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a particular transition from a higher electronic state and vibrational level to a lower electronic state and vibrational level (typically, many vibrational levels are involved in an excited gas of diatomic molecules). For example, N2 A {\displaystyle A} - X {\displaystyle X} emission bands (a.k.a. Vegard-Kaplan bands) ...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
the harmonic oscillator approximation or using the quantum vibrational interaction potentials. These potentials give more accurate energy levels because they take multiple vibrational effects into account. Concerning history, the first treatment of diatomic molecules with quantum mechanics was made by Lucy Mensing in 1...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
molecule is for each atom to oscillate—or vibrate—along the line connecting the two atoms. The vibrational energy is approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator: E vib = ( n + 1 2 ) ℏ ω , n = 0 , 1 , 2 , … , {\displaystyle E_{\text{vib}}=\left(n+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\right)\hbar \omega ,\quad n=0,1,2,\dots ,} where n...	{ "page_id": 7938, "title": "Diatomic molecule" }
In human anatomy, the pars flaccida of tympanic membrane or Shrapnell's membrane (also known as Rivinus' ligament) is the small, triangular, flaccid portion of the tympanic membrane, or eardrum. It lies above the malleolar folds attached directly to the petrous bone at the notch of Rivinus. On the inner surface of the ...	{ "page_id": 6037259, "title": "Pars flaccida of tympanic membrane" }
Reformulated Blendstock for Oxygenate Blending (RBOB) is a gasoline futures contract traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). It is the benchmark futures contract for wholesale gasoline in the United States. == History == Edwin Drake was the first to discover RBOB gasoline but discarded it as a byproduct on ...	{ "page_id": 76422924, "title": "Reformulated Blendstock for Oxygenate Blending" }
Tenuifolins are bio-active terpenoids. Tenuifolins inhibit beta-amyloid synthesis in vitro. Tenuifolins have nootropic activity in vivo via acetylcholinesterase inhibition and increased norepinephrine and dopamine production. == Further reading == Yoo, Ki-Yeol; Park, So-Young (2012). "Terpenoids as Potential Anti-Alzhe...	{ "page_id": 40836876, "title": "Tenuifolin" }
Wikipedia has articles relating to several ecoregion classification systems, defined by the conservation group World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), and like agencies around the world. The WWF uses three main classifications: Biogeographic realms (also called ecozones), biomes (...	{ "page_id": 17964814, "title": "Lists of ecoregions" }
A vasculum or a botanical box is a stiff container used by botanists to keep field samples viable for transportation. The main purpose of the vasculum is to transport plants without crushing them and by maintaining a cool, humid environment. == Construction == Vascula are cylinders typically made from tinned and someti...	{ "page_id": 8134415, "title": "Vasculum" }
on systematics rather than alpha taxonomy and new species often collected in far-away places, field botany and the use of vascula went into decline. Aluminium vascula are still made and in use, though zipper bags and clear plastic folders are today cheaper and more common in use. == The Vasculum == The Vasculum was "An...	{ "page_id": 8134415, "title": "Vasculum" }
Kinetic exchange models are multi-agent dynamic models inspired by the statistical physics of energy distribution, which try to explain the robust and universal features of income/wealth distributions. Understanding the distributions of income and wealth in an economy has been a classic problem in economics for more th...	{ "page_id": 27008781, "title": "Kinetic exchange models of markets" }
exchange dynamics, thus leading to the nomenclature of this model as Bennati-Dragulescu-Yakovenko (BDY) game. The main modelling efforts since then have been put to introduce the concepts of savings, and taxation in the setting of an ideal gas-like system. Basically, it assumes that in the short-run, an economy remains...	{ "page_id": 27008781, "title": "Kinetic exchange models of markets" }
research on kinetic exchange modeling of income or wealth dynamics and the resulting statistical properties. A very simple model, based on the same kinetic exchange framework, was introduced by Chakraborti in 2002, now popularly called the "yard sale model", because it had few features of a real one-on-one economic tra...	{ "page_id": 27008781, "title": "Kinetic exchange models of markets" }
Approach, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK, 2020) Giuseppe Toscani, Parongama Sen and Soumyajyoti Biswas (Eds), "Kinetic exchange models of societies and economies" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 380: 20210170 (Special Issue, May 2022)	{ "page_id": 27008781, "title": "Kinetic exchange models of markets" }
Deoxyribonucleic acid ( ; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic aci...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code, these RNA strands specify...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the oth...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of the canonical bases plus uracil. Modified Adenine N6-carbamoyl-methyladenine N6-methyadenine Modified Guanine 7-Deazaguanine 7-Methylguanine Modified Cytosine N4-Methylcytosine 5-Carboxylcytosine 5-Formylcytosine 5-Glycosylhydr...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and re...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC-content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have more weakly interacting strands....	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
mtDNA molecules. Each human cell contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an egg cell can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of the ...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negativ...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segment...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad, form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of eac...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA. Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. For one example, cytos...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This ac...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the func...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation o...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
in water, air, or on land, and assessing an area's biodiversity. === Neutrophil extracellular traps === Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are networks of extracellular fibers, primarily composed of DNA, which allow neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to kill extracellular pathogens while minimizing damage to t...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
up chromosomes. A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins is the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination, and DNA r...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates. The sequence of their products is created based on existing polynucleotide chains—which are called templates. These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucle...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
protect chromosome ends from damage. Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a mess...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
is a double-stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other he...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Cla...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture. === DNA profiling === Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is formally termed DNA profiling, also called DNA fingerprin...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant. === ...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the ...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology. === Information storage === DNA as a storage device for information has enormous potential since it has much higher storag...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH. In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patt...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
the axis, and the bases on the outside. Watson and Crick completed their model, which is now accepted as the first correct model of the double helix of DNA. On 28 February 1953 Crick interrupted patrons' lunchtime at The Eagle pub in Cambridge, England to announce that he and Watson had "discovered the secret of life"....	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment. Further work by Crick and co-workers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warr...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure DNA from the Beginning Another DNA Learning Center site on DNA, genes, and heredity from Mendel to the human genome project. The Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers 1938 – 2007 at Mandeville Special Collections Library, University of California, San Diego S...	{ "page_id": 7955, "title": "DNA" }
The Bernhard Cinader Award is awarded annually by the Canadian Society for Immunology (CSI). It is presented to an immunologist who is an exceptional researcher working in Canada, a full member of CSI and who has an additional activity in which they excel. This award was inaugurated at the first meeting of the CSI in 1...	{ "page_id": 63577875, "title": "Bernhard Cinader Award" }
Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science is the eighth non-fiction book by the American theoretical physicist Lawrence M. Krauss. The text was initially published on March 21, 2011 by W. W. Norton & Company. Physics World chose the book as Book of the Year 2011. In this book, Krauss concentrates on the scientific...	{ "page_id": 47193879, "title": "Quantum Man: Richard Feynman's Life in Science" }
An ant colony is a population of ants, typically from a single species, capable of maintaining their complete lifecycle. Ant colonies are eusocial, communal, and efficiently organized and are very much like those found in other social Hymenoptera, though the various groups of these developed sociality independently thr...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
they defend their nests, how they mate, and even their physical appearances. Body size is often seen as the most important factor in shaping the natural history of non-colonial organisms; similarly, colony size is key in influencing how colonial organisms are collectively organized. Colonies have a significant range of...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
supercolony. The researchers claim that this case of unicoloniality cannot be explained by loss of their genetic diversity due to the genetic bottleneck of the imported ants. In 2009, it was demonstrated that the largest Japanese, Californian and European Argentine ant supercolonies were in fact part of a single global...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
compare areas and solve complex problems by using information gained by each member of the colony to find the best nesting site or to find food. Some social-parasitic species of ants, known as the slave-making ant, raid and steal larvae from neighboring colonies. == Communication == In ant colonies there can range from...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
and repellent pheromone trail. The long-lived pheromone trails act as memory telling the ants to check certain trails often due to the success rate of finding food. The short-lived trails communicate the current food sources that they have just happened to find while foraging. Lastly these ants are able to secrete a re...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
distribution as one colony is competing with another colony for limited resources. The variation in size can also allow for an ant species to have an increasement in aggression levels as when a larger ant species encounters a smaller ant species, they are more likely to raid or destroy their smaller competition due to ...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
mutualistic interaction between ants and hemipterans. Ants protect the hemipterans, a tree bug from predators and in turn the hemipterans provide honeydew which is rich in carbohydrates and have been seen to increase an ants activity, aggressiveness, population size, and dominance of ants within a community. Another mu...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
An ant-bed, in its simplest form, is a pile of soil, sand, pine needles, or clay or a composite of these and other materials that build up at the entrances of the subterranean dwellings of ant colonies as they are excavated. A colony is built and maintained by legions of worker ants, who carry tiny bits of dirt and peb...	{ "page_id": 1056536, "title": "Ant colony" }
Sex segregation, sex separation, sex partition, gender segregation, gender separation, or gender partition is the physical, legal, or cultural separation of people according to their gender or biological sex at any age. Sex segregation can simply refer to the physical and spatial separation by sex without any connotati...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
predominate within, but do not exclusively constitute, a group or organization. In the United States some scholars use the term sex separation and not sex segregation. The term gender apartheid (or sexual apartheid) also has been applied to segregation of people by gender, implying that it is sexual discrimination. If ...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
contexts, and can be a form of occupational segregation. For example, a government may mandate that clinics hire female nurses to care for female patients. === Administrative === Administrative sex segregation involves public and government institutions segregating by sex in their operating capacity, rather than as the...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
Theory == === Libertarianism === Libertarian feminist theory stems from ideologies similar to libertarian political theory; that legal and governmental institutions should not regulate choices and should allow people's free will to govern their life trajectories. Libertarianism takes a free market approach to sex segre...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
created to account for natural or biological differences between the sexes. === Equal treatment === Equal treatment theory or formal equity often works in tandem with libertarianism in that equal treatment theorists believe governments should treat men and women similarly when their situations are similar. In countries...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
to bring about a consciousness of women's femininity and to cause the revaluation of women's attributes in a more respectful, reverent manner. Difference feminism and equal treatment theory are quite contrasting feminist theories of sex segregation. Difference feminism often justifies sex segregation through women's an...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
evident in many racially divided countries, especially in the relationship between the end of race-segregated schools and sex segregation. Critical race feminism critiques other theories' failure to take into account their different applications once race, class, sexual orientation, or other identity factors are includ...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
such permission for certain institutions and norms to continue to exist. == Motivated by safety or privacy == Some sex segregation occurs for reasons of safety and privacy. Worldwide, laws often mandate sex segregation in public toilets, changing rooms, showers, and similar spaces, based on a common perceived need for ...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
exist in the aforementioned policies enacted under the pretenses of safety or privacy concerns. Gender separation in Judaism and gender segregation in Islam reflect religiously motivated sex segregation. In Buddhism, Christianity, and Hinduism, monastic orders, prayer spaces, and leadership roles have also been segrega...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
In the United States in particular, two federal laws give public and private entities permission to segregate based on sex: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972. These laws permit sex segregation of contact sports, choruses, sex education, and in areas such as mat...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
with economic development of a country. Cambodia, Laos, Morocco, and Namibia are countries with the least amount of gender segregation in tertiary studies while Croatia, Finland, Japan, and Lithuania have the most. == In sport == Even outside of educational settings women's sports are sex segregated from men's sports. ...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
for girls to learn and solve problems, girls receiving less attention compared to the boys in their classes, and significantly different performance levels between boys and girls in reading and math classes. Sometimes in elementary schools teachers force the students to sit boy, girl, boy girl. Sex segregation in educa...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
challenging in a coed environment. Coeducation tends to stigmatize males, as is often the case in expressive arts, unlike athletics. During the Taiping Rebellion (1851–64) against the Qing dynasty, areas controlled by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had strict sex separation enforced. Even married couples were not allowed...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
overly restrictive role for the law in dismantling sex segregation." (Schultz, 1990:1757) Schultz concludes by saying, "courts can acknowledge their own constructive power and use it to help create a work world in which women are empowered to choose the more highly rewarded occupations that Title VII has long promised....	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
Perpetuation of gender segregation, especially in economic spheres, creates market and institutional failures. For example, women often occupy jobs with flexible working environments in order to take on care work as well as job responsibilities, but since part-time, flexible hourly jobs pay less and have lower levels o...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
order to apply. The Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China and Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women state that no employer can refuse to employ women based on sex or raise application standards for women specifically, but also do not currently have clea...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
Nations and Western countries have encouraged kings of Saudi Arabia to end its strict segregation of institutions such as schools, government institutions, hospitals, and other public spaces in order to secure women's rights in Saudi Arabia Even though the removal of certain religious and government heads has made way ...	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
from the Feminist Majority Foundation Taking the Gender Apartheid Tour in Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia's Apartheid by Colbert King, Washington Post December 22, 2001 Against Sexual Apartheid in Iran Interview with Azar Majedi Sexual Apartheid in Iran by Mahin Hassibi	{ "page_id": 597792, "title": "Sex segregation" }
Catabiosis is the process of growing older, aging and physical degradation. The word comes from Greek "kata"—down, against, reverse and "biosis"—way of life and is generally used to describe senescence and degeneration in living organisms and biophysics of aging in general. One of the popular catabiotic theories is the...	{ "page_id": 7675689, "title": "Catabiosis" }
Marginal-zone B cells (MZ B cells) are noncirculating mature B cells that in humans segregate anatomically into the marginal zone (MZ) of the spleen and certain other types of lymphoid tissue. The MZ B cells within this region typically express low-affinity polyreactive B-cell receptors (BCR), high levels of IgM, Toll-...	{ "page_id": 19603252, "title": "Marginal-zone B cell" }
molecular patterns. Additionally, they express high levels of TLRs. In specimens where the tyrosine kinase for Pyk-2 has been knocked-out, marginal zone B-cells will fail to develop while B-1 cells will still be present. MZ B-cells are the only B-cells dependent on NOTCH2 signaling for proliferation. == Activation and ...	{ "page_id": 19603252, "title": "Marginal-zone B cell" }
an important role in the prevention of sepsis. MZ B cells also display a lower activation threshold than their FO B cell counterparts, with a heightened propensity for plasma cell differentiation that contributes further to the accelerated primary antibody response. They have been acknowledged as the main producers of ...	{ "page_id": 19603252, "title": "Marginal-zone B cell" }
Role in tumors == Marginal zone B cells are the malignant cells in marginal zone lymphomas, a heterogeneous group of generally indolent lymphomas. == References ==	{ "page_id": 19603252, "title": "Marginal-zone B cell" }
Ambidirectional dominance occurs in a situation where multiple genes influence a phenotype and dominance is in different directions depending on the gene. For example, for gene A increased height is dominant, while for gene B decreased height is dominant. The opposite situation, where all genes show dominance in the sa...	{ "page_id": 23994173, "title": "Ambidirectional dominance" }
The abundances of plant species are often measured by plant cover, which is the relative area covered by different plant species in a small plot. Plant cover is not biased by the size and distributions of individuals, and is an important and often measured characteristic of the composition of plant communities. == Usag...	{ "page_id": 29302590, "title": "Plant cover" }
of the plant cover of the different species may be larger than unity when estimated by the pin-point method. The sum of the estimated plant cover is expected to increase with the number of plant species in a plot and with increasing 3-dimensional structuring of the plants in the community. Plant cover data obtained by ...	{ "page_id": 29302590, "title": "Plant cover" }
The Southern Hemisphere Ornithological Congresses (SHOC) comprise a short-lived series of two ornithological conferences focussing on the avifauna of the world's southern continents, seas and islands. Both conferences were held in Australia under the auspices of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU), follo...	{ "page_id": 33890109, "title": "Southern Hemisphere Ornithological Congress" }
The surface-area-to-volume ratio or surface-to-volume ratio (denoted as SA:V, SA/V, or sa/vol) is the ratio between surface area and volume of an object or collection of objects. SA:V is an important concept in science and engineering. It is used to explain the relation between structure and function in processes occur...	{ "page_id": 7282499, "title": "Surface-area-to-volume ratio" }
in this context.) For an ordinary three-dimensional ball, the SA:V can be calculated using the standard equations for the surface and volume, which are, respectively, S A = 4 π r 2 {\displaystyle SA=4\pi {r^{2}}} and V = ( 4 / 3 ) π r 3 {\displaystyle V=(4/3)\pi {r^{3}}} . For the unit case in which r = 1 the SA:V is t...	{ "page_id": 7282499, "title": "Surface-area-to-volume ratio" }
. For a given shape, SA:V is inversely proportional to size. A cube 2 cm on a side has a ratio of 3 cm−1, half that of a cube 1 cm on a side. Conversely, preserving SA:V as size increases requires changing to a less compact shape. == Applications == === Physical chemistry === Materials with high surface area to volume ...	{ "page_id": 7282499, "title": "Surface-area-to-volume ratio" }
microvilli lining the small intestine. Increased surface area can also lead to biological problems. More contact with the environment through the surface of a cell or an organ (relative to its volume) increases loss of water and dissolved substances. High surface area to volume ratios also present problems of temperatu...	{ "page_id": 7282499, "title": "Surface-area-to-volume ratio" }
of a "marsquake" measured on April 6, 2019, by NASA's InSight lander. Venus and Earth (r>6,000 km) have sufficiently low surface area-to-volume ratios (roughly half that of Mars and much lower than all other known rocky bodies) so that their heat loss is minimal. == Mathematical examples == == See also == Compactness m...	{ "page_id": 7282499, "title": "Surface-area-to-volume ratio" }
This is a list of missions supporting heliophysics, including solar observatory missions, solar orbiters, and spacecraft studying the solar wind. == Past and current missions == == Proposed missions == == Graphic == == See also == List of solar telescopes == References == == External links == NASA - Heliophysics missio...	{ "page_id": 35987270, "title": "List of heliophysics missions" }
A therapy or medical treatment is the attempted remediation of a health problem, usually following a medical diagnosis. Both words, treatment and therapy, are often abbreviated tx, Tx, or Tx. As a rule, each therapy has indications and contraindications. There are many different types of therapy. Not all therapies are ...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
or the discreteness of intervention, with context conveying the intent in each use. Accordingly, they can be used in both noncount and count senses (for example, therapy for chronic kidney disease can involve several dialysis treatments per week). The words aceology and iamatology are obscure and obsolete synonyms refe...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
care as appropriate. This therapy is often given to patients before a definitive diagnosis is made. Intensive care, also called critical care, is care for extremely ill or injured patients. It thus requires high resource intensity, knowledge, and skill, as well as quick decision making. Ambulatory care is care provided...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
Follow-up care is additional care during or after convalescence. Aftercare is generally synonymous with follow-up care. One of the key areas of development–Telehealth, including non-clinical services: provider training, administrative meetings, and continuing medical education–offers opportunities to improve access to ...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
forms of cancer, one line after another may be tried. In oncology the count of therapy lines may reach 10 or even 20. Often multiple therapies may be tried simultaneously (combination therapy or polytherapy). Thus combination chemotherapy is also called polychemotherapy, whereas chemotherapy with one agent at a time is...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
Therapy freedom refers to prescription for use of an unlicensed medicine (without a marketing authorization issued by the licensing authority of the country) and the negotiation between individual and group rights are involved. A comprehensive research in Australia, Czech Republic, India, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Sp...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
gases: medical gas therapy by water: hydrotherapy aquatic therapy rehydration therapy oral rehydration therapy water cure (therapy) by biological materials (biogenic substances, biomolecules, biotic materials, natural products), including their synthetic equivalents: biotherapy by whole organisms by viruses: virotherap...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
in the air by natural dry salt air: "taking the cure" in desert locales (especially common in prescientific medicine; for example, one 19th-century way to treat tuberculosis) by artificial dry salt air: low-humidity forms of speleotherapy negative air ionization therapy by moist salt air: by natural moist salt air: sea...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
sauna, for sweat therapy by cold: by extreme cold to specific tissue volumes: cryotherapy by ice and compression: cold compression therapy by ambient cold: hypothermia therapy for neonatal encephalopathy (in newborns) targeted temperature management (therapeutic hypothermia, protective hypothermia) by hot and cold alte...	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur, with the Commentary of Sillanus de Nigris" is a Latin book by Rhazes, from 1483, that is known for its ninth chapter, which is about therapeutics	{ "page_id": 13311819, "title": "Therapy" }
In molecular biology, biochips are engineered substrates ("miniaturized laboratories") that can host large numbers of simultaneous biochemical reactions. One of the goals of biochip technology is to efficiently screen large numbers of biological analytes, with potential applications ranging from disease diagnosis to de...	{ "page_id": 859981, "title": "Biochip" }
observed optically. Figure 1 shows the make up of a typical biochip platform. The actual sensing component (or "chip") is just one piece of a complete analysis system. Transduction must be done to translate the actual sensing event (DNA binding, oxidation/reduction, etc.) into a format understandable by a computer (vol...	{ "page_id": 859981, "title": "Biochip" }

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