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Meta class In Smalltalk-80 Meta_class > In Smalltalk-80 In Smalltalk, everything is an object. Additionally, Smalltalk is a class based system, which means that every object has a class that defines the structure of that object (i.e. the instance variables the object has) and the messages an object understands. Together this implies that a class in Smalltalk is an object and that, therefore a class needs to be an instance of a class (called metaclass). As an example, a car object c is an instance of the class Car.
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The Cluetrain Manifesto Thesis 7: Hyperlinks Subvert Hierarchy The_Cluetrain_Manifesto > The 'Cluetrain' theses > Thesis 7: Hyperlinks Subvert Hierarchy The ability of the internet to link to additional information – information which might exist beyond the formal hierarchy of organizational structure or published material from such an organization – acts as a means of subverting, or bypassing, formal hierarchies.
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Cell fate Summary Cell_fate_determination Cells’ fate determination mechanisms were categorized into three different types, autonomously specified cells, conditionally specified cells, or syncytial specified cells. Furthermore, the cells’ fate was determined mainly using two types of experiments, cell ablation and transplantation. The results obtained from these experiments, helped in identifying the fate of the examined cells.
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Quantum wave function Hilbert space Normalisable_wave_function > Wave functions and function spaces > Hilbert space The property of completeness is crucial in advanced treatments and applications of quantum mechanics. For instance, the existence of projection operators or orthogonal projections relies on the completeness of the space. These projection operators, in turn, are essential for the statement and proof of many useful theorems, e.g. the spectral theorem.
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Business cycles Product based theory of economic cycles Economic_cycle > Proposed explanations > Product based theory of economic cycles Recent research by Georgiy Revyakin proved initial Vernon theory and showed economic cycles in developed countries overran economic cycles in developing countries. He also presumed economic cycles with different periodicity can be compared to the products with various life-cycles. In case of Kondratiev waves such products correlate with fundamental discoveries implemented in production (inventions which form the technological paradigm: Richard Arkwright's machines, steam engines, industrial use of electricity, computer invention, etc.); Kuznets cycles describe such products as infrastructural components (roadways, transport, utilities, etc.); Juglar cycles may go in parallel with enterprise fixed capital (equipment, machinery, etc.), and Kitchin cycles are characterized by change in the society preferences (tastes) for consumer goods, and time, which is necessary to start the production. Highly competitive market conditions would determine simultaneous technological updates of all economic agents (as a result, cycle formation): in case if a manufacturing technology at an enterprise does not meet the current technological environment – such company loses its competitiveness and eventually goes bankrupt.
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Body reactivity Nervous system divisions Body_reactivity > Nervous system divisions The central nervous system (CNS) consists of parts that are encased by the bones of the skull and spinal column: the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is found outside those bones and consists of the nerves and most of the sensory organs.
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Wheelchair access Technological developments Wheelchair_access > Types > Technological developments The geared wheels provide a user with additional assistance by providing leverage through gearing (like a bicycle, not a motor). The two-gear wheels offer two speed ratios- 1:1 (no help, no extra torque) and 2:1, providing 100% more hill climbing force. The low gear incorporates an automatic "hill hold" function which holds the wheelchair in place on a hill between pushes, but will allow the user to override the hill hold to roll the wheels backward if needed.
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Permutation pattern Computer science origins Permutation_patterns > Computer science origins Shortly thereafter, Robert Tarjan (1972) investigated sorting by networks of stacks, while Vaughan Pratt (1973) showed that the permutation π can be sorted by a deque if and only if for all k, π avoids 5,2,7,4,...,4k+1,4k−2,3,4k,1, and 5,2,7,4,...,4k+3,4k,1,4k+2,3, and every permutation that can be obtained from either of these by interchanging the last two elements or the 1 and the 2. Because this collection of permutations is infinite (in fact, it is the first published example of an infinite antichain of permutations), it is not immediately clear how long it takes to decide if a permutation can be sorted by a deque. Rosenstiehl & Tarjan (1984) later presented a linear (in the length of π) time algorithm which determines if π can be sorted by a deque.In his paper, Pratt remarked that this permutation pattern order “seems to be the only partial order on permutation that arises in a simple and natural way” and concludes by noting that “from an abstract point of view”, the permutation pattern order “is even more interesting than the networks we were characterizing”.
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Euler rotation theorem Quaternions Euler's_fixed_point_theorem > Applications > Quaternions Such a set of four numbers is called a quaternion. While the quaternion as described above, does not involve complex numbers, if quaternions are used to describe two successive rotations, they must be combined using the non-commutative quaternion algebra derived by William Rowan Hamilton through the use of imaginary numbers. Rotation calculation via quaternions has come to replace the use of direction cosines in aerospace applications through their reduction of the required calculations, and their ability to minimize round-off errors. Also, in computer graphics the ability to perform spherical interpolation between quaternions with relative ease is of value.
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Uncertainty Principle (Numbers) Production Uncertainty_Principle_(Numbers) > Production > Production Producers changed the location for the scene from the Los Angeles River as storms occurred before filming.Throughout production, CBS executives objected to the violent nature of the episode. They asked Guggenheim to make it less violent, but Guggenheim refused when possible. The executives also expressed concern about the overall plot of the episode.
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Receptor expression Transcriptional regulation Attenuation_of_transcription > Regulation of gene expression > Transcriptional regulation The nuclear membrane in eukaryotes allows further regulation of transcription factors by the duration of their presence in the nucleus, which is regulated by reversible changes in their structure and by binding of other proteins. Environmental stimuli or endocrine signals may cause modification of regulatory proteins eliciting cascades of intracellular signals, which result in regulation of gene expression. It has become apparent that there is a significant influence of non-DNA-sequence specific effects on transcription.
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Measurement uncertainty Type A and Type B evaluation of uncertainty Measurement_uncertainty > Type A and Type B evaluation of uncertainty Other considerations apply when the measured values are not obtained independently. For a Type B evaluation of uncertainty, often the only available information is that X {\displaystyle X} lies in a specified interval . In such a case, knowledge of the quantity can be characterized by a rectangular probability distribution with limits a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} . If different information were available, a probability distribution consistent with that information would be used.
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Magnetic coil Inductors Electromagnetic_coil > Types of coils > Inductors Variometer - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils in series, an outer stationary coil and a second one inside it which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same direction or opposed. Flyback transformer - Although called a transformer, this is actually an inductor which serves to store energy in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection circuits for CRT televisions and monitors Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC power by varying the saturation of the core using a DC control voltage in an auxiliary winding. Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge lamp circuits, such as fluorescent lamps, to limit the current through the lamp.
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Synthetic hormones Receptors Hormonal_medication > Receptors Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell surface receptors or intracellular receptors. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the cell membrane as cell surface receptors, and the majority of these belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, described as signal transduction, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell.
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Disease model In psychology Disease_model > Other uses > In psychology In psychology, the term medical model refers to the assumption that psychopathology is the result of one's biology, that is to say, a physical/organic problem in brain structures, neurotransmitters, genetics, the endocrine system, etc., as with traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer's disease, or Down's syndrome. The medical model is useful in these situations as a guide for diagnosis, prognosis, and research. However, for most mental disorders, exclusive reliance on the medical model leads to an incomplete understanding, and, frequently, to incomplete or ineffective treatment interventions.
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Light element General properties Light_element > Description > Properties > General properties The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, reactive nonmetals, and noble gases. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.
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Farr's laws Summary Farr's_laws Farr's law is a law formulated by Dr. William Farr when he made the observation that epidemic events rise and fall in a roughly symmetrical pattern. The time-evolution behavior could be captured by a single mathematical formula that could be approximated by a bell-shaped curve.
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List of numbers Hypercomplex numbers List_of_numbers > Hypercomplex numbers Hypercomplex number is a term for an element of a unital algebra over the field of real numbers. The complex numbers are often symbolised by a boldface C (or blackboard bold C {\displaystyle \mathbb {\mathbb {C} } } , Unicode U+2102 ℂ DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL C), while the set of quaternions is denoted by a boldface H (or blackboard bold H {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } , Unicode U+210D ℍ DOUBLE-STRUCK CAPITAL H).
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Modular construction systems Advantages Modular_construction > Advantages In a 2018 Practice Note, the NEC states that the benefits obtained from offsite construction mainly relate to the creation of components in a factory setting, protected from the weather and using manufacturing techniques such as assembly lines with dedicated and specialist equipment. Through the use of appropriate technology, modular construction can: increase the speed of construction by increasing the speed of manufacture of the component parts, reduce waste, increase economies of scale, improve quality leading to reduction in the whole life costs of assets reduce environmental impact such as dust and noise and reduce accidents and ill health by reducing the amount of construction work taking place at site
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Paraphrasing (computational linguistics) Transformers Paraphrasing_(computational_linguistics) > Paraphrase generation > Transformers With the introduction of Transformer models, paraphrase generation approaches improved their ability to generate text by scaling neural network parameters and heavily parallelizing training through feed-forward layers. These models are so fluent in generating text that human experts cannot identify if an example was human-authored or machine-generated. Transformer-based paraphrase generation relies on autoencoding, autoregressive, or sequence-to-sequence methods. Autoencoder models predict word replacement candidates with a one-hot distribution over the vocabulary, while autoregressive and seq2seq models generate new text based on the source predicting one word at a time. More advanced efforts also exist to make paraphrasing controllable according to predefined quality dimensions, such as semantic preservation or lexical diversity. Many Transformer-based paraphrase generation methods rely on unsupervised learning to leverage large amounts of training data and scale their methods.
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Rule 90 Additivity, superposition, and decomposition Rule_90 > Properties > Additivity, superposition, and decomposition The rule for the automaton within each of these subsets is equivalent (except for a shift by half a cell per time step) to another elementary cellular automaton, Rule 102, in which the new state of each cell is the exclusive or of its old state and its right neighbor. That is, the behavior of Rule 90 is essentially the same as the behavior of two interleaved copies of Rule 102.Rule 90 and Rule 102 are called additive cellular automata. This means that, if two initial states are combined by computing the exclusive or of each their states, then their subsequent configurations will be combined in the same way. More generally, one can partition any configuration of Rule 90 into two subsets with disjoint nonzero cells, evolve the two subsets separately, and compute each successive configuration of the original automaton as the exclusive or of the configurations on the same time steps of the two subsets.
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Contract lifecycle management Stages Contract_lifecycle_management > Stages Authoring - This is the stage where the contract actually gets written. Both parties put their terms into writing and ‘solidify’ their clauses and relevant information relating to their contractual obligations. Negotiations - The negotiation stages are where both parties continue to negotiate specific contract parameters – this is the stage that directly precedes final approval.
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Outline of control engineering Branches Outline_of_control_engineering > Branches Adaptive control Control theory – interdisciplinary branch of engineering and mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. The usual objective of control theory is to calculate solutions for the proper corrective action from the controller that result in system stability. Digital control Energy-shaping control Fuzzy control Hybrid control Intelligent control Model predictive control Multivariable control Neural control Nonlinear control Optimal control Real-time control Robust control Stochastic control
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Lie derivative Properties Lie_derivative > Properties Similarly, it is a derivation on F ( M ) × X ( M ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}(M)\times {\mathcal {X}}(M)} where X ( M ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}(M)} is the set of vector fields on M (cf. Theorem 6 from the article: Nichita, F.F. Unification Theories: New Results and Examples.
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Triple reuptake inhibitor Depression Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor > Indications > Depression Major depressive disorder (MDD) is the foremost reason supporting the need for development of an SNDRI. According to the World Health Organization, depression is the leading cause of disability and the 4th leading contributor to the global burden of disease in 2000. By the year 2020, depression is projected to reach 2nd place in the ranking of DALYs.About 16% of the population is estimated to be affected by major depression, and another 1% is affected by bipolar disorder, one or more times throughout an individual's lifetime. The presence of the common symptoms of these disorders are collectively called 'depressive syndrome' and includes a long-lasting depressed mood, feelings of guilt, anxiety, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide.
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Non-ionising radiation Black-body radiation Non-ionizing_radiation > Types of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation > Black-body radiation Black-body radiation is radiation from an idealized radiator that emits at any temperature the maximum possible amount of radiation at any given wavelength. A black body will also absorb the maximum possible incident radiation at any given wavelength. The radiation emitted covers the entire electromagnetic spectrum and the intensity (power/unit-area) at a given frequency is dictated by Planck's law of radiation.
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Proximity search (text) Usage in commercial search engines Proximity_search_(text) > Usage in commercial search engines This is useful if the user wants to do a prior art search (e.g. finding an existing approach to complete a specific task, finding a document that discloses a system that exhibits a procedural behavior collaboratively conducted by several components and links between these components). Web search engines which support proximity search via an explicit proximity operator in their query language include Walhello, Exalead, Yandex, Yahoo!, Altavista, and Bing: When using the Walhello search-engine, the proximity can be defined by the number of characters between the keywords. The search engine Exalead allows the user to specify the required proximity, as the maximum number of words between keywords.
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Standing Waves Standing wave on a string with one fixed end Standing_Wave > Mathematical description > Standing wave on a string with one fixed end In this case, Equation (1) still describes the standing wave pattern that can form on the string, and the string has the same boundary condition of y = 0 at x = 0. However, at x = L where the string can move freely there should be an anti-node with maximal amplitude of y. Equivalently, this boundary condition of the "free end" can be stated as ∂y/∂x = 0 at x = L, which is in the form of the Sturm–Liouville formulation. The intuition for this boundary condition ∂y/∂x = 0 at x = L is that the motion of the "free end" will follow that of the point to its left.
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Action Integral Sources and further reading Action_Integral > Sources and further reading The reference most quoted by all those who explore this field. L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Mechanics, Course of Theoretical Physics (Butterworth-Heinenann, 1976), 3rd ed., Vol.
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Kapteyn series Relation between the Taylor coefficients and the Kapteyn_series > Relation between the Taylor coefficients and the α n {\displaystyle \alpha _{n}} coefficients of a function Let us suppose that the Taylor series of f {\displaystyle f} reads as f ( z ) = ∑ n = 0 ∞ a n z n . {\displaystyle f(z)=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }a_{n}z^{n}.} Then the α n {\displaystyle \alpha _{n}} coefficients in the Kapteyn expansion of f {\displaystyle f} can be determined as follows. : 571 α 0 = a 0 , α n = 1 4 ∑ k = 0 ⌊ n 2 ⌋ ( n − 2 k ) 2 ( n − k − 1 ) !
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Homocysteine Elevated homocysteine Homocysteine > Elevated homocysteine Abnormally high levels of homocysteine in the serum, above 15 μmol/L, are a medical condition called hyperhomocysteinemia. This has been claimed to be a significant risk factor for the development of a wide range of diseases, including thrombosis, neuropsychiatric illness, and fractures. It also is found to be associated with microalbuminuria, which is a strong indicator of the risk of future cardiovascular disease and renal dysfunction. Vitamin B12 deficiency, when coupled with high serum folate levels, has been found to increase overall homocysteine concentrations as well.Typically, hyperhomocysteinemia is managed with vitamin B6, vitamin B9, and vitamin B12 supplementation. However, supplementation with these vitamins does not appear to improve cardiovascular disease outcomes.
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Phlogiston theory Challenge and demise Phlogiston_theory > Challenge and demise By the end of the eighteenth century, for the few chemists who still used the term phlogiston, the concept was linked to hydrogen. Joseph Priestley, for example, in referring to the reaction of steam on iron, while fully acknowledging that the iron gains weight after it binds with oxygen to form a calx, iron oxide, iron also loses "the basis of inflammable air (hydrogen), and this is the substance or principle, to which we give the name phlogiston". Following Lavoisier's description of oxygen as the oxidizing principle (hence its name, from Ancient Greek: oksús, "sharp"; génos, "birth" referring to oxygen's supposed role in the formation of acids), Priestley described phlogiston as the alkaline principle.Phlogiston remained the dominant theory until the 1770s when Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier showed that combustion requires a gas that has weight (specifically, oxygen) and could be measured by means of weighing closed vessels.
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Glossary of symplectic geometry P Glossary_of_symplectic_geometry > P A Poisson–Lie group, a Poisson manifold that also has a structure of a Lie group. 5. The Poisson sigma-model, a particular two-dimensional Chern–Simons theory.
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Force Electromagnetic Attractive_(force) > Examples of forces in classical mechanics > Electromagnetic : 4-6–4-8 Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as where q {\displaystyle q} is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge. Similarly, the idea of the magnetic field was introduced to express how magnets can influence one another at a distance. The Lorentz force law gives the force upon a body with charge q {\displaystyle q} due to electric and magnetic fields: where F → {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}} is the electromagnetic force, E → {\displaystyle {\vec {E}}} is the electric field at the body's location, B → {\displaystyle {\vec {B}}} is the magnetic field, and v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} is the velocity of the particle.
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Menstrual synchrony Evolutionary perspective McClintock_effect > Overview > Evolutionary perspective Researchers are divided on whether menstrual synchrony would be adaptive. McClintock has suggested that menstrual synchrony may not be adaptive but rather epiphenomenonal, lacking any biological function. Among those who postulate an adaptive function, one argument is that menstrual synchrony is only a particular aspect of the much more general phenomenon of reproductive synchrony, an occurrence familiar to ecologists studying animal populations in the wild. Whether seasonal, tidal, or lunar, reproductive synchrony is a relatively common mechanism through which co-cycling females can increase the number of males included in the local breeding system.
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Pi acidity Metal-phosphine complexes Pi_backbonding > Metal-phosphine complexes Phosphines accept electron density from metal p or d orbitals into combinations of P–C σ* antibonding orbitals that have π symmetry. When phosphines bond to electron-rich metal atoms, backbonding would be expected to lengthen P–C bonds as P–C σ* orbitals become populated by electrons. The expected lengthening of the P–C distance is often hidden by an opposing effect: as the phosphorus lone pair is donated to the metal, P(lone pair)–R(bonding pair) repulsions decrease, which acts to shorten the P–C bond.
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Pierpont prime Summary Pierpont_prime In number theory, a Pierpont prime is a prime number of the form for some nonnegative integers u and v. That is, they are the prime numbers p for which p − 1 is 3-smooth. They are named after the mathematician James Pierpont, who used them to characterize the regular polygons that can be constructed using conic sections. The same characterization applies to polygons that can be constructed using ruler, compass, and angle trisector, or using paper folding. Except for 2 and the Fermat primes, every Pierpont prime must be 1 modulo 6. The first few Pierpont primes are: It has been conjectured that there are infinitely many Pierpont primes, but this remains unproven.
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Parabola Area enclosed between a parabola and a chord Parabola > Facts related to chords and arcs > Area enclosed between a parabola and a chord If the chord has length b and is perpendicular to the parabola's axis of symmetry, and if the perpendicular distance from the parabola's vertex to the chord is h, the parallelogram is a rectangle, with sides of b and h. The area A of the parabolic segment enclosed by the parabola and the chord is therefore This formula can be compared with the area of a triangle: 1/2bh. In general, the enclosed area can be calculated as follows. First, locate the point on the parabola where its slope equals that of the chord.
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Zoology Classification Zoology > Branches of zoology > Classification Molecular phylogenetics, which uses nucleic acid sequence as data, has driven many recent revisions and is likely to continue to do so. Biological classification belongs to the science of zoological systematics.
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Principle of stationary action Summary Least_action The stationary-action principle – also known as the principle of least action – is a variational principle that, when applied to the action of a mechanical system, yields the equations of motion for that system. The principle states that the trajectories (i.e. the solutions of the equations of motion) are stationary points of the system's action functional.The principle can be used to derive Newtonian, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian equations of motion, and even general relativity, as well as classical electrodynamics and quantum field theory. In these cases, a different action must be minimized or maximized.
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Ventilation/perfusion ratio Pathophysiology V/Q_mismatch > Pathology > Pathophysiology Because of the increased dead space ventilation, the arterial pO2 is reduced and thus also the peripheral oxygen saturation is lower than normal, leading to tachypnea and dyspnea. This finding is typically associated with pulmonary embolism (where blood circulation is impaired by an embolus). Ventilation is wasted, as it fails to oxygenate any blood.
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Phosopholipid bilayer Proteins Cell_membranes > Composition > Proteins The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane volume These proteins are important for the cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms. Membrane proteins consist of three main types: integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-anchored proteins.As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins.
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Titanium diselenide Synthesis Titanium_diselenide > Synthesis A mixture of titanium and selenium are heated under argon atmosphere to produce crude samples. The crude product is typically purified by chemical vapor transport using iodine as the transport agent. Ti + 2 Se → TiSe2 == References ==
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Orbital quantum number Derivation Angular_quantum_number > Derivation Orbitals with higher ℓ than given in the table are perfectly permissible, but these values cover all atoms so far discovered. For a given value of the principal quantum number n, the possible values of ℓ range from 0 to n − 1; therefore, the n = 1 shell only possesses an s subshell and can only take 2 electrons, the n = 2 shell possesses an s and a p subshell and can take 8 electrons overall, the n = 3 shell possesses s, p, and d subshells and has a maximum of 18 electrons, and so on. A simplistic one-electron model results in energy levels depending on the principal number alone.
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Database model Network model Database_model > Early data models > Network model The network model expands upon the hierarchical structure, allowing many-to-many relationships in a tree-like structure that allows multiple parents. It was most popular before being replaced by the relational model, and is defined by the CODASYL specification. The network model organizes data using two fundamental concepts, called records and sets. Records contain fields (which may be organized hierarchically, as in the programming language COBOL).
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Evolute Radial curve Evolute > Radial curve A curve with a similar definition is the radial of a given curve. For each point on the curve take the vector from the point to the center of curvature and translate it so that it begins at the origin. Then the locus of points at the end of such vectors is called the radial of the curve. The equation for the radial is obtained by removing the x and y terms from the equation of the evolute. This produces
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Electrolytic conductivity Definitions Conductivity_(electrolytic) > Definitions If the resistance of the calibration solution is R*, a cell-constant, defined as the ratio of l and A (C = l⁄A), is derived. R ∗ = ρ × C {\displaystyle R^{*}=\rho \times C} The specific conductance (conductivity), κ (kappa) is the reciprocal of the specific resistance. κ = 1 ρ = C R {\displaystyle \kappa ={\frac {1}{\rho }}={\frac {C}{R}}} Conductivity is also temperature-dependent. Sometimes the conductance (reciprocical of the resistance) is denoted as G = 1⁄R. Then the specific conductance κ (kappa) is: κ = C × G {\displaystyle \kappa =C\times G}
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Tesla turbine Efficiency and calculations Tesla_turbine > Efficiency and calculations Axial turbines that operate today in steam plants or jet engines have efficiencies of over 90%. This is different from the cycle efficiencies of the plant or engine, which are between approximately 25% and 42%, and are limited by any irreversibility to be below the Carnot cycle efficiency. Tesla claimed that a steam version of his device would achieve around 95% efficiency.
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List of logarithmic identities Complex logarithm identities List_of_logarithmic_identities > Complex logarithm identities The complex logarithm is the complex number analogue of the logarithm function. No single valued function on the complex plane can satisfy the normal rules for logarithms. However, a multivalued function can be defined which satisfies most of the identities. It is usual to consider this as a function defined on a Riemann surface. A single valued version, called the principal value of the logarithm, can be defined which is discontinuous on the negative x axis, and is equal to the multivalued version on a single branch cut.
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Quantum gravity theory Summary Quantum_Gravity Such a theory is often referred to as a theory of everything. Some of the approaches, such as loop quantum gravity, make no such attempt; instead, they make an effort to quantize the gravitational field while it is kept separate from the other forces.
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Ampere (unit) Present definition Ampere > History > Present definition The 2019 redefinition of the SI base units defined the ampere by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be 1.602176634×10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is defined in terms of ∆νCs, the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom.The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, "is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: 1 A = 1 C/s . {\displaystyle {\rm {1\ A=1\,{\text{C/s}}.}}} In general, charge Q is determined by steady current I flowing for a time t as Q = I t. Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in "the charging current is 1.2 A") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in "the battery charge is 30000 C"). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule.
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Boundary layer flow The Prandtl boundary layer concept Boundary_Layer > The Prandtl boundary layer concept First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the surface of the wing create skin friction drag. At high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a laminar boundary layer.
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Bernoulli's inequality History Bernoulli's_inequality > History Jacob Bernoulli first published the inequality in his treatise "Positiones Arithmeticae de Seriebus Infinitis" (Basel, 1689), where he used the inequality often.According to Joseph E. Hofmann, Über die Exercitatio Geometrica des M. A. Ricci (1963), p. 177, the inequality is actually due to Sluse in his Mesolabum (1668 edition), Chapter IV "De maximis & minimis".
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Deep Learning History Deep_neural_network > History The terminology "back-propagating errors" was actually introduced in 1962 by Rosenblatt, but he did not know how to implement this, although Henry J. Kelley had a continuous precursor of backpropagation already in 1960 in the context of control theory. In 1982, Paul Werbos applied backpropagation to MLPs in the way that has become standard. In 1985, David E. Rumelhart et al. published an experimental analysis of the technique.Deep learning architectures for convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with convolutional layers and downsampling layers began with the Neocognitron introduced by Kunihiko Fukushima in 1980.
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Brain scan Indications Brain_imaging > Indications Studies indicate that presence of migraine does not increase a patient's risk for intracranial disease. A diagnosis of migraine which notes the absence of other problems, such as papilledema, would not indicate a need for radiological investigations. In the course of conducting a careful diagnosis, the physician should consider whether the headache has a cause other than the migraine and might require radiological investigations.
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Von Mises yield criterion Physical interpretation of the von Mises yield criterion Von_Mises_criterion > Physical interpretation of the von Mises yield criterion thus we have τ oct = 2 3 σ y {\displaystyle \tau _{\text{oct}}={\frac {\sqrt {2}}{3}}\sigma _{\text{y}}\,\!} Strain energy density consists of two components - volumetric or dialational and distortional. Volumetric component is responsible for change in volume without any change in shape. Distortional component is responsible for shear deformation or change in shape.
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Filtering theory Basic result: orthogonal projection Filtering_problem_(stochastic_processes) > Basic result: orthogonal projection Hence, Y ^ t = P K ( Z , t ) ( Y t ) = E . {\displaystyle {\hat {Y}}_{t}=P_{K(Z,t)}{\big (}Y_{t}{\big )}=\mathbf {E} {\big }.} This elementary result is the basis for the general Fujisaki-Kallianpur-Kunita equation of filtering theory.
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Earliest deadline first scheduling Heavy traffic analysis for EDF queues with reneging Earliest_deadline_first_scheduling > Heavy traffic analysis for EDF queues with reneging In a heavy-traffic analysis of the behavior of a single-server queue under an earliest-deadline-first scheduling policy with reneging, the processes have deadlines and are served only until their deadlines elapse. The fraction of "reneged work", defined as the residual work not serviced due to elapsed deadlines, is an important performance measure.
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Cushing's disease Treatment Cushing's_disease > Treatment After the completion of collecting urine and blood samples, patients are asked to switch to glucocorticoid such as prednisone to decrease symptoms associated with adrenal withdrawal. Mitotane is also usedA study of 3,525 cases of TSS for Cushing's disease in the nationally representative sample of US hospitals between 1993 and 2002 was conducted and revealed the following results: the in-hospital mortality rate was 0.7%; the complication rate was 42.1%.
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Lagrange resolvents Summary Resolvent_(Galois_theory) It is a polynomial of degree 6.These three resolvents have the property of being always separable, which means that, if they have a multiple root, then the polynomial p is not irreducible. It is not known if there is an always separable resolvent for every group of permutations. For every equation the roots may be expressed in terms of radicals and of a root of a resolvent for a resoluble group, because, the Galois group of the equation over the field generated by this root is resoluble.
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Option grid Kidney Disease Option_grid > Published option grids > Kidney Disease Peritoneal dialysis (CAPD/APD) vs. haemodialysis at the hospital vs. haemodialysis at home vs. transplantation vs. conservative management for chronic kidney disease (English & Spanish)
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Schrödinger wave equation Harmonic oscillator Schrödinger_Equation > Examples > Harmonic oscillator The solutions in position space are where n ∈ { 0 , 1 , 2 , … } {\displaystyle n\in \{0,1,2,\ldots \}} , and the functions H n {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}_{n}} are the Hermite polynomials of order n {\displaystyle n} . The solution set may be generated by The eigenvalues are The case n = 0 {\displaystyle n=0} is called the ground state, its energy is called the zero-point energy, and the wave function is a Gaussian.The harmonic oscillator, like the particle in a box, illustrates the generic feature of the Schrödinger equation that the energies of bound eigenstates are discretized. : 352
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Flow meter Calibration Standard_cubic_meters_per_second > Calibration Even though ideally the flowmeter should be unaffected by its environment, in practice this is unlikely to be the case. Often measurement errors originate from incorrect installation or other environment dependent factors. In situ methods are used when flowmeter is calibrated in the correct flow conditions. The result of a flowmeter calibration will result in two related statistics: a performance indicator metric and a flow rate metric.
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Myelocortical multiple sclerosis Rapidly progressive multiple sclerosis Inflammatory_demyelinating_diseases_of_the_CNS > Genetic types > Rapidly progressive multiple sclerosis See malignant multiple sclerosisThis is a specially aggressive clinical course of progressive MS that has been found to be caused by a special genetic variant. It is due to a mutation inside the gene NR1H3, an arginine to glutamine mutation in the position p.Arg415Gln, in an area that codifies the protein LXRA.
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Bird flight Gliding flight Bird_flight > Flight > Gliding flight When in gliding flight, the upward aerodynamic force is equal to the weight. In gliding flight, no propulsion is used; the energy to counteract the energy loss due to aerodynamic drag is either taken from the potential energy of the bird, resulting in a descending flight, or is replaced by rising air currents ("thermals"), referred to as soaring flight. For specialist soaring birds (obligate soarers), the decision to engage in flight are strongly related to atmospheric conditions that allow individuals to maximise flight-efficiency and minimise energetic costs.
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Nature versus nurture Advanced techniques Nature_versus_nurture > Gene–environment interaction > Advanced techniques For example, it is hypothesized that a given behavioral disorder may represent an extreme of a continuous distribution of a normal behavior and hence an extreme of a continuous distribution of genetic and environmental variation. Depression, phobias, and reading disabilities have been examined in this context.For a few highly heritable traits, studies have identified loci associated with variance in that trait, for instance in some individuals with schizophrenia. The budding field of epigenetics has conducted research showing that hereditable conditions like schizophrenia, which have an 80% hereditability with only 10% of those who have inherited the trait actually displaying Schizophrenic traits.
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Moment of inertia factor Definition Moment_of_inertia_factor > Definition For a planetary body with principal moments of inertia A < B < C {\displaystyle A
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Taylor dispersion Other sources Taylor_dispersion > Other sources 219 (1137): 186–203. Bibcode:1953RSPSA.219..186T. doi:10.1098/rspa.1953.0139.
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Cartographic scale Point scale (or particular scale) Scale_(map) > Point scale (or particular scale) Definition: the point scale at P is the ratio of the two distances P'Q' and PQ in the limit that Q approaches P. We write this as μ ( λ , φ , α ) = lim Q → P P ′ Q ′ P Q , {\displaystyle \mu (\lambda ,\,\varphi ,\,\alpha )=\lim _{Q\to P}{\frac {P'Q'}{PQ}},} where the notation indicates that the point scale is a function of the position of P and also the direction of the element PQ. Definition: if P and Q lie on the same meridian ( α = 0 ) {\displaystyle (\alpha =0)} , the meridian scale is denoted by h ( λ , φ ) {\displaystyle h(\lambda ,\,\varphi )} . Definition: if P and Q lie on the same parallel ( α = π / 2 ) {\displaystyle (\alpha =\pi /2)} , the parallel scale is denoted by k ( λ , φ ) {\displaystyle k(\lambda ,\,\varphi )} .
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Generative Adversarial Network InfoGAN Generative_adversarial_networks > Variants > GANs with more than 2 players > InfoGAN In conditional GAN, the generator receives both a noise vector z {\displaystyle z} and a label c {\displaystyle c} , and produces an image G ( z , c ) {\displaystyle G(z,c)} . The discriminator receives image-label pairs ( x , c ) {\displaystyle (x,c)} , and computes D ( x , c ) {\displaystyle D(x,c)} . When the training dataset is unlabeled, conditional GAN does not work directly.
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Diffusion Dialysis Diffusion > Diffusion in physics > Dialysis A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material that contains holes of various sizes, or pores. Smaller solutes and fluid pass through the membrane, but the membrane blocks the passage of larger substances (for example, red blood cells and large proteins). This replicates the filtering process that takes place in the kidneys when the blood enters the kidneys and the larger substances are separated from the smaller ones in the glomerulus.
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Cellular metabolism Oxidative phosphorylation Biosynthetic_pathway > Energy transformations > Oxidative phosphorylation In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane. These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane.
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Diabetes mellitus type 2 Summary Type_2_diabetes_mellitus Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent urination, and unexplained weight loss. Symptoms may also include increased hunger, feeling tired, and sores (wounds) that do not heal. Often symptoms come on slowly.
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Regulation of blood pressure Physiology Systolic_pressure > Physiology During each heartbeat, blood pressure varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure. The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping action of the heart. However, blood pressure is also regulated by neural regulation from the brain (see Hypertension and the brain), as well as osmotic regulation from the kidney. Differences in mean blood pressure drive the flow of blood around the circulation.
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Truncated square tiling Circle packing Truncated_square_tiling > Circle packing The truncated square tiling can be used as a circle packing, placing equal diameter circles at the center of every point. Every circle is in contact with 3 other circles in the packing (kissing number).
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Areal velocity Summary Areal_velocity In classical mechanics, areal velocity (also called sector velocity or sectorial velocity) is a pseudovector whose length equals the rate of change at which area is swept out by a particle as it moves along a curve. It has SI units of square meters per second (m2/s) and dimension of square length per time L2 T-1. In the adjoining figure, suppose that a particle moves along the blue curve.
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Innate Intelligence Ethics and claims Innate_Intelligence > Ethics and claims Disease, say the chiropractors, is due to pressure on the spinal nerves; ergo it can be cured by 'adjusting' the spinal column. It is the sheerest quackery, and those who profess to teach it make their appeal to the cupidity of the ignorant. Its practice is in no sense a profession but a trade – and a trade that is potent for great harm.
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Marine phytoplankton Marine bacteria Marine_microorganisms > Prokaryotes > Marine bacteria Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles.
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Handshake (computing) Serial "Hardware Handshaking" Handshake_(computing) > Example > Serial "Hardware Handshaking" This frequently used term describes the use of RTS and CTS signals over a serial interconnection. It is, however, not quite correct; it's not a true form of handshaking, and is better described as flow control.
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Aristotle's wheel paradox Analysis and solutions Aristotle's_wheel_paradox > Analysis and solutions The paradox is that the smaller inner circle moves 2πR, the circumference of the larger outer circle with radius R, rather than its own circumference. If the inner circle were rolled separately, it would move 2πr, its own circumference with radius r. The inner circle is not separate but rigidly connected to the larger.
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Queuing theory Mean-field limits Queueing_network > Queueing networks > Mean-field limits Mean-field models consider the limiting behaviour of the empirical measure (proportion of queues in different states) as the number of queues m approaches infinity. The impact of other queues on any given queue in the network is approximated by a differential equation. The deterministic model converges to the same stationary distribution as the original model.
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Acute inflammation Cancer Inflammatory_process > Disorders > Cancer This capacity of a mediator of inflammation to influence the effects of steroid hormones in cells is very likely to affect carcinogenesis. On the other hand, due to the modular nature of many steroid hormone receptors, this interaction may offer ways to interfere with cancer progression, through targeting of a specific protein domain in a specific cell type. Such an approach may limit side effects that are unrelated to the tumor of interest, and may help preserve vital homeostatic functions and developmental processes in the organism. According to a review of 2009, recent data suggests that cancer-related inflammation (CRI) may lead to accumulation of random genetic alterations in cancer cells.
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Euclidean tensor Summary Euclidean_tensor In geometry and linear algebra, a Cartesian tensor uses an orthonormal basis to represent a tensor in a Euclidean space in the form of components. Converting a tensor's components from one such basis to another is done through an orthogonal transformation. The most familiar coordinate systems are the two-dimensional and three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems.
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Crossed square Coordinates and equations Crossed_square > Coordinates and equations {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}.} Then the circumcircle has the equation x 2 + y 2 = 2. {\displaystyle x^{2}+y^{2}=2.}
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Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knockout screens CRISPR + single cell RNA-seq Genome-wide_CRISPR-Cas9_knockout_screens > Future Directions > CRISPR + single cell RNA-seq Emerging technologies are aiming to combine pooled CRISPR screens with the detailed resolution of massively parallel single-cell RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). Studies utilising “CRISP-seq”, “CROP-seq”, and “PERTURB-seq” have demonstrated rich genomic readouts, accurately identifying gene expression signatures for individual gene knockouts in a complex pool of cells. These methods have the added benefit of producing transcriptional profiles of the sgRNA-induced cells. == References ==
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Wave–particle duality relation Complementarity Wave–particle_duality_relation > Complementarity P {\displaystyle P} defines thus the predictability of the two holes A and B. A maximal value of predictability P = 1 {\displaystyle P=1} means that only one hole (say A) is open. If now we detect the photon at (F), we know that that photon would have been detected in A necessarily. Conversely, P = 0 {\displaystyle P=0} means that both holes are open and play a symmetric role.
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Database modelling Relational model Database_modelling > Relational model A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar to the one in the "flat" database model. One of the strengths of the relational model is that, in principle, any value occurring in two different records (belonging to the same table or to different tables), implies a relationship among those two records. Yet, in order to enforce explicit integrity constraints, relationships between records in tables can also be defined explicitly, by identifying or non-identifying parent-child relationships characterized by assigning cardinality (1:1, (0)1:M, M:M).
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Latent Dirichlet allocation Generative process Latent_Dirichlet_allocation > Model > Generative process To actually infer the topics in a corpus, we imagine a generative process whereby the documents are created, so that we may infer, or reverse engineer, it. We imagine the generative process as follows. Documents are represented as random mixtures over latent topics, where each topic is characterized by a distribution over all the words. LDA assumes the following generative process for a corpus D {\displaystyle D} consisting of M {\displaystyle M} documents each of length N i {\displaystyle N_{i}}: 1.
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Neon compounds Ligands Neon_compounds > Ligands It coordinates two noble gas atoms and has had spectra measured in solid neon matrices. Known neon containing molecules are the homoleptic Ne.Be2O2.Ne, and heteroleptic Ne.Be2O2.Ar and Ne.Be2O2.Kr. The neon atoms are attracted to the beryllium atoms as they have a positive charge in this molecule.Beryllium sulfite molecules BeO2S, can also coordinate neon onto the beryllium atom. The dissociation energy for neon is 0.9 kcal/mol. When neon is added to the cyclic molecule, the ∠O-Be-O decreases and the O-Be bond lengths increase.
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Semantic compaction Usage and Learnability Semantic_compaction > Usage and Learnability Part of Speech Markers may also be used in this symbol set, such that the concept "Hot" is generated by a sequence containing a symbol and the Part of Speech Marker "Adjective". Unity also gives the user the opportunity to add his or her own words to the system's fringe vocabulary. If the user wants to add a word such as "magnificent" that is not already included in the fringe vocabulary, the user can utilize the meanings of existing icons to derive the new word.
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Observational methods in psychology Observation with intervention Observational_methods_in_psychology > Direct observational methods > Observation with intervention Most psychological research uses observation with some component of intervention. Reasons for intervening include:to precipitate or cause an event that normally occurs infrequently in nature or is difficult to observe; to systematically vary the qualities of a stimulus event so as to investigate the limits of an organism's response; to gain access to a situation or event that is generally closed to scientific observation; to arrange conditions so that important antecedent events are controlled and consequent behaviors can be readily observed; and to establish a comparison by manipulating independent variables to determine their effects on behavior. There are three different methods of direction observation with intervention: participant observation, structured observation, and field experiments.
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Electromagnetic coil Summary Magnetic_coil An electromagnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of a coil (spiral or helix). Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in applications where electric currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such as electric motors, generators, inductors, electromagnets, transformers, and sensor coils. Either an electric current is passed through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or conversely, an external time-varying magnetic field through the interior of the coil generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor. A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor due to Ampere's law.
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Ultra-high temperature processing Indirect heating systems Ultra-high-temperature_processing > Technology > Indirect heating systems In indirect systems, the product is heated by a solid heat exchanger similar to those used for pasteurization. However, as higher temperatures are applied, it is necessary to employ higher pressures in order to prevent boiling. There are three types of exchangers in use: Plate exchangers, Tubular exchangers Scraped-surface exchangers.For higher efficiency, pressurized water or steam is used as the medium for heating the exchangers themselves, accompanied with a regeneration unit which allows reuse of the medium and energy saving.
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L2 cache Example: the K8 L3_cache > Cache hierarchy in a modern processor > Example: the K8 As is usual for this class of CPU, the K8 has fairly complex branch prediction, with tables that help predict whether branches are taken and other tables which predict the targets of branches and jumps. Some of this information is associated with instructions, in both the level 1 instruction cache and the unified secondary cache. The K8 uses an interesting trick to store prediction information with instructions in the secondary cache.
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Digitization Fragility of materials Digitization > Challenges > Fragility of materials Some materials, such as brittle books, are so fragile that undergoing the process of digitization could damage them irreparably. Despite potential damage, one reason for digitizing fragile materials is because they are so heavily used that creating a digital surrogate will help preserve the original copy long past its expected lifetime and increase access to the item.
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Genetic screen CRISPR Genetic_screens > Screening variations > CRISPR CRISPR/Cas is primarily used for reverse genetic screens. CRISPR has the ability to create libraries of thousands of precise genetic mutations and can identify new tumors as well as validate older tumors in cancer research. Genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 knockout (GeCKO) library targeting 18,080 genes with 64,751 unique guide sequences identify genes essential for cell viability in cancer. Bacterial CRISPR–Cas9 system for engineering both loss of function (LOF) and gain of function (GOF) mutations in untransformed human intestinal organoids in order to demonstrate a model of Colorectal cancer (CRC). It can also be used to study functional consequences of mutations in vivo by enabling direct genome editing in somatic cells.
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Extended Kalman Filter Unscented Kalman filters Extended_Kalman_Filter > Unscented Kalman filters The UKF tends to be more robust and more accurate than the EKF in its estimation of error in all the directions. "The extended Kalman filter (EKF) is probably the most widely used estimation algorithm for nonlinear systems. However, more than 35 years of experience in the estimation community has shown that is difficult to implement, difficult to tune, and only reliable for systems that are almost linear on the time scale of the updates.
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Glossary of cell biology A Glossary_of_cell_biology > A adenosine diphosphate (ADP) adenosine monophosphate (AMP) adenosine triphosphate (ATP) An organic compound derived from adenine that functions as the major source of energy for chemical reactions inside living cells. It is found in all forms of life and is often referred to as the "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer. amino acid Any of a class of organic compounds whose basic structural formula includes a central carbon atom bonded to amine and carboxyl functional groups and to a variable side chain.
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Arsonic acid (functional group) List Arsonic_acid_(functional_group) > List Arsenic acid is technically not an arsonic acid because the substituent is a hydroxyl group, not a hydrocarbyl group, so arsenic acid has three hydroxyl groups bound to the arsenic atom, while arsonic acids only have two. == References ==
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Sensor Web Definition Sensor_Web > Definition The term "sensor web" was first used by Kevin Delin of NASA in 1997, to describe a novel wireless sensor network architecture where the individual pieces could act and coordinate as a whole. In this sense, the term describes a specific type of sensor network: an amorphous network of spatially distributed sensor platforms (pods) that wirelessly communicate with each other. This amorphous architecture is unique since it is both synchronous and router-free, making it distinct from the more typical TCP/IP-like network schemes. A pod as a physical platform for a sensor can be orbital or terrestrial, fixed or mobile and might even have real time accessibility via the Internet.
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