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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translocase | Translocase is a general term for a protein that assists in moving another molecule, usually across a cell membrane. These enzymes catalyze the movement of ions or molecules across membranes or their separation within membranes. The reaction is designated as a transfer from “side 1” to “side 2” because the designations “in” and “out”, which had previously been used, can be ambiguous. Translocases are the most common secretion system in Gram positive bacteria.
It is also a historical term for the protein now called elongation factor G, due to its function in moving the transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) through the ribosome.
History
The enzyme classification and nomenclature list was first approved by the International Union of Biochemistry in 1961. Six enzyme classes had been recognized based on the type of chemical reaction catalyzed, including oxidoreductases (EC 1), transferases (EC 2), hydrolases (EC 3), lyases (EC 4), isomerases (EC 5) and ligases (EC 6). However, it became apparent that none of these could describe the important group of enzymes that catalyse the movement of ions or molecules across membranes or their separation within membranes. Several of these involve the hydrolysis of ATP and had been previously classified as ATPases (EC 3.6.3.-), although the hydrolytic reaction is not their primary function. In August 2018, the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology classified these enzymes under a new enzyme class (EC) of transloca |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol-3-phosphate%20dehydrogenase | Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) is an enzyme that catalyzes the reversible redox conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (a.k.a. glycerone phosphate, outdated) to sn-glycerol 3-phosphate.
Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase serves as a major link between carbohydrate metabolism and lipid metabolism. It is also a major contributor of electrons to the electron transport chain in the mitochondria.
Older terms for glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase include alpha glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (alphaGPDH) and glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH). However, glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is not the same as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), whose substrate is an aldehyde not an alcohol.
Metabolic function
GPDH plays a major role in lipid biosynthesis. Through the reduction of dihydroxyacetone phosphate into glycerol 3-phosphate, GPDH allows the prompt dephosphorylation of glycerol 3-phosphate into glycerol. Additionally, GPDH is one of the enzymes involved in maintaining the redox potential across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Reaction
The NAD+/NADH coenzyme couple act as an electron reservoir for metabolic redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. Most of these metabolism reactions occur in the mitochondria. To regenerate NAD+ for further use, NADH pools in the cytosol must be reoxidized. Since the mitochondrial inner membrane is impermeable to both NADH and NAD+, these cannot be freely exchanged between the cytos |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-once%20%28cache%20coherence%29 | In cache coherency protocol literature, Write-Once was the first MESI protocol defined. It has the optimization of executing write-through on the first write and a write-back on all subsequent writes, reducing the overall bus traffic in consecutive writes to the computer memory. It was first described by James R. Goodman in (1983). Cache coherence protocols are an important issue in Symmetric multiprocessing systems, where each CPU maintains a cache of the memory.
States
In this protocol, each block in the local cache is in one of these four states:
Invalid: This block has an incoherent copy of the memory.
Valid: This block has a coherent copy of the memory. The data may be possibly shared, but its content is not modified.
Reserved: The block is the only copy of the memory, but it is still coherent. No write-back is needed if the block is replaced.
Dirty: The block is the only copy of the memory and it is incoherent. This copy was written one or more times. This is the only state that generates a write-back when the block is replaced in the cache.
These states have exactly the same meanings as the four states of the MESI protocol (they are simply listed in reverse order), but this is a simplified form of it that avoids the Read for Ownership operation. Instead, all invalidation is done by writes to main memory.
For any given pair of caches, the permitted states of a given cache line are as follows (abbreviated in the order above):
Transitions
The protocol follows so |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excitatory%20amino%20acid%20transporter%201 | Excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAT1) is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the SLC1A3 gene. EAAT1 is also often called the GLutamate ASpartate Transporter 1 (GLAST-1).
EAAT1 is predominantly expressed in the plasma membrane, allowing it to remove glutamate from the extracellular space. It has also been localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of the malate-aspartate shuttle.
Mechanism
EAAT1 functions in vivo as a homotrimer. EAAT1 mediates the transport of glutamic and aspartic acid with the cotransport of three Na+ and one H+ cations and counter transport of one K+ cation. This co-transport coupling (or symport) allows the transport of glutamate into cells against a concentration gradient.
Tissue distribution
EAAT1 is expressed throughout the CNS, and is highly expressed in astrocytes and Bergmann glia in the cerebellum. In the retina, EAAT1 is expressed in Muller cells. EAAT1 is also expressed in a number of other tissues including cardiac myocytes.
Clinical significance
It is associated with type 6 episodic ataxia. EAAT1 expression may also be associated with osteoarthritis.
Pharmacology
DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (TBOA) is an inhibitor of the excitatory amino acid transporters.
Selective inhibitors for EAAT1 have recently been discovered based on 25 combinations of substitutions at the 4 and 7 positions of 2-amino-5-oxo-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-chromene-3-carbonitril.
References
Further reading
External links
Solute car |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromofluoromethane | Bromofluoromethane is a mixed gaseous halomethane soluble in alcohol and very soluble in chloroform.
Its standard molar entropy, Sogas is 276.3 J/(mol K) and heat capacity, cp is 49.2 J/(mol K).
Preparation
Up to date, it has been prepared by three prevailingly ineffective methods:
From salts of fluoroacetic acid using a Hunsdiecker type of reaction.
From dibromofluoromethane by reductive debromination with a Swarts reagent.
From a dihalomethane by an halogen exchange reaction or from a halomethane by catalyzed bromination or fluorination.
The method with the highest yield is reductive debromination of dibromofluoromethane using an organotin hydride.
Uses
Bromofluoromethane is an important reagent in the manufacture of intermediates, pharmaceuticals and other chemicals. Usage of bromofluoromethane is regulated due to its ozone depletion potential (0.73). Its isotopomer CH2Br18F contains fluorine-18 (18F) and is used in radiochemistry.
References
External sources
Determination of the molecular dipole moment of bromofluoromethane
http://www.valliscor.com/bromofluoromethane
Halomethanes
Organobromides
Organofluorides |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate%20racemase | The lactate racemase enzyme (Lar) () interconverts the D- and L-enantiomers of lactic acid. It is classified under the isomerase, racemase, epimerase, and enzyme acting on hydroxyl acids and derivatives classes of enzymes. It is found in certain halophilic archaea, such as Haloarcula marismortui, and in a few species of bacteria, such as several Lactobacillus species (which produce D- and L-lactate) including Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus, and Lactobacillus plantarum, as well as in non-lactic acid bacteria such as Clostridium beijerinckii.
The gene encoding lactate racemase in L. plantarum was identified as larA and shown to be associated with a widespread maturation system involving larB, larC1, larC2, and larE. The optimal pH for its activity is 5.8-6.2 in L. sakei.
Structure and properties
The molecular weight of lactate racemase differs in the various organisms in which it has been found, ranging from 25,000 to 82,400 g/mol. The structure of the enzyme from L. plantarum was solved by Jian Hu and Robert P. Hausinger of Michigan State University and co-workers there and elsewhere. The protein contains a previously unknown covalently-linked nickel-pincer nucleotide (NPN) cofactor (pyridinium 3-thioamide-5-thiocarboxylic acid mononucleotide), where the nickel atom is bound to C4 of the pyridinium ring and two sulfur atoms. This cofactor participates in a proton-coupled hydride-transfer mechanism.
There have been a number of recent studies on NPN cofactor s |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xindi%20%28instrument%29 | The xindi (; literally "new flute") is a Chinese musical instrument. A 20th-century derivative of the ancient dizi (bamboo transverse flute), the xindi is western influenced, fully chromatic, and usually lacks the dizi's distinctive di mo, or buzzing membrane.
The xindi is also known as the 11-hole di (十一孔笛). Its design is western influenced and based on the principal of equal temperament. It first appeared in the early 1930s. It was designed and produced by Ding Silin (丁西林1893-1974).
Characteristics and range
The biggest difference between the xindi and the traditional Chinese di is that there are an additional five finger-holes compared to the six found on the di. Additionally, it has three more finger-holes than the Xiāo (簫) - an eight-hole flute which, itself, has extra finger-holes compared to the di, for the right little finger and left thumb. The additional finger-holes on the xindi are for the right-hand thumb, the little finger of the left hand, and the left index finger, which has to alternate between two finger-holes. The traditional flute exhibits imperfections during modulation due to difficulties in controlling the intonation of the semitone. Thus, the purpose of the additional holes is to help correct these imperfections. Through its 11-hole design, the xindi can play every semitone in the octave perfectly, and modulation is made easier and smoother due to its ability to be played in different keys. The player only needs to use their fingers to move down the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1938%20U.S.%20National%20Championships%20%E2%80%93%20Men%27s%20singles | Don Budge defeated Gene Mako in the final, 6–3, 6–8, 6–2, 6–1 to win the men's singles tennis title at the 1938 U.S. National Championships. He became the first player in tennis history to complete the Grand Slam.
Seeds
The tournament used two lists of eight players for seeding the men's singles event; one for U.S. players and one for foreign players. Don Budge is the champion; others show the round in which they were eliminated.
U.S.
Don Budge (champion)
Bobby Riggs (fourth round)
Joseph Hunt (quarterfinals)
Sidney Wood (semifinals)
Elwood Cooke (third round)
Frank Kovacs (third round)
Frank Parker (fourth round)
Bryan Grant (quarterfinals)
Foreign
John Bromwich (semifinals)
Adrian Quist (fourth round)
Franjo Punčec (fourth round)
Bernard Destremau (first round)
Yvon Petra (fourth round)
Franjo Kukuljević (fourth round)
Fumiteru Nakano (second round)
Charles Hare (fourth round)
Draw
Key
Q = Qualifier
WC = Wild card
LL = Lucky loser
r = Retired
Finals
Earlier rounds
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
References
External links
1938 U.S. National Championships on ITFtennis.com , the source for this draw
Men's Singles
1938 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACAT1 | Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, mitochondrial, also known as acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ACAT1 (Acetyl-Coenzyme A acetyltransferase 1) gene.
Acetyl-Coenzyme A acetyltransferase 1 is an acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase enzyme.
Structure
The gene is located on chromosome 11q22.3‐q23.1, spanning approx. 27 kb and contains twelve exons interrupted by eleven introns. The region flanking the 5’ end of the gene lacks a TATA box, but contains many GC’s and also has two CAAT boxes. The gene also may have a binding site for the transcription factor Sp1, and has sequences resembling the binding sites of several other transcription factors. Additionally, there is a 101-bp DNA fragment immediately upstream from the cap site that has promoter activity.
The human ACAT1 gene produces a chimeric mRNA through trans-splicing, a process in which separate transcripts from chromosomes 1 and 7 are spliced together. The chimeric mRNA transcript uses two sections to initiate translation: AUG(1397-1399) and GGC(1274-1276). Initiation of the first codon (AUG) results in the translation of a 50-kDa ACAT1, and initiation of the other (GGC) produces another enzymatically active 56-kDa isoform respectively; the 56kDa isoform is naturally present in human cells, including human monocyte-derived macrophages.
The resulting transcript encodes ACAT1, which is a 45.1 kDa protein composed of 427 amino acids. It is also a homotetrameric protein that has nine transmembr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD137 | CD137, a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor family, is a type 1 transmembrane protein, expressed on surfaces of leukocytes and non-immune cells. Its alternative names are tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 9 (TNFRSF9), 4-1BB, and induced by lymphocyte activation (ILA). It is of interest to immunologists as a co-stimulatory immune checkpoint molecule, and as a potential target in cancer immunotherapy.
Expression
CD137 is only expressed on the cell surface after T cell activation. When T cells are activated by Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs), CD137 becomes embedded in CD4+ and CD8+ T cells.
CD137 is a costimulatory molecule functioning to stimulate T cell proliferation, dendritic cell maturation, and promotion of B cell antibody secretion. As a T cell co-stimulator, T cell receptor (TCR) and CD28 signaling causes expression of CD137 on T cell membranes. When CD137 then reacts with the CD137 ligand, it leads to CD137 upregulation. This is a form of self regulation or positive feedback cycle. When CD137 interacts with its ligand, it leads to T cell cytokine production and T cell proliferation, among other signaling pathway responses.
Other cells that express CD137 include both immune cells (i.e. monocytes, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), and regulatory T cells) and non-immune cells (i.e. chondrocytes, neurons, astrocytes, microglia and endothelial cells).
Regulation of the immune system
CD137 and its |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canarian%20Spanish | Canarian Spanish or Canary Island Spanish (Spanish terms in descending order of frequency: , , , or ) is a variant of standard Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands by the Canary Islanders.
Canarian Spanish heavily influenced the development of Caribbean Spanish and other Latin American Spanish vernaculars because Hispanic America was originally largely settled by colonists from the Canary Islands and Andalusia; those dialects, including the standard language, were already quite close to Canarian and Andalusian speech. In the Caribbean, Canarian speech patterns were never regarded as either foreign or very different from the local accent.
The incorporation of the Canary Islands into the Crown of Castile began with Henry III (1402) and was completed under the Catholic Monarchs. The expeditions for their conquest started off mainly from ports of Andalusia, which is why the Andalusians predominated in the Canaries. There was also an important colonising contingent from Portugal in the early conquest of the Canaries, along with the Andalusians and the Castilians from mainland Spain. In earlier times, Portuguese settled alongside the Spanish in the north of Gran Canaria, but they died off or were absorbed by the Spanish. The population that inhabited the islands before the conquest, the Guanches, spoke a variety of Berber (also called Amazigh) dialects. After the conquest, the indigenous Guanche language was rapidly and almost completely eradicated in the archipelago. Only some n |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13%20%26%20God | 13 & God is a collaboration between American indie hip hop duo Themselves and German indie rock band The Notwist. The group is signed both to Anticon and Alien Transistor.
History
The band's name 13 & God stems from the concept of the 12 apostles and Jesus Christ forming a group that comprises 13 mortal men as well as God. Distinguishing between Themselves and The Notwist in the context of which group is '13' and which is 'God' is thus disingenuous. In the example above, God is inherently contained within '13', creating a symbiotic relationship so strong it is unable to be severed. As 13 & God are not a Christian group, but do explore elements of philosophy, spirituality and existentialism, the name 13 & God is generally considered to be more of a reflection of those elements, as well as the concept of 'identity' itself. Alternatively, it may just be a play on words with the prematurely sexy track by Boogie Down Productions titled '13 and Good' '
They are joined live by Jordan Dalrymple who now plays Dax Pierson's parts following a 2005 Subtle tour accident which left Dax quadriplegic. As of 2010, Jordan has officially joined, and has been contributing in the studio.
In a 2009 interview with Pitchfork, Doseone was quoted as saying "in 2010 there will be a brand new shiny 13 & G record out in the world." On February 3, 2011, the second album Own Your Ghost was announced to be released on Anticon on May 17, 2011. The album is set to feature ten tracks, including "Sure As Deb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indium%28III%29%20selenide | Indium(III) selenide is a compound of indium and selenium. It has potential for use in photovoltaic devices and has been the subject of extensive research. The two most common phases, α and β, have a layered structure, while γ has a "defect wurtzite structure." In all, five polymorphs are known: α, β, γ, δ, κ. The α-β phase transition is accompanied by a change in electrical conductivity. The band gap of γ-In2Se3 is approximately 1.9 eV.
Preparation
The method of production influences the polymorph generated. For example, thin films of pure γ-In2Se3 have been produced from trimethylindium (InMe3) and hydrogen selenide via MOCVD techniques.
A conventional route entails heating the elements in a seal-tube:
See also
Gallium(III) selenide
Indium chalcogenides
Nanoparticle
General references
WebElements
Footnotes
External links
Indium Selenide Nanoparticles Used In Solar Energy Conversion.
Indium compounds
Selenides
Solar cells
Semiconductor materials |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESCR | ESCR may stand for:
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Embryonic Stem Cell Research
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance
ES Cannet Rocheville, a French football club |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefoldin | Prefoldin (GimC) is a superfamily of proteins used in protein folding complexes. It is classified as a heterohexameric molecular chaperone in both archaea and eukarya, including humans. A prefoldin molecule works as a transfer protein in conjunction with a molecule of chaperonin to form a chaperone complex and correctly fold other nascent proteins. One of prefoldin's main uses in eukarya is the formation of molecules of actin for use in the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.
Purpose and uses
Prefoldin is one family of chaperone proteins found in the domains of eukarya and archaea. Prefoldin acts in combination with other molecules to promote protein folding in cells where there are many other competing pathways for folding. Chaperone proteins perform non-covalent assembly of other polypeptide-containing structures in vivo. They are implicated in the folding of most other proteins.
In archaea, prefoldins are believed to function in combination with group II chaperonins in de novo protein folding. In eukarya however, prefoldins have acquired a more specific function: they are used to establish correct tubular assembly for many tubular proteins, such as actin. Actin accounts for 5-10% of all protein found in eukaryotic cells, which therefore means that prefoldin is quite prevalent in the cells. Actin is made of two strings of beads wound round each other and is one of the three main parts of the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. Prefoldin bonds specifically to cytosolic chaperonin prot |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEP%20carboxylase | PEP carboxylase may refer to:
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, an enzyme
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (diphosphate), an enzyme |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting%20%28fixture%29 | In experimental fluid mechanics, a sting is a test fixture on which models are mounted for testing, e.g. in a wind tunnel. A sting is usually a long shaft attaching to the downstream end of the model so that it does not much disturb the flow over the model. The rear end of a sting usually
has a conical fairing blending into the (wind tunnel) model support structure.
For minimum aerodynamic interference a sting should be as long as possible and have as small a diameter as possible, within the structural safety limits. Critical length of a sting (beyond which its influence on the flow around the model is small) is mostly dependent on Reynolds number. If the flow at the rear end of a model (model base) is laminar, the critical sting length can be as much as 12-15 base diameters. If the flow at model base is turbulent, critical sting length reduces to 3-5 model base diameters. Source also suggests a sting diameter of no more than about 30% of model base diameter. However, this may not be possible in wind tunnels with high dynamic pressures because large aerodynamic loads would cause unacceptably large deflections and/or stresses in the sting. Shorter stings of larger relative diameters must be used in such cases.
A good rule-of-thumb is that, for acceptably low and test-conditions-independent aerodynamic interference in a high-Reynolds-number, high-dynamic-pressure wind tunnel, a sting should have a diameter "d" not larger than 30% to 50% of model base diameter "D" and should h |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20E.%20J.%20Neugebauer | Hans E. J. Neugebauer was a German-born physicist and imaging scientist who later lived in the United States and Canada.
In his 1935 dissertation, he developed the Neugebauer equations, which have served as the basis for more accurate models for the prediction of color produced by printing.
References
20th-century German physicists
Color scientists
1905 births
1987 deaths
German emigrants to Canada |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fis | fis is an E. coli gene encoding the Fis (or FIS) protein. The regulation of this gene is more complex than most other genes in the E. coli genome, as Fis is an important protein which regulates expression of other genes. It is supposed that fis is regulated by H-NS, IHF and CRP. It also regulates its own expression (autoregulation). Fis is one of the most abundant DNA binding proteins in Escherichia coli under nutrient-rich growth conditions.
History
Fis was first discovered for its role in stimulating Gin catalyzed inversion of the G segment of phage Mu genome. Fis was originally identified as the factor for inversion stimulation of the homologous Hin and Gin site-specific DNA recombinases of Salmonella and phage Mu, respectively. This small, basic, DNA-bending protein has recently been shown to function in many other reactions including phage lambda site-specific recombination, transcriptional activation of rRNA and tRNA operons, repression of its own synthesis, and oriC-directed DNA replication. Cellular concentrations of Fis vary tremendously under different growth conditions which may have important regulatory implications for the physiological role of Fis in these different reactions.
Structure
Structurally, Fis folds into four α-helices (A–D) and a β-hairpin. Helices A and B provide the contacts between Fis monomers, facilitating dimer formation, whereas the C and D helices form a helix-turn-helix motif that is essential for DNA binding.
Properties and function |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylmalonyl%20CoA%20epimerase | Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase (, methylmalonyl-CoA racemase, methylmalonyl coenzyme A racemase, DL-methylmalonyl-CoA racemase, 2-methyl-3-oxopropanoyl-CoA 2-epimerase [incorrect]) is an enzyme involved in fatty acid catabolism that is encoded in human by the "MCEE" gene located on chromosome 2. It is routinely and incorrectly labeled as "methylmalonyl-CoA racemase". It is not a racemase because the CoA moiety has 5 other stereocenters.
Structure
The "MCEE" gene is located in the 2p13 region and contains 4 exons, and encodes for a protein that is approximately 18 kDa in size and located to the mitochondrial matrix. Several natural variants in amino acid sequences exist. The structure of the MCEE protein has been resolved by X-ray crystallography at 1.8-angstrom resolution.
Function
The MCEE gene encodes an enzyme that interconverts D- and L- methylmalonyl-CoA during the degradation of branched-chain amino acids, odd chain-length fatty acids, and other metabolites. In biochemistry terms, it catalyzes the reaction that converts (S)-methylmalonyl-CoA to the (R) form. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
(S)-methylmalonyl-CoA (R)-methylmalonyl-CoA
Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase plays an important role in the catabolism of fatty acids with odd-length carbon chains. In the catabolism of even-chain saturated fatty acids, the β-oxidation pathway breaks down fatty acyl-CoA molecules in repeated sequences of four reactions to yield one acetyl CoA per repeated seque |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CWP1 | Cell Wall Protein 1 (CWP1) is a gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the Saccharomyces cerevisiae-Saccharomyces bayanus hybrid, Saccharomyces pastorianus. It is closely related to the CWP2 gene and produces a small protein associated with the budding scar, known as cwp1p.
References
Proteins
Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosylcobalamin | Adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl), also known as coenzyme B12, cobamamide, and dibencozide, is, along with methylcobalamin (MeCbl), one of the biologically active forms of vitamin B12.
Adenosylcobalamin participates as a cofactor in radical-mediated 1,2-carbon skeleton rearrangements. These processes require the formation of the deoxyadenosyl radical through homolytic dissociation of the carbon-cobalt bond. This bond is exceptionally weak, with a bond dissociation energy of 31 kcal/mol, which is further lowered in the chemical environment of an enzyme active site. An enzyme that uses adenosylcobalamin as a cofactor is methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM).
Further experimentation has also determined adenosylcobalamin's role in regulating expression of some bacterial genes. By binding to CarH, AdoCbl can modulate carotenoid genes, which confer warm colors onto various plants. Carotenoid transcription is activated by sunlight, due to the response from AdoCbl. There are other photoreceptors across different bacterial communities, aside from CarH, that also have reactive capability when bound to AdoCbl. For instance, AerR is another factor that uses AdoCbl to give off purple pigmentation. Additional examination of adenosylcobalamin-bound enzymes and the development of this cofactor over time may prove to hold regulatory function of DNA and RNA.
See also
Methylcobalamin
Hydroxocobalamin
Cyanocobalamin
Vitamin B12
Cobalamin biosynthesis
Nitric oxide
References
External links
B v |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octanoyl-CoA | Octanoyl-coenzyme A is the endpoint of beta oxidation in peroxisomes. It is produced alongside acetyl-CoA and transferred to the mitochondria to be further oxidized into acetyl-CoA.
See also
Caprylic acid, the eight-carbon saturated fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid.
References
Thioesters of coenzyme A |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrazine%20chlorohydrolase | Atrazine Chlorohydrolase (AtzA) is an enzyme (E.C.3.8.1.8), which catalyzes the conversion of atrazine to hydroxyatrazine. Bacterial degradation determines the environmental impact and efficacy of an herbicide or pesticide. Initially, most pesticides are highly effective and show minimal bacterial degradation; however, bacteria can rapidly evolve and gain the ability to metabolize potential nutrients in the environment. Despite a remarkable structural similarity, degradation of atrazine by bacteria capable of melamine degradation was rare; however, since its introduction as a pesticide in the United States, bacteria capable of atrazine degradation have evolved. Currently, Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP seems to be the optimal bacterial strain for atrazine degradations, which appears to be the sole nitrogen source for the bacteria.
Reaction
AtzA is an atrazine-dechlorinating enzyme with fairly restricted substrate specificity and plays a main role in the hydrolysis of atrazine to hydroxyatrazine in soils and groundwater. Atrazine Hydroxyatrazine is a hydrolase (an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a chemical bond ), which acts on halide bonds in C-halide compounds. In 1993, pseudomonas sp. strain ADP was shown to degrade atrazine to cyanuric acid via three steps, the first of which is a dechlorination.
Genetics
De Souza, Sadowsky and Wackett were able to determine the nucleotide and amino acid sequence in 1996. This enzyme is 98% identical in amino acid sequence, and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACADSB | ACADSB is a human gene that encodes short/branched chain specific acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SBCAD), an enzyme in the acyl CoA dehydrogenase family.
It can cause short/branched-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency.
Structure
The human ACADSB gene is located on chromosome 10; its exact localization has been identified as 10q25-q26. The open reading frame (ORF) encodes a precursor protein that contains 431 amino acids; post-translational processing results in a mature protein with 399 amino acids. The cDNA is significantly similar to the cDNA of other members of the acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family; its structure is closest to that of short chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase. The structure of the catalytic pocket has also been studied; position 104 at the bottom of the substrate-binding pocket has been identified as important in determining the length of the primary carbon chain that can be accommodated. Altering residues at positions 105 and 177 have been demonstrated to affect the rate of the dehydrogenation reactions.
Function
Short/branched chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (ACADSB) is a member of the acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family of enzymes that catalyze the dehydrogenation of acyl-CoA derivatives in the metabolism of fatty acids or branch chained amino acids. Substrate specificity is the primary characteristic used to define members of this gene family. The ACADSB gene product has the greatest activity towards the short branched chain acyl-CoA derivative, (S)-2-methylbutyryl-CoA, |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxine%205%E2%80%B2-phosphate%20oxidase | Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is an enzyme, encoded by the PNPO gene, that catalyzes several reactions in the vitamin B6 metabolism pathway. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase catalyzes the final, rate-limiting step in vitamin B6 metabolism, the biosynthesis of pyridoxal 5′-phosphate, the biologically active form of vitamin B6 which acts as an essential cofactor. Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is a member of the enzyme class oxidases, or more specifically, oxidoreductases. These enzymes catalyze a simultaneous oxidation-reduction reaction. The substrate oxidase enzymes is hydroxlyated by one oxygen atom of molecular oxygen.
Concurrently, the other oxygen atom is reduced to water. Even though molecular oxygen is the electron acceptor in these enzymes' reactions, they are unique because oxygen does not appear in the oxidized product.
The active form of vitamin B6, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), is critical for normal cellular function. Some cancer cells have notable differences in vitamin B6 metabolism compared to their normal counterparts. The rate-limiting enzyme in vitamin B6 synthesis is pyridoxine-5'-phosphate oxidase (PNPO; EC 1.4.3.5).[supplied by OMIM]
Structure
Pyridoxine 5′-phosphate oxidase is a homodimer, or a molecule consisting of two identical polypeptide subunits. It is hypothesized that the two monomers are held together by disulfide bonds. There are also salt-bridge interactions between the two monomers. Each subunit tightly binds one molecule of pyridoxal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncia%20%28unit%29 | The (plural: ) was a Roman unit of length, weight, and volume. It survived as the Byzantine liquid ounce (, oungía) and the origin of the English inch, ounce, and fluid ounce.
The Roman inch was equal to of a Roman foot (), which was standardized under Agrippa to about 0.97 inches or 24.6 millimeters.
The Roman ounce was of a Roman pound.
See also
Ancient Roman weights and measures
References
Units of length
Human-based units of measurement
Ancient Roman units of measurement |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIR%20synthetase%20%28FGAM%20cyclase%29 | Phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine cyclo-ligase (AIR synthetase) is the fifth enzyme () in the de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides. It catalyzes the reaction to form 5-aminoimidazole ribotide (AIR) from formylglycinamidine-ribonucleotide FGAM. This reaction closes the ring and produces a 5-membered imidazole ring of the purine nucleus (AIR):
ATP + 2-(formamido)-N1-(5-phospho-β-D-ribosyl)acetamidine ADP + 5-amino-1-(5-phospho-β-D-ribosyl)imidazole + phosphate +
AIR synthetase catalyzes the transfer of the oxygen of the formyl group to phosphate. It is a sequential mechanism in which ATP binds first to the enzyme and ADP is released last. This enzyme hydrolyzes ATP to activate the oxygen of the amide in order to carry out a nucleophilic attack by nitrogen. In humans and many other animals, this enzyme is contained within the trifunctional purine biosynthetic protein adenosine-3 polypeptide.
Nomenclature
The systematic name of this enzyme class is 2-(formamido)-N1-(5-phosphoribosyl)acetamidine cyclo-ligase (ADP-forming). Other names in common use include:
AIR synthetase,
5'-aminoimidazole ribonucleotide synthetase,
2-(formamido)-1-N-(5-phosphoribosyl)acetamidine cyclo-ligase (ADP-forming),
phosphoribosylaminoimidazole synthetase, and
phosphoribosylformylglycinamidine cyclo-ligase.
Purine Synthesis
Purines are one of the two types of nitrogenous heterocyclic bases, which are one of the three components of the nucleotides that make up nucleic acids. Synthesis can b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannose%206-phosphate%20receptor | The mannose 6-phosphate receptors (MPRs) are transmembrane glycoproteins that target enzymes to lysosomes in vertebrates.
Mannose 6-phosphate receptors bind newly synthesized lysosomal hydrolases in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and deliver them to pre-lysosomal compartments. There are two different MPRs, one of ~300kDa and a smaller, dimeric receptor of ~46kDa. The larger receptor is known as the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR), while the smaller receptor (CD-MPR) requires divalent cations to efficiently recognize lysosomal hydrolases. While divalent cations are not essential for ligand binding by the human CD-MPR, the nomenclature has been retained.
Both of these receptors bind terminal mannose 6-phosphate with similar affinity (CI-MPR = 7 μM, CD-MPR = 8 μM) and have similar signals in their cytoplasmic domains for intracellular trafficking.
History
Elizabeth Neufeld was studying patients who had multiple inclusion bodies present in their cells. Due to the large amount of inclusion bodies she named this condition I-cell disease. These inclusion bodies represented lysosomes that were filled with undigestable material. At first Neufeld thought these patients must have a lack of lysosomal enzymes. . Further study showed that all of the lysosomal enzymes were being made but they were being incorrectly targeted. Instead of being sent to the lysosome, they were being secreted. Furthermore, these mis-targeted enzymes were found to not be phosphoryl |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrose%20phosphorylase | Sucrose phosphorylase () is an important enzyme in the metabolism of sucrose and regulation of other metabolic intermediates. Sucrose phosphorylase is in the class of hexosyltransferases. More specifically it has been placed in the retaining glycoside hydrolases family although it catalyzes a transglycosidation rather than hydrolysis. Sucrose phosphorylase catalyzes the conversion of sucrose to D-fructose and α-D-glucose-1-phosphate. It has been shown in multiple experiments that the enzyme catalyzes this conversion by a double displacement mechanism.
Reaction
The method by which sucrose phosphorylase converts sucrose to D-fructose and alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate has been studied in great detail. In the reaction, sucrose binds to the enzyme, at which point fructose is released by the enzyme-substrate complex. A covalent glucose-enzyme complex results, with beta-linkage between an oxygen atom in the carboxyl group of an aspartyl residue and C-1 of glucose. The covalent complex was experimentally isolated by chemical modification of the protein using NaIO4 after addition of the substrate, supporting the hypothesis that reaction catalyzed by sucrose phosphorylase proceeds through the ping-pong mechanism. In the final enzymatic step, the glycosidic bond is cleaved through reaction with a phosphate group, yielding α-D-glucose-1-phosphate.
In a separate reaction, α-D-glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose-6-phosphate by the action of phosphoglucomutase. Glucose-6-pho |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-bifunctional%20protein%20deficiency | D-Bifunctional protein deficiency is an autosomal recessive peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation disorder. Peroxisomal disorders are usually caused by a combination of peroxisomal assembly defects or by deficiencies of specific peroxisomal enzymes. The peroxisome is an organelle in the cell similar to the lysosome that functions to detoxify the cell. Peroxisomes contain many different enzymes, such as catalase, and their main function is to neutralize free radicals and detoxify drugs. For this reason peroxisomes are ubiquitous in the liver and kidney. D-BP deficiency is the most severe peroxisomal disorder, often resembling Zellweger syndrome.
Characteristics of the disorder include neonatal hypotonia and seizures, occurring mostly within the first month of life, as well as visual and hearing impairment. Other symptoms include severe craniofacial disfiguration, psychomotor delay, and neuronal migration defects. Most onsets of the disorder begin in the gestational weeks of development and most affected individuals die within the first two years of life.
Classification
DBP deficiency can be divided into three types:
type I, characterized by a deficiency in both the hydratase and dehydrogenase units of D-BP
type II, in which only the hydratase unit is non-functional
type III, with only a deficiency in the dehydrogenase unit
Type I deficient patients showed a large structural modification to the D-BP as a whole. Most of these individuals showed either a deletion or an insertio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Des-gamma%20carboxyprothrombin | Des-gamma carboxyprothrombin (DCP), also known as protein induced by vitamin K absence/antagonist-II (PIVKA-II), is an abnormal form of the coagulation protein, prothrombin. Normally, the prothrombin precursor undergoes post-translational carboxylation (addition of a carboxylic acid group) by gamma-glutamyl carboxylase in the liver prior to secretion into plasma. DCP/PIVKA-II may be detected in people with deficiency of vitamin K (due to poor nutrition or malabsorption) and in those taking warfarin or other medication that inhibits the action of vitamin K.
Diagnostic use
Hepatocellular carcinoma
A 1984 study first described the use of DCP as a marker of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC); it was present in 91% of HCC patients, while not being detectable in other liver diseases. The DCP level did not change with the administration of vitamin K, suggesting a defect in gamma-carboxylation activity rather than vitamin K deficiency. A number of subsequent studies have since confirmed this phenomenon.
A 2007 comparison of various HCC tumor markers found DCP the least sensitive to risk factors for HCC (such as cirrhosis), and hence the most useful in predicting HCC. It differentiates HCC from non-malignant liver diseases. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that a combined analysis of DCP and Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) can lead to a better prediction in early stages of HCC.
Despite many years of use in Japan, only did a 2003 American study reevaluate its use in an American patient serie |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SKI%20protein | The SKI protein is a nuclear proto-oncogene that is associated with tumors at high cellular concentrations. SKI has been shown to interfere with normal cellular functioning by both directly impeding expression of certain genes inside the nucleus of the cell as well as disrupting signaling proteins that activate genes.
SKI negatively regulates transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) by directly interacting with Smads and repressing the transcription of TGF-beta responsive genes. This has been associated with cancer due to the large number of roles that peptide growth factors, of which TGF-beta are a subfamily, play in regulating cellular functions such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, specification, and developmental fate.
The name SKI comes from the Sloan-Kettering Institute where the protein was initially discovered.
Structure
Gene
The SKI proto-oncogene is located at a region close to the p73 tumor suppressor gene at the locus 1p36.3 locus of a gene, suggesting a similar function to the p73 gene.
Protein
The SKI protein has a 728 amino acid sequence, with multiple domains. It is expressed both inside and outside of the nucleus. It is in the same family as the SnoN protein. The different domains have different functions, with the primary domains interacting with Smad proteins. The protein has a helix-turn-helix motif, a cysteine and histidine rich area which gives rise to the zinc finger motif, a basic amino acid region, and leucine zipper. All these domai |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EF-4 | Elongation factor 4 (EF-4) is an elongation factor that is thought to back-translocate on the ribosome during the translation of RNA to proteins. It is found near-universally in bacteria and in eukaryotic endosymbiotic organelles including the mitochondria and the plastid. Responsible for proofreading during protein synthesis, EF-4 is a recent addition to the nomenclature of bacterial elongation factors.
Prior to its recognition as an elongation factor, EF-4 was known as leader peptidase A (LepA), as it is the first cistron on the operon carrying the bacterial leader peptidase. In eukaryotes it is traditionally called GUF1 (GTPase of Unknown Function 1). It has the preliminary EC number 3.6.5.n1.
Evolutionary background
LepA has a highly conserved sequence. LepA orthologs have been found in bacteria and almost all eukaryotes. The conservation in LepA has been shown to cover the entire protein. More specifically, the amino acid identity of LepA among bacterial orthologs ranges from 55%-68%.
Two forms of LepA have been observed; one form of LepA branches with mitochondrial LepA sequences, while the second form branches with cyanobacterial orthologs. These findings demonstrate that LepA is significant for bacteria, mitochondria, and plastids. LepA is absent from archaea.
Structure
The gene encoding LepA is known to be the first cistron as part of a bicistron operon. LepA is a polypeptide of 599 amino acids with a molecular weight of 67 kDa. The amino acid sequence of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficain | Ficain also known as ficin, debricin, or higueroxyl delabarre () is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the latex sap from the stems, leaves, and unripe fruit of the American wild fig tree Ficus insipida.
Ficain was originally called ficin, and ficin was originally a mixture of closely related cysteine endopeptidases produced from any species of the genus Ficus, before the terminology was restricted to a specific cysteine endopeptidase enzyme from a specific species.
Cysteine endopeptidases are a group of enzymes that also include the more distantly related papain derived from papaya latex, bromelase (bromelain) extracted from pineapple stem, calpain, caspases, cathepsin B, and chymopapain. Cysteine endopeptidases with similar properties known generically as ficins are present in other members of the genus Ficus, and many species appear to contain multiple types of these enzymes. Somewhat confusingly, the terms ficain and ficin are often treated as synonyms.
Ficain is in the MEROPS clan CA, family C1, subfamily C1A, peptidase C01.006.
Nomenclature
The name ficin was first used by Robbins in 1930 to describe a purified substance with anthelmintic activity isolated from any member of the fig genus. The Enzyme Commission of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB) originally assigned EC 3.4.4.12 as ficin in 1961, which was transferred to 3.4.22.3 and renamed to ficain in 1972, making the two term synonymous at the time. Because the proteolytic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinidain | Actinidain (, actinidin, Actinidia anionic protease, proteinase A2 of Actinidia chinensis) is a type of cysteine protease enzyme found in fruits including kiwifruit (genus Actinidia), pineapple, mango, banana, figs, and papaya. This enzyme is part of the peptidase C1 family of papain-like proteases.
As a known allergen in kiwifruit, the enzyme is under preliminary research for its effect on tight junction proteins of intestinal epithelial cells.
Actinidain is commercially useful as a meat tenderiser and in coagulating milk for dairy products, like yogurt and cheese. The denaturation temperature of actinidain is , lower than that of similar meat tenderising enzymes bromelain from pineapple and papain from papaya.
History
Actinidain was first identified in 1959 when A.C. Arcus looked into why jellies made with kiwifruit don’t solidify. They went on to show that this phenomenon was caused by a proteolytic enzyme attacking gelatin. This enzyme would go on to be named actinidin as it was identified in a fruit in the genus Actinidia. While similar proteins have been found in other fruits, this cysteine protease is unique to the kiwifruit. A thiol group was identified to be essential for enzyme activity, which is why it was grouped with enzymes like papain and bromelain.
Function
While no clear function has been identified, the enzyme begins to accumulate in the fruit early on and is suspected to be important for fruit development. Actinidain has been found to have a detriment |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photobiotin | Photobiotin is a derivative of biotin used as a biochemical tool. It is composed of a biotin group, a linker group, and a photoactivatable aryl azide group.
The photoactivatable group provides nonspecific labeling of proteins, DNA and RNA probes or other molecules. Biotinylation of DNA and RNA with photoactivatable biotin is easier and less expensive than enzymatic methods since the DNA and RNA does not degrade. Photobiotin is most effectively activated by light at 260-475 nm.
References
Billingsley, M. and J. Polli. “Preparation, characterization and biological properties of biotinylated derivatives of calmodulin.” Biochem J. 275 Pt 3(1991): 733–743
"EZ-Link Photoactivatable Biotin." Pierce Biotechnology, Inc. Rockford, IL: June, 2003.
"Components of Avidin-Biotin Technology: A Handbook." Pierce Biotechnology, Inc. Rockford, IL: June, 2003.
"Photobiotin acetate." Sigma-Aldrich, Co. 2006.
"Photoprobe biotin", Vector Laboratories, Inc., www.vectorlabs.com.
Biotechnology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmetramadol | Desmetramadol (), also known as O-desmethyltramadol (O-DSMT), is an opioid analgesic and the main active metabolite of tramadol. Tramadol is demethylated by the liver enzyme CYP2D6 to desmetramadol in the same way as codeine, and so similarly to the variation in effects seen with codeine, individuals who have a less active form of CYP2D6 will tend to have reduced analgesic effects from tramadol. Because desmetramadol itself does not need to be metabolized to induce an analgesic effect, it can be used in individuals with low CYP2D6 activity unlike tramadol.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
(+)-Desmetramadol is a G-protein biased μ-opioid receptor full agonist. It shows comparatively far lower affinity for the δ- and κ-opioid receptors.
The two enantiomers of desmetramadol show quite distinct pharmacological profiles; both (+) and (−)-desmetramadol are inactive as serotonin reuptake inhibitors, but (−)-desmetramadol retains activity as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, and so the mix of both the parent compound and metabolites contributes significantly to the complex pharmacological profile of tramadol. While the multiple receptor targets can be beneficial in the treatment of pain (especially complex pain syndromes such as neuropathic pain), it increases the potential for drug interactions compared to other opioids, and may also contribute to side effects.
Desmetramadol is also an antagonist of the serotonin 5-HT2C receptor, at pharmacologically relevant concentrations, via |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20United%20States%20rapid%20transit%20systems | The following is a list of all heavy rail rapid transit systems in the United States. It does not include statistics for bus or light rail systems; see: List of United States light rail systems by ridership for light rail systems. All ridership figures represent unlinked passenger trips, so line transfers on multi-line systems register as separate trips. The data is provided by the American Public Transportation Association's Ridership Reports.
See also
List of metro systems
List of North American rapid transit systems by ridership
List of tram and light rail transit systems
List of suburban and commuter rail systems
List of United States light rail systems by ridership
List of North American light rail systems by ridership
List of United States commuter rail systems by ridership
List of United States local bus agencies by ridership
Notes
References
Rapid transit systems |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspase%202 | Caspase 2 also known as CASP2 is an enzyme that, in humans, is encoded by the CASP2 gene. CASP2 orthologs have been identified in nearly all mammals for which complete genome data are available. Unique orthologs are also present in birds, lizards, lissamphibians, and teleosts.
Function
Sequential activation of caspases plays a central role in the execution-phase of cell apoptosis. Caspases exist as inactive proenzymes that undergo proteolytic processing at conserved aspartic residues to produce two subunits, large and small, that dimerize to form the active enzyme. The proteolytic cleavage of this protein is induced by a variety of apoptotic stimuli.
Caspase 2 proteolytically cleaves other proteins. It belongs to a family of cysteine proteases called caspases that cleave proteins only at an amino acid following an aspartic acid residue. Within this family, caspase 2 is part of the Ich-1 subfamily. It is one of the most conserved caspases in different species of animal. Caspase 2 has a similar amino acid sequence to initiator caspases, including caspase 1, caspase 4, caspase 5, and caspase 9. It is produced as a zymogen, which contains a long pro-domain that is similar to that of caspase 9 and contains a protein interaction domain known as a CARD domain. Pro-caspase-2 contains two subunits, p19 and p12.
It has been shown to associate with several proteins involved in apoptosis using its CARD domain, including RIP-associated Ich-1/Ced-3-homologue protein with a death doma |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XIAP | X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), also known as inhibitor of apoptosis protein 3 (IAP3) and baculoviral IAP repeat-containing protein 4 (BIRC4), is a protein that stops apoptotic cell death. In humans, this protein (XIAP) is produced by a gene named XIAP gene located on the X chromosome.
XIAP is a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis family of proteins (IAP). IAPs were initially identified in baculoviruses, but XIAP is one of the homologous proteins found in mammals. It is so called because it was first discovered by a 273 base pair site on the X chromosome. The protein is also called human IAP-like Protein (hILP), because it is not as well conserved as the human IAPS: hIAP-1 and hIAP-2. XIAP is the most potent human IAP protein currently identified.
Discovery
Neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein (NAIP) was the first homolog to baculoviral IAPs that was identified in humans. With the sequencing data of NIAP, the gene sequence for a RING zinc-finger domain was discovered at site Xq24-25. Using PCR and cloning, three BIR domains and a RING finger were found on the protein, which became known as X-linked Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein. The transcript size of Xiap is 9.0kb, with an open reading frame of 1.8kb. Xiap mRNA has been observed in all human adult and fetal tissues "except peripheral blood leukocytes". The XIAP sequences led to the discovery of other members of the IAP family.
Structure
XIAP consists of three major types of structural elements (domains |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorophyllase | Chlorophyllase is an essential enzyme in chlorophyll metabolism. It is a membrane proteins commonly known as chlase (EC 3.1.1.14, CLH) with systematic name chlorophyll chlorophyllidohydrolase. It catalyzes the reaction
chlorophyll + H2O = phytol + chlorophyllide
Chlorophyllase can be found in the chloroplast, thylakoid membrane and etioplast of at least higher plants such as ferns, mosses, brown and red algae and diatoms. Chlase is the catalyst for the hydrolysis of chlorophyll to produce chlorophyllide (also called Chlide) and phytol. It is also known to function in the esterification of Chlide and transesterification. The enzyme functions optimally at pH 8.5 and 50 °C.
Role of chlorophyllase in chlorophyll breakdown
Of high importance to all photosynthetic organisms is chlorophyll, and so, its synthesis and breakdown are closely regulated throughout the entire life cycle of the plant. Chlorophyll breakdown is most evident in seasonal changes as the plants lose their green color in the autumn; it is also evident in fruit ripening, leaf senescence and flowering. In this first step, chlorophyllase initiates the catabolism of chlorophyll to form chlorophyllide. Chlorophyll degradation occurs in the turnover of chlorophyll, as well as in the event of cell death caused by injuries, pathogenic attack, and other external factors.
Chlorophyllase's role is two-fold as it functions in both de-greening processes, such as autumnal coloration, and is also thought to be involved in tu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line%20Impedance%20Stabilization%20Network | A line impedance stabilization network (LISN) is a device used in conducted and radiated radio-frequency emission and susceptibility tests, as specified in various electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)/EMI test standards (e.g., by CISPR, International Electrotechnical Commission, CENELEC, U.S. Federal Communications Commission, MIL-STD, DO-160 Sections 20-21-22).
A LISN is a low-pass filter typically placed between an AC or DC power source and the EUT (equipment under test) to create a known impedance and to provide a radio frequency (RF) noise measurement port. It also isolates the unwanted RF signals from the power source. In addition, LISNs can be used to predict conducted emission for diagnostic and pre-compliance testing.
Functions of a LISN
Stable line impedance
The main function of a LISN is to provide a precise impedance to the power input of the EUT, in order to get repeatable measurements of the EUT noise present at the LISN measurement port. This is important because the impedance of the power source and the impedance of the EUT effectively operate as a voltage divider. The impedance of the power source varies, depending on the geometry of the supply wiring behind it.
The anticipated inductance of the power line for the intended installation of the EUT also plays a role in identifying the correct type of LISN needed for testing. For example, a connection in a building will often use 50 μH inductor, whereas in automobile measurement standards a 5 μH inductor is us |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose-1%2C6-bisphosphate%20synthase | Glucose-1,6-bisphosphate synthase is a type of enzyme called a phosphotransferase and is involved in mammalian starch and sucrose metabolism (KEGG, 2.7.1.106). It catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to glucose-1-phosphate, yielding 3-phosphoglycerate and glucose-1,6-bisphosphate.
(image courtesy of the BRENDA enzyme database)
The enzyme requires a divalent metal ion cofactor. Zinc (Zn2+), Magnesium (Mg2+), Manganese (Mn2+), Calcium (Ca2+), Nickel (Ni2+), Copper (Cu2+), Cadmium (Cd2+) are all proven effective cofactors in vitro. Additionally, the enzyme appears to function optimally in a pH range from 7.3–8.7 and at a temperature of 25 °C.
Metabolic significance of the catalyzed reaction
The main product, glucose-1,6-bisphosphate, appears to have several functions:
1. Inhibition of hexokinase, an enzyme used in the first step of glycolysis.
2. Activation of phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) and pyruvate kinase, both of which are enzymes involved in activation of the glycolytic pathway.
3. It acts as a coenzyme for phosphoglucomutase in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
4. It acts as a cofactor for phosphopentomutase, which produces D-ribose-5-phosphate.
5. acts as a phosphate donor molecule for unknown nonmetabolic effector proteins.
6. It increases in concentration during skeletal muscle contraction.
7. Its dephosphorylation yields glucose-6-phosphate, which is an important precursor molecule in glycolysis and the pentose phosphate |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20production%20plant | An oil production plant is a facility which processes production fluids from oil wells in order to separate out key components and prepare them for export. Typical oil well production fluids are a mixture of oil, gas and produced water. An oil production plant is distinct from an oil depot, which does not have processing facilities.
Oil production plant may be associated with onshore or offshore oil fields.
Many permanent offshore installations have full oil production facilities. Smaller platforms and subsea wells export production fluids to the nearest production facility, which may be on a nearby offshore processing installation or an onshore terminal. The produced oil may sometimes be stabilised (a form of distillation) which reduces vapour pressure and sweetens "sour" crude oil by removing hydrogen sulphide, thereby making the crude oil suitable for storage and transport. Offshore installations deliver oil and gas to onshore terminals which may further process the fluids prior to sale or delivery to oil refineries.
Onshore oil production
The configuration of onshore oil production facilities depends on the size of the oil field. For simple fields comprising a single well or a few wells, an oil storage tank may be sufficient. The tank is emptied periodically by road tanker and transferred to an oil refinery. For larger production rates a rail tanker transfer facility may be appropriate. For larger fields a full three-phase processing facility is required. Three-phase |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separator%20%28oil%20production%29 | The term separator in oilfield terminology designates a pressure vessel used for separating well fluids produced from oil and gas wells into gaseous and liquid components. A separator for petroleum production is a large vessel designed to separate production fluids into their constituent components of oil, gas and water. A separating vessel may be referred to in the following ways: Oil and gas separator, Separator, Stage separator, Trap, Knockout vessel (Knockout drum, knockout trap, water knockout, or liquid knockout), Flash chamber (flash vessel or flash trap), Expansion separator or expansion vessel, Scrubber (gas scrubber), Filter (gas filter). These separating vessels are normally used on a producing lease or platform near the wellhead, manifold, or tank battery to separate fluids produced from oil and gas wells into oil and gas or liquid and gas. An oil and gas separator generally includes the following essential components and features:
A vessel that includes (a) primary separation device and/or section, (b) secondary "gravity" settling (separating) section, (c) mist extractor to remove small liquid particles from the gas, (d) gas outlet, (e) liquid settling (separating) section to remove gas or vapor from oil (on a three-phase unit, this section also separates water from oil), (f) oil outlet, and (g) water outlet (three-phase unit).
Adequate volumetric liquid capacity to handle liquid surges (slugs) from the wells and/or flowlines.
Adequate vessel diameter and height |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spo11 | Spo11 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SPO11 gene. Spo11, in a complex with mTopVIB, creates double strand breaks to initiate meiotic recombination. Its active site contains a tyrosine which ligates and dissociates with DNA to promote break formation. One Spo11 protein is involved per strand of DNA, thus two Spo11 proteins are involved in each double stranded break event.
Genetic exchange between two DNA molecules by homologous recombination begins with a break in both strands of DNA—called a double-strand break—and recombination is started by an endonuclease enzyme that cuts the DNA molecule that "receives" the exchanged DNA. In meiosis the enzyme is SPO11, which is related to DNA topoisomerases. Topoisomerases change DNA by transiently breaking one or both strands, passing the unbroken DNA strand or strands through the break and repairing the break; the broken ends of the DNA are covalently linked to topoisomerase. SPO11 is similarly attached to the DNA when it forms double-strand breaks during meiosis.
Meiotic recombination
SPO11 is considered to play a predominant role in initiating meiotic recombination. However, recombination may also occur by alternative SPO11-independent mechanisms that can be studied experimentally using spo11 mutants.
In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the meiotic defects in recombination and chromosome disjunction of spo11 mutants are alleviated by X-irradiation. This finding indicates that X-ray induced DNA damages |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC%20e500 | The PowerPC e500 is a 32-bit microprocessor core from Freescale Semiconductor. The core is compatible with the older PowerPC Book E specification as well as the Power ISA v.2.03. It has a dual issue, seven-stage pipeline with FPUs (from version 2 onwards), 32/32 KiB data and instruction L1 caches and 256, 512 or 1024 KiB L2 frontside cache. Speeds range from 533 MHz up to 1.5 GHz, and the core is designed to be highly configurable and meet the specific needs of embedded applications with features like multi-core operation interface for auxiliary application processing units (APU).
e500 powers the high-performance PowerQUICC III system on a chip (SoC) network processors and they all share a common naming scheme, MPC85xx. Freescale's new QorIQ is the evolutionary step from PowerQUICC III and will also be based on e500 cores.
Versions
There are three versions of the e500 core, namely the original e500v1, the e500v2 and the e500mc.
A 64-bit evolution of the e500mc core is called the e5500 core and was introduced in 2010, and a subsequent e6500 core added multithreading capabilities in 2012.
e500v1
Support for the SPE (Signal Processing Engine) extensions. The integer register file is extended to a width of 64-bits. The non-SPE instructions only access and write to the low 32-bits. However the SIMD SPE instructions read and write from the full 64-bits. These extensions overlap with the string and AltiVec instructions.
Support for SPESFP (Single Precision Embedded Scalar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenate%20kinase | Pantothenate kinase (, PanK; CoaA) is the first enzyme in the Coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthetic pathway. It phosphorylates pantothenate (vitamin B5) to form 4'-phosphopantothenate at the expense of a molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is the rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of CoA.
CoA is a necessary cofactor in all living organisms. It acts as the major acyl group carrier in many important cellular processes, such as the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) and fatty acid metabolism. Consequently, pantothenate kinase is a key regulatory enzyme in the CoA biosynthetic pathway.
Types
Three distinct types of PanK has been identified - PanK-I (found in bacteria), PanK-II (mainly found in eukaryotes, but also in the Staphylococci) and PanK-III, also known as CoaX (found in bacteria). Eukaryotic PanK-II enzymes often occur as different isoforms, such as PanK1, PanK2, PanK3 and PanK4. In humans, multiple PanK isoforms are expressed by four genes. PANK1 gene encodes the PanK1α and PanK1β forms, and PANK2 and PANK3 encode PanK2 and PanK3, respectively. The four major isoforms found in mammals have different subcellular localizations. PanK1α is nuclear, while PanK1β and PanK3 are cytosolic. In mice, PanK2 is also cytosolic, while in humans, this enzyme is mitochondrial and nuclear. The tissue distribution of these isoforms also varies. In mouse models, PanK1 is the predominant species in the heart, liver and brown adipose tissue, along with the kidneys. PanK2 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine%3Aglycine%20amidinotransferase | L-Arginine:glycine amidinotransferase (AGAT; ) is the enzyme that catalyses the transfer of an amidino group from L-arginine to glycine. The products are L-ornithine and glycocyamine, also known as guanidinoacetate, the immediate precursor of creatine. Creatine and its phosphorylated form play a central role in the energy metabolism of muscle and nerve tissues. Creatine is in highest concentrations in the skeletal muscle, heart, spermatozoa and photoreceptor cells. Creatine helps buffer the rapid changes in ADP/ATP ratio in muscle and nerve cells during active periods. Creatine is also synthesized in other tissues, such as pancreas, kidneys, and liver, where amidinotransferase is located in the cytoplasm, including the intermembrane space of the mitochondria, of the cells that make up those tissues.
Function
L-Arginine:glycine amidinotransferase catalyses the first, which is also the committed step in the formation of creatine. The second step of the process, producing the actual creatine molecule, occurs solely in the cytosol, where the second enzyme, S-adenosylmethionine:guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT), is found. The creatine is then transported through the bloodstream and taken up through sodium-dependent creatine transporters by cells that require creatine.
Structure
The crystal structure of AGAT was determined by Humm, Fritsche, Steinbacher, and Huber of the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry in Martinsried, Germany in 1997. X-ray examinations of the st |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIG1 | Tazarotene-induced gene-1 (TIG1) is a protein which has been implicated as a putative tumor suppressor. It is structurally similar to the protein latexin, which has also been shown to demonstrate some tumor suppression activity (Liang et al., 2007). TIG1 is thought to be a transmembrane protein, and its mechanism of tumor suppression is largely unknown.
Structure
The amino acid sequence of the protein TIG1 is as follows:
N terminus-Met-Gln-Pro-Arg-Arg-Gln-Arg-Leu-Pro-Ala-Pro-Trp-Ser-Gly-Pro-Arg-Gly-Pro-Arg-Pro-Thr-Ala-Pro-Leu-Leu-Ala-Leu-Leu-Leu-Leu-Leu-Ala-Pro-Val-Ala-Ala-Pro-Ala-Gly-Ser-Gly-Gly-Pro-Asp-Asp-Pro-Gly-Gln-Pro-Gln-Asp-Ala-Gly-Val-Pro-Arg-Arg-Leu-Leu-Gln-Gln-Lys-Ala-Arg-Ala-Ala-Leu-His-Phe-Phe-Asn-Phe-Arg-Ser-Gly-Ser-Pro-Ser-Ala-Leu-Arg-Val-Leu-Ala-Glu-Val-Gln-Glu-Gly-Arg-Ala-Trp-Ile-Asn-Pro-Lys-Glu-Gly-Cys-Lys-Val-His-Val-Val-Phe-Ser-Thr-Glu-Arg-Tyr-Asn-Pro-Glu-Ser-Leu-Leu-Gln-Glu-Gly-Glu-Gly-Arg-Leu-Gly-Lys-Cys-Ser-Ala-Arg-Val-Phe-Phe-Lys-Asn-Gln-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Thr-Ile-Asn-Val-Thr-Cys-Thr-Arg-Leu-Ile-Glu-Lys-Lys-Lys-Arg-Gln-Gln-Glu-Asp-Tyr-Leu-Leu-Tyr-Lys-Gln-Met-Lys-Gln-Leu-Lys-Asn-Pro-Leu-Glu-Ile-Val-Ser-Ile-Pro-Asp-Asn-His-Gly-His-Ile-Asp-Pro-Ser-Leu-Arg-Leu-Ile-Trp-Asp-Leu-Ala-Phe-Leu-Gly-Ser-Ser-Tyr-Val-Met-Trp-Glu-Met-Thr-Thr-Gln-Val-Ser-His-Tyr-Tyr-Leu-Ala-Gln-Leu-Thr-Ser-Val-Arg-Gln-Trp-Val-Arg-Lys-Thr-C terminus.
TIG1 is a transmembrane protein which contains a hyaluronic acid binding motif. This particular motif suggests that it may increase cell-t |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational%20diffusion | Rotational diffusion is the rotational movement which acts upon any object such as particles, molecules, atoms when present in a fluid, by random changes in their orientations.
Whilst the directions and intensities of these changes are statistically random, they do not arise randomly and are instead the result of interactions between particles. One example occurs in colloids, where relatively large insoluble particles are suspended in a greater amount of fluid. The changes in orientation occur from collisions between the particle and the many molecules forming the fluid surrounding the particle, which each transfer kinetic energy to the particle, and as such can be considered random due to the varied speeds and amounts of fluid molecules incident on each individual particle at any given time.
The analogue to translational diffusion which determines the particle's position in space, rotational diffusion randomises the orientation of any particle it acts on.
Anything in a solution will experience rotational diffusion, from the microscopic scale where individual atoms may have an effect on each other, to the macroscopic scale.
Applications
Rotational diffusion has multiple applications in chemistry and physics, and is heavily involved in many biology based fields. For example, protein-protein interaction is a vital step in the communication of biological signals. In order to communicate, the proteins must both come into contact with each other and be facing the appropriate |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langlands%20classification | In mathematics, the Langlands classification is a description of the irreducible representations of a reductive Lie group G, suggested by Robert Langlands (1973). There are two slightly different versions of the Langlands classification. One of these describes the irreducible admissible (g,K)-modules,
for g a Lie algebra of a reductive Lie group G, with maximal compact subgroup K, in terms of tempered representations of smaller groups. The tempered representations were in turn classified by Anthony Knapp and Gregg Zuckerman. The other version of the Langlands classification divides the irreducible representations into L-packets, and classifies the L-packets in terms of certain homomorphisms of the Weil group of R or C into the Langlands dual group.
Notation
g is the Lie algebra of a real reductive Lie group G in the Harish-Chandra class.
K is a maximal compact subgroup of G, with Lie algebra k.
ω is a Cartan involution of G, fixing K.
p is the −1 eigenspace of a Cartan involution of g.
a is a maximal abelian subspace of p.
Σ is the root system of a in g.
Δ is a set of simple roots of Σ.
Classification
The Langlands classification states that the irreducible admissible representations of (g,K) are parameterized by triples
(F, σ,λ)
where
F is a subset of Δ
Q is the standard parabolic subgroup of F, with Langlands decomposition Q = MAN
σ is an irreducible tempered representation of the semisimple Lie group M (up to isomorphism)
λ is an element of Hom(aF,C) with α(Re(λ))>0 for |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular%20symmetry | In chemistry, molecular symmetry describes the symmetry present in molecules and the classification of these molecules according to their symmetry. Molecular symmetry is a fundamental concept in chemistry, as it can be used to predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties, such as whether or not it has a dipole moment, as well as its allowed spectroscopic transitions. To do this it is necessary to use group theory. This involves classifying the states of the molecule using the irreducible representations
from the character table of the symmetry group of the molecule. Symmetry is useful in the study of molecular orbitals, with applications to the Hückel method, to ligand field theory, and to the Woodward-Hoffmann rules. Many university level textbooks on physical chemistry, quantum chemistry, spectroscopy and inorganic chemistry discuss symmetry. Another framework on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials.
There are many techniques for determining the symmetry of a given molecule, including X-ray crystallography and various forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on symmetry considerations.
Point group symmetry concepts
Elements
The point group symmetry of a molecule is defined by the presence or absence of 5 types of symmetry element.
Symmetry axis: an axis around which a rotation by results in a molecule indistinguishable from the original. This is also called an n-fold |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efraim%20Racker | Efraim Racker (June 28, 1913 – September 9, 1991) was an Austrian biochemist who was responsible for identifying and purifying Factor 1 (F1), the first part of the ATP synthase enzyme to be characterised. F1 is only a part of a larger ATP synthase complex known as Complex V. It is a peripheral membrane protein attached to component Fo, which is integral to the membrane.
Early life
Efraim Racker was born to a Jewish family in 1913 in Neu Sandez, Austrian Galicia), and grew up in Vienna. His elder brother, Heinrich Racker, was to become a famous psychoanalyst. Efraim Racker was studying medicine at the University of Vienna when Hitler invaded in 1938. Racker fled to Great Britain, where he took a job in a mental hospital in Wales. His research focused on the biochemical causes for mental diseases. During the war, Racker was given the opportunity to practice medicine, but he decided to move to the United States to continue his research.
Career
In the U.S., he accepted a position as a research associate in physiology at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis from 1941 to 1942. While investigating the biochemical basis for brain diseases, he discovered that the polio virus inhibited glycolysis in the brains of mice. He eventually left his research position for a job as a physician at the Harlem Hospital in New York City. In 1944 he became an associate professor of microbiology at the New York University Medical School, where he continued his work on glycolysis.
In |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructokinase | Fructokinase (/fruc•to•ki•nase/ [-ki´nas]), also known as D-fructokinase or D-fructose (D-mannose) kinase, is an enzyme () of the liver, intestine, and kidney cortex. Fructokinase is in a family of enzymes called transferases, meaning that this enzyme transfers functional groups; it is also considered a phosphotransferase (or, frequently, a kinase) since it specifically transfers a phosphate group. Fructokinase specifically catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP, the substrate) to fructose as the initial step in its utilization. The main role of fructokinase is in carbohydrate metabolism, more specifically, sucrose and fructose metabolism. The reaction equation is as follows:
ATP + D-fructose → ADP + D-fructose 1-phosphate.
Role in plants and bacteria
Fructokinase has been characterized from various organisms such as pea (Pisum sativum) seeds, avocado (Persera americana) fruit, and maize (Zea mays) kernels, and many more.
Specifically, fructokinase may also regulate starch synthesis in conjunction with SS, sucrose synthase, which first metabolizes sink tissue in plant tissues such as in potatoes. There are also two divergent fructokinase genes that are differentially expressed and which also have different enzymatic properties such as those found in tomatoes. In tomatoes, fructokinase 1 (Frk 1) mRNA is expressed at a constant level during fruit development. However, fructokinase 2 (Frk 2) mRNA has a high expression level in young toma |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical%20interference | When two probability distributions overlap, statistical interference exists. Knowledge of the distributions can be used to determine the likelihood that one parameter exceeds another, and by how much.
This technique can be used for dimensioning of mechanical parts, determining when an applied load exceeds the strength of a structure, and in many other situations. This type of analysis can also be used to estimate the probability of failure or the frequency of failure.
Dimensional interference
Mechanical parts are usually designed to fit precisely together. For example, if a shaft is designed to have a "sliding fit" in a hole, the shaft must be a little smaller than the hole. (Traditional tolerances may suggest that all dimensions fall within those intended tolerances. A process capability study of actual production, however, may reveal normal distributions with long tails.) Both the shaft and hole sizes will usually form normal distributions with some average (arithmetic mean) and standard deviation.
With two such normal distributions, a distribution of interference can be calculated. The derived distribution will also be normal, and its average will be equal to the difference between the means of the two base distributions. The variance of the derived distribution will be the sum of the variances of the two base distributions.
This derived distribution can be used to determine how often the difference in dimensions will be less than zero (i.e., the shaft cannot fi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javan%20surili | The Javan surili (Presbytis comata) is a vulnerable species of Old World monkey endemic to the western half of Java, Indonesia, a biodiversity hotspot. Other common names by which it is known by include gray, grizzled or Sunda Island surili; grizzled or stripe-crested langur; Javan grizzled langur; grizzled, Java or Javan leaf monkey; langur gris.
There are two subspecies of the Javan surili:
Presbytis comata comata - Occurs in western Java
Presbytis comata fredericae - Occurs in central Java
This colobine species has a sacculated stomach to assist the breakdown in the cellulose from the leaves it feeds on. It has a small, slender face and tail, and large round stomachs. Its coloring ranges from dark gray to white. Leaf monkeys tend to be active during the day, spending up to 5 hours grooming themselves.
Distribution
The Javan surili is found in the western half of Java, Indonesia. It ranges as far east as Mt. Lawu on the border with East Java. According to a recent study, this species is mostly confined to Sundaland due to changes in the geography, sea level and vegetation that occurred during the Pleistocene era, and partly due to the type of vegetation and soil there today. The Javan surili lives in primary and secondary lowland rainforests, with an altitudnal range of 2500 meters.
Ecology
The Javan surili mostly consumes leaves, however, it will also consume flowers, fruits, and seeds. This species appears to be more folivorous than any other member of the genus |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroanalytical%20methods | Electroanalytical methods are a class of techniques in analytical chemistry which study an analyte by measuring the potential (volts) and/or current (amperes) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be broken down into several categories depending on which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), amperometry (electric current is the analytical signal), coulometry (charge passed during a certain time is recorded), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).
Potentiometry
Potentiometry passively measures the potential of a solution between two electrodes, affecting the solution very little in the process. One electrode is called the reference electrode and has a constant potential, while the other one is an indicator electrode whose potential changes with the sample's composition. Therefore, the difference in potential between the two electrodes gives an assessment of the sample's composition. In fact, since the potentiometric measurement is a non-destructive measurement, assuming that the electrode is in equilibrium with the solution, we are measuring the solution's potential.
Potentiometry usually uses indicator electrodes made selectively sensitive to the ion of interest, such as fluoride in fluoride selective electrodes, so that the potential solely depends on the activity of |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinalophototroph | A retinalophototroph is one of two different types of phototrophs, and are named for retinal-binding proteins (microbial rhodopsins) they utilize for cell signaling and converting light into energy. Like all photoautotrophs, retinalophototrophs absorb photons to initiate their cellular processes. However, unlike all photoautotrophs, retinalophototrophs do not use chlorophyll or an electron transport chain to power their chemical reactions. This means retinalophototrophs are incapable of traditional carbon fixation, a fundamental photosynthetic process that transforms inorganic carbon (carbon contained in molecular compounds like carbon dioxide) into organic compounds. For this reason, experts consider them to be less efficient than their chlorophyll-using counterparts, chlorophototrophs.
Energy conversion
Retinalophototrophs achieve adequate energy conversion via a proton-motive force. In retinalophototrophs, proton-motive force is generated from rhodopsin-like proteins, primarily bacteriorhodopsin and proteorhodopsin, acting as proton pumps along a cellular membrane.
To capture photons needed for activating a protein pump, retinalophototrophs employ organic pigments known as carotenoids, namely beta-carotenoids. Beta-carotenoids present in retinalophototrophs are unusual candidates for energy conversion, but they possess high Vitamin-A activity necessary for retinaldehyde, or retinal, formation. Retinal, a chromophore molecule configured from Vitamin A, is formed when bon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylserotonin%20O-methyltransferase | N-Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase, also known as ASMT, is an enzyme which catalyzes the final reaction in melatonin biosynthesis: converting Normelatonin to melatonin. This reaction is embedded in the more general tryptophan metabolism pathway. The enzyme also catalyzes a second reaction in tryptophan metabolism: the conversion of 5-hydroxy-indoleacetate to 5-methoxy-indoleacetate. The other enzyme which catalyzes this reaction is n-acetylserotonin-o-methyltransferase-like-protein.
In humans the ASMT enzyme is encoded by the pseudoautosomal ASMT gene. A copy exists near the endcaps of the short arms of both the X chromosome and the Y chromosome.
Structure and gene location
N-Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase is an enzyme that is coded for by genes located on the pseudoautosomal region of the X and Y chromosome, and is most abundantly found in the pineal gland and retina of humans.
The structure of N- Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase has been determined by X-ray diffraction.
Class of enzyme and function
N-Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase can be classified under three types of enzyme functional groups: transferases, one-carbon group transferrers, and methyltransferases.
It catalyzes two reactions in the tryptophan metabolism pathway, and both can be traced back to serotonin. Serotonin has many fates in this pathway, and N- Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase catalyzes reactions in two of these fates. The enzyme has been studied most for its catalysis of the |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlon%20Hoagland | Mahlon Bush Hoagland (October 5, 1921 – September 18, 2009) was an American biochemist who discovered transfer RNA (tRNA), the translator of the genetic code.
Biography
Early life
Mahlon Bush Hoagland was born in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. in 1921 to Hudson Hoagland and Anna Hoagland. Hudson was an American physiologist who was known for co-founding the Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology with Gregory Pincus. He graduated from The Hill School in 1940 and attended Williams College, and in 1948 received his M.D. from Harvard Medical School with intentions of becoming a pediatric surgeon. After a bout with tuberculosis, Hoagland was forced to change career directions and became involved with research.
After graduating from Harvard Medical School he, his daughter Judith and his wife Elizabeth Stratton Hoagland lived in the home of designer Louise Kenyon and her family. Kenyon was part of the Folly Cove Designers and Hoagland worked with them in Annisquam for several years while he commuted to Boston for work.
Hoagland took a research position at Massachusetts General Hospital in the lab of Paul Zamecnik, where he researched and detailed the role of transfer RNA in forming proteins. He was working with Zamecnick and Elizabeth Keller when he discovered the initial steps of protein synthesis.
From 1953-1967 Hoagland served as an associate professor of microbiology at Harvard Medical School. In 1967, upon leaving Harvard he was appointed professor in the biochemistry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening%20Star%20%28video%20game%29 | Evening Star is a vector graphics train simulation game for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, BBC Micro, Acorn Electron, and Amstrad CPC published by Hewson Consultants in 1987. It is the sequel to Southern Belle.
Gameplay
The idea of the game is to successfully get the "Evening Star" from Bath to its destination Bournemouth on the old Somerset and Dorset line. The objectives are keeping to the tight timetable, earning points for safety and economy, and obeying signals. Stops are made at stations along the route to pick up passengers.
External links
1987 video games
Amstrad CPC games
BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games
Commodore 64 games
Hewson Consultants games
Single-player video games
Train simulation video games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
ZX Spectrum games |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total%20human%20ecosystem | Total human ecosystem (THE) is an eco-centric concept initially proposed by ecology professors Zeev Naveh and Arthur S. Lieberman in 1994.
History of the concept
Naveh and Lieberman (1994) proposed the holistic, eco-centric concept of the Total Human Ecosystem in order to study the anthropocene ecology and improve land use planning and environmental management, within an integrated and interdisciplinary approach. In Naveh's own words, the Total Human Ecosystem is "the highest co-evolutionary ecological entity on earth with landscapes as its concrete three-dimensional ‘Gestalt’ systems, forming the spatial and functional matrix for all organisms". This concept (or meta-concept) integrates human systems (the technosphere, but also in the conceptual space of human noosphere) and natural systems (the geophysical eco-space of the Earth biosphere).
Zev Naveh (1919-2011), the major contributor to this concept, was Professor in landscape ecology at the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa. Until 1965 he worked as a range and pasture specialist in Israel and Tanzania. His research at the Technion was devoted to human impacts on Mediterranean landscapes, fire ecology and dynamic conservation management, and the introduction of drought resistant plants for multi-beneficial landscape restoration and beautification.
Almo Farina, who also developed the concept from 2000 onwards, is also a professor of ecology at the Urbino University, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, in It |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox%20Harbour%2C%20Newfoundland%20and%20Labrador | Fox Harbour is a small community on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland. According to Statistics Canada in 2011, the population was 270. It is surrounded by hills. It is located close to Argentia, the site of the Naval Station Argentia. According to some sources, Fox Harbour got its name from tales of foxes that came down from the surrounding hills and ate the drying fish on the flakes. As well, the community was called Little Glocester before it became officially named Fox Harbour.
History
Fox Harbour started as a fishing community in the early 19th century by the three families of Matthew, Martin, and George Spurvey. However, fisherman from England and Ireland had come overseas to fish there seasonally since the 18th century. All of them returned to England in the 1820s except for a Matthew Spurvey. Other families had settled in Fox Harbour by then with the arrival of Healey, Kelly and Dreaddy families from Ireland in 1806. The population grew over time, and peaked at 746. Fox Harbour was incorporated in 1964, and the council building opened in 1969. The council building now incorporates the fire station, the library, museum, and the council office.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Fox Harbour had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Religion
The population of Fox Harbour is predominantly Roman |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin%E2%80%93Lomax%20model | The Baldwin–Lomax model is a 0-equation turbulence model used in computational fluid dynamics analysis of turbulent boundary layer flows.
External links
Baldwin-Lomax model at cfd-online.com
Fluid dynamics
Mathematical modeling |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebeci%E2%80%93Smith%20model | The Cebeci–Smith model, developed by Tuncer Cebeci and Apollo M. O. Smith in 1967, is a 0-equation eddy viscosity model used in computational fluid dynamics analysis of turbulence in boundary layer flows. The model gives eddy viscosity, , as a function of the local boundary layer velocity profile. The model is suitable for high-speed flows with thin attached boundary layers, typically present in aerospace applications. Like the Baldwin-Lomax model, it is not suitable for large regions of flow separation and significant curvature or rotation. Unlike the Baldwin-Lomax model, this model requires the determination of a boundary layer edge.
Equations
In a two-layer model, the boundary layer is considered to comprise two layers: inner (close to the surface) and outer. The eddy viscosity is calculated separately for each layer and combined using:
where is the smallest distance from the surface where is equal to .
The inner-region eddy viscosity is given by:
where
with the von Karman constant usually being taken as 0.4, and with
The eddy viscosity in the outer region is given by:
where , is the displacement thickness, given by
and FK is the Klebanoff intermittency function given by
References
Smith, A.M.O. and Cebeci, T., 1967. Numerical solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations. Douglas aircraft division report DAC 33735
Cebeci, T. and Smith, A.M.O., 1974. Analysis of turbulent boundary layers. Academic Press,
Wilcox, D.C., 1998. Turbulence Modeling |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peridinin | Peridinin is a light-harvesting apocarotenoid, a pigment associated with chlorophyll and found in the peridinin-chlorophyll-protein (PCP) light-harvesting complex in dinoflagellates, best studied in Amphidinium carterae.
Biological significance
Peridinin is an apocarotenoid pigment that some organisms use in photosynthesis. Many photosynthetic dinoflagellates use peridinin, which absorbs blue-green light in the 470-550nm range, outside the range accessible to chlorophyll molecules. The peridinin-chlorophyll-protein complex is a specialized molecular complex consisting of a boat-shaped protein molecule with a large central cavity that contains peridinin, chlorophyll, and lipid molecules, usually in a 4:1 ratio of peridinin to chlorophyll.
Spectral characteristics
Absorption maximum: 483 nm
Emission maximum: 676 nm
Extinction coefficient (ε): 1.96 x 106 M−1cm−1
A483/A280 ≥ 4.6
Applications
Peridinin chlorophyll (PerCP) is commonly used in immunoassays such as fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and flow cytometry. The fluorophore is covalently linked to proteins or antibodies for use in research applications.
References
Apocarotenoids
Epoxides
Acetate esters
Furanones |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachidonate%205-lipoxygenase | Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase, also known as ALOX5, 5-lipoxygenase, 5-LOX, or 5-LO, is a non-heme iron-containing enzyme (EC 1.13.11.34) that in humans is encoded by the ALOX5 gene. Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase is a member of the lipoxygenase family of enzymes. It transforms essential fatty acids (EFA) substrates into leukotrienes as well as a wide range of other biologically active products. ALOX5 is a current target for pharmaceutical intervention in a number of diseases.
Gene
The ALOX5 gene, which occupies 71.9 kilobase pairs (kb) on chromosome 10 (all other human lipoxygenases are clustered together on chromosome 17), is composed of 14 exons divided by 13 introns encoding the mature 78 kilodalton (kD) ALOX5 protein consisting of 673 amino acids. The gene promoter region of ALOX5 contains 8 GC boxes but lacks TATA boxes or CAT boxes and thus resembles the gene promoters of typical housekeeping genes. Five of the 8 GC boxes are arranged in tandem and are recognized by the transcription factors Sp1 and Egr-1. A novel Sp1-binding site occurs close to the major transcription start site (position – 65); a GC-rich core region including the Sp1/Egr-1 sites may be critical for basal 5-LO promoter activity.
Expression
Cells primarily involved in regulating inflammation, allergy, and other immune responses, e.g. neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells, and B-lymphocytes express ALOX5. Platelets, T cells, and erythrocytes are ALOX5 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspase%204 | Caspase 4 is an enzyme that proteolytically cleaves other proteins at an aspartic acid residue (LEVD-), and belongs to a family of cysteine proteases called caspases. The function of caspase 4 is not fully known, but it is believed to be an inflammatory caspase, along with caspase 1, caspase 5 (and the murine homolog caspase 11), with a role in the immune system.
The anti-inflammatory drug indoprofen is an inhibitor of the activity of the caspase-4 enzyme.
See also
The Proteolysis Map
Caspase
References
External links
The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: C14.007
EC 3.4.22
Caspases |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABCC4 | ATP-binding cassette sub-family C member 4 (ABCC4), also known as the multidrug resistance-associated protein 4 (MRP4) or multi-specific organic anion transporter B (MOAT-B), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCC4 gene.
ABCC4 acts as a regulator of intracellular cyclic nucleotide levels and as a mediator of cAMP-dependent signal transduction to the nucleus. MRP4/ABCC4 also transports prostaglandins, for example PGE2, out of the cell where they can bind receptors.
MRP4/ABCC4 expression is dysregulated in several cancers and is also upregulated in peritoneal endometriosis.
Interactive pathway map
See also
ATP-binding cassette transporter
References
Further reading
External links
ATP-binding cassette transporters |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewin%27s%20equation | Lewin's equation, B = f(P, E), is a heuristic formula proposed by psychologist Kurt Lewin as an explanation of what determines behavior.
Description
The formula states that behavior is a function of the person and their environment:
Where is behavior, is person, and is the environment.
This equation was first presented in Lewin's book, Principles of Topological Psychology, published in 1936. The equation was proposed as an attempt to unify the different branches of psychology (e.g. child psychology, animal psychology, psychopathology) with a flexible theory applicable to all distinct branches of psychology. This equation is directly related to Lewin's field theory. Field theory is centered around the idea that a person's life space determines their behavior. Thus, the equation was also expressed as B = f(L), where L is the life space. In Lewin's book, he first presents the equation as B = f(S), where behavior is a function of the whole situation (S). He then extended this original equation by suggesting that the whole situation could be roughly split into two parts: the person (P) and the environment (E). According to Lewin, social behavior, in particular, was the most psychologically interesting and relevant behavior.
Lewin held that the variables in the equation (e.g. P and E) could be replaced with the specific, unique situational and personal characteristics of the individual. As a result, he also believed that his formula, while seemingly abstract and theoretic |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin%20E%20synthase | Prostaglandin E synthase (, or PGE synthase) is an enzyme involved in eicosanoid and glutathione metabolism, a member of MAPEG family. It generates prostaglandin E (PGE) from prostaglandin H2.
The synthase generating PGE2 is a membrane-associated protein.
Isozymes
Humans express three prostaglandin-E synthase isozymes, each encoded by a separate gene:
References
External links
EC 5.3.99 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin%20DP1%20receptor | {{DISPLAYTITLE:Prostaglandin DP1 receptor}}
The Prostaglandin D2 receptor 1 (DP1), a G protein-coupled receptor encoded by the PTGDR1 gene (also termed PTGDR), is primarily a receptor for prostaglandin D2 (PGD2). The receptor is a member of the Prostaglandin receptors belonging to the Subfamily A14 of rhodopsin-like receptors. Activation of DP1 by PGD2 or other cognate receptor ligands is associated with a variety of physiological and pathological responses in animal models.
Gene
The PTGDR1 gene is located on chromosome 14 at position q22.1, (i.e. 14q22.1), a chromosomal locus associated with asthma and other allergic disorders. PTGDR1, which consists of 4 introns and 5 exons, encodes for a ~44 kilodalton protein but also multiple alternative spliced transcript variants (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/5729).
Expression
DP1 is expressed primarily by cells involved in mediating allergic and inflammatory reactions, i.e. human and rodent mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils, Th2 cells, and dendritic cells, and by cells contributing to these reactions, i.e. human and/or rodent airway epithelial cells, vascular endothelium, mucus-secreting goblet cells in the nasal and colonic mucosa, and serous gland cells of the nose. DP1 protein is expressed in mouse placenta and testes and mRNA transcripts have also been detected in the meninges of the mouse brain by multiple reports and, by single reports, in the rat meninges as well as the mouse thalamus, hippocampus, cerebellum, br |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachidonic%20acid%205-hydroperoxide | Arachidonic acid 5-hydroperoxide (5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid, 5-HPETE) is an intermediate in the metabolism of arachidonic acid by the ALOX5 enzyme in humans or Alox5 enzyme in other mammals. The intermediate is then further metabolized to: a) leukotriene A4 which is then metabolized to the chemotactic factor for leukocytes, leukotriene B4, or to contractors of lung airways, leukotriene C4, leukotriene D4, and leukotriene E4; b) the leukocyte chemotactic factors, 5-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid and 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid; or c) the specialized pro-resolving mediators of inflammation, lipoxin A4 and lipoxin B4.
References
Organic peroxides
Biochemistry
Eicosanoids
Fatty acids |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukotriene%20C4%20synthase | Leukotriene C4 synthase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the LTC4S gene.
The protein encoded by this gene, LTC4S (or glutathione S-transferase II) is an enzyme that converts leukotriene A4 and glutathione to create leukotriene C4. This is a member of MAPEG family of transmembrane proteins. A trimer of Leukotriene C4 synthase is localized on the outer nuclear membrane and endoplasmic reticulum, where it forms a complex with 5-Lipoxygenase-activating protein. This protein is remotely related to microsomal glutathione S-transferase.
Function
The MAPEG (Membrane-Associated Proteins in Eicosanoid and Glutathione metabolism) family includes a number of human proteins, several of which are involved the production of leukotrienes. This gene encodes an enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the biosynthesis of cysteinyl leukotrienes, potent biological compounds derived from arachidonic acid. Leukotrienes have been implicated as mediators of anaphylaxis and inflammatory conditions such as human bronchial asthma. This protein localizes to the nuclear envelope and adjacent endoplasmic reticulum.
References
Further reading
External links
- Eicosanoid and Glutathione metabolism protein family (MAPEG)
Transmembrane proteins |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspase%205 | Caspase 5 is an enzyme that proteolytically cleaves other proteins at an aspartic acid residue, and belongs to a family of cysteine proteases called caspases. It is an inflammatory caspase, along with caspase 1, caspase 4 and the murine caspase 4 homolog caspase 11, and has a role in the immune system.
See also
The Proteolysis Map
Caspase
References
External links
The MEROPS online database for peptidases and their inhibitors: C14.008
EC 3.4.22
Caspases |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrainment%20%28physical%20geography%29 | In physical geography, entrainment is the process by which surface sediment is incorporated into a fluid flow (such as air, water or even ice) as part of the operation of erosion.
References
Physical geography |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean%20shift | Mean shift is a non-parametric feature-space mathematical analysis technique for locating the maxima of a density function, a so-called mode-seeking algorithm. Application domains include cluster analysis in computer vision and image processing.
History
The mean shift procedure is usually credited to work by Fukunaga and Hostetler in 1975. It is, however, reminiscent of earlier work by Schnell in 1964.
Overview
Mean shift is a procedure for locating the maxima—the modes—of a density function given discrete data sampled from that function. This is an iterative method, and we start with an initial estimate . Let a kernel function be given. This function determines the weight of nearby points for re-estimation of the mean. Typically a Gaussian kernel on the distance to the current estimate is used, . The weighted mean of the density in the window determined by is
where is the neighborhood of , a set of points for which .
The difference is called mean shift in Fukunaga and Hostetler.
The mean-shift algorithm now sets , and repeats the estimation until converges.
Although the mean shift algorithm has been widely used in many applications, a rigid proof for the convergence of the algorithm using a general kernel in a high dimensional space is still not known. Aliyari Ghassabeh showed the convergence of the mean shift algorithm in one dimension with a differentiable, convex, and strictly decreasing profile function. However, the one-dimensional case has limited real |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphic%20secret%20sharing | In cryptography, homomorphic secret sharing is a type of secret sharing algorithm in which the secret is encrypted via homomorphic encryption. A homomorphism is a transformation from one algebraic structure into another of the same type so that the structure is preserved. Importantly, this means that for every kind of manipulation of the original data, there is a corresponding manipulation of the transformed data.
Technique
Homomorphic secret sharing is used to transmit a secret to several recipients as follows:
Transform the "secret" using a homomorphism. This often puts the secret into a form which is easy to manipulate or store. In particular, there may be a natural way to 'split' the new form as required by step (2).
Split the transformed secret into several parts, one for each recipient. The secret must be split in such a way that it can only be recovered when all or most of the parts are combined. (See Secret sharing.)
Distribute the parts of the secret to each of the recipients.
Combine each of the recipients' parts to recover the transformed secret, perhaps at a specified time.
Reverse the homomorphism to recover the original secret.
Examples
Suppose a community wants to perform an election, using a decentralized voting protocol, but they want to ensure that the vote-counters won't lie about the results. Using a type of homomorphic secret sharing known as Shamir's secret sharing, each member of the community can add their vote to a form that is split into p |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHEX | Phosphate-regulating endopeptidase homolog X-linked also known as phosphate-regulating gene with homologies to endopeptidases on the X chromosome or metalloendopeptidase homolog PEX is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PHEX gene. This gene contains 18 exons and is located on the X chromosome.
Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a transmembrane endopeptidase that belongs to the type II integral membrane zinc-dependent endopeptidase family. The protein is thought to be involved in bone and dentin mineralization and renal phosphate reabsorption. The bone and dentin protein osteopontin (OPN) which inhibits mineralization in the skeleton and in teeth is a substrate for PHEX. In the absence of functional PHEX in the mouse model (Hyp) of X-linked hypophosphatemia (XLH), and in human XLH where PHEX activity is decreased or absent, increased circulating FGF23 hormone results in low serum phosphate (caused by renal phosphate wasting) such that there is an insufficient level of this mineral ion in the blood in transit to mineralized tissues compared to the normal amount that is required for proper bone and tooth mineralization; this leads to soft bones and teeth. In addition to renal phosphate wasting, the mineralization-inhibiting phosphoprotein osteopontin and osteopontin fragments accumulate in the extracellular matrix of bones and teeth to contribute locally to the reduction in mineralization, which together with the systemic lower level of circulating serum |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sattvic%20diet | Sattvic diet is a diet based on foods that contain one of the three yogic qualities (guna) known as sattva. In this system of dietary classification, foods that decrease the energy of the body are considered tamasic, while those that increase the energy of the body are considered rajasic. A sattvic diet is sometimes referred to as a yogic diet in modern literature.
A sattvic diet shares the qualities of sattva, some of which include "pure, essential, natural, vital, energy-containing, clean, conscious, true, honest, wise". A sattvic diet can also exemplify Ahimsa, the principle of not causing harm to other living beings. This is one reason yogis often follow a vegetarian diet.
A sattvic diet is a regimen that places emphasis on seasonal foods, fruits if one has no sugar problems, nuts, seeds, oils, ripe vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and non-meat based proteins. Dairy products are recommended when the cow is fed and milked appropriately.
In ancient and medieval era Yoga literature, the concept discussed is Mitahara, which literally means "moderation in eating". A sattvic diet is one type of treatment recommended in ayurvedic literature.
Etymology
Sattvic is derived from () which is a Sanskrit word. Sattva is a complex concept in Indian philosophy, used in many contexts, and it means one that is "pure, essence, nature, vital, energy, clean, conscious, strong, courage, true, honest, wise, rudiment of life".
Sattva is one of three gunas (quality, peculiarity, tendenc |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translocator%20protein | Translocator protein (TSPO) is an 18 kDa protein mainly found on the outer mitochondrial membrane. It was first described as peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (PBR), a secondary binding site for diazepam, but subsequent research has found the receptor to be expressed throughout the body and brain. In humans, the translocator protein is encoded by the TSPO gene. It belongs to a family of tryptophan-rich sensory proteins. Regarding intramitochondrial cholesterol transport, TSPO has been proposed to interact with StAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein) to transport cholesterol into mitochondria, though evidence is mixed.
Function
In animals, TSPO (PBR) is a mitochondrial protein usually located in the outer mitochondrial membrane and characterised by its ability to bind a variety of benzodiazepine-like drugs, as well as to dicarboxylic tetrapyrrole intermediates of the haem biosynthetic pathway.
TSPO has many proposed functions depending on the tissue. The most studied of these include roles in the immune response, steroid synthesis and apoptosis.
Cholesterol transport and bile acid biosynthesis
Mitochondrial cholesterol transport is a molecular function closely tied to TSPO in the scientific literature. TSPO binds with high affinity to the lipid cholesterol, and pharmacological ligands of TSPO facilitate cholesterol transport across the mitochondrial intermembrane space to stimulate steroid synthesis and bile acid synthesis in relevant tissues. However, TSPO deleti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20miombo%20woodlands | The Eastern miombo woodlands (AT0706) are an ecoregion of grassland and woodland in northern Mozambique, southern Tanzania, and southeastern Malawi.
Setting
These species-rich savanna ecosystems cover wide areas of gentle hills and low valleys containing rivers and dambo wetlands. The region is located on the East African Plateau, extending from inland south-eastern Tanzania to cover the northern half of Mozambique, with small areas in neighbouring Malawi. They are a section of the belt of miombo woodland that crosses Africa south of the Congo rain forests and the savannas of East Africa. The ecoregion covers an area of . It is bounded by the Northern and Southern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic to the east along the Indian Ocean, and by the Zambezian and mopane woodlands in the Zambezi lowlands to the southwest, and by Lake Malawi to the west. To the north and northwest, the forested Eastern Arc Mountains separate the eastern miombo woodlands from the Southern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets of central Tanzania.
The region has a hot, tropical climate with a wet summer from November to March and a long winter drought. The woodlands are vulnerable to fire, particularly at the start of the summer.
Flora and fauna
The predominant tree is miombo (Brachystegia spp.), along with Baikiaea woodland.
Despite the low rainfall and relatively nutrient-poor soil the woodland is home to many species. The miombo and other vegetation in and around the region have histor |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell%20wall%20protein%202 | Cell wall protein 2 (CWP2) is a cell wall protein, produced by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces pastorianus. It occurs throughout the cell wall and has close homology with the CWP1 gene.
Disruption of CWP2 gene positively regulate translation, ribosome biogenesis and organonitrogen synthesis. these factors combined increases the overall synthesis of intercellular enzymes. Disruption of CWP2 genes also cause physical changes to the cell wall. Thickness of the cell wall decreases combined with decrease in cell wall density results in decline of cell wall stability. The overall result is the increase in the ability of heterologous protein production, in which is a significant commission of saccharomyces
References
Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational%20modulation%20collimator | Rotational modulation collimators (or RMCs) are a specialization of the modulation collimator, an imaging device invented by Minoru Oda. Devices of this type create images of high energy X-rays (or other radiations that cast shadows). Since high energy X-rays are not easily focused, such optics have found applications in various instruments. RMCs selectively block and unblock X-rays in a way which depends on their incoming direction, converting image information into time variations. Various mathematical transformations can then reconstitute the image of the source.
The Small Astronomy Satellite 3, launched in 1975, was one orbiting experiment that used RMCs. A more recent satellite that used RMCs was
RHESSI.
See also
Coded aperture
Collimator
Modulation
References
RHESSI Imaging Explained
Astronomical instruments |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGT%20%28disambiguation%29 | HGT may refer to:
Harrogate railway station, England
Holland's Got Talent, a Dutch television show
Horizontal gene transfer, non-hereditary genetic changes
Hyper geometric test, in statistics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatosplenic%20T-cell%20lymphoma | Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma is a rare form of lymphoma that is generally incurable, except in the case of an allogeneic stem cell transplant.
It is a systemic neoplasm comprising medium-sized cytotoxic T-cells that show significant sinusoidal infiltration in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
Signs and symptoms
The typical clinical finding in a patient with hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma is hepatosplenomegaly.
The spleen and liver are always involved, and bone marrow involvement is common. Nodal involvement is exceedingly rare.
Cause
The cell of origin for this disease is an immature cytotoxic T-cell clonally expressing the γδ T-cell receptor. The disease is seen more often in immunosuppressed recipients of solid organ transplants, an association that has led to the hypothesis that long-term immune stimulation in the setting of immunosuppression is the causative agent.
Cases of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma have been reported in patients treated with the immunosuppressants azathioprine, infliximab, and adalimumab. The majority of cases occurred in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Adolescents and young adult males were most frequently affected. They presented with a very aggressive disease course, and all but one died. The Food and Drug Administration required changes to the drugs' labeling to inform users and clinicians of the risk.
Diagnosis
The neoplastic cells in hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma show a monotonous appearance, with a small amount of cytoplasm |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRMT4%20pathway | Protein arginine N-methyltransferase-4 (PRMT4/CARM1) methylation of arginine residues within proteins plays a critical key role in transcriptional regulation (see the PRMT4 pathway on the left). PRMT4 binds to the classes of transcriptional activators known as p160 and CBP/p300. The modified forms of these proteins are involved in stimulation of gene expression via steroid hormone receptors. Significantly, PRMT4 methylates core histones H3 and H4, which are also targets of the histone acetylase activity of CBP/p300 coactivators. PRMT4 recruitment of chromatin by binding to coactivators increases histone methylation and enhances the accessibility of promoter regions for transcription. Methylation of the transcriptional coactivator CBP by PRMT4 inhibits binding to CREB and thereby partitions the limited cellular pool of CBP for steroid hormone receptor interaction.
See also
DNA methyltransferase
Nucleosome
Histone
Histone-Modifying Enzymes
Chromatin
Diet and cancer
References
Gene expression |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machel%20Millwood | Machel Millwood (born 28 June 1979) is a Jamaican soccer player who most recently played for Crystal Palace Baltimore in the USSF Second Division and the Syracuse Silver Knights of the Major Indoor Soccer League. Millwood is best known for his career in the MISL, playing for championship teams with the Baltimore Blast and helping the 2013–2014 Syracuse Silver Knights make the MISL playoffs.
Career
College
Born in Jamaica, Millwood's family moved to Maryland when he was still a child. He attended Parkdale High School, and played two years of college soccer at Prince George's Community College before transferring to Towson University as a junior. At Towson, Millwood was an All-American Honorable Mention in 2002, was named to the Colonial Athletic Association First Team All-Conference and the CAA All-Tournament Team in 2002, to the American East Conference All-League and to the All-South Atlantic Region team in 2001 and 2002.
He ranks in the top 10 in Towson soccer history in six categories, and graduated with a bachelor's degree in business and economics.
Professional
Millwood signed with the Syracuse Salty Dogs of the USL A-League in 2003, and played in 45 matches, notching 12 goals and six assists for 30 points in his two seasons in Syracuse. In 2004, he signed a 15-day contract with the Baltimore Blast of the Major Indoor Soccer League, eventually signing a permanent contract for the 2004–2005 season, and continued to play for the Blast through the end of the 2012-13 S |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCAT | LCAT or L-CAT may refer to:
Engin de débarquement amphibie rapide, a catamaran landing craft
Lecithin–cholesterol acyltransferase, an animalian enzyme involved in cholesterol metabolism
Lyon County Area Transportation, a municipal bus company in Emporia, Kansas, United States
LUMS Common Admission Test, for Lahore University of Management Sciences |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uridine%20diphosphate%20galactose | Uridine diphosphate galactose (UDP-galactose) is an intermediate in the production of polysaccharides. It is important in nucleotide sugars metabolism, and is the substrate for the transferase B4GALT5.
See also
Galactose
UDP galactose epimerase
Uridine diphosphate
References
Coenzymes
Nucleotides |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactose%201-phosphate | D-Galactose-1-phosphate is an intermediate in the intraconversion of glucose and uridine diphosphate galactose. It is formed from galactose by galactokinase.The improper metabolism of galactose-1-phosphate is a characteristic of galactosemia. The Leloir pathway is responsible for such metabolism of galactose and its intermediate, galactose-1-phosphate. Deficiency of enzymes found in this pathway can result in galactosemia; therefore, diagnosis of this genetic disorder occasionally involves measuring the concentration of these enzymes. One of such enzymes is galactose-1-phosphate uridylytransferase (GALT). The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a UDP-activator group from UDP-glucose to galactose-1-phosphate. Although the cause of enzyme deficiency in the Leloir pathway is still disputed amongst researchers, some studies suggest that protein misfolding of GALT, which may lead to an unfavorable conformational change that impacts its thermal stability and substrate-binding affinity, may play a role in the deficiency of GALT in Type 1 galactosemia. Increase in galactitol concentration can be seen in patients with galactosemia; putting patients at higher risk for presenile cataract.
See also
Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase
References
Organophosphates
Monosaccharide derivatives |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzopyrone | Benzopyrone may refer to either of two ketone derivatives of benzopyran which constitute the core skeleton of many flavonoid compounds:
Chromone (1-benzopyran-4-one)
Coumarin (1-benzopyran-2-one)
Certain simple benzopyrones have clinical medical value as an edema modifiers. Coumarin and other benzopyrones, such as 5,6 benzopyrone, 1,2 benzopyrone, diosmin and others are known to stimulate macrophages to degrade extracellular albumin, allowing faster resorption of edematous fluids.
Naturally occurring coumarin is also the basis for various 4-hydroxybenzopyrone-based molecules which occur naturally dicoumarol and are made synthetically warfarin and function as anticoagulants.
References
Benzopyrans |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallolysin | Phallolysin is a protein found the Amanita phalloides species of the Amanita genus of mushrooms, the species commonly known as the death cap mushroom. The protein is toxic and causes cytolysis in many cells found in animals and is noted for its hemolytic properties. It was one of the first toxins discovered in Amanita phalloides when the various toxins in the species where first being researched. The protein itself is observed to come in 3 variations, with observed differences in isoelectric point.
History
The toxic properties of death cap mushrooms have been known for most of recorded history, with historical accounts implicating it in the deaths of emperors. Attempts to isolate the toxic compounds began in the late 19th century, with the cytolytic elements of A. phalloides being isolated in 1891.
Physical properties
Phallolysin has three variations, which differ in observed isoelectric point. The variations have differences in the amino acids that make up the protein structure, with identical amounts of some amino acids while varying in others. They have near identical molecular weights of 34 kDa.
Effects on animal cells
Phallolysin has been observed to have hemolytic properties toward a variety of animal cells, with it primarily being observed in mammals. The toxic effects are reduced at higher temperatures.
See also
Amanita phalloides
Amanita
Hemolysis
Phallotoxin
Amatoxin
Virotoxins
Phalloidin
Antamanide
References
Mycotoxins found in Basidiomycota
P |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyrylcholinesterase | Butyrylcholinesterase (HGNC symbol BCHE; EC 3.1.1.8), also known as BChE, BuChE, BuChase, pseudocholinesterase, or plasma (cholin)esterase, is a nonspecific cholinesterase enzyme that hydrolyses many different choline-based esters. In humans, it is made in the liver, found mainly in blood plasma, and encoded by the BCHE gene.
It is very similar to the neuronal acetylcholinesterase, which is also known as RBC or erythrocyte cholinesterase. The term "serum cholinesterase" is generally used in reference to a clinical test that reflects levels of both of these enzymes in the blood. Assay of butyrylcholinesterase activity in plasma can be used as a liver function test as both hypercholinesterasemia and hypocholinesterasemia indicate pathological processes. The half-life of BCHE is approximately 10 to 14 days.
Butyrylcholine is a synthetic compound that does not occur in the body naturally. It is used as a tool to distinguish between acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase.
Potential physiological role
Butyrylcholinesterase may be a physiological ghrelin regulator.
Clinical significance
Pseudocholinesterase deficiency results in delayed metabolism of only a few compounds of clinical significance, including the following: succinylcholine, mivacurium, procaine, heroin, and cocaine. Of these, its most clinically important substrate is the depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agent, succinylcholine, which the pseudocholinesterase enzyme hydrolyzes to succinylmonocholine and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20career%20achievements%20by%20LeBron%20James | This article lists career accomplishments of the American professional basketball player LeBron James.
NBA career statistics
Correct as of the 2022–23 season.
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 79 || 79 || 39.5 || .500|| .290 || .754 || 5.5 || 5.9 || 1.6 || .7 || 20.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 80 || 80 || style="background:#cfecec;"| 42.4* || .472 || .351 || .750 || 7.4 || 7.2 || 2.2 || .7 || 27.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 79 || 79 || 42.5 || .480 || .335 || .738 || 7.0 || 6.6 || 1.6 || .8 || 31.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 78 || 78 || 40.9 || .476 || .319 || .698 || 6.7 || 6.0 || 1.6 || .7|| 27.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 75 || 74 || 40.4 || .484 || .315 || .712 || 7.9 || 7.2 || 1.8 || 1.1 || style="background:#cfecec;" | 30.0*
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 81 || 81 || 37.7 || .489 || .344 || .780 || 7.6 || 7.2 || 1.7 || 1.1 || 28.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Cleveland
| 76 || 76 || 39.0 || .503 || .333 || .767 || 7.3 || 8.6 || 1.6 || 1.0 || 29.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Miami
| 79 || 79 || 38.8 || .510 || .330 || .759 || 7.5 || 7.0 || 1.6 || .6 || 26.7
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chonolith | In geology, a chonolith is a type of igneous rock intrusion (also known as pluton). Igneous rock intrusions are bodies of igneous rock that are formed by the crystallization of cooled magma below the Earth’s surface. These formations are termed intrusive rocks due the magma intruding rock layers but never reaching the earth’s surface. However, sometimes portions of plutons can become exposed at the Earth’s surface and thus the minerals can be observed since they are large enough. The different plutonic formations are named based on the different shapes that the cooled crystallized magma takes. However, all plutonic formations that have irregular shapes and do not share the same characteristics as other plutonic structures are termed chonoliths. Other plutonic structures that have specific shapes include: dikes, sills, laccoliths and sheets. Another unique characteristic of chonoliths is that there is a floor or base present which is typically absent in other types of intrusions.
How they are formed
The rocks on Earth’s surface are continuously subject to different types of forces, including tensional, compressional and shear stress. When these rocks are under this kind of stress, they are forced to deform causing them to take on different types of shapes. For example, as tectonic plates are pushed together, rocks undergo compressional stress due to the shortening and thickening of the crust thus forming mountain formations. Whereas, tensional stress due to tectonic plates b |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadeloupe%20raccoon | The Guadeloupe raccoon (Procyon lotor minor) is a common raccoon subspecies endemic to the two main islands (Basse-Terre Island and Grande-Terre) of Guadeloupe in the Lesser Antilles.
Classification
Thought in the past to be a distinct species, the Guadeloupe raccoon is a subspecies of the common raccoon (Procyon lotor), according to two studies in 1999 and 2003. The study of its morphological and genetic traits done in 2003 by Kristofer M. Helgen and Don E. Wilson indicated that the Guadeloupe raccoon was introduced by humans just a few centuries ago. This assumption is supported by the fact that the Guadeloupe raccoon seems to be closely related to the Bahamian raccoon (Procyon lotor maynardi), which is endemic on New Providence Island in the Bahamas, an archipelago nearly 2,000 km (1,243 mi) away, and that evidence exists of former raccoon populations on Cuba, Hispaniola and Jamaica. Therefore, the Guadeloupe raccoon is listed to be conspecific with the Bahaman raccoon in the third edition of Mammal Species of the World and its former scientific name Procyon (lotor) minor is listed as a synonym for Procyon lotor maynardi. According to Pons’ haplotype comparisons done by his study, the genetic distance between the lotor subspecies and P. l. minor was shorter than between P. l. hirtus, pallidus and lotor. Raccoons of Arizona are the most divergent, as they are from separate branches, whereas Guadeloupe raccoons are most similar to raccoons from Virginia and Maryland.
De |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Lone%20Wolf%20media | The following is a list of media published in the Lone Wolf series of gamebooks, and other derivative media based on the gamebooks. The original gamebook series, and the bulk of subsequent Lone Wolf media, was written by Joe Dever. The success and cult status of the original gamebooks helped in the creation of a spin-off called The World of Lone Wolf, written by Ian Page, a series of novelizations, a collection of role-playing games, and a number of video games and other derivative works.
Printed media
Main gamebook series
Although they form one full series numbered 1 to 32, the Lone Wolf gamebooks are in fact subdivided in four subseries. In the Kai Series (books 1 to 5), we follow Lone Wolf as he climbs the steps to become a Kai Lord of the Magnakai level. In the Magnakai Series (books 6 to 12), Lone Wolf collects the Lorestones so he could reach the Grand Master level, the highest level a Kai Lord could achieve in the First Kai Order. In the Grand Master series (books 13 to 20), Lone Wolf discovers that there are even higher levels a Kai Lord could achieve, up to the point of Supreme Kai Master. In the New Order series (books 21 to 32), we play as a member of the Second Kai Order already at the level of a Grand Master. The yet to be published book 32 will belong to this subseries.
Kai series
Magnakai series
Grand Master series
New Order series
Spin-off gamebook series
The World of Lone Wolf
All four World of Lone Wolf books were written by Ian Page and edited by Jo |
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