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the IRB. Additionally, precipitation contributes to increased groundwater flow and aquatic currents, which improves mineral advection. This enhanced advection facilitates the transportation of ferric iron (Fe(III)), increasing its availability as the electron acceptor for IRB. Precipitation also affects IRB through its... | {
"page_id": 79627568,
"source": null,
"title": "Dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria"
} |
alkaliphilic. This minority of IRB inhabit pH ranges below 5 pH and above 9 pH, respectively, in ecological niches such as mine drainage sites or soda lake sediment. Just as with pH and temperature, IRB are largely resilient to saline conditions. This is exhibited by their geographic distribution in both freshwater and... | {
"page_id": 79627568,
"source": null,
"title": "Dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria"
} |
reduction most likely depends on the physiological characteristics of the DIRB present in an area. === Removal of organic matter === Urbanization and poor sewage management introduce organic pollutants to rivers, which accumulate in sediments. This leads to water degradation and anaerobic water bodies, where organic ma... | {
"page_id": 79627568,
"source": null,
"title": "Dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria"
} |
infiltration in mine tailings, reducing oxidation and creating an anoxic environment that increases iron reduction rates, immobilizes heavy metals, and supports their conversion into sulphides. However, remediation effects may vary with depth due to changes in the microbial community composition. === Dechlorination of ... | {
"page_id": 79627568,
"source": null,
"title": "Dissimilatory iron reducing bacteria"
} |
Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (English: Journal of Physical Chemistry) is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering physical chemistry that is published by Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. Its English subtitle is "International Journal of Research in Physical Chemistry and Chemical Physics". It was esta... | {
"page_id": 656692,
"source": null,
"title": "Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie"
} |
Pure and Applied Chemistry is the official journal for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is published monthly by Walter de Gruyter and contains recommendations and reports, and lectures from symposia. == References == | {
"page_id": 8783159,
"source": null,
"title": "Pure and Applied Chemistry"
} |
In physics, an absorption edge (also known as an absorption discontinuity or absorption limit) is a sharp discontinuity in the absorption spectrum of a substance. These discontinuities occur at wavelengths where the energy of an absorbed photon corresponds to an electronic transition or ionization potential. When the q... | {
"page_id": 18482489,
"source": null,
"title": "Absorption edge"
} |
Varignon's theorem is a theorem of French mathematician Pierre Varignon (1654–1722), published in 1687 in his book Projet d'une nouvelle mécanique. The theorem states that the torque of a resultant of two concurrent forces about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the torques of its components about the same poi... | {
"page_id": 38208829,
"source": null,
"title": "Varignon's theorem (mechanics)"
} |
) = ( O − O 1 ) × F = T O 1 F {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{N}\mathbf {\mathrm {T} } _{O_{1}}^{\mathbf {f} _{i}}=(\mathbf {O} -\mathbf {O} _{1})\times \left(\sum _{i=1}^{N}\mathbf {f} _{i}\right)=(\mathbf {O} -\mathbf {O} _{1})\times \mathbf {F} =\mathbf {\mathrm {T} } _{O_{1}}^{\mathbf {F} }} . Proving the theorem, i.e.... | {
"page_id": 38208829,
"source": null,
"title": "Varignon's theorem (mechanics)"
} |
The William Bate Hardy Prize is awarded by the Cambridge Philosophical Society. It is awarded once in three years “for the best original memoir, investigation or discovery by a member of the University of Cambridge in connection with Biological Science that may have been published during the three years immediately pre... | {
"page_id": 35849534,
"source": null,
"title": "William Bate Hardy Prize"
} |
Trans fat regulation, that aims to limit the amount of "trans fat" — fat containing trans fatty acids — in industrial food products, has been enacted in many countries. These regulations were motivated by numerous studies that pointed to significant negative health effects of trans fat. It is generally accepted that tr... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
[interrupted by at least one methylene group (−CH2−)] carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans configuration. This definition excludes specifically the trans fats (vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acid) that are present especially in human milk, dairy products, and beef. In 2018 the World Health Organization launch... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
prohibit more than 2 g of trans fatty acids per 100 g of fat in food products. === Brazil === Resolution 360 of 23 December 2003 by the Brazilian ministry of health required for the first time in the country that the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labelling of tran... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease. === European Union === In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans fatty acids, surmising that "higher intakes of TFA may increase risk for coronary heart disease". From 2 April 2021 foods in the EU intended for cons... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
ban PHOs by June 2021, with the aim of encouraging healthy eating habits. The total ban on PHOs took effect on 1 June 2021. === Sweden === The parliament gave the government a mandate in 2011 to submit without delay a law prohibiting the use of industrially produced trans fats in foods, as of 2017 the law has not yet b... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
8 g of trans fats, conferring a substantially increased risk of coronary artery disease death. NICE made three specific recommendation for diet: (1) reduction of dietary salt to 3 g per day by 2025; (2) halving consumption of saturated fats; and (3) eliminating the use of industrially produced trans fatty acids in food... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. Without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, includ... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled Restricting Trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of tra... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
to give companies one more year to find other ingredients for enhancing product flavors or grease industrial baking pans, effectively banning trans fats in the United States from May 2019 onwards. Also, while new products can no longer be made with trans fats, they will give foods already on the shelves some time to cy... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
require restaurants in the city to stop frying food in trans fats by 1 September 2007. The ordinance also contained a provision going into effect one year later that barred trans fat from being used as an ingredient in commercial kitchens. On 10 October 2007, the Philadelphia City Council approved the use of trans fats... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
oil, shortening, and margarine containing artificial trans fats in spreads or for frying, with the exception of deep frying doughnuts. As of 1 January 2011, doughnuts and other baked goods have been prohibited from containing artificial trans fats. Packaged foods are not covered by the ban and can legally contain trans... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
are estimated at $140 billion over 20 years mainly from lower health care spending. Food companies can petition the FDA for approval of specific uses of partially hydrogenated oils if the companies submit data proving the oils' use is safe. === Manufacturer response === Palm oil, a natural oil extracted from the fruit ... | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship Becel brand. == See also == Diet and heart disease Health crisis Fat interesterification == References == | {
"page_id": 263487,
"source": null,
"title": "Trans fat regulation"
} |
The curse of dimensionality refers to various phenomena that arise when analyzing and organizing data in high-dimensional spaces that do not occur in low-dimensional settings such as the three-dimensional physical space of everyday experience. The expression was coined by Richard E. Bellman when considering problems in... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
spaced sample points suffice to sample a unit interval (try to visualize a "1-dimensional" cube) with no more than 10−2 = 0.01 distance between points; an equivalent sampling of a 10-dimensional unit hypercube with a lattice that has a spacing of 10−2 = 0.01 between adjacent points would require 1020 = [(102)10] sample... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
training samples, the average (expected) predictive power of a classifier or regressor first increases as the number of dimensions or features used is increased but beyond a certain dimensionality it starts deteriorating instead of improving steadily. Nevertheless, in the context of a simple classifier (e.g., linear di... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
individual has cancer or not. A common practice of data mining in this domain would be to create association rules between genetic mutations that lead to the development of cancers. To do this, one would have to loop through each genetic mutation of each individual and find other genetic mutations that occur over a des... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
the model. This may seem counterintuitive, but consider the genetic mutation table from above, depicting all genetic mutations for each individual. Each genetic mutation, whether they correlate with cancer or not, will have some input or weight in the model that guides the decision-making process of the algorithm. Ther... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
r d π d / 2 d Γ ( d / 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {2r^{d}\pi ^{d/2}}{d\;\Gamma (d/2)}}} , where Γ {\displaystyle \Gamma } is the gamma function, while the volume of the cube is ( 2 r ) d {\displaystyle (2r)^{d}} . As the dimension d {\displaystyle d} of the space increases, the hypersphere becomes an insignificant volume... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
1 1 x 4 d x − ⟨ x i 2 ⟩ 2 = 4 45 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\int _{-1}^{1}x^{4}dx-\left\langle x_{i}^{2}\right\rangle ^{2}={\frac {4}{45}}} Therefore, the squared distance from the origin, r 2 = ∑ i x i 2 {\textstyle r^{2}=\sum _{i}x_{i}^{2}} has the average value d/3 and variance 4d/45. For large d, distribution of ... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
dist max ( d ) − dist min ( d ) dist min ( d ) ) → 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{d\to \infty }E\left({\frac {\operatorname {dist} _{\max }(d)-\operatorname {dist} _{\min }(d)}{\operatorname {dist} _{\min }(d)}}\right)\to 0} . This is often cited as distance functions losing their usefulness (for the nearest-neighbor cr... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
search in high dimensional space. It is not possible to quickly reject candidates by using the difference in one coordinate as a lower bound for a distance based on all the dimensions. However, it has recently been observed that the mere number of dimensions does not necessarily result in difficulties, since relevant a... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
longer be systematically scanned Data snooping bias: given the large search space, for every desired significance a hypothesis can be found Hubness: certain objects occur more frequently in neighbor lists than others. Many of the analyzed specialized methods tackle one or another of these problems, but there remain man... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
it makes the similarity search in high dimensions difficult and even useless (curse). Zimek et al. noted that while the typical formalizations of the curse of dimensionality affect i.i.d. data, having data that is separated in each attribute becomes easier even in high dimensions, and argued that the signal-to-noise ra... | {
"page_id": 787776,
"source": null,
"title": "Curse of dimensionality"
} |
The history of molecular evolution starts in the early 20th century with "comparative biochemistry", but the field of molecular evolution came into its own in the 1960s and 1970s, following the rise of molecular biology. The advent of protein sequencing allowed molecular biologists to create phylogenies based on sequen... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
1960s Curtis Williams and Morris Goodman used immunological comparisons to study primate phylogeny. Others, such as Linus Pauling and his students, applied newly developed combinations of electrophoresis and paper chromatography to proteins subject to partial digestion by digestive enzymes to create unique two-dimensio... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
deleterious homozygous recessive alleles, the effects of which are masked when separate lines are crossed—this was the dominance hypothesis, part of what Dobzhansky labeled the classical position. Thus, ionizing radiation and the resulting mutations produce considerable genetic load even if death or disease does not oc... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
potential way to decide between the classical and balance positions, if accurate values for the level of heterozygosity could be found. By the mid-1960s, the techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology—in particular protein electrophoresis—provided a way to measure the level of heterozygosity in natural population... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
than insulin), followed in short order by a number of other species. In 1962, Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed using the number of differences between homologous protein sequences to estimate the time since divergence, an idea Zuckerkandl had conceived around 1960 or 1961. This began with Pauling's long-tim... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
RNA and proteins) for all biological processes, including evolution. The struggle between evolutionary biologists and molecular biologists—with each group holding up their discipline as the center of biology as a whole—was later dubbed the "molecular wars" by Edward O. Wilson, who experienced firsthand the domination o... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
and Proteins at Rutgers University, they engaged directly with the molecular biologists and biochemists, hoping to maintain the central place of Darwinian explanations in evolution as its study spread to new fields. === Gene-centered view of evolution === Though not directly related to molecular evolution, the mid-1960... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
of the potential power of neutral alleles and genetic drift as well. Kimura's theory—described only briefly in a letter to Nature—was followed shortly after with a more substantial analysis by Jack L. King and Thomas H. Jukes—who titled their first paper on the subject "Non-Darwinian Evolution". Though King and Jukes p... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
widespread and that genetic drift was a crucial factor in the evolution of proteins. Kimura became the most prominent defender of the neutral theory—which would be his main focus for the rest of his career. With Ohta, he refocused his arguments on the rate at which drift could fix new mutations in finite populations, t... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
molecular clock) were fairly independent of generation time, rates of noncoding DNA divergence were inversely proportional to generation time. Noting that population size is generally inversely proportional to generation time, Tomoko Ohta proposed that most amino acid substitutions are slightly deleterious while noncod... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
Woese, a molecular biologist whose earlier work was on the genetic code and its origin, began using small subunit ribosomal RNA to reclassify bacteria by genetic (rather than morphological) similarity. Work proceeded slowly at first, but accelerated as new sequencing methods were developed in the 1970s and 1980s. By 19... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
Michael R. (1998). "Paradox and Persuasion: Negotiating the Place of Molecular Evolution within Evolutionary Biology". Journal of the History of Biology. 31 (1): 85–111. doi:10.1023/A:1004257523100. PMID 11619919. S2CID 29935487. Crow, James F. "Motoo Kimura, 13 November 1924 - 13 November 1994." Biographical Memoirs o... | {
"page_id": 11863361,
"source": null,
"title": "History of molecular evolution"
} |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bsa to Bso inclusive. It contains approximately 90 enzymes. The following information is given: Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Furth... | {
"page_id": 27460930,
"source": null,
"title": "List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: Bsa–Bso"
} |
The Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation (or GHK flux equation or GHK current density equation) describes the ionic flux across a cell membrane as a function of the transmembrane potential and the concentrations of the ion inside and outside of the cell. Since both the voltage and the concentration gradients influence th... | {
"page_id": 6882629,
"source": null,
"title": "Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation"
} |
the transmembrane potential in volts F is the Faraday constant, equal to 96,485 C·mol−1 or J·V−1·mol−1 R is the gas constant, equal to 8.314 J·K−1·mol−1 T is the absolute temperature, measured in kelvins (= degrees Celsius + 273.15) [S]i is the intracellular concentration of ion S, measured in mol·m−3 or mmol·l−1 [S]o ... | {
"page_id": 6882629,
"source": null,
"title": "Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation"
} |
of f and the result is : lim V m → 0 Φ S = P S z S F ( [ S ] i − [ S ] o ) {\displaystyle \lim _{V_{m}\rightarrow 0}\Phi _{S}=P_{S}z_{S}F([{\mbox{S}}]_{i}-[{\mbox{S}}]_{o})} It is evident from the previous equation that when V m = 0 {\displaystyle V_{m}=0} , Φ S ≠ 0 {\displaystyle \Phi _{S}\neq 0} if ( [ S ] i − [ S ] ... | {
"page_id": 6882629,
"source": null,
"title": "Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation"
} |
| i → o = P S z S 2 V m F 2 R T [ S ] i for V m ≫ 0 {\displaystyle \Phi _{S|i\to o}=P_{S}z_{S}^{2}{\frac {V_{m}F^{2}}{RT}}[{\mbox{S}}]_{i}\ {\mbox{for}}\ V_{m}\gg \;0} Φ S | i → o = 0 for V m ≪ 0 {\displaystyle \Phi _{S|i\to o}=0\;{\mbox{for}}\ V_{m}\ll \;0} and Φ S | o → i = P S z S 2 V m F 2 R T [ S ] o for V m ≪ 0 {... | {
"page_id": 6882629,
"source": null,
"title": "Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation"
} |
the surface area, and the effect is called rectification. The GHK flux equation is mostly used by electrophysiologists when the ratio between [S]i and [S]o is large and/or when one or both of the concentrations change considerably during an action potential. The most common example is probably intracellular calcium, [C... | {
"page_id": 6882629,
"source": null,
"title": "Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz flux equation"
} |
Chirality () is a property of asymmetry important in several branches of science. The word chirality is derived from the Greek χείρ (kheir), "hand", a familiar chiral object. An object or a system is chiral if it is distinguishable from its mirror image; that is, it cannot be superposed (not to be confused with superim... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
different from a left shoe, and clockwise is different from anticlockwise. See for a full mathematical definition. A chiral object and its mirror image are said to be enantiomorphs. The word enantiomorph stems from the Greek ἐναντίος (enantios) 'opposite' + μορφή (morphe) 'form'. A non-chiral figure is called achiral o... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
otherwise it is called chiral. For example, the unknot and the figure-eight knot are achiral, whereas the trefoil knot is chiral. == Physics == In physics, chirality may be found in the spin of a particle, where the handedness of the object is determined by the direction in which the particle spins. Not to be confused ... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
activity. Circular birefringence causes rotation of the polarization state of electromagnetic waves in chiral media and can cause a negative index of refraction for waves of one handedness when the effect is sufficiently large. While optical activity occurs in structures that are chiral in three dimensions (such as hel... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
a chiral (experimental) arrangement, is known as extrinsic chirality. Chiral mirrors are a class of metamaterials that reflect circularly polarized light of a certain helicity in a handedness-preserving manner, while absorbing circular polarization of the opposite handedness. However, most absorbing chiral mirrors oper... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
defined as configuration. Another nomenclature system employed to specify configuration is Fischer convention. This is also referred to as the D- and L-system. Here the relative configuration is assigned with reference to D-(+)-Glyceraldehyde and L-(−)-Glyceraldehyde, being taken as standard. Fischer convention is wide... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
L form. However, D-amino acids are also found in nature. The monosaccharides (carbohydrate-units) are commonly found in D-configuration. DNA double helix is chiral (as any kind of helix is chiral), and B-form of DNA shows a right-handed turn. Sometimes, when two enantiomers of a compound are found in organisms, they si... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
RRR, RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR, and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that 1.36 mg of dl-tocopherol is considered equivalent to 1.0 mg of d-tocopherol. Macroscopic examples of chirality are found in the plant kingdom, the animal kingdom and all other groups of organisms. A simple example i... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
vessels which supply these organs would need to be rearranged should a normal, non situs inversus (situs solitus) organ be required. In the monocot bloodroot family, the species of the genera Wachendorfia and Barberetta have only individuals that either have the style points to the right or the style pointed to the lef... | {
"page_id": 32703814,
"source": null,
"title": "Chirality"
} |
The molecular formula C18H25NO3 (molar mass: 303.40 g/mol) may refer to: EA-3580 CAR-302,668 MDPEP | {
"page_id": 74712392,
"source": null,
"title": "C18H25NO3"
} |
Analytical Chemistry is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 1929 by the American Chemical Society. Articles address general principles of chemical measurement science and novel analytical methodologies. Topics commonly include chemical reactions and selectivity, chemometrics and data processing,... | {
"page_id": 4392265,
"source": null,
"title": "Analytical Chemistry (journal)"
} |
Fructolysis refers to the metabolism of fructose from dietary sources. Though the metabolism of glucose through glycolysis uses many of the same enzymes and intermediate structures as those in fructolysis, the two sugars have very different metabolic fates in human metabolism. Under one percent of ingested fructose is ... | {
"page_id": 17302858,
"source": null,
"title": "Fructolysis"
} |
dietary glucose passes through the liver and goes to skeletal muscle, where it is metabolized to CO2, H2O and ATP, and to fat cells where it is metabolized primarily to glycerol phosphate for triglyceride synthesis as well as energy production. The products of fructose metabolism are liver glycogen and de novo lipogene... | {
"page_id": 17302858,
"source": null,
"title": "Fructolysis"
} |
or undergo reduction to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The glyceraldehyde produced may also be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by glyceraldehyde kinase or converted to glycerol 3-phosphate by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The metabolism of fructose at this point yields i... | {
"page_id": 17302858,
"source": null,
"title": "Fructolysis"
} |
consumption results in the insulin-independent induction of several important hepatic lipogenic enzymes including pyruvate kinase, NADP+-dependent malate dehydrogenase, citrate lyase, acetyl CoA carboxylase, fatty acid synthase, as well as pyruvate dehydrogenase. Although not a consistent finding among metabolic feedin... | {
"page_id": 17302858,
"source": null,
"title": "Fructolysis"
} |
small intestines. An accumulation of fructose-1-phosphate following fructose ingestion inhibits glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis, resulting in severe hypoglycemia. It is symptomatic resulting in severe hypoglycemia, abdominal pain, vomiting, hemorrhage, jaundice, hepatomegaly, and hyperuricemi... | {
"page_id": 17302858,
"source": null,
"title": "Fructolysis"
} |
Kunihiko Fukushima (Japanese: 福島 邦彦, born 16 March 1936) is a Japanese computer scientist, most noted for his work on artificial neural networks and deep learning. He is currently working part-time as a senior research scientist at the Fuzzy Logic Systems Institute in Fukuoka, Japan. == Notable scientific achievements ... | {
"page_id": 23594316,
"source": null,
"title": "Kunihiko Fukushima"
} |
1989-1990 and 1993-2005. == Awards == In 2020, Fukushima received the Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science. In 2022, Fukushima became a laureate of the Asian Scientist 100 by the Asian Scientist. He also received the IEICE Achievement Award and Excellent Paper Awards, the IEEE Neural Networks Pioneer Award,... | {
"page_id": 23594316,
"source": null,
"title": "Kunihiko Fukushima"
} |
The Knight shift is a shift in the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) frequency of a paramagnetic substance first published in 1949 by the UC Berkeley physicist Walter D. Knight. For an ensemble of N spins in a magnetic induction field B → {\displaystyle {\vec {B}}} , the nuclear Hamiltonian for the Knight shift is expre... | {
"page_id": 1181004,
"source": null,
"title": "Knight shift"
} |
an external field. This is responsible for the shift observed in the nuclear magnetic resonance. The shift comes from two sources, one is the Pauli paramagnetic spin susceptibility, the other is the s-component wavefunctions at the nucleus. Depending on the electronic structure, the Knight shift may be temperature depe... | {
"page_id": 1181004,
"source": null,
"title": "Knight shift"
} |
The electron affinity (Eea) of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron attaches to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form an anion. X(g) + e− → X−(g) + energy This differs by sign from the energy change of electron capture ionization. The electron affinity is po... | {
"page_id": 197964,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron affinity"
} |
change in energy, ΔE, in which case the positive values listed in tables would be for an endo- not exo-thermic process. The relation between the two is Eea = −ΔE(attach). However, if the value assigned to Eea is negative, the negative sign implies a reversal of direction, and energy is required to attach an electron. I... | {
"page_id": 197964,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron affinity"
} |
not been conclusively measured, so they may or may not have slightly negative values. Eea generally increases across a period (row) in the periodic table prior to reaching group 18. This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an ele... | {
"page_id": 197964,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron affinity"
} |
functionally analogous to the chemistry definition of electron affinity, since an added electron will spontaneously go to the bottom of the conduction band. At nonzero temperature, and for other materials (metals, semimetals, heavily doped semiconductors), the analogy does not hold since an added electron will instead ... | {
"page_id": 197964,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron affinity"
} |
electrons to the vacuum with little energy loss. The observed electron yield as a function of various parameters such as bias voltage or illumination conditions can be used to describe these structures with band diagrams in which the electron affinity is one parameter. For one illustration of the apparent effect of sur... | {
"page_id": 197964,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron affinity"
} |
A merodiploid is a partially diploid bacterium, which has its own chromosome complement and a chromosome fragment introduced by conjugation, transformation or transduction. It can also be defined as an essentially haploid organism that carries a second copy of a part of its genome. The term is derived from the Greek, m... | {
"page_id": 50529615,
"source": null,
"title": "Merodiploid"
} |
In chemistry, a trigonal bipyramid formation is a molecular geometry with one atom at the center and 5 more atoms at the corners of a triangular bipyramid. This is one geometry for which the bond angles surrounding the central atom are not identical (see also pentagonal bipyramid), because there is no geometrical arran... | {
"page_id": 1901903,
"source": null,
"title": "Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry"
} |
electron density in the bonding region near the central atom so that crowding in the axial position is less important. == Related geometries with lone pairs == The VSEPR theory also predicts that substitution of a ligand at a central atom by a lone pair of valence electrons leaves the general form of the electron arran... | {
"page_id": 1901903,
"source": null,
"title": "Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry"
} |
molecule's axis, while the axial ligands simultaneously "shift" toward the equator, creating a constant cyclical movement. Pseudorotation is particularly notable in simple molecules such as phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5). == See also == AXE method Molecular geometry == References == == External links == Indiana Univers... | {
"page_id": 1901903,
"source": null,
"title": "Trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry"
} |
In probability theory, the KPZ fixed point is a Markov field and conjectured to be a universal limit of a wide range of stochastic models forming the universality class of a non-linear stochastic partial differential equation called the KPZ equation. Even though the universality class was already introduced in 1986 wit... | {
"page_id": 76547408,
"source": null,
"title": "KPZ fixed point"
} |
Let h ( t , x → ) {\displaystyle h(t,{\vec {x}})} denote a height function of some probabilistic model with ( t , x → ) ∈ R × R d {\displaystyle (t,{\vec {x}})\in \mathbb {R} \times \mathbb {R} ^{d}} denoting space-time. So far only the case for d = 1 {\displaystyle d=1} , also noted as ( 1 + 1 ) {\displaystyle (1+1)} ... | {
"page_id": 76547408,
"source": null,
"title": "KPZ fixed point"
} |
, a n ∈ R {\displaystyle a_{1},\dots ,a_{n}\in \mathbb {R} } and K {\displaystyle K} is a trace class operator called the extended Brownian scattering operator and the subscript means that the process in h ( 0 , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {h}}(0,\cdot )} starts. === KPZ universality conjectures === The KPZ conjectur... | {
"page_id": 76547408,
"source": null,
"title": "KPZ fixed point"
} |
^{1/2}(h(c_{1}\varepsilon ^{-3/2}t,c_{2}\varepsilon ^{-1}x)-c_{3}\varepsilon ^{-3/2}t)\;{\stackrel {(d)}{=}}\;{\mathfrak {h}}(t,x)} with initial condition h ( 0 , x ) := lim ε → 0 ε 1 / 2 h ( 0 , c 2 ε − 1 x ) , {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {h}}(0,x):=\lim \limits _{\varepsilon \to 0}\varepsilon ^{1/2}h(0,c_{2}\varepsilon... | {
"page_id": 76547408,
"source": null,
"title": "KPZ fixed point"
} |
In thermodynamics, vapor quality is the mass fraction in a saturated mixture that is vapor; in other words, saturated vapor has a "quality" of 100%, and saturated liquid has a "quality" of 0%. Vapor quality is an intensive property which can be used in conjunction with other independent intensive properties to specify ... | {
"page_id": 9569619,
"source": null,
"title": "Vapor quality"
} |
expressed as: χ = y − y f y g − y f {\displaystyle \chi ={\frac {y-y_{f}}{y_{g}-y_{f}}}} where y {\displaystyle y} is equal to either specific enthalpy, specific entropy, specific volume or specific internal energy, y f {\displaystyle y_{f}} is the value of the specific property of saturated liquid state and y g − y f ... | {
"page_id": 9569619,
"source": null,
"title": "Vapor quality"
} |
of steam (gaseous state) is many orders of magnitude higher than the enthalpy of water (liquid state). == References == | {
"page_id": 9569619,
"source": null,
"title": "Vapor quality"
} |
This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with C to D inclusive. It contains approximately 80 enzymes. The following information is given: Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further r... | {
"page_id": 27460950,
"source": null,
"title": "List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: C–D"
} |
The International Day for Biological Diversity (or World Biodiversity Day) is a United Nations–sanctioned international day for the promotion of biodiversity issues. It is currently held on May 22. The International Day for Biological Diversity falls within the scope of the UN Post-2015 Development Agenda's Sustainable... | {
"page_id": 5113175,
"source": null,
"title": "International Day for Biological Diversity"
} |
In physics, particularly in quantum field theory, the Weyl equation is a relativistic wave equation for describing massless spin-1/2 particles called Weyl fermions. The equation is named after Hermann Weyl. The Weyl fermions are one of the three possible types of elementary fermions, the other two being the Dirac and t... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
the Weyl equation resurfaced. Thus, the Standard Model was built under the assumption that neutrinos were Weyl fermions. While Italian physicist Bruno Pontecorvo had proposed in 1957 the possibility of neutrino masses and neutrino oscillations, it was not until 1998 that Super-Kamiokande eventually confirmed the existe... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
is the wavefunction – one of the Weyl spinors. The left-handed form of the Weyl equation is usually written as: σ ¯ μ ∂ μ ψ = 0 {\displaystyle {\bar {\sigma }}^{\mu }\partial _{\mu }\psi =0} where σ ¯ μ = ( I 2 − σ x − σ y − σ z ) . {\displaystyle {\bar {\sigma }}^{\mu }={\begin{pmatrix}I_{2}&-\sigma _{x}&-\sigma _{y}&... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
{\sigma }}^{\mu }p_{\mu }\chi =\left(I_{2}E+{\vec {\sigma }}\cdot {\vec {p}}\right)\chi =0} . By direct manipulation, one obtains that ( σ ¯ ν p ν ) ( σ μ p μ ) χ = ( σ ν p ν ) ( σ ¯ μ p μ ) χ = p μ p μ χ = ( E 2 − p → ⋅ p → ) χ = 0 {\displaystyle \left({\bar {\sigma }}^{\nu }p_{\nu }\right)\left(\sigma ^{\mu }p_{\mu }... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
== Lorentz invariance == Both equations are Lorentz invariant under the Lorentz transformation x ↦ x ′ = Λ x {\displaystyle x\mapsto x^{\prime }=\Lambda x} where Λ ∈ S O ( 1 , 3 ) . {\displaystyle \Lambda \in \mathrm {SO} (1,3)~.} More precisely, the equations transform as σ μ ∂ ∂ x μ ψ R ( x ) ↦ σ μ ∂ ∂ x ′ μ ψ R ′ ( ... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
∂ ∂ x μ ψ L ( x ) {\displaystyle {\overline {\sigma }}^{\mu }{\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\mu }}}\psi _{\rm {L}}(x)\mapsto {\overline {\sigma }}^{\mu }{\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\prime \mu }}}\psi _{\rm {L}}^{\prime }\left(x^{\prime }\right)=S{\overline {\sigma }}^{\mu }{\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\mu }}}\psi ... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
}^{\prime }\psi _{\rm {R}}^{\prime }\left(x^{\prime }\right)&=\sigma ^{\mu }{\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\prime \mu }}}\psi _{\rm {R}}^{\prime }\left(x^{\prime }\right)\\&=\sigma ^{\mu }{\frac {\partial x^{\nu }}{\partial x^{\prime \mu }}}{\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\nu }}}R\psi _{\rm {R}}(x)\\&=\sigma ^{\mu }{\le... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
}R\psi _{\rm {R}}(x)\\&=\left(S^{-1}\right)^{\dagger }\sigma _{\mu }\partial ^{\mu }S^{-1}R\psi _{\rm {R}}(x)\end{aligned}}} One thus regains the original form if S − 1 R = 1 , {\displaystyle S^{-1}R=1,} that is, R = S . {\displaystyle R=S.} Performing the same manipulations for the left-handed equation, one concludes ... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
S ∗ ψ R ∗ ( x ) {\displaystyle \psi _{\rm {R}}^{*}(x)\mapsto \psi _{\rm {R}}^{\prime *}\left(x^{\prime }\right)=S^{*}\psi _{\rm {R}}^{*}(x)} Applying the defining relationship, one concludes that m ω ψ R ∗ ( x ) ↦ m ω ψ R ′ ∗ ( x ′ ) = ( S † ) − 1 m ω ψ R ∗ ( x ) {\displaystyle m\omega \psi _{\rm {R}}^{*}(x)\mapsto m\o... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
distinct phases on the mass term are related to the two distinct eigenvalues of the charge conjugation operator; see charge conjugation and Majorana equation for details. Define a pair of operators, the Majorana operators, D L = i σ ¯ μ ∂ μ + ζ m ω K D R = i σ μ ∂ μ + η m ω K {\displaystyle D_{\rm {L}}=i{\overline {\si... | {
"page_id": 33162584,
"source": null,
"title": "Weyl equation"
} |
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