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a random change in the state of a randomly chosen particle (e. g. change velocity or position). Calculate the change in energy Δ E {\displaystyle \Delta E} of the thermal system. Negative Δ E {\displaystyle \Delta E} , i. e. excess energy, is given to the demon by adding \| Δ E \| {\displaystyle \|\Delta E\|} to the demon....	{ "page_id": 18751180, "title": "Demon algorithm" }
Monte Carlo Simulation". Phys. Rev. Lett. 50 (19). American Physical Society: 1411–1414. Bibcode:1983PhRvL..50.1411C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.50.1411.	{ "page_id": 18751180, "title": "Demon algorithm" }
Gianluca Gregori is professor of physics within the Department of Physics, University of Oxford, and fellow and tutor in physics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. His awards include the Daiwa Adrian Prize in 2007, the Edouard Fabre prize in 2014, and the John Dawson Award for Excellence in Plasma Physics Research of the A...	{ "page_id": 65806028, "title": "Gianluca Gregori" }
In magnetic resonance, a spin echo or Hahn echo is the refocusing of spin magnetisation by a pulse of resonant electromagnetic radiation. Modern nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) make use of this effect. The NMR signal observed following an initial excitation pulse decays with time d...	{ "page_id": 7937743, "title": "Spin echo" }
not just lead to a single echo, but rather to a whole train of periodic echoes. In this process the first Hahn echo acts back on the spins as a refocusing pulse, leading to self-stimulated secondary echoes. == Principle == The spin-echo effect was discovered by Erwin Hahn when he applied two successive 90° pulses separ...	{ "page_id": 7937743, "title": "Spin echo" }
\tau } , and then a second 90° pulse is applied such that the "pancake" is now in the x-z plane. After a further time T {\displaystyle T} a third pulse is applied and a stimulated echo is observed after waiting for a time τ {\displaystyle \tau } after the last pulse. == Photon echo == Hahn echos have also been observed...	{ "page_id": 7937743, "title": "Spin echo" }
NMR. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850481-8. Malcolm H. Levitt (2001). Spin Dynamics: Basics of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-48922-1. Arthur Schweiger; Gunnar Jeschke (2001). Principles of Pulse Electron Paramagnetic Resonance. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850634-8. == External l...	{ "page_id": 7937743, "title": "Spin echo" }
An operational taxonomic unit (OTU) is an operational definition used to classify groups of closely related individuals. The term was originally introduced in 1963 by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath in the context of numerical taxonomy, where an "operational taxonomic unit" is simply the group of organisms curre...	{ "page_id": 22421202, "title": "Operational taxonomic unit" }
the clustering is based on similarities between sequencing reads. Closed-reference, for which the clustering is performed against a reference database of sequences. Open-reference, where clustering is first performed against a reference database of sequences, then any remaining sequences that could not be mapped to the...	{ "page_id": 22421202, "title": "Operational taxonomic unit" }
Keras is an open-source library that provides a Python interface for artificial neural networks. Keras was first independent software, then integrated into the TensorFlow library, and later added support for more. "Keras 3 is a full rewrite of Keras [and can be used] as a low-level cross-framework language to develop c...	{ "page_id": 51650259, "title": "Keras" }
It supports other common utility layers like dropout, batch normalization, and pooling. Keras allows users to produce deep models on smartphones (iOS and Android), on the web, or on the Java Virtual Machine. It also allows use of distributed training of deep-learning models on clusters of graphics processing units (GPU...	{ "page_id": 51650259, "title": "Keras" }
A biomolecular gradient is established by a difference in the concentration of molecules in a biological system such as individual cells, groups of cells, or an entire organism. A biomolecular gradient can exist intracellularly (within a cell) or extracellularly (between groups of cells). The purposes of such gradients...	{ "page_id": 42213076, "title": "Biomolecular gradient" }
characteristics that make it well suited for study. == Cancer == Biomolecular gradients have been shown to facilitate the invasion of cancer cells into different types of tissues in the body. Cancer metastasis is thought to be directly coupled to growth factor gradients that facilitate chemotaxis of cancer promoter fac...	{ "page_id": 42213076, "title": "Biomolecular gradient" }
The free will theorem of John H. Conway and Simon B. Kochen states that if we have a free will in the sense that our choices are not a function of the past, then, subject to certain assumptions, so must some elementary particles. Conway and Kochen's paper was published in Foundations of Physics in 2006. In 2009, the au...	{ "page_id": 3219156, "title": "Free will theorem" }
would be impossible. In their later 2009 paper, "The Strong Free Will Theorem", Conway and Kochen replace the Fin axiom by a weaker one called Min, thereby strengthening the theorem. The Min axiom asserts only that two experimenters separated in a space-like way can make choices of measurements independently of each ot...	{ "page_id": 3219156, "title": "Free will theorem" }
the same restraining hidden variables, so the premise of the experimenters making an arbitrary choice would be false, and hence a contradiction. So either there is free will, or the phrasing of the axiom is inadequate. But the phrasing of the axiom appears to be as representative as any. == Reception == According to Ca...	{ "page_id": 3219156, "title": "Free will theorem" }
Spin pumping is the dynamical generation of pure spin current by the coherent precession of magnetic moments, which can efficiently inject spin from a magnetic material into an adjacent non-magnetic material. The non-magnetic material usually hosts the spin Hall effect that can convert the injected spin current into a ...	{ "page_id": 5447381, "title": "Spin pumping" }
time-dependent orientation of the moment. Optical, microwave and electrical methods are also being explored. These devices could be used for low-power data transmission in spintronic devices or to transmit electrical signals through insulators. == Spin pumping in antiferromagnets == Spin pumping in antiferromagnetic ma...	{ "page_id": 5447381, "title": "Spin pumping" }
Nupharin may refer to: Nupharine, a quinolizidine alkaloid found in Nuphar and Nymphaea species Nupharin A, B, C, D, E and F, ellagitannins found in Nymphaeaceae == References ==	{ "page_id": 38477527, "title": "Nupharin" }
The Prony equation (named after Gaspard de Prony) is a historically important equation in hydraulics, used to calculate the head loss due to friction within a given run of pipe. It is an empirical equation developed by Frenchman Gaspard de Prony in the 19th century: h f = L D ( a V + b V 2 ) {\displaystyle h_{f}={\frac...	{ "page_id": 270041, "title": "Prony equation" }
Plastic Fantastic: How the Biggest Fraud in Physics Shook the Scientific World is a 2009 book by U.S.-based science reporter Eugenie Samuel Reich. == Plot == In Plastic Fantastic, Reich investigates how Jan Hendrik Schön, a young physicist working in the field of advanced microelectronics at Bell Labs, was able to repe...	{ "page_id": 26418907, "title": "Plastic Fantastic" }
Eoxin A4 (EXA4), also known as 14,15-leukotriene A4, is an eoxin. Cells make eoxins by metabolizing arachidonic acid with a 15-lipoxygenase enzyme to form 15(S)-hydroperoxyeicosapentaenoic acid (i.e. 15(S)-HpETE). This product is then converted serially to EXA4, EXC4, EXD4, and EXE4 by LTC4 synthase, an unidentified ga...	{ "page_id": 44965596, "title": "Eoxin A4" }
Eoxin C4 (EXC4), also known as 14,15-leukotriene C4, is an eoxin. Cells make eoxins by metabolizing arachidonic acid with a 15-lipoxygenase enzyme to form 15(S)-hydroperoxyeicosapentaenoic acid (i.e. 15(S)-HpETE). This product is then converted serially to EXA4, EXC4, EXD4, and EXE4 by LTC4 synthase, an unidentified ga...	{ "page_id": 44965598, "title": "Eoxin C4" }
Eoxin D4 (EXD4), also known as 14,15-leukotriene D4, is an eoxin. Cells make eoxins by metabolizing arachidonic acid with a 15-lipoxygenase enzyme to form 15(S)-hydroperoxyeicosapentaenoic acid (i.e. 15(S)-HpETE). This product is then converted serially to EXA4, EXC4, EXD4, and EXE4 by LTC4 synthase, an unidentified ga...	{ "page_id": 44965599, "title": "Eoxin D4" }
Eoxin E4 (EXE4), also known as 14,15-leukotriene E4, is an eoxin. Cells make eoxins by metabolizing arachidonic acid with a 15-lipoxygenase enzyme to form 15(S)-hydroperoxyeicosapentaenoic acid (i.e. 15(S)-HpETE). This product is then converted serially to EXA4, EXC4, EXD4, and EXE4 by LTC4 synthase, an unidentified ga...	{ "page_id": 44965600, "title": "Eoxin E4" }
Couty's azetidine synthesis is one of the most efficient synthesis of azetidines named after French organic chemist François Couty from University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines. It enables an easy synthesis of a broad range of enantiopure azetidines from readily available β-amino alcohols by their chlorinatio...	{ "page_id": 70917854, "title": "Couty's azetidine synthesis" }
The Kiliani–Fischer synthesis, named for German chemists Heinrich Kiliani and Emil Fischer, is a method for synthesizing monosaccharides. It proceeds via synthesis and hydrolysis of a cyanohydrin, followed by reduction of the intermediate acid to the aldehyde, thus elongating the carbon chain of an aldose by one carbon...	{ "page_id": 6364894, "title": "Kiliani–Fischer synthesis" }
been developed that produces somewhat higher yields of the larger sugars. Instead of conversion of the cyanohydrin to a lactone, the cyanohydrin is reduced with hydrogen, using palladium on barium sulfate as the catalyst and water as the solvent, to form an imine. Due to the presence of water, the imine quickly hydroly...	{ "page_id": 6364894, "title": "Kiliani–Fischer synthesis" }
its low yield and use of toxic reagents. In addition, the process requires having a supply of the previous sugar in the series, which may itself require substantial synthetic work if it is not readily available. For example, if successive iterations of the Kiliani–Fischer synthesis are used, the overall yield drops app...	{ "page_id": 6364894, "title": "Kiliani–Fischer synthesis" }
Two-photon excitation microscopy (TPEF or 2PEF) is a fluorescence imaging technique that is particularly well-suited to image scattering living tissue of up to about one millimeter in thickness. Unlike traditional fluorescence microscopy, where the excitation wavelength is shorter than the emission wavelength, two-phot...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
optical sectioning effect. Unlike confocal microscopes, multiphoton microscopes do not contain pinhole apertures that give confocal microscopes their optical sectioning quality. The optical sectioning produced by multiphoton microscopes is a result of the point spread function of the excitation. The concept of two-phot...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
quadratically with the excitation intensity. Therefore, much more two-photon fluorescence is generated where the laser beam is tightly focused than where it is more diffuse. Effectively, excitation is restricted to the tiny focal volume (~1 femtoliter), resulting in a high degree of rejection of out-of-focus objects. T...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
excitation microscopy. There are several caveats to using two-photon microscopy: The pulsed lasers needed for two-photon excitation are much more expensive than the continuous wave (CW) lasers used in confocal microscopy. The two-photon absorption spectrum of a molecule may vary significantly from its one-photon counte...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
has shown to be advantageous over other techniques, such as confocal microscopy when it comes to long-term live-cell imaging of mammalian embryos. === Kidney research === 2PEF has also been used in visualization of difficult-to-access cell types, especially in regards to kidney cells. It has been used in better underst...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
be excited in two-photon mode. Two-photon excitation spectra are often considerably broader, making it more difficult to excite fluorophores selectively by switching excitation wavelengths. Several green, red and NIR emitting dyes (probes and reactive labels) with extremely high 2-photon absorption cross-sections have ...	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
Nikon MicroscopyU . "Two-photon action cross sections". "Two-photon absorption (2PA) spectra database". KBFI.	{ "page_id": 2105059, "title": "Two-photon excitation microscopy" }
Tuanshanzia is a genus of Proterozoic eukaryote, known from several locations across China and India, including the Gaoyuzhuang and Chuanlinggou formations, the eponymous Tuanshanzi Formation, as well as the Vindhya Basin. It is probably an alga, although its exact classification is currently unclear. Tuanshanzia seems...	{ "page_id": 75833059, "title": "Tuanshanzia" }
Icicle is the name of two supervillains appearing in comic books published by DC Comics: Joar Mahkent and Cameron Mahkent (father and son; to differentiate between the two, the suffixes Senior and Junior are used). An original incarnation of Icicle named Thomas Snow appears in the fifth season of The Flash, portrayed b...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
group overcame the security at the International Trade Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada - namely Infinity, Inc. and a contingent of the Global Guardians - and forced the heroes to help in some mayhem. Icicle was given the mission of finding and retrieving Solomon Grundy. He took with him the still-hypnotized Icem...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
to help the 'reserve JSA'- consisting of Captain Marvel, Hourman, the third Crimson Avenger, Power Girl, Sand and Jakeem Thunder- against the Ultra-Humanite, since they were the only other people free in the world created by the Ultra-Humanite. He was later offered a position in the JSA by Sand but turned him down sayi...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
DC's continuity. The Green Team encountered Icicle on a meteor which he hijacked from Bellachek Temple to give to his client. He begins to attack the Green Team by freezing their shuttle. As Icicle continues his attack, he kills Paul who recognizes Icicle as Cameron. Icicle continues the attack until the meteor breaks ...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
League two-part episode "Legends", voiced by Corey Burton. He is a supervillain from an alternate universe and member of the Injustice Guild. The Cameron and Joar Mahkent incarnations of Icicle appear in Young Justice, respectively voiced by Yuri Lowenthal and James Remar. These versions are members of the Light, with ...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
campaign by his Norwegian-speaking parents Sofus and Lily (portrayed by Jim Franco and Kay Galvan respectively), the latter of whom also shares his powers. Ten years prior to the series, Icicle led the ISA in attacking the Justice Society of America (JSA)'s headquarters; killing several of their members and fatally wou...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
death. Despite this, he attempts to reconcile with her and eventually joins the JSA in defeating Jordan before leaving with Sofus. === Film === The Cameron Mahkent incarnation of Icicle was reportedly featured in David S. Goyer's script for the unproduced Escape from Super Max. The Cameron Mahkent incarnation of Icicle...	{ "page_id": 3022559, "title": "Icicle (comics)" }
Balsam of Peru or Peru balsam, also known and marketed by many other names, is a balsam derived from a tree known as Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae; it is found in El Salvador. Balsam of Peru is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items fo...	{ "page_id": 4267751, "title": "Balsam of Peru" }
In some cases, it is listed on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various names. Naturally occurring ingredients may contain substances identical to or very closely related to balsam of Peru. It has four primary uses: flavoring in foods and drinks such as caffeinated drinks (flavored coffee, flavored tea) ...	{ "page_id": 4267751, "title": "Balsam of Peru" }
five" allergens most commonly causing patch test reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics. A study in 2001 found that 3.8% of the general population patch tested was allergic to it. Many flavorings and perfumes contain components identical to balsam of Peru. It may cause redness, swelling, itching, and blist...	{ "page_id": 4267751, "title": "Balsam of Peru" }
mandatory labeling conventions (in fragrances, for example, it may simply be covered by an ingredient listing of "fragrance"). To determine if balsam of Peru is in a product, often doctors have to contact the manufacturer of the products used by the patient. Before 1977, the main recommended marker for perfume allergy ...	{ "page_id": 4267751, "title": "Balsam of Peru" }
alternate names used for balsam of Peru are: == References ==	{ "page_id": 4267751, "title": "Balsam of Peru" }
Symbiobacterium thermophilum is a symbiotic thermophile that depends on co-culture with a Bacillus strain for growth. It is Gram-negative and tryptophanase-positive, with type strain T(T) (= IAM 14863T). It is the type species of its genus. Symbiobacterium is related to the Gram-positive Bacillota and Actinomycetota, b...	{ "page_id": 42868455, "title": "Symbiobacterium thermophilum" }
content. S. thermophilum further defies the knowledge that endospore forming genes are unique to the Bacillus-Clostridium group, showing genes involved in the formation of endospores. Sequencing of proteins proved biological roles in 2,082 of the 3,338 CDSs. The genome of S. thermophilum is not even partially alike oth...	{ "page_id": 42868455, "title": "Symbiobacterium thermophilum" }
the intestinal tract of animals and also in composts. This is because both of those areas contain the essentials for the bacteria to survive. == Distribution and Diversity == S. thermophilum is a bacterium that is widely distributed throughout the environment. It can be found in many different types of soil and fertili...	{ "page_id": 42868455, "title": "Symbiobacterium thermophilum" }
Munin is a Swedish nanosatellite. It was launched on November 21, 2000 on a Delta II rocket from the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, together with two other satellites. Munin was developed by the Swedish Institute of Space Physics in cooperation with students from Luleå University of Technology and Umeå Univer...	{ "page_id": 30875373, "title": "Munin (satellite)" }
Christy Katherine Smith Holland is an American scientist and professor of internal medicine and biomedical engineering at the University of Cincinnati. After a B.A. with majors in physics and music at Wellesley College, she obtained her Ph.D.in engineering and applied science from Yale University. Holland is editor-in-...	{ "page_id": 54599407, "title": "Christy Holland" }
Cytophaga is a genus of Gram-negative, gliding, rod-shaped bacteria. This bacterium is commonly found in soil, rapidly digests crystalline cellulose. C. hutchinsonii is able to use its gliding motility to move quickly over surfaces. Although the mechanism for this is not known, there is a belief that the flagellum is n...	{ "page_id": 24387312, "title": "Cytophaga" }
Phytogeomorphology is the study of how terrain features affect plant growth. It was the subject of a treatise by Howard and Mitchell in 1985, who were considering the growth and varietal temporal and spatial variability found in forests, but recognized that their work also had application to farming, and the relatively...	{ "page_id": 39984881, "title": "Phytogeomorphology" }
in farming is that of Whittaker in 1967. More recent work includes a six-year study of temporal and spatial yield stability over 11 years (Kaspar et al., (2003), and references therein), and a detailed study of the same on a small patch farm in Portugal (and references therein). This variability can be exploited to pro...	{ "page_id": 39984881, "title": "Phytogeomorphology" }
which part of the field. This is true in fields where there are permanently limiting characteristics to parts of the field, but not true in fields where the growth potential is the same all over the field (Blackmore et al., (2003)). It can be shown that an index map of yield (shows areas of consistent over-performance ...	{ "page_id": 39984881, "title": "Phytogeomorphology" }
The Warburg hypothesis (, [ˈvaːɐ̯bʊʁk]), sometimes known as the Warburg theory of cancer, postulates that the driver of carcinogenesis (cancer formation) is insufficient cellular respiration caused by insult (damage) to mitochondria. The Warburg effect, on the other hand, describes the observation that cancer cells, an...	{ "page_id": 7806713, "title": "Warburg hypothesis" }
is one of the characteristic effects of cancer-causing mutations. Warburg articulated his hypothesis in a paper entitled The Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer which he presented in lecture at the meeting of the Nobel-Laureates on June 30, 1966 at Lindau, Lake Constance, Germany. In this speech, Warburg presented add...	{ "page_id": 7806713, "title": "Warburg hypothesis" }
A chemistry set is an educational toy allowing the user (typically a teenager) to perform simple chemistry experiments. == History == === Forerunners === The forerunners of the chemistry set were 17th-century books on "natural magick", "which all excellent wise men do admit and embrace, and worship with great applause;...	{ "page_id": 5250810, "title": "Chemistry set" }
illusion toys enabled children to make their own fireworks, create disappearing inks, and cause changes in color, tricks that were mostly chemically based. The Columbian Cyclopedia of 1897 defines "CHEMISTRY TOYS" as "mostly pyrotechnic; recommended as illustrating to the young the rudiments of chemistry, but probably ...	{ "page_id": 5250810, "title": "Chemistry set" }
the number of chemistry students at Yale whose interest in the science began with a chemistry set, argued the production of chemistry sets was a "patriotic duty." Toy companies promoted chemistry sets through advertising campaigns, the "Chemcraft Chemist Club" and its accompanying "Chemcraft Science Magazine", comic bo...	{ "page_id": 5250810, "title": "Chemistry set" }
Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 all introduced new levels of regulation, which led to the decline of chemistry sets' popularity during the 1970s and 1980s. The A. C. Gilbert Company went out of business in 1967, and the Porter Chemical Company went out of business in 1984. Modern chemistry sets, with a few excepti...	{ "page_id": 5250810, "title": "Chemistry set" }
vinegar) Ammonium carbonate ("baker's ammonia" or "salts of hartshorn") Citric acid (in lemons) Ethanol (in denatured alcohol) Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) Sodium chloride ("table salt") Other chemicals, including strong acids, bases and oxidizers cannot be safely shipped with the set and others having a limited sh...	{ "page_id": 5250810, "title": "Chemistry set" }
An electron multiplier is a vacuum-tube structure that multiplies incident charges. In a process called secondary emission, a single electron can, when bombarded on secondary-emissive material, induce emission of roughly 1 to 3 electrons. If an electric potential is applied between this metal plate and yet another, the...	{ "page_id": 1777403, "title": "Electron multiplier" }
first device of this kind was called a Channel Electron Multiplier (CEM). CEMs required 2-4 kilovolts in order to achieve a gain of 106 electrons. == Microchannel plate == Another geometry of continuous-dynode electron multiplier is called the microchannel plate (MCP). It may be considered a 2-dimensional parallel arra...	{ "page_id": 1777403, "title": "Electron multiplier" }
The nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) is the transfer of nuclear spin polarization from one population of spin-active nuclei (e.g. 1H, 13C, 15N etc.) to another via cross-relaxation. A phenomenological definition of the NOE in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) is the change in the integrated intensity (positi...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
be used to determine the relative signs of scalar coupling constants, and to assign spectral lines in NMR spectra to transitions between energy levels. In this study, the resonance of one population of protons (1H) in an organic molecule was enhanced when a second distinct population of protons in the same organic mole...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
At thermal equilibrium, the population of the two energy levels is determined by the Boltzmann distribution with spin populations given by Pα and Pβ. If the spin populations are perturbed by an appropriate RF field at the transition energy frequency, the spin populations return to thermal equilibrium by a process calle...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
rise to transitions between the αα and ββ states (W2) and between the αβ and the βα states (W0). Expressed in terms of their bulk NMR magnetizations, the experimentally observed steady-state NOE for nucleus I when the resonance of nucleus S is saturated ( M S = 0 {\displaystyle M_{S}=0} ) is defined by the expression: ...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
relaxation pathways, however, remain active and act to re-establish an equilibrium, except that the W1S transitions are irrelevant because the population differences across these transitions are fixed by the RF irradiation while the population difference between the WI transitions does not change from their equilibrium...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
{\displaystyle \tau _{c}} and the Larmor precession frequencies, ω {\displaystyle \omega } , by the relations: W 1 I ∝ 3 τ c ( 1 + ω I 2 τ c 2 ) 1 r 6 {\displaystyle W_{1}^{I}\propto {\frac {3\tau _{c}}{(1+\omega _{I}^{2}\tau _{c}^{2})}}{\frac {1}{r^{6}}}} W 0 ∝ 2 τ c ( 1 + ( ω I − ω S ) 2 τ c 2 ) 1 r 6 {\displaystyle ...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
3 τ c r 6 + 12 τ c r 6 ] = γ S γ I [ 12 − 2 2 + 6 + 12 ] = γ S γ I 1 2 {\displaystyle \eta _{I}^{S}(max)={\frac {\gamma _{S}}{\gamma _{I}}}\left[{\frac {{\frac {12\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}-{\frac {2\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}}{{\frac {2\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}+2{\frac {3\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}+{\frac {12\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}}}\right]={\frac {\gamma...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
techniques that involve polarization transfer from protons to the 15N to minimize the negative NOE. == Structure elucidation == While the relationship of the steady-state NOE to internuclear distance is complex, depending on relaxation rates and molecular motion, in many instances for small rapidly tumbling molecules i...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
relaxation rate from relaxation mechanisms not involving cross relaxation. Using the same idealized two-spin model for dipolar relaxation in the extreme narrowing limit: ρ I ∝ τ c r 6 {\displaystyle \rho _{I}\propto {\frac {\tau _{c}}{r^{6}}}} It is easy to show that η I S ∝ ( τ c ρ ∗ ) 1 r 6 {\displaystyle \eta _{I}^{...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
those close to one another in space. Therefore, the cross peaks of a NOESY spectrum indicate which protons are close to each other in space. In this respect, the NOESY experiment differs from the COSY experiment that relies on J-coupling to provide spin-spin correlation, and whose cross peaks indicate which 1H's are cl...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
volumes V {\displaystyle V} and a scaling constant c {\displaystyle c} r NOE = ( c V i j ) 1 / 6 {\displaystyle r_{\text{NOE}}=\left({\frac {c}{V_{ij}}}\right)^{1/6}} where c {\displaystyle c} can be determined based on measurements of known fixed distances. The range of distances can be reported based on known distanc...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
a proton pair of fixed distance, such as a geminal methylene proton pair or aromatic ring protons. This simple approach is reasonably insensitive to the effects of spin diffusion or non-uniform correlation times and can usually lead to definition of the global fold of the protein, provided a sufficiently large number o...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
compound. In this example, the proton designated as {H} shows two different sets of NOEs depending on the isomerization state (cis or trans) of the switchable azo groups. In the trans state proton {H} is far from the phenyl group showing blue coloured NOEs; while the cis state holds proton {H} in the vicinity of the ph...	{ "page_id": 335612, "title": "Nuclear Overhauser effect" }
Technosignature or technomarker is any measurable property or effect that provides scientific evidence of past or present technology. Technosignatures are analogous to biosignatures, which signal the presence of life, whether intelligent or not. Some authors prefer to exclude radio transmissions from the definition, bu...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
of the pioneers of the search for extrasolar planets, was given a research grant to search data from the Kepler telescope, with the aim of detecting possible signs of Dyson spheres. === Orbital paths, transit signatures, stellar activity and star-system composition === Shkadov thrusters, with the hypothetical ability t...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
networks of communications nodes, the search for deliberate interstellar signals – as is common in SETI – may be futile. The architecture may consist of nodes separated by sub-light-year distances and strung out between neighboring stars. It may also contain pulsars as beacons or nodes whose beams are modulated by mech...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
human technology use on Earth, including nitrogen dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons, are detectable from space. Artificial air pollution may therefore be detectable on extrasolar planets and on Earth via "atmospheric SETI" – including NO2 pollution levels and with telescopic technology close to today. Such technosignatur...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
by all the artificial satellites occupying geostationary/geosynchronous orbits around an exoplanet. From early simulations it appeared that a very dense satellite belt, requiring only a moderately more-advanced civilization than ours, would be detectable with existing technology in the light curves from transiting exop...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
In a 2005 paper, Luc Arnold proposed a means of detecting planetary-sized artifacts from their distinctive transit light curve signature. He showed that such technosignature was within the reach of space missions aimed at detecting exoplanets by the transit method, as were Corot or Kepler projects at that time. The pri...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
plates taken in 1950. Villarroel's team also found three 16th magnitude stars which had vanished on plates exposed within one hour of each other on 19 July 1952. === Organization of novel projects === In June 2020, NASA was awarded their first SETI-specific grant in three decades. The grant funds the first NASA-funded ...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
various types of information about detected technosignatures and their distribution or dissemination may have varying implications that may also depend on time and context. == See also == Laser SETI Quiet and loud aliens – Concept in astrobiology UFO Report (U.S. Intelligence) Kardashev scale – Measure of a civilizatio...	{ "page_id": 39919360, "title": "Technosignature" }
Indolicidin is an antimicrobial peptide isolated from neutrophil blood cells of cows. The mature peptide is just 13 amino acids, making it one of the smallest antimicrobial peptides known to be encoded as the primary product of the encoding antimicrobial peptide gene. Indolicidin is active against bacterial pathogens, ...	{ "page_id": 40836865, "title": "Indolicidin" }
Testosterone 17beta-dehydrogenase (NADP+) (EC 1.1.1.64, 17-ketoreductase, NADP-dependent testosterone-17beta-oxidoreductase, testosterone 17beta-dehydrogenase (NADP)) is an enzyme with systematic name 17beta-hydroxysteroid:NADP+ 17-oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction testosterone + NAD...	{ "page_id": 13901570, "title": "Testosterone 17b-dehydrogenase (NADP+)" }
Small RNA sequencing (Small RNA-Seq) is a type of RNA sequencing based on the use of NGS technologies that allows to isolate and get information about noncoding RNA molecules in order to evaluate and discover new forms of small RNA and to predict their possible functions. By using this technique, it is possible to disc...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
solution combined with acid phenol that disrupts cell membranes bringing in solution the nucleic acids and inactivating cellular ribonucleases (chaotropic agent). After this step an aliquot of chloroform is added in order to separate the aqueous phase (containing the RNA molecules) from the organic phase (cellular debr...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
and obtaining an electropherogram that is useful to estimate the quality of the extracts thanks to a score (ranging from 1 to 10) attributed by the system. === Library preparation and amplification === Many of the NGS sequencing protocols rely on the production of a genomic library that contains thousands of fragments ...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
(such as 5′ hydroxyl (5′-OH), 3′-phosphate (3′-P) and 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate (2′3′-cP)) can block the adapter ligation process, while some other RNA modifications ( such as m1A, m3C, m1G and m22G) can interfere with reverse transcription process. Small RNA bearing one or more of these modifications are often inefficien...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
order to extract information about their similarity: reads having the same length, sequence and UMI are considered as equal and are removed from the hit list. Indeed, the number of different UMIs for a given small RNA sequence reflects its copy number. The small RNAs are finally quantified by assigning molecules to tra...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
PMID 24198247. 't Hoen PA, Friedländer MR, Almlöf J, Sammeth M, Pulyakhina I, Anvar SY, Laros JF, Buermans HP, Karlberg O, Brännvall M; GEUVADIS Consortium, den Dunnen JT, van Ommen GJ, Gut IG, Guigó R, Estivill X, Syvänen AC, Dermitzakis ET, Lappalainen T (2013 November). "Reproducibility of high-throughput mRNA and s...	{ "page_id": 58990339, "title": "Small RNA sequencing" }
Diatomic molecules (from Greek di- 'two') are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements. If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen (H2) or oxygen (O2), then it is said to be homonuclear. Otherwise, if a diatomic molecule consists of two dif...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
1:1 binary compounds are not normally considered diatomic because they are polymeric at room temperature, but they form diatomic molecules when evaporated, for example gaseous MgO, SiO, and many others. == Occurrence == Hundreds of diatomic molecules have been identified in the environment of the Earth, in the laborato...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules. However, these results were mostly ignored until 1860, partly due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affini...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
sometimes lower case letters and alphabetically out-of-sequence letters are used, as in the example given below). The excitation energy must be greater than or equal to the energy of the electronic state in order for the excitation to occur. In quantum theory, an electronic state of a diatomic molecule is represented b...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }

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