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has travelled (⁠ ∫ F d s {\displaystyle \textstyle \int F\ ds} ⁠, work) has dimension T−2L2M. In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has a unit (say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has a unit of the form of this unit divided by one of time (say, dollars/year...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
if mman, mrat and Lman denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression mman + mrat is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression mman + Lman is meaningless. However, mman/L2man is fine. Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanit...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
equation to be divided by the same expression, so this is equivalent to 100 kPa / 1 bar = 1. Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it, the expression "100 kPa / 1 bar" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity to be converted, including the unit. For example, 5 bar...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
Velocity of money has a unit of 1/years (GDP/money supply has a unit of currency/year over currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year. Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an adimen...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
groups in fluid mechanics include: Reynolds number (Re), generally important in all types of fluid problems: R e = ρ u d μ . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} ={\frac {\rho \,ud}{\mu }}.} Froude number (Fr), modeling flow with a free surface: F r = u g L . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Fr} ={\frac {u}{\sqrt {g\,L}}}.} Euler number...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
defined length, time and mass to be "the three fundamental units", he also noted that gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal gravitation in which the gravitational constant G is taken as unity, thereby defining M = T−2L3. By assuming a form of Coulomb's la...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
four quantities have the following dimensions: T [T]; m [M]; k [M/T2]; and g [L/T2]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, G1 = T2k/m [T2 · M/T2 / M = 1], and putting G1 = C for some dimensionless constant C gives the dimensionless equation sought. The dimensionless pr...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here. When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be "complete" – although it still may involve unknown di...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
energy is proportional to ℓ, and so infer that E = ℓs. The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident. The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables i...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
a state of plane strain will occur. However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known theoretical solution for this case. An engineer might, therefore, be interested in establishing a relationship between the five ...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
are raised to an integer power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication in the module. A basis for such a module of dimensional symbols is called a set of base quantities, and all other vectors are called derived units. As in any module, one ma...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
(and exponentiating) together the measured quantities to produce something with the same unit as some derived quantity X can be expressed in the general form X = ∏ i = 1 m ( π i ) k i . {\displaystyle X=\prod _{i=1}^{m}(\pi _{i})^{k_{i}}\,.} Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the syst...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
two reasons: There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not span the space). Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (V = L/T), is redundant (the set is not linearly independent). === Other fields of physics and...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities. (Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionl...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
i n ) 2 = 1 2 ⋅ − 9.8 ⋅ ( 0.01 2 ) ( m i n / s ) 2 ⋅ m = 1 2 ⋅ − 9.8 ⋅ ( 0.01 2 ) ⋅ 60 2 ⋅ m . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\tfrac {1}{2}}\cdot (\mathrm {-9.8~m/s^{2}} )\cdot (\mathrm {0.01~min} )^{2}\\[10pt]={}&{\tfrac {1}{2}}\cdot -9.8\cdot \left(0.01^{2}\right)(\mathrm {min/s} )^{2}\cdot \mathrm {m} \\[10pt]={}&...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units. === Quantity equations === A quantity equation, also sometimes called a complete equation, is an equation that remains valid independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities. In c...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena. Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way. As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlati...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
commonly occurring expressions in physics, related to the dimensions of energy, momentum, and force. === SI units === == Programming languages == Dimensional correctness as part of type checking has been studied since 1977. Implementations for Ada and C++ were described in 1985 and 1988. Kennedy's 1996 thesis describes...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change). Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them. Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable: addi...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
absolute zero is not the origin 0 in some scales. For absolute zero, −273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F, where the symbol ≘ means corresponds to, since although these values on the respective temperature scales correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting po...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank m {\displaystyle m} of the dimensional matrix. He introduced two approaches: The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally independent. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have Lx represent dim...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
and L, and four parameters, with one equation. However, if we use directed length dimensions, then v x {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {x} }} will be dimensioned as T−1Lx, v y {\displaystyle v_{\mathrm {y} }} as T−1Ly, R as Lx and g as T−2Ly. The dimensional equation becomes: L x = ( T − 1 L x ) a ( T − 1 L y ) b ( T − 2 L y...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts? Are they the same or different? These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems. ==== Quantity of matter ==== In Huntley's second approach, he holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law. Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretat...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the "symmetry of the problem". Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of 1z. For angles, consider an angle θ that lies in the z-plane. Form a...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
cos ⁡ ( θ 1 z ) {\displaystyle \sin(\theta \,1_{\text{z}}+[\pi /2]\,1_{\text{z}})=1_{\text{z}}\cos(\theta \,1_{\text{z}})} ⁠. Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. ...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
c + 1 = 1 {\displaystyle 1_{x}/(1_{y}^{a}1_{z}^{c})=1_{z}^{c+1}=1} ⁠. In other words, that c must be an odd integer. In fact, the required function of theta will be sin(θ)cos(θ) which is a series consisting of odd powers of θ. It is seen that the Taylor series of sin(θ) and cos(θ) are orientationally homogeneous using ...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
from the original on 16 January 2004 Fourier, Joseph (1822), Theorie analytique de la chaleur (in French), Paris: Firmin Didot Gibbings, J.C. (2011), Dimensional Analysis, Springer, ISBN 978-1-84996-316-9 Hart, George W. (1994), "The theory of dimensioned matrices", in Lewis, John G. (ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth SIA...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
doi:10.1038/095066c0 Siano, Donald (1985), "Orientational Analysis – A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis – I", Journal of the Franklin Institute, 320 (6): 267–283, doi:10.1016/0016-0032(85)90031-6 Siano, Donald (1985), "Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units – II...	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
Analysis". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham. Dureisseix, David (2019). An introduction to dimensional analysis (lecture). INSA Lyon.	{ "page_id": 8267, "title": "Dimensional analysis" }
Transplant engineering (or allograft engineering) is a variant of genetic organ engineering which comprises allograft, autograft and xenograft engineering. In allograft engineering the graft is substantially modified by altering its genetic composition. The genetic modification can be permanent or transient. The aim of...	{ "page_id": 63119437, "title": "Transplant engineering" }
A bouillon cube (also known as a stock cube) is dehydrated broth or stock formed into a small cube or other cuboid shape. The most common format is a cube about 13 mm (1⁄2 in) wide. It is typically made from dehydrated vegetables or meat stock, a small portion of fat, MSG, salt, and seasonings, shaped into a small cube...	{ "page_id": 2433102, "title": "Bouillon cube" }
of the bouillon cube is also attributed to Auguste Escoffier, one of the most accomplished French chefs of his time, who also pioneered many other advances in food preservation, such as the canning of tomatoes and vegetables. Industrially produced bouillon cubes were commercialized by Maggi in 1908, by Oxo in 1910, and...	{ "page_id": 2433102, "title": "Bouillon cube" }
A nuclear clock or nuclear optical clock is an atomic clock being developed that will use the energy of a nuclear isomeric transition as its reference frequency, instead of the atomic electron transition energy used by conventional atomic clocks. Such a clock is expected to be more accurate than the best current atomic...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
second) to extraordinarily high accuracy. A device which uses a laser in this way is known as an optical atomic clock. One prominent example of an optical atomic clock is the ytterbium (Yb) lattice clock, where a particular electron transition in the ytterbium-171 isotope is used for laser stabilization. In this case, ...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
In the special case of 229mTh, the energy is sufficient only to eject an outer electron (thorium's first ionization energy is 6.3 eV), and if the atom is already ionized, there is not enough energy to eject a second (thorium's second ionization energy is 11.5 eV). The two decay paths have different half-lives. Neutral ...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
intriguing to embed many nuclei into a crystal lattice environment. This concept is known as the crystal-lattice nuclear clock. Due to the high density of embedded nuclei of up to 1018 per cm3, this concept would allow irradiating a huge number of nuclei in parallel, thereby drastically increasing the achievable signal...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
are that the lifetime of the nuclear excited state is relatively long, thereby leading to a resonance of narrow bandwidth (a high quality factor) and the ground-state nucleus is easily available and sufficiently long-lived to allow one to work with moderate quantities of the material. Fortunately, with 229mTh+ having a...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
double-resonance method. The expected performance of a single-ion nuclear clock was further investigated in 2012 by Corey Campbell et al. with the result that a systematic frequency uncertainty (accuracy) of the clock of 1.5×10−19 could be achieved, which would be by about an order of magnitude better than the accuracy...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
Since 1976, the 229Th nucleus has been known to possess a low energy excited state, whose excitation energy was originally shown to less than 100 eV, and then shown to be less than 10 eV in 1990. This was, however, too broad an energy range to apply high-resolution spectroscopy techniques; the transition energy had to ...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
in a nitrogen or argon atmosphere, and the ionization energy of thorium is 6.3 eV so the nuclei will decay by internal conversion unless prevented (see § Ionization). The energy value remained elusive until 2003, when the nuclear clock proposal triggered a multitude of experimental efforts to pin down the excited state...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
a tunable laser at 8.355733(10) eV and 8.35574(3) eV. The light frequency is now known with sufficient accuracy to enable future construction of a prototype clock, and determine the transition's exact frequency and its stability. Precision frequency measurements began immediately, with Jun Ye's laboratory at JILA makin...	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
of 104. == References == == Further reading == "The 229Th isomer: prospects for a nuclear optical clock" (November 2020) European Physics Journal A. == External links == EU thorium nuclear clock (nuClock) project	{ "page_id": 15278157, "title": "Nuclear clock" }
Polysiphonous describes an algal branch with axial cells each surrounded by cells of the same length as the axial cells. == See also == Monosiphonous algae == References ==	{ "page_id": 57417810, "title": "Polysiphonous" }
The molecular formula C7H9NO2 (molar mass: 139.15 g/mol, exact mass: 139.0633 u) may refer to: Ammonium benzoate Deferiprone (Ferriprox) Gabaculine	{ "page_id": 23994451, "title": "C7H9NO2" }
Food may be accidentally or deliberately contaminated by microbiological, chemical or physical hazards. In contrast to microbiologically caused foodborne illness, the link between exposure and effect of chemical hazards in foods is usually complicated by cumulative low doses and the delay between exposure and the onset...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
century === 1850s – Swill milk scandal in New York 1857 – adulteration of bread with alum in London, causing rickets. 1857 – Esing Bakery incident: poisoning of bread with arsenic in Hong Kong targeting the colonial community. 1858 – sweets poisoned with arsenic in Bradford, England. === 1900 to 1949 === 1900 – 1900 En...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
containing significant quantities of Lathyrus sativus, a species of pea that was normally used to feed livestock. A team of doctors among the inmates, led by Dr. Arthur Kessler of Cernăuţi, reached the conclusion that the disease presented all the symptoms of lathyrism, a spastic paralysis caused by the oxalyldiaminopr...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
to the use of trimmings from pentachlorophenol-treated cow hides at rendering plants. 1959 – Moroccan oil poisoning disaster: several thousand people in Meknes suffer flaccid paralysis caused by deliberate contamination of cooking oil with jet engine lubricating oil containing tricresyl phosphate got as surplus from a ...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
and adjacent areas of South Dakota and Iowa. 1985 – Aldicarb pesticide residue present in watermelons grown in California caused an outbreak of pesticide food poisoning which affected over 2,000 people, and lead to a temporary ban on watermelon sales. 1985 – Adulteration of Austrian wines with diethylene glycol. 1986 –...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
mexicana seed oil caused epidemic dropsy in thousands of people, because Argemone mexicana seed oil contains the toxic alkaloids sanguinarine and dihydrosanguinarine. Over 60 people died and more than 3000 were hospitalized in the 1998 incident. Similar incidents have occurred in India since that time: in 2000 at Gwali...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
a breakfast shop in the city of Nanjing. More than 300 were also seriously injured. The authority later tried and executed a man who was said to have deliberately poisoned his rival shop's food. 2003 – Dioxins were found in animal feed that was contaminated with bakery waste that had been dried by firing with waste woo...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
products were recalled. 2004 – Aflatoxin-contaminated maize in Kenya resulted in 317 cases of hepatic failure and 125 deaths. 2004 – EHEC O104:H4 in South Korea, researchers pointed at contaminated hamburgers as a possible cause. 2005 – Worcester sauce in the UK was found to contain the banned food colouring, Sudan I d...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
used to dilute wines. 2008 – In Italy, dioxin was found in buffalo milk from farms in Caserta. The probable source was groundwater contamination from illegal waste dumping in the Triangle of death (Italy). 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak – an outbreak of salmonellosis across multiple U.S. states linked to jal...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
2011 – Vinegar from China contaminated with ethylene glycol when stored in tanks that previously contained antifreeze, led to 11 deaths and an estimated 120 cases of illness. 2011 – Meat, eggs and egg products in Germany contaminated from animal feed containing fat contaminated with dioxins. 4,700 German farms affected...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
2013, March – A batch of 1800 almond cakes with butter cream and butterscotch from the Swedish supplier, Almondy, on its way to the IKEA store in Shanghai were found by Chinese authorities to have a too high amount of coliform bacteria and were subsequently destroyed. 2013, March – A vegetable seller in western Germany...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
noodles made headlines in India, with some seven times the allowed limit; several Indian states banned the product, as did Nepal. 2015, July – 2015 Caraga candy poisonings in the Philippines 2015, November–December – United States E. coli outbreak 2016, February–March – Mars Chocolates contamination incident, in which ...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
16 were left disabled after an ethylene glycol contamination in Brazilian craft beers produced in Minas Gerais. Made by Backer, the "Belorizontina" branded beers first showed issues in January 2019, but this information wasn't presented to health officials. When inspected, the production was shown to be irregular, with...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
=== 2021 to present === 2021 – Butterball recalled over 14,000 lbs of turkey meat due to suspected plastic contamination. 2022 – Abbott Nutrition recalled Similac baby formula after the death of an infant from Cronobacter sakazakii. The recall caused significant shortages in baby formula across the United States. 2022 ...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
the value of audit and assurance regimes targeted government support for the integrity and assurance of food supply networks leadership, and crisis management in response to any serious food safety or food crime incident. == See also == Adulterated food in the United States List of foodborne illness outbreaks by death ...	{ "page_id": 23666772, "title": "List of food contamination incidents" }
Community respiration (CR) refers to the total amount of carbon-dioxide that is produced by individuals organisms in a given community, originating from the cellular respiration of organic material. CR is an important ecological index as it dictates the amount of production for the higher trophic levels and influence b...	{ "page_id": 51388505, "title": "Community respiration" }
amount of oxygen used in the environment specifically for metabolic requirements. Since cellular respiration has been studied in depth across all taxa, research surrounding the process can have many further biological implications. Community respiration is a good example, but our data is low. More research needs to be ...	{ "page_id": 51388505, "title": "Community respiration" }
References ==	{ "page_id": 51388505, "title": "Community respiration" }
The Lander–Green algorithm is an algorithm, due to Eric Lander and Philip Green for computing the likelihood of observed genotype data given a pedigree. It is appropriate for relatively small pedigrees and a large number of markers. It is used in the analysis of genetic linkage. == References ==	{ "page_id": 17440858, "title": "Lander–Green algorithm" }
The molecular formula C9H13NO (molar mass : 151.20 g/mol, exact mass : 151.099714) may refer to : Cathine Gepefrine Halostachine 4-Hydroxyamphetamine N-Methyltyramine L-Norpseudoephedrine Phenylalaninol Phenylpropanolamine, a psychoactive drug	{ "page_id": 24059995, "title": "C9H13NO" }
Mechanical impedance is a measure of how much a structure resists motion when subjected to a harmonic force. It relates forces with velocities acting on a mechanical system. The mechanical impedance of a point on a structure is the ratio of the force applied at a point to the resulting velocity at that point. Mechanica...	{ "page_id": 3219545, "title": "Mechanical impedance" }
== Acoustic impedance Frequency response Impedance analogy Linear response function == References ==	{ "page_id": 3219545, "title": "Mechanical impedance" }
The molecular formula C6H14N2O may refer to: N-Acetylputrescine Methyl-n-amylnitrosamine	{ "page_id": 27271262, "title": "C6H14N2O" }
revoscalepy is a machine learning package in Python created by Microsoft. It is available as part of Machine Learning Services in Microsoft SQL Server 2017 and Machine Learning Server 9.2.0 and later. The package contains functions for creating linear model, logistic regression, random forest, decision tree and boosted...	{ "page_id": 57090143, "title": "Revoscalepy" }
Activated protein C–protein C inhibitor (APC-PCI) is a complex of activated protein C (APC) and protein C inhibitor (PCI). It has been measured in coagulation testing to evaluate coagulation, thrombosis, and other cardiovascular complications. It is a marker of thrombin generation and indicates hypercoagulability. The ...	{ "page_id": 70721631, "title": "Activated protein C–protein C inhibitor" }
state. This 1:1 stoichiometry binding permanently neutralizes APC, thus terminating its anticoagulant and cytoprotective actions. This regulatory mechanism is crucial in controlling coagulation. While APC functions to inactivate procoagulant factors Va and VIIIa, thereby preventing thrombin formation, unchecked activit...	{ "page_id": 70721631, "title": "Activated protein C–protein C inhibitor" }
of upstream coagulation cascade variability. == Diagnostic and Research Applications == Due to its specificity and stability, APC–PCI is frequently employed in clinical research and diagnostic testing. Elevated plasma levels indicate ongoing thrombin generation and counter-regulatory anticoagulant responses. It is part...	{ "page_id": 70721631, "title": "Activated protein C–protein C inhibitor" }
In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA an...	{ "page_id": 1056866, "title": "GC-content" }
it has been shown that there is a strong correlation between the optimal growth of prokaryotes at higher temperatures and the GC-content of structural RNAs such as ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, and many other non-coding RNAs. The AU base pairs are less stable than the GC base pairs, making high-GC-content RNA structures...	{ "page_id": 1056866, "title": "GC-content" }
accurately calculated by simple arithmetic or by using a variety of publicly available software tools, such as the free online GC calculator. == Genomic content == === Within-genome variation === The GC-ratio within a genome is found to be markedly variable. These variations in GC-ratio within the genomes of more compl...	{ "page_id": 1056866, "title": "GC-content" }
a genome with a GC-content approaching either 0% or 100%. However, a species with an extremely low GC-content is Plasmodium falciparum (GC% = ~20%), and it is usually common to refer to such examples as being AT-rich instead of GC-poor. Several mammalian species (e.g., shrew, microbat, tenrec, rabbit) have independentl...	{ "page_id": 1056866, "title": "GC-content" }
Taxonomic browser of bacteria based on GC ratio on NCBI website. GC ratio in diverse species.	{ "page_id": 1056866, "title": "GC-content" }
Iron acetate can refer to: Iron(III) acetate (ferric acetate), [Fe3O(CH3CO2−)6(H2O)3]CH3CO2− Iron(II) acetate (ferrous acetate), Fe(CH3COO)2 == See also == kanemizu (鉄奨水, lit. 'iron juice water'), a solution of Iron(III) acetate used to blacken teeth	{ "page_id": 9904228, "title": "Iron acetate" }
The term "thermal energy" is often used ambiguously in physics and engineering. It can denote several different physical concepts, including: Internal energy: The energy contained within a body of matter or radiation, excluding the potential energy of the whole system. Heat: Energy in transfer between a system and its ...	{ "page_id": 467047, "title": "Thermal energy" }
in a process in which chemical potential energy is converted into non-chemical energy. In such a process, the thermodynamic system can change its internal energy by doing work on its surroundings, or by gaining or losing energy as heat. It is not quite lucid to merely say that "the converted chemical potential energy h...	{ "page_id": 467047, "title": "Thermal energy" }
is no accompanying flow of matter, the term "thermal energy" is also applied to the energy carried by a heat flow. == See also == Geothermal energy Geothermal heating Geothermal power Heat transfer Ocean thermal energy conversion Orders of magnitude (temperature) Thermal energy storage == References ==	{ "page_id": 467047, "title": "Thermal energy" }
The molecular formula C19H26O2 (molar mass: 286.40 g/mol, exact mass: 286.19328) may refer to: Androstenedione, a natural steroid 1-Androstenedione, a synthetic anabolic steroid 5-Androstenedione, a synthetic anabolic steroid Boldenone, an anabolic steroid for veterinary use Cannabichromevarin, a cannabinoid, CBCV Cann...	{ "page_id": 24060013, "title": "C19H26O2" }
Distillation, also classical distillation, is the process of separating the component substances of a liquid mixture of two or more chemically discrete substances; the separation process is realized by way of the selective boiling of the mixture and the condensation of the vapors in a still. Distillation can operate ov...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
some applications of the chemical separation process that is distillation: Distilling fermented products to yield alcoholic beverages with a high content by volume of ethyl alcohol. Desalination to produce potable water and for medico-industrial applications. Crude oil stabilisation, a partial distillation to reduce th...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
filtration, crystallization, extraction, sublimation, or mechanical pressing of oil.According to Dutch chemical historian Robert J. Forbes, the word distillare (to drip off) when used by the Romans, e.g. Seneca and Pliny the Elder, was "never used in our sense". ==== Aristotle ==== Aristotle knew that water condensing ...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
substances. The fractional distillation of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the Kitāb al-Sabʿīn ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114–1187) under the title Liber de septuaginta. The Jabirian experiments with fractional distill...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. Right after that, in 1518, the oldest surviving distillery in Europe, The Green Tree Distillery, was founded. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation, the first major English compendium on the practic...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound. In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and reflux, were developed. In 1822, Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and then, in 1826, Robert Stein improved that design to make his pa...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation are that laboratory scale distillation is often performed on a batch basis, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds, and the distillate chang...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
the mole fraction. This law applies to ideal solutions, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions. Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a mult...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is when the vapor phase and liquid phase contain the same composition. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mi...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This resul...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor–liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may ...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints. Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, a vacuum p...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
in a cooling bath (blue, 16). The adapter 10 has a connection 9 that may be fitted to a vacuum pump. The components are connected by ground glass joints. === Fractional distillation === For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into co...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water. Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products: an essential oil as well as a watery herbal dist...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils. === Short path distillation === Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the dis...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitro...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
this can be achieved with regular oil or diaphragm pump. === Other types === The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and remo...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }
products. The Bleidner apparatus is another example with two refluxing solvents. Membrane distillation is a type of distillation in which vapors of a mixture to be separated are passed through a membrane, which selectively permeates one component of mixture. Vapor pressure difference is the driving force. It has potent...	{ "page_id": 8301, "title": "Distillation" }

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