Split (1)

train · 115k rows

text stringlengths 2 4.67k	source dict
In chemistry, tetrahydroxozincate or tetrahydroxidozincate is a divalent anion (negative ion) with formula Zn(OH)2−4, with a central zinc atom in the +2 or (II) valence state coordinated to four hydroxide groups. It has Sp3 hybridization. It is the most common of the zincate anions, and is often called just zincate. Th...	{ "page_id": 66657885, "title": "Tetrahydroxozincate" }
MinutePhysics is an educational YouTube channel created by Henry Reich in 2011. The channel's videos use whiteboard animation to explain physics-related topics. Early videos on the channel were approximately one minute long. As of May 2025, the channel has over 5.85 million subscribers. == Background and video content ...	{ "page_id": 36970075, "title": "MinutePhysics" }
To Space", which was animated similarly to the style found in Munroe's webcomic xkcd. Google tapped Reich for their 2017 "Be Internet Awesome" campaign, a video series aimed at creating a safer Internet space for children. === Related channels === In October 2011, Reich, along with his father Peter and brother Alex, st...	{ "page_id": 36970075, "title": "MinutePhysics" }
expressed issue with the video's content, stating "not all evolution occurs by natural selection. To think it does lends itself to a hyper-adaptive view of life." == References == == External links == Reich, Henry. "Making Minute Physics". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.	{ "page_id": 36970075, "title": "MinutePhysics" }
Clothing physiology is a branch of science that studies the interaction between clothing and the human body, with a particular focus on how clothing affects the physiological and psychological responses of individuals to different environmental conditions. The goal of clothing physiology research is to develop a better...	{ "page_id": 73211492, "title": "Clothing physiology" }
the effects of clothing on wearer comfort and overall well-being. Louis Newburgh is widely recognized among thermal physiologists primarily due to his role as the editor of "Physiology of Heat Regulation and the Science of Clothing". From a physiological perspective, the purpose of clothing is to shield the body from e...	{ "page_id": 73211492, "title": "Clothing physiology" }
around 58 W/m2 for a resting individual, based on the average male European's skin surface area of approximately 1.8 m2. The average female European's skin surface area is 1.6 m2 for comparison. Skin temperatures that correspond to comfort during stationary activities range from 91.4 to 93.2 °F (33.0 to 34.0 °C), and t...	{ "page_id": 73211492, "title": "Clothing physiology" }
study of clothing physiology has been prompted by the need to design effective clothing systems for various specialized environments such as space, polar regions, underwater operations, and industrial settings. === Clothing comfort === Comfort is a multifaceted concept that encompasses various perceptions, including ph...	{ "page_id": 73211492, "title": "Clothing physiology" }
non-specific activities related to immunity. Antimicrobial fabrics could potentially disrupt the skin's non-specific defense mechanisms such as antimicrobial peptides or the resident microflora. == Social psychology of clothing == The social psychology of dress entails comprehending the interconnections that exist betw...	{ "page_id": 73211492, "title": "Clothing physiology" }
Li Jiachun is a Chinese researcher, fluid mechanicist, and professor at the Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. In recognition of his contributions to fluid mechanics, he was awarded the Zhou Peiyuan prize in mechanics. == Education and career == Li obtained a degree in 1962 from Fudan University and h...	{ "page_id": 72621669, "title": "Li Jiachun" }
In physics, the Coriolis force is a fictitious force that acts on objects in motion within a frame of reference that rotates with respect to an inertial frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the force acts to the left of the motion of the object. In one with anticlockwise (or counterclockwise) rotation, ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
these fictitious forces to a rotating frame of reference, Newton's laws of motion can be applied to the rotating system as though it were an inertial system; these forces are correction factors that are not required in a non-rotating system. In popular (non-technical) usage of the term "Coriolis effect", the rotating r...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
and his assistant Francesco Maria Grimaldi described the effect in connection with artillery in the 1651 Almagestum Novum, writing that rotation of the Earth should cause a cannonball fired to the north to deflect to the east. In 1674, Claude François Milliet Dechales described in his Cursus seu Mundus Mathematicus how...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Late in the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure-gradient force and deflecting force that in the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood. == Formula == In Newtonian mechanics,...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
object relative to the rotating reference frame a ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} '} is the acceleration of the object relative to the rotating reference frame The fictitious forces as they are perceived in the rotating frame act as additional forces that contribute to the apparent acceleration just like the real external...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
and a force specified by the inward or outward cases mentioned below). if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the Coriolis force is in the direction of local rotation. For example, on Earth, this situation occurs for a body at the equator falling downward, as in the Dechales illustration above, where the falli...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
further north it travels, the smaller the "radius of its parallel (latitude)" (the minimum distance from the surface point to the axis of rotation, which is in a plane orthogonal to the axis), and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface. As the object moves north it has a tendency to maintain the eastward spee...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
is between pressure and centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems the Rossby number is low, as the centrifugal force is negligible; there, the balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces. In oceanic systems the Rossby number is often around 1, with all three forces comparable. An atmospheric system moving at U = ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the second figure, the ball is seen by an observer rotating with the carousel, so the ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00 o'clock, and the ball trajectory has a slight curve. === Bounced ball === The figure describes a more complex situation where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces off the edge of the carousel an...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.) For some angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes little deflection on these ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
latitude φ on a sphere that is rotating around the north–south axis. A local coordinate system is set up with the x axis horizontally due east, the y axis horizontally due north and the z axis vertically upwards. The rotation vector, velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration expressed in this local coordinate syst...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
is called the Coriolis parameter. By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive φ and ω) a movement due east results in an acceleration due south; similarly, setting ve = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
practical purposes negligible. Because surface ocean currents are driven by the movement of wind over the water's surface, the Coriolis force also affects the movement of ocean currents and cyclones as well. Many of the ocean's largest currents circulate around warm, high-pressure areas called gyres. Though the circula...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
The geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial motions" (see below), which explains why mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be. This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere. If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then f {\displaystyle f} is constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet, f {\displaystyle f} varies with latitude and the paths o...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the tropical atmosphere, the order of magnitude of the pressure deviations is so small that the contribution of the Eötvös effect to the pressure deviations is considerable. In addition, objects traveling upwards (i.e. out) or downwards (i.e. in) are deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is also the g...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
= ∧ 8 s ) : {\displaystyle \left(1{\text{ day}}\mathrel {\overset {\land }{=}} 8{\text{ s}}\right):} The train travels toward the west: In that case, it moves against the direction of rotation. Therefore, on the Earth's rotating frame the Coriolis term is pointed inwards towards the axis of rotation (down). This additi...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
east now rotates at twice the rate as when it was at rest—so the amount of centripetal force needed to cause that circular path increases leaving less force from gravity to act on the track. This is what the Coriolis term accounts for on the previous paragraph.As a final check one can imagine a frame of reference rotat...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
is illustrated for a 10-kilogram (22 lb) object on the train at different speeds. The parabolic shape is because the centripetal force is proportional to the square of the tangential speed. On the inertial frame, the bottom of the parabola is centered at the origin. The offset is because this argument uses the Earth's ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
than various other influences on drain direction such as any residual rotation of the water and the geometry of the container. ==== Laboratory testing of draining water under atypical conditions ==== In 1962, Ascher Shapiro performed an experiment at MIT to test the Coriolis force on a large basin of water, 2 meters (6...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
=== Ballistic trajectories === The Coriolis force is important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to bombard Paris from a range of about 120 km (75 mi). The Coriolis for...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
( V X cos ⁡ θ l a t sin ⁡ ϕ a z + V Z cos ⁡ θ l a t cos ⁡ ϕ a z ) {\displaystyle A_{\mathrm {Y} }=2\omega (V_{\mathrm {X} }\cos \theta _{\mathrm {lat} }\sin \phi _{\mathrm {az} }+V_{\mathrm {Z} }\cos \theta _{\mathrm {lat} }\cos \phi _{\mathrm {az} })} A Z = 2 ω ( V X sin ⁡ θ l a t − V Y cos ⁡ θ l a t cos ⁡ ϕ a z ) {\d...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the centripetal force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of curvature (assuming no friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation. Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionl...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the rotation of the Earth. In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable. The rotation has caused the planet to settle on a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.) Th...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the spin axis, the rim velocity that is associated with the spin becomes radially directed in relation to the external torque axis. This causes a torque-induced force to act on the rim in such a way as to tilt the gyroscope at right angles to the direction that the external torque would have tilted it. This tendency ha...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
the last two points (L4 and L5) each form an equilateral triangle with the two large bodies. The L4 and L5 points, although they correspond to maxima of the effective potential in the coordinate frame that rotates with the two large bodies, are stable due to the Coriolis effect. The stability can result in orbits aroun...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
for the layperson Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface Animation clip showing scenes as viewed from both an inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. Vincent Mallette The Coriolis Force @ INWIT NASA notes Interactive Coriolis Fountain ...	{ "page_id": 7783, "title": "Coriolis force" }
The cortical reaction is a process initiated during fertilization that prevents polyspermy, the fusion of multiple sperm with one egg. In contrast to the fast block of polyspermy which immediately but temporarily blocks additional sperm from fertilizing the egg, the cortical reaction gradually establishes a permanent b...	{ "page_id": 3415656, "title": "Cortical reaction" }
learned about the identity and function of the contents of the cortical granules in the highly accessible sea urchin, little is known about the contents of cortical granules in mammals. The cortical reaction within the egg is analogous to the acrosomal reaction within the sperm, where the acrosome, a specialized secret...	{ "page_id": 3415656, "title": "Cortical reaction" }
the fertilization envelope elevates, non-fertilizing sperm are lifted away from the egg plasma membrane, and as they are not able to pass through the fertilization envelope, they are prevented from entering the egg. Therefore, the cortical reaction prevents polyspermic fertilization, a lethal event. Another cortical gr...	{ "page_id": 3415656, "title": "Cortical reaction" }
Fertilization	{ "page_id": 3415656, "title": "Cortical reaction" }
Seishi Kikuchi (菊池正士, Kikuchi Seishi, August 25, 1902 – November 12, 1974) was a Japanese physicist, known for his explanation of the Kikuchi lines that show up in diffraction patterns of diffusely scattered electrons. Kikuchi's research was recorded in the official Nobel Prize selection meeting minutes of the 1930s. ...	{ "page_id": 29564522, "title": "Seishi Kikuchi" }
In biology and medicine, the term self-limiting may describe a medical condition, or it may describe an organism or colony. == Self-limiting organisms and colonies == A self-limiting organism or colony of organisms limits its own growth by its actions. For example, a single organism may have a maximum size determined b...	{ "page_id": 12590700, "title": "Self-limiting (biology)" }
The molecular formula C18H27NO (molar mass: 273.41 g/mol, exact mass: 273.2093 u) may refer to: 3-MeO-PCP (3-Methoxyphencyclidine) 4-MeO-PCP (4-Methoxyphencyclidine)	{ "page_id": 60563052, "title": "C18H27NO" }
Radical disproportionation encompasses a group of reactions in organic chemistry in which two radicals react to form two different non-radical products. Radicals in chemistry are defined as reactive atoms or molecules that contain an unpaired electron or electrons in an open shell. The unpaired electrons can cause radi...	{ "page_id": 31727214, "title": "Radical disproportionation" }
hydrogens on adjacent carbons to donate and steric effects often prevent tert-butyl radicals from getting close to abstracting hydrogens. == Alkyl radical disproportionation == Alkyl radical disproportionation has been studied extensively in scientific literature. During alkyl radical disproportionation, an alkane and ...	{ "page_id": 31727214, "title": "Radical disproportionation" }
by the kinetic isotope effect with kH/kD = 1.20 ± 0.15 for ethylene. Hydrogens and deuterons are not involved in recombination reactions. However, deuteron abstraction during disproportionation occurs more slowly than hydrogen abstraction due to the increased mass and reduced vibrational energy of deuterium, although t...	{ "page_id": 31727214, "title": "Radical disproportionation" }
radicals reduce recombination and disproportionation rates and control the concentration of polymeric radicals. == References ==	{ "page_id": 31727214, "title": "Radical disproportionation" }
Full configuration interaction (or full CI) is a linear variational approach which provides numerically exact solutions (within the infinitely flexible complete basis set) to the electronic time-independent, non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. == Explanation == It is a special case of the configuration interaction m...	{ "page_id": 2367088, "title": "Full configuration interaction" }
interaction, finite-order Møller–Plesset perturbation theory, and coupled cluster theory. Although fewer N-electron functions are required if one employs a basis of spin-adapted functions (Ŝ2 eigenfunctions), the most efficient full CI programs employ a Slater determinant basis because this allows for the very rapid ev...	{ "page_id": 2367088, "title": "Full configuration interaction" }
Crystallography is the branch of science devoted to the study of molecular and crystalline structure and properties. The word crystallography is derived from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krústallos; "clear ice, rock-crystal"), and γράφειν (gráphein; "to write"). In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the imp...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
on the atomic scale, which brought about the modern era of crystallography. The first X-ray diffraction experiment was conducted in 1912 by Max von Laue, while electron diffraction was first realized in 1927 in the Davisson–Germer experiment and parallel work by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid. These developed ...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
charged they can be focused and are used in electron microscope to produce magnified images. There are many ways that transmission electron microscopy and related techniques such as scanning transmission electron microscopy, high-resolution electron microscopy can be used to obtain images with in many cases atomic reso...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
electron diffraction and X-ray crystallography, continue to expand our understanding of material behavior at the atomic level. In another example, iron transforms from a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure called ferrite to a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure called austenite when it is heated. The fcc structure is a...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
and scatter strongly even off many light isotopes, including hydrogen and deuterium. Electron diffraction has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably membrane proteins and viral capsids. == Notation == Coordinates in square brackets such as [100] denote a direction vector (in real space). Coordinat...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
Vol E - Subperiodic Groups, Vol F - Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules, and Vol G - Definition and Exchange of Crystallographic Data. == Notable scientists == == See also == == References == == External links == Free book, Geometry of Crystals, Polycrystals and Phase Transformations American Crystallographic ...	{ "page_id": 7794, "title": "Crystallography" }
In toxicology, the lowest published toxic dose (Toxic Dose Low, TDLo) is the lowest dosage per unit of bodyweight (typically stated in milligrams per kilogram) of a substance known to have produced signs of toxicity in a particular animal species. When quoting a TDLo, the particular species and method of administration...	{ "page_id": 3284601, "title": "Lowest published toxic dose" }
A deposit gauge is a large, funnel-like scientific instrument used for capturing and measuring atmospheric particulates, notably soot, carried in air pollution and deposited back down to ground. == Design and construction == Deposit gauges are similar to rain gauges. They have a large circular funnel on top, made of a ...	{ "page_id": 70131321, "title": "Deposit gauge" }
Quality, and Effects" and published in The Lancet in January 1912. Thanks to the introduction of the deposit gauge, air quality in Britain was monitored systematically from 1914 onward and this played an important role in determining the effectiveness of efforts to control pollution. By 1927, some deposit gauges were a...	{ "page_id": 70131321, "title": "Deposit gauge" }
acts as both the collector and deposit bottle; and the directional dust deposit gauge (DDDG), which has four tall, removable bottles to collect and compare deposits arriving from different directions. == See also == Rain gauge Air pollution measurement == References == == Further reading == Brimblecombe, Peter (1987). ...	{ "page_id": 70131321, "title": "Deposit gauge" }
The ecosystem approach is a conceptual framework for resolving ecosystem issues. The idea is to protect and manage the environment through the use of scientific reasoning. Another point of the ecosystem approach is preserving the Earth and its inhabitants from potential harm or permanent damage to the planet itself. Wi...	{ "page_id": 8461948, "title": "Ecosystem approach" }
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed and applied as a multilateral treaty. With the purpose of achieving: Biodiversity Sustainability of species diversity Endorse genetic diversity (e.g. to maintain and endorses livestock, crops, and wildlife) Two years after the CBD was signed, during the second meeting...	{ "page_id": 8461948, "title": "Ecosystem approach" }
to initiate the approach of solving the problem. Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is used for projects that incorporate interaction of different levels: organisms, the ecosystem, and the human component; however, its varies from the other methods as the scale of the problem is larger and intricate. The objectives shoul...	{ "page_id": 8461948, "title": "Ecosystem approach" }
Parties Ecosystem management Ecosystem-based management Fishery Ecosystem based fisheries == References ==	{ "page_id": 8461948, "title": "Ecosystem approach" }
Tris-buffered saline (TBS) is a buffer used in some biochemical techniques to maintain the pH within a relatively narrow range. Tris (with HCl) has a slightly alkaline buffering capacity in the 7–9.2 range. The conjugate acid of Tris has a pKa of 8.07 at 25 °C. The pKa declines approximately 0.03 units per degree Celsi...	{ "page_id": 7741054, "title": "Tris-buffered saline" }
Haplogroup C-B477, also known as Haplogroup C1b2, is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. It is one of two primary branches of Haplogroup C1b, one of the descendants of Haplogroup C1. Previously, this haplogroup was called C4 (C-M347). It is distributed in high frequency in Indigenous Australians, Papuan people, Melanesian peopl...	{ "page_id": 55385726, "title": "Haplogroup C-B477" }
In chemistry, orbital hybridisation (or hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory. For example, in a carbon atom which...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
equivalent to Lewis structures. Hybridisation theory is an integral part of organic chemistry, one of the most compelling examples being Baldwin's rules. For drawing reaction mechanisms sometimes a classical bonding picture is needed with two atoms sharing two electrons. Hybridisation theory explains bonding in alkenes...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
component is N2λ2 = 3/4. == Types of hybridisation == === sp3 === Hybridisation describes the bonding of atoms from an atom's point of view. For a tetrahedrally coordinated carbon (e.g., methane CH4), the carbon should have 4 orbitals directed towards the 4 hydrogen atoms. Carbon's ground state configuration is 1s2 2s2...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
For example, ethylene (C2H4) has a double bond between the carbons. For this molecule, carbon sp2 hybridises, because one π (pi) bond is required for the double bond between the carbons and only three σ bonds are formed per carbon atom. In sp2 hybridisation the 2s orbital is mixed with only two of the three available 2...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
the valence orbitals of main group elements are the one s and three p orbitals with the corresponding octet rule, spx hybridization is used to model the shape of these molecules. === spxdy hybridisation === As the valence orbitals of transition metals are the five d, one s and three p orbitals with the corresponding 18...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
hybridisation, which implies that each resonance structure has its own hybridisation scheme. All resonance structures must obey the octet rule. == Hybridisation in computational VB theory == While the simple model of orbital hybridisation is commonly used to explain molecular shape, hybridisation is used differently wh...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
one s and four p orbitals on oxygen since the 2p subshell of oxygen only contains three p orbitals. === Hybridisation defects === Hybridisation of s and p orbitals to form effective spx hybrids requires that they have comparable radial extent. While 2p orbitals are on average less than 10% larger than 2s, in part attri...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
the symmetry of the molecule which implies resonance in valence bond theory. For example, in methane, the ionised states (CH4+) can be constructed out of four resonance structures attributing the ejected electron to each of the four sp3 orbitals. A linear combination of these four structures, conserving the number of s...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
(valence bond/Lewis structure) bonding pairs and lone pairs. For the hydrogen fluoride molecule, for example, two F lone pairs are essentially unhybridized p orbitals, while the other is an spx hybrid orbital. An analogous consideration applies to water (one O lone pair is in a pure p orbital, another is in an spx hybr...	{ "page_id": 1252991, "title": "Orbital hybridisation" }
A moss bioreactor is a photobioreactor used for the cultivation and propagation of mosses. It is usually used in molecular farming for the production of recombinant protein using transgenic moss. In environmental science moss bioreactors are used to multiply peat mosses e.g. by the Mossclone consortium to monitor air p...	{ "page_id": 31792769, "title": "Moss bioreactor" }
production method is factor H: this molecule is part of the human complement system. Defects in the corresponding gene are associated with human diseases such as severe kidney and retinal disorders. Biologically active recombinant factor H was produced in a moss bioreactor for the first time in 2011. The enzyme alpha-g...	{ "page_id": 31792769, "title": "Moss bioreactor" }
Cavitation in fluid mechanics and engineering normally is the phenomenon in which the static pressure of a liquid reduces to below the liquid's vapor pressure, leading to the formation of small vapor-filled cavities in the liquid. When subjected to higher pressure, these cavities, called "bubbles" or "voids", collapse ...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
damage to parts, cavitation is typically an undesirable phenomenon in machinery. It may be desirable if intentionally used, for example, to sterilize contaminated surgical instruments, break down pollutants in water purification systems, emulsify tissue for cataract surgery or kidney stone lithotripsy, or homogenize fl...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
via a rather violent mechanism which releases a significant amount of energy in the form of an acoustic shock wave and as visible light. At the point of total collapse, the temperature of the vapor within the bubble may be several thousand Kelvin, and the pressure several hundred atmospheres. The physical process of ca...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
in the presence of an acoustic field, when the intensity of the acoustic field is insufficient to cause total bubble collapse. This form of cavitation causes significantly less erosion than inertial cavitation, and is often used for the cleaning of delicate materials, such as silicon wafers. Other ways of generating ca...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
decrease in static pressure could also help one pass the multi-phase diagram and initiate another phase change mechanism known as cavitation. On the other hand, a local increase in flow velocity could lead to a static pressure drop to the critical point at which cavitation could be initiated (based on Bernoulli's princ...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
ambient conditions. When uncontrolled, cavitation is damaging; by controlling the flow of the cavitation, however, the power can be harnessed and non-destructive. Controlled cavitation can be used to enhance chemical reactions or propagate certain unexpected reactions because free radicals are generated in the process ...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
work Hydrodynamics of Flows with Free Boundaries that refined the applied calculation techniques based on the principle of cavity expansion independence, theory of pulsations and stability of elongated axisymmetric cavities, etc. and in Dimensionality and similarity methods in the problems of the hydromechanics of vess...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur. Ultrasonic cavitation inception will occur when the acceleration of the ultrasound source is enough to produce the needed pre...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
this design principle. It is usually achieved through impeller design or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice. In the latter case, the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into a larger volume induces cavitation. This meth...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
the brain. Cavitation also plays a role in HIFU, a thermal non-invasive treatment methodology for cancer. In wounds caused by high velocity impacts (like for example bullet wounds) there are also effects due to cavitation. The exact wounding mechanisms are not completely understood yet as there is temporary cavitation,...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
to vegetable oil degumming and refining since 2011 and is considered a proven and standard technology in this application. The implementation of hydrodynamic cavitation in the degumming and refining process allows for a significant reduction in process aid, such as chemicals, water and bleaching clay, use. === Biofuels...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
and create crevices that act as nucleation sites for additional cavitation bubbles. The pits also increase the components' surface area and leave behind residual stresses. This makes the surface more prone to stress corrosion. === Pumps and propellers === Major places where cavitation occurs are in pumps, on propellers...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
filters, pipe blockage on the suction side, poor piping design, pump running too far right on the pump curve, or conditions not meeting NPSH (net positive suction head) requirements. In automotive applications, a clogged filter in a hydraulic system (power steering, power brakes) can cause suction cavitation making a n...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
When poorly developed flow enters the pump impeller, it strikes the vanes and is unable to follow the impeller passage. The liquid then separates from the vanes causing mechanical problems due to cavitation, vibration and performance problems due to turbulence and poor filling of the impeller. This results in premature...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
a vapor state results from the increase in flow velocity at or just downstream of the greatest flow restriction which is normally the valve port. To maintain a steady flow of liquid through a valve the flow velocity must be greatest at the vena contracta or the point where the cross sectional area is the smallest. This...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
is compressible and this damps the high pressure caused by the bubble collapses. If the flow velocities near the spillway invert are sufficiently high, aerators (or aeration devices) must be introduced to prevent cavitation. Although these have been installed for some years, the mechanisms of air entrainment at the aer...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
to rapid changes in flow velocity and therefore rapid changes of static pressure in areas of high heat transfer. Where resulting vapor bubbles collapsed against a surface, they had the effect of first disrupting protective oxide layers (of cast aluminium materials) and then repeatedly damaging the newly formed surface,...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
vapor. Larger plants direct solutes into the xylem via ray cells, or in tracheids, via osmosis through bordered pits. Solutes attract water, the pressure rises and vapor can redissolve. In some trees, the sound of the cavitation is audible, particularly in summer, when the rate of evapotranspiration is highest. Some de...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
which can kill small fish. The mantis shrimp (of the smasher variety) uses cavitation as well in order to stun, smash open, or kill the shellfish that it feasts upon. Thresher sharks use 'tail slaps' to debilitate their small fish prey and cavitation bubbles have been seen rising from the apex of the tail arc. === Coas...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
to observe cavitation on the back sides of propeller blades. In 1917, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh (1842–1919) extended Besant's work, publishing a mathematical model of cavitation in an incompressible fluid (ignoring surface tension and viscosity), in which he also determined the pressure in the fluid. The math...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
process, the mechanism for the transformation of the energy of the SW, attenuation of the SW, and the formation of the structure, and experiments on the analysis of the attenuation of waves in bubble screens with different acoustic properties were begun by pioneer works of Soviet scientist prof.V.F. Minin at the Instit...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
of Applied Physics. 15 (6): 495–506. Bibcode:1944JAP....15..495K. doi:10.1063/1.1707461. For hydrodynamic cavitation in the ethanol field, visit Arisdyne and Ethanol Producer Magazine: "Tiny Bubbles to Make You Happy" [1] Barnett, S. (1998). "Nonthermal issues: Cavitation—Its nature, detection and measurement;". Ultras...	{ "page_id": 7807, "title": "Cavitation" }
Australasian Palaeontological Memoirs (formerly Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists) is a peer-reviewed scientific monographic series covering all aspects of palaeontology in the Australasian region. The memoir series is designed for longer monographic treatments, but will also consider thematic...	{ "page_id": 52960899, "title": "Australasian Palaeontological Memoirs" }

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.