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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcolemma | The sarcolemma (sarco (from sarx) from Greek; flesh, and lemma from Greek; sheath) also called the myolemma, is the cell membrane surrounding a skeletal muscle fiber or a cardiomyocyte.
It consists of a lipid bilayer and a thin outer coat of polysaccharide material (glycocalyx) that contacts the basement membrane. The basement membrane contains numerous thin collagen fibrils and specialized proteins such as laminin that provide a scaffold to which the muscle fiber can adhere. Through transmembrane proteins in the plasma membrane, the actin skeleton inside the cell is connected to the basement membrane and the cell's exterior. At each end of the muscle fiber, the surface layer of the sarcolemma fuses with a tendon fiber, and the tendon fibers, in turn, collect into bundles to form the muscle tendons that adhere to bones.
The sarcolemma generally maintains the same function in muscle cells as the plasma membrane does in other eukaryote cells. It acts as a barrier between the extracellular and intracellular compartments, defining the individual muscle fiber from its surroundings. The lipid nature of the membrane allows it to separate the fluids of the intra- and extracellular compartments, since it is only selectively permeable to water through aquaporin channels. As in other cells, this allows for the compositions of the compartments to be controlled by selective transport through the membrane. Membrane proteins, such as ion pumps, may create ion gradients with the consumptio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips%2068070 | The SCC68070 is a Philips Semiconductors-branded, Motorola 68000-based 16/32-bit processor produced under license. While marketed externally as a high-performance microcontroller, it has been almost exclusively used combined with the Philips SCC66470 VSC (Video- and Systems Controller) in the Philips CD-i interactive entertainment product line.
Additions to the Motorola 68000 core include:
Operation from 4 - 17.5 MHz
Inclusion of a minimal, segmented MMU supporting up to 16 MB of memory
Built-in DMA controller
I²C bus controller
UART
16-bit counter/timer unit
2 match/count/capture registers allowing the implementation of a pulse generator, event counter or reference timer
Clock generator
Differences from the Motorola 68000 core include these:
Instruction execution timing is completely different
Interrupt handling has been simplified
The SCC68070 has MC68010 style bus-error recovery. They are not compatible, so exception error processing is different.
The SCC68070 lacks a dedicated address generation unit (AGU), so operations requiring address calculation run slower due to contention with the shared ALU. This means that most instructions take more cycles to execute, for some instructions significantly more, than a 68000.
The MMU is not compatible with the Motorola 68451 or any other "standard" Motorola MMU, so operating system code dealing with memory protection and address translation is not generally portable. Enabling the MMU also costs a wait state on |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptogenesis | Synaptogenesis is the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system. Although it occurs throughout a healthy person's lifespan, an explosion of synapse formation occurs during early brain development, known as exuberant synaptogenesis. Synaptogenesis is particularly important during an individual's critical period, during which there is a certain degree of synaptic pruning due to competition for neural growth factors by neurons and synapses. Processes that are not used, or inhibited during their critical period will fail to develop normally later on in life.
Formation of the neuromuscular junction
Function
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the most well-characterized synapse in that it provides a simple and accessible structure that allows for easy manipulation and observation. The synapse itself is composed of three cells: the motor neuron, the myofiber, and the Schwann cell. In a normally functioning synapse, a signal will cause the motor neuron to depolarize, by releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Acetylcholine travels across the synaptic cleft where it reaches acetylcholine receptors (AChR) on the plasma membrane of the myofiber, the sarcolemma. As the AChRs open ion channels, the membrane depolarizes, causing muscle contraction. The entire synapse is covered in
a myelin sheath provided by the Schwann cell to insulate and encapsulate the junction.
Another important part of the neuromuscular system and central nervous system are the astroc |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobza | The kobza (), also called bandura () is a Ukrainian folk music instrument of the lute family (Hornbostel-Sachs classification number 321.321-5+6), a relative of the Central European mandora. The term kobza however, has also been applied to a number of other Eastern European instruments distinct from the Ukrainian kobza.
Construction
The Ukrainian kobza was a traditionally gut-strung, lute-like stringed musical instrument with a body hewn from a single block of wood. Instruments with a staved assembly also exist. The kobza has a medium-length neck which may or may not have tied-on frets, which were usually made of gut. It was single-strung (sometimes also double-strung) and the strings were played with fingertips or occasionally with a plectrum threaded through a ring placed on the middle finger.
History
The term kobza is of Turkic origin and is related to the terms kobyz and komuz, thought to have been introduced into the Ukrainian language in the 13th century with the migration of a sizable group of Turkic people from Abkhazia settling in the Poltava region. It was usually played by a bard or minstrel known as a kobzar (occasionally in earlier times a kobeznik), who accompanies his recitation of epic poetry called duma in Ukrainian.
The Kobza acquired widespread popularity in the 16th century, with the advent of the Hetmanate (Cossack state). From the 17th century, the term bandura was often used as a synonym for the kobza. The term bandura has a Latin pedigree and refle |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urn%20%28disambiguation%29 | An urn is a vase-like container.
Urn may refer to:
Urn problem of probability theory
Urn (album), an album by Ne Obliviscaris
The acronym URN may refer to:
Uniform Resource Name, an Internet identifier
Unique Reference Number, an identifier of UK schools
University Radio Nottingham, England
See also |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PP2B | Serine/threonine-protein phosphatase 2B (PP2B) may refer to:
PP2BA – PP2B catalytic subunit alpha isoform
PP2BB – PP2B catalytic subunit beta isoform
PP2BC – PP2B catalytic subunit gamma isoform |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-loop%20replication | D-loop replication is a proposed process by which circular DNA like chloroplasts and mitochondria replicate their genetic material. An important component of understanding D-loop replication is that many chloroplasts and mitochondria have a single circular chromosome like bacteria instead of the linear chromosomes found in eukaryotes. However, many chloroplasts and mitochondria have a linear chromosome, and D-loop replication is not important in these organelles. Also, not all circular genomes use D-loop replication as the process of replicating its genome.
In many organisms, one strand of DNA in the plasmid comprises heavier nucleotides (relatively more purines: adenine and guanine). This strand is called the H (heavy) strand. The L (light) strand comprises lighter nucleotides (pyrimidines: thymine and cytosine). Replication begins with replication of the heavy strand starting at the D-loop (also known as the control region). A D-loop is a short portion in circular DNA that has three strands instead of two. The middle strand, which is complementary to the light strand, displaces the heavy strand and forms a displacement loop (D-loop). Circular DNA is stable with this small D-loop and can remain in this formation, but the middle strand, or the displacing strand, is replaced frequently due to its short half-life, and is very energetically expensive to the cell. When diagramed, the resulting structure looks like the letter D. The D-loop was first discovered in 1971 when re |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0-10-2 | Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, 0-10-2 represents the wheel arrangement of no leading wheels, ten powered and coupled driving wheels on five axles, and two trailing wheels on one axle (usually in a trailing truck).
Other equivalent classifications are:
UIC classification: E1 (also known as German classification and Italian classification)
French classification: 051
Turkish classification: 56
Swiss classification: 5/6
United States
In the US, this type is known as the Union after the only US railroad to have new locomotives built in this arrangement. These were ten 0-10-2s built for the Union Railroad in the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania area. They were used as heavy duty transfer locomotives rather than switchers. In Greenville, Pennsylvania, one is on static display lettered for the Duluth Missabe and Iron Range Railway #604 (Upon dieselization, the Union RR sold all of theirs to the DM&IR) .
The Chicago & North Western Railway converted two 2-10-2 locomotives formerly owned by subsidiary Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha into 0-10-2 locomotives in 1944.
They were classified J-1 both before and after conversion. One was scrapped in 1950 and the other in 1953.
Europe
In Germany, a number of narrow gauge tank locomotives were built with an 0-10-2 configuration. All used some form of articulated drive that allowed the outer driving axles to move sideways or radially to negotiate curves. An example was a group of locomotives built |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal%20transcribed%20spacer | Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) is the spacer DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and large-subunit rRNA genes in the chromosome or the corresponding transcribed region in the polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript.
Across life domains
In bacteria and archaea, there is a single ITS, located between the 16S and 23S rRNA genes. Conversely, there are two ITSs in eukaryotes: ITS1 is located between 18S and 5.8S rRNA genes, while ITS2 is between 5.8S and 28S (in opisthokonts, or 25S in plants) rRNA genes. ITS1 corresponds to the ITS in bacteria and archaea, while ITS2 originated as an insertion that interrupted the ancestral 23S rRNA gene.
Organization
In bacteria and archaea, the ITS occurs in one to several copies, as do the flanking 16S and 23S genes. When there are multiple copies, these do not occur adjacent to one another. Rather, they occur in discrete locations in the circular chromosome. It is not uncommon in bacteria to carry tRNA genes in the ITS.
In eukaryotes, genes encoding ribosomal RNA and spacers occur in tandem repeats that are thousands of copies long, each separated by regions of non-transcribed DNA termed intergenic spacer (IGS) or non-transcribed spacer (NTS).
Each eukaryotic ribosomal cluster contains the 5' external transcribed spacer (5' ETS), the 18S rRNA gene, the ITS1, the 5.8S rRNA gene, the ITS2, the 26S or 28S rRNA gene, and finally the 3' ETS.
During rRNA maturation, ETS and ITS pieces are excised. As non-functiona |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20transcript | A primary transcript is the single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) product synthesized by transcription of DNA, and processed to yield various mature RNA products such as mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs. The primary transcripts designated to be mRNAs are modified in preparation for translation. For example, a precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) is a type of primary transcript that becomes a messenger RNA (mRNA) after processing.
Pre-mRNA is synthesized from a DNA template in the cell nucleus by transcription. Pre-mRNA comprises the bulk of heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). Once pre-mRNA has been completely processed, it is termed "mature messenger RNA", or simply "messenger RNA". The term hnRNA is often used as a synonym for pre-mRNA, although, in the strict sense, hnRNA may include nuclear RNA transcripts that do not end up as cytoplasmic mRNA.
There are several steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts. All these steps involve a series of interactions to initiate and complete the transcription of DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes. Certain factors play key roles in the activation and inhibition of transcription, where they regulate primary transcript production. Transcription produces primary transcripts that are further modified by several processes. These processes include the 5' cap, 3'-polyadenylation, and alternative splicing. In particular, alternative splicing directly contributes to the diversity of mRNA found in cells. The modifications of primary transcripts have |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming%20Language%20Design%20and%20Implementation%20%28conference%29 | Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI) is an academic conference in computer science, in particular in the study of programming languages and compilers. PLDI is organized by the Association for Computing Machinery under the SIGPLAN interest group.
History
The precursor of PLDI was the Symposium on Compiler Optimization, held July 27–28, 1970 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and chaired by Robert S. Northcote. That conference included papers by Frances E. Allen, John Cocke, Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, and Jeffrey D. Ullman. The first conference in the current PLDI series took place in 1979 under the name SIGPLAN Symposium on Compiler Construction in Denver, Colorado. The next Compiler Construction conference took place in 1982 in Boston, Massachusetts. The Compiler Construction conferences then alternated with SIGPLAN Conferences on Language Issues until 1988, when the conference was renamed to PLDI. From 1982 until 2001, the conference acronym was SIGPLAN 'xx. Starting in 2002, the initialism became PLDI 'xx, and in 2006 PLDI xxxx.
Conference locations and organizers
PLDI 2023 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Orlando, FL, United States
General Chair: Steve Blackburn
Program Chair: Nate Foster
PLDI 2022 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Diego, CA, United States
General Chair: Ranjit Jhala
Program Chair: Isil Dillig
PLDI 2021 - SIGPLAN Conference on Progra |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertactin | In molecular biology, pertactin (PRN) is a highly immunogenic virulence factor of Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium that causes pertussis. Specifically, it is an outer membrane protein that promotes adhesion to tracheal epithelial cells. PRN is purified from Bordetella pertussis and is used for the vaccine production as one of the important components of acellular pertussis vaccine.
A large part of the N-terminus of the pertactin protein is composed of beta helix repeats. This region of the pertactin protein is secreted through the C-terminal autotransporter. The N-terminal signal sequences promotes the secretion of PRN into the periplasm through the bacterial secretion system (Sec) and consequently, the translocation into the outer membrane where it is proteolytically cleaved. The loops in the right handed β-helix of the N-terminus that protrudes out of cell surface (region R1) contains sequence repeats Gly-Gly-Xaa-Xaa-Pro and the RGD domain Arg-Gly-Asp. This RGD domain allows PRN to function as an adhesin and invasin, binding to integrins on the outer membrane of the cell. Another loop of the extending β-helix is region 2 (R2) which contains Pro-Gln-Pro (PQP) repeats towards the C-terminus. This protein’s contribution to immunity is still premature. Reports suggest that R1 and R2 are immunogenic regions, however, recent studies regarding genetic variation of those regions prove otherwise.
In B.bronchiseptica
Pertactin adheres to only ciliated epithelial cells of B. br |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riebeckite | Riebeckite is a sodium-rich member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals, chemical formula Na2(Fe2+3Fe3+2)Si8O22(OH)2. It forms a solid solution series with magnesioriebeckite. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, usually as long prismatic crystals showing a diamond-shaped cross section, but also in fibrous, bladed, acicular, columnar, and radiating forms. Its Mohs hardness is 5.0–6.0, and its specific gravity is 3.0–3.4. Cleavage is perfect, two directions in the shape of a diamond; fracture is uneven, splintery. It is often translucent to nearly opaque.
Name and discovery
Riebeckite was first described in 1888 for an occurrence on Socotra Island, Aden Governorate, Yemen, and named after German explorer Emil Riebeck (1853–1885).
The mineral is also known as crocidolite.
Occurrence
Riebeckite typically forms dark-blue elongated to fibrous crystals in highly alkali granites, syenites, rarely in felsic volcanics, granite pegmatites and schist. It occurs in banded iron formations as the asbestiform variety crocidolite (blue asbestos). It occurs in association with aegirine, nepheline, albite, arfvedsonite in igneous rocks; with tremolite, ferro-actinolite in metamorphic rocks; and with grunerite, magnetite, hematite, stilpnomelane, ankerite, siderite, calcite, chalcedonic quartz in iron formations.
Riebeckite granite
The riebeckite granite known as ailsite, found on the island of Ailsa Craig in western Scotland, is prized for its use in the manufacture of curling |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic%20argument | Probabilistic argument may refer to:
Probabilistic argument, any argument involving probability theory
Probabilistic method, a method of non-constructive existence proof in mathematics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labyrinthodontia | "Labyrinthodontia" (Greek, 'maze-toothed') is an informal grouping of extinct predatory amphibians which were major components of ecosystems in the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras (about 390 to 150 million years ago). Traditionally considered a subclass of the class Amphibia, modern classification systems recognize that labyrinthodonts are not a formal natural group (clade) exclusive of other tetrapods. Instead, they consistute an evolutionary grade (a paraphyletic group), ancestral to living tetrapods such as lissamphibians (modern amphibians) and amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and kin). "Labyrinthodont"-grade vertebrates evolved from lobe-finned fishes in the Devonian, though a formal boundary between fish and amphibian is difficult to define at this point in time.
"Labyrinthodont" generally refers to extinct four-limbed tetrapods with a large body size and a crocodile-like lifestyle. The name describes the pattern of infolding of the dentin and enamel of the teeth, which are often the only part of the creatures that fossilize. They are also distinguished by a broad, strongly-built skull roof composed of many small heavily-textured skull bones. "Labyrinthodonts" generally have complex multi-part vertebrae, and several classification schemes have utilized vertebrae to define subgroups.
Because labyrinthodonts do not form a monophyletic group, many modern researchers have abandoned the term. However, some have continued to use the group in their classifications, at lea |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sort-merge%20join | The sort-merge join (also known as merge join) is a join algorithm and is used in the implementation of a relational database management system.
The basic problem of a join algorithm is to find, for each distinct value of the join attribute, the set of tuples in each relation which display that value. The key idea of the sort-merge algorithm is to first sort the relations by the join attribute, so that interleaved linear scans will encounter these sets at the same time.
In practice, the most expensive part of performing a sort-merge join is arranging for both inputs to the algorithm to be presented in sorted order. This can be achieved via an explicit sort operation (often an external sort), or by taking advantage of a pre-existing ordering in one or both of the join relations. The latter condition, called interesting order, can occur because an input to the join might be produced by an index scan of a tree-based index, another merge join, or some other plan operator that happens to produce output sorted on an appropriate key. Interesting orders need not be serendipitous: the optimizer may seek out this possibility and choose a plan that is suboptimal for a specific preceding operation if it yields an interesting order that one or more downstream nodes can exploit.
Let's say that we have two relations and and . fits in pages memory and fits in pages memory. So, in the worst case sort-merge join will run in I/Os. In the case that and are not ordered the worst case |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-square%20%28fractal%29 | In mathematics, the T-square is a two-dimensional fractal. It has a boundary of infinite length bounding a finite area. Its name comes from the drawing instrument known as a T-square.
Algorithmic description
It can be generated from using this algorithm:
Image 1:
Start with a square. (The black square in the image)
Image 2:
At each convex corner of the previous image, place another square, centered at that corner, with half the side length of the square from the previous image.
Take the union of the previous image with the collection of smaller squares placed in this way.
Images 3–6:
Repeat step 2.
The method of creation is rather similar to the ones used to create a Koch snowflake or a Sierpinski triangle, "both based on recursively drawing equilateral triangles and the Sierpinski carpet."
Properties
The T-square fractal has a fractal dimension of ln(4)/ln(2) = 2. The black surface extent is almost everywhere in the bigger square, for once a point has been darkened, it remains black for every other iteration; however some points remain white.
The fractal dimension of the boundary equals .
Using mathematical induction one can prove that for each n ≥ 2 the number of new squares that are added at stage n equals .
The T-Square and the chaos game
The T-square fractal can also be generated by an adaptation of the chaos game, in which a point jumps repeatedly half-way towards the randomly chosen vertices of a square. The T-square appears when the jumping point is un |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermal%20growth%20factor | Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor, EGFR. Human EGF is 6-kDa and has 53 amino acid residues and three intramolecular disulfide bonds.
EGF was originally described as a secreted peptide found in the submaxillary glands of mice and in human urine. EGF has since been found in many human tissues, including platelets, submandibular gland (submaxillary gland), and parotid gland. Initially, human EGF was known as urogastrone.
Structure
In humans, EGF has 53 amino acids (sequence NSDSECPLSHDGYCLHDGVCMYIEALDKYACNCVVGYIGERCQYRDLKWWELR), with a molecular mass of around 6 kDa. It contains three disulfide bridges (Cys6-Cys20, Cys14-Cys31, Cys33-Cys42).
Function
EGF, via binding to its cognate receptor, results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival.
Salivary EGF, which seems to be regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, also plays an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-esophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis as well as mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and to physical, chemical and bacterial agents.
Biological sources
The Epidermal growth factor can be found in platelets, urine, saliva, milk, tears, and blood plasma. It can also be f |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20shift | In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, the chemical shift is the resonant frequency of an atomic nucleus relative to a standard in a magnetic field. Often the position and number of chemical shifts are diagnostic of the structure of a molecule. Chemical shifts are also used to describe signals in other forms of spectroscopy such as photoemission spectroscopy.
Some atomic nuclei possess a magnetic moment (nuclear spin), which gives rise to different energy levels and resonance frequencies in a magnetic field. The total magnetic field experienced by a nucleus includes local magnetic fields induced by currents of electrons in the molecular orbitals (electrons have a magnetic moment themselves). The electron distribution of the same type of nucleus (e.g. ) usually varies according to the local geometry (binding partners, bond lengths, angles between bonds, and so on), and with it the local magnetic field at each nucleus. This is reflected in the spin energy levels (and resonance frequencies). The variations of nuclear magnetic resonance frequencies of the same kind of nucleus, due to variations in the electron distribution, is called the chemical shift. The size of the chemical shift is given with respect to a reference frequency or reference sample (see also chemical shift referencing), usually a molecule with a barely distorted electron distribution.
Operating frequency
The operating (or Larmor) frequency of a magnet is calculated from the Larmor equation
whe |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium%20release%20activated%20channel | Calcium release-activated channels (CRAC) are specialized plasma membrane Ca2+ ion channels. When calcium ions (Ca2+) are depleted from the endoplasmic reticulum (a major store of Ca2+) of mammalian cells, the CRAC channel is activated to slowly replenish the level of calcium in the endoplasmic reticulum. The Ca2+ Release-activated Ca2+ (CRAC) Channel (CRAC-C) Family (TC# 1.A.52) is a member of the Cation Diffusion Facilitator (CDF) Superfamily. These proteins typically have between 4 and 6 transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs). The 4 TMS CRAC channels arose by loss of 2TMSs from 6TMS CDF carriers, an example of 'reverse' evolution'.
Homology
There are several proteins that belong to the CRAC-C family. A list of the currently classified members of the CRAC-C family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database. This classification is based on sequence similarity which also happens to coincide with functional and structural similarities between homologues.
Structure
Almost all CRAC homologues are about 250 residues long, but some are up to 100 residues longer (e.g., the Drosophila melanogaster Olf186-F, TC# 1.A.52.1.5).
The plasma membrane protein "Orai" (ORAI1 and ORAI2 in humans) forms the pore of the CRAC channel. The protein ORAI1 is a structural component of the CRAC calcium channel. ORAI1 interacts with the STIM1 protein. STIM1 is a transmembrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). STIM1 can sense the concentration of Ca2+ inside the ER. When the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgeworth%27s%20limit%20theorem | Edgeworth's limit theorem is an economic theorem, named after Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, stating that the core of an economy shrinks to the set of Walrasian equilibria as the number of agents increases to infinity.
That is, among all possible outcomes which may result from free market exchange or barter between groups of people, while the precise location of the final settlement (the ultimate division of goods) between the parties is not uniquely determined, as the number of traders increases, the set of all possible final settlements converges to the set of Walrasian equilibria.
Intuitively, it may be interpreted as stating that as an economy grows larger, agents increasingly behave as if they are price-taking agents, even if they have the power to bargain.
Edgeworth (1881) conjectured the theorem, and provided most of the necessary intuition and went some way towards its proof. Formal proofs were presented under different assumptions by Debreu and Scarf (1963) as well as Aumann (1964), both proved under conditions stricter than what Edgeworth conjectured. Debreu and Scarf considered the case of a "replica economy" where there is a finite number of agent types and the agents added to the economy to make it "large" are of the same type and in the same proportion as those already in it. Aumann's result relied on an existence of a continuum of agents.
The core of an economy
The core of an economy is a concept from cooperative game theory defined as the set of feasible allo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucin | Mucins () are a family of high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins (glycoconjugates) produced by epithelial tissues in most animals. Mucins' key characteristic is their ability to form gels; therefore they are a key component in most gel-like secretions, serving functions from lubrication to cell signalling to forming chemical barriers. They often take an inhibitory role. Some mucins are associated with controlling mineralization, including nacre formation in mollusks, calcification in echinoderms and bone formation in vertebrates. They bind to pathogens as part of the immune system. Overexpression of the mucin proteins, especially MUC1, is associated with many types of cancer.
Although some mucins are membrane-bound due to the presence of a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that favors retention in the plasma membrane, most mucins are secreted as principal components of mucus by mucous membranes or are secreted to become a component of saliva.
Genes and proteins
Human mucins include genes with the HUGO symbol MUC 1 through 22. Of these mucins, the following classes have been defined by localization:
Secreted mucins in humans, with their chromosomal location, repeat size in amino acids (aa), whether they are gel-forming (Y) or not (N), and their tissue expression.
Membrane-bound (transmembrane) mucins: MUC1, MUC3A, MUC3B, MUC4, MUC12, MUC13, MUC15, MUC16, MUC17, MUC21 (formerly C6orf205), MUC22 (highly polymorphic)
The major secreted airway mucins are MU |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopinath%20Kartha | Gopinath Kartha (26 January 1927 – 18 June 1984) was a prominent crystallographer of Indian origin. In 1967, he determined the molecular structure of the enzyme ribonuclease. This was the first protein structure elucidated and published in the United States.
Early life and education
Gopinath Kartha was born in Cherthala, near Alappuzha in the state of Kerala, India. He went to school at Sanathanadharma Vidya Sala in Alappuzha. His undergraduate diploma in Math, Physics, and Chemistry was from University College, Thiruvananthapuram(Trivandrum). He obtained his B.Sc. in Physics in 1950 from the University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. He obtained another B.Sc. in Mathematics from Andhra University in Visakhapatnam in 1951.
He began his graduate studies in 1952 at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore but followed his advisor G.N. Ramachandran back to the University of Madras. As a graduate student, he and Ramachandran worked on the triple helix structure of the collagen molecule.
Career
In 1959, he moved to the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute to work with Dr. David Harker and Dr. Jake Bello.
Later that year, the entire Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute's crystallography group moved to Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York. He stayed at Roswell Park until the end of his life. In 1972 he spent eight months as a visiting professor of biophysics at Kyoto University.
References
1927 births
1984 deaths
Indian crystallographers
Indian biop |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid%20inclusion | A fluid inclusion is a bubble of liquid and/or gas that is trapped within a crystal. As minerals often form from a liquid or aqueous medium, tiny bubbles of that liquid can become trapped within the crystal, or along healed crystal fractures. These inclusions usually range in size from 0.01 mm to 1 mm and are only visible in detail by microscopic study, however specimens of fenster or skeletal quartz may include thin sheet-like inclusions that are many millimetres in length and breadth within their lamellar voids.
These inclusions occur in a wide variety of environments. For example, they are found within cementing minerals of sedimentary rocks, in gangue minerals such as quartz or calcite in hydrothermal circulation deposits, in fossil amber, and in deep ice cores from the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps. The inclusions can provide information about the conditions existing during the formation of the enclosing mineral. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy can be used to determine the composition of fluid inclusions.
Formation
Hydrothermal ore minerals, which typically form from high temperature aqueous solutions, trap tiny bubbles of liquids or gases when cooling and forming solid rock. The trapped fluid in an inclusion preserves a record of the composition, temperature and pressure of the mineralizing environment. An inclusion often contains two or more phases. If a vapor bubble is present in the inclusion along with a liquid phase, simple heat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSR%20plc | CSR plc (formerly Cambridge Silicon Radio) was a multinational fabless semiconductor company headquartered in Cambridge, United Kingdom. Its main products were connectivity, audio, imaging and location chips. CSR was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index until it was acquired by Qualcomm in August 2015. Under Qualcomm's ownership, the company was renamed Qualcomm Technologies International, Ltd.
History
The company was founded in 1998 and split away from Cambridge Consultants as Cambridge Silicon Radio or CSR in 1999. The founding directors, who were all at Cambridge Consultants at the time were Phil O'Donovan, James Collier and Glenn Collinson. It was first listed on the London Stock Exchange in 2004.
In 2005 the company acquired Clarity Technologies, a leading clear voice capture (CVC) business and UbiNetics, a 3G wireless (WCDMA/UMTS/HSDPA) technology company. In 2007, CSR acquired Nordnav, a Swedish-based GPS software company, and CPS, a Cambridge-based GPS software company producing Enhanced GPS in partnership with Motorola.
In February 2009, CSR announced it was merging with SiRF, the biggest global supplier of GPS chips, in a share deal worth $136 million; in July 2010, CSR announced the acquisition of Belfast-based APT Licensing Ltd. (APT) and its aptX audio technology and in February 2011, CSR announced it was merging with Zoran, a video and imaging technology company.
In May 2012, CSR acquired Direct Digital Feedback |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR%20Class%20CP | The Southern Railway (SR) gave the designation CP to the fleet of AC electric multiple units used on the former London, Brighton and South Coast Railway lines in the Crystal Palace area.
Construction
The CP (Crystal Palace stock) units were built in 1911–1913 to provide the electric train stock required for the LBSCR AC overhead electrification to Crystal Palace and the surrounding area. This stock comprised some 90 cars, which were used in three-car formations, usually (Driving Trailer Composite+Driving Motor Brake Third+Driving Trailer Composite).
Thirty motor coaches and 30 driving trailers were built by the Metropolitan Amalgamated Carriage and Wagon Co. Ltd. in 1911. Each motor coach had four Winter Eichberg motors. A further 26 driving trailers were built at the LBSC's Lancing Carriage Works. In 1912, four additional motor and trailer pairs were delivered by MAC&W's successor, the Metropolitan Carriage, Wagon and Finance Company. Lancing Works built eight more trailers the following year.
After the replacement of the AC overhead equipment by the 660 V DC third rail system adopted as standard by the SR, the carriages that formed these units were rebuilt accordingly.
Formations
The LB&SCR originally did not buy sufficient stock for 30 sets, on the grounds that the trailers cars would be quicker to overhaul than the motor cars. Fixed formations were not used, and as the Motor cars had cabs, the CP stock could be used in trains of two to six vehicles.
References
SR |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBT | HBT may refer to:
HBT (explosive)
Haifa Beirut Tripoli Railway
Hanbury Brown and Twiss effect
Herringbone Twill cloth military uniforms
Heterojunction bipolar transistor
Hole-board test
Hydrogen breath test |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic%20fibrosis%20transmembrane%20conductance%20regulator | Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a membrane protein and anion channel in vertebrates that is encoded by the CFTR gene.
Geneticist Lap-Chee Tsui and his team identified the CFTR gene in 1989 as the gene linked with CF (cystic fibrosis).
The CFTR gene codes for an ABC transporter-class ion channel protein that conducts chloride and bicarbonate ions across epithelial cell membranes. Mutations of the CFTR gene affecting anion channel function lead to dysregulation of epithelial lining fluid (mucus) transport in the lung, pancreas and other organs, resulting in cystic fibrosis. Complications include thickened mucus in the lungs with frequent respiratory infections, and pancreatic insufficiency giving rise to malnutrition and diabetes. These conditions lead to chronic disability and reduced life expectancy. In male patients, the progressive obstruction and destruction of the developing vas deferens (spermatic cord) and epididymis appear to result from abnormal intraluminal secretions, causing congenital absence of the vas deferens and male infertility, and found associated with an imbalance of fatty acids.
Gene
The gene that encodes the human CFTR protein is found on chromosome 7, on the long arm at position q31.2. from base pair 116,907,253 to base pair 117,095,955. CFTR orthologs occur in the jawed vertebrates.
Each individual inherits two copies of the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) gene. However, some of the inheri |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjud | Adjud (; ) is a city in Vrancea County, Western Moldavia, Romania. It has a population of 15,178 inhabitants (as of 2021). It lies at a railway junction which has a classification yard and a passenger station. Adjud, situated north of the point where the river Trotuș enters the Siret, used to be a marketplace.
The city administers three villages: Adjudu Vechi, Burcioaia, and Șișcani.
Geography
Adjud is situated on a plain and is surrounded by hills up to a height of at the foot of the Vrancea Mountains, a mountain range in the Curvature Carpathians. The average altitude of the town is above sea level. The surrounding land is favorable for agriculture.
Geological research findings show the city's subsoil having layers of gravel and sand Levantine and Quaternary, forming significant hydrological aquifers deposits fed by the Trotuș and Siret rivers and direct rainfalls.
The climate is temperate with annual average temperature of 8– and an average rainfall of 500 mm / m a year. It is characterized by prevailing northwinds with winds from the south and south-east in the hot season. Due to its location at the junction of the provinces Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania, it has been an important road and railway junction since ancient times. The town's area was of in 1997, out of which was covered by buildings and yards.
History
In the northern part of the town a settlement from the Bronze Age was discovered, which dates roughly from the second millennium BC and belon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gmina%20Czarna%20Bia%C5%82ostocka |
Gmina Czarna Białostocka is an urban-rural gmina (administrative district) in Białystok County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland. Its seat is the town of Czarna Białostocka, which lies approximately north of the regional capital Białystok.
The gmina covers an area of , and as of 2006 its total population is 11,692 (out of which the population of Czarna Białostocka amounts to 9,596, and the population of the rural part of the gmina is 2,096).
The gmina contains part of the protected area called Knyszyń Forest Landscape Park.
Villages
Apart from the town of Czarna Białostocka, Gmina Czarna Białostocka contains the villages and settlements of Brzozówka Koronna, Brzozówka Strzelecka, Brzozówka Ziemiańska, Budzisk, Burczak, Chmielnik, Czarna Wieś Kościelna, Czumażówka, Dworzysk, Horodnianka, Hutki, Jesienicha, Jezierzysk, Karczmisko, Klimki, Kosmaty Borek, Krzyżyki, Lacka Buda, Łapczyn, Łazarz, Machnacz, Niemczyn, Ogóły, Oleszkowo, Osierodek, Ośrodek, Podbrzozówka, Podratowiec, Podzamczysk, Ponure, Przewalanka, Ratowiec, Rogoziński Most, Ruda Rzeczka, Rudnia, Wilcza Jama, Wólka Ratowiecka, Zamczysk, Zdroje, Złota Wieś and Złotoria.
Neighbouring gminas
Gmina Czarna Białostocka is bordered by the gminas of Dobrzyniewo Duże, Janów, Jasionówka, Knyszyn, Korycin, Sokółka, Supraśl and Wasilków.
References
Polish official population figures 2006
Czarna Bialostocka
Białystok County |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talwar | The talwar (), also spelled talwaar and tulwar, is a type of curved sword or sabre from the Indian subcontinent.
Etymology and classification
The word talwar originated from the Sanskrit word taravāri () which means "one-edged sword". It is the word for sword in several related languages, such as Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), Nepali, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, etc. and as () in Bengali.
Like many swords from around the world with an etymology derived from a term meaning simply 'sword', the talwar has in scholarship, and in museum and collector usage, acquired a more specific meaning. Unfortunately, South Asian swords, while showing a rich diversity of forms, suffer from relatively poor dating (so developmental history is obscure) and a lack of precise nomenclature and classification. The typical talwar is a type of sabre, characterised by a curved blade (without the radical curve of some Persian swords), possessing an all-metal hilt with integral quillons and a disc-shaped pommel. This type of hilt is sometimes called the 'Indo-Muslim hilt', or 'standard Indian hilt'. Talwars possessing only slightly curved blades can be called sirohi. However, many other variations exist. Swords with straight blades and the disc-pommel hilt are usually referred to as 'straight-bladed talwars' (though the word dhup is also used), those with the same hilt, but yatagan-type forward-curved blades are termed 'sosun patta'. Swords with sabre-blades and all metal Indo-Muslim hilts, but having th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics%20and%20Astronomy%20Classification%20Scheme | The Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme (PACS) is a scheme developed in 1970 by the American Institute of Physics (AIP) for classifying scientific literature using a hierarchical set of codes. PACS has been used by over 160 international journals, including the Physical Review series since 1975. Since 2016, American Physical Society introduced the PhySH (Physics Subject Headings) system instead of PACS.
Discontinuation
AIP has announced that PACS 2010 will be the final version, but it will continue to be available through their website. The decision was made to discontinue PACS, owing to the administrative complexity of the revision process and its future viability in light of changing technological and research trends. However, PACS is still in use by scientific journals.
In association with Access Innovations, Inc., the AIP has developed a new "AIP Thesaurus", which it states will enable faster, more accurate and more efficient searches.
See also
Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC)
Computing Classification System (CCS)
PhySH (Physics Subject Headings)
References
External links
https://journals.aps.org/PACS PACS
https://web.archive.org/web/20070826124822/http://www.aip.org/pacs/Information on PACS
https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041118/https://publishing.aip.org/publishing/pacs/pacs-2010-regular-editionPACS 2010
Scientific classification |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20Cove%20State%20Park | Crystal Cove State Park is a state park of California, United States, encompassing of Pacific coastline, inland chaparral canyons, and the Crystal Cove Historic District of beach houses. The park is located partially in Newport Beach and partially in an unincorporated area of Orange County, and is part of the larger South Coast Wilderness area. Crystal Cove is a stretch of coastal cliffs and a beachfront cove situated between the Pacific Coast Highway and the Pacific Ocean, southeast of Newport Beach and northwest of Laguna Beach. The park was established in 1979. The entire park hosts a total of 3 miles of beaches and tide pools, a 1,400 acre marine Conservation Area as well as underwater park, 400 acres of bluffs, and 2,400 acres of canyons.
History
Up until the arrival of the Spanish Missionaries, the region was a series of native villages built around two different natural springs. The natives were then drafted to Mission San Gabriel and Mission San Juan Capistrano, which was later known as "Rancho San Joaquin", until it went into debt and was sold in 1864 to James Irvine, a financier from San Francisco, along with three other ranchers, however in 1876, when their sheep stock began to fail from drought, poor wool, and the increasingly competitive marketplace, James Irvine bought out his partners prior to his death. His son, James Irvine II, then inherited the ranch and began to expand the production of the land by leasing it to agriculturally diverse farmers, and forme |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table%20cell | A table cell is one grouping within a chart table used for storing information or data. Cells are grouped horizontally (rows of cells) and vertically (columns of cells). Each cell contains information relating to the combination of the row and column headings it is collinear with. In software design, table cells are a key component in HTML and webpage building, and it is part of the <table> component. A coder may specify dimensions for a table cell, and use them to hold sections of webpages.
HTML usage
Kinds of cell in HTML
A table cell in HTML is a non-empty element and should always be closed. There are two different kinds of table cell in HTML: normal table cell and header cell. <td> denotes a table cell, the name implying 'data', while <th> denotes a table 'header'. The two can be used interchangeably, but it is recommended that header cell be only used for the top and side headers of a table.
Syntax
A table cell also must be nested within a <table> tag and a <tr> (table row) tag. If there are more table cell tags in any given row than in any other, the particular <tr> must be given a attribute declaring how many columns of cells wide it should be.
Example
An example of an HTML table containing 4 cells:
HTML source:
<table border="1">
<tr>
<td>
Cell 1
</td>
<td>
Cell 2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
Cell 3
</td>
<td>
Cell 4
</td>
</tr>
</table>
Colspan and rowspan
Every row must have the same number of table da |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted%20geometric%20mean | In statistics, the weighted geometric mean is a generalization of the geometric mean using the weighted arithmetic mean.
Given a sample and weights , it is calculated as:
The second form above illustrates that the logarithm of the geometric mean is the weighted arithmetic mean of the logarithms of the individual values.
If all the weights are equal, the weighted geometric mean simplifies to the ordinary unweighted geometric mean.
See also
Average
Central tendency
Summary statistics
Weighted arithmetic mean
Weighted harmonic mean
External links
Non-Newtonian calculus website
Means
Mathematical analysis
Non-Newtonian calculus |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%C3%BA%20National%20Park | Manú National Park () is a national park and biosphere reserve located in the regions of Madre de Dios and Cusco in Peru. It protects a diverse number of ecosystems including lowland rainforests, cloud forests and Andean grasslands.
History
Manú National Park was established by decree on 29 May 1973; during the dictatorship of General Juan Velasco. In 1977, UNESCO recognised it as a Biosphere Reserve and in 1987, as a World Heritage Site. In 2002, the Peruvian government increased the extension of the park to its current area.
Geography
Manu National Park covers an area of which comprises mountainous areas (traversed by creeks and valleys) with elevations close to 4000 m above sea level and a portion of the Amazon Basin plains.
The national park is divided in the following areas: the restricted use zone (with pristine forests and native communities, access is granted to researchers only); the reserved zone (for recreation and research); the recuperation zone (for the recovery of disturbed areas) and the cultural zone (for human settlement and most activities including nature tourism ).
Climate
Climate in the park is highly variable, rainy and depends on the elevation. The southern section (mountainous) has an annual precipitation between 1500–2000 mm; while in the middle section it is between 3000–3500 mm and in the northwestern section the annual precipitation reaches 8000 mm or more. The less rainy season is from May to September, accompanied by lower temperatures.
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative%20Viterbi%20decoding | Iterative Viterbi decoding is an algorithm that spots the subsequence S of an observation O = {o1, ..., on} having the highest average probability (i.e., probability scaled by the length of S) of being generated by a given hidden Markov model M with m states. The algorithm uses a modified Viterbi algorithm as an internal step.
The scaled probability measure was first proposed by John S. Bridle. An early algorithm to solve this problem, sliding window, was proposed by Jay G. Wilpon et al., 1989, with constant cost T = mn2/2.
A faster algorithm consists of an iteration of calls to the Viterbi algorithm, reestimating a filler score until convergence.
The algorithm
A basic (non-optimized) version, finding the sequence s with the smallest normalized distance from some subsequence of t is:
// input is placed in observation s[1..n], template t[1..m],
// and [[distance matrix]] d[1..n,1..m]
// remaining elements in matrices are solely for internal computations
(int, int, int) AverageSubmatchDistance(char s[0..(n+1)], char t[0..(m+1)], int d[1..n,0..(m+1)]) {
// score, subsequence start, subsequence end
declare int e, B, E
t'[0] := t'[m+1] := s'[0] := s'[n+1] := 'e'
e := random()
do
e' := e
for i := 1 to n do d'[i,0] := d'[i,m+1] := e
(e, B, E) := ViterbiDistance(s', t', d')
e := e/(E-B+1)
until (e == e')
return (e, B, E)
}
The ViterbiDistance() procedure returns the tuple (e, B, E), i.e., the Viterbi score "e" for the match of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isocitrate%20dehydrogenase | Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) () and () is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate, producing alpha-ketoglutarate (α-ketoglutarate) and CO2. This is a two-step process, which involves oxidation of isocitrate (a secondary alcohol) to oxalosuccinate (a ketone), followed by the decarboxylation of the carboxyl group beta to the ketone, forming alpha-ketoglutarate. In humans, IDH exists in three isoforms: IDH3 catalyzes the third step of the citric acid cycle while converting NAD+ to NADH in the mitochondria. The isoforms IDH1 and IDH2 catalyze the same reaction outside the context of the citric acid cycle and use NADP+ as a cofactor instead of NAD+. They localize to the cytosol as well as the mitochondrion and peroxisome.
Isozymes
The following is a list of human isocitrate dehydrogenase isozymes:
NADP+ dependent
Each NADP+-dependent isozyme functions as a homodimer:
See also
Isocitrate/isopropylmalate dehydrogenase family
NAD+ dependent
The isocitrate dehydrogenase 3 isozyme is a heterotetramer that is composed of two alpha subunits, one beta subunit, and one gamma subunit:
Structure
The NAD-IDH is composed of 3 subunits, is allosterically regulated, and requires an integrated Mg2+ or Mn2+ ion. The closest homologue that has a known structure is the E. coli NADP-dependent IDH, which has only 2 subunits and a 13% identity and 29% similarity based on the amino acid sequences, making it dissimilar to human IDH and not suitable for close c |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photopigment | Photopigments are unstable pigments that undergo a chemical change when they absorb light. The term is generally applied to the non-protein chromophore moiety of photosensitive chromoproteins, such as the pigments involved in photosynthesis and photoreception. In medical terminology, "photopigment" commonly refers to the photoreceptor proteins of the retina.
Photosynthetic pigments
Photosynthetic pigments convert light into biochemical energy. Examples for photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll, carotenoids and phycobilins. These pigments enter a high-energy state upon absorbing a photon which they can release in the form of chemical energy. This can occur via light-driven pumping of ions across a biological membrane (e.g. in the case of the proton pump bacteriorhodopsin) or via excitation and transfer of electrons released by photolysis (e.g. in the photosystems of the thylakoid membranes of plant chloroplasts). In chloroplasts, the light-driven electron transfer chain in turn drives the pumping of protons across the membrane.
Photoreceptor pigments
The pigments in photoreceptor proteins either change their conformation or undergo photoreduction when they absorb a photon. This change in the conformation or redox state of the chromophore then affects the protein conformation or activity and triggers a signal transduction cascade.
Examples of photoreceptor pigments include:
retinal (in rhodopsin)
flavin (in cryptochrome)
bilin (in phytochrome)
Photopigments of the ver |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillary%20electrophoresis | Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is a family of electrokinetic separation methods performed in submillimeter diameter capillaries and in micro- and nanofluidic channels. Very often, CE refers to capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), but other electrophoretic techniques including capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE), capillary isoelectric focusing (CIEF), capillary isotachophoresis and micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) belong also to this class of methods. In CE methods, analytes migrate through electrolyte solutions under the influence of an electric field. Analytes can be separated according to ionic mobility and/or partitioning into an alternate phase via non-covalent interactions. Additionally, analytes may be concentrated or "focused" by means of gradients in conductivity and pH.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation needed to perform capillary electrophoresis is relatively simple. A basic schematic of a capillary electrophoresis system is shown in figure 1. The system's main components are a sample vial, source and destination vials, a capillary, electrodes, a high voltage power supply, a detector, and a data output and handling device. The source vial, destination vial and capillary are filled with an electrolyte such as an aqueous buffer solution. To introduce the sample, the capillary inlet is placed into a vial containing the sample. Sample is introduced into the capillary via capillary action, pressure, siphoning, or electrokinetically, and the capill |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monellin | Monellin, a sweet protein, was discovered in 1969 in the fruit of the West African shrub known as serendipity berry (Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii); it was first reported as a carbohydrate. The protein was named in 1972 after the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, U.S.A., where it was isolated and characterized.
Protein composition
Monellin's molecular weight is 10.7 kDa. It has two noncovalently associated polypeptide chains: an A chain sequence with 44 amino acid residues, and a B chain with 50 residues.
Monellin chain A (44 AA):
Monellin chain B (50 AA):
Amino acid sequence of the sweet protein monellin adapted from Swiss-Prot biological database of protein. UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot database entry #P02882
Monellin has a secondary structure consisting of five beta-strands that form an antiparallel beta-sheet and a 17-residue alpha-helix.
In its natural form, monellin is composed of the two chains shown above (), but the protein is unstable at high temperatures or at extremes of pH. To enhance its stability, single-chain monellin proteins were created in which the two natural chains are joined via a Gly-Phe dipeptide linker. This modified version of the protein (MNEI) has been studied using NMR and X-ray diffraction.
In addition to its secondary structure, four stably bound sulfate ions were located on the monellin protein, three on the concave face of the protein and one on the convex face of the protein. The sulfate ion on the convex face of the protein is of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median%20voter%20theorem | The median voter theorem is a proposition relating to ranked preference voting put forward by Duncan Black in 1948. It states that if voters and policies are distributed along a one-dimensional spectrum, with voters ranking alternatives in order of proximity, then any voting method which satisfies the Condorcet criterion will elect the candidate closest to the median voter. In particular, a majority vote between two options will do so.
The theorem is associated with public choice economics and statistical political science. Partha Dasgupta and Eric Maskin have argued that it provides a powerful justification for voting methods based on the Condorcet criterion. Plott's majority rule equilibrium theorem extends this to two dimensions.
A loosely related assertion had been made earlier (in 1929) by Harold Hotelling. It is not a true theorem and is more properly known as the median voter theory or median voter model. It says that in a representative democracy, politicians will converge to the viewpoint of the median voter.
Statement and proof of the theorem
Assume that there is an odd number of voters and at least two candidates, and assume that opinions are distributed along a spectrum. Assume that each voter ranks the candidates in an order of proximity such that the candidate closest to the voter receives their first preference, the next closest receives their second preference, and so forth. Then there is a median voter and we will show that the election will be won by th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleene%20fixed-point%20theorem | In the mathematical areas of order and lattice theory, the Kleene fixed-point theorem, named after American mathematician Stephen Cole Kleene, states the following:
Kleene Fixed-Point Theorem. Suppose is a directed-complete partial order (dcpo) with a least element, and let be a Scott-continuous (and therefore monotone) function. Then has a least fixed point, which is the supremum of the ascending Kleene chain of
The ascending Kleene chain of f is the chain
obtained by iterating f on the least element ⊥ of L. Expressed in a formula, the theorem states that
where denotes the least fixed point.
Although Tarski's fixed point theorem
does not consider how fixed points can be computed by iterating f from some seed (also, it pertains to monotone functions on complete lattices), this result is often attributed to Alfred Tarski who proves it for additive functions Moreover, Kleene Fixed-Point Theorem can be extended to monotone functions using transfinite iterations.
Proof
We first have to show that the ascending Kleene chain of exists in . To show that, we prove the following:
Lemma. If is a dcpo with a least element, and is Scott-continuous, then
Proof. We use induction:
Assume n = 0. Then since is the least element.
Assume n > 0. Then we have to show that . By rearranging we get . By inductive assumption, we know that holds, and because f is monotone (property of Scott-continuous functions), the result holds as well.
As a corollary of the Lemma we hav |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document-term%20matrix | A document-term matrix is a mathematical matrix that describes the frequency of terms that occur in a collection of documents. In a document-term matrix, rows correspond to documents in the collection and columns correspond to terms. This matrix is a specific instance of a document-feature matrix where "features" may refer to other properties of a document besides terms. It is also common to encounter the transpose, or term-document matrix where documents are the columns and terms are the rows. They are useful in the field of natural language processing and computational text analysis.
While the value of the cells is commonly the raw count of a given term, there are various schemes for weighting the raw counts such as, row normalizing (i.e. relative frequency/proportions) and tf-idf.
Terms are commonly single words separated by whitespace or punctuation on either side (a.k.a. unigrams). In such a case, this is also referred to as "bag of words" representation because the counts of individual words is retained, but not the order of the words in the document.
General concept
When creating a data-set of terms that appear in a corpus of documents, the document-term matrix contains rows corresponding to the documents and columns corresponding to the terms. Each ij cell, then, is the number of times word j occurs in document i. As such, each row is a vector of term counts that represents the content of the document corresponding to that row. For instance if one has the following |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequitur%20algorithm | Sequitur (or Nevill-Manning-Witten algorithm) is a recursive algorithm developed by Craig Nevill-Manning and Ian H. Witten in 1997 that infers a hierarchical structure (context-free grammar) from a sequence of discrete symbols. The algorithm operates in linear space and time. It can be used in data compression software applications.
Constraints
The sequitur algorithm constructs a grammar by substituting repeating phrases in the given sequence with new rules and therefore produces a concise representation of the sequence. For example, if the sequence is
S→abcab,
the algorithm will produce
S→AcA, A→ab.
While scanning the input sequence, the algorithm follows two constraints for generating its grammar efficiently: digram uniqueness and rule utility.
Digram uniqueness
Whenever a new symbol is scanned from the sequence, it is appended with the last scanned symbol to form a new digram. If this digram has been formed earlier then a new rule is made to replace both occurrences of the digrams.
Therefore, it ensures that no digram occurs more than once in the grammar. For example, in the sequence S→abaaba, when the first four symbols are already scanned, digrams formed are ab, ba, aa. When the fifth symbol is read, a new digram 'ab' is formed which exists already. Therefore, both instances of 'ab' are replaced by a new rule (say, A) in S. Now, the grammar becomes S→AaAa, A→ab, and the process continues until no repeated digram exists in the grammar.
Rule utility
This constrain |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spigot%20algorithm | A spigot algorithm is an algorithm for computing the value of a transcendental number (such as or e) that generates the digits of the number sequentially from left to right providing increasing precision as the algorithm proceeds. Spigot algorithms also aim to minimize the amount of intermediate storage required. The name comes from the sense of the word "spigot" for a tap or valve controlling the flow of a liquid. Spigot algorithms can be contrasted with algorithms that store and process complete numbers to produce successively more accurate approximations to the desired transcendental.
Interest in spigot algorithms was spurred in the early days of computational mathematics by extreme constraints on memory, and such an algorithm for calculating the digits of e appeared in a paper by Sale in 1968. In 1970, Abdali presented a more general algorithm to compute the sums of series in which the ratios of successive terms can be expressed as quotients of integer functions of term positions. This algorithm is applicable to many familiar series for trigonometric functions, logarithms, and transcendental numbers because these series satisfy the above condition. The name "spigot algorithm" seems to have been coined by Stanley Rabinowitz and Stan Wagon, whose algorithm for calculating the digits of is sometimes referred to as "the spigot algorithm for ".
The spigot algorithm of Rabinowitz and Wagon is bounded, in the sense that the number of terms of the infinite series that will |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20ball | A crystal ball is a crystal or glass ball commonly used in fortune-telling. It is generally associated with the performance of clairvoyance and scrying in particular. Other names include crystal sphere, gazing ball, shew stone, and show stone. In neopaganism it is sometimes called an orbuculum.
History
By the fifth century CE, scrying using crystal balls was widespread within the Roman Empire and was condemned by the early medieval Christian Church as heretical.
The tomb of Childeric I, a fifth-century king of the Franks, contained a 3.8 cm diameter transparent beryl globe. The object is similar to other globes that were later found in tombs from the Merovingian period in France and the Saxon period in England. Some of these were complete with a frame suggesting an ornamental object. It has been pointed out that these mounts are identical to those of later globes also believed to be used for magic or divination, indicating that these crystal globes may have been used for crystallomancy.
John Dee was a noted British mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I. He devoted much of his life to alchemy, divination, and Hermetic philosophy, of which the use of crystal balls was often included.
Crystal gazing was a popular pastime in the Victorian era, and was claimed to work best when the Sun is at its northernmost declination. Immediately before the appearance of a vision, the ball was said to mist up from within.
The use of crystal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottleuba%20Dam | The Gottleuba Dam is the second highest dam in Saxony, Germany. It serves as a reservoir for water supply for the town Pirna and provides flood protection, but energy production is small. The dam was built between 1965 and 1974. It is located at the northern foot of the Ore Mountains, southwest of Bad Gottleuba. It dams up the Gottleuba river.
Above the concrete dam is a lookout point. The dam is not accessible to the public. Bathing and leisure sport in the lake is not allowed, since it is for drinking water. Entry around the lake is allowed.
See also
Reservoirs and dams in Germany
External links
Information on Gottleuba Dam
Dams in Saxony
Dams completed in 1976
Bad Gottleuba-Berggießhübel
Buildings and structures in Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation%20zone | A radiation zone, or radiative region is a layer of a star's interior where energy is primarily transported toward the exterior by means of radiative diffusion and thermal conduction, rather than by convection. Energy travels through the radiation zone in the form of electromagnetic radiation as photons.
Matter in a radiation zone is so dense that photons can travel only a short distance before they are absorbed or scattered by another particle, gradually shifting to longer wavelength as they do so. For this reason, it takes an average of 171,000 years for gamma rays from the core of the Sun to leave the radiation zone. Over this range, the temperature of the plasma drops from 15 million K near the core down to 1.5 million K at the base of the convection zone.
Temperature gradient
In a radiative zone, the temperature gradient—the change in temperature (T) as a function of radius (r)—is given by:
where κ(r) is the opacity, ρ(r) is the matter density, L(r) is the luminosity, and σB is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant. Hence the opacity (κ) and radiation flux (L) within a given layer of a star are important factors in determining how effective radiative diffusion is at transporting energy. A high opacity or high luminosity can cause a high temperature gradient, which results from a slow flow of energy. Those layers where convection is more effective than radiative diffusion at transporting energy, thereby creating a lower temperature gradient, will become convection zones.
T |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation%20analysis | Citation analysis is the examination of the frequency, patterns, and graphs of citations in documents. It uses the directed graph of citations — links from one document to another document — to reveal properties of the documents. A typical aim would be to identify the most important documents in a collection. A classic example is that of the citations between academic articles and books. For another example, judges of law support their judgements by referring back to judgements made in earlier cases (see citation analysis in a legal context). An additional example is provided by patents which contain prior art, citation of earlier patents relevant to the current claim. The digitization of patent data and increasing computing power have led to a community of practice that uses these citation data to measure innovation attributes, trace knowledge flows, and map innovation networks.
Documents can be associated with many other features in addition to citations, such as authors, publishers, journals as well as their actual texts. The general analysis of collections of documents is known as bibliometrics and citation analysis is a key part of that field. For example, bibliographic coupling and co-citation are association measures based on citation analysis (shared citations or shared references). The citations in a collection of documents can also be represented in forms such as a citation graph, as pointed out by Derek J. de Solla Price in his 1965 article "Networks of Scient |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz%20crystal%20microbalance | A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) (also known as quartz microbalance (QMB), sometimes also as quartz crystal nanobalance (QCN)) measures a mass variation per unit area by measuring the change in frequency of a quartz crystal resonator. The resonance is disturbed by the addition or removal of a small mass due to oxide growth/decay or film deposition at the surface of the acoustic resonator. The QCM can be used under vacuum, in gas phase ("gas sensor", first use described by King) and more recently in liquid environments. It is useful for monitoring the rate of deposition in thin-film deposition systems under vacuum. In liquid, it is highly effective at determining the affinity of molecules (proteins, in particular) to surfaces functionalized with recognition sites. Larger entities such as viruses or polymers are investigated as well. QCM has also been used to investigate interactions between biomolecules. Frequency measurements are easily made to high precision (discussed below); hence, it is easy to measure mass densities down to a level of below 1 μg/cm2. In addition to measuring the frequency, the dissipation factor (equivalent to the resonance bandwidth) is often measured to help analysis. The dissipation factor is the inverse quality factor of the resonance, Q−1 = w/fr (see below); it quantifies the damping in the system and is related to the sample's viscoelastic properties.
General
Quartz is one member of a family of crystals that experience the piezoelectric effect |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellman%20equation | A Bellman equation, named after Richard E. Bellman, is a necessary condition for optimality associated with the mathematical optimization method known as dynamic programming. It writes the "value" of a decision problem at a certain point in time in terms of the payoff from some initial choices and the "value" of the remaining decision problem that results from those initial choices. This breaks a dynamic optimization problem into a sequence of simpler subproblems, as Bellman's “principle of optimality" prescribes. The equation applies to algebraic structures with a total ordering; for algebraic structures with a partial ordering, the generic Bellman's equation can be used.
The Bellman equation was first applied to engineering control theory and to other topics in applied mathematics, and subsequently became an important tool in economic theory; though the basic concepts of dynamic programming are prefigured in John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern's Theory of Games and Economic Behavior and Abraham Wald's sequential analysis. The term 'Bellman equation' usually refers to the dynamic programming equation associated with discrete-time optimization problems. In continuous-time optimization problems, the analogous equation is a partial differential equation that is called the Hamilton–Jacobi–Bellman equation.
In discrete time any multi-stage optimization problem can be solved by analyzing the appropriate Bellman equation. The appropriate Bellman equation can be found by intro |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagata%E2%80%93Smirnov%20metrization%20theorem | In topology, the Nagata–Smirnov metrization theorem characterizes when a topological space is metrizable. The theorem states that a topological space is metrizable if and only if it is regular, Hausdorff and has a countably locally finite (that is, -locally finite) basis.
A topological space is called a regular space if every non-empty closed subset of and a point p not contained in admit non-overlapping open neighborhoods.
A collection in a space is countably locally finite (or -locally finite) if it is the union of a countable family of locally finite collections of subsets of
Unlike Urysohn's metrization theorem, which provides only a sufficient condition for metrizability, this theorem provides both a necessary and sufficient condition for a topological space to be metrizable. The theorem is named after Junichi Nagata and Yuriĭ Mikhaĭlovich Smirnov, whose (independent) proofs were published in 1950 and 1951, respectively.
See also
Notes
References
.
.
General topology
Theorems in topology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morph | Morph may refer to:
Biology
Morph (zoology), a visual or behavioral difference between organisms of distinct populations in a species
Muller's morphs, a classification scheme for genetic mutations
"-morph", a suffix commonly used in taxonomy
Computing
Morphing, in motion pictures and animations, a special effect that changes one image into another through a seamless transition
Gryphon Software Morph, morphing software
Morph target animation, a method of animating computer generated imagery
Fiction
Morph, a British claymation character, who has featured in:
Morph (TV series), animated television series
The Amazing Adventures of Morph, a British stop-motion clay animation television show
Morph (comics), an X-Men character of Marvel comics
In Animorphs, "morphing" is alien technology that allows one to transform into any animal or person that one touches
Music
Morph, a 2014 album by Hins Cheung
Morph, a 2018 album by Yentl en De Boer
"Morph" (song), a 2018 song by Twenty One Pilots
Other uses
Morphs collaboration, a collaboration that studied the evolution of spiral galaxies using the Magellan and the Hubble Space Telescope
Nokia Morph, a bendable concept mobile phone
See also
Morpheme, the smallest component of a word, or other linguistic unit, that has semantic meaning
Morpher (disambiguation)
Morphic (disambiguation)
Morphism, between two mathematical structures
Morphogram, the representation of a morpheme by a grapheme based solely on its mean |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada%20Conformity%20Assessment%20Test%20Suite | The Ada Conformity Assessment Test Suite (ACATS) is the test suite used for Ada processor conformity testing. A prior test suite was known as the Ada Compiler Validation Capability (ACVC).
ACVC era
The Ada Compiler Validation Capability test suite, commonly referred to as the ACVC tests, was the original test suite developed for the Ada language. The ACVC system was organized under the aegis of the Ada Joint Program Office.
The tests were developed by the American company SofTech, beginning around 1980.
The test suites were modeled on a VAX/VMS system, which was the dominant host platform for such defense-related applications at the time.
Some of the tests were composed using orthogonal Latin squares as an approach towards get the most effective coverage of language feature combinations without employing an exhaustive enumeration of them.
The individual test files were based on the section of the Ada reference manual they pointed to, for instance C45210A.ADA. The suite included both positive tests and negative tests. There was an organization set up to review queries vendors raised as to whether a certain aspect of one or more tests was an accurate reflection of the language standard.
The year 1985 saw the issuing of the first Ada validation certificates. At the height of the language's use, which corresponded to the years 1985 through 1993, there were five Ada Validation Facilities around the world that could process vendor ACVC submissions: the Language Control |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta%20rule | In machine learning, the delta rule is a gradient descent learning rule for updating the weights of the inputs to artificial neurons in a single-layer neural network. It can be derived as the backpropagation algorithm for a single-layer neural network with mean-square error loss function.
For a neuron with activation function , the delta rule for neuron 's -th weight is given by
where
is a small constant called learning rate
is the neuron's activation function
is the derivative of
is the target output
is the weighted sum of the neuron's inputs
is the actual output
is the -th input.
It holds that and .
The delta rule is commonly stated in simplified form for a neuron with a linear activation function as
While the delta rule is similar to the perceptron's update rule, the derivation is different. The perceptron uses the Heaviside step function as the activation function , and that means that does not exist at zero, and is equal to zero elsewhere, which makes the direct application of the delta rule impossible.
Derivation of the delta rule
The delta rule is derived by attempting to minimize the error in the output of the neural network through gradient descent. The error for a neural network with outputs can be measured as
In this case, we wish to move through "weight space" of the neuron (the space of all possible values of all of the neuron's weights) in proportion to the gradient of the error function with respect to each weight. In order to do |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register%20of%20Historic%20Parks%20and%20Gardens%20of%20Special%20Historic%20Interest%20in%20England | The Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of Special Historic Interest in England provides a listing and classification system for historic parks and gardens similar to that used for listed buildings. The register was set up by Historic England under the provisions of the National Heritage Act 1983. Over 1,600 sites are listed, ranging from the grounds of large stately homes to small domestic gardens, as well other designed landscapes such as town squares, public parks and cemeteries. The register is published on the National Heritage List for England alongside other national heritage designations.
Purpose
The register aims to "celebrate designed landscapes of note, and encourage appropriate protection", so safeguarding the features and qualities of key landscapes for the future. It is hoped that listing sites of special interest will increase awareness of their value and encourage those who own them, or who have a part to play in their protection, to treat the sites with due care, whether this is a question of carrying out appropriate maintenance or making changes to the site.
If a park or garden has been registered using the designation process under the National Heritage Act 1983 it has legal protection. Registration is a material consideration in the planning process so, following a planning application for development which would affect a registered park or garden, local planning authorities must take into account the historic interest of the site when deciding wheth |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Chairs | Blue Chairs is an interactive fiction game by American author Chris Klimas.
Plot
The piece opens at a party, where a man offers the player a bottle of a mysterious green fluid. After drinking it, the PC passes out, but is shortly awoken by a man bringing a phone message from a long-lost love. The game then explores the player's experiences of what may be a hallucination, and may be reality. Notable segments include a fantasy about being elected President in the desert, some "wine" which enhances dancing skills, and a network of tunnels hidden in the back of a freezer.
History
The genre of Blue Chairs is considered to be a modern-themed interactive fiction. The designer of Blue Chairs is Chris Klimas, who developed the game using the Inform programming language designed by Graham Nelson. The game was released as freeware in 2004.
Reception
Blue Chairs claimed the #2 prize at the Interactive Fiction Competition 2004, praised for its inventive style and rich storytelling. Subsequently, it received the awards for Best Game, Best Writing, and Best Story at the annual Xyzzy Awards. It was also nominated for Best Individual Puzzle, Best NPCs, and Best Individual PC. It was ranked as #34 in the 2011 edition of the Interactive Fiction Top 50 of all time. In 2016, author Adam Cadre analyzed Blue Chairs in his Radio K podcast.
References
External links
Blue Chairs in Baf's Guide to Interactive Fiction
Blue Chairs in the Interactive Fiction Database (IFDB)
2000s interactive fi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl%20transformation | See also Wigner–Weyl transform, for another definition of the Weyl transform.
In theoretical physics, the Weyl transformation, named after Hermann Weyl, is a local rescaling of the metric tensor:
which produces another metric in the same conformal class. A theory or an expression invariant under this transformation is called conformally invariant, or is said to possess Weyl invariance or Weyl symmetry. The Weyl symmetry is an important symmetry in conformal field theory. It is, for example, a symmetry of the Polyakov action. When quantum mechanical effects break the conformal invariance of a theory, it is said to exhibit a conformal anomaly or Weyl anomaly.
The ordinary Levi-Civita connection and associated spin connections are not invariant under Weyl transformations. Weyl connections are a class of affine connections that is invariant, although no Weyl connection is individual invariant under Weyl transformations.
Conformal weight
A quantity has conformal weight if, under the Weyl transformation, it transforms via
Thus conformally weighted quantities belong to certain density bundles; see also conformal dimension. Let be the connection one-form associated to the Levi-Civita connection of . Introduce a connection that depends also on an initial one-form via
Then is covariant and has conformal weight .
Formulas
For the transformation
We can derive the following formulas
Note that the Weyl tensor is invariant under a Weyl rescaling.
References
Confor |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20granule | A solar granule is a convection cell in the Sun's photosphere. They are caused by currents of plasma in the Sun's convective zone, directly below the photosphere. The grainy appearance of the solar photosphere is produced by the tops of these convective cells and is called granulation.
The rising part of the granules is located in the center where the plasma is hotter. The outer edge of the granules is darker due to the cooler descending plasma. (The terms darker and cooler are strictly by comparison to the brighter, hotter plasma. According to the Stefan–Boltzmann law, luminosity increases with the fourth power of temperature leading to even a small loss of heat producing a large luminosity contrast.) In addition to the visible appearance, which would be explained by convective motion, Doppler shift measurements of the light from individual granules provides evidence for the convective nature of the granules.
A typical granule has a diameter on the order of and lasts 8 to 20 minutes before dissipating. At any one time, the Sun's surface is covered by about 4 million granules. Below the photosphere is a layer of "supergranules" up to in diameter with lifespans of up to 24 hours.
Gallery
References
External links
Sun
Solar phenomena |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTR | CTR may refer to:
Engineering, science and technology
Counter mode (CTR mode), a cryptographic mode of operation for block ciphers
X-ray crystal truncation rod, a technique to measure properties of crystal surfaces
Current transfer ratio, in an opto-isolator device
Content Threat Removal, a cyber security technology that defeats content threats
Government
Cooperative Threat Reduction, an initiative to secure and dismantle weapons of mass destruction in former Soviet Union states
Currency transaction report, a report about transactions that the Bank Secrecy Act requires U.S. financial institutions to file with the Internal Revenue Service
Media, arts and entertainment
Contemporary Theatre Review, a British academic journal of performing arts
Crash Team Racing, Naughty Dog's 1999 video game for the Sony PlayStation
Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled, its 2019 remake
Medicine
Cardiac resynchronization therapy
Cardio-thoracic ratio, a measure of the size of heart
Carpal tunnel release, surgery for treating carpal tunnel syndrome
Clinical trials registry, an official catalog for studies about health interventions, such as drugs
Organizations
Center for Transportation Research UT Austin, a research center at the University of Texas at Austin, US
Center for Turbulence Research, a research institute at Stanford University, US
Correct the Record, an American political action committee which supported Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign
Computing-Tabulating-R |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGCG | CGCG may refer to:
Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies
Central giant-cell granuloma, a localised benign condition of the jaws |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation%20automaton | In automata theory, a permutation automaton, or pure-group automaton, is a deterministic finite automaton such that each input symbol permutes the set of states.
Formally, a deterministic finite automaton may be defined by the tuple (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F),
where Q is the set of states of the automaton, Σ is the set of input symbols, δ is the transition function that takes a state q and an input symbol x to a new state δ(q,x), q0 is the initial state of the automaton, and F is the set of accepting states (also: final states) of the automaton. is a permutation automaton if and only if, for every two distinct states and in Q and every input symbol in Σ, δ(qi,x) ≠ δ(qj,x).
A formal language is p-regular (also: a pure-group language) if it is accepted by a permutation automaton. For example, the set of strings of even length forms a p-regular language: it may be accepted by a permutation automaton with two states in which every transition replaces one state by the other.
Applications
The pure-group languages were the first interesting family of regular languages for which the star height problem was proved to be computable.
Another mathematical problem on regular languages is the separating words problem, which asks for the size of a smallest deterministic finite automaton that distinguishes between two given words of length at most n – by accepting one word and rejecting the other. The known upper bound in the general case is . The problem was later studied for the restricti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20fluids | Thermofluids is a branch of science and engineering encompassing four intersecting fields:
Heat transfer
Thermodynamics
Fluid mechanics
Combustion
The term is a combination of "thermo", referring to heat, and "fluids", which refers to liquids, gases and vapors. Temperature, pressure, equations of state, and transport laws all play an important role in thermofluid problems. Phase transition and chemical reactions may also be important in a thermofluid context. The subject is sometimes also referred to as "thermal fluids".
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the transfer of thermal energy from one physical system to another. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as heat conduction, convection, thermal radiation, and phase-change transfer. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold or hot, to achieve heat transfer.
Sections include :
Energy transfer by heat, work and mass
Laws of thermodynamics
Entropy
Refrigeration Techniques
Properties and nature of pure substances
Applications
Engineering : Predicting and analysing the performance of machines
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems.
Fluid mechanics
Fluid Mechanics the st |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet%20%28confectionery%29 | Tablet ( in Scots) is a medium-hard, sugary confection from Scotland. Tablet is usually made from sugar, condensed milk, and butter, which is boiled to a soft-ball stage and allowed to crystallise. It is often flavoured with vanilla and sometimes has nut pieces in it.
Tablet differs from fudge in that it has a brittle, grainy texture, where fudge is much softer. Well-made tablet is a medium-hard confection, not as soft as fudge, but not as hard as hard candy.
Commercially available tablet often uses fondant instead of the milk products. This produces a slightly less granular texture compared to the traditional home-made tablet, and is supposedly easier to prepare on a commercial scale.
History
According to The Scots Kitchen by F. Marian McNeill, tablet is noted in The Household Book of Lady Grisell Baillie in the early 18th century. The traditional recipe uses just sugar and cream. More modern recipes substitute condensed milk and butter for the cream, as cream has a tendency to burn when boiled.
Names
Tablet is sometimes referred to as Swiss Milk tablet (Swiss Milk being a term used by some for condensed milk) or butter tablet.
See also
Barfi
Confiture de lait
Dulce de leche
Caramel
Penuche
References
External links
Tablet recipe
Scottish confectionery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirichlet%27s%20principle | In mathematics, and particularly in potential theory, Dirichlet's principle is the assumption that the minimizer of a certain energy functional is a solution to Poisson's equation.
Formal statement
Dirichlet's principle states that, if the function is the solution to Poisson's equation
on a domain of with boundary condition
on the boundary ,
then u can be obtained as the minimizer of the Dirichlet energy
amongst all twice differentiable functions such that on (provided that there exists at least one function making the Dirichlet's integral finite). This concept is named after the German mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.
History
The name "Dirichlet's principle" is due to Riemann, who applied it in the study of complex analytic functions.
Riemann (and others such as Gauss and Dirichlet) knew that Dirichlet's integral is bounded below, which establishes the existence of an infimum; however, he took for granted the existence of a function that attains the minimum. Weierstrass published the first criticism of this assumption in 1870, giving an example of a functional that has a greatest lower bound which is not a minimum value. Weierstrass's example was the functional
where is continuous on , continuously differentiable on , and subject to boundary conditions , where and are constants and . Weierstrass showed that , but no admissible function can make equal 0. This example did not disprove Dirichlet's principle per se, since the example inte |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde%20signaling | Retrograde signaling in biology is the process where a signal travels backwards from a target source to its original source. For example, the nucleus of a cell is the original source for creating signaling proteins. During retrograde signaling, instead of signals leaving the nucleus, they are sent to the nucleus. In cell biology, this type of signaling typically occurs between the mitochondria or chloroplast and the nucleus. Signaling molecules from the mitochondria or chloroplast act on the nucleus to affect nuclear gene expression. In this regard, the chloroplast or mitochondria act as a sensor for internal external stimuli which activate a signaling pathway.
In neuroscience, retrograde signaling (or retrograde neurotransmission) refers more specifically to the process by which a retrograde messenger, such as anandamide or nitric oxide, is released by a postsynaptic dendrite or cell body, and travels "backwards" across a chemical synapse to bind to the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron.
In cell biology
Retrograde signals are transmitted from plastids to the nucleus in plants and eukaryotic algae, and from mitochondria to the nucleus in most eukaryotes. Retrograde signals are generally considered to convey intracellular signals related to stress and environmental sensing. Many of the molecules associated with retrograde signaling act on modifying the transcription or by directly binding and acting as a transcription factor. The outcomes of these signaling pathways vary |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s%20the%20Frequency%2C%20Kenneth%3F | "What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" is a song by American alternative rock band R.E.M. from their ninth studio album, Monster (1994). The song's title refers to an incident in New York City in 1986 in which two then-unknown assailants attacked journalist Dan Rather while repeating "Kenneth, what is the frequency?"
The song was the first single taken from the album and was released by Warner Bros. on September 5, 1994. It peaked at number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100, number two in Canada, number four in New Zealand, and number nine on the UK Singles Chart. In Iceland, it peaked at number one for four weeks. It was the first song to debut at number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. Its music video was directed by Peter Care.
"What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" was placed on R.E.M.'s compilation albums In Time: The Best of R.E.M. 1988–2003 in 2003 and Part Lies, Part Heart, Part Truth, Part Garbage 1982–2011 in 2011, the only track from Monster to feature on either. The song was one of the band's most-played songs at live gigs, and was played at every show on their 2008 Accelerate tour. A live version was released on R.E.M. Live in 2007.
History
Background and recording
R.E.M. began work on Monster in August 1993 and "What's the Frequency, Kenneth?" was realized about two months later in October. This song was written and recorded at Kingsway Studio, New Orleans, where the band also wrote and recorded "Tongue" and "Crush with Eyeliner". Lead singer Michael Stipe ha |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TFT%20LCD | A thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD) is a variant of a liquid-crystal display that uses thin-film-transistor technology to improve image qualities such as addressability and contrast. A TFT LCD is an active matrix LCD, in contrast to passive matrix LCDs or simple, direct-driven (i.e. with segments directly connected to electronics outside the LCD) LCDs with a few segments.
TFT LCDs are used in appliances including television sets, computer monitors, mobile phones, handheld devices, video game systems, personal digital assistants, navigation systems, projectors, and dashboards in some automobiles and in medium to high end motorcycles.
History
In February 1957, John Wallmark of RCA filed a patent for a thin film MOSFET. Paul K. Weimer, also of RCA implemented Wallmark's ideas and developed the thin-film transistor (TFT) in 1962, a type of MOSFET distinct from the standard bulk MOSFET. It was made with thin films of cadmium selenide and cadmium sulfide. The idea of a TFT-based liquid-crystal display (LCD) was conceived by Bernard Lechner of RCA Laboratories in 1968. In 1971, Lechner, F. J. Marlowe, E. O. Nester and J. Tults demonstrated a 2-by-18 matrix display driven by a hybrid circuit using the dynamic scattering mode of LCDs. In 1973, T. Peter Brody, J. A. Asars and G. D. Dixon at Westinghouse Research Laboratories developed a CdSe (cadmium selenide) TFT, which they used to demonstrate the first CdSe thin-film-transistor liquid-crystal display (TFT LCD) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lickorish%E2%80%93Wallace%20theorem | In mathematics, the Lickorish–Wallace theorem in the theory of 3-manifolds states that any closed, orientable, connected 3-manifold may be obtained by performing Dehn surgery on a framed link in the 3-sphere with ±1 surgery coefficients. Furthermore, each component of the link can be assumed to be unknotted.
The theorem was proved in the early 1960s by W. B. R. Lickorish and Andrew H. Wallace, independently and by different methods. Lickorish's proof rested on the Lickorish twist theorem, which states that any orientable automorphism of a closed orientable surface is generated by Dehn twists along 3g − 1 specific simple closed curves in the surface, where g denotes the genus of the surface. Wallace's proof was more general and involved adding handles to the boundary of a higher-dimensional ball.
A corollary of the theorem is that every closed, orientable 3-manifold bounds a simply-connected compact 4-manifold.
By using his work on automorphisms of non-orientable surfaces, Lickorish also showed that every closed, non-orientable, connected 3-manifold is obtained by Dehn surgery on a link in the non-orientable 2-sphere bundle over the circle. Similar to the orientable case, the surgery can be done in a special way which allows the conclusion that every closed, non-orientable 3-manifold bounds a compact 4-manifold.
References
3-manifolds
Theorems in topology
Theorems in geometry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20African%20shelduck | The South African shelduck or Cape shelduck (Tadorna cana) is a species of shelduck, a group of large goose-like birds which are part of the bird family Anatidae, which also includes the swans, geese and ducks. This is a common species native to southern Africa.
This is a long bird which breeds mainly in Namibia and South Africa. In the austral winter, many birds move north-east from the breeding range to favoured moulting grounds, where sizable concentrations occur.
This species is mainly associated with lakes and rivers in fairly open country, breeding in disused mammal holes, usually those of the aardvark. Pairs tend to be very nomadic when not in breeding season.
Taxonomy
The South African shelduck was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other geese, ducks and swans in the genus Anas and coined the binomial name Anas cana. Gmelin based his description on the "Grey-headed goose" from the Cape of Good Hope that the English ornithologist John Latham had described in 1785 in his A General Synopsis of Birds. The South African shelduck is now placed with five other species in the genus Tadorna that was introduced by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie in 1822. The genus name comes from the French name Tadorne for the common shelduck. The specific epithet cana is from Latin canus meaning "grey". The species is monotypic: no subspecies are |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise%20shelduck | The paradise shelduck (Tadorna variegata), also known as the paradise duck, or in Māori, is a species of shelduck, a group of goose-like ducks, which is endemic to New Zealand. Johann Friedrich Gmelin placed it in the genus Anas with the ducks, geese, and swans. Both the male and female have striking plumages: the male has a black head and barred black body and the female has a white head with a chestnut body. They weigh between and are between in length.
Paradise shelducks mate for life and usually live as pairs, and moult their feathers from December to February. They are primarily herbivorous, and mostly graze on pasture grasses and clover, but have been observed eating a wide range of invertebrates. They are seasonally hunted as a game bird throughout New Zealand, and today the IUCN Red List classifies them as a species of least concern.
Taxonomy
The paradise shelduck was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with all the other ducks, swans, and geese in the genus Anas and coined the binomial name Anas variegata. Gmelin based his description on the "Variegated goose" from New Zealand that had been described in 1785 by the English ornithologist John Latham in his A General Synopsis of Birds. The naturalist Joseph Banks had provided Latham with a water-colour drawing of the duck by Georg Forster who had accompanied James Cook on his second voyage |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repolarization | In neuroscience, repolarization refers to the change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the depolarization phase of an action potential which has changed the membrane potential to a positive value. The repolarization phase usually returns the membrane potential back to the resting membrane potential. The efflux of potassium (K+) ions results in the falling phase of an action potential. The ions pass through the selectivity filter of the K+ channel pore.
Repolarization typically results from the movement of positively charged K+ ions out of the cell. The repolarization phase of an action potential initially results in hyperpolarization, attainment of a membrane potential, termed the afterhyperpolarization, that is more negative than the resting potential. Repolarization usually takes several milliseconds.
Repolarization is a stage of an action potential in which the cell experiences a decrease of voltage due to the efflux of potassium (K+) ions along its electrochemical gradient. This phase occurs after the cell reaches its highest voltage from depolarization. After repolarization, the cell hyperpolarizes as it reaches resting membrane potential (−70 mV in neuron). Sodium (Na+) and potassium ions inside and outside the cell are moved by a sodium potassium pump, ensuring that electrochemical equilibrium remains unreached to allow the cell to maintain a state of resting membrane potential. In the graph of an action potential, the hyper-polari |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodge%20index%20theorem | In mathematics, the Hodge index theorem for an algebraic surface V determines the signature of the intersection pairing on the algebraic curves C on V. It says, roughly speaking, that the space spanned by such curves (up to linear equivalence) has a one-dimensional subspace on which it is positive definite (not uniquely determined), and decomposes as a direct sum of some such one-dimensional subspace, and a complementary subspace on which it is negative definite.
In a more formal statement, specify that V is a non-singular projective surface, and let H be the divisor class on V of a hyperplane section of V in a given projective embedding. Then the intersection
where d is the degree of V (in that embedding). Let D be the vector space of rational divisor classes on V, up to algebraic equivalence. The dimension of D is finite and is usually denoted by ρ(V). The Hodge index theorem says that the subspace spanned by H in D has a complementary subspace on which the intersection pairing is negative definite. Therefore, the signature (often also called index) is (1,ρ(V)-1).
The abelian group of divisor classes up to algebraic equivalence is now called the Néron-Severi group; it is known to be a finitely-generated abelian group, and the result is about its tensor product with the rational number field. Therefore, ρ(V) is equally the rank of the Néron-Severi group (which can have a non-trivial torsion subgroup, on occasion).
This result was proved in the 1930s by W. V. D. Hodge, f |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20Monkey | Orange Monkey is an American experimental rock band from California. The band currently consists of Aukey, Crystal, Mc Ryan, Dave and a penguin named Hiyo (formerly known as The Mysterious Hiyo.) The music is kitsch, quirky and satirical, with choppy editing and obscure references to the Power Rangers, Kerri Strug, ITT Tech and Pokémon.
Aukey, MC Ryan and Hiyo formed Orange Monkey in 1994 with the debut performance of their song "Fungus Amongus" (now referred to as "OG Fungus Amongus") recorded live. Not much is known about the time between that recording and 1998, when Crystal joined the band and became romantically involved with Aukey. Coining the term "The Last Free Band" due to their reliance on donations and refusal to charge money for their music (at the time), their debut release, Turtles In Love, was a barely navigable melange of genres, including electronica, funk, hip-hop and thrashcore. In between each of the songs was a sample from a Barney the Dinosaur Speak & Spell-type toy which spelled out "ORANGE MONKEY". The album also featured a reworking of "Fungus Amongus" (referred to early on as the Tinactin Mix) as well as "Joey VS Frog", dedicated to a fan who donated the CD burner that was used to produce the album.
The second release, Help Us Buy Mp3.com A Taco!, was an exclusive CD (now unavailable) made for MP3.com, containing old favourites as well as two new tracks, "TJ Tech" and "(Unrecognizable Song)", which was dedicated to another fan after he had a dream |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn%20%28anatomy%29 | A horn is a permanent pointed projection on the head of various animals that consists of a covering of keratin and other proteins surrounding a core of live bone. Horns are distinct from antlers, which are not permanent.
In mammals, true horns are found mainly among the ruminant artiodactyls, in the families Antilocapridae (pronghorn) and Bovidae (cattle, goats, antelope etc.). Cattle horns arise from subcutaneous connective tissue (under the scalp) and later fuse to the underlying frontal bone.
One pair of horns is usual; however, two or more pairs occur in a few wild species and in some domesticated breeds of sheep. Polycerate (multi-horned) sheep breeds include the Hebridean, Icelandic, Jacob, Manx Loaghtan, and the Navajo-Churro.
Horns usually have a curved or spiral shape, often with ridges or fluting. In many species, only males have horns. Horns start to grow soon after birth and continue to grow throughout the life of the animal (except in pronghorns, which shed the outer layer annually, but retain the bony core). Partial or deformed horns in livestock are called scurs. Similar growths on other parts of the body are not usually called horns, but spurs, claws, or hooves, depending on the part of the body on which they occur.
Other hornlike growths
The term "horn" is also popularly applied to other hard and pointed features attached to the head of animals in various other families:
Giraffidae: Giraffes have one or more pairs of bony bumps on their heads, called o |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutive | Constitutive may refer to:
In physics, a constitutive equation is a relation between two physical quantities
In ecology, a constitutive defense is one that is always active, as opposed to an inducible defense
Constitutive theory of statehood
In genetics, a constitutive gene is always expressed – see constitutive expression |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cub%20Koda | Michael John "Cub" Koda (born October 1, 1948 – July 1, 2000) was an American rock and roll singer, guitarist, songwriter, disc jockey, music critic, and record compiler. Rolling Stone magazine considered him best known for writing the song "Smokin' in the Boys Room", recorded by Brownsville Station, which reached number 3 on the 1974 Billboard chart. He co-wrote and edited the All Music Guide to the Blues, and Blues for Dummies, and selected a version of each of the classic blues songs on the CD accompanying the book. He also wrote liner notes for the Trashmen, Jimmy Reed, J. B. Hutto, the Kingsmen, and the Miller Sisters, among others.
Early life and career
Koda was born in Detroit, Michigan, and graduated from Manchester High School, in Manchester, Michigan. He became interested in music as a boy, learning drums by the age of 5, and by the time he was in high school he had formed his own group, the Del-Tinos, which played rockabilly, rock and roll, and blues. The band released its first single, "Go Go Go" (a version of a Roy Orbison recording), in the fall of 1963. They released two more singles but broke up in 1966, when Koda wanted to pursue other options.
Koda spent a year attending Northern Michigan University in Marquette, Michigan. Koda formed and reformed several bands at this time with other musicians in the area. His original songs and over the top performances drew crowds everywhere the band played. His habit of playing a guitar with a 'y' cord plugged into tw |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-induced%20silencing%20complex | The RNA-induced silencing complex, or RISC, is a multiprotein complex, specifically a ribonucleoprotein, which functions in gene silencing via a variety of pathways at the transcriptional and translational levels. Using single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) fragments, such as microRNA (miRNA), or double-stranded small interfering RNA (siRNA), the complex functions as a key tool in gene regulation. The single strand of RNA acts as a template for RISC to recognize complementary messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript. Once found, one of the proteins in RISC, Argonaute, activates and cleaves the mRNA. This process is called RNA interference (RNAi) and it is found in many eukaryotes; it is a key process in defense against viral infections, as it is triggered by the presence of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA).
Discovery
The biochemical identification of RISC was conducted by Gregory Hannon and his colleagues at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. This was only a couple of years after the discovery of RNA interference in 1998 by Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, who shared the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Hannon and his colleagues attempted to identify the RNAi mechanisms involved in gene silencing, by dsRNAs, in Drosophila cells. Drosophila S2 cells were transfected with a lacZ expression vector to quantify gene expression with β-galactosidase activity. Their results showed co-transfection with lacZ dsRNA significantly reduced β-galactosidase activity compared to control dsRNA. Therefore, ds |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s%20method%20in%20optimization | In calculus, Newton's method (also called Newton–Raphson) is an iterative method for finding the roots of a differentiable function , which are solutions to the equation . As such, Newton's method can be applied to the derivative of a twice-differentiable function to find the roots of the derivative (solutions to ), also known as the critical points of . These solutions may be minima, maxima, or saddle points; see section "Several variables" in Critical point (mathematics) and also section "Geometric interpretation" in this article. This is relevant in optimization, which aims to find (global) minima of the function .
Newton's method
The central problem of optimization is minimization of functions. Let us first consider the case of univariate functions, i.e., functions of a single real variable. We will later consider the more general and more practically useful multivariate case.
Given a twice differentiable function , we seek to solve the optimization problem
Newton's method attempts to solve this problem by constructing a sequence from an initial guess (starting point) that converges towards a minimizer of by using a sequence of second-order Taylor approximations of around the iterates. The second-order Taylor expansion of around is
The next iterate is defined so as to minimize this quadratic approximation in , and setting . If the second derivative is positive, the quadratic approximation is a convex function of , and its minimum can be found by setting t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxazolidine | Oxazolidine is a five-membered heterocycle ringwith the formula .The O atom and NH groups are not mutually bonded, in contrast to isoxazolidine. Oxazolidines (emphasis on plural) are derivatives of the parent oxazolidine owing to the presence of substituents on carbon and/or nitrogen. Oxazolines are unsaturated analogues of oxazolidines.
Synthesis and reactions
First synthesized in the 1800s, oxazolidines are traditionally prepared by condensation of 2-aminoalcohols with aldehydes and ketones. The ready availability of chiral amino alcohols by reduction of amino acids enables the synthesis of chiral oxazolidines.
Oxazolidines are prone to hydrolysis, the reverse of their syntheses. Perhaps for this reason, their basicity is rarely discussed.
Uses and occurrence
Several oxazolidine derivatives occur naturally, Some occur as post translational modifications of proteins. Others are components of alkaloids, a few of which are highly active against some tumors. Examples include terazomine, quinocarcin, and tetrahydroisoquinoline.
Oxazolidines are used as moisture scavengers in polyurethane and other systems.
Bisoxazolidines
Bisoxazolidines contain two oxazolidine rings. They are the saturated analogues of bisoxazolines.
They are used as performance modifiers in polyurethane coatings and paints. The rings hydrolyze in the presence of moisture to give amine and hydroxyl groups, which can then react with diisocyanates, polyisocyanates and polyurethane prepolymers to form a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visby%20lenses | The Visby lenses are a collection of lens-shaped manufactured objects made of rock crystal (quartz) found in several Viking graves on the island of Gotland, Sweden, and dating from the 11th or 12th century.
Some were in silver mounts with filigree, the mounting covering the back of the lens, and were probably used as jewellery; it has been suggested that the lenses themselves are much older than their mounts.
Some of the lenses can be seen at the Fornsal historical museum in Visby, while some are in the Swedish National Museum in Stockholm, and others have been lost.
Discovery
Excavations at Fröjel on Gotland in 1999 discovered evidence of local manufacture of beads and lenses from rock crystal, with unworked pieces of crystal coexisting with partially finished beads and lenses.
Characteristics
The lenses are bi-aspheric and two of them have very good imaging properties. Their surface appears to be an oblate ellipse, while the surface nearest the eye approaches a parabola.
The best example of the lenses measures in diameter and has a thickness of at its centre, with an angular resolution of 25–30 μm.
It was reported by Otto Ahlström in 1950 that most have aspheric surfaces. The best of the lenses have low spherical aberration, indicating that their surface profile was optimized to improve image quality. Most of the lenses, however, do not show any sign of optimization and produce worse images than a simple spherical lens.
Prior to the Fröjel finds it had been sug |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5%CE%B1-Reductase | 5α-Reductases, also known as 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenases, are enzymes involved in steroid metabolism. They participate in three metabolic pathways: bile acid biosynthesis, androgen and estrogen metabolism. There are three isozymes of 5α-reductase encoded by the genes SRD5A1, SRD5A2, and SRD5A3.
5α-Reductases catalyze the following generalized chemical reaction:
a 3-oxo-5α-steroid + acceptor a 3-oxo-Δ4-steroid + reduced acceptor
Where a 3-oxo-5α-steroid and acceptor are substrates, and a corresponding 3-oxo-Δ4-steroid and the reduced acceptor are products. An instance of this generalized reaction that 5α-reductase type 2 catalyzes is:
dihydrotestosterone + NADP+ testosterone + NADPH + H+
where dihydrotestosterone is the 3-oxo-5α-steroid, NADP+ is the acceptor and testosterone is the 3-oxo-Δ4-steroid and NADPH the reduced acceptor.
Production and activity
The enzyme is produced in many tissues in both males and females, in the reproductive tract, testes and ovaries, skin, seminal vesicles, prostate, epididymis and many organs, including the nervous system. There are three isoenzymes of 5α-reductase: steroid 5α-reductase 1, 2, and 3 (SRD5A1, SRD5A2 and SRD5A3).
5α-Reductases act on 3-oxo (3-keto), Δ4,5 C19/C21 steroids as its substrates; "3-keto" refers to the double bond of the third carbon to oxygen. Carbons 4 and 5 also have a double bond, represented by 'Δ4,5'. The reaction involves a stereospecific and permanent break of the Δ4,5 with the help of NADPH as a |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20metropolitan%20areas%20in%20Sweden | Sweden has three metropolitan areas consisting of the areas surrounding the three largest cities, Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. The statistics have been retrieved from Statistics Sweden and the statistics released on 10 November 2014. The official land areas for each municipality have also been retrieved from Statistics Sweden, the agency that defines these areas.
Population centers
, Sweden had 2 metropolitan areas with a population of over 1,000,000 people each.
The following table shows the populations of the top ten metropolitan areas.
Metropolitan Stockholm
Metropolitan Stockholm (also known as Greater Stockholm or, in Swedish, Storstockholm), is a metropolitan area surrounding the Swedish capital of Stockholm. Since 2005, Metropolitan Stockholm is defined by official Swedish Statistics as all of Stockholm County. It is the largest of the three metropolitan areas in Sweden.
Metropolitan Stockholm is divided into 5 areas: Stockholm City Centre, Söderort, Västerort of Stockholm Municipality; and the northern suburbs and southern suburbs, which consists of several municipalities.
km2 Population per km2
Metropolitan Gothenburg
Metropolitan Gothenburg (Storgöteborg or literally Greater Gothenburg), is a metropolitan area surrounding the city of Gothenburg in Sweden. The metropolitan region is located in Västra Götaland County, except for the municipality of Kungsbacka, which is located to the south in Halland County. As of 2005, the municipalities of Alingsås and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayalite | Fayalite (, commonly abbreviated to Fa) is the iron-rich end-member of the olivine solid-solution series. In common with all minerals in the olivine group, fayalite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system (space group Pbnm) with cell parameters a 4.82 Å, b 10.48 Å and c 6.09 Å.
Fayalite forms solid solution series with the magnesium olivine endmember forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and also with the manganese rich olivine endmember tephroite (Mn2SiO4).
Iron rich olivine is a relatively common constituent of acidic and alkaline igneous rocks such as volcanic obsidians, rhyolites, trachytes and phonolites and plutonic quartz syenites where it is associated with amphiboles. Its main occurrence is in ultramafic volcanic and plutonic rocks and less commonly in felsic plutonic rocks and rarely in granite pegmatite. It also occurs in lithophysae in obsidian. It also occurs in medium-grade thermally metamorphosed iron-rich sediments and in impure carbonate rocks.
Fayalite is stable with quartz at low pressures, whereas more magnesian olivine is not, because of the reaction olivine + quartz = orthopyroxene. Iron stabilizes the olivine + quartz pair. The pressure and compositional dependence of the reaction can be used to calculate constraints on pressures at which assemblages of olivine + quartz formed.
Fayalite can also react with oxygen to produce magnetite + quartz: the three minerals together make up the "FMQ" oxygen buffer. The reaction is used to control the fugacity of oxygen in la |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance%20Williams%20%28graphics%20researcher%29 | Lance J. Williams (September 25, 1949 – August 20, 2017) was a prominent graphics researcher who made major contributions to texture map prefiltering, shadow rendering algorithms, facial animation, and antialiasing techniques. Williams was one of the first people to recognize the potential of computer graphics to transform film and video making.
Williams died at 67 years old on August 20, 2017, after a battle with cancer. He is survived by his wife and two children.
Education
Williams was an Honors student majoring in English with a minor in Asian Studies at the University of Kansas and graduated with a B.A. in 1972. While a student at KU he competed in collegiate chess tournaments and is said to have had a rating of 1800. He was drawn to the University of Utah by a "Humanistic Computation" summer seminar held by Jef Raskin at KU. He joined the graduate Computer Science program at the University of Utah in 1973 and studied computer graphics and animation under Ivan Sutherland, David Evans, and Steven Coons. At this time in the early 1970s, the University of Utah was the hub for much of the pioneering work being done in computer graphics. Lance left Utah (having completed his PhD course work and exams except the writing of a thesis) in 1977 to join the New York Institute of Technology (NYIT). While at NYIT, Williams invented the mipmapping technique for texture filtering, which is ubiquitously used today by graphics hardware for PCs and video games, and wrote and directed th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domo%20%28robot%29 | Domo is an experimental robot made by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology designed to interact with humans. The brainchild of Jeff Weber and Aaron Edsinger, cofounders of Meka Robotics, its name comes from the Japanese phrase for "thank you very much", domo arigato, as well as the Styx song, "Mr. Roboto". The Domo project was originally funded by NASA, and has now been joined by Toyota in funding robot's development.
Purpose
Domo was created to test many robotic circuits and commands that are very complex.
Origin
The home of the Domo Project is with the Humanoid Robotics Group at MIT Artificial Intelligence Labs. Its existence is inspired by the robot projects that came before it.
The Cardea Robot Project was a research project led by Professor Rodney Brooks in the Humanoid Robotics Group at MIT. The lab group worked to create a cable-drive brushless Series Elastic Actuator arm mounted to a Segway platform. Jeff Weber and Aaron Edsinger-Gonzales were a part of this research, specifically responsible for the design and implementation of the robotic arm. This collaboration allowed Edsinger-Gonzales and Weber to take some of the research and apply it to a new robot, Domo.
Edsinger and Weber collaborated on many other robots as well, and their experience working with the Kismet page and Cog projects influenced the design of Domo. Kismet was a robotic head developed by Cynthia Breazeal for experimenting with social expressions and cues. Edsinger's role in the project was |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicular%20monoamine%20transporter | The vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) is a transport protein integrated into the membranes of synaptic vesicles of presynaptic neurons. It transports monoamine neurotransmitters – such as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and histamine – into the vesicles, which release the neurotransmitters into synapses as chemical messages to postsynaptic neurons. VMATs utilize a proton gradient generated by V-ATPases in vesicle membranes to power monoamine import.
Pharmaceutical drugs that target VMATs have possible applications for many conditions, leading to a plethora of biological research, including hypertension, drug addiction, psychiatric disorders, Parkinson's disease, and other neurological disorders. Many drugs that target VMATs act as inhibitors and alter the kinetics of the protein. Much research regarding the effects of altered VMATs on biological systems is still ongoing.
Monoamines
Monoamines transported by VMATs are mainly noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and trace amines. Exogenous substrates include guanethidine and MPP+.
Discovery
VMAT research began in 1958 when Nils-Åke Hillarp discovered secretory vesicles. In the 1970s, scientists like Arvid Carlsson recognized the need to understand how transport systems and ion gradients work in different organisms in order to explore new treatment options such as reserpine (RES). Researchers discovered inhibitors that blocked the uptake of neurotransmitters into vesicles, suggesti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adna%20R.%20Chaffee%20Jr. | Adna Romanza Chaffee Jr. (September 23, 1884 – August 22, 1941) was an officer in the United States Army, called the "Father of the Armored Force" for his role in developing the U.S. Army's tank forces.
Early life and education
Chaffee was born in Junction City, Kansas, on September 23, 1884, to his father, Lieutenant General Adna R. Chaffee, and mother, Annie Francis Rockwell. He was commissioned as a lieutenant of Cavalry in 1906 following his graduation from the United States Military Academy. He was 31st out of 78 pupils in his class. Chaffee learned to ride on horseback from a young age, and would later receive recognition as "the Army's finest horseman".
Upon his father's death in 1914, he became an Hereditary First Class Companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.
Career
From 1914 to 1915, Chaffee was posted with the 7th Cavalry in the Philippines, and from 1916 to 1917, Chaffee was assigned to West Point as the senior cavalry instructor in the Tactical Department. When America entered World War I in April 1917, Chaffee was temporarily promoted to major and assigned as the adjutant for the 81st Division as it organized at Camp Jackson, South Carolina. During the war, Chaffee served as an Assistant G3 Operations officer in the US IV Corps, and later returned to the 81st Division as the G3 during the St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives. Promoted to the temporary rank of colonel, he became the G3, III Corps at the end of the war, and r |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse%20B.%20Aikin | Jesse Bowman Aikin (1808–1900) was a shape note "singing master", and compiler of the shape note tunebook The Christian Minstrel. He was born in Chester County, Pennsylvania and lived on a farm in Hatfield, Pennsylvania. Aikin, a member of the Church of the Brethren, was the first to successfully produce a song book (The Christian Minstrel) with a seven-shape note system, in 1846. He vigorously defended his "invention" and his patent, which included the elimination of bass and treble clefs and the simplification of time signatures. After the influential Ruebush & Kieffer Publishing Company began using his notehead shapes around 1876 (previously they used Funk's shapes), the Aikin shapes eventually became the prevailing standard in shape note and gospel music publication, although few other compilers adopted his other innovations.
Aikin's names for the notes were originally written: Doe Ray Mee Faw Sole Law See. All the note stems pointed downwards, and the stems for Doe, Ray, and See were placed centrally on the shape, rather than to the side. These conventions were discarded by later users of his system, so as not to deviate so much from standard notation. The name See was also changed to Ti (as used in the Tonic sol-fa system), so as not to be confused with a sharpened Sol.
Today Aikin's system is still in use, though it is often referred to as the Aiken system, a spelling error introduced by George Pullen Jackson and perpetuated by the Sibelius music notation program.
A |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Ewart | Peter Ewart (14 May 1767 – 15 September 1842) was a British engineer who was influential in developing the technologies of turbines and theories of thermodynamics.
Biography
He was son of the Church of Scotland minister of Troqueer near Dumfries, and was one of eleven children. His brother Joseph Ewart became British ambassador to Prussia; John, a doctor, became Chief Inspector of East India Company hospitals in India; and William, father of William Ewart, was business partner of Sir John Gladstone, father of William Ewart Gladstone, whose godfather he was and whom he was named after.
Following graduation from the University of Edinburgh, he was apprenticed to millwright John Rennie. His work with water wheels led him to work with Matthew Boulton and James Watt for whom by 1790 he was agent in Manchester. At the same time as acting as agent he was also trading on his own account as a millwright, enabling him to provide the complementary shafts, gears and other necessities to harness the power of the Boulton & Watt steam engines.
In 1792, frustrated in administering the immature and, as yet, unreliable machinery, he left Boulton and Watt to work in partnership with Samuel Oldknow in a cotton bleaching and calico printing venture. He anticipated this being a profitable concern but the partnership was dissolved within a year and he returned to engineering. In 1798 he went into partnership with Samuel Greg, installing an innovative water wheel at Greg's Quarry Bank Mill on th |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APACHE%20II | APACHE II ("Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II") is a severity-of-disease classification system, one of several ICU scoring systems. It is applied within 24 hours of admission of a patient to an intensive care unit (ICU): an integer score from 0 to 71 is computed based on several measurements; higher scores correspond to more severe disease and a higher risk of death. The first APACHE model was presented by Knaus et al. in 1981.
Application
APACHE II was designed to measure the severity of disease for adult patients admitted to intensive care units. It has not been validated for use in children or young people aged under 16.
This scoring system is used in many ways which include:
Some procedures or some medicine is only given to patients with a certain APACHE II score
APACHE II score can be used to describe the morbidity of a patient when comparing the outcome with other patients.
Predicted mortalities are averaged for groups of patients in order to specify the group's morbidity.
Even though newer scoring systems, such as APACHE III, have replaced APACHE II in many places, APACHE II continues to be used extensively because so much documentation is based on it.
Calculation
The point score is calculated from 12 admission physiologic variables comprising the Acute Physiology Score, the patient's age, and chronic health status:
A. Acute Physiology Score (measured within 24 hours of admission)
AaDO2 or PaO2 (for FiO2≥0.5 or <0.5, respectively)
body temp |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRCA2 | BRCA2 and BRCA2 () are a human gene and its protein product, respectively. The official symbol (BRCA2, italic for the gene, nonitalic for the protein) and the official name (originally breast cancer 2; currently BRCA2, DNA repair associated) are maintained by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. One alternative symbol, FANCD1, recognizes its association with the FANC protein complex. Orthologs, styled Brca2 and Brca2, are common in other vertebrate species. BRCA2 is a human tumor suppressor gene (specifically, a caretaker gene), found in all humans; its protein, also called by the synonym breast cancer type 2 susceptibility protein, is responsible for repairing DNA.
BRCA2 and BRCA1 are normally expressed in the cells of breast and other tissue, where they help repair damaged DNA or destroy cells if DNA cannot be repaired. They are involved in the repair of chromosomal damage with an important role in the error-free repair of DNA double strand breaks. If BRCA1 or BRCA2 itself is damaged by a BRCA mutation, damaged DNA is not repaired properly, and this increases the risk for breast cancer. BRCA1 and BRCA2 have been described as "breast cancer susceptibility genes" and "breast cancer susceptibility proteins". The predominant allele has a normal tumor suppressive function whereas high penetrance mutations in these genes cause a loss of tumor suppressive function, which correlates with an increased risk of breast cancer.
The BRCA2 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam%2C%20Saskatchewan | Amsterdam is a hamlet within the Rural Municipality of Buchanan No. 304, Saskatchewan, Canada. Listed as a designated place by Statistics Canada, the hamlet had a population of 25 in the Canada 2016 Census. The hamlet is located 63.9 km north of the city of Yorkton and 1.5 km west of Highway 9. The community was founded at the turn of the 20th century by Dutch immigrants, hence the name. In its prime, the community had a post office, grain elevator, garage, and a school. It, like many small towns, has been hit hard by the gradual trend toward urbanization. The hamlet now has fewer than 25 people; most are of Ukrainian descent.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Amsterdam had a population of 30 living in 13 of its 14 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 25. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
See also
List of communities in Saskatchewan
Hamlets of Saskatchewan
Block settlements
References
Buchanan No. 304, Saskatchewan
Designated places in Saskatchewan
Organized hamlets in Saskatchewan
Division No. 9, Saskatchewan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%20explosion | A Coulombic explosion is a condensed-matter physics process in which a molecule or crystal lattice is destroyed by the Coulombic repulsion between its constituent atoms. Coulombic explosions are a prominent technique in laser-based machining, and appear naturally in certain high-energy reactions.
Mechanism
A Coulombic explosion begins when an intense electric field (often from a laser) excites the valence electrons in a solid, ejecting them from the system and leaving behind positively charged ions. The chemical bonds holding the solid together are weakened by the loss of the electrons, enabling the Coulombic repulsion between the ions to overcome them. The result is an explosion of ions and electrons – a plasma.
The laser must be very intense to produce a Coulomb explosion. If it is too weak, the energy given to the electrons will be transferred to the ions via electron-phonon coupling. This will cause the entire material to heat up, melt, and thermally ablate away as a plasma. The end result is similar to Coulomb explosion, except that any fine structure in the material will be damaged by thermal melting.
It may be shown that the Coulomb explosion occurs in the same parameter regime as the superradiant phase transition i.e. when the destabilizing interactions become overwhelming and dominate over the oscillatory phonon-solid binding motions.
Technological use
A Coulomb explosion is a "cold" alternative to the dominant laser etching technique of thermal ablation, which d |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance%20Raman%20spectroscopy | Resonance Raman spectroscopy (RR spectroscopy or RRS) is a variant of Raman spectroscopy in which the incident photon energy is close in energy to an electronic transition of a compound or material under examination. This similarity in energy (resonance) leads to greatly increased intensity of the Raman scattering of certain vibrational modes, compared to ordinary Raman spectroscopy.
Resonance Raman spectroscopy has much greater sensitivity than non-resonance Raman spectroscopy, allowing for the analysis of compounds with inherently weak Raman scattering intensities, or at very low concentrations. It also selectively enhances only certain molecular vibrations (those of the chemical group undergoing the electronic transition), which simplifies spectra. For large molecules such as proteins, this selectivity helps to identify vibrational modes of specific parts of the molecule or protein, such as the heme unit within myoglobin. Resonance Raman spectroscopy has been used in the characterization of inorganic compounds and complexes, proteins, nucleic acids, pigments, and in archaeology and art history.
Theory
In Raman scattering, photons collide with a sample and are scattered with a difference in energy: The scattered photons may be higher or lower in energy (have a shorter or longer wavelength) than the incident photons. This difference in energy is caused by excitation of the sample to a higher or lower vibrational energy level: if the sample was initially in an excite |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoprotein%20lipase | Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) (EC 3.1.1.34, systematic name triacylglycerol acylhydrolase (lipoprotein-dependent)) is a member of the lipase gene family, which includes pancreatic lipase, hepatic lipase, and endothelial lipase. It is a water-soluble enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in lipoproteins, such as those found in chylomicrons and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), into two free fatty acids and one monoacylglycerol molecule:
triacylglycerol + H2O = diacylglycerol + a carboxylate
It is also involved in promoting the cellular uptake of chylomicron remnants, cholesterol-rich lipoproteins, and free fatty acids. LPL requires ApoC-II as a cofactor.
LPL is attached to the luminal surface of endothelial cells in capillaries by the protein glycosylphosphatidylinositol HDL-binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1) and by heparan sulfated peptidoglycans. It is most widely distributed in adipose, heart, and skeletal muscle tissue, as well as in lactating mammary glands.
Synthesis
In brief, LPL is secreted from heart, muscle and adipose parenchymal cells as a glycosylated homodimer, after which it is translocated through the extracellular matrix and across endothelial cells to the capillary lumen. After translation, the newly synthesized protein is glycosylated in the endoplasmic reticulum. The glycosylation sites of LPL are Asn-43, Asn-257, and Asn-359. Glucosidases then remove terminal glucose residues; it was once believed that this glucose trimming is responsible for the conformationa |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excision%20theorem | In algebraic topology, a branch of mathematics, the excision theorem is a theorem about relative homology and one of the Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms. Given a topological space and subspaces and such that is also a subspace of , the theorem says that under certain circumstances, we can cut out (excise) from both spaces such that the relative homologies of the pairs into are isomorphic.
This assists in computation of singular homology groups, as sometimes after excising an appropriately chosen subspace we obtain something easier to compute.
Theorem
Statement
If are as above, we say that can be excised if the inclusion map of the pair into induces an isomorphism on the relative homologies:
The theorem states that if the closure of is contained in the interior of , then can be excised.
Often, subspaces that do not satisfy this containment criterion still can be excised—it suffices to be able to find a deformation retract of the subspaces onto subspaces that do satisfy it.
Proof Sketch
The proof of the excision theorem is quite intuitive, though the details are rather involved. The idea is to subdivide the simplices in a relative cycle in to get another chain consisting of "smaller" simplices, and continuing the process until each simplex in the chain lies entirely in the interior of or the interior of . Since these form an open cover for and simplices are compact, we can eventually do this in a finite number of steps. This process leaves the original ho |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solec%20Kujawski%20radio%20transmitter | The Longwave transmitter Solec Kujawski is a longwave broadcasting facility of the Polish Radio for the AM-LW (long wave) 225 kHz frequency/1333 meters wavelength. Its construction was necessary after the collapse of the Warsaw radio mast on August 8, 1991 and the resistance of the local population to its reconstruction. Tower Height 948 feet/289 meters and 1080 feet/330 meters. Height above sea level 209 feet/64 meters MSL (Mean Sea Level).
The transmitter was built in 1998/99 on a former military area near Solec Kujawski. The area was originally a hamlet called Kabat (Grosswalde) until World War II, when the Germans established a military artillery and rocket training ground in the area. The transmitter in this facility has a power of 1200 kilowatts (used 1000 kW) and is equipped with MOSFET amplifiers. The carrier frequency is, as in earlier days in the transmitter Konstantynow, generated by a set of twin high-accuracy thermally-stabilized quartz oscillators.
It uses a directional aerial, consisting of a high and a high guyed grounded mast 330 metres apart. The taller mast is Poland's eighth highest structure.
Furthermore, there is a freestanding lattice tower close to the station building that is used for directional radio links, which serve among others for passing the program to the station.
Transmitted Programmes
See also
List of masts
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20050313231840/http://www.pg.gda.pl/~sp2pzh/solec.html
http://jerzyjedrzejkiew |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational%20topology | Algorithmic topology, or computational topology, is a subfield of topology with an overlap with areas of computer science, in particular, computational geometry and computational complexity theory.
A primary concern of algorithmic topology, as its name suggests, is to develop efficient algorithms for solving problems that arise naturally in fields such as computational geometry, graphics, robotics, structural biology and chemistry, using methods from computable topology.
Major algorithms by subject area
Algorithmic 3-manifold theory
A large family of algorithms concerning 3-manifolds revolve around normal surface theory, which is a phrase that encompasses several techniques to turn problems in 3-manifold theory into integer linear programming problems.
Rubinstein and Thompson's 3-sphere recognition algorithm. This is an algorithm that takes as input a triangulated 3-manifold and determines whether or not the manifold is homeomorphic to the 3-sphere. It has exponential run-time in the number of tetrahedral simplexes in the initial 3-manifold, and also an exponential memory profile. Moreover, it is implemented in the software package Regina. Saul Schleimer went on to show the problem lies in the complexity class NP. Furthermore, Raphael Zentner showed that the problem lies in the complexity class coNP, provided that the generalized Riemann hypothesis holds. He uses instanton gauge theory, the geometrization theorem of 3-manifolds, and subsequent work of Greg Kuperber |
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