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resting on an uncharged electrode can move towards a charged electrode where droplets will join and merge into one droplet. However, the merged droplet might not always form a circular shape even after the merging process is over due to surface tension. This problem can be solved by implementing a superhydrophobic surf...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
within the device as it points to the magnitude and direction of forces acting upon a micro droplet. This can be used to help accurately predict and correct for unwanted and uncontrollable particle movement. The model explains why failing to employ dielectric coating on one of the two surfaces causes reversal of charge...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
silicone oil or pluronic additives, such as F-68, which reduce non-specific absorption and biofouling when dealing with biological fluids such as proteins, biological serums, and DNA. A drawback of a setup like this is accelerated droplet evaporation. ATDA is a form of open digital microfluidics, and as such the device...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
in the required volume of experimental reagents, a reduction in the likelihood of contamination and cross-contamination, potential improvements in reproducibility, increased throughput, individual droplet addressability, and the ability to integrate with sensor and detector modules to perform end-to-end or even closed ...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
scientific disciplines. Reproducibility can be especially salient when multiple iterations of the same experimental protocol need to be repeated. Using liquid handling robots that can minimize volume loss between experimental steps are often used to reduce error rates and improve reproducibility. An automated DMF syste...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
=== Separation and extraction === Digital microfluidics can be used for separation and extraction of target analytes. These methods include the use of magnetic particles, liquid-liquid extraction, optical tweezers, and hydrodynamic effects. ==== Magnetic particles ==== For magnetic particle separations a droplet of sol...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
array, one containing the cells, and the other with nutrients or drugs. The droplets are mixed and then optical tweezers are used to move the cells to one side of the larger droplet before it is split. For a more detailed explanation on the underlying principles, see Optical tweezers. ==== Hydrodynamic separation ==== ...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
cheap and does not require extensive robotic equipment. Chemical synthesis using digital microfluidics (DMF) has been applied to many noteworthy biological reactions. These include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), as well as the formation of DNA and peptides. Reduction, alkylation, and enzymatic digestion have also sho...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
nanoliter range is dramatically reduced compared to bench-scale sample sizes, and microcoils have been shown to resolve this issue. Mass spectrometry (MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) have also been used to overcome this challenge. Although MS is an attractive analytical technique for distinguishin...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
in the cell. Cultured cells are then removed and taken off chip for screening. Another technique synthesizes hydrogels within DMF platforms. This process uses electrodes to deliver reagents to produce the hydrogel, and delivery of cell culture reagents for absorption into the gel. The hydrogels are an improvement over ...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
whose voltage and disruptive movement would not affect cell viability was accomplished. Through the readout of live/dead assays it was shown that neither voltage required to move droplets, nor the motion of moving cultures affected cell viability. ==== Biological extraction ==== Biological separations usually involve l...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
Troponin I (cTnI), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), sTNF-RI, and 17β-estradiol. For example, a magnetic bead-based approached has been used for the detection of cTnI from whole blood in less than 8 minutes. Briefly, magnetic beads containing primary antibodies were mixed with labeled secondary antibodies, incubated, ...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
microfluidics (DMF) and Mass Spectrometry can largely be categorized into indirect off-line analysis, direct off-line analysis, and in-line analysis and the main advantages of this coupling are decreased solvent and reagent use, as well as decreased analysis times. Indirect off-line analysis is the usage of DMF devices...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
This microchannel was, in turn, connected to an electrospray ionizer that emitted directly into a mass spectrometer. Integration ambient ionization techniques where ions are formed outside of the mass spectrometer with little or no treatment pairs well with the open or semi-open microfluidic nature of DMF and allows ea...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
being small enough in size to allow for the transfer of data collection from the laboratory into the field. These advantages often come at the cost of reduced performance where MMS resolution, as well as the limits of detection and quantitation, are often barely adequate to perform specialized tasks. The integration of...	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
interface included pulsed field gradients (PFG) units that enabled this platform to perform more sophisticated NMR measurements (e.g. NMR diffusometry, gradients encoded pulse measurements). This system has been successfully applied into monitoring rapid organic reactions. == References ==	{ "page_id": 331579, "title": "Digital microfluidics" }
Conductive metal−organic frameworks are a class of metal–organic frameworks (MOF) with intrinsic ability of electronic conduction. Metal ions and organic linkers assemble to form a framework that are called MOFs. The first conductive MOF, Cu[Cu(2,3-pyrazinedithiol)2] was described in 2009 and exhibited electrical condu...	{ "page_id": 66981695, "title": "Conductive metal−organic frameworks" }
layers. 4) Redox hopping:- Where electrons move between well-separated redox states via self exchange reactions. 5) Guest-Promoted Transport:- Introducing electroactive guest molecules into the MOF pores can contribute to the conductivity of the material. == Synthesis == === Solvothermal synthesis === In 2017 Kimizuka ...	{ "page_id": 66981695, "title": "Conductive metal−organic frameworks" }
cm−1. It was employed for chemiresistive sensing of ammonia vapor and limit of detection of this material was 0.5 ppm. Two isoreticular MOFs based on phthalocyanine and naphthalocyanine organic linkers have been tested for sensing of neurotransmitters. In this study authors were able to get a very low limit of detectio...	{ "page_id": 66981695, "title": "Conductive metal−organic frameworks" }
μA in 0.1 M potassium hydroxide (KOH). === Energy storage === MOFs with high surface area, redox active organic linker/metal nodes, intrinsic conductivity have attracted attention as electrode materials for electrochemical energy storage. First Conductive MOF-based electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) was repo...	{ "page_id": 66981695, "title": "Conductive metal−organic frameworks" }
density of 533 Wh kg−1. == See also == Metal−organic framework Covalent−organic framework Coordination polymer Sensor == References ==	{ "page_id": 66981695, "title": "Conductive metal−organic frameworks" }
This list of research methods in biology is an index to articles about research methodologies used in various branches of biology. == Research design and analysis == === Research designs === === Charts and diagrams === === Statistical analyses === == Laboratory techniques == == Field techniques == == Computational tool...	{ "page_id": 68292416, "title": "List of research methods in biology" }
Apache Giraph is an Apache project to perform graph processing on big data. Giraph utilizes Apache Hadoop's MapReduce implementation to process graphs. Facebook used Giraph with some performance improvements to analyze one trillion edges using 200 machines in 4 minutes. Giraph is based on a paper published by Google ab...	{ "page_id": 37752641, "title": "Apache Giraph" }
In developmental biology, von Baer's laws of embryology (or laws of development) are four rules proposed by Karl Ernst von Baer to explain the observed pattern of embryonic development in different species. von Baer formulated the laws in his book On the Developmental History of Animals (German: Über Entwickelungsgesch...	{ "page_id": 50270017, "title": "Von Baer's laws (embryology)" }
higher form never resembles any other form, but only its embryo. == Description == Von Baer discovered the blastula (the early hollow ball stage of an embryo) and the development of the notochord (the stiffening rod along the back of all chordates, that forms after the blastula and gastrula stages). From his observatio...	{ "page_id": 50270017, "title": "Von Baer's laws (embryology)" }
his own theory of descent with modification. Darwin was a critique of the recapitulation theory and agreed with von Baer that an adult animal is not reflected by an embryo of another animal, and only embryos of different animals appear similar. He wrote in his Origin of Species (first edition, 1859): [The] adult [anima...	{ "page_id": 50270017, "title": "Von Baer's laws (embryology)" }
parasitic crustaceans, in which several parts of the structure become less perfect, so that the mature animal cannot be called higher than its larva. Von Baer's standard seems the most widely applicable and the best, namely, the amount of differentiation of the different parts (in the adult state, as I should be inclin...	{ "page_id": 50270017, "title": "Von Baer's laws (embryology)" }
Evolutionary developmental biology == References ==	{ "page_id": 50270017, "title": "Von Baer's laws (embryology)" }
The pollination of orchids represents a complex aspect of the biology of this plant family, characterized by intricate flower structures and diverse ecological interactions with pollinator. Notably, the topic has garnered significant scientific interest over time, including the attention of Charles Darwin, who is recog...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
to participate in pollination. This evolutionary process has led to the establishment of close relationships between pollinating animals and zoophilous flowers, benefiting both groups. For plants, this relationship has resulted in more precise attraction of specific pollinators, facilitating the transfer of pollen to t...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
which can vary in number from one to twelve, though two or four are most common. These pollinia, combined with a sticky stalk derived from the anther or stigma, form the transport unit during pollination. The gynoecium consists of three fused carpels and is situated below the calyx. It features a highly modified style ...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
were unsuccessful; he was only able to do so by inserting a cylinder with a diameter of 2.5 mm into the spur and pulling it out, causing the viscidium to adhere to the cylinder. Darwin proposed that when a butterfly reached the bottom of the spur to access the nectar, the pollinia would attach to its head as it withdre...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
individuals have already been secured. Many orchids, including Angraecum sesquipedale, are pollinated by nocturnal butterflies and, as a result, tend to have light-colored or nearly white flowers that emit fragrance in the evening or night. Other examples of such orchids include Bonatea speciosa, Habenaria epipactidea,...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
at the base of the labellum that resembles nectar. Another species, S. immersa, also emits a fragrance, described as melon-like, with its sticky substance located on both the petals and the labellum’s base. The primary visitors to these species are dipterans from various families. Typically, flies remain outside the fl...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
can be preserved for extended periods. Different orchid genera attach pollinia to various parts of the bee’s body. Orchids, like many plants, attract specific groups of male euglossine bees by producing species-specific scent mixtures, which likely act as reproductive isolation mechanisms. Some orchids exhibit morpholo...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
of another insect species that the pollinator may perceive as a threat, prompting the pollinator to attack the flower. In doing so, the insect inadvertently transfers pollen to other flowers. Rendezvous Attraction: Flowers imitate other flowers that are attractive to female pollinators. Sexual Deception: In this scenar...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
it inserts its proboscis into the narrow duct (gynostemium) of the flower. The small diameter of this duct can cause the butterfly's spiracles to become temporarily trapped. In its struggle to escape, the insect inadvertently picks up the orchid's pollinia. After being released, the butterfly may visit another Epidendr...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
with Ophrys being the largest and best-documented genus in Europe. This mechanism is not limited to a specific continent; it has also been observed in the South American species Geoblasta penicillata and in two South African orchids of the genus Disa. A similar mechanism is found in Tolumnia henekenii, whose flowers mi...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
9 to 24 carbons, and two esters. Most of these compounds are present in similar proportions in both floral extracts of O. iricolor and extracts from the cuticular surface of A. morio females. The biologically active volatile compounds in Ophrys species are largely similar to those utilized by other Ophrys species that ...	{ "page_id": 71241537, "title": "Pollination of orchids" }
The CD4+/CD8+ ratio is the ratio of T helper cells (with the surface marker CD4) to cytotoxic T cells (with the surface marker CD8). Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells contain several subsets. The CD4+/CD8+ ratio in the peripheral blood of healthy adults and mice is about 2:1, and an altered ratio can indicate diseases relatin...	{ "page_id": 52170563, "title": "CD4+/CD8+ ratio" }
RNA clearance. == Decreased ratio with aging == A declining CD4+/CD8+ ratio is associated with ageing, and is an indicator of immunosenescence. Compared to CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells show a greater increase in adipose tissue in obesity and aging, thereby reducing the CD4+/CD8+ ratio. Amplication of numbers of CD8+ cell...	{ "page_id": 52170563, "title": "CD4+/CD8+ ratio" }
Vanesa Gottifredi (born 13 November 1969) is an Argentine chemist and biologist. She works as a researcher in the Principal Investigator category of the Scientific and Technological Researcher Program (CICT) of the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET). She is also head of the Leloir Institute's ...	{ "page_id": 63049540, "title": "Vanesa Gottifredi" }
Indo-1 is a popular dye that is used as a ratiometric calcium indicator similar to Fura-2. In contrast to Fura-2, Indo-1 has a dual emissions peak and a single excitation. The main emission peak in calcium-free solution is 475 nm while in the presence of calcium the emission is shifted to 400 nm. It is widely used in f...	{ "page_id": 13635394, "title": "Indo-1" }
A mucous membrane or mucosa is a membrane that lines various cavities in the body of an organism and covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. It is mostly of endodermal origin and is continuous with the skin at body openin...	{ "page_id": 69447, "title": "Mucous membrane" }
the portion of the anal canal below the pectinate line, which are all ectodermal in origin. == Function == One of its functions is to keep the tissue moist (for example in the respiratory tract, including the mouth and nose).: 480 It also plays a role in absorbing and transforming nutrients.: 5, 813 Mucous membranes al...	{ "page_id": 69447, "title": "Mucous membrane" }
In ecology, edge effects are changes in population or community structures that occur at the boundary of two or more habitats. Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit especially pronounced edge effects that may extend throughout the range. As the edge effects increase, the boundary habitat allows for greater biodive...	{ "page_id": 69440, "title": "Edge effects" }
width of the patch also influences diversity: an edge patch must be more pronounced than just a stark border in order to develop gradients of edge effects. Animals traveling between communities can create travel lanes along borders, which in turn increases light reaching plants along the lanes and promotes primary prod...	{ "page_id": 69440, "title": "Edge effects" }
a disturbed or unnatural system, the natural ecosystem can be seriously affected for some distance in from the edge. In 1971, Odum wrote, 'The tendency for increased variety and diversity at community junctions is known as the edge effect... It is common knowledge that the density of songbirds is greater on estates, ca...	{ "page_id": 69440, "title": "Edge effects" }
United States than when the Europeans first began settling North America. Some species have benefited from this fact, for example, the brown-headed cowbird, which is a brood parasite that lays its eggs in the nests of songbirds nesting in forest near the forest boundary. Another example of a species benefiting from the...	{ "page_id": 69440, "title": "Edge effects" }
niches. Edge effects in biological assays refer to artifacts in data that are caused by the position of the wells on a screening plate rather than a biological effect. The edge effect in scanning electron microscopy is the phenomenon in which the number of secondary and/or backscattered electrons that escape the sample...	{ "page_id": 69440, "title": "Edge effects" }
Stability, also known as algorithmic stability, is a notion in computational learning theory of how a machine learning algorithm output is changed with small perturbations to its inputs. A stable learning algorithm is one for which the prediction does not change much when the training data is modified slightly. For ins...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
(ERM) algorithms. An ERM algorithm is one that selects a solution from a hypothesis space H {\displaystyle H} in such a way to minimize the empirical error on a training set S {\displaystyle S} . A general result, proved by Vladimir Vapnik for an ERM binary classification algorithms, is that for any target function and...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
the training set is slightly modified, for instance by leaving out an example. A measure of Leave one out error is used in a Cross Validation Leave One Out (CVloo) algorithm to evaluate a learning algorithm's stability with respect to the loss function. As such, stability analysis is the application of sensitivity anal...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
2010 - Shalev Shwartz et al. noticed problems with the original results of Vapnik due to the complex relations between hypothesis space and loss class. They discuss stability notions that capture different loss classes and different types of learning, supervised and unsupervised. 2016 - Moritz Hardt et al. proved stabi...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
consider only deterministic algorithms where L {\displaystyle L} is symmetric with respect to S {\displaystyle S} , i.e. it does not depend on the order of the elements in the training set. Furthermore, we assume that all functions are measurable and all sets are countable. The loss V {\displaystyle V} of a hypothesis ...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
f S , z ) − V ( f S \| i , z ) \| ] ≤ β . {\displaystyle \forall i\in \{1,...,m\},\mathbb {E} _{S,z}[\|V(f_{S},z)-V(f_{S^{\|i}},z)\|]\leq \beta .} === Point-wise Hypothesis Stability === An algorithm L {\displaystyle L} has point-wise hypothesis stability β with respect to the loss function V if the following holds: ∀ i ∈ {...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
\| V ( f S , z ) − V ( f S \| i , z ) \| ≤ β } ≥ 1 − δ {\displaystyle \forall S\in Z^{m},\forall i\in \{1,...,m\},\mathbb {P} _{S}\{\sup _{z\in Z}\|V(f_{S},z)-V(f_{S^{\|i}},z)\|\leq \beta \}\geq 1-\delta } An algorithm is said to be stable, when the value of β {\displaystyle \beta } decreases as O ( 1 m ) {\displaystyle O({\...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
\delta _{EL}^{m}} going to zero for m , → ∞ {\displaystyle m,\rightarrow \infty } == Classic theorems == From Bousquet and Elisseeff (02): For symmetric learning algorithms with bounded loss, if the algorithm has Uniform Stability with the probabilistic definition above, then the algorithm generalizes. Uniform Stabilit...	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
of regressors increasing with n {\displaystyle n} . Multi-class SVM classification. All learning algorithms with Tikhonov regularization satisfies Uniform Stability criteria and are, thus, generalizable. == References == == Further reading ==	{ "page_id": 33886025, "title": "Stability (learning theory)" }
The molecular formula C17H25N3O5S (molar mass: 383.46 g/mol, exact mass: 383.1515 u) may refer to: Meropenem Veralipride	{ "page_id": 24710982, "title": "C17H25N3O5S" }
In chemistry, the equivalent concentration or normality (N) of a solution is defined as the molar concentration ci divided by an equivalence factor or n-factor feq: N = c i f e q {\displaystyle N={\frac {c_{i}}{f_{\rm {eq}}}}} == Definition == Normality is defined as the number of gram or mole equivalents of solute pre...	{ "page_id": 9965379, "title": "Equivalent concentration" }
is a diprotic acid. Since only 0.5 mol of H2SO4 are needed to neutralize 1 mol of OH−, the equivalence factor is: feq(H2SO4) = 0.5 If the concentration of a sulfuric acid solution is c(H2SO4) = 1 mol/L, then its normality is 2 N. It can also be called a "2 normal" solution. Similarly, for a solution with c(H3PO4) = 1 m...	{ "page_id": 9965379, "title": "Equivalent concentration" }
The International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks, or FDSN, is a global organization consisting of groups that install and maintain digital, broadband seismic recorders either nationally or globally. Any organizations operating more than one broadband station is eligible for membership. Members agree to coor...	{ "page_id": 32902986, "title": "International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks" }
The interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. This matter includes gas in ionic, atomic, and molecular form, as well as dust and cosmic rays. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic medium. The energy t...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
form, and 1% is dust. Of the gas in the ISM, by number 91% of atoms are hydrogen and 8.9% are helium, with 0.1% being atoms of elements heavier than hydrogen or helium, known as "metals" in astronomical parlance. By mass this amounts to 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. The hydrogen and helium are pr...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
phase that represented the very hot (T ~ 106 K) gas that had been shock heated by supernovae and constituted most of the volume of the ISM. These phases are the temperatures where heating and cooling can reach a stable equilibrium. Their paper formed the basis for further study over the subsequent three decades. Howeve...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
until the distance where all the ionizing photons are used up. This ionization front marks the boundary between the Warm ionized and Warm neutral medium. OB stars, and also cooler ones, produce many more photons with energies below the Lyman limit, which pass through the ionized region almost unabsorbed. Some of these ...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
supernovas, creating blast waves in the warm gas that increase temperatures to the coronal phase (supernova remnants, SNR). These too expand and cool over several million years until they return to average ISM pressure. === The ISM in different kinds of galaxy === Most discussion of the ISM concerns spiral galaxies lik...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
perturbations in the disk orbits - essentially ripples in the disk, that cause orbits to alternately converge and diverge, compressing and then expanding the local ISM. The visible spiral arms are the regions of maximum density, and the compression often triggers star formation in molecular clouds, leading to an abunda...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
and heat the gas, increasing the sounds speed so that the flow is locally subsonic; thus supersonic turbulence has been described as 'a box of shocklets', and is inevitably associated with complex density and temperature structure. In the ISM this is further complicated by the magnetic field, which provides wave modes ...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
"the density gradient is a large-scale feature of the VLISM (very local interstellar medium) in the general direction of the heliospheric nose". === Interaction with interplanetary medium === The interstellar medium begins where the interplanetary medium of the Solar System ends. The solar wind slows to subsonic veloci...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
of sight by comparing the dust column density in front of stars projected close together on the sky, but at different distances. By 2022 it was possible to generate a map of ISM structures within 3 kpc (10,000 light years) of the Sun. Far ultraviolet light is absorbed effectively by the neutral hydrogen gas in the ISM....	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
cosmic rays The first mechanism proposed for heating the ISM was heating by low-energy cosmic rays. Cosmic rays are an efficient heating source able to penetrate in the depths of molecular clouds. Cosmic rays transfer energy to gas through both ionization and excitation and to free electrons through Coulomb interaction...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
and x-ray heating can be ignored. This is assuming the region is not near an x-ray source such as a supernova remnant. Chemical heating Molecular hydrogen (H2) can be formed on the surface of dust grains when two H atoms (which can travel over the grain) meet. This process yields 4.48 eV of energy distributed over the ...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
Supernova explosions Stellar winds Expansion of H II regions Magnetohydrodynamic waves created by supernova remnants === Cooling mechanisms === Fine structure cooling The process of fine structure cooling is dominant in most regions of the Interstellar Medium, except regions of hot gas and regions deep in molecular clo...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
forbidden line of doubly-ionized oxygen, gives many nebulae their apparent green colour in visual observations, and was once thought to be a new element, nebulium. Spectral lines from highly excited states of hydrogen are detectable at infra-red and longer wavelengths, down to radio recombination lines which, unlike op...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
are also not present. These regions are inferred from the presence of dust grains with no matching line emission from gas. Interstellar dust grains re-emit the energy they absorb from starlight as quasi-blackbody emission in the far infrared, corresponding to typical dust grain temperatures of 20–100 K. Very small grai...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
to be delayed at lower frequencies (dispersion). The amount of delay is proportional to the column density of free electrons (Dispersion measure, DM), which is useful for both mapping the distribution of ionized gas in the Galaxy and estimating distances to pulsars (more distant ones have larger DM). A second propagati...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
the Local Bubble. The frequency at which a particular nebula becomes optically thick depends on its emission measure E M = ∫ n e 2 d l {\displaystyle EM=\int n_{e}^{2}\,dl} , the column density of squared electron number density. Exceptionally dense nebulae can become optically thick at centimetre wavelengths: these ar...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
sky, finding many 'holes in the Milky Way'. At first he compared them to sunspots, but by 1899 was prepared to write: "One can scarcely conceive a vacancy with holes in it, unless there is nebulous matter covering these apparently vacant places in which holes might occur". These holes are now known as dark nebulae, dus...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
asymmetric profiles in the spectra of Epsilon and Zeta Orionis. These were the first steps in the study of the very complex interstellar sightline towards Orion. Asymmetric absorption line profiles are the result of the superposition of multiple absorption lines, each corresponding to the same atomic transition (for ex...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
could scarcely have been believed that the enormous gaps between the stars are completely void. Terrestrial aurorae are not improbably excited by charged particles emitted by the Sun. If the millions of other stars are also ejecting ions, as is undoubtedly true, no absolute vacuum can exist within the galaxy." In Septe...	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
Institution Discourse by the Vega Science Trust. The interstellar medium: an online tutorial	{ "page_id": 69453, "title": "Interstellar medium" }
Conjugate eye movement refers to motor coordination of the eyes that allows for bilateral fixation on a single object. A conjugate eye movement is a movement of both eyes in the same direction to maintain binocular gaze (also referred to as “yoked” eye movement). This is in contrast to vergence eye movement, where bino...	{ "page_id": 20451156, "title": "Conjugate eye movement" }
Cajal. Disorders of conjugate gaze typically consist of the inability to move one or both eyes in the desired direction, or the inability to prevent eyes from making vergence movements. Conjugate gaze palsy: Conjugate gaze palsies typically affect horizontal gaze, although some affect upward gaze. Few affect downward g...	{ "page_id": 20451156, "title": "Conjugate eye movement" }
Mister Sinister (Dr. Nathaniel Essex) is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer Chris Claremont, the character was first mentioned as the employer behind the team of assassins known as the Marauders in The Uncanny X-Men #212 (December 1986), and later seen in silh...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
in associated Marvel merchandise including animated television series, toys, trading cards, and video games. IGN's list of the "Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time" ranked Sinister as #29. The character was exposed to a wider audience with his television debut on X-Men: The Animated Series voiced by Christopher Bri...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
known as the Marauders in The Uncanny X-Men #212 (December 1986), which was part of the 1986 "Mutant Massacre" storyline, in which Sinister ordered the Marauders to kill the Morlocks living beneath New York City. In the next issue, drawn by Alan Davis, Mr. Sinister is first glimpsed as a generic silhouette when the tel...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
to threaten others. However, Claremont left the X-Men comics before this origin was revealed to readers. Fans later considered "Nate" to be Sinister in disguise as a boy, whereas his adult, armored appearance was his true form. The 2009 series X-Men Forever (vol. 2) showed an alternate timeline, beginning at roughly th...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
superhuman powers from Apocalypse, thus abandoning Claremont's idea that he was an immortal trapped in the form of a child. The 2006 mini-series X-Men: Colossus Bloodline revealed that Mr. Sinister's powers were weakening and he hoped to restore them. Before he can restore his full power, Sinister is killed in New X-Me...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
Essex died in 1895 on being murdered by Sherlock Holmes / Mystique. Before his death he created four clones to research paths to Machine Dominionhood independent of one another, whom Mystique's wife Destiny (Irene Adler) ensured would survive to adulthood. The clone branded with (♦️) continued to operate as Minister Si...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
questionable research methods and ideas lead to suspicion, mockery, and finally ousting from the Royal Society and the scientific community. Angry and bitter, Essex accepts that being a "monster" in the eyes of others may be necessary to achieve his goals. Essex later hires the criminal Cootie Tremble and his gang, kno...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
"To me, you are... utterly... and contemptibly... sinister!" Following Rebecca's death, Essex continues his alliance with En Sabah Nur, becoming the villain's first "prelate." Apocalypse reveals he has alien technology belonging to the Celestials (god-like beings who manipulated humanity in the past, resulting in the c...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
family to immigrate to America). On several occasions when Amanda is pregnant, Sinister pays her to feign miscarriage and then secretly bring him the child for study. Seeing great potential in the Summers genetic line, Sinister decides to monitor the family. Around this same time, Sinister encounters two other mutants ...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
scientist Phaeder, later becomes the master geneticist called the High Evolutionary. During the 1920s, Sinister lives in Los Angeles as "Nathan Essex" and befriends radio comedian Faye Livingstone. Realizing Faye's potential to have mutant children, Sinister temporarily imprisons and experiments on her. After her relea...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
into the DNA strands of the Marko, Ryking, Shaw, and Xavier family lines. In time, their descendants can act as hosts for Sinister's consciousness. During the Vietnam War, Mr. Sinister sets up a lab in Saigon and has his agent Scalphunter bring him soldiers and civilians for experimentation. Locals refer to Sinister as...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
high-tech, underground laboratory. Later, young Jean Grey's mutant telepathy prematurely activates when she witnesses the death of her best friend. Becoming aware of Jean's power, Mr. Sinister plans to kill her parents and bring her to the orphanage, only to learn the Greys have already contacted the now adult Charles ...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
can be easily manipulated, Sinister takes on the guise of Nate, another orphan who acts as Scott's overly territorial friend while sometimes bullying him. As part of his long-term plan, Sinister allows Scott Summers to be adopted by a criminal named Jack Winters who abuses the boy and forces him to help with crimes. Ra...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
to repair the damage done to her original body. As "Phoenix", Jean becomes a more powerful hero. She is later temporarily corrupted, causing the Phoenix Force itself to become a corrupt and deadly entity. The new "Dark Phoenix" asserts control, burying Jean's personality. Jean's personality later resumes control and sh...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }
in love, deciding to marry soon afterward. They have a son, Nathan Summers. While Christopher was Scott's father's name and Charles was Professor Xavier's first name, it is later said that Sinister influenced Scott and Maddie to name their son Nathan Summers after him as well. Scott decides to leave behind the dangerou...	{ "page_id": 528214, "title": "Mister Sinister" }

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