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is fatty acid methyl esters and current synthesis strategies involve transesterification of triacylglycerols from plant oils. However, plant oils have a major limitation in availability of oil-seed supplies at competitive prices, leading to an interest in direct synthesis of fatty acid methyl esters in bacteria. This p...	{ "page_id": 2564540, "title": "Metagenics" }
immunogenic in diabetic patients. To accomplish this, synthetic genes for human insulin are fused with the β-galactosidase gene of E.coli, where they undergo transcription and ultimately translation into proteins. The limiting factor for the use of microorganisms like E. coli in biosynthesis of gene products like insul...	{ "page_id": 2564540, "title": "Metagenics" }
AREsite is a database of AU-rich elements (ARE) in vertebrate mRNA 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs). AU-rich elements are involved in the control of gene expression. They are the most common determinant of RNA stability in mammalian cells. The most recent version of AREsite is called AREsite 2. It represents an update th...	{ "page_id": 30351807, "title": "AREsite" }
Asepsis is the state of being free from disease-causing micro-organisms (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi, and parasites). There are two categories of asepsis: medical and surgical. The modern day notion of asepsis is derived from the older antiseptic techniques, a shift initiated by different ind...	{ "page_id": 2302400, "title": "Asepsis" }
gloves were pioneered by William Halsted, who also implemented a no street clothes policy in his operating room, opting to wear a completely white, sterile uniform consisting of a duck suit, tennis shoes, and skullcap. This helped to prevent the introduction of infections into open wounds. Additionally, Halsted would s...	{ "page_id": 2302400, "title": "Asepsis" }
is performed under sterile conditions. This includes medical and laboratory techniques (such as with bacterial cultures). There are two types of asepsis — medical and surgical. Medical or clean asepsis reduces the number of organisms and prevents their spread; surgical or sterile asepsis includes procedures to eliminat...	{ "page_id": 2302400, "title": "Asepsis" }
has occurred, which are able to stimulate inflammation response. Diseases associated with sterile inflammation include Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, as well as cancer tumor growth due to "immune cell infiltration." Additionally, aseptic tissue damage may arise from corticosteroid injections, which are drugs use...	{ "page_id": 2302400, "title": "Asepsis" }
The sloshing bucket model of evolution is a theory in evolutionary biology that describes how environmental disturbances varying in magnitude will affect the species present. The theory emphasizes the causal relationship between environmental factors that impinge and affect genealogical systems, providing an overarchin...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
just in non-specific directions. This results similar phenotypes between organisms. Fossil records further supports this idea, as with negligible or little disruptions, no evolution or adaptive change in detectable in the fossil records. It is not until larger scale and larger magnitude ecological disruptions does the ...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
of the pattern 1 (stasis) and pattern 2 (adaptive change) creates the final pattern signaled by large scale change in species caused by significant enough changes in the environment on a global scale. When the increasing environmental stress reaches a certain threshold, it causes widespread extinction and speciation, a...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
levels within the hierarchy ascend with increasing size and geographic range, and are each subjected to corresponding factors in the ecological hierarchy. The lowest level in the genealogical hierarchy is the organism, specially in its reproductive sense. These organism participate the reproduction of the overall speci...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
re-establishing the same previous hierarchy. Third Level: Large scale environmental changes. Lasting from ten's of years to thousand or more years, these changes are slow enough to allow species to migrate to more optimal environments. Consequently due to habitat tracking, there are some changes in lower levels of hier...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
model, though distinct from adaptationism, presents another difficult concept for some biologists to agree with. Evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould further criticises the arbitrary and exclusively selective definition of an individual and the subsequent groups that then follow from these individuals. Biologist Da...	{ "page_id": 60629442, "title": "Sloshing bucket model of evolution" }
Alkaline water electrolysis is a type of electrolysis that is characterized by having two electrodes operating in a liquid alkaline electrolyte. Commonly, a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 25-40 wt% is used. These electrodes are separated by a diaphragm, separating the product gases ...	{ "page_id": 39592391, "title": "Alkaline water electrolysis" }
of hydrogen technology, demonstrating the potential for hydrogen as a source of clean energy. == Structure and materials == The electrodes are typically separated by a thin porous foil, commonly referred to as diaphragm or separator. The diaphragm is non-conductive to electrons, thus avoiding electrical shorts between ...	{ "page_id": 39592391, "title": "Alkaline water electrolysis" }
but unfortunately, all the strategies show some degradation. == Electrochemistry == === Anode reaction === In alkaline media oxygen evolution reactions, multiple adsorbent species (O, OH, OOH, and OO–) and multiple steps are involved. Steps 4 and 5 often occur in a single step, but there is evidence that suggests steps...	{ "page_id": 39592391, "title": "Alkaline water electrolysis" }
The Jaffe profile (or Jaffe model) is a mathematical function that is used to describe the distribution of mass or light in elliptical galaxies and the bulges of spiral galaxies. It was proposed by the astronomer Walter Jaffe in 1983. Its usefulness derives from the fact that it accurately reproduces a de Vaucouleurs p...	{ "page_id": 19931591, "title": "Jaffe profile" }
A sand bath is a common piece of laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated sand. It is used to evenly heat another container, most often during a chemical reaction. A sand bath is most commonly used in conjunction with a hot plate or heating mantle. A beaker is filled with sand or metal pellets (cal...	{ "page_id": 4268488, "title": "Sand bath" }
== External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20110604144037/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech000900240229&isize=L	{ "page_id": 4268488, "title": "Sand bath" }
In astronomy, dark matter is an invisible and hypothetical form of matter that does not interact with light or other electromagnetic radiation. Dark matter is implied by gravitational effects that cannot be explained by general relativity unless more matter is present than can be observed. Such effects occur in the con...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
(more precisely, its free streaming length). Recent models have favored a cold dark matter scenario, in which structures emerge by the gradual accumulation of particles. Although the astrophysics community generally accepts the existence of dark matter, a minority of astrophysicists, intrigued by specific observations ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
the first to realise that the universe must contain much more mass than can be observed. Dutch radio astronomy pioneer Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932. Oort was studying stellar motions in the galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what was ob...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral, rather than to unseen matter. Following Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the Andromeda Galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940, Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-visible halo of NGC 3115. === 1970s === ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements. Illustrating the advantage of tracing the gas disk at large radii; that paper's Figure 16 combines the optical data (the cluster of points at radii of less than 15 kpc with a single point further out) with the HI data between 20 and 30 kpc, exhibiti...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
around galaxies was widely recognized as real, and became a major unsolved problem in astronomy. === 1980–1990s === A stream of observations in the 1980–1990s supported the presence of dark matter. Persic, Salucci & Stel (1996) is notable for the investigation of 967 spirals. The evidence for dark matter also included ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e., excluding "missing baryons". Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended. == Observational evidence == This section presents the observational evidence for dark matter from the smallest to the largest scales. === Galaxy rotation curves === The ar...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
masses can be estimated in three independent ways: From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters From X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity bal...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
this case, the galaxy cluster will lens the quasar. Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many distant clusters including Abell 1689. By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the interven...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
to their gravity, while voids are expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights. The locations of these peaks depend on cosmological parameters. Matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological parameters. The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by COBE in 1992, though this had ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe on large scales. These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe and can be observed in the cosmic microwav...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
dwarf galaxy. Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of dark energy. The significance of the free streaming length is that the universe began with some primordial density fluctuations from the Big Bang (in turn arisin...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
or neutrons. Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets, brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, fall into this category. A black hole would ingest both baryonic and non-baryonic matter that comes close enough to its event horizon; afterwards, t...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
particles do not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe (Big Bang nucleosynthesis) and so its presence is felt only via its gravitational effects (such as weak lensing). In addition, some dark matter candidates can interact with themselves (self-interacting dark matter) or with ordinary parti...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
well as attempts to directly produce WIMPs in colliders, such as the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. In the early 2010s, results from direct-detection experiments along with the lack of evidence for supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment have cast doubt on the simplest WIMP hypothesis. ==== Undiscov...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
candidate have gained in popularity in recent years, because of the non-detection of WIMPS. ==== Primordial black holes ==== Primordial black holes are hypothetical black holes that formed soon after the Big Bang. In the inflationary era and early radiation-dominated universe, extremely dense pockets of subatomic matte...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black holes above a certain mass range accounted for over 60% of dark matter. However, that study assumed that all black holes have the same or similar mass to the L...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
abound. A problem with modifying gravity is that observational evidence for dark matter – let alone general relativity – comes from so many independent approaches (see the "observational evidence" section above). Explaining any individual observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
matter interacts in many different ways, which allows the matter to form more complex structures. For example, stars form through gravity, but the particles within them interact and can emit energy in the form of neutrinos and electromagnetic radiation through fusion when they become energetic enough. Protons and neutr...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
it is crucial to maintain an extremely low background, which is the reason why such experiments typically operate deep underground, where interference from cosmic rays is minimized. Examples of underground laboratories with direct detection experiments include the Stawell mine, the Soudan mine, the SNOLAB underground l...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
in contradiction with negative results from other experiments such as LUX, SuperCDMS and XENON100. A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity. This is a search strategy based on the motion of the Solar System around the Galactic Center. A low-pressure time projection chambe...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
by LIGO in September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of primordial black holes. Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow. The Energ...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected. Constraints on dark matter also exist from the...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
Problem: A historical perspective. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-77357-0. Overduin, James M.; Wesson, Paul S. (2003). Dark Sky, Dark Matter. Series in Astronomy and Astrophysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics. ISBN 978-0-7503-0684-3. Bertone, Gianfranco (2010). Particle Dark Matter: Ob...	{ "page_id": 8651, "title": "Dark matter" }
Nature-based solutions (or nature-based systems, and abbreviated as NBS or NbS) describe the development and use of nature (biodiversity) and natural processes to address diverse socio-environmental issues. These issues include climate change mitigation and adaptation, human security issues such as water security and f...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
NBS since 2013. This is reflected in the majority of global NBS case studies reviewed by Debele et al (2023) being located in Europe. While there is much scope for scaling-up nature-based systems and solutions globally, they frequently encounter numerous challenges during planning and implementation. The IPCC pointed o...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
nature-based solutions is "widely but not universally used in the scientific literature".: 24 As of 2017, the term NBS was still regarded as "poorly defined and vague". The term ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is a subset of nature-based solutions and "aims to maintain and increase the resilience and reduce the vulner...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
development, and governance principles. The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of Nature for tackling societal challenges. However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives. For instance, the IUCN puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at t...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be required to fulfill multi-functionality and sustainability goals): === Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ec...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
areas and greening cities. Constructed wetlands are one example for a Type 3 NBS. == Applications == === Climate change mitigation and adaptation === The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change. For example, NBS in the context of climate action ca...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by China and New Zealand. === Urban areas === Since around 2017, many studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature-based solutions in urban areas. It is crucial that grey i...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
retention, groundwater recharge), Improve water quality (e.g., natural wetlands and constructed wetlands to treat wastewater; riparian buffer strips), and Reduce risks associated with water‐related disasters and climate change (e.g., floodplain restoration, green roofs). The UN has also tried to promote a shift in pers...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
A number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide effective and appropriate implementation.: 5 One primary principle, for example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation norms. NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with other solution...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
in an integrated way. The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS. The project was part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and ran for 3 years. In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the Estonian Republic of the Council of the European Union...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
and ecological standards. == Related concepts == NBS is closely related to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering. This includes concepts such as ecosystem-based adaptation: 284 and green infrastructure. For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate change adaptat...	{ "page_id": 52634071, "title": "Nature-based solutions" }
2-Hydroxy-3-keto-5-thiomethylpent-1-ene dioxygenase may refer to: Acireductone dioxygenase (iron(II)-requiring), an enzyme Acireductone dioxygenase (Ni2+-requiring), an enzyme	{ "page_id": 38347223, "title": "2-Hydroxy-3-keto-5-thiomethylpent-1-ene dioxygenase" }
Kyriakos Tamvakis (Greek: Κυριάκος Ταμβάκης; born in 1950) is a Greek theoretical physicist and professor at the University of Ioannina. Kyriakos Tamvakis studied at the University of Athens and gained his Ph.D. at Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA in 1978. His thesis title was "Induced Boson Selfcoupling...	{ "page_id": 19079639, "title": "Kyriakos Tamvakis" }
Locusts (derived from the Latin locusta, locust or lobster) are various species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae that have a swarming phase. These insects are usually solitary, but under certain circumstances they become more abundant and change their behaviour and habits, becoming gregarious. No ta...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
insects and convenient for research and classroom study of zoology. They are edible by humans. They have been eaten throughout history and are considered a delicacy in many countries. == Swarming grasshoppers == Locusts are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Thes...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
of thousands of square kilometres, with a population of up to 80 million per square kilometre (200 million per square mile). When desert locusts meet, their nervous systems release serotonin, which causes them to become mutually attracted, a prerequisite for swarming. The formation of initial bands of gregarious hopper...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
the desert locust and the migratory locust, for example, the gregaria nymphs become darker with strongly contrasting yellow and black markings, they grow larger, and have a longer nymphal period; the adults are larger with different body proportions, less sexual dimorphism, and higher metabolic rates; they mature more ...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
Egypt, Jordan and Israel, the first time in those countries for 50 years. The cost of handling the infestation was put at US$122 million, and the damage to crops at up to $2.5 billion. The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), sometimes classified into up to 10 subspecies, swarms in Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Ze...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
locusts were over the course of history. The insects arrived unexpectedly, often after a change of wind direction or weather, and the consequences were devastating. The Ancient Egyptians carved locusts on tombs in the period 2470 to 2220 BC. A devastating plague in Egypt is mentioned in the Book of Exodus in the Bible....	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
surrounding countryside. One local barber, Ahmad al-Budayri, recalled the locusts "came like a black cloud. They covered everything: the trees and the crops. May God Almighty save us!" The extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust has been a source of puzzlement. It had swarmed throughout the west of the United States an...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
suffer from locust plagues in the near future. In Australia, this service is provided by the Australian Plague Locust Commission. It has been very successful in dealing with developing outbreaks, but has the great advantage of having a defined area to monitor and defend without locust invasions from elsewhere. In Centr...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
ultralow-volume spraying of contact pesticides from aircraft in overlapping swathes is effective against nomadic bands and can be used to treat large areas of land swiftly. Other modern technologies for planning locust control include GPS, GIS tools, and satellite imagery with rapid computer data management and analysi...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
ἀκρίδες καὶ μέλι ἄγριον, romanized: akrídes kaì méli ágrion) while living in the wilderness. Attempts have been made to explain the text to mean ascetic vegetarian food such as carob beans, but the plain meaning of the Greek akrides is locust. The Torah prohibits the use of most insects as food, but it permits consumin...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
times more edible protein per unit of fodder than cattle, and produce lower levels of greenhouse gases in the process. The feed conversion rate of orthopterans is 1.7 kg/kg, while for beef it is typically about 10 kg/kg. The protein content in fresh weight is between 13 and 28 g / 100 g for adult locust, 14–18 g / 100 ...	{ "page_id": 74204, "title": "Locust" }
Asteroseismology is the study of oscillations in stars. Stars have many resonant modes and frequencies, and the path of sound waves passing through a star depends on the local speed of sound, which in turn depends on local temperature and chemical composition. Because the resulting oscillation modes are sensitive to di...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
the gravitational potential is negligible (the Cowling approximation) and that the star's structure varies more slowly with radius than the oscillation mode, the equations can be reduced approximately to one second-order equation for the radial component of the displacement eigenfunction ξ r {\displaystyle \xi _{r}} , ...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
\ell } ), we expect p-modes to resonate at frequencies below both curves or frequencies above both curves. == Excitation mechanisms == === Kappa-mechanism === Under fairly specific conditions, some stars have regions where heat is transported by radiation and the opacity is a sharply decreasing function of temperature....	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
} Doradus variables. === Tidal excitation === Observations from the Kepler satellite revealed eccentric binary systems in which oscillations are excited during the closest approach. These systems are known as heartbeat stars because of the characteristic shape of the lightcurves. == Types of oscillators == === Solar-li...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
early F-type dwarfs and subgiants and the oscillation modes are low-order radial and non-radial pressure modes, with periods ranging from 0.25 to 8 hours and magnitude variations anywhere between. Like Cepheid variables, the oscillations are driven by the kappa mechanism acting on the second ionization of helium. SX Ph...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
Variable subdwarf B stars === Subdwarf B (sdB) stars are in essence the cores of core-helium burning giants who have somehow lost most of their hydrogen envelopes, to the extent that there is no hydrogen-burning shell. They have multiple oscillation periods that range between about 1 and 10 minutes and amplitudes anywh...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
asteroseismology satellite launched in 2006. Kepler space telescope – A NASA planet-finder spacecraft launched in 2009, repurposed as K2 since the failure of a second reaction wheel prevented the telescope from continuing to monitor the same field. BRITE – A constellation of nanosatellites used to study the brightest o...	{ "page_id": 401885, "title": "Asteroseismology" }
The Eddington Medal is awarded by the Royal Astronomical Society for investigations of outstanding merit in theoretical astrophysics. It is named after Sir Arthur Eddington. First awarded in 1953, the frequency of the prize has varied over the years, at times being every one, two or three years. Since 2013 it has been ...	{ "page_id": 991712, "title": "Eddington Medal" }
Addiction is a state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli, despite adverse consequences. The process of developing an addiction occurs through instrumental learning, which is otherwise known as operant conditioning. Neuroscientists believe that drug addicts’ behavior is a direct correlation to so...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
use then withdrawal. == Structural changes of learning == Learning by experience occurs through modifications of the structural circuits of the brain. These circuits are composed of many neurons and their connections, called synapses, which occur between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another. A single neur...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
be observed after the animal ingests a drug can be correlated with an animal's behavioral changes, as well as with similar changes occurring in humans. === Administration protocols === Administration of drugs that are often abused can be done either by the experimenter (non-contingent), or by a self-administration (con...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
called the mesolimbic system of the brain, is the part of the brain that registers reward and pleasure. This circuit reinforces the behavior that leads to a positive and pleasurable outcome. In drug addiction, the drug-seeking behaviors become reinforced by the rush of dopamine that follows the administration of a drug...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
critical changes that cause the addictive behavior cannot be quantified by measuring dendritic spine density. Opiates decrease spine density and dendrite complexity in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Morphine decreases spine density regardless of the treatment paradigm (with one exception: "chronic morphine increases spin...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
the administration of drugs of abuse increases the excitation of VTA dopamine neurons, but does not increase inhibition. Excitatory inputs into the VTA will activate the dopamine neurons 200%, but do not increase activation of GABA neurons which are important in local inhibition. This effect of inducing LTP in VTA slic...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
change in potentiation in the excitatory synapses of the NAc. LTD was observed in the medium spiny neurons in the NAc following two different protocols: a daily cocaine administration for five days or a single dose followed by 10–14 days of withdrawal. This suggests that the structural changes in the NAc are associated...	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
(PCP). == References ==	{ "page_id": 37691875, "title": "Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity" }
Metabolic flux analysis (MFA) is an experimental fluxomics technique used to examine production and consumption rates of metabolites in a biological system. At an intracellular level, it allows for the quantification of metabolic fluxes, thereby elucidating the central metabolism of the cell. Various methods of MFA, in...	{ "page_id": 10756580, "title": "Metabolic flux analysis" }
intracellular metabolites, measuring these patterns allows for inference of fluxes. The first step in the workflow of isotope labeling experiments is cell culture on labeled substrates. A substrate such as glucose is labeled by isotope(s), most often 13C, and is introduced into the culture medium. The medium also typic...	{ "page_id": 10756580, "title": "Metabolic flux analysis" }
as growth rates, substrate secretion and uptake, and product accumulation rates as well as upper and lower bounds for fluxes. Although isotopically stationary MFA allows precise deduction of metabolic fluxes through mathematical modeling, the analysis is limited to batch cultures during the exponential phase. Moreover,...	{ "page_id": 10756580, "title": "Metabolic flux analysis" }
for pathway regulation. == Software == Simulation algorithms are needed to model the biological system and calculate the fluxes of all pathways in a complex network. Several computational software exist to meet the need for efficient and precise tools for flux quantitation. Generally, the steps for applying modeling so...	{ "page_id": 10756580, "title": "Metabolic flux analysis" }
coli. == See also == Isotopic labeling Flux balance analysis Fluxomics Metabolic network modelling Metabolomics Metabolic engineering == References ==	{ "page_id": 10756580, "title": "Metabolic flux analysis" }
Inzeria is a genus of fossil stromatolite-forming cyanobacteria from the late Riphean stage of the Neoproterozoic era. There are currently 9 accepted species. == See also == List of fossil stromatolites == References ==	{ "page_id": 77079011, "title": "Inzeria" }
In physics, chemistry and biology, a potential gradient is the local rate of change of the potential with respect to displacement, i.e. spatial derivative, or gradient. This quantity frequently occurs in equations of physical processes because it leads to some form of flux. == Definition == === One dimension === The si...	{ "page_id": 467428, "title": "Potential gradient" }
of any conservative vector field F, namely F has a corresponding potential ϕ. Using Stokes' theorem, this is equivalently stated as ∇ × F = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {F} ={\boldsymbol {0}}\,\!} meaning the curl, denoted ∇×, of the vector field vanishes. == Physics == === Newtonian gravitation === In the ca...	{ "page_id": 467428, "title": "Potential gradient" }
fluid motion. An irrotational flow means the velocity field is conservative, or equivalently the vorticity pseudovector field ω is zero: ω = ∇ × v = 0 . {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\omega }}=\nabla \times \mathbf {v} ={\boldsymbol {0}}.} This allows the velocity potential to be defined simply as: v = ∇ ϕ {\displaystyl...	{ "page_id": 467428, "title": "Potential gradient" }
theory. Absolute values of potentials are not physically observable, only gradients and path-dependent potential differences are. However, the Aharonov–Bohm effect is a quantum mechanical effect which illustrates that non-zero electromagnetic potentials along a closed loop (even when the E and B fields are zero everywh...	{ "page_id": 467428, "title": "Potential gradient" }
In quantum mechanics and computing, the Bloch sphere is a geometrical representation of the pure state space of a two-level quantum mechanical system (qubit), named after the physicist Felix Bloch. Mathematically each quantum mechanical system is associated with a separable complex Hilbert space H {\displaystyle H} . A...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }
visualization is less useful. The natural metric on the Bloch sphere is the Fubini–Study metric. The mapping from the unit 3-sphere in the two-dimensional state space C 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} to the Bloch sphere is the Hopf fibration, with each ray of spinors mapping to one point on the Bloch sphere. == Def...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }
2 ) \| 0 ⟩ + ( cos ⁡ ϕ + i sin ⁡ ϕ ) sin ⁡ ( θ / 2 ) \| 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi \rangle =\cos \left(\theta /2\right)\|0\rangle \,+\,e^{i\phi }\sin \left(\theta /2\right)\|1\rangle =\cos \left(\theta /2\right)\|0\rangle \,+\,(\cos \phi +i\sin \phi )\,\sin \left(\theta /2\right)\|1\rangle } , where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π {\displaystyle 0\...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }
i 0 ) + a z 2 ( 1 0 0 − 1 ) = 1 2 ( 1 + a z a x − i a y a x + i a y 1 − a z ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\rho &={\frac {1}{2}}\left(I+{\vec {a}}\cdot {\vec {\sigma }}\right)\\&={\frac {1}{2}}{\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}+{\frac {a_{x}}{2}}{\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}+{\frac {a_{y}}{2}}{\begin{pma...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }
{Im} (\rho _{10})} w = ρ 00 − ρ 11 {\displaystyle w=\rho _{00}-\rho _{11}} where ρ = ( ρ 00 ρ 01 ρ 10 ρ 11 ) = 1 2 ( 1 + w u − i v u + i v 1 − w ) . {\displaystyle \rho ={\begin{pmatrix}\rho _{00}&\rho _{01}\\\rho _{10}&\rho _{11}\end{pmatrix}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\begin{pmatrix}1+w&u-iv\\u+iv&1-w\end{pmatrix}}.} This basis...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }
) × U ⁡ ( 1 ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {U} (n-1)\times \operatorname {U} (1).} In linear algebra terms, this can be justified as follows. Any g {\displaystyle g} of U(n) that leaves \| ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi \rangle } invariant must have \| ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle \|\psi \rangle } as an eigenvector. Since the correspon...	{ "page_id": 729572, "title": "Bloch sphere" }

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