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works in discrete spectra, the spectrum Γ {\displaystyle \Gamma } is divided in N discrete values with a difference between them of Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } , such that Δ = E max − E min N {\displaystyle \Delta ={\frac {E_{\max }-E_{\min }}{N}}} . Given this discrete spectrum, the algorithm is initialized by: setting ...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
{g({\boldsymbol {r}}'\rightarrow {\boldsymbol {r}})}{g({\boldsymbol {r}}\rightarrow {\boldsymbol {r}}')}}\right)} where S = S ( E ( r ) ) {\displaystyle S=S(E({\boldsymbol {r}}))} and S ′ = S ( E ( r ′ ) ) {\displaystyle S'=S(E({\boldsymbol {r}}'))} . After each proposal-acceptance step, the system transits to some val...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
( x ) = x 2 , {\displaystyle E(x)=x^{2},\,} The analytical DOS is given by, ρ ( E ) = ∫ δ ( E ( x ) − E ) d x = ∫ δ ( x 2 − E ) d x , {\displaystyle \rho (E)=\int \delta (E(x)-E)\,dx=\int \delta (x^{2}-E)\,dx,} by performing the last integral we obtain ρ ( E ) ∝ { E − 1 / 2 , for x ∈ R 1 const , for x ∈ R 2 E 1 / 2 , f...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
is Statistical Temperature Molecular Dynamics (STMD), developed by Jaegil Kim et al at Boston University. An essential first step was made with the Statistical Temperature Monte Carlo (STMC) algorithm. WLMC requires an extensive increase in the number of energy bins with system size, caused by working directly with the...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
( E ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {T}}(E)} gives a continuum expression of the estimated S ( E ) {\displaystyle S(E)} upon integration of its inverse, allowing the use of larger energy bins than in WL. Different values of S ( E ) {\displaystyle S(E)} are available within the same energy bin when evaluating the acceptance pr...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
{\displaystyle e^{+S(E)}} , their product gives flat energy sampling. The forces are calculated as F = ( − d / d x ) T 0 S ( E ) = T 0 ( d S / d E ) ( − d / d x ) E ( [ x ] ) = ( T 0 / T ( E ) ) F 0 {\displaystyle F=(-d/dx)T_{0}S(E)=T_{0}(dS/dE)(-d/dx)E([x])=(T_{0}/T(E))F^{0}} where F 0 {\displaystyle F^{0}} denotes th...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
and applied to several systems by them and others. It was recognized by D. Stelter that despite our emphasis on working with intensive quantities, l n ( f ) {\displaystyle ln(f)} is extensive. However δ f = ( l n ( f ) / 2 Δ E ) {\displaystyle \delta f=(ln(f)/2\Delta E)} is intensive, and the procedure f → f {\displays...	{ "page_id": 17506694, "title": "Wang and Landau algorithm" }
In statistical mechanics, multiplicity (also called statistical weight) refers to the number of microstates corresponding to a particular macrostate of a thermodynamic system. Commonly denoted Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } , it is related to the configuration entropy of an isolated system via Boltzmann's entropy formula S ...	{ "page_id": 8921481, "title": "Multiplicity (statistical mechanics)" }
N ↑ = 0 , 1 , 2. {\displaystyle N_{\uparrow }=0,1,2.} Since the N ↑ = 0 {\displaystyle N_{\uparrow }=0} and N ↑ = 2 {\displaystyle N_{\uparrow }=2} macrostates require both dipoles to be either anti-aligned or aligned, respectively, the multiplicity of either of these states is 1. However, in the N ↑ = 1 , {\displaysty...	{ "page_id": 8921481, "title": "Multiplicity (statistical mechanics)" }
==	{ "page_id": 8921481, "title": "Multiplicity (statistical mechanics)" }
Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It is used to improve the quality of plant products for use by humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varieties that boast unique and superior traits for a variety of applications. Th...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
species created for Morocco are currently being crossed with plants to create new varieties for northern France. Soy beans, which were previously grown predominantly in the south of France, are now grown in southern Germany. == History == Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domesticat...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding parent, (backcrossing). The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield (selection, as described above) and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce inbred va...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
Shull. It describes the tendency of the progeny of a specific cross to outperform both parents. The detection of the usefulness of heterosis for plant breeding has led to the development of inbred lines that reveal a heterotic yield advantage when they are crossed. Maize was the first species where heterosis was widely...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
cell and thus allow the production of a fertile line. Failure to produce a hybrid may be due to pre- or post-fertilization incompatibility. If fertilization is possible between two species or genera, the hybrid embryo may abort before maturation. If this does occur the embryo resulting from an interspecific or intergen...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
genetic contribution of the mildew resistant parent. Classical breeding is therefore a cyclical process. With classical breeding techniques, the breeder does not know exactly what genes have been introduced to the new cultivars. Some scientists therefore argue that plants produced by classical breeding methods should u...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
genomes with genes that code for different proteins, but many are also the same. If a gene's location and function is identified in one plant species, a very similar gene likely can also be found in a similar location in another related species genome. === Doubled haploidy and reverse breeding === Homozygous plants wit...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
plant, or by knocking down a gene with RNAi, to produce a desirable phenotype. The plants resulting from adding a gene are often referred to as transgenic plants. If for genetic modification genes of the species or of a crossable plant are used under control of their native promoter, then they are called cisgenic plant...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
to plants that have introduced resistance to insect pests and herbicides. Insect resistance is achieved through incorporation of a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that encodes a protein that is toxic to some insects. For example, the cotton bollworm, a common cotton pest, feeds on Bt cotton it will ingest the tox...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
varieties entering the marketplace are both safe and meet farmers' needs. Examples include variety registration, seed schemes, regulatory authorizations for GM plants, etc. === Breeding and the microbiome === Industrial breeding of plants has unintentionally altered how agricultural cultivars associate with their micro...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
model and non-model plants. This in turn has led to employing large-scale SNP markers in genomic selection approaches which aim at predicting genomic breeding values/GEBVs of genotypes in a given population. This method can increase the selection accuracy and decrease the time of each breeding cycle. It has been used i...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
have also been used in Nepal with bean landraces. In 1929, Harlan and Martini proposed a method of plant breeding with heterogeneous populations by pooling an equal number of F2 seeds obtained from 378 crosses among 28 geographically diverse barley cultivars. In 1938, Harlan and Martini demonstrated evolution by natura...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
Composite Cross Population (CCP). The entire offspring is sown to grow and set seed. As the number of plants in the population increases, a proportion of the harvested seed is saved for sowing. Stage 4: The seed can be used for continued evolutionary plant breeding or as a starting point for a conventional breeding eff...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
seed on a regional level. Efforts to strengthen breeders' rights, for example, by lengthening periods of variety protection, are ongoing. Intellectual property legislation for plants often uses definitions that typically include genetic uniformity and unchanging appearance over generations. These legal definitions of s...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
others are propagated by seeds. Seed propagated cultivars require specific control over seed source and production procedures to maintain the integrity of the plant breeds results. Isolation is necessary to prevent cross contamination with related plants or the mixing of seeds after harvesting. Isolation is normally ac...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
technology gave breeders the ability to screen thousands of samples within a small amount of time, meaning breeders could identify a high performing hybrid quicker. The genetic improvement was mainly in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) resulting in 0.7-2.5% increase, at just 1% increase in IVDMD a single Bos Taur...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
growers to control their production environments. Breeding varieties specifically adapted to the unique conditions of organic agriculture is critical for this sector to realize its full potential. This requires selection for traits such as: Water use efficiency Nutrient use efficiency (particularly nitrogen and phospho...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
a single individual. Molecular markers are not currently available for many important traits, especially complex ones controlled by many genes. == List of notable plant breeders == Yvonne Aitken Norman Borlaug Luther Burbank Keith Downey Thomas Andrew Knight Niels Ebbesen Hansen Nazareno Strampelli Nikolai Vavilov == S...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
Complement or contradiction? CGIAR Program on Participatory Research and Gender Analysis, Working Document No.4, CIAT: Cali. 150pp. Deppe, Carol (2000). Breed Your Own Vegetable Varieties. Chelsea Green Publishing. == External links == Plant Breeding and Genomics eXtension Community of Practice – education and training...	{ "page_id": 30876044, "title": "Plant breeding" }
The molecular formula C19H32 (molar mass: 260.46 g/mol, exact mass: 260.2504 u) may refer to: Androstane Etiocholane, also known as 5β-androstane or 5-epiandrostane	{ "page_id": 26878351, "title": "C19H32" }
Low-rank matrix approximations are essential tools in the application of kernel methods to large-scale learning problems. Kernel methods (for instance, support vector machines or Gaussian processes) project data points into a high-dimensional or infinite-dimensional feature space and find the optimal splitting hyperpla...	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
the method is that it is not necessary to compute or store the whole kernel matrix, but only a submatrix of size d × D {\displaystyle d\times D} . It reduces the storage and complexity requirements to O ( D d ) {\displaystyle O(Dd)} and O ( D d 2 ) {\displaystyle O(Dd^{2})} respectively. The method is named "Nyström ap...	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
{\displaystyle K_{11}} is positive semidefinite. === Properties === By Mercer's theorem, we can decompose the kernel matrix as a Gram matrix: K = X T X {\textstyle K=X^{T}X} , where X ∈ R N × D {\textstyle X\in \mathbb {R} ^{N\times D}} . Let X ′ {\textstyle X'} be the left d {\textstyle d} columns of X {\textstyle X} ...	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
q T ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}(K+\lambda nI)^{-1}&={\frac {1}{\lambda n}}\left({\frac {1}{\lambda n}}K+I\right)^{-1}\\&={\frac {1}{\lambda n}}\left(I+K_{n,q}({\lambda n}K_{q})^{-1}K_{n,q}^{\text{T}}\right)^{-1}\\&={\frac {1}{\lambda n}}\left(I-K_{n,q}(\lambda nK_{q}+K_{n,q}^{\text{T}}K_{n,q})^{-1}K_{n,q}^{\text{...	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
randomly chosen, then the data points are projected on it by the mappings. The resulting scalar is passed through a sinusoid. The product of the transformed points will approximate a shift-invariant kernel. Since the map is smooth, random Fourier features work well on interpolation tasks. === Random binning features ==...	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
the random features based approach. == See also == Nyström method Support vector machine Radial basis function kernel Regularized least squares == External links == Andreas Müller (2012). Kernel Approximations for Efficient SVMs (and other feature extraction methods). == References ==	{ "page_id": 48832912, "title": "Low-rank matrix approximations" }
Viniferin may refer to: α-Viniferin, a stilbine trimer β-Viniferin, a resveratrol cyclic tetramer δ-Viniferin, a resveratrol dehydrodimer ε-Viniferin, a resveratrol dimer γ-Viniferin, a more highly polymerised oligomer of resveratrol R-Viniferin, a synonym for the stilbenoid Vitisin B R2-Viniferin, a synonym for the st...	{ "page_id": 24650132, "title": "Viniferin" }
Attosecond chronoscopy are measurement techniques for attosecond-scale delays of atomic and molecular single photon processes like photoemission[1] and photoionization. Ionization-delay measurements in atomic targets provide information about the timing of the photoelectric effect, resonances, electron correlations, an...	{ "page_id": 67838357, "title": "Attosecond chronoscopy" }
(3). American Physical Society (APS): 765–802. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.87.765. ISSN 0034-6861. Seiffert, L.; Liu, Q.; Zherebtsov, S.; Trabattoni, A.; Rupp, P.; Castrovilli, M. C.; Galli, M.; Süßmann, F.; Wintersperger, K.; Stierle, J.; Sansone, G.; Poletto, L.; Frassetto, F.; Halfpap, I.; Mondes, V.; Graf, C.; Rühl, E.;...	{ "page_id": 67838357, "title": "Attosecond chronoscopy" }
Dimethoxycoumarin may refer to: Citropten (5,7-dimethoxycoumarin) Scoparone (6,7-dimethoxycoumarin)	{ "page_id": 39657878, "title": "Dimethoxycoumarin" }
A plasma channel is a conductive channel of plasma. A plasma channel can be formed in the following ways. With a high-powered laser that operates at a certain frequency that will provide enough energy for an atmospheric gas to break into its ions, or form a plasma, such as in a Laser-Induced Plasma Channel, for example...	{ "page_id": 4923796, "title": "Plasma channel" }
4-PPBP is a neuroprotective cyclic amine which binds to sigma receptors. 4-PPBP decreases neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) activity and ischemia-evoked nitric oxide (NO) production. 4-PPBP provides neuroprotection; this involves the prevention of ischemia-induced intracellular Ca2+ dysregulation. 4-PPBP protects n...	{ "page_id": 11805081, "title": "4-PPBP" }
Diffraction is the deviation of waves from straight-line propagation without any change in their energy due to an obstacle or through an aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a secondary source of the propagating wave. Diffraction is the same physical effect as interference, but interference ...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the f...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
understanding of light propagation through a slit (or slits) every photon is described by its wavefunction that determines the probability distribution for the photon: the light and dark bands are the areas where the photons are more or less likely to be detected. The wavefunction is determined by the physical surround...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
no change in energy during the diffraction process. For matter waves a similar but slightly different approach is used based upon a relativistically corrected form of the Schrödinger equation, as first detailed by Hans Bethe. The Fraunhofer and Fresnel limits exist for these as well, although they correspond more to ap...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a corona - a bright disc and rings around a bright light source like the sun or the moon. At the opposite point one may also observe glory - bright rings around the shadow of the observer. In contrast to the corona, glory requires the particles to be transparent spheres (l...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
space downstream of the slit. Assuming that the slit behaves as though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the slit interference effects can be calculated. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
\theta _{\text{min}}} given by d sin ⁡ θ min = λ , {\displaystyle d\,\sin \theta _{\text{min}}=\lambda ,} where d {\displaystyle d} is the width of the slit, θ min {\displaystyle \theta _{\text{min}}} is the angle of incidence at which the minimum intensity occurs, and λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is the wavelength of th...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
λ {\displaystyle d\ll \lambda } , the intensity will have little dependency on θ {\displaystyle \theta } , hence the wavefront emerging from the slit would resemble a cylindrical wave with azimuthal symmetry; If d ≫ λ {\displaystyle d\gg \lambda } , only θ ≈ 0 {\displaystyle \theta \approx 0} would have appreciable int...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
interference patterns. The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different. === Circular aperture === The far-field diffraction of a plane ...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and using the physics time convention e − i ω t {\displaystyle e^{-i\omega t}} ) is ψ ( r ) = e i k r 4 π r . {\displaystyle \psi (r)={\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}.} This solution assumes that the...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the Green's function, ψ ( r \| r ′ ) = e i k \| r − r ′ \| 4 π \| r − r ′ \| , {\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {r} \|\mathbf {r} ')={\frac {e^{ik\|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} '\|}}{4\pi \|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} '\|}},} simplifies to ψ ( r \| r ′ ) = e i k r 4 π r...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
x ′ , y ′ ) e − i k sin ⁡ θ ( cos ⁡ ϕ x ′ + sin ⁡ ϕ y ′ ) d x ′ d y ′ . {\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm {aperture} }\!\!E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-ik\sin \theta (\cos \phi x'+\sin \phi y')}\,dx'\,dy'.} Letting k x = k sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle k_{x}=k\sin \theta \c...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
divergence of a laser beam by first expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting beam has a larger diameter, and hence a lower divergence. Divergence of a laser beam may be reduced below the diffraction of...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
{\displaystyle \theta \approx \sin \theta =1.22{\frac {\lambda }{D}},} where D {\displaystyle D} is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a telescope's main mirror). Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary star. As the point sources move closer together...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
truncation of a portion of the incident radiation that strikes a sharp well-defined obstacle, such as a mountain range or the wall of a building. The knife-edge effect is explained by the Huygens–Fresnel principle, which states that a well-defined obstruction to an electromagnetic wave acts as a secondary source, and c...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
diffraction == According to quantum theory every particle exhibits wave properties and can therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons and neutrons is one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum mechanics. The wavelength associated with a non-relativistic particle is the de Broglie wavelength λ = h p , {\display...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
of crystallographic planes d {\displaystyle d} , allowing one to deduce the crystal structure. For completeness, Bragg diffraction is a limit for a large number of atoms with X-rays or neutrons, and is rarely valid for electron diffraction or with solid particles in the size range of less than 50 nanometers. == Coheren...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence length. In the case of Young's double-slit experiment, this would mean that if the transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single-slit diffraction patterns.: 74–79 In t...	{ "page_id": 8603, "title": "Diffraction" }
The molecular formula C28H22O6 (molar mass: 454.47 g/mol, exact mass: 454.141638 u) may refer to : Ampelopsin B, a resveratrol oligomer Cyphostemmin A, a resveratrol dimer Cyphostemmin B, a resveratrol dimer Delta-viniferin, a resveratrol dimer Epsilon-viniferin, a resveratrol dimer Pallidol, a resveratrol dimer Quadra...	{ "page_id": 24650140, "title": "C28H22O6" }
Calthemite is a secondary deposit, derived from concrete, lime, mortar or other calcareous material outside the cave environment. Calthemites grow on or under man-made structures and mimic the shapes and forms of cave speleothems, such as stalactites, stalagmites, flowstone etc. Calthemite is derived from the Latin cal...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which is predominantly coloured white, but may be coloured red, orange or yellow due to iron oxide (from rusting reinforcing) being transported by the leachate and deposited along with the CaCO3. Copper oxide from copper pipes may cause calthemites to be coloured green or blue. Calthemites may...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
depend on what other chemical reactions are also occurring at the same time within the concrete. This reaction occurs in newly poured concrete as it sets, to precipitate CaCO3 within the mix, until all available CO2 in the mix has been used up. Additional CO2 from the atmosphere will continue to react, typically penetr...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
lime, mortar or concrete structures, possibly tens or hundreds of years old, the calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) may have been leached from all the solution seepage paths and the pH could fall below pH 9. This could allow a similar process to that which creates speleothems in limestone caves [Equations 5 to 8] to occur. He...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
reaction back to [Equation 2]. The chemistry of concrete degradation is quite complex and only the chemistry relating to calcium carbonate deposition is considered in [Equations 1 to 9]. Calcium is also part of other hydration products in concrete, such as calcium aluminium hydrates and calcium aluminium iron hydrate. ...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
rate and continuity of the saturated leachate solution to the location of CaCO3 deposition. The concentration of atmospheric CO2 in contact with the leachate, also has a large influence on how quickly the CaCO3 can precipitate from the leachate. Evaporation of the leachate solution and ambient atmospheric temperature a...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
diameter as they grow in length. Changes in diameter can take a matter of days or weeks and are due to changes in drip rate over time. A slow dripping calthemite straw tends to be slightly larger in diameter than a fast-dripping straw. == Calcite rafts on solution drops == Calcite rafts were first observed by Allison i...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
reaches the ground. Their location may also inhibit their growth due to abrasion from vehicle tires and pedestrian traffic. == Rimstone or gours == Calthemite rimstone or gours can form beneath concrete structures on a floor with a gradual sloping surface or on the side of rounded stalagmites. When the leachate drip ra...	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
J. Chem. Educ., 94 (2017) 1492–1497 doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00215	{ "page_id": 52502945, "title": "Calthemite" }
A hydathode is a type of pore, commonly found in vascular plants, that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or leaf margin, typically at the tip of a marginal tooth or serration. Hydathodes occur in the leaves of submerged aquatic plants such as Ranunculus fluitans as well as herbaceous plants of drier habitat...	{ "page_id": 3023266, "title": "Hydathode" }
A refrigerator truck or chiller lorry (also called a reefer), is a van or truck designed to carry perishable freight at low temperatures. Most long-distance refrigerated transport by truck is done in articulated trucks pulling refrigerated hardside (box) semi-trailers, although insulated curtainsiders are common in som...	{ "page_id": 8790435, "title": "Refrigerator truck" }
AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT AND THEIR APPLICATIONS // IGNOU, School of Engineering & Technology, BME - 032; chapter 7.5 TRANSPORT REFRIGERATION - section "7.5.1 Refrigerated Trucks and Trailers", page 103 refrigerated truck factory	{ "page_id": 8790435, "title": "Refrigerator truck" }
The Pauly reaction is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of tyrosine or histidine in proteins. It is named after German chemist Hermann Pauly, who first described the reaction. When proteins containing either tyrosine or histidine are reacted with diazotized sulfanilic acid under alkaline conditions, a red...	{ "page_id": 42410403, "title": "Pauly reaction" }
Progeria is a specific type of progeroid syndrome, also known as Hutchinson–Gilford syndrome or Hutchinson–Gilford progeroid syndrome (HGPS). A single gene mutation is responsible for causing progeria. The affected gene, known as lamin A (LMNA), makes a protein necessary for holding the cell nucleus together. When this...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
of body fat and muscle, stiff joints, hip dislocations, and other symptoms generally absent in the non-elderly population. Individuals usually retain typical mental and motor function. == Pathophysiology == Hutchinson-Gilford progeroid syndrome (HGPS) is an extremely rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder in which sy...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
STE24 (ZMPSTE24), which removes the last 15 amino acids, which includes the farnesylated cysteine. After cleavage by the protease, prelamin A is referred to as lamin A. In most mammalian cells, lamin A, along with lamin B1, lamin B2, and lamin C, makes up the nuclear lamina, which provides shape and stability to the in...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
are known. They can manifest as changes in mRNA, splicing, or protein amino acid sequence (e.g. Arg471Cys, Arg482Gln, Arg527Leu, Arg527Cys, and Ala529Val). Progerin may also play a role in normal human aging, since its production is activated in typical senescent cells. Unlike other "accelerated aging diseases", such a...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
as RNA and DNA synthesis. Prelamin A contains a CAAX box at the C-terminus of the protein (where C is a cysteine and A is any aliphatic amino acids). This ensures that the cysteine is farnesylated and allows prelamin A to bind membranes, specifically the nuclear membrane. After prelamin A has been localized to the cell...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
be elucidated, it has been proposed that low PGC1-α expression (important for mitochondrial biogenesis, maintenance and function) along with low LAMP2 protein level and lysosome number (both important for mitophagy: the degradation of defective mitochondria pathway), could be implicated. == Diagnosis == Skin changes, a...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
in order to reduce progerin production. Antisense Morpholino oligonucleotides specifically directed against the mutated exon 11–exon 12 junction in the mutated pre-mRNAs were used. A type of anticancer drug, the farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs), has been proposed, but their use has been mostly limited to animal mo...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
phenotype as well as the mitochondrial function (an important determinant in senescence) and lysosome content. These results are under in vivo validation with selinexor (a more suitable CRM1 inhibitor for human use). == Prognosis == As there is no known cure, life expectancy of people with progeria is 15 years, as of 2...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
was known to carry the LMNA mutation that causes progeria. One family from India had four of six children with progeria. == Research == === Mouse model === A mouse model of progeria exists, though in the mouse, the LMNA prelamin A is not mutated. Instead, ZMPSTE24, the specific protease that is required to remove the C...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
of aging. === Etymology === The word progeria comes from the Greek words pro (πρό) 'before, premature', and gēras (γῆρας), 'old age'. == Society and culture == === Notable cases === In 1987, fifteen-year-old Mickey Hays, who had progeria, appeared along with Jack Elam in the documentary I Am Not a Freak. Elam and Hays ...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
a Catalan girl with progeria; she has inspired the book Una nena entre vint milions ('A girl in 20 million'), a children's book to explain progeria to youngsters. Adalia Rose Williams, born December 10, 2006, was an American girl with progeria, who was a notable YouTuber and vlogger who shared her everyday life on soci...	{ "page_id": 205224, "title": "Progeria" }
In acoustics, acoustic dispersion is the phenomenon of a sound wave separating into its component frequencies as it passes through a material. The phase velocity of the sound wave is viewed as a function of frequency. Hence, separation of component frequencies is measured by the rate of change in phase velocities as th...	{ "page_id": 26157481, "title": "Acoustic dispersion" }
Tryptophan pyrrolase may refer to: Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase, an enzyme Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38347181, "title": "Tryptophan pyrrolase" }
In theoretical physics, the weak gravity conjecture (WGC) is a conjecture regarding the strength gravity can have in a theory of quantum gravity relative to the gauge forces in that theory. It roughly states that gravity should be the weakest force in any consistent theory of quantum gravity. It was first proposed by N...	{ "page_id": 49226157, "title": "Weak gravity conjecture" }
Effective torque (often referred to as wheel torque or torque to the wheels) is a concept primarily associated with automotive tuning. Torque can be measured using a dynamometer. Common units used in automotive applications can include foot-pounds and Newton·meters. The formula for effective torque to the wheels is: Tw...	{ "page_id": 5710256, "title": "Effective torque" }
A nanoknife is a carbon nanotube-based prototype compression cutting tool intended for sectioning of biological cells. Working principle is similar to that of a 'cheese slicer', a nanometer-thin individual carbon nanotube strung between two tungsten needles would allow sectioning of very thin slices of biological matte...	{ "page_id": 26616241, "title": "Nanoknife" }
Ecological traps are scenarios in which rapid environmental change leads organisms to prefer to settle in poor-quality habitats. The concept stems from the idea that organisms that are actively selecting habitat must rely on environmental cues to help them identify high-quality habitat. If either the habitat quality or...	{ "page_id": 13377974, "title": "Ecological trap" }
and empirical studies have shown that errors made in judging habitat quality can lead to population declines or extinction. Such mismatches are not limited to habitat selection, but may occur in any behavioral context (e.g. predator avoidance, mate selection, navigation, foraging site selection, etc.). Ecological traps...	{ "page_id": 13377974, "title": "Ecological trap" }
new empirical examples are being published at an accelerating rate. There are now roughly 30 examples of ecological traps affecting a broad diversity of taxa including birds, mammals, arthropods, fish and reptiles. Because ecological and evolutionary traps are still very poorly understood phenomena, many questions abou...	{ "page_id": 13377974, "title": "Ecological trap" }
feeding/breeding habitat and oviposition sites (Schwind 1991; Horváth and Kriska 2008). Because of their strong linear polarization signature, artificial polarizing surfaces (e.g., asphalt, gravestones, cars, plastic sheeting, oil pools, windows) are commonly mistaken for bodies of water (Horváth and Zeil 1996; Kriska ...	{ "page_id": 13377974, "title": "Ecological trap" }
Deep reinforcement learning (DRL) is a subfield of machine learning that combines principles of reinforcement learning (RL) and deep learning. It involves training agents to make decisions by interacting with an environment to maximize cumulative rewards, while using deep neural networks to represent policies, value fu...	{ "page_id": 60105148, "title": "Deep reinforcement learning" }
techniques, rely on tabular representations or linear approximations, which are often not scalable to high-dimensional or continuous input spaces. DRL came out as solution to above limitation by integrating RL and deep neural networks. This combination enables agents to approximate complex functions and handle unstruct...	{ "page_id": 60105148, "title": "Deep reinforcement learning" }
the task and environment. === Applications === DRL has been applied to wide range of domains that require sequential decision-making and the ability to learn from high-dimensional input data. One of the most well-known applications is in games, where DRL agents have demonstrated performance comparable to or exceeding h...	{ "page_id": 60105148, "title": "Deep reinforcement learning" }
across tasks or environments. Models that are trained in simulation fail very often when deployed in the real world due to discrepancies between simulated and real-world dynamics, a problem known as the "reality gap."Bias and fairness in DRL systems have also emerged as concerns, particularly in domains like healthcare...	{ "page_id": 60105148, "title": "Deep reinforcement learning" }
range of tasks. Improving sample efficiency through model-based learning, enhancing generalization with open-ended training environments, and integrating foundation models are among the current research goals. similar area of interest is safe and ethical deployment, particularly in high-risk settings like healthcare, a...	{ "page_id": 60105148, "title": "Deep reinforcement learning" }
The word metagenics uses the prefix meta and the suffix gen. Literally, it means "the creation of something which creates". In the context of biotechnology, metagenics is the practice of engineering organisms to create a specific enzyme, protein, or other biochemicals from simpler starting materials. The genetic engine...	{ "page_id": 2564540, "title": "Metagenics" }

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