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human-animal hybrids called the New Men who were created by the High Evolutionary by evolving the animals into humanoid forms. === Video games === Multiple video games have featured human-animal hybrids as enemies for the protagonist(s) to defeat, including powerful boss characters. For instance, the 2014 survival horr... | {
"page_id": 47449480,
"source": null,
"title": "Human–animal hybrid"
} |
GCB Bioenergy: Bioproducts for a Sustainable Bioeconomy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the interface between biological systems and the production of bioenergy, biofuels and bioproducts directly from plants, algae and waste. The editor-in-chief is Stephen P. Long, environmental plant... | {
"page_id": 68093322,
"source": null,
"title": "GCB Bioenergy"
} |
Claude Berger (January 20, 1679, Paris – May 22, 1712, Passy) was a French medical doctor and chemist. == Biography == He was a medical doctor from the Faculty of Paris and received his degree in medicine in 1669, after presenting a thesis under the presidency of Guy-Crescent Fagon, first physician to the king, against... | {
"page_id": 71173518,
"source": null,
"title": "Claude Berger"
} |
Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance (MP-SPR) is based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR), an established real-time label-free method for biomolecular interaction analysis, but it uses a different optical setup, a goniometric SPR configuration. While MP-SPR provides same kinetic information as SPR (equilibrium co... | {
"page_id": 49808784,
"source": null,
"title": "Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance"
} |
enables analysis of water content of nanocellulose films. == Applications == The method has been used in life sciences, material sciences and biosensor development. In life sciences, the main applications focus on pharmaceutical development including small-molecule, antibody or nanoparticle interactions with target wit... | {
"page_id": 49808784,
"source": null,
"title": "Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance"
} |
Artificial plants are imitations of natural plants used for commercial or residential decoration. They are sometimes made for scientific purposes (the collection of glass flowers at Harvard University, for example, illustrates the flora of the United States). Artificial plants vary widely from mass-produced varieties t... | {
"page_id": 2622866,
"source": null,
"title": "Artificial plants"
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by goffering irons of various shapes. The next step is to assemble the petals and other parts of the flower, which is built up from the center outwards. The fifth is to mount the flower on a stalk of brass or iron wire wrapped with suitably colored material, and to add the leaves to complete the spray. While the materi... | {
"page_id": 2622866,
"source": null,
"title": "Artificial plants"
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but the flowers are not identical and can be called handmade. Moulded: An oil-less soap milled to a powder is mixed with water, and the paste is used as a modelling material. Leaf and petal textures are stamped or rolled onto the soap. This is an expensive, labour-intensive process. === Clay === Clay flowers are made b... | {
"page_id": 2622866,
"source": null,
"title": "Artificial plants"
} |
in the art of imitating flowers in wax and in this branch of the art attained a degree of perfection which has not been approached in modern times. Crassus, renowned for his wealth, gave to the victors in the games he celebrated at Rome crowns of artificial leaves made of gold and silver. In more recent times, Italians... | {
"page_id": 2622866,
"source": null,
"title": "Artificial plants"
} |
See also == Artificial Christmas tree == References == | {
"page_id": 2622866,
"source": null,
"title": "Artificial plants"
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Cancer immunoprevention is the prevention of cancer onset with immunological means such as vaccines, immunostimulators or antibodies. Cancer immunoprevention is conceptually different from cancer immunotherapy, which aims at stimulating immunity in patients only after tumor onset, however the same immunological means c... | {
"page_id": 15533459,
"source": null,
"title": "Cancer immunoprevention"
} |
in humans, thus immunoprevention of non-infectious tumors is at a preclinical stage of development. Effective immunoprevention of various types of cancer was obtained in murine models of cancer risk, in particular in transgenic mice harboring activated oncogenes, thus demonstrating that activation of the immune system ... | {
"page_id": 15533459,
"source": null,
"title": "Cancer immunoprevention"
} |
require careful monitoring in early clinical trials. == References == | {
"page_id": 15533459,
"source": null,
"title": "Cancer immunoprevention"
} |
Biology appears in fiction, especially but not only in science fiction, both in the shape of real aspects of the science, used as themes or plot devices, and in the form of fictional elements, whether fictional extensions or applications of biological theory, or through the invention of fictional organisms. Major aspec... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
1887 Lumen) as well as Darwin's. Darwinian evolution is pervasive in literature, whether taken optimistically in terms of how humanity may evolve towards perfection, or pessimistically in terms of the dire consequences of the interaction of human nature and the struggle for survival. Other themes include the replacemen... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
century it developed to create new sciences and technologies including molecular biology, DNA sequencing, cloning, and genetic engineering. The ethical implications of modifying humans (and all their descendants) were brought into focus with the eugenics movement. Since then, many science fiction novels and films have ... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
ability to release electrical jolts from their fingers, powerful enough to stun or kill. Fish such as the electric eel, Electrophorus electricus, create powerful electric fields with modified muscles, stacked end-to-end as cells in a battery in their electric organs, and the novel indeed references such fish and the el... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
on their hosts. After the Second World War, science fiction moved towards more mutualistic relationships, as in Ted White's 1970 By Furies Possessed, which viewed aliens positively. In The Phantom Menace, Qui-Gon Jinn says microscopic lifeforms called midi-chlorians, inside all living cells, allow characters with enoug... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
branches: stories about human impact on nature; and stories about nature (rather than humans). It encompasses books written in styles from modernism to magical realism, and in genres from mainstream to romance and speculative fiction. A 1978 anthology of ecofiction includes 19th and 20th century works by authors as div... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
resemble humans, driven by natural selection. Luis Villazon points out that animals that move necessarily have a front and a back; as with bilaterian animals on Earth, sense organs tend to gather at the front as they encounter stimuli there, forming a head. Legs reduce friction, and with legs, bilateral symmetry makes ... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
mental capacities. The grim possibilities of Darwinian evolution with its ruthless "survival of the fittest" has been explored repeatedly from the beginnings of science fiction, as in H. G. Wells's novels The Time Machine (1895), The Island of Dr Moreau (1896), and The War of the Worlds (1898); these all pessimisticall... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
a universe of planets all inhabited by "men", descendants from the planet Hain. In the book, the ambassador Genly Ai from the civilised Ekumen worlds visits the "backward- and inward-looking" people of Gethen, only to end up in danger, from which he escapes by crossing the polar ice cap on a desperate but well-planned ... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
each other, and that a person's future is predicted by their genetic code, as (he states) in Gattaca. Koboldt points out that eye colour changes as children grow up: adults with green or brown eyes often had blue eyes as babies; that brown-eyed parents can have children with blue eyes, "and vice versa"; and that the br... | {
"page_id": 58000788,
"source": null,
"title": "Biology in fiction"
} |
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are two equalities that deal with the current and potential difference (commonly known as voltage) in the lumped element model of electrical circuits. They were first described in 1845 by German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. This generalized the work of Georg Ohm and preceded the work of James Cl... | {
"page_id": 591253,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws"
} |
the region. This means that the current law relies on the fact that the net charge in the wires and components is constant. === Uses === A matrix version of Kirchhoff's current law is the basis of most circuit simulation software, such as SPICE. The current law is used with Ohm's law to perform nodal analysis. The curr... | {
"page_id": 591253,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws"
} |
circuits, where the lumped element model is no longer applicable. For example, in a transmission line, the charge density in the conductor may be constantly changing. On the other hand, the voltage law relies on the fact that the actions of time-varying magnetic fields are confined to individual components, such as ind... | {
"page_id": 591253,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws"
} |
{E}}_{1}-R_{1}i_{1}=0} The second law, again combined with Ohm's law, applied to the closed circuit s2 gives: − R 3 i 3 − E 2 − E 1 + R 2 i 2 = 0 {\displaystyle -R_{3}i_{3}-{\mathcal {E}}_{2}-{\mathcal {E}}_{1}+R_{2}i_{2}=0} This yields a system of linear equations in i1, i2, i3: { i 1 − i 2 − i 3 = 0 − R 2 i 2 + E 1 −... | {
"page_id": 591253,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws"
} |
DC free ebook and Lessons In Electric Circuits series | {
"page_id": 591253,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's circuit laws"
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Vascular plants (from Latin vasculum 'duct'), also called tracheophytes (UK: , US: ) or collectively tracheophyta (; from Ancient Greek τραχεῖα ἀρτηρία (trakheîa artēría) 'windpipe' and φυτά (phutá) 'plants'), are plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. The... | {
"page_id": 66966,
"source": null,
"title": "Vascular plant"
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which produces spores and is diploid (having two sets of chromosomes per cell). (By contrast, the principal generation phase in non-vascular plants is the gametophyte, which produces gametes and is haploid, with one set of chromosomes per cell.) Vascular plants have true roots, leaves, and stems, even if some groups ha... | {
"page_id": 66966,
"source": null,
"title": "Vascular plant"
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== Water and nutrients in the form of inorganic solutes are drawn up from the soil by the roots and transported throughout the plant by the xylem. Organic compounds such as sucrose produced by photosynthesis in leaves are distributed by the phloem sieve-tube elements. The xylem consists of vessels in flowering plants a... | {
"page_id": 66966,
"source": null,
"title": "Vascular plant"
} |
plant evaporate, each pulls the next one up to replace it, which in turn pulls on the next one in line. The draw of water upwards may be entirely passive and can be assisted by the movement of water into the roots via osmosis. Consequently, transpiration requires the plant to expend very little energy on water movement... | {
"page_id": 66966,
"source": null,
"title": "Vascular plant"
} |
"vascular plants"? | {
"page_id": 66966,
"source": null,
"title": "Vascular plant"
} |
Colostrum (from Latin, of unknown origin) is the first form of milk produced by the mammary glands of humans and other mammals immediately following delivery of the newborn. Animal colostrum may be called beestings, the traditional word from Old English dialects. Most species will begin to generate colostrum just prior... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
Currently, there is no accepted medical use of bovine colostrum to treat any condition. == Composition == Colostrum, like other forms of milk, is mostly water, and also contains lactose, fat, minerals and protein. It also contains bioactive components including antibodies to protect the newborn against disease and infe... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
suggested infants fed with human colostrum have lower incidence of gastrointestinal infections. Colostrum has a laxative effect, encouraging the baby's body to excrete stool, which helps eliminate excess bilirubin, although jaundice lasts longer in breastfed infants than in those who are formula-fed. == Bovine colostru... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
to tremendous bacterial loads". Salmonella was detected in 15% of unpasteurised samples. Pasteurisation reduces the bioactive proteins many of the benefits rely upon, however. ==== Respiratory system ==== Colostrum may support respiratory health in adults and children. One study of human subjects suggested that oral co... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
skin aging. These antioxidants, combined with growth factors, improve skin elasticity and firmness, helping to diminish the appearance of wrinkles and fine lines. A clinical study published in the Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology found that topical application of antioxidants significantly improved skin texture and redu... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
etc. Bovine Colostrum contains bioactive components that support immunity and gut health in animals, and fight bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. Early, high-quality colostrum is beneficial for survival and healthy development. It repairs intestinal damage and improves nutrient absorption. In calves, colostrum hel... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
cell maturation and increase endogenous antibody production. They also play a major role in regulation of epithelial cell growth and development, proliferation, restitution. Transfer factors enhance the activity of T cells. Other growth and immune factors such as IGF-1, IGF-2, FGF, EGF, TGF, PDGF, etc. Colostrum contai... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
the presence of casein and other buffering proteins allows epidermal growth factor but not transforming growth factor α to survive degradation induced by human pancreatic fluid and allows epidermal growth factor to pass into the lumen of the small intestine in rats, where it can stimulate repair, working via local effe... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
delicacy called "Groosniuys", a pudding made with colostrum. In Finland, a baked cheese called Leipäjuusto is traditionally made with either cow colostrum or reindeer milk. A sweet cheese-like delicacy called 'Junnu' or 'Ginna' is made with colostrum in the south Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana... | {
"page_id": 525722,
"source": null,
"title": "Colostrum"
} |
Fulgurites (from Latin fulgur 'lightning' and -ite), commonly called "fossilized lightning", are natural tubes, clumps, or masses of sintered, vitrified, or fused soil, sand, rock, organic debris and other sediments that sometimes form when lightning discharges into ground. When composed of silica, fulgurites are class... | {
"page_id": 329115,
"source": null,
"title": "Fulgurite"
} |
to black. Iron is a common impurity that can result in a deep brownish-green coloration. Lechatelierite similar to fulgurites can also be produced via controlled (or uncontrolled) arcing of artificial electricity into a medium. Downed high voltage power lines have produced brightly colored lechatelierites, due to the i... | {
"page_id": 329115,
"source": null,
"title": "Fulgurite"
} |
Lake, Livingston County, Michigan, extended discontinuously throughout a 30 m range and arguably include the largest reported fulgurite mass ever recovered and described: its largest section extending approximately 16 ft (4.88 m) in length by 1 ft in diameter (30 cm). === Classification === Fulgurites have been classif... | {
"page_id": 329115,
"source": null,
"title": "Fulgurite"
} |
debatable. == Significance == The presence of fulgurites in an area can be used to estimate the frequency of lightning over a period of time, which can help to understand past regional climates. Paleolightning is the study of various indicators of past lightning strikes, primarily in the form of fulgurites and lightnin... | {
"page_id": 329115,
"source": null,
"title": "Fulgurite"
} |
disintegration Impactite Tektite Trinitite == References == == External links == H. J. Melosh, "Impact geologists, beware!" (Archived 2020-08-06 at the Wayback Machine). Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 44, Issue 17, pp. 8873–8874, 2017 Petrified Lightning by Peter E. Viemeister (PDF) Interview with artist Allan Mc... | {
"page_id": 329115,
"source": null,
"title": "Fulgurite"
} |
In physics, a renormalon (a term suggested by 't Hooft) is a particular source of divergence seen in perturbative approximations to quantum field theories (QFT). When a formally divergent series in a QFT is summed using Borel summation, the associated Borel transform of the series can have singularities as a function o... | {
"page_id": 8324507,
"source": null,
"title": "Renormalon"
} |
former with instanton ones and the latter with renormalon ones. Existence of instanton singularities is beyond any doubt, while existence of renormalon ones was never proved rigorously in spite of numerous efforts. Among the essential contributions one should mention the application of the operator product expansion, a... | {
"page_id": 8324507,
"source": null,
"title": "Renormalon"
} |
The hypothesis or paradigm of Mutualism Parasitism Continuum postulates that compatible host-symbiont associations can occupy a broad continuum of interactions with different fitness outcomes for each member. At one end of the continuum lies obligate mutualism where both host and symbiont benefit from the interaction a... | {
"page_id": 68289950,
"source": null,
"title": "Mutualism Parasitism Continuum"
} |
Pygsuia is a genus in the clade of Breviatea, which are basal eukaryotes. This genus contains only one species, Pygsuia biforma, which is known for its long flagella compared to other breviates. == Etymology == The genus name, Pygsuia, is derived from a part of the University of Arkansas Razorbacks sports cheer, which ... | {
"page_id": 78513566,
"source": null,
"title": "Pygsuia"
} |
In organic chemistry, the von Baeyer nomenclature is a system for describing polycyclic (i.e. multi-ringed) hydrocarbons. The system was originally developed in 1900 by German chemist Adolf von Baeyer for bicyclic systems and in 1913 expanded by Eduard Buchner and Wilhelm Weigand for tricyclic systems. The system has b... | {
"page_id": 51119519,
"source": null,
"title": "Von Baeyer nomenclature"
} |
Calculated value of a chemical in the environment on the basis of exposure models such as the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES). Used in the context of Chemical Safety Assessments (CSA) and referenced in Chemical Safety Reports (CSR). PECs may be compared with Measured Environmental Concent... | {
"page_id": 25626017,
"source": null,
"title": "Predicted environmental concentration"
} |
An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί epi "upon or above" and δῆμος demos "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is consider... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
population in that area." The term "outbreak" can also apply, but is usually restricted to smaller events.: §1:72 Any sudden increase in disease prevalence may generally be termed an epidemic. This may include contagious disease (i.e. easily spread between persons) such as influenza; vector-borne diseases such as malar... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
drift and antigenic shift. Antigenic drift arises over a period of time as an accumulation of mutations in the virus genes, possibly through a series of hosts, and eventually gives rise to a new strain of virus which can evade existing immunity. Antigenic shift is abrupt - in this, two or more different strains of a vi... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
to one or more of the following underlying factors: - The ability of the pathogen to survive outside the host - e.g. water-borne cholera which becomes prevalent in tropical wet seasons, or influenza which peaks in temperate regions during winter. The behaviour of people susceptible to the disease - such as spending mor... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
introduction European diseases such as smallpox into indigenous populations during the 16th century. === Zoonosis === A zoonosis is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen that can jump from a non-human host to a human. Major diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zo... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
disease surveillance system. Tanzania, for example, runs a national lab that runs testing for 200 health sites and tracks the spread of infectious diseases. The next layer is the actual response to an emergency. According to U.S.-based columnist Michael Gerson in 2015, only the U.S. military and NATO have the global ca... | {
"page_id": 66981,
"source": null,
"title": "Epidemic"
} |
Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize ph... | {
"page_id": 1246630,
"source": null,
"title": "Phytochemistry"
} |
plants such as Berberis and Mahonia), caffeine (Coffea), cocaine (Coca), ephedrine (Ephedra), morphine (opium poppy), nicotine (tobacco), reserpine (Rauvolfia serpentina), quinidine and quinine (Cinchona), vincamine (Vinca minor), and vincristine (Catharanthus roseus). === Glycosides === Anthraquinone glycosides are fo... | {
"page_id": 1246630,
"source": null,
"title": "Phytochemistry"
} |
The molecular formula C16H10N2Na2O7S2 (molar mass: 452.369 g/mol) may refer to: Orange G Orange GGN Sunset Yellow FCF | {
"page_id": 61539749,
"source": null,
"title": "C16H10N2Na2O7S2"
} |
Electron-rich is jargon that is used in multiple related meanings with either or both kinetic and thermodynamic implications: with regards to electron-transfer, electron-rich species have low ionization energy and/or are reducing agents. Tetrakis(dimethylamino)ethylene is an electron-rich alkene because, unlike ethylen... | {
"page_id": 40699303,
"source": null,
"title": "Electron-rich"
} |
Damping torque is provided by indicating instrument. Damper is a generic term used to identify any mechanism used for vibration energy absorption, the shaft vibration suppression, soft start and overload protection device. In order to design an efficient damper, it is imperative that the damping torque is calculated fi... | {
"page_id": 23659948,
"source": null,
"title": "Damping torque"
} |
control oscillation. == Production == There are four different ways of producing damping torque, these include air friction damping, fluid friction damping, eddy current damping, and electromagnetic damping. Air friction damping is created by a piston oscillating in and out of an air chamber. When the piston enters the... | {
"page_id": 23659948,
"source": null,
"title": "Damping torque"
} |
motion, thus requiring a counteractive force to bring it to its final rate of oscillation in a short period of time. Damping torque does this by opposing the natural oscillation, enabling the user to get an accurate reading. It is used in most experiments that involve gathering data of a system that is in motion, as on... | {
"page_id": 23659948,
"source": null,
"title": "Damping torque"
} |
creating these two torques the pointer will move in a specific way that can be analyzed as shown below. Deflection torque can be any type of force that initially puts the system in motion. Controlling torque on the other hand is generated by a measuring device, and thus is not a naturally occurring motion. There are tw... | {
"page_id": 23659948,
"source": null,
"title": "Damping torque"
} |
IEEE, 10.1109/PES.2006.1709001 == External links == Media related to Damping torque at Wikimedia Commons | {
"page_id": 23659948,
"source": null,
"title": "Damping torque"
} |
The Kochi reaction is an organic reaction for the decarboxylation of carboxylic acids to alkyl halides with lead(IV) acetate and a lithium halide. The reaction is a variation of the Hunsdiecker reaction. == References == | {
"page_id": 14091693,
"source": null,
"title": "Kochi reaction"
} |
In heat transfer, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation refers to wavelength-specific radiative emission and absorption by a material body in thermodynamic equilibrium, including radiative exchange equilibrium. It is a special case of Onsager reciprocal relations as a consequence of the time reversibility of microscopic... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
systems are powered by an external source and are therefore not in thermodynamic equilibrium. == Principle of detailed balance == Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation has a refinement in that not only is thermal emissivity equal to absorptivity, it is equal in detail. Consider a leaf. It is a poor absorber of green lig... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
law turned out to be inconsistent yielding the ultraviolet catastrophe. The correct form of the law was found by Max Planck in 1900, assuming quantized emission of radiation, and is termed Planck's law. This marks the advent of quantum mechanics. == Theory == In a blackbody enclosure that contains electromagnetic radia... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
}(\lambda ,T)} is the intensity of black-body radiation at wavelength λ {\displaystyle \lambda } and temperature T {\displaystyle T} . Independent of the condition of thermal equilibrium, the emissivity of the wall is defined as the ratio of emitted energy to the amount that would be radiated if the wall were a perfect... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
}\alpha _{\lambda }(\lambda )I_{\lambda \mathrm {sun} }(\lambda )\,d\lambda }{\int _{0}^{\infty }I_{\lambda \mathrm {sun} }(\lambda )\,d\lambda }}} while the average emissivity is given by: ε p a i n t = ∫ 0 ∞ ε λ ( λ , T ) E b λ ( λ , T ) d λ ∫ 0 ∞ E b λ ( λ , T ) d λ {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\mathrm {paint} }={\f... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
the walls of the Hohlraum. Next, he considered connecting the Hohlraum to a single small resonator, such as Hertzian resonators. The resonator reaches a certain form of thermal equilibrium with the Hohlraum, when the spectral input into the resonator equals the spectral output at the resonance frequency. Next, suppose ... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
T {\displaystyle T} is placed into a Hohlraum at temperature T {\displaystyle T} , it would spontaneously emit more than it absorbs, or conversely, thus spontaneously creating a temperature difference, violating the second law. Finally, suppose we have a material that violates Kirchhoff's law in detail, such that the t... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
bodies === Bodies that are opaque to thermal radiation that falls on them are valuable in the study of heat radiation. Planck analyzed such bodies with the approximation that they be considered topologically to have an interior and to share an interface. They share the interface with their contiguous medium, which may ... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
equilibrium black-body radiation to which Kirchhoff's law applies exactly, though no perfectly black body in Kirchhoff's sense is present. A theoretical model considered by Planck consists of a cavity with perfectly reflecting walls, initially with no material contents, into which is then put a small piece of carbon. W... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
means that a good absorber is a good emitter. Naturally, a good reflector is a poor absorber. For wavelength specificity, prior to Kirchhoff, the ratio was shown experimentally by Balfour Stewart to be the same for all bodies, but the universal value of the ratio had not been explicitly considered in its own right as a... | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
Kuhn, Thomas S. (1993). Black-body theory and the quantum discontinuity: 1894 - 1912 (Nachdr. ed.). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-45800-7. | {
"page_id": 591280,
"source": null,
"title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation"
} |
Kin selection is a process whereby natural selection favours a trait due to its positive effects on the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even when at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Kin selection can lead to the evolution of altruistic behaviour. It is related to inclusive fitnes... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
greater than the reproductive cost to the actor. Hamilton proposed two mechanisms for kin selection. First, kin recognition allows individuals to be able to identify their relatives. Second, in viscous populations, populations in which the movement of organisms from their place of birth is relatively slow, local intera... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
stock and has succeeded. In this passage "the family" and "stock" stand for a kin group. These passages and others by Darwin about kin selection are highlighted in D.J. Futuyma's textbook of reference Evolutionary Biology and in E. O. Wilson's Sociobiology. Kin selection was briefly referred to by R.A. Fisher in 1930 a... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
more likely to lose this valuable gene than to gain it. … It is clear that genes making for conduct of this kind would only have a chance of spreading in rather small populations when most of the children were fairly near relatives of the man who risked his life. W. D. Hamilton, in 1963 and especially in 1964 generalis... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
often carry the same gene. According to this principle, the enhanced fitness of relatives can at times more than compensate for the fitness loss incurred by the individuals displaying the behaviour, making kin selection possible. This is a special case of a more general model, "inclusive fitness". This analysis has bee... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
introduced in 1922 by Sewall Wright as a coefficient of relationship that gives the probability that at a random locus, the alleles there will be identical by descent. Modern formulations of the rule use Alan Grafen's definition of relatedness based on the theory of linear regression. A 2014 review of many lines of evi... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
an individual is only just breaking even in terms of inclusive fitness. If he could learn to recognise those of his neighbours who really were close relatives and could devote his beneficial actions to them alone an advantage to inclusive fitness would at once appear. Thus a mutation causing such discriminatory behavio... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
-other beard colours- are formed through mutation or introduced into the population from time to time. This proposed mechanism goes by the name of 'beard chromodynamics'. === Viscous populations === Secondly, indiscriminate altruism may be favoured in "viscous" populations, those with low rates or short ranges of dispe... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
of organisms with what appear to be kin selected traits. The workers of some species are sterile, a trait that would not occur if individual selection was the only process at work. The relatedness coefficient r is abnormally high between the worker sisters in a colony of Hymenoptera due to haplodiploidy. Hamilton's rul... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
however, were reportedly provided by kin. Additionally, more closely related kin were considered more likely sources of assistance than distant kin. Similarly, several surveys of American college students found that individuals were more likely to incur the cost of assisting kin when a high probability that relatedness... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
with inherited wealth, an individual may improve his or her kin's reproductive opportunities and thus increase his or her own inclusive fitness even after death. A study of a thousand wills found that the beneficiaries who received the most inheritance were generally those most closely related to the will's writer. Dis... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
with a softening of conflict, and people's evident valuations of themselves and of others are systematically related to the parties' reproductive values". Numerous studies suggest how inclusive fitness may work amongst different peoples, such as the Ye'kwana of southern Venezuela, the Gypsies of Hungary, and the doomed... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start". Under this perspective, and noting the necessity of a reliable context of interaction being available, the data on how altruism is mediated in social mammals is readily made sense of. In social mammals, primates and humans, altruistic... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
same parent. Such mechanisms include dispersal of pollen in aggregated packets and closure of the stigmatic lobes after pollen is introduced. The aggregated pollen packet releases pollen gametes in the ovary, thereby increasing likelihood that all ovules are fertilized by pollen from the same parent. Likewise, the clos... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
developing seed to compete for nutrients, thus increasing its chance of survival and germination. Likewise, the fathering of all ovules in multi-ovulated ovaries by one father, decreases the likelihood of competition between developing seeds, thereby also increasing the seeds' chances of survival and germination. The d... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
floral displays, but by the spatial arrangement of plants in a group, which is referred to as the "magnet effect". For example, in an experiment performed on Moricandia moricandioides, Torices et al. demonstrated that focal plants in the presence of kin show increased advertising effort (defined as total petal mass of ... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
in increased lateral root development and directional growth of their roots towards non kin, maximizing competition. This is mainly not observed in Oryza Sativa when surrounded by kin, invoking altruistic behaviors to promote inclusive fitness. However the root receptors responsible for recognition of kin exudates, and... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
organisms, which are the focus of selection). They also argue that the genes involved in sex ratio conflicts could be treated as "parasites" of (already established) social colonies, not as their "promoters", and, therefore the sex ratio in colonies would be irrelevant to the transition to eusociality. Those ideas were... | {
"page_id": 66996,
"source": null,
"title": "Kin selection"
} |
A skin bridge is a penile skin adhesion. It most commonly occurs as a consequence of an improperly healed circumcision, being formed when the inner lining of the remaining foreskin attaches to another part of the penis (normally the glans) as the cut heals. While less common, skin bridges can also occur in uncircumcise... | {
"page_id": 18154936,
"source": null,
"title": "Skin bridge"
} |
In nuclear physics, the internal conversion coefficient describes the rate of internal conversion. The internal conversion coefficient may be empirically determined by the following formula: α = number of de-excitations via electron emission number of de-excitations via gamma-ray emission {\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac ... | {
"page_id": 2098622,
"source": null,
"title": "Internal conversion coefficient"
} |
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