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Later, Jurka and colleagues linked TE family emergence to processes in classical population genetics, proposing that population subdivision and speciation events could correlate with the distribution and diversification of transposable element families. Jurka’s Erdős number is 3, tracing a collaboration path through Te...	{ "page_id": 20845472, "title": "Jerzy Jurka" }
Modified atmosphere/modified humidity (MA/MH) packaging is a technology used to preserve the quality of fresh produce so that it can be sold to markets far away from where it is grown, extend the marketing period, and to help suppliers reduce food waste within the cold chain. Commercial examples of MA/MH include sea fr...	{ "page_id": 22221728, "title": "Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging" }
oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) transmission rates of the polymer by laser and/or mechanical microperforations. The result is a film which is tailored to provide the optimum modified atmosphere and modified humidity for the produce to be packaged. “Film composition and extent of microperforation are tailored in ac...	{ "page_id": 22221728, "title": "Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging" }
the produce, thereby reducing wilting, shriveling, and loss of firmness. The accumulation of vapor in the packaging depends on the rate of water loss from the product, its surface area, the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of the film, and the external environment temperature.” “The RH in most sealed packaging is n...	{ "page_id": 22221728, "title": "Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging" }
specific produce type (and in some cases, the produce variety) to be packaged. This is done through a rigorous process of developing, testing, adjusting and retesting each MA\MH product both in the lab and in commercial trials. This meticulous process is repeated for each combination of produce and packaging type becau...	{ "page_id": 22221728, "title": "Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging" }
The Williams–Wright Award is an award that honors extraordinary or outstanding work in spectroscopic measurements while working in an industrial setting. The award has been given by the Coblentz Society annually since 1978 with the Awardee being selected by a committee of leading spectroscopists. The Award citations re...	{ "page_id": 23925668, "title": "Williams–Wright Award" }
This is a list of vegetarian and vegan organizations situated in various locations worldwide. Their primary aim is to advocate for vegetarianism and veganism, while also providing support and networking opportunities for individuals and groups who practice, promote, or endorse these practices. The largest international...	{ "page_id": 47584169, "title": "List of vegetarian and vegan organizations" }
Mega Purple is a grape juice concentrate by Vie-Del Company of Fresno, California. It is used as a food additive. The process used for producing the additive is proprietary. Based on the descriptions of effects to wines by winemakers it is likely produced by a series of processes such as vacuum distillation, fractional...	{ "page_id": 15143850, "title": "Mega Purple" }
Reciprocity in evolutionary biology refers to mechanisms whereby the evolution of cooperative or altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the probability of future mutual interactions. A corollary is how a desire for revenge can harm the collective and therefore be naturally selected against. == Main types == Three type...	{ "page_id": 8655788, "title": "Reciprocity (evolution)" }
indirect reciprocity are complicated, but again a simple rule has emerged. Indirect reciprocity can only promote cooperation if the probability, q, of knowing someone’s reputation exceeds the cost-to-benefit ratio of the altruistic act: q > c / b One important problem with this explanation is that individuals may be ab...	{ "page_id": 8655788, "title": "Reciprocity (evolution)" }
show kindness to others without anticipating prompt return favors. This kind of reciprocity emphasizes the intrinsic value of humanitarian acts and goes beyond transactional expectations. In the field of social dynamics, generalized reciprocity encourages people to have a culture of giving and unity. When people engage...	{ "page_id": 8655788, "title": "Reciprocity (evolution)" }
The Baljet reaction is a qualitative and quantitative method of analysis published by Henri Baljet in 1918. This chemical reaction is used for the detection and colorimetric determination of cardenolides. To the sample, an aqueous hydroxide solution and an ethanolic picric acid solution is combined and added, with a po...	{ "page_id": 78386092, "title": "Baljet reaction" }
Binucleated cells are cells that contain two nuclei. This type of cell is most commonly found in cancer cells and may arise from a variety of causes. Binucleation can be easily visualized through staining and microscopy. In general, binucleation has negative effects on cell viability and subsequent mitosis. They also o...	{ "page_id": 33231793, "title": "Binucleated cells" }
Binucleation occurs at a much higher rate in cancer cells. Other identifying features of cancer cells include multipolar spindles, micronuclei, and chromatin bridge. However, the increased rate of binucleation is usually not high enough to make it a conclusive diagnostic tool. == Effects == The fate of binucleated cell...	{ "page_id": 33231793, "title": "Binucleated cells" }
Forensic biology is the application of biological principles and techniques in the investigation of criminal and civil cases. Forensic biology is primarily concerned with analyzing biological and serological evidence in order to obtain a DNA profile, which aids law enforcement in the identification of potential suspect...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
profiling by developing PCR (polymerase chain reaction), which amplifies DNA segments in-vitro, even in trace amounts. DNA samples found in crimes scenes are often found in minute amounts and degraded states, and sometimes mixed with various body fluids from multiple individuals. Using PCR, these DNA samples can be amp...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
statistical confidence. Here, STR markers for autosomal STR are used in forensic DNA typing to track down the missing, verify family connections, and potentially connect suspects to crime sites. Laboratory analysis of DNA evidence involves the sample DNA being extracted, quantified, amplified, and visualized. There are...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
of the qPCR process. This is then compared to a standard curve of the cycle fluorescence threshold (y-axis) versus the log of known DNA concentrations (x-axis). By comparing the sample data to the standard curve, one may extrapolate the DNA concentration in the sample, which is essential to move forward with PCR amplif...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
share a haplotype. A haplotype "is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent". Sharing this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. The convolution and interpretati...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
Children and ChoicePoint, mtDNA was used to solve a 22-year-old cold case where the nuclear DNA evidence was not originally strong enough. After mtDNA analysis, Arbie Dean Williams was convicted of the murder of 15-year-old Linda Strait, which had occurred in 1982. In 2012, mtDNA evidence allowed investigators to estab...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
a human skeleton. Forensic botany can also help investigators determine the cause of death in cases where plant toxins are involved. For example, the presence of certain plant species in the stomach contents of a deceased individual may indicate accidental or intentional poisoning. In addition to identifying plant mate...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
can determine the species of bird to which a feather belongs. Other types of bird remains can also be identified through forensic ornithology. Bones, for example, can be analyzed to determine the species of bird, as well as the age and sex of the individual. Blood samples can also be used to identify bird species throu...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
the examination of individuals who have died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently to determine the cause and manner of death. A forensic autopsy is a postmortem examination of the body and analysis of bodily fluids to provide information on the cause of death, manner of death, and mechanism of injury. A forensic pathol...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
in massive parallel sequencing, also known as next-generation sequencing. This technology has enabled the analysis of microorganisms for various applications in forensic science, including biocrime, bioterrorism and epidemiology. Microorganisms can serve as valuable sources of evidence in criminal cases, including: Cla...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
in recent history involved the mailing of at least four anthrax-containing envelopes in the United States in September and October 2001. This incident resulted in 11 people contracting inhalation anthrax, leading to five fatalities, while another 11 individuals were afflicted with cutaneous anthrax. Additionally, 31 pe...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
aims to detect unexpected infections causing sudden deaths, confirm clinically suspected but unproven infections, evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy, identify emergent pathogens, and recognize medical errors. Additionally, the analysis of the thanatomicrobiome may help estimate the post-mortem interval. Cur...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
object to that location. Forensic limnology can be used in conjunction with other forensic techniques to provide a more comprehensive analysis of a crime scene. === Forensic entomology === == Current issues == === Sexual assault kit backlog === As DNA is a critical form of evidence in the investigation of cases of sexu...	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
biological evidence has fallen prey to the CSI Effect, which results in the public's perception of its capabilities being severely distorted and its limits blurred. == See also == DNA profiling Forensic chemistry Forensic science == References ==	{ "page_id": 4985778, "title": "Forensic biology" }
Lawrence V. Redman (September 1, 1880 – November 26, 1946), was a Canadian chemist and businessman who spent much of his adult life in the United States. Redman was a pioneer in the industrial applications of plastics. == Biography == Born in Oil Springs, Ontario, Redman took a B.A. degree from the University of Toront...	{ "page_id": 2364342, "title": "Lawrence V. Redman" }
The concept of a biological species as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce viable offspring dates back to at least the 18th century, although it is often associated today with Ernst Mayr. Species of the fruit-fly Drosophila are one of the most commonly used organisms in evolutionary research, and h...	{ "page_id": 11408311, "title": "Drosophila hybrid sterility" }
male hybrids are sterile. Recent studies have shown that a critical gene for gender determination in Drosophila known as the sex-lethal gene is highly misregulated in D. melanogaster and D. simulans hybrids, compared with the degree of misregulation of non-sex biased genes studied. The sex-lethal gene is often abnormal...	{ "page_id": 11408311, "title": "Drosophila hybrid sterility" }
sex chromosome of one species has recessive alleles interacting with autosomal alleles of the mating species. This could cause the heterogametic sex chromosome in the hybrid to be inviable or sterile, but homogametic sex chromosome will be fertile. Consequently, in species where presence or absence of a Y chromosome de...	{ "page_id": 11408311, "title": "Drosophila hybrid sterility" }
(in The Drosophila Genome; Viewpoints) Science, New Series, Vol. 287, No. 5461. (Mar. 24, 2000), pp. 2216–2218. Reed, Laura K., Markow, Therese A., Kidwell, Margaret G.. Early Events in Speciation: Polymorphism for Hybrid Male Sterility in Drosophila (in Biological Sciences) Proceedings of the National Academy of Scien...	{ "page_id": 11408311, "title": "Drosophila hybrid sterility" }
Segregating sites are positions which show differences (polymorphisms) between related genes in a sequence alignment (are not conserved). Segregating sites include conservative, semi-conservative and non-conservative mutations. The proportion of segregating sites within a gene is an important statistic in population ge...	{ "page_id": 44045241, "title": "Segregating site" }
Autoionization is a process by which an atom or a molecule in an excited state spontaneously emits one of the outer-shell electrons, thus going from a state with charge Z to a state with charge Z + 1, for example from an electrically neutral state to a singly ionized state. Autoionizing states are usually short-lived, ...	{ "page_id": 594874, "title": "Autoionization" }
the 1s2 2s2 2p4 3s 3p (3P) has been observed by electron ionization at 42.04 eV. Ion impact by high energy H+, He+ and Ne+ ions has also been used. If a core electron is missing, a positive ion can autoionize further and lose a second electron in the Auger effect. In neon, X-ray excitation can remove a 1s electron, pro...	{ "page_id": 594874, "title": "Autoionization" }
In hydrology, discharge is the volumetric flow rate (volume per time, in units of m3/h or ft3/h) of a stream. It equals the product of average flow velocity (with dimension of length per time, in m/h or ft/h) and the cross-sectional area (in m2 or ft2). It includes any suspended solids (e.g. sediment), dissolved chemic...	{ "page_id": 922554, "title": "Discharge (hydrology)" }
(Q) is equal to the product of the stream's cross-sectional area (A) and its mean velocity ( u ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {u}}} ), and is written as: Q = A u ¯ {\displaystyle Q=A\,{\bar {u}}} where Q {\displaystyle Q} is the discharge ([L3T−1]; m3/s or ft3/s) A {\displaystyle A} is the cross-sectional area of the portion o...	{ "page_id": 922554, "title": "Discharge (hydrology)" }
an important consideration is the stream's discharge hydrograph, a record of how the discharge varies over time after a precipitation event. The stream rises to a peak flow after each precipitation event, then falls in a slow recession. Because the peak flow also corresponds to the maximum water level reached during th...	{ "page_id": 922554, "title": "Discharge (hydrology)" }
also erode stream banks and damage public infrastructure. == Catchment effects on discharge and morphology == G. H. Dury and M. J. Bradshaw are two geographers who devised models showing the relationship between discharge and other variables in a river. The Bradshaw model described how pebble size and other variables c...	{ "page_id": 922554, "title": "Discharge (hydrology)" }
The brain microbiome is a hypothesized microbiome of bacteria and other flora that may exist in the brain. Its existence is speculative. Traditionally, the human brain is believed to be kept sterile due to the blood–brain barrier. Though pathogenic bacteria or viruses may enter the brain during encephalitis or other in...	{ "page_id": 79041473, "title": "Brain microbiome" }
would only need to leak through the blood-brain barrier at a low level. Alternatively, infection of the brain through nerves may also be a route for entry into the brain, such as through the olfactory bulb. If dementia is caused by an infection of the brain, brain-penetrant antibiotics and antifungals could provide rel...	{ "page_id": 79041473, "title": "Brain microbiome" }
Cutis, often termed the "true skin", is composed of the epidermis and the dermis. The dermis contains blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles. The epidermis and the dermis contain sensory nerve endings to detect changes in the environment. The cutis is the layer located above the subcutis. == ...	{ "page_id": 1381315, "title": "Cutis (anatomy)" }
Robophysics is an emerging scientific field to understand the physical principles of how robots move in the complex real world, analogous to biophysics to understand the motions of biological systems. This emerging area has demonstrated the need for a physics of robotics and reveal interesting problems at the interface...	{ "page_id": 58004420, "title": "Robophysics" }
In quantum physics, Fermi's golden rule is a formula that describes the transition rate (the probability of a transition per unit time) from one energy eigenstate of a quantum system to a group of energy eigenstates in a continuum, as a result of a weak perturbation. This transition rate is effectively independent of t...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
the system. If H' is time-independent, the system goes only into those states in the continuum that have the same energy as the initial state. If H' is oscillating sinusoidally as a function of time (i.e. it is a harmonic perturbation) with an angular frequency ω, the transition is into states with energies that differ...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
measurement is much larger than the time needed for the transition. Only the magnitude of the matrix element ⟨ f \| H ′ \| i ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle f\|H'\|i\rangle } enters the Fermi's golden rule. The phase of this matrix element, however, contains separate information about the transition process. It appears in express...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
2 π ℏ \| ⟨ ε i \| H ′ \| i ⟩ \| 2 . {\displaystyle \Gamma _{i\to \varepsilon _{i}}={\frac {2\pi }{\hbar }}\|\langle \varepsilon _{i}\|H'\|i\rangle \|^{2}.} where ε i {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}} refers to the continuum state with the same energy as the discrete state i {\displaystyle i} . For example, correctly normalized ...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
A ) 2 2 m 0 + V ( r ) , {\displaystyle H={\frac {({\textbf {p}}+e{\textbf {A}})^{2}}{2m_{0}}}+V({\textbf {r}}),} where V ( r ) {\displaystyle V({\textbf {r}})} is the potential of the crystal, e {\displaystyle e} and m 0 {\displaystyle m_{0}} are the charge and mass of an electron, and p {\displaystyle {\textbf {p}}} i...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
shown in the bracket. For the initial and final states in valence and conduction bands, we have \| i ⟩ = Ψ v , k i , s i ( r ) {\displaystyle \|i\rangle =\Psi _{v,{\textbf {k}}_{i},s_{i}}({\textbf {r}})} and \| f ⟩ = Ψ c , k f , s f ( r ) {\displaystyle \|f\rangle =\Psi _{c,{\textbf {k}}_{f},s_{f}}({\textbf {r}})} , respec...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
× ( distance ) \| v ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle c\|({\text{charge}})\times ({\text{distance}})\|v\rangle } and in this situation takes the form μ c v = − i ℏ Ω 0 ∫ Ω 0 d r ′ u n c , k ∗ ( r ′ ) ∇ u n v , k ( r ′ ) . {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{cv}=-{\frac {i\hbar }{\Omega _{0}}}\int _{\Omega _{0}}d{\textbf {r}}'u_{n...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
− E v ( k ) − ℏ ω ) . {\displaystyle \Gamma _{vc}={\frac {2\pi }{\hbar }}\int _{\text{BZ}}{\frac {d{\textbf {k}}}{4\pi ^{3}}}\|H_{vc}'\|^{2}\delta (E_{c}({\textbf {k}})-E_{v}({\textbf {k}})-\hbar \omega ).} In the same manner, the stationary DC photocurrent with amplitude proportional to the square of the field of light ...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
the tunneling current. It takes the form w = 2 π ℏ \| M \| 2 δ ( E ψ − E χ ) , {\displaystyle w={\frac {2\pi }{\hbar }}\|M\|^{2}\delta (E_{\psi }-E_{\chi }),} where M {\displaystyle M} is the tunneling matrix element. === Quantum optics === When considering energy level transitions between two discrete states, Fermi's gold...	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
== More information on Fermi's golden rule Derivation of Fermi’s Golden Rule Time-dependent perturbation theory Fermi's golden rule: its derivation and breakdown by an ideal model	{ "page_id": 922567, "title": "Fermi's golden rule" }
This is a list of herbaria in North America, organized first by country or region where the herbarium is located, then within each region by size of the collection. All herbarium codes follow the Index Herbarium. For other continents, see List of herbaria. == Canada == == Central America and the Caribbean == The table ...	{ "page_id": 18027464, "title": "List of herbaria in North America" }
Infomax, or the principle of maximum information preservation, is an optimization principle for artificial neural networks and other information processing systems. It prescribes that a function that maps a set of input values x {\displaystyle x} to a set of output values z ( x ) {\displaystyle z(x)} should be chosen o...	{ "page_id": 9835466, "title": "Infomax" }
information maximization for arbitrary input distributions". Neural Computation. 9 (8): 1661–65. doi:10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1661. S2CID 42857188. Stone, J. V. (2004). Independent Component Analysis: A tutorial introduction. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-69315-8.	{ "page_id": 9835466, "title": "Infomax" }
4-Maleylacetoacetate (4-maleylacetoacetatic acid) is an intermediate in the metabolism of tyrosine. It is converted to fumarylacetoacetate by the enzyme 4-maleylacetoacetate cis-trans-isomerase. Gluthathione coenzymatically helps in conversion to fumarylacetoacetic acid. == See also == Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase	{ "page_id": 10949578, "title": "4-Maleylacetoacetic acid" }
Porina chlorotica is a species of crustose lichen belonging to the family Porinaceae. == References ==	{ "page_id": 66655178, "title": "Porina chlorotica" }
Sommer's Sector is region CA1 of the hippocampus, a part of the human brain. It is particularly vulnerable to hypoxic or ischemic damage and is one of the first brain regions to show gross changes in cerebral hypoxia. Sommer's sector is one of the vulnerable areas in global cerebral ischemia. Generally, the hippocampus...	{ "page_id": 33428429, "title": "Sommer's sector" }
The International Society for Biocuration (ISB) is a non-profit organisation that promotes the field of biocuration and was founded in early 2009. It provides a forum for information exchange through meetings and workshops. The society's conference, the International Biocuration Conference, has been held in Pacific Gro...	{ "page_id": 50140110, "title": "International Society for Biocuration" }
References == == External references == Official website	{ "page_id": 50140110, "title": "International Society for Biocuration" }
Since the first printing of Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1753, plants have been assigned one epithet or name for their species and one name for their genus, a grouping of related species. Thousands of plants have been named for people, including botanists and their colleagues, plant collectors, horticulturists,...	{ "page_id": 66261967, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (K–P)" }
Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners In addition, Burkhardt's Index is used as a reference for every row in the table, except as noted. == Genera == == See also == List of plant genus names with etymologies: A–C, D–K, L–P, Q–Z List of plant family names with etymologies == Notes == == Citations == == References == B...	{ "page_id": 66261967, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (K–P)" }
CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-367-44751-9. Stearn, William (2002). Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names for Gardeners. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-36469-5. == Further reading == Gledhill, David (2008). The Names of Plants. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3.	{ "page_id": 66261967, "title": "List of plant genera named for people (K–P)" }
Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids or compressed gases. The term can be used for reservoirs (artificial lakes and ponds), and for manufactured containers. The usage of the word "tank" for reservoirs is uncommon in American English but is moderately common in British English. In other countries, the term ten...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
of the word were incorporated into the English language. The Arabic verb istanqa`a اِسْتَنْقَعَ = "it [i.e. some liquid] collected and became stagnant". == Features and maintenance == While steel and concrete remain one the most popular choices for tanks, glass-reinforced plastic, thermoplastic and polyethylene tanks a...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
ensuring their safety and efficiency. Regular inspection is essential for identifying potential issues such as corrosion, leaks, structural weaknesses, and compliance with environmental regulations. These inspections can vary in frequency and detail depending on the type of tank, the material stored, and the regulatory...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
are API 650 and API 620. API 653 is used for analysis of in-service storage tanks. In Europe the applicable design code is EN 14015, which uses load cases from Eurocode 3 (EN 1993), part 4-2. === High-pressure === In the case of a liquefied gas such as hydrogen or chlorine, or a compressed gas such as compressed natura...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
are usually made of stainless steel and are constructed to sanitary standards. They must be cleaned after each milk collection. The milk cooling tank may be the property of the farmer, or may be rented by the farmer from a dairy plant. === Septic tanks === A septic tank is part of a small-scale sewage treatment system ...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
unpumpable. Dome roof tanks are meant for tanks having slightly higher-than-atmospheric storage pressure (e.g., slop oil). Floating roof tanks are broadly divided into external floating roof tanks (usually referred to simply as floating roof tanks, or FR tanks) and internal floating roof types (IFR Tanks). IFR tanks ar...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
designing chemical tanks. Selected materials have to be as resistant to the chemical stored as design and economics allow. This includes selection of smaller features such as gaskets and plumbing materials. Other parameters to be taken in consideration are heat, cold, vacuum, pressure, exothermic reactivity and the inh...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
in the tanks may be highly explosive as the space fills with hydrocarbons. If new welding operations are started, then sparks can easily ignite the contents, with disastrous results for the welders. The problem is similar to that of empty bunkers on tanker ships, which are now required to use an inert gas blanket to pr...	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
– Oilfield equipment to store and vent gasPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Water tank – Container for storing water == References == == External links ==	{ "page_id": 4723661, "title": "Storage tank" }
Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface is a chemically passivated silicon substrate where the surface Si atoms are bonded to hydrogen. The hydrogen-terminated surfaces are hydrophobic, luminescent, and amenable to chemical modification. Hydrogen-terminated silicon is an intermediate in the growth of bulk silicon from sila...	{ "page_id": 2036687, "title": "Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface" }
to create digital circuits made of quantum dots by removing hydrogen atoms from the silicon surface. The hydrogen-terminated silicon surface is widely used in the fabrication of semiconductor devices. It serves as a precursor for various surface functionalization techniques and is also essential in the formation of sil...	{ "page_id": 2036687, "title": "Hydrogen-terminated silicon surface" }
CDw17 antigen is a lactosylceramide, a class of glycosphingolipids found in microdomains on the plasma layers of numerous cells. It is found on human neutrophils, basophils, monocyte, platelets, tonsillar CD45+ dendritic cells, epithelial cells, endothelial cells in intestinal epithelium, and on post-proliferative gran...	{ "page_id": 21697492, "title": "CDw17 antigen" }
Anke Weidenkaff (December 27, 1966 in Hanover, Germany) is a German-Swiss chemist and materials scientist. Since 2018, she has been head of the Materials & Resources Group at the Faculty of Materials Science at Technical University Darmstadt. == Life == Weidenkaff was born in Hanover, Germany, and studied chemistry at ...	{ "page_id": 67572697, "title": "Anke Weidenkaff" }
work focuses on materials science and specifically the development of regenerative, sustainable materials and next-generation process technologies for fast and efficiently closed materials cycles. Anke Weidenkaff and her team are currently working on technologies for the production of (green) hydrogen including photoel...	{ "page_id": 67572697, "title": "Anke Weidenkaff" }
The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of interest in astrobiology due to the planet's proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no conclusive evidence of past or present life has been found on Mars. Cumulative evidence suggests that during the ancient Noachian time period, the surface environment of Mars had...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
and of boron on Mars are of interest as they are precursors for prebiotic chemistry. Such findings, along with previous discoveries that liquid water was clearly present on ancient Mars, further supports the possible early habitability of Gale Crater on Mars. Currently, the surface of Mars is bathed with ionizing radia...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
axial tilt was similar to Earth's, which meant it experienced seasons just as Earth does—but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year. These observations led to increasing speculation that the darker albedo features were water and the brighter ones were land, whence followed speculation on whether Mars...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
du Midi observatory also brought formal discredit to the Martian canals theory in 1909, and the notion of canals began to fall out of favor. == Habitability == Chemical, physical, geological, and geographic attributes shape the environments on Mars. Isolated measurements of these factors may be insufficient to deem an ...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
of the late Noachian valley networks, even though the mid-late Noachian global conditions were probably icy. Local warming of the environment by volcanism and impacts would have been sporadic, but there should have been many events of water flowing at the surface of Mars. Both the mineralogical and the morphological ev...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
habitability factors. The rover team identified some of the key chemical ingredients for life in this soil, including sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and possibly carbon, as well as clay minerals, suggesting a long-ago aqueous environment—perhaps a lake or an ancient streambed—that had neutral acidity an...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
to be stable enough to support surface water hospitable to life, with rapid wetting-drying cycles and very high-salinity cryogenic brines providing potential explanations. === Present === Conceivably, if life exists (or existed) on Mars, evidence of life could be found, or is best preserved, in the subsurface, away fro...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
solar particle events (SPE) may not be a limiting factor in habitability assessments for present-day surface life on Mars. The level of 76 mGy per year measured by Curiosity is similar to levels inside the ISS. ==== Cumulative effects ==== Curiosity rover measured ionizing radiation levels of 76 mGy per year. This leve...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
and redox-sensitive components such as organic molecules." Regardless of the source of Martian organic compounds (meteoric, geological, or biological), its carbon bonds are susceptible to breaking and reconfiguring with surrounding elements by ionizing charged particle radiation. These improved subsurface radiation est...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
is toxic for most living organisms, but since they drastically lower the freezing point of water and a few extremophiles can use it as an energy source (see Perchlorates - Biology) and grow at concentrations of up to 30% (w/v) sodium perchlorate by physiologically adapting to increasing perchlorate concentrations, it h...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
streaks grow in spring, widen in late summer and then fade away in autumn. This is hard to model in any other way except as involving liquid water in some form, though the streaks themselves are thought to be a secondary effect and not a direct indication of the dampness of the regolith. Although these features are now...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
reported that the SAM instrument on the Curiosity rover detected nitrates by heating surface sediments. The nitrogen in nitrate is in a "fixed" state, meaning that it is in an oxidized form that can be used by living organisms. The discovery supports the notion that ancient Mars may have been hospitable for life. It is...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
in snow heated by the Sun. Also, the ancient equatorial ice sheets beneath the ground may slowly sublimate or melt, accessible from the surface via caves. Water on Mars exists almost exclusively as water ice, located in the Martian polar ice caps and under the shallow Martian surface even at more temperate latitudes. A...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
of flood-like gullies. Additional similar images were published in 2006, taken by the Mars Global Surveyor, that suggested that water occasionally flows on the surface of Mars. The images showed changes in steep crater walls and sediment deposits, providing the strongest evidence yet that water coursed through them as ...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
coming into contact with volcanic rocks. Scientists consider this as evidence of a past environment that may have been favorable for microbial life and theorize that one possible origin for the silica may have been produced by the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of wat...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
to map the concentration and sources of methane in the atmosphere, as well as its decomposition products such as formaldehyde and methanol. As of May 2019, the Trace Gas Orbiter showed that the concentration of methane is under detectable level (< 0.05 ppbv). The principal candidates for the origin of Mars's methane in...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
and methane-consuming microorganisms. Research at the University of Arkansas presented in June 2015 suggested that some methanogens could survive in Mars's low pressure. Rebecca Mickol found that in her laboratory, four species of methanogens survived low-pressure conditions that were similar to a subsurface liquid aqu...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
landers on the surface of Mars tasked to look for biosignatures of microbial life on the surface. The 'Labeled Release' (LR) experiment gave a positive result for metabolism, while the gas chromatograph–mass spectrometer did not detect organic compounds. The LR was a specific experiment designed to test only a narrowly...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
have been established for the recognition of past life within terrestrial geologic samples. Those criteria are: Is the geologic context of the sample compatible with past life? Is the age of the sample and its stratigraphic location compatible with possible life? Does the sample contain evidence of cellular morphology ...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
analysis. Researchers found preterrestrial aqueous alteration phases and objects of the size and shape consistent with Earthly fossilized nanobacteria. Analysis with gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studied its high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 2000, and NASA scientists concluded...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }
in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to NASA scientists. === Ichnofossil-like structures === Organism–substrate interactions and their products are important biosignatures on Earth as they...	{ "page_id": 463835, "title": "Life on Mars" }

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