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Ozone-depleting substance Research history Ozone_Depleting_Substances > Research history In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is. In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), a stable, long-lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth's surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere.
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Transcriptional activator Regulation of maltose catabolism Activator_(genetics) > Examples > Regulation of maltose catabolism The breakdown of maltose in Escherichia coli is controlled by gene activation. The genes that code for the enzymes responsible for maltose catabolism can only be transcribed in the presence of an activator.The activator that controls transcription of the maltose enzymes is “off” in the absence of maltose. In its inactive form, the activator is unable to bind to DNA and promote transcription of the maltose genes.When maltose is present in the cell, it binds to the allosteric site of the activator protein, causing a conformational change in the DNA-binding domain of the activator. This conformational change “turns on” the activator by allowing it to bind to its specific regulatory DNA sequence. Binding of the activator to its regulatory site promotes RNA polymerase binding to the promoter and thus transcription, producing the enzymes that are needed to break down the maltose that has entered the cell.
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Solar-powered air conditioning Photovoltaic (PV) solar cooling Solar_thermal_cooling > Photovoltaic (PV) solar cooling Both of these systems make use variable refrigerant flow technology, with high-efficiency variable-speed DC motors and compressors to require very little run power, and both also offer heat in addition to air conditioning. A third type of unit is available for larger, usually commercial, buildings and offers both grid and battery backup as well as optional net metering. Like the two smaller units, these units are VRF, but unlike them, there’s an option to run heating in one part of the building and air conditioning in another part, making use of one outside/condensing unit and multiple inside/evaporative units located in different areas of the building to condition that areas based on specific user needs.Photovoltaic can be combined with geothermal technology, too.
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Name servers Caching name server DNS_server > Domain name server > Caching name server Caching name servers (DNS caches) store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of each domain-name record. DNS caches improve the efficiency of the DNS by reducing DNS traffic across the Internet, and by reducing load on authoritative name-servers, particularly root name-servers. Because they can answer questions more quickly, they also increase the performance of end-user applications that use the DNS. Recursive name servers resolve any query they receive, even if they are not authoritative for the question being asked, by consulting the server or servers that are authoritative for the question.
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Microbial desalination cell Seawater desalination Microbial_desalination_cell > Applications > Seawater desalination Reduction in external resistance increases desalination efficiency to as high as 74%, as demonstrated in upflow microbial desalination cells (UMDC), but increased membrane scaling on the ion exchange membranes by calcium and magnesium accumulation, resulting in a higher internal ohmic resistance and decrease in overall desalination of seawater. With the application of an osmotic MFC (OsMFC) in conjunction with the UMDC as an initial pretreatment of biosolid removal and desalination, 85% of oxygen demand and approximately 97% of salts was reduced after secondary treatment. Subsequent treatment by traditional BES systems such as electrodialysis can function as a more effective system for desalination, provisioning energy demands by the output energy obtained from the MDC pretreatment.
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Water oxidation catalysis Summary Water_oxidation_catalysis Water oxidation catalysis (WOC) is the acceleration (catalysis) of the conversion of water into oxygen and protons: 2 H2O → 4 H+ + 4 e− + O2Many catalysts are effective, both homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts. The oxygen evolving complex in photosynthesis is the premier example. There is no interest in generating oxygen by water oxidation since oxygen is readily obtained from air. Instead, interest in water oxidation is motivated by its relevance to water splitting, which would provide "solar hydrogen," i.e. water oxidation would generate the electrons and protons for the production of hydrogen. An ideal WOC would operate rapidly at low overpotential, exhibit high stability and be of low cost, derived from nontoxic components.
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Harmony search Particle swarm optimization (PSO) (Kennedy & Eberhart, 1995) Glowworm_swarm_optimization > Algorithms > 1980s-1990s > Particle swarm optimization (PSO) (Kennedy & Eberhart, 1995) Particle swarm optimization is a computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. It solves a problem by having a population of candidate solutions, dubbed particles, and moving these particles around in the search space according to simple mathematical formulae over the particle's position and velocity. Each particle's movement is influenced by its local best known position but is also guided toward the best-known positions in the search space, which are updated as better positions are found by other particles. This is expected to move the swarm toward the best solutions.
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Linux From Scratch Requirements and procedure Linux_From_Scratch > Requirements and procedure One of the first packages to compile is glibc; after that, the toolchain's linker must be adjusted to link against the newly built glibc, so that all other packages that will make up the finished system can be linked against it as well. During the chroot phase, bash's hashing feature is turned off and the temporary toolchain's bin directory moved to the end of PATH. This way the newly compiled programs come first in PATH and the new system builds on its own new components.
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Feedback prevention Operation Feedback_suppression > Operation Only modest improvement of gain before feedback is achieved and the technique creates noticeable pitch distortion in music program. The adaptive filter approach works by modeling the transfer function of the sound reinforcement system and subtracts the reinforced sound from the inputs to the system in the same way that an echo canceller removes echoes from a communications system. Parametric equalization and notch filters are commonly used by sound engineers to manually control feedback.
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Geometric algebra Before the 20th century Geometric_algebra > History > Before the 20th century Although the connection of geometry with algebra dates as far back at least to Euclid's Elements in the third century B.C. (see Greek geometric algebra), GA in the sense used in this article was not developed until 1844, when it was used in a systematic way to describe the geometrical properties and transformations of a space. In that year, Hermann Grassmann introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the propositional calculus) that encoded all of the geometrical information of a space. Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces, the chief among them being Euclidean space, affine space, and projective space.
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Dyadic distribution Definition Dyadic_distribution > Definition A dyadic distribution is a probability distribution whose probability mass function is f ( i ) = 2 − x i {\displaystyle f(i)=2^{-x_{i}}} where x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} is some whole number. It is possible to find a binary code defined on this distribution, which has an average code length that is equal to the entropy.
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Plate fin heat exchanger Cost Plate_fin_heat_exchanger > Cost The cost of plate-fin heat exchangers is generally higher than conventional heat exchangers due to a higher level of detail required during manufacture. However, these costs can often be outweighed by the cost saving produced by the added heat transfer. Plate-fin heat exchangers are generally applied in industries where the fluids have little chances of fouling. The delicate design as well as the thin channels in the plate-fin heat exchanger make cleaning difficult or impossible. Applications of plate-fin heat exchangers include: Natural gas liquefaction Cryogenic air separation Ammonia production Offshore processing Nuclear engineering Syngas production Aircraft cooling of bleed air and cabin air
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Kinetic chain length Significance Kinetic_chain_length > Significance Modulus of Elasticity - A longer chain length is also associated with a material tends to be tougher and has a higher modulus of elasticity, E, also known as the Young's modulus. The interaction of the chains causes the polymer to become stiffer. == References ==
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Principal Component Analysis Iconography of correlations Principal_components > Relation with other methods > Iconography of correlations It is often difficult to interpret the principal components when the data include many variables of various origins, or when some variables are qualitative. This leads the PCA user to a delicate elimination of several variables. If observations or variables have an excessive impact on the direction of the axes, they should be removed and then projected as supplementary elements.
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Dijkstra's algorithm History Shortest_Path_First > History What is the shortest way to travel from Rotterdam to Groningen, in general: from given city to given city. It is the algorithm for the shortest path, which I designed in about twenty minutes. One morning I was shopping in Amsterdam with my young fiancée, and tired, we sat down on the café terrace to drink a cup of coffee and I was just thinking about whether I could do this, and I then designed the algorithm for the shortest path. As I said, it was a twenty-minute invention.
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Interior node Terminology Interior_node > Terminology Forest A set of one or more disjoint trees. Ordered tree A rooted tree in which an ordering is specified for the children of each vertex. The book The Art of Computer Programming uses the term oriented tree. Size of a tree Number of nodes in the tree.
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Factorial function Summary Factorial In mathematics, the factorial of a non-negative integer n {\displaystyle n} , denoted by n ! {\displaystyle n!} , is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n {\displaystyle n} . The factorial of n {\displaystyle n} also equals the product of n {\displaystyle n} with the next smaller factorial: For example, The value of 0!
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Algorithms for statistical classification Application domains Classification_(machine_learning) > Application domains Classification has many applications. In some of these, it is employed as a data mining procedure, while in others more detailed statistical modeling is undertaken. Biological classification – The science of identifying, describing, defining and naming groups of biological organisms Biometric – Metrics related to human characteristicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets identification Computer vision – Computerized information extraction from images Medical image analysis and medical imaging – Technique and process of creating visual representations of the interior of a body Optical character recognition – Computer recognition of visual text Video tracking – finding the location in each frame of a video sequencePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Credit scoring – Numerical expression representing a person's creditworthinessPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Document classification – Process of categorizing documents Drug discovery and development – Process of bringing a new pharmaceutical drug to the market Toxicogenomics – branch of toxicology and genomicsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Quantitative structure-activity relationship – Quantitative prediction of the biological, ecotoxicological or pharmaceutical activity of a moleculePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Geostatistics – Branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets Handwriting recognition – Ability of a computer to receive and interpret intelligible handwritten input Internet search engines Micro-array classification Pattern recognition – Automated recognition of patterns and regularities in data Recommender system – Information filtering system to predict users' preferences Speech recognition – Automatic conversion of spoken language into text Statistical natural language processing – Field of linguistics and computer sciencePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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Conformal compactification An example Conformal_compactification > An example Intuitively, the process can be pictured as follows: first shrink the real line to the open interval (−π, π) on the x-axis; then bend the ends of this interval upwards (in positive y-direction) and move them towards each other, until you get a circle with one point (the topmost one) missing. This point is our new point ∞ "at infinity"; adding it in completes the compact circle. A bit more formally: we represent a point on the unit circle by its angle, in radians, going from −π to π for simplicity.
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Telophase Additional mechanisms driving telophase Telophase > Dephosphorylation of Cdk substrates > Additional mechanisms driving telophase A shift in the whole-cell phosphoprotein profile is only the broadest of many regulatory mechanisms contributing to the onset of individual telophase events. The anaphase-mediated distancing of chromosomes from the metaphase plate may trigger spatial cues for the onset of telophase. An important regulator and effector of telophase is cdc48 (homologous to yeast cdc48 is human p97, both structurally and functionally), a protein that mechanically employs its ATPase activity to alter target protein conformation. Cdc48 is necessary for spindle disassembly, nuclear envelope assembly, and chromosome decondensation. Cdc48 modifies proteins structurally involved in these processes and also some ubiquitinated proteins which are thus targeted to the proteasome.
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Cooperative Linux Overview Cooperative_Linux > Overview The term "cooperative" is used to describe two entities working in parallel. In effect Cooperative Linux turns the two different operating system kernels into two big coroutines. Each kernel has its own complete CPU context and address space, and each kernel decides when to give control back to its partner. However, while both kernels theoretically have full access to the real hardware, modern PC hardware is not designed to be controlled by two different operating systems at the same time. Therefore, the host kernel is left in control of the real hardware and the guest kernel contains special drivers that communicate with the host and provide various important devices to the guest OS. The host can be any OS kernel that exports basic primitives that allow the Cooperative Linux portable driver to run in CPL0 mode (ring 0) and allocate memory.
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Causality problem Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling Faster-than-light_travel > Justifications > Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling Accordingly, there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction. A recent analysis argued that the Scharnhorst effect cannot be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates' rest frame would define a "preferred frame" for FTL signaling. However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could "guarantee the total absence of causality violations", and invoked Hawking's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create "uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress-energy" on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze.
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Ozone shield Summary Ozone_layer The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometers (9 to 22 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson.
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Evidence of evolution Evidence from speciation Evidence_of_common_descent > Evidence from speciation It is important to acknowledge that not all speciation research directly observes divergence from "start-to-finish". This is by virtue of research delimitation and definition ambiguity, and occasionally leads research towards historical reconstructions. In light of this, examples abound, and the following are by no means exhaustive—comprising only a small fraction of the instances observed. Once again, take note of the established fact that, "...natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation...", and is the primary driver of speciation, so; hereinafter, examples of speciation will often interdepend and correspond with selection.
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Memory consistency Processor consistency Memory_consistency > Strong consistency models > Processor consistency A read from one such memory can happen before the write to this memory completes. Therefore, the data read can be stale. Thus, a processor under PC can execute a younger load when an older store needs to be stalled.
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Gravitational potential energy Summary Gravitational_energy Gravitational energy or gravitational potential energy is the potential energy a massive object has in relation to another massive object due to gravity. It is the potential energy associated with the gravitational field, which is released (converted into kinetic energy) when the objects fall towards each other. Gravitational potential energy increases when two objects are brought further apart. For two pairwise interacting point particles, the gravitational potential energy U {\displaystyle U} is given by where M {\displaystyle M} and m {\displaystyle m} are the masses of the two particles, R {\displaystyle R} is the distance between them, and G {\displaystyle G} is the gravitational constant.Close to the Earth's surface, the gravitational field is approximately constant, and the gravitational potential energy of an object reduces to where m {\displaystyle m} is the object's mass, g = G M ⊕ / R ⊕ 2 {\textstyle g={GM_{\oplus }}/{R_{\oplus }^{2}}} is the gravity of Earth, and h {\displaystyle h} is the height of the object's center of mass above a chosen reference level.
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Robotic kitchen Autonomy levels Climbing_robots > Control > Autonomy levels Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy. Direct interaction is used for haptic or teleoperated devices, and the human has nearly complete control over the robot's motion. Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out how to achieve them. An autonomous robot may go without human interaction for extended periods of time .
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1 As a number 1 > As a number One, sometimes referred to as unity, is the first non-zero natural number. It is thus the integer after zero. Any number multiplied by one remains that number, as one is the identity for multiplication.
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Structured Design Approach Structured_Analysis > Structured analysis topics > Approach The process specification can consist of pseudo-code, flowcharts, or structured English. The DFDs model the structure of the system as a network of interconnected processes composed of functional primitives. The data dictionary is a set of entries (definitions) of data flows, data elements, files, and databases. The data dictionary entries are partitioned in a top-down manner. They can be referenced in other data dictionary entries and in data flow diagrams.
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Policy uncertainty Risks versus uncertainty Policy_uncertainty > Risks versus uncertainty Frank Hyneman Knight (1885 - 1972), one of the founders of the Chicago school, known for his Risk Uncertainty and Profit, a monumental study of the role of the entrepreneur in economic life in which he distinguished between economic risk and so-called Knightian uncertainty. Situations with risk were those where the outcomes were unknown but governed by probability distributions known at the outset. He argued that these situations, where decision making rules such as maximising expected utility can be applied, differ in a deep way from "uncertain" ones, where the outcomes were likewise random, but governed by an unknown probability model. Knight argued that uncertainty gave rise to economic profits that perfect competition could not eliminate.
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Hydroperoxyl Importance for atmospheric chemistry Peroxyl_radical > Structure and reactions > Importance for atmospheric chemistry Gaseous hydroperoxyl is involved in reaction cycles that destroy stratospheric ozone. It is also present in the troposphere, where it is essentially a byproduct of the oxidation of carbon monoxide and of hydrocarbons by the hydroxyl radical.Because dielectric constant has a strong effect on pKa, and the dielectric constant of air is quite low, superoxide produced (photochemically) in the atmosphere is almost exclusively present as HO2. As HO2 is quite reactive, it acts as a "cleanser" of the atmosphere by degrading certain organic pollutants. As such, the chemistry of HO2 is of considerable geochemical importance. == References ==
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Cardiac amyloidosis Treatments Cardiac_amyloidosis > Treatments For familial amyloidosis, ACE-inhibitors and beta-blockers can be prescribed if there is no autonomic neuropathy. Suppression of transthyretin production: liver transplantation and medications that decreases the activity of the transthyretin genes (patisiran and inotersen). In patients with familial transthyretin mutations, liver transplantation can provide the body with a source of normal transthyretin.
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Heterogeneous catalysis Chemisorption Heterogeneous_catalyst > Adsorption > Types of adsorption > Chemisorption An example is alkene binding by platinum. Dissociation adsorption: one or more bonds break concomitantly with adsorption. In this case, the barrier to dissociation affects the rate of adsorption. An example of this is the binding of H2 to a metal catalyst, where the H-H bond is broken upon adsorption.
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Surface area Definition Surface_area > Definition The main formula can be specialized to different classes of surfaces, giving, in particular, formulas for areas of graphs z = f(x,y) and surfaces of revolution. One of the subtleties of surface area, as compared to arc length of curves, is that surface area cannot be defined simply as the limit of areas of polyhedral shapes approximating a given smooth surface. It was demonstrated by Hermann Schwarz that already for the cylinder, different choices of approximating flat surfaces can lead to different limiting values of the area; this example is known as the Schwarz lantern.Various approaches to a general definition of surface area were developed in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century by Henri Lebesgue and Hermann Minkowski.
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Variable data printing Variable data printing: Customization and Operational Methodologies Variable_data_printing > Variable data printing: Customization and Operational Methodologies The most basic level involves changing the salutation or name on each copy much like mail merge. More complicated variable data printing uses 'versioning', where there may be differing amounts of customization for different markets, with text and images changing for groups of addresses based upon which segment of the market is being addressed. Finally there is full variability printing, where the text and images can be altered for each individual address.
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Non-small cell lung cancer Staging Non-small_cell_lung_cancer > Staging Several components of NSCLC staging then influence physicians' treatment strategies. The lung tumor itself is typically assessed both radiographically for overall size and by a pathologist under the microscope to identify specific genetic markers or to see if invasion into important structures within the chest (e.g., bronchus or pleural cavity) has occurred. Next, the patient's nearby lymph nodes within the chest cavity, known as the mediastinum, are checked for disease involvement. Finally, the patient is evaluated for more distant sites of metastatic disease, most typically with brain imaging and or scans of the bones.
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Nucleic acid quaternary structure Small nuclear RNA Nucleic_acid_quaternary_structure > RNA > Other small RNAs > Small nuclear RNA Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) combines with proteins to form the spliceosome in the nucleus. The spliceosome is responsible for sensing and cutting introns out of pre-mRNA, which is one of the first steps of mRNA processing. The spliceosome is a large macromolecularcomplex. Quaternary structure allows snRNA to detect mRNA sequences that need to be excised. == References ==
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Geostrophic Motion Geostrophic currents Geostrophic_Flow > Geostrophic currents Flow of ocean water is also largely geostrophic. Just as multiple weather balloons that measure pressure as a function of height in the atmosphere are used to map the atmospheric pressure field and infer the geostrophic wind, measurements of density as a function of depth in the ocean are used to infer geostrophic currents. Satellite altimeters are also used to measure sea surface height anomaly, which permits a calculation of the geostrophic current at the surface.
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Resistor color code Color band system Electronic_color_code > Resistors > Color band system Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-HDBK-199 for further details. Tight tolerance resistors may have three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an additional band indicating temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), in units of ppm/K. All coded components have at least two value bands and a multiplier; other bands are optional.
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Cypher Query Language Summary Cypher_Query_Language Cypher is a declarative graph query language that allows for expressive and efficient data querying in a property graph.Cypher was largely an invention of Andrés Taylor while working for Neo4j, Inc. (formerly Neo Technology) in 2011. Cypher was originally intended to be used with the graph database Neo4j, but was opened up through the openCypher project in October 2015.The language was designed with the power and capability of SQL (standard query language for the relational database model) in mind, but Cypher was based on the components and needs of a database built upon the concepts of graph theory. In a graph model, data is structured as nodes (vertices in math and network science) and relationships (edges in math and network science) to focus on how entities in the data are connected and related to one another.
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Decentralized information technology Processes Decentralized_information_technology > Overview > Processes While in earlier years small towns were considered appropriate, by the 1960s, 60,000 inhabitants was considered the size necessary to support a diversified job market and an adequate shopping center and array of services and entertainment. Appropriate size of governmental units for revenue raising also is a consideration.Even in bioregionalism, which seeks to reorder many functions and even the boundaries of governments according to physical and environmental features, including watershed boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics, appropriate size must be considered. The unit may be larger than many decentralist-bioregionalists prefer.
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Strong Markov property Introduction Strong_Markov_property > Introduction Namely that the statespace of the process is constant through time. The conditional description involves a fixed "bandwidth". For example, without this restriction we could augment any process to one which includes the complete history from a given initial condition and it would be made to be Markovian. But the state space would be of increasing dimensionality over time and does not meet the definition.
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Immune Attack Game summary Immune_Attack > Game summary Visual and audio clues in the game provide the information needed to accomplish this goal. Each subsequent level of Immune Attack features a different infection, and a different cell type the player must train.
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Solar powered flashlight Summary Solar-powered_flashlight Solar powered flashlights or solar powered torches are flashlights powered by solar energy stored in rechargeable batteries. Most of these flashlights use light-emitting diodes lamps since they have lower energy consumption compared to incandescent light bulbs.
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Linear encoder Summary Linear_encoder A linear encoder is a sensor, transducer or readhead paired with a scale that encodes position. The sensor reads the scale in order to convert the encoded position into an analog or digital signal, which can then be decoded into position by a digital readout (DRO) or motion controller. The encoder can be either incremental or absolute. In an incremental system, position is determined by motion over time; in contrast, in an absolute system, motion is determined by position over time.
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DNA intercalation Summary DNA_intercalator In biochemistry, intercalation is the insertion of molecules between the planar bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This process is used as a method for analyzing DNA and it is also the basis of certain kinds of poisoning. There are several ways molecules (in this case, also known as ligands) can interact with DNA. Ligands may interact with DNA by covalently binding, electrostatically binding, or intercalating.
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Nondeterministic model of computation General Nondeterministic_Turing_machine > References > General Computational Complexity (1st ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp. 45–50. ISBN 978-0201530827.
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Supercurrent Summary Supercurrent A supercurrent is a superconducting current, that is, electric current which flows without dissipation in a superconductor. Under certain conditions, an electric current can also flow without dissipation in microscopically small non-superconducting metals. However, currents in such perfect conductors are not called supercurrents, but persistent currents. == References ==
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Autoimmune oophoritis Summary Autoimmune_oophoritis Autoimmune oophoritis is a rare autoimmune disease where the body's own immune system attacks the ovaries. This causes the ovaries to have inflammation, atrophy, and fibrosis. Such changes in the ovaries can cause them to not function properly. This disease is caused by primary ovarian insufficiency (POI), where reproduction and hormonal function of the ovaries stops before the age of 40.
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Sign value Summary Sign_value In sociology and in economics, the term sign value denotes and describes the value accorded to an object because of the prestige (social status) that it imparts upon the possessor, rather than the material value and utility derived from the function and the primary use of the object. For example, the buyer of a Rolls-Royce limousine might partly value the automobile as transport, yet might also value it as a sign that signifies his or her wealth to a particular community and to society in general. The automobile’s transport-function is primary, from which arises its use-value, whilst the social prestige function is secondary, from which arises its sign-value. The French sociologist Jean Baudrillard proposed the theory of sign value as a philosophic and economic counterpart to the dichotomy of exchange-value vs. use-value, which Karl Marx recognized as a characteristic of capitalism as an economic system. == References ==
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X86 assembly language Stack instructions X86_assembly_language > Instruction types > Stack instructions The x86 architecture has hardware support for an execution stack mechanism. Instructions such as push, pop, call and ret are used with the properly set up stack to pass parameters, to allocate space for local data, and to save and restore call-return points. The ret size instruction is very useful for implementing space efficient (and fast) calling conventions where the callee is responsible for reclaiming stack space occupied by parameters. When setting up a stack frame to hold local data of a recursive procedure there are several choices; the high level enter instruction (introduced with the 80186) takes a procedure-nesting-depth argument as well as a local size argument, and may be faster than more explicit manipulation of the registers (such as push bp ; mov bp, sp ; sub sp, size). Whether it is faster or slower depends on the particular x86-processor implementation as well as the calling convention used by the compiler, programmer or particular program code; most x86 code is intended to run on x86-processors from several manufacturers and on different technological generations of processors, which implies highly varying microarchitectures and microcode solutions as well as varying gate- and transistor-level design choices. The full range of addressing modes (including immediate and base+offset) even for instructions such as push and pop, makes direct usage of the stack for integer, floating point and address data simple, as well as keeping the ABI specifications and mechanisms relatively simple compared to some RISC architectures (require more explicit call stack details).
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Hume's Principle Influence on set theory Hume's_Principle > Influence on set theory The principle that cardinal number was to be characterized in terms of one-to-one correspondence had previously been used by Georg Cantor, whose writings Frege knew. The suggestion has therefore been made that Hume's principle ought better be called "Cantor's Principle" or "The Hume-Cantor Principle". But Frege criticized Cantor on the ground that Cantor defines cardinal numbers in terms of ordinal numbers, whereas Frege wanted to give a characterization of cardinals that was independent of the ordinals. Cantor's point of view, however, is the one embedded in contemporary theories of transfinite numbers, as developed in axiomatic set theory.
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Ocular lens Properties Orthoscopic_eyepiece > Properties Several properties of an eyepiece are likely to be of interest to a user of an optical instrument, when comparing eyepieces and deciding which eyepiece suits their needs.
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Pipelined processor Special situations Instruction_pipeline > History > Special situations Some processors such as the Zilog Z280 can configure their on-chip cache memories for data-only fetches, or as part of their ordinary memory address space, and avoid such difficulties with self-modifying instructions.Uninterruptible instructions An instruction may be uninterruptible to ensure its atomicity, such as when it swaps two items. A sequential processor permits interrupts between instructions, but a pipelining processor overlaps instructions, so executing an uninterruptible instruction renders portions of ordinary instructions uninterruptible too. The Cyrix coma bug would hang a single-core system using an infinite loop in which an uninterruptible instruction was always in the pipeline.
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Transfer of learning Transfer and learning Transfer_of_learning > Transfer and learning Conditions can be environmental, physical, mental, or emotional, and the possible combinations of conditions are countless. Procedures include sequences of events or information.
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Work energy History Energy_transfer > History The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, romanized: energeia, lit. 'activity, operation', which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure. In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved.
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Non-coding RNAs In RNA splicing Non-coding_RNA > Biological roles > In RNA splicing The ncRNA components of the major spliceosome are U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6. The ncRNA components of the minor spliceosome are U11, U12, U5, U4atac and U6atac.Another group of introns can catalyse their own removal from host transcripts; these are called self-splicing RNAs. There are two main groups of self-splicing RNAs: group I catalytic intron and group II catalytic intron. These ncRNAs catalyze their own excision from mRNA, tRNA and rRNA precursors in a wide range of organisms.In mammals it has been found that snoRNAs can also regulate the alternative splicing of mRNA, for example snoRNA HBII-52 regulates the splicing of serotonin receptor 2C.In nematodes, the SmY ncRNA appears to be involved in mRNA trans-splicing.
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Riemann integrability Integrability Riemann_Integral > Integrability The converse does not hold; not all Lebesgue-integrable functions are Riemann integrable. The Lebesgue–Vitali theorem does not imply that all type of discontinuities have the same weight on the obstruction that a real-valued bounded function be Riemann integrable on . In fact, certain discontinuities have absolutely no role on the Riemann integrability of the function—a consequence of the classification of the discontinuities of a function.If fn is a uniformly convergent sequence on with limit f, then Riemann integrability of all fn implies Riemann integrability of f, and However, the Lebesgue monotone convergence theorem (on a monotone pointwise limit) does not hold for Riemann integrals. Thus, in Riemann integration, taking limits under the integral sign is far more difficult to logically justify than in Lebesgue integration.
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Computational power Other formulations and similar observations Computational_power > Other formulations and similar observations Several measures of digital technology are improving at exponential rates related to Moore's law, including the size, cost, density, and speed of components. Moore wrote only about the density of components, "a component being a transistor, resistor, diode or capacitor", at minimum cost. Transistors per integrated circuit – The most popular formulation is of the doubling of the number of transistors on ICs every two years. At the end of the 1970s, Moore's law became known as the limit for the number of transistors on the most complex chips. The graph at the top of this article shows this trend holds true today. As of 2017, the commercially available processor possessing the highest number of transistors is the 48 core Centriq with over 18 billion transistors.
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Sublinear convergence R-convergence definition Rate_of_convergence > Convergence speed for iterative methods > Convergence definitions > R-convergence definition The Q-convergence definitions have a shortcoming in that they do not include some sequences, such as the sequence ( b k ) {\displaystyle (b_{k})} below, which converge reasonably fast, but whose rate is variable. Therefore, the definition of rate of convergence is extended as follows. Suppose that ( x k ) {\displaystyle (x_{k})} converges to L {\displaystyle L} .
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FSO2(OH) Properties FSO2(OH) > Properties Fluorosulfuric acid is a free-flowing colorless liquid. It is soluble in polar organic solvents (e.g. nitrobenzene, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate), but poorly soluble in nonpolar solvents such as alkanes. HSO3F is one of the strongest known simple Brønsted acids. It has an H0 value of −15.1 compared to −12 for sulfuric acid.
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Relativity physics Summary Special_and_general_relativity It introduced concepts including 4-dimensional spacetime as a unified entity of space and time, relativity of simultaneity, kinematic and gravitational time dilation, and length contraction. In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes, and gravitational waves.
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Floating-point number Floating-point numbers Floating-point_arithmetic > Overview > Floating-point numbers The 24-bit significand will stop at position 23, shown as the underlined bit 0 above. The next bit, at position 24, is called the round bit or rounding bit. It is used to round the 33-bit approximation to the nearest 24-bit number (there are specific rules for halfway values, which is not the case here).
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Solar powered Concentrated solar power Solar_technology > Concentrated solar power In all of these systems, a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Designs need to account for the risk of a dust storm, hail, or another extreme weather event that can damage the fine glass surfaces of solar power plants. Metal grills would allow a high percentage of sunlight to enter the mirrors and solar panels while also preventing most damage.
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Finance theory Quantum finance Finance_theory > Financial theory > Quantum finance As a result, numerical methods and computer simulations for solving these problems have proliferated. This research area is known as computational finance. Many computational finance problems have a high degree of computational complexity and are slow to converge to a solution on classical computers.
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Quasi-experiment Design types Quasi-experiment > Design types This is where the name "natural" experiment comes from. The manipulations occur naturally, and although this may seem like an inaccurate technique, it has actually proven to be useful in many cases.
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Desirable difficulty Research and examples Desirable_difficulty > Research and examples Researchers have experimented with various methods of learning. A common theme between the methods that have proven to be most beneficial is that they all present difficulties and challenges to the learner. Compared with traditional easier learning methods, they appear to make learning slower. The traditional easy tasks often show better temporary performance effects, and these are confused for more permanent effects. While this is somewhat counterintuitive, studies show that difficulties are better for increased performance in the long run. The following are examples of training tasks that are desirably difficult.
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Engineering Magazine Organization as a system, early 1900 Engineering_Magazine > History > Organization as a system, early 1900 One is that the organizations are founded upon principles that are in accord with modern progressive ideas and that tend to bring out the latent intelligence, loyalty and strength of all its members.The other is that the important details of factory work are cared for by systems which are homogeneous, flexible and efficient; systems which leave nothing to chance, but which care for the smallest and the most important details of factory work alike. This was confirmed in those days by the editors of the American Machinist, who noted that "there is not a man, machine, operation or system in the shop that stands entirely alone.
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Algorithmic design Summary Algorithmic_design Over millions of generations, the software adds a little metal here, removes a little there, and checks if the part is stronger or weaker, lighter or heavier than its predecessors. Within a surprisingly short time (a couple of hours, if given access to high-powered cloud processing), it comes back with shapes humans could never have directly designed. But they're strikingly similar to the work of nature; where there's more stress to be dealt with, they gradually become thicker.
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Roadometer (odometer) Later documentation of Clayton's odometer Roadometer_(odometer) > Later documentation of Clayton's odometer He published information about the rebuild at the 2006 symposium for the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. According to Howell's calculations, the 60-tooth gear's diameter was 15 inches, the 40-tooth gear's diameter was 10 inches, and the 4-tooth gear's diameter was 1 inch. : 311 == References ==
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Ohm History Ohm_(unit) > History In the third report of the committee, 1864, the resistance unit is referred to as "B.A. unit, or Ohmad". By 1867 the unit is referred to as simply ohm.The B.A.
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Encryption algorithms Integrity protection of ciphertexts Encryption_algorithms > The debate around encryption > Integrity protection of ciphertexts Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature usually done by a hashing algorithm or a PGP signature. Authenticated encryption algorithms are designed to provide both encryption and integrity protection together. Standards for cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single error in system design or execution can allow successful attacks.
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Fluid flywheel Step-circuit coupling Fluid_coupling > Overview > Step-circuit coupling A modification to the simple fluid coupling is the step-circuit coupling which was formerly manufactured as the "STC coupling" by the Fluidrive Engineering Company. The STC coupling contains a reservoir to which some, but not all, of the oil gravitates when the output shaft is stalled. This reduces the "drag" on the input shaft, resulting in reduced fuel consumption when idling and a reduction in the vehicle's tendency to "creep". When the output shaft begins to rotate, the oil is thrown out of the reservoir by centrifugal force, and returns to the main body of the coupling, so that normal power transmission is restored.
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Fast neutron reactor Moderators in conventional nuclear reactors Fast_reactor > Fission processes > Moderators in conventional nuclear reactors Such thermal neutrons are more likely to be absorbed by another heavy element, such as 238U, 232Th or 235U. In this case, only the 235U has a high probability of fission. Although 238U undergoes fission by the fast neutrons released in fission about 11% of the time this can not sustain the chain reaction alone.
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Bivariate analysis Summary Bivariate_analysis Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of quantitative (statistical) analysis. It involves the analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them.Bivariate analysis can be helpful in testing simple hypotheses of association. Bivariate analysis can help determine to what extent it becomes easier to know and predict a value for one variable (possibly a dependent variable) if we know the value of the other variable (possibly the independent variable) (see also correlation and simple linear regression).Bivariate analysis can be contrasted with univariate analysis in which only one variable is analysed.
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Hypothetico-deductive model Summary Hypothetico-deductive_method The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of the scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable, using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known. A test outcome that could have and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test outcome that could have, but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory. It is then proposed to compare the explanatory value of competing hypotheses by testing how stringently they are corroborated by their predictions.
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Rectification (geometry) Example of rectification as a final truncation to an edge Rectification_(geometry) > Example of rectification as a final truncation to an edge Rectification is the final point of a truncation process. For example, on a cube this sequence shows four steps of a continuum of truncations between the regular and rectified form:
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Group ring Summary Group_ring If the ring is commutative then the group ring is also referred to as a group algebra, for it is indeed an algebra over the given ring. A group algebra over a field has a further structure of a Hopf algebra; in this case, it is thus called a group Hopf algebra. The apparatus of group rings is especially useful in the theory of group representations.
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Fundamental physics Gravity Fundamental_interaction > The interactions > Gravity Isaac Newton's law of Universal Gravitation (1687) was a good approximation of the behaviour of gravitation. Present-day understanding of gravitation stems from Einstein's General Theory of Relativity of 1915, a more accurate (especially for cosmological masses and distances) description of gravitation in terms of the geometry of spacetime. Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research.
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Egg cells Summary Female_gamete The egg cell, or ovum (PL: ova), is the female reproductive cell, or gamete, in most anisogamous organisms (organisms that reproduce sexually with a larger, female gamete and a smaller, male one). The term is used when the female gamete is not capable of movement (non-motile). If the male gamete (sperm) is capable of movement, the type of sexual reproduction is also classified as oogamous. A nonmotile female gamete formed in the oogonium of some algae, fungi, oomycetes, or bryophytes is an oosphere. When fertilized the oosphere becomes the oospore.When egg and sperm fuse during fertilisation, a diploid cell (the zygote) is formed, which rapidly grows into a new organism.
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Anterior pituitary Effects of the anterior pituitary Anterior_pituitary > Function > Effects of the anterior pituitary Thermal homeostasisThe homeostatic maintenance of the anterior pituitary is crucial to our physiological well being. Increased plasma levels of TSH induce hyperthermia through a mechanism involving increased metabolism and cutaneous vasodilation. Increased levels of LH also result in hypothermia but through a decreased metabolism action. ACTH increase metabolism and induce cutaneous vasoconstriction, increased plasma levels also result in hyperthermia and prolactin decreases with decreasing temperature values.
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Metallome Metallointeractome Metallome > Metallointeractome In the study of metallomes the transcriptome, proteome and the metabolome constitutes the whole metallome. A study of the metallome is done to arrive at the metallointeractome.
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Electron bifurcation Summary Electron_bifurcation In biochemistry, electron bifurcation (EB) refers to a system that enables an unfavorable (endergonic) transformation by coupling to a favorable (exergonic) transformation. Two electrons are involved: one flows to an acceptor with a "higher reduction potential and the other with a lower reduction potential" than the donor. The process is suspected of being common in bioenergetics. Two versions of EB are recognized.
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Auxiliary magnetic field Mathematical development Magnetic_lines_of_force > History > Mathematical development : 245 Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations, which explained and united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these equations was published in a paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These equations were valid but incomplete. Maxwell completed his set of equations in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz published papers in 1887 and 1888 experimentally confirming this fact.
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Reductive elimination Summary Reductive_elimination Reductive elimination is an elementary step in organometallic chemistry in which the oxidation state of the metal center decreases while forming a new covalent bond between two ligands. It is the microscopic reverse of oxidative addition, and is often the product-forming step in many catalytic processes. Since oxidative addition and reductive elimination are reverse reactions, the same mechanisms apply for both processes, and the product equilibrium depends on the thermodynamics of both directions.
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Stress strain curve Ductile materials Yield_curve_(physics) > Classification > Ductile materials Due to the natural inhomogeneity of the material, it is common to find some regions with small inclusions or porosity, within the material or on its surface, where strain will concentrate, leading to a local reduction in cross-sectional area. For strain less than the ultimate tensile strain, the increase of work-hardening rate in this region will be greater than the area reduction rate, thereby make this region harder to deform than others, so that the instability will be removed, i.e. the material increases in homogeneity before reaching the ultimate strain. However, beyond this, the work hardening rate will decrease, such that a region with smaller area is weaker than nearby regions, therefore reduction in area will concentrate in this region and the neck will become more and more pronounced until fracture.
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Z-Ligand Examples Z-Ligand > Examples One such structure is shown to the right. Other molecules that act as Z-ligands are AlCl3, AlR3, SO2, H+, Me+, CPh3, HgX2, Cu+, Ag+, CO2 and certain silanes. == References ==
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SAP Web Application Server Architecture SAP_Web_Application_Server > Architecture Database independence is also made possible by support for open standards. The database interface ensures optimized data access from within the ABAP environment through Open SQL. SAP propagates the outstanding capabilities of Open SQL for ABAP to Open SQL for Java and offers a variety of standard Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) to application programmers, such as SQLJ. Other technologies, such as Java Data Objects (JDO) and Container-Managed Persistence (CMP) for EJB, or the direct use of the Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API, are also supported.
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Higher Topos Theory Topics Higher_Topos_Theory > Topics Higher Topos Theory covers two related topics: ∞-categories and ∞-topoi (which are a special case of the former). The first five of the book's seven chapters comprise a rigorous development of general ∞-category theory in the language of quasicategories, a special class of simplicial set which acts as a model for ∞-categories. The path of this development largely parallels classical category theory, with the notable exception of the ∞-categorical Grothendieck construction; this correspondence, which Lurie refers to as "straightening and unstraightening", gains considerable importance in his treatment.
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Variable-speed drive Reasons for using adjustable speed drives Thyristor_drive > Reasons for using adjustable speed drives Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important objective.
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Mature messenger RNA RNA Splicing Mature_mRNA > RNA Splicing Pre-mRNA has both introns and exons. As a part of the maturation process, RNA splicing removes the non-coding RNA introns leaving behind the exons, which are then spliced and joined together to form the mature mRNA. Splicing is conducted by the spliceosome. The spliceosome is a large ribonucleoprotein which cleaves the RNA at the splicing site and recombines the exons of the RNA.
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Membrane receptors Structure-based drug design Transmembrane_receptor > Structure-based drug design In this case, ligand molecules are engineered within the constraints of a binding pocket by assembling small pieces in a stepwise manner. These pieces can be either atoms or molecules. The key advantage of such a method is that novel structures can be discovered.
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Renormalization Mainly: quantum field theory Renormalization > Further reading > Mainly: quantum field theory N. N. Bogoliubov, D. V. Shirkov (1959): The Theory of Quantized Fields. New York, Interscience. The first text-book on the renormalization group theory. Ryder, Lewis H.; Quantum Field Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1985), ISBN 0-521-33859-X Highly readable textbook, certainly the best introduction to relativistic Q.F.T.
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Continuous function (topology) Weierstrass and Jordan definitions (epsilon–delta) of continuous functions Continuous_function > Real functions > Definition > Weierstrass and Jordan definitions (epsilon–delta) of continuous functions Explicitly including the definition of the limit of a function, we obtain a self-contained definition: Given a function f: D → R {\displaystyle f:D\to \mathbb {R} } as above and an element x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} of the domain D {\displaystyle D} , f {\displaystyle f} is said to be continuous at the point x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} when the following holds: For any positive real number ε > 0 , {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0,} however small, there exists some positive real number δ > 0 {\displaystyle \delta >0} such that for all x {\displaystyle x} in the domain of f {\displaystyle f} with x 0 − δ < x < x 0 + δ , {\displaystyle x_{0}-\delta 0 , {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0,} there exists a δ > 0 {\displaystyle \delta >0} such that for all x ∈ D {\displaystyle x\in D}: More intuitively, we can say that if we want to get all the f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} values to stay in some small neighborhood around f ( x 0 ) , {\displaystyle f\left(x_{0}\right),} we simply need to choose a small enough neighborhood for the x {\displaystyle x} values around x 0 . {\displaystyle x_{0}.} If we can do that no matter how small the f ( x 0 ) {\displaystyle f(x_{0})} neighborhood is, then f {\displaystyle f} is continuous at x 0 .
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Webgraph Applications Web_graph > Applications The webgraph is used for: computing the PageRank of the WWW-pages; computing the personalized PageRank; detecting webpages of similar topics, through graph-theoretical properties only, like co-citation; and identifying hubs and authorities in the web for HITS algorithm.
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Properties of water Water in redox reactions Water_molecules > Reactions > Water in redox reactions Note that the rusting of iron is a reaction between iron and oxygen that is dissolved in water, not between iron and water. Water can be oxidized to emit oxygen gas, but very few oxidants react with water even if their reduction potential is greater than the potential of O2/H2O. Almost all such reactions require a catalyst. An example of the oxidation of water is: 4 AgF2 + 2 H2O → 4 AgF + 4 HF + O2
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Medical lab Departments Clinical_laboratory > Departments Virology is concerned with identification of viruses in specimens such as blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid. Hematology analyzes whole blood specimens to perform full blood counts, and includes the examination of blood films. Other specialized tests include cell counts on various bodily fluids.
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Gödel's diagonalization method Completeness Godel's_Incompleteness_Theorem > Formal systems: completeness, consistency, and effective axiomatization > Completeness A set of axioms is (syntactically, or negation-) complete if, for any statement in the axioms' language, that statement or its negation is provable from the axioms (Smith 2007, p. 24). This is the notion relevant for Gödel's first Incompleteness theorem. It is not to be confused with semantic completeness, which means that the set of axioms proves all the semantic tautologies of the given language.
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Integer underflow Definition variations and ambiguity Integer_overflow > Definition variations and ambiguity For an unsigned type, when the ideal result of an operation is outside the type's representable range and the returned result is obtained by wrapping, then this event is commonly defined as an overflow. In contrast, the C11 standard defines that this event is not an overflow and states "a computation involving unsigned operands can never overflow. "When the ideal result of an integer operation is outside the type's representable range and the returned result is obtained by clamping, then this event is commonly defined as a saturation. Use varies as to whether a saturation is or is not an overflow.
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Bipolar transistor biasing Signal requirements Bipolar_transistor_biasing > Bias circuit requirements > Signal requirements For analog operation of a class-A amplifier, the Q-point is placed so the transistor stays in active mode (does not shift to operation in the saturation region or cut-off region) across the input signal's range. Often, the Q-point is established near the center of the active region of a transistor characteristic to allow similar signal swings in positive and negative directions. For digital operation, the Q-point is instead chosen so the transistor switches from the "on" (saturation) to the "off" (cutoff) state.
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