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Finite automata Finite Markov chain processes Finite-state_automaton > Further reading > Finite Markov chain processes "We may think of a Markov chain as a process that moves successively through a set of states s1, s2, …, sr. … if it is in state si it moves on to the next stop to state sj with probability pij. These probabilities can be exhibited in the form of a transition matrix" (Kemeny (1959), p. 384)Finite Markov-chain processes are also known as subshifts of finite type.
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Video super-resolution Videos Video_super-resolution > Methods > Deep learning based methods > Videos The final result is gained by adding bicubically upsampled input frame NLVSR (the novel video super‐resolution network) aligns frames with target one by temporal‐spatial non‐local operation. To integrate information from aligned frames an attention‐based mechanism is used MSHPFNL also incorporates multi-scale structure and hybrid convolutions to extract wide-range dependencies. To avoid some artifacts like flickering or ghosting, they use generative adversarial training
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3-phase AC Generation and distribution Three_phase_power > Generation and distribution At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a level suitable for transmission in order to minimize losses. After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the voltage is finally transformed to the standard utilization before power is supplied to customers. Most automotive alternators generate three-phase AC and rectify it to DC with a diode bridge.
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Rydberg atoms Summary Rydberg_atom A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or more electrons that have a very high principal quantum number, n. The higher the value of n, the farther the electron is from the nucleus, on average. Rydberg atoms have a number of peculiar properties including an exaggerated response to electric and magnetic fields, long decay periods and electron wavefunctions that approximate, under some conditions, classical orbits of electrons about the nuclei. The core electrons shield the outer electron from the electric field of the nucleus such that, from a distance, the electric potential looks identical to that experienced by the electron in a hydrogen atom.In spite of its shortcomings, the Bohr model of the atom is useful in explaining these properties. Classically, an electron in a circular orbit of radius r, about a hydrogen nucleus of charge +e, obeys Newton's second law: F = m a ⇒ k e 2 r 2 = m v 2 r {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} \Rightarrow {ke^{2} \over r^{2}}={mv^{2} \over r}} where k = 1/(4πε0).
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Anticausal system Summary Anticausal_system In systems theory, an anticausal system is a hypothetical system with outputs and internal states that depend solely on future input values. Some textbooks and published research literature might define an anticausal system to be one that does not depend on past input values, allowing also for the dependence on present input values. An acausal system is a system that is not a causal system, that is one that depends on some future input values and possibly on some input values from the past or present. This is in contrast to a causal system which depends only on current and/or past input values.
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Sweating sickness Signs and symptoms Sweating_sickness > Signs and symptoms A sense of heat, headache, delirium, rapid pulse and intense thirst accompanied the sweat. Palpitation and pain in the heart were frequent symptoms. No skin eruptions were noted by observers.
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Bode Plot An example with zero and pole Bode_plotter > An example with zero and pole The straight-line plots are horizontal up to the pole (zero) location and then drop (rise) at 20 dB/decade. The second Figure 3 does the same for the phase. The phase plots are horizontal up to a frequency factor of ten below the pole (zero) location and then drop (rise) at 45°/decade until the frequency is ten times higher than the pole (zero) location.
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KISS (amateur radio protocol) Summary KISS_(amateur_radio_protocol) KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid) is a protocol for communicating with a serial terminal node controller (TNC) device used for amateur radio. This allows the TNC to combine more features into a single device and standardizes communications. KISS was developed by Mike Cheponis and Phil Karn to allow transmission of AX.25 packet radio frames containing IP packets over an asynchronous serial link, for use with the KA9Q NOS program.
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Monte Carlo algorithm Complexity classes One-sided_error > Complexity classes The complexity class BPP describes decision problems that can be solved by polynomial-time Monte Carlo algorithms with a bounded probability of two-sided errors, and the complexity class RP describes problems that can be solved by a Monte Carlo algorithm with a bounded probability of one-sided error: if the correct answer is false, the algorithm always says so, but it may answer false incorrectly for some instances where the correct answer is true. In contrast, the complexity class ZPP describes problems solvable by polynomial expected time Las Vegas algorithms. ZPP ⊆ RP ⊆ BPP, but it is not known whether any of these complexity classes is distinct from each other; that is, Monte Carlo algorithms may have more computational power than Las Vegas algorithms, but this has not been proven. Another complexity class, PP, describes decision problems with a polynomial-time Monte Carlo algorithm that is more accurate than flipping a coin but where the error probability cannot necessarily be bounded away from 1⁄2.
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Thermo mechanical fatigue Failure mechanisms Thermal_fatigue > Failure mechanisms As the crack propagates, the newly exposed crack surface then oxidizes, weakening the material further and enabling the crack to extend. A third case occurs in OP TMF loading when the stress difference is much greater than the temperature difference.
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Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Measuring and processing the interferogram Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy > Measuring and processing the interferogram Because of aliasing, any energy at shorter wavelengths would be interpreted as coming from longer wavelengths and so has to be minimized optically or electronically. The spectral resolution, i.e. the separation between wavelengths that can be distinguished, is determined by the maximum OPD. The wavelengths used in calculating the Fourier transform are such that an exact number of wavelengths fit into the length of the interferogram from zero to the maximum OPD as this makes their contributions orthogonal.
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Torque multiplier Description Torque_multiplier > Description In epicyclic gear systems, torque is applied to the input gear or ‘sun’ gear. A number of planet gears are arranged around and engaged with this sun gear, and therefore rotate. The outside casing of the multiplier is also engaged with the planet gear teeth, but is prevented from rotating by means of a reaction arm, causing the planet gears to orbit around the sun gear.
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Elementary particle Gluons Fundamental_particles > Standard Model > Fundamental bosons > Gluons Gluons mediate the strong interaction, which join quarks and thereby form hadrons, which are either baryons (three quarks) or mesons (one quark and one antiquark). Protons and neutrons are baryons, joined by gluons to form the atomic nucleus. Like quarks, gluons exhibit color and anticolor – unrelated to the concept of visual color and rather the particles' strong interactions – sometimes in combinations, altogether eight variations of gluons.
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Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon Mechanisms of carcinogenesis Polynuclear_aromatic_hydrocarbons > Human health > Cancer > Mechanisms of carcinogenesis In this pathway, PAH molecules bind to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and activate it as a transcription factor that increases production of the cytochrome enzymes. The activity of these enzymes may at times conversely protect against PAH toxicity, which is not yet well understood.Low molecular weight PAHs, with two to four aromatic hydrocarbon rings, are more potent as co-carcinogens during the promotional stage of cancer. In this stage, an initiated cell (a cell that has retained a carcinogenic mutation in a key gene related to cell replication) is removed from growth-suppressing signals from its neighboring cells and begins to clonally replicate.
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Work (thermodynamics) 1845 Work_(thermodynamics) > History > 1845 In this arrangement of apparatus, it never happens that the process runs in reverse, with the water driving the paddles so as to raise the weight, not even slightly. Mechanical work was done by the apparatus of falling weight, pulley, and paddles, which lay in the surroundings of the water. Their motion scarcely affected the volume of the water. Work that does not change the volume of the water is said to be isochoric; it is irreversible. The energy supplied by the fall of the weight passed into the water as heat.
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Schrödinger–Newton equation Summary Schrödinger–Newton_equations In the latter case it is also referred to in the plural form. The Schrödinger–Newton equation was first considered by Ruffini and Bonazzola in connection with self-gravitating boson stars. In this context of classical general relativity it appears as the non-relativistic limit of either the Klein–Gordon equation or the Dirac equation in a curved space-time together with the Einstein field equations.
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Regular chain Summary Regular_chain In mathematics, and more specifically in computer algebra and elimination theory, a regular chain is a particular kind of triangular set of multivariate polynomials over a field, where a triangular set is a finite sequence of polynomials such that each one contains at least one more indeterminate than the preceding one. The condition that a triangular set must satisfy to be a regular chain is that, for every k, every common zero (in an algebraically closed field) of the k first polynomials may be prolongated to a common zero of the (k + 1)th polynomial. In other words, regular chains allow solving systems of polynomial equations by solving successive univariate equations without considering different cases. Regular chains enhance the notion of Wu's characteristic sets in the sense that they provide a better result with a similar method of computation.
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Bogosort Description of the algorithm Bogosort > Description of the algorithm The following is a description of the randomized algorithm in pseudocode: while not sorted(deck): shuffle(deck) Here is the above pseudocode rewritten in Python 3: This code assumes that data is a simple, mutable, array-like data structure—like Python's built-in list—whose elements can be compared without issue.
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NMR spectra Summary Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy A disadvantage is that a relatively large amount, 2–50 mg, of a purified substance is required, although it may be recovered through a workup. Preferably, the sample should be dissolved in a solvent, because NMR analysis of solids requires a dedicated magic angle spinning machine and may not give equally well-resolved spectra. The timescale of NMR is relatively long, and thus it is not suitable for observing fast phenomena, producing only an averaged spectrum.
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Online payment system Summary Electronic_payment Online merchants must comply with stringent rules stipulated by the credit and debit card issuers (e.g. Visa and Mastercard) in accordance with a bank and financial regulation in the countries where the debit/credit service conducts business.E-commerce payment system often use B2B mode. The security of customer information, business information, and payment information base is a concern during the payment process of transactions under the conventional B2B e-commerce model.For the vast majority of payment systems accessible on the public Internet, baseline authentication (of the financial institution on the receiving end), data integrity, and confidentiality of the electronic information exchanged over the public network involves obtaining a certificate from an authorized certificate authority (CA) who provides public-key infrastructure (PKI). Even with transport layer security (TLS) in place to safeguard the portion of the transaction conducted over public networks—especially with payment systems—the customer-facing website itself must be coded with great care, so as not to leak credentials and expose customers to subsequent identity theft.
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Primitive recursive function History Primitive_recursive_functions > History Recursive definitions had been used more or less formally in mathematics before, but the construction of primitive recursion is traced back to Richard Dedekind's theorem 126 of his Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen? (1888). This work was the first to give a proof that a certain recursive construction defines a unique function.Primitive recursive arithmetic was first proposed by Thoralf Skolem in 1923. The current terminology was coined by Rózsa Péter (1934) after Ackermann had proved in 1928 that the function which today is named after him was not primitive recursive, an event which prompted the need to rename what until then were simply called recursive functions.
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Glossary of computer science P Glossary_of_computer_science > P Python Is an interpreted, high-level and general-purpose programming language. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991, Python's design philosophy emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant whitespace. Its language constructs and object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects.
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Swiss-model Accuracy and reliability of the method Swiss-model > Accuracy and reliability of the method In the past, the accuracy, stability and reliability of the SWISS-MODEL server pipeline was validated by the EVA-CM benchmark project. Currently, the SWISS-MODEL server pipeline is participating in the CAMEO3D (Continuous Automated Model EvaluatiOn) project which continuously evaluates the accuracy and reliability of protein structure prediction services in a fully automated manner.
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Limestone block Formation Cretaceous_limestone > Formation Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity. Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms. The origin of carbonate mud, and the processes by which it is converted to micrite, continue to be a subject of research.
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Catalytic oxidation Catalysts Catalytic_oxidation > Catalysts Important homogeneous catalysts for the oxidation of organic compounds are carboxylates of cobalt, iron, and manganese. To confer good solubility in the organic solvent, these catalysts are often derived from naphthenic acids and ethylhexanoic acid, which are highly lipophilic.
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Viridans streptococci Identification Streptococcus_viridans > Pathology > Identification They differ from pneumococci in that they are optochin resistant and are not bile soluble. However, Richter et al. examined misidentification of VGS submitted to antimicrobial surveillance programs as pneumococci and found that the distinction of S. pneumoniae from the VGS can be difficult, which is not surprising in light of the fact that S. mitis and S. oralis possess >99% sequence homology with S. pneumoniae (47). The authors also found that optochin disk testing did not perform as well as bile solubility testing for identification; in a survey of 1,733 isolates tested, bile solubility testing had higher sensitivity and specificity for differentiation of VGS from pneumococci (47).
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Intravascular immunology Inflammation Intravascular_immunology > Immune Responses > Inflammation For more details on this topic, see Inflammation. Inflammation is an immune response in the body tissue due to stimulation of immune cells by pathogens, DAMPs, or stress. The vasculature provides a means of transportation for alerting and recruiting immune cells.
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Buffer overflow Barriers to exploitation DLL_trampolining > Exploitation > Barriers to exploitation Manipulation of the buffer, which occurs before it is read or executed, may lead to the failure of an exploitation attempt. These manipulations can mitigate the threat of exploitation, but may not make it impossible. Manipulations could include conversion to upper or lower case, removal of metacharacters and filtering out of non-alphanumeric strings.
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Neutrophil extracellular traps NET-associated host damage Neutrophil_extracellular_traps > NET-associated host damage NETs might also have a deleterious effect on the host, because the extracellular exposure of histone complexes could play a role during the development of autoimmune diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). NETs could also play a role in inflammatory diseases, as NETs could be identified in preeclampsia, a pregnancy-related inflammatory disorder in which neutrophils are known to be activated. NETs have also been reported in the colon mucosa of patients with the inflammatory bowel disease ulcerative colitis. NETs have also been associated with the production of IgG antinuclear double stranded DNA antibodies in children infected with P. falciparum malaria.
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Malignant neoplasm Chemotherapy Malignant_cancer > Management > Chemotherapy The first targeted therapies blocked the estrogen receptor molecule, inhibiting the growth of breast cancer. Another common example is the class of Bcr-Abl inhibitors, which are used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Currently, targeted therapies exist for many of the most common cancer types, including bladder cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, kidney cancer, leukemia, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer, and thyroid cancer as well as other cancer types.The efficacy of chemotherapy depends on the type of cancer and the stage.
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Gbcast Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos Gbcast > Bi-simulation equivalence to Paxos Add a process incarnation number to distinguish a rejoining process from one that has been continuously a member of the view. Impose an age-based ordering on the members of the group, designate the oldest member (breaking ties lexicographic) as the leader. Non-leaders issue requests through the leader.
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DNA computing Tic-tac-toe game DNA_computer > Applications, examples, and recent developments > Tic-tac-toe game In 2002, J. Macdonald, D. Stefanović and M. Stojanović created a DNA computer able to play tic-tac-toe against a human player. The calculator consists of nine bins corresponding to the nine squares of the game. Each bin contains a substrate and various combinations of DNA enzymes. The substrate itself is composed of a DNA strand onto which was grafted a fluorescent chemical group at one end, and the other end, a repressor group.
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Assignable variable Scope and extent Scalar_variable > Scope and extent The scope of a variable describes where in a program's text the variable may be used, while the extent (also called lifetime) of a variable describes when in a program's execution the variable has a (meaningful) value. The scope of a variable affects its extent. The scope of a variable is actually a property of the name of the variable, and the extent is a property of the storage location of the variable. These should not be confused with context (also called environment), which is a property of the program, and varies by point in the program's text or execution—see scope: an overview.
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Store energy Hydrogen Gravitational_potential_energy_storage > Methods > Chemical > Power to gas > Hydrogen The element hydrogen can be a form of stored energy. Hydrogen can produce electricity via a hydrogen fuel cell. Green hydrogen, from electrolysis of water, is a more economical means of long-term renewable energy storage in terms of capital expenditures than pumped-storage hydroelectricity or batteries.At penetrations below 20% of the grid demand, renewables do not severely change the economics; but beyond about 20% of the total demand, external storage becomes important.
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Deterministic Turing machine Overview Universal_computation > Overview This is famously demonstrated through lambda calculus. A Turing machine that is able to simulate any other Turing machine is called a universal Turing machine (UTM, or simply a universal machine). Another mathematical formalism, lambda calculus, with a similar "universal" nature was introduced by Alonzo Church.
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Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on other health issues Summary Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_other_health_issues There is also concern that people with strokes and appendicitis are not seeking timely treatment. Shortages of medical supplies have impacted people with various conditions.In several countries there has been a marked reduction of spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, attributable to COVID-19 quarantines, social distancing measures, and recommendations to not engage in casual sex. Similarly, in some places, rates of transmission of influenza and other respiratory viruses significantly decreased during the pandemic.The pandemic has also negatively impacted mental health globally, including increased loneliness resulting from social distancing and depression and domestic violence from lockdowns.
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Evolution of human intelligence Group selection Evolution_of_human_intelligence > Models > Group selection Group-related adaptations and changes are a byproduct of between-group selection as traits or characteristics that prove to be advantageous in relation to another group will become increasingly popular and disseminated within a group. In the end, increasing its overall chance of surviving a competing group. However, this explanation cannot be applied to humans (and other species, predominantly other mammals) that live in stable, established social groupings.
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Mathematical Statistics Probability distributions Mathematical_Statistics > Topics > Probability distributions A probability distribution can either be univariate or multivariate. A univariate distribution gives the probabilities of a single random variable taking on various alternative values; a multivariate distribution (a joint probability distribution) gives the probabilities of a random vector—a set of two or more random variables—taking on various combinations of values. Important and commonly encountered univariate probability distributions include the binomial distribution, the hypergeometric distribution, and the normal distribution. The multivariate normal distribution is a commonly encountered multivariate distribution.
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Iterative for loop Loop counters For_(command) > Loop counters In computer programming, a loop counter is a control variable that controls the iterations of a loop (a computer programming language construct). It is so named because most uses of this construct result in the variable taking on a range of integer values in some orderly sequences (example., starting at 0 and end at 10 in increments of 1) Loop counters change with each iteration of a loop, providing a unique value for each individual iteration. The loop counter is used to decide when the loop should terminate and for the program flow to continue to the next instruction after the loop.
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Shore hardness ASTM D2240 hardness and elastic modulus Shore_durometer > ASTM D2240 hardness and elastic modulus Using linear elastic indentation hardness, a relation between the ASTM D2240 hardness and the Young's modulus for elastomers has been derived by Gent.Gent's relation has the form where E {\displaystyle E} is the Young's modulus in MPa and S {\displaystyle S} is the ASTM D2240 type A hardness. This relation gives a value of E = ∞ {\displaystyle E=\infty } at S = 100 {\displaystyle S=100} but departs from experimental data for S < 40 {\displaystyle S<40} . Mix and Giacomin derive comparable equations for all 12 scales that are standardized by ASTM D2240.Another relation that fits the experimental data slightly better is where erf {\displaystyle \operatorname {erf} } is the error function, and E {\displaystyle E} is in units of Pa. A first-order estimate of the relation between ASTM D2240 type D hardness (for a conical indenter with a 15° half-cone angle) and the elastic modulus of the material being tested is where S D {\displaystyle S_{\text{D}}} is the ASTM D2240 type D hardness, and E {\displaystyle E} is in MPa. Another Neo-Hookean linear relation between the ASTM D2240 hardness value and material elastic modulus has the form where S A {\displaystyle S_{\text{A}}} is the ASTM D2240 type A hardness, S D {\displaystyle S_{\text{D}}} is the ASTM D2240 type D hardness, and E {\displaystyle E} is the Young's modulus in MPa.
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Straight wing High lift Straight_wing > Additional minor features > High lift Flap: a hinged aerodynamic surface, usually on the trailing edge, which is rotated downwards to generate extra lift and drag. Variations include plain, slotted, and split flaps. Some, such as Fowler Flaps, also extend rearwards to increase wing area. The Krueger flap is a leading-edge device. Cuff: an extension to the leading edge which modifies the aerofoil section, typically to improve low-speed characteristics.
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Adaptive histogram equalization Efficient computation by interpolation Adaptive_histogram_equalization > Efficient computation by interpolation (64 tiles in 8 columns and 8 rows is a common choice.). A histogram, CDF and transformation function is then computed for each of the tiles. The transformation functions are appropriate for the tile center pixels (black squares in the left part of the figure).
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Condensed matter system Phase transition Condensed_matter_theory > Theoretical > Phase transition Thus, the changes of a physical system as viewed at different size scales can be investigated systematically. The methods, together with powerful computer simulation, contribute greatly to the explanation of the critical phenomena associated with continuous phase transition. : 11
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RPG programming language Continuing language enhancements RPG_programming_language > History > RPG IV and ILE RPG > Continuing language enhancements The SQL precompiler allows current RPG developers to take advantage of IBM's cost-based SQE (SQL Query Engine). With the traditional F-Spec approach a developer had to identify a specific access path to a data set, now they can implement standard embedded SQL statements directly in the program. When compiled, the SQL precompiler transforms SQL statements into RPG statements which call the database manager programs that ultimately implement the query request.
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Conjugate acid Summary Conjugate_base Because some acids can give multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic. In summary, this can be represented as the following chemical reaction: Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry introduced the Brønsted–Lowry theory, which said that any compound that can give a proton to another compound is an acid, and the compound that receives the proton is a base. A proton is a subatomic particle in the nucleus with a unit positive electrical charge.
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Powerful number Summary Powerful_number A powerful number is a positive integer m such that for every prime number p dividing m, p2 also divides m. Equivalently, a powerful number is the product of a square and a cube, that is, a number m of the form m = a2b3, where a and b are positive integers. Powerful numbers are also known as squareful, square-full, or 2-full. Paul Erdős and George Szekeres studied such numbers and Solomon W. Golomb named such numbers powerful. The following is a list of all powerful numbers between 1 and 1000: 1, 4, 8, 9, 16, 25, 27, 32, 36, 49, 64, 72, 81, 100, 108, 121, 125, 128, 144, 169, 196, 200, 216, 225, 243, 256, 288, 289, 324, 343, 361, 392, 400, 432, 441, 484, 500, 512, 529, 576, 625, 648, 675, 676, 729, 784, 800, 841, 864, 900, 961, 968, 972, 1000, ... (sequence A001694 in the OEIS).
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Workload Theories Workload > Theory and modelling > Theories Wickens' (1984) multiple resource theory (MRT) model is illustrated in figure 1: Wickens' MRT proposes that the human operator does not have one single information processing source that can be tapped but several different pools of resources that can be tapped simultaneously. Each box in figure 1 indicates one cognitive resource. Depending on the nature of the task, these resources may have to process information sequentially if the different tasks require the same pool of resources or can be processed in parallel if the task requires different resources. Wickens' theory views performance decrement as a shortage of these different resources and describes humans as having limited capability for processing information.
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Coronary thrombosis Diagnosis Coronary_thrombosis > Diagnosis Clinical signs of myocardial infarction (heart attack) or angina if coronary thrombus is symptomatic: Imaging modalities used to evaluate the presence of coronary thrombi: angioscopy endocoronary ultrasound coronary angiography magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)Postmortem examiners may look for Lines of Zahn, to determine whether blood clotted in the heart vessels before or after death.
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Outline of computer programming Popular languages Outline_of_computer_programming > Programming languages > Popular languages The top 20 most popular programming languages as of December 2022: Python C C++ Java C# Visual Basic .NET JavaScript SQL Assembly language PHP R Go Classic Visual Basic MATLAB Swift Delphi/Object Pascal Ruby Perl Objective-C Rust
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Reduced action Action (functional) Reduced_action > Action in classical physics > Action (functional) Most commonly, the term is used for a functional S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} which takes a function of time and (for fields) space as input and returns a scalar. In classical mechanics, the input function is the evolution q(t) of the system between two times t1 and t2, where q represents the generalized coordinates. The action S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} is defined as the integral of the Lagrangian L for an input evolution between the two times: where the endpoints of the evolution are fixed and defined as q 1 = q ( t 1 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{1}=\mathbf {q} (t_{1})} and q 2 = q ( t 2 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {q} _{2}=\mathbf {q} (t_{2})} . According to Hamilton's principle, the true evolution qtrue(t) is an evolution for which the action S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} is stationary (a minimum, maximum, or a saddle point). This principle results in the equations of motion in Lagrangian mechanics.
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Polycistronic operon Summary Polycistronic_operon For example, T7 phages have two operons. The first operon codes for various products, including a special T7 RNA polymerase which can bind to and transcribe the second operon. The second operon includes a lysis gene meant to cause the host cell to burst.
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Timoshenko–Ehrenfest beam theory Summary Timoshenko–Ehrenfest_beam_theory The Timoshenko–Ehrenfest beam theory was developed by Stephen Timoshenko and Paul Ehrenfest early in the 20th century. The model takes into account shear deformation and rotational bending effects, making it suitable for describing the behaviour of thick beams, sandwich composite beams, or beams subject to high-frequency excitation when the wavelength approaches the thickness of the beam. The resulting equation is of 4th order but, unlike Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, there is also a second-order partial derivative present. Physically, taking into account the added mechanisms of deformation effectively lowers the stiffness of the beam, while the result is a larger deflection under a static load and lower predicted eigenfrequencies for a given set of boundary conditions. The latter effect is more noticeable for higher frequencies as the wavelength becomes shorter (in principle comparable to the height of the beam or shorter), and thus the distance between opposing shear forces decreases. Rotary inertia effect was introduced by Bresse and Rayleigh.If the shear modulus of the beam material approaches infinity—and thus the beam becomes rigid in shear—and if rotational inertia effects are neglected, Timoshenko beam theory converges towards ordinary beam theory.
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2008 Sichuan earthquake Intensities and damage area 2008_Sichuan_earthquake > Geology > Intensities and damage area The area with liedu X (comparable to X on EMS, "destructive" and X on MM, "disastrous") spans 3,144 km2 (1,214 sq mi). The area affected by earthquakes exceeding liedu VI totals 440,442 km2 (170,056 sq mi), occupying an oval 936 km (582 mi) long and 596 km (370 mi) wide, spanning three provinces and one autonomous region.QLARM (Quake Loss Alarms for Response and Mitigation) issues near-real-time estimates of fatalities and number of injured for earthquakes worldwide. Recent alerts can be found on the web page of the International Institute for Earth Simulation Foundation.
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Data vault modeling Reference tables Data_vault_modeling > Basic notions > Reference tables Reference tables are a normal part of a healthy data vault model. They are there to prevent redundant storage of simple reference data that is referenced a lot. More formally, Dan Linstedt defines reference data as follows: Any information deemed necessary to resolve descriptions from codes, or to translate keys in to (sic) a consistent manner. Many of these fields are "descriptive" in nature and describe a specific state of the other more important information.
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Cipher Summary Cipher_machine If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality.
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Neratinib Interactions Neratinib > Interactions People taking neratinib should not also take gastric acid reducing agents including proton pump inhibitors and H2-receptor antagonists; antacids may be used three hours before of after taking it.Drugs that inhibit CYP3A4 increase the activity of neratinib and can make adverse effects worse, and drugs that induce CYP3A4 make neratinib less active and can reduce its efficacy. Neratinib also inhibits p-glycoprotein and effectively raises the dose of drugs like digoxin that depend on it for elimination.
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Richard Beals (mathematician) Works Richard_Beals_(mathematician) > Works Advanced mathematical analysis; periodic functions and distributions, complex analysis, Laplace transform and applications, Springer Verlag 1973; 2013 pbk edition with M. Salah Baouendi and Linda Preiss Rothschild (eds.) Microlocal Analysis, American Mathematical Society 1984 with Roderick Wong: Special functions: a graduate text, Cambridge University Press 2010Beals, Richard; Wong, Roderick (2016). Special Functions and Orthogonal Polynomials.
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Ununennium Atomic and physical Ununennium > Predicted properties > Atomic and physical Computational chemists understand the split as a change of the second (azimuthal) quantum number ℓ from 1 to 1⁄2 and 3⁄2 for the more-stabilized and less-stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively. Thus, the outer 8s electron of ununennium is stabilized and becomes harder to remove than expected, while the 7p3/2 electrons are correspondingly destabilized, perhaps allowing them to participate in chemical reactions. This stabilization of the outermost s-orbital (already significant in francium) is the key factor affecting ununennium's chemistry, and causes all the trends for atomic and molecular properties of alkali metals to reverse direction after caesium.
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Closed formula Example: roots of polynomials Expressible_in_closed_form > Example: roots of polynomials In higher degrees, Abel–Ruffini theorem states that there are equations whose solutions cannot be expressed in radicals, and, thus, have no closed forms. The simplest example is the equation x 5 − x + 1. {\displaystyle x^{5}-x+1.} Galois theory provides an algorithmic method for deciding whether a particular polynomial equation can be solved in radicals.
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Inclusion (disability rights) Approaches Inclusion_(disability_rights) > Approaches In short, it is a process that is centered on integrating formerly marginalized individuals into "mainstream" society. This is accomplished by making "the needs and experiences of persons with disabilities an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that persons with disabilities benefit equally and so that inequality is not perpetuated." In educational settings, it is the practice of placing students with special education services in a general education classroom during specific time periods based on their skills to enable a person with a disability to take part in a "mainstream" environment without added difficulty by creating inclusive settings. For example, education initiatives such as IDEA or No Child Left Behind promote inclusive schooling or mainstreaming for children with disabilities, such as autism, so that they can participate in the community at large.
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Generalized cohomology Singular cohomology Cochain_(algebraic_topology) > Singular cohomology This product makes the direct sum into a graded ring, called the cohomology ring of X. It is graded-commutative in the sense that: For any continuous map f: X → Y , {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y,} the pullback f ∗: H ∗ ( Y , R ) → H ∗ ( X , R ) {\displaystyle f^{*}:H^{*}(Y,R)\to H^{*}(X,R)} is a homomorphism of graded R-algebras. It follows that if two spaces are homotopy equivalent, then their cohomology rings are isomorphic.
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Triple-line endometrium Structure Triple-line_endometrium > Structure The basal layer, adjacent to the myometrium and below the functional layer, is not shed at any time during the menstrual cycle. It contains stem cells that regenerate the functional layer, which develops on top of it.In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation. It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing microscopic differences at each phase—for example in the ovarian cycle:
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Generalized singular-value decomposition Applications Generalized_singular-value_decomposition > Applications The GSVD, formulated as a comparative spectral decomposition, has been successfully applied to signal processing and data science, e.g., in genomic signal processing.These applications inspired several additional comparative spectral decompositions, i.e., the higher-order GSVD (HO GSVD) and the tensor GSVD. It has equally found applications to estimate the spectral decompositions of linear operators when the eigenfunctions are parameterized with a linear model, i.e. a reproducing kernel Hilbert space.
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Ring (algebra) Notes on the definition Unit_ring > Definition > Notes on the definition In the terminology of this article, a ring is defined to have a multiplicative identity, while a structure with the same axiomatic definition but without the requirement for a multiplicative identity is instead called a rng (IPA: ). For example, the set of even integers with the usual + and ⋅ is a rng, but not a ring. As explained in § History below, many authors apply the term "ring" without requiring a multiplicative identity. The multiplication symbol ⋅ is usually omitted; for example, xy means x · y. Although ring addition is commutative, ring multiplication is not required to be commutative: ab need not necessarily equal ba.
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Symmetry in quantum mechanics Overview of Lie group theory Symmetries_in_quantum_mechanics > Symmetry transformations on the wavefunction in non-relativistic quantum mechanics > Overview of Lie group theory the group elements, g, in G are functions of the parameters: and all parameters set to zero returns the identity element of the group: Group elements are often matrices which act on vectors, or transformations acting on functions. The generators of the group are the partial derivatives of the group elements with respect to the group parameters with the result evaluated when the parameter is set to zero: In the language of manifolds, the generators are the elements of the tangent space to G at the identity. The generators are also known as infinitesimal group elements or as the elements of the Lie algebra of G.
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Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration Further references Centrifugal_mechanism_of_acceleration > Further references S2CID 17264617. Osmanov, Z.; Dalakishvili, G.; Machabeli, G. (2008).
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Mitochondrial biogenesis Aging Mitochondrial_biogenesis > Aging The capacity for mitochondrial biogenesis has been shown to decrease with age, and such decreased mitochondrial function has been associated with diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Aging and disease can induce changes in the expression levels of proteins involved in the fission and fusion mechanisms of mitochondria, thus creating dysfunctional mitochondria. One hypothesis for the detrimental results of aging is associated with the loss of telomeres, the end segments of chromosomes that protect genetic information from degradation. Telomere loss has also been associated with decreased mitochondrial function.
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Corpuscular theory of light Isaac Newton Corpuscular_theory_of_light > Isaac Newton Newton's corpuscular theory was an elaboration of his view of reality as interactions of material points through forces. Note Albert Einstein's description of Newton's conception of physical reality: physical reality is characterised by concepts of space, time, the material point and force (interaction between material points). Physical events are to be thought of as movements according to the law of material points in space.
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Bernhard Riemann Real analysis Bernhard_Riemann > Real analysis In the field of real analysis, he discovered the Riemann integral in his habilitation. Among other things, he showed that every piecewise continuous function is integrable. Similarly, the Stieltjes integral goes back to the Göttinger mathematician, and so they are named together the Riemann–Stieltjes integral.
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Semiconductor electronics Development of the transistor Semiconductor_device > History of semiconductor device development > Development of the transistor In one instance a non-working system started working when placed in water. Ohl and Brattain eventually developed a new branch of quantum mechanics, which became known as surface physics, to account for the behavior. The electrons in any one piece of the crystal would migrate about due to nearby charges.
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Glossary of systems theory D Glossary_of_systems_theory > D Development: The process of liberating a system from its previous set of limiting conditions. It is an amelioration of conditions or quality. Dissipative structure: A term invented by Ilya Prigogine to describe complex chemical structures undergoing the process of chemical change through the dissipation of entropy into their environment, and the corresponding importation of "negentropy" from their environment. Also known as syntropic systems.
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Organizational intelligence Control Organizational_intelligence > Information organization and culture > Control They make plans and maintain a process. This organization has stability, predictability and authority. For example, an organization with control culture can be monarchy.
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Stress force Cauchy tensor Stress_path > Cauchy tensor Combined stresses cannot be described by a single vector. Even if the material is stressed in the same way throughout the volume of the body, the stress across any imaginary surface will depend on the orientation of that surface, in a non-trivial way. Cauchy observed that the stress vector T {\displaystyle T} across a surface will always be a linear function of the surface's normal vector n {\displaystyle n} , the unit-length vector that is perpendicular to it. That is, T = σ ( n ) {\displaystyle T={\boldsymbol {\sigma }}(n)} , where the function σ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}} satisfies for any vectors u , v {\displaystyle u,v} and any real numbers α , β {\displaystyle \alpha ,\beta } .
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Pressure-driven flow Summary Pressure-driven_flow Pressure-driven flow is a method to displace liquids in a capillary or microfluidic channel with pressure. The pressure is typically generated pneumatically by compressed air or other gases (nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc) or by electrical and magnetical fields or gravitation.
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Gödel constructible universe Summary Gödel's_constructible_universe In this paper, he proved that the constructible universe is an inner model of ZF set theory (that is, of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice excluded), and also that the axiom of choice and the generalized continuum hypothesis are true in the constructible universe. This shows that both propositions are consistent with the basic axioms of set theory, if ZF itself is consistent. Since many other theorems only hold in systems in which one or both of the propositions is true, their consistency is an important result.
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Modular lattice Modular pairs and related notions Modular_lattice > Modular pairs and related notions Several less important notions are also closely related. A lattice is cross-symmetric if for every modular pair (a, b) the pair (b, a) is dually modular. Cross-symmetry implies M-symmetry but not M*-symmetry. Therefore, cross-symmetry is not equivalent to dual cross-symmetry. A lattice with a least element 0 is ⊥-symmetric if for every modular pair (a, b) satisfying a ∧ b = 0 the pair (b, a) is also modular.
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Linus Pauling Journal articles Linus_Pauling > Publications > Journal articles IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society.
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Terminal differentiation Mammalian cell types Terminal_differentiation > Mammalian cell types They are best described in the context of normal human development.Development begins when a sperm fertilizes an egg and creates a single cell that has the potential to form an entire organism. In the first hours after fertilization, this cell divides into identical cells. In humans, approximately four days after fertilization and after several cycles of cell division, these cells begin to specialize, forming a hollow sphere of cells, called a blastocyst.
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Cell respiration Aerobic respiration Cell_respiration > Aerobic respiration The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen and protons (hydrogen) as the "terminal electron acceptors". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. The energy released is used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane.
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Interjection Meaning and use Interjection > Meaning and use In contrast to typical words and sentences, the function of most interjections is related to an expression of feeling, rather than representing some idea or concept. Generally, interjections can be classified into three types of meaning: volitive, emotive, or cognitive. Volitive interjections function as imperative or directive expressions; requesting or demanding something from the addressee (e.g., Shh! = "Be quiet!
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STO-nG basis sets Use of STO-nG basis sets STO-nG_basis_sets > Use of STO-nG basis sets The most widely used basis set of this group is STO-3G, which is used for large systems and for preliminary geometry determinations. This basis set is available for all atoms from hydrogen up to xenon.
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Hilbert Space Orthonormal bases Hilbert_Space > Orthonormal bases More precisely, an orthonormal basis is a Hamel basis if and only if the Hilbert space is a finite-dimensional vector space. Completeness of an orthonormal system of vectors of a Hilbert space can be equivalently restated as: for every v ∈ H, if ⟨v, ek⟩ = 0 for all k ∈ B, then v = 0.This is related to the fact that the only vector orthogonal to a dense linear subspace is the zero vector, for if S is any orthonormal set and v is orthogonal to S, then v is orthogonal to the closure of the linear span of S, which is the whole space. Examples of orthonormal bases include: the set {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} forms an orthonormal basis of R3 with the dot product; the sequence { fn | n ∈ Z} with fn(x) = exp(2πinx) forms an orthonormal basis of the complex space L2();In the infinite-dimensional case, an orthonormal basis will not be a basis in the sense of linear algebra; to distinguish the two, the latter basis is also called a Hamel basis. That the span of the basis vectors is dense implies that every vector in the space can be written as the sum of an infinite series, and the orthogonality implies that this decomposition is unique.
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Policy iteration Definition Markov_Decision_Processes > Continuous-time Markov decision process > Definition In order to discuss the continuous-time Markov decision process, we introduce two sets of notations: If the state space and action space are finite, S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}: State space; A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}}: Action space; q ( i ∣ j , a ) {\displaystyle q(i\mid j,a)}: S × A → △ S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\times {\mathcal {A}}\rightarrow \triangle {\mathcal {S}}} , transition rate function; R ( i , a ) {\displaystyle R(i,a)}: S × A → R {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}\times {\mathcal {A}}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} } , a reward function.If the state space and action space are continuous, X {\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}}: state space; U {\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}}: space of possible control; f ( x , u ) {\displaystyle f(x,u)}: X × U → △ X {\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}\times {\mathcal {U}}\rightarrow \triangle {\mathcal {X}}} , a transition rate function; r ( x , u ) {\displaystyle r(x,u)}: X × U → R {\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}\times {\mathcal {U}}\rightarrow \mathbb {R} } , a reward rate function such that r ( x ( t ) , u ( t ) ) d t = d R ( x ( t ) , u ( t ) ) {\displaystyle r(x(t),u(t))\,dt=dR(x(t),u(t))} , where R ( x , u ) {\displaystyle R(x,u)} is the reward function we discussed in previous case.
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Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania Summary Chronic_paroxysmal_hemicrania Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania (CPH) is a severe debilitating unilateral headache usually affecting the area around the eye. It normally consists of multiple severe, yet short, headache attacks affecting only one side of the cranium. It is more commonly diagnosed in women than in men, but, unlike a migraine, has no neurological symptoms associated with it.
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Water castle General Water_castle > References > General A History of Garden Art. Cambridge: CUP. Kaufmann, J. E. and H.W.
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Number of genes Summary Genetic_transmission (Some viruses have an RNA genome so the genes are made of RNA that may function directly without being copied into RNA. This is an exception to the strict definition of a gene described above.)
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Glossary of tensor theory Tensor field theory Glossary_of_tensor_theory > Tensor field theory Jacobian matrixTensor fieldTensor densityLie derivativeTensor derivativeDifferential geometry
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Foundations of geometry Properties of axiomatic systems Foundations_of_geometry > Axiomatic systems > Properties of axiomatic systems To prove that an axiom is independent of the remaining axioms of the system, it is sufficient to find two models of the remaining axioms, for which the axiom is a true statement in one and a false statement in the other. Independence is not always a desirable property from a pedagogical viewpoint. An axiomatic system is called complete if every statement expressible in the terms of the system is either provable or has a provable negation.
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Mechanics of planar particle motion Change of origin Mechanics_of_planar_particle_motion > Fictitious forces in polar coordinates > Polar coordinates in an inertial frame of reference > Change of origin In frame S the radial motion is constant and there is no angular motion. Hence, the acceleration is: and each term individually is zero because θ ˙ = 0 , θ ¨ = 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {\theta }}=0,\ {\ddot {\theta }}=0} and r ¨ = 0 {\displaystyle {\ddot {r}}=0\ } . There is no force, including no r θ ˙ 2 {\displaystyle r{\dot {\theta }}^{2}} "force" in frame S. In frame S' , however, we have: In this case the azimuthal term is zero, being the rate of change of angular momentum.
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Bimetric gravity Summary Bimetric_gravity Bimetric gravity or bigravity refers to two different classes of theories. The first class of theories relies on modified mathematical theories of gravity (or gravitation) in which two metric tensors are used instead of one. The second metric may be introduced at high energies, with the implication that the speed of light could be energy-dependent, enabling models with a variable speed of light. If the two metrics are dynamical and interact, a first possibility implies two graviton modes, one massive and one massless; such bimetric theories are then closely related to massive gravity.
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Forward algorithm Applications of the algorithm Forward_algorithm > Applications of the algorithm This helps us to compute a fixed state path. The process is also called posterior decoding. The algorithm computes probability much more efficiently than the naive approach, which very quickly ends up in a combinatorial explosion.
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Premature aging Werner syndrome Premature_aging > Defects in DNA repair > RecQ-associated PS > Werner syndrome This leads to a reduction in DNA repair. Furthermore, mutated proteins are more likely to be degraded than normal WRNp. Apart from causing defects in DNA repair, its aberrant association with p53 down-regulates the function of p53, leading to a reduction in p53-dependent apoptosis and increase the survival of these dysfunctional cells.Cells of affected individuals have reduced lifespan in culture, more chromosome breaks and translocations and extensive deletions. These DNA damages, chromosome aberrations and mutations may in turn cause more RecQ-independent aging phenotypes.
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KMS driver History Graphics_Execution_Manager > History Such code had to be executed using x86 real mode, which prevented it from being invoked by a kernel running in protected mode. The situation changed when Luc Verhaegen and other developers found a way to do the mode-setting natively instead of BIOS-based, showing that it was possible to do it using normal kernel code and laying the groundwork for what would become Kernel Mode Setting. In May 2007 Jesse Barnes (Intel) published the first proposal for a drm-modesetting API and a working native implementation of mode-setting for Intel GPUs within the i915 DRM driver.
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Factoring a quadratic expression Geometric solution Quadratic_equations > Advanced topics > Alternative methods of root calculation > Geometric solution The quadratic equation may be solved geometrically in a number of ways. One way is via Lill's method. The three coefficients a, b, c are drawn with right angles between them as in SA, AB, and BC in Figure 6. A circle is drawn with the start and end point SC as a diameter.
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Projection filters Applications Projection_filters > Applications Jones and Soatto (2011) mention projection filters as possible algorithms for on-line estimation in visual-inertial navigation, mapping and localization, while again on navigation Azimi-Sadjadi and Krishnaprasad (2005) use projection filters algorithms. The projection filter has been also considered for applications in ocean dynamics by Lermusiaux 2006. Kutschireiter, Rast, and Drugowitsch (2022) refer to the projection filter in the context of continuous time circular filtering. For quantum systems applications, see for example van Handel and Mabuchi (2005), who applied the quantum projection filter to quantum optics, studying a quantum model of optical phase bistability of a strongly coupled two-level atom in an optical cavity.
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Directly Observed Therapy, Shortcourse Treatment adherence strategies Directly_Observed_Therapy,_Shortcourse > Non-compliance > Treatment adherence strategies Public health and private sector practitioners can promote TB treatment adherence by allowing patients to be active partners in making their own treatment decisions; improving patient's knowledge and understanding of tuberculosis disease, treatment and potential spread; and by discussing expected interim and long-term outcomes with patients. CDC also recommends use of incentives and enablers. Incentives are monetary rewards for a healthy behavior (e.g.transport or food vouchers), while enablers function to remove economic burdens impeding healthcare access (e.g. grouping clinic visits, providing after hours clinic visits, or home visits).
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Intuitionistic set theory Induction without infinite sets Intuitionistic_set_theory > Subtheories of ZF > Arithmetic > Induction without infinite sets This is the framework where these principles are most well understood. The theories may be defined via bounded formulations or variations on induction schemas that may furthermore only allow for predicates of restricted complexity.
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Graphology Graphologists Graphology > See also > Graphologists Saman Aslam Camillo Baldi Ludwig Klages Max Pulver Robert Saudek Rafael Schermann Léopold Szondi Sheila Lowe
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Configuration state function From configurations to configuration state functions Configuration_state_function > From configurations to configuration state functions We can think of the set of spin orbitals as a set of boxes each of size one; let's call this M {\displaystyle M} boxes. We distribute the N {\displaystyle N} electrons among the M {\displaystyle M} boxes in all possible ways. Each assignment corresponds to one Slater determinant, D i {\displaystyle D_{i}} . There can be great number of these, particularly when N << M {\displaystyle N<
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Bacterial ribosomes Structure Bacterial_ribosomes > Structure The ribosome is a complex cellular machine. It is largely made up of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins (the exact number varies slightly between species). The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two distinct ribosomal pieces of different sizes, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosome. Ribosomes consist of two subunits that fit together (Figure 2) and work as one to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis (Figure 1). Because they are formed from two subunits of non-equal size, they are slightly longer in the axis than in diameter.
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