Klein suffocates him.
After setting up a raid on a bookmaking operation, Klein and his partner, George "Junior" Stemmons, are ordered to protect a witness in a probe into organized crime in boxing. Having been told by gangster Mickey Cohen that another crime figure, Sam Giancana, wants the witness dead, Klein throws the witness out of a high window and makes it look like an accident. Later that night, Captain Wilhite, of the corrupt Narcotics Squad, summons Klein to investigate a burglary at the home of J. C. Kafesjian, a drug dealer sanctioned by the LAPD.
Klein gets a side job from Howard Hughes to obtain information on an actress named Glenda Bledsoe that would violate the morality clause of her full-service contract. Klein learns through Cohen that Glenda has a "publicity date" with actor Rock Rockwell which violates the clause. During surveillance of Glenda, Klein finds out she, Rockwell, Touch Vecchio, and George Ainge are planning a fake kidnapping. Klein falls for Glenda and decides not to aid Hughes in getting her blacklisted by the film industry. He begins to aid Glenda as he continues investigating the Kafesjian burglary.
Klein discovers that Edmund Exley is still trying to prosecute Dudley Smith and begins working with him. When he meets an undercover officer, Johnny Duhamel, Klein is shot up with drugs and kills Duhamel in an act caught on film. Klein is arrested by federal agents and becomes a witness, but is given forty-eight hours before he is taken into custody. Klein and Exley discover that Smith is selling heroin exclusively to the black population in the Southside to keep crime in that area "contained". The two track down the Kafesjians' burglar, Wylie Bullock.
Finding himself grappling with all of his crimes and everything that is happening, Klein decides to meet Smith, who had earlier offered him a deal. Klein brings Bullock but is forced to shoot him when he attacks and maims Smith. Klein tries to flee but is soon caught. While in federal custody, Klein writes a full confession and has copies sent to various press outlets. Only the tabloid magazine Hush-Hush is willing to print it, but is prevented from doing so by an injunction. Klein manages to escape from custody and hide out with Pete Bondurant; Hughes has Bondurant beat him up, causing Klein to be hospitalized.
Exley sends Klein a package in the hospital, which includes a blank passport and a silencer-fitted .38 revolver. In a note, Exley says he will allow Klein to kill Smith if he feels justice has not been absolute. Instead, Klein murders J. C. and Tommy Kafesjian. He spends one last night with Glenda, takes pictures to remember her by and flies to Rio de Janeiro. In the epilogue, set many years later, Klein plans to return to Los Angeles intending to destroy Exley's gubernatorial campaign, take revenge on Carlisle and Smith and find Glenda.
Critical review
The reviews for White Jazz were quite positive. "Blacker than noir... Makes most other crime novels seem naive."--Publishers Weekly. "James Ellroy's latest book WHITE JAZZ makes previous detective fiction read like Dr. Seuss."--San Francisco Examiner. "Ellroy's tenth novel burns with the memory of Rodney King in its descriptions of unimaginably cruel law officers who are not merely tainted by corruption on a vast scale but pursue conventional police work as a sideline to more lucrative illegal activities that burst into the public consciousness in violent frenzies.... An undeniably artful frenzy of violence, guilt and unappeased self-loathing. Ellroy's crime fiction represents a high mark in the genre."--New York Newsday.
In the wake of the 1992 Los Angeles riots, Wendy Lesser, reviewing the novel for The New York Times wrote:
What the real Los Angeles possesses, amid all its fiery disintegration, is what Mr. Ellroy's latest novel keenly lacks: a coherent narrative line. We may not have been pleased about what was happening this spring, but we knew why it was happening. In White Jazz, I was lost by page 56—the page on which the author explicitly reveals whatever plot the novel is going to have. ("Instinct—call me bait—a bad cop sent out to draw heat," Klein correctly guesses.) For the next 300 pages it was just a matter of waiting out the body count and wishing for a more interesting variety of subject-verb combinations. Mr. Ellroy, in order to pack maximo action into minimo pages, has developed what he clearly views as a whiplash telegraphic style. No doubt the violence done to the English language is meant to mirror the violence done to humanity by its fellow humanity (I'm being charitable here). But we can't really begin to care about characters who never even get to inhabit a complete sentence.
Efforts at a film adaptation
Various attempts at a film adaption of White Jazz have been under development since the 1990s. But as of 2009, Ellroy said that an adaptation of "White Jazz is dead. All movie adaptations of my books are dead."
History
Ellroy completed a draft of a 131-page screenplay on October 31, 1997. In 1998, cinematographer Robert Richardson signed on for what would have been his directorial debut with Fine Line Features distributing. They put the project into turnaround in early 1999 due to budgetary concerns. In early December 2001, it was reported that "German-based VIF Intl. Films had come aboard to finance White Jazz, co-producing with Nick Nolte's Kingsgate Films and L.A.-based production company Interlight. Nolte and John Cusack were set to star in the film, with Winona Ryder reportedly in discussions to join them. Nolte was to play Klein, Cusack to play Junior Stemmons and Ryder to play Hollywood starlet Glenda. Uma Thurman was also attached to the project at one point and was to play Glenda. The screenplay was written by Ellroy and Christopher Cleveland. After the demise of the project, Richardson said "That's why directors go absolutely crazy – the development of a project is highly unpredictable and doesn't make tremendous sense. It may happen, but not in my time frame."
On November 30, 2006, it was reported that George Clooney was set to star in a newly green-lit film adaptation of the novel for Warner Independent Pictures. Clooney was also on board as producer along with his Smoke House partner Grant Heslov. The film was to be written by Matthew Michael Carnahan and directed by his brother Joe Carnahan. Both Jason Bateman and Peter Berg had signed on to appear in the film. The script changes the Armenian Kafesjian family in the novel to the Mexican Magdalena family. Joe Carnahan said this of his brother's script, "It's, to me, what that book always was – the point of departure from the Eisenhower '50s to the psychedelic freakshow, Manson '60s. It's a total combination of the two with a heavy, heavy voice-over narration, this kind of classic noir." Carnahan had also confirmed that the characters of Ed Exley and Dudley Smith would not be in the film version despite their presence in the book, as Regency Productions has its own plans for a sequel to L.A. Confidential and asked the director to remove Exley from his screenplay as they own the rights to the character. Instead, the Carnahans had constructed a "doppelganger" for Exley, "giving him all of [his] traits and speech patterns."
Carnahan described his vision of White Jazz as reflecting the "kind of mid-century explosion of art and music, and really letting that be the kind of guiding force behind it, as opposed to making it like this ... all 'period suits'. I really want to try to make it as accurate a reflection of L.A. at that moment in time as I can." He also commented on George Clooney's willingness to play an unlikable character for the first time. "He's made that very clear to me: 'I have no other desire than to play what's in that script.' And what's in that script is a pretty despicable guy at times, and pretty nefarious and nasty and selfish." Carnahan also touched upon how he trimmed down the novel's numerous subplots because "I always thought that as much as I love White Jazz, it became almost unfilmable at some point, because there are so many strands, so much, and it became so psychotic ... that's what made it such a great book, but those things would not carry over into the filmic realm, I thought, with ease."
Clooney later dropped out of starring in the film due to scheduling conflicts with other projects. Chris Pine, who was also up for a role in the film, decided to take on the role of James T. Kirk in J. J. Abrams' 2009 Star Trek'' film. Having finished the last draft of the screenplay, Carnahan initially stated that he would still make the film and had "a couple of options in terms of other actors that I am completely over the moon for."
References
External links
Neo-noir novels
1992 American novels
Novels by James Ellroy
American crime novels
Novels set in California
Alfred A. Knopf books
Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department
Fiction set in the 1950s
Hollywood novels
Books with cover art by Chip Kidd | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Jazz |
David Zaffiro is an American record producer and guitarist.
Career
Zaffiro began his musical pursuits with friends he met in Seattle, Washington, assisting the formation of the band Topaz and later the Crystal City Rockers. His professional career began as guitarist for the metal band Bloodgood. Though he officially left the band following their third album, he did play various parts on later albums. He then began producing records independently and for others. Artists with whom he has worked include Acquire the Fire, Andy Chrisman, A Worship House, Brett Williams, Broken Silence, Eli, End Time Warriors, Holy Soldier, Julie Miller, Kate Miner, Kim Hill, Little Big Town, The Passion Worship Band, Paul Q-Pek, Point of Grace, Whitecross and Zion.
Discography
Studio albums
The Other Side (1989)
In Scarlet Storm (1990)
Surrender Absolute (1992)
Yesterday's Left Behind (1994)
with Bloodgood
Bloodgood (1986)
Detonation (1987)
Rock In a Hard Place (1988)
References
External links
Interview @ Hard Music Magazine from 2002
Living people
American performers of Christian music
Year of birth missing (living people) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Zaffiro |
Space Technology 5 (ST5) of the NASA New Millennium program was a test of ten new technologies aboard a group of microsatellites. Developed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, the three individual small spacecraft were launched together from the belly of a Lockheed L-1011 aboard the Pegasus XL rocket, on 22 March 2006. One technology involved antennas that were designed by computers using an evolutionary AI system developed at NASA Ames Research Center. The ST5 on-board flight computer, the C&DH (Command & Data Handling) system, was based on a Mongoose-V radiation-hardened microprocessor.
On 30 June 2006 the satellites making up ST5 were shut down after successfully completing their technology validation mission.
Mission objectives
ST5's objective was to demonstrate and flight qualify several innovative technologies and concepts for application to future space missions.
Communications Components for Small Spacecraft The X-Band Transponder Communications System was provided by AeroAstro. The transponder system is a miniaturized digital communications transponder. It provides coherent uplink-to-downlink operation that provides a ground-to-space command capability, space-to-ground telemetry capability, and a radio frequency tracking capability. The X-Band weighs approximately 1/12 as much and is 1/9 the volume of communications systems used in other missions.
Evolved antenna A supercomputer using an artificial evolution algorithm designed a very tiny, highly unlikely looking, but highly promising communication antenna for the ST5 spacecraft. The radiator was designed by NASA Ames and the antenna itself was implemented by the Physical Science Laboratory at New Mexico State University. (As a note, each spacecraft has two X-band antennas: an evolved (the solid black painted unit) and a quadrifilar helix antenna (the two-toned, black and white unit). The quadrifilar helix antennas were also developed at the NMSU Physical Science Laboratory.)
Lithium-Ion Power System for Small Satellites The Low-Voltage Power System uses a low-weight Li-Ion battery that can store up to four times as much energy as a Ni-Cad battery, charged by triple junction solar cells. The Li-Ion rechargeable battery has a longer life and exhibits no memory effect.
Ultra Low-Power Demonstration The CULPRiT is a new type of microelectronic device that allows circuits to operate at 0.5 Volts. The technology will greatly reduce power consumption while achieving a radiation tolerance of ~100 kRad total dose and latch-up immunity.
Variable Emittance Coatings for Thermal Control The Variable Emittance Coatings, provided by Sensortex, Inc. and the Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), are used for thermal control and consist of an electrically tunable coating that can change properties, from absorbing heat when cool to reflecting or emitting heat when in the Sun. The Microelectromechanical System (MEMS) chip is part of this technology.
Propulsion Systems Components A miniature microthruster that provides fine attitude adjustments on the spacecraft. The Cold Gas Microthruster (CGMT) is a tiny electromechanical system designed by Marotta Scientific Controls, Inc. to provide fine attitude adjustments on each of the micro-sats. It uses 1/8 the power and weighs only half as much as attitude control systems being used in other missions.
Miniature magnetometer
Miniature spinning sun sensor
Spacecraft deployment mechanism
Magnetometer deployment boom
Nutation dampe
See also
List of spaceflights (2006)
References
External links
Space Technology 5 JPL NMP page
Space Technology 5 NASA page
Earth observation satellites of the United States
New Millennium Program
NASA satellites
Spacecraft launched in 2006
Spacecraft launched by Pegasus rockets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20Technology%205 |
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