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Loop 360 History Loop_360 > History Loop 360 was designated on March 29, 1962, on its current route from US 290 to US 183. On September 30, 1969, Loop 360 was extended north to Loop 1. On April 25, 1996, the section from US 183 to Loop 1 was cancelled and removed from the state highway system. The south section of Loop 360 from US 290 to RM 2244 was opened on February 11, 1970.
Strategic resource Ecological economics Unit_of_production > Historical schools and factors > Ecological economics In the process, however, electricity is converted to heat, a less useful form of energy). Like matter, energy can neither be created nor destroyed and thus there is also an upper limit to the total amount usable energy. Design intelligence — a factor that incorporates the knowledge, creativity, and efficiency of how goods are created - the better the design, the more efficient and beneficial the creation is.
Genetic entropy Beneficial mutation Mutation_load > Causes > Deleterious mutation > Beneficial mutation In sufficiently genetically loaded populations, new beneficial mutations create fitter genotypes than those previously present in the population. When load is calculated as the difference between the fittest genotype present and the average, this creates a substitutional load. The difference between the theoretical maximum (which may not actually be present) and the average is known as the "lag load". Motoo Kimura's original argument for the neutral theory of molecular evolution was that if most differences between species were adaptive, this would exceed the speed limit to adaptation set by the substitutional load. However, Kimura's argument confused the lag load with the substitutional load, using the former when it is the latter that in fact sets the maximal rate of evolution by natural selection.More recent "travelling wave" models of rapid adaptation derive a term called the "lead" that is equivalent to the substitutional load, and find that it is a critical determinant of the rate of adaptive evolution.
Direct multiple shooting method Summary Direct_multiple_shooting_method In the area of mathematics known as numerical ordinary differential equations, the direct multiple shooting method is a numerical method for the solution of boundary value problems. The method divides the interval over which a solution is sought into several smaller intervals, solves an initial value problem in each of the smaller intervals, and imposes additional matching conditions to form a solution on the whole interval. The method constitutes a significant improvement in distribution of nonlinearity and numerical stability over single shooting methods.
Electron magnetic dipole moment Orbital magnetic dipole moment Electron_spin > Magnetic moment of an electron > Orbital magnetic dipole moment The revolution of an electron around an axis through another object, such as the nucleus, gives rise to the orbital magnetic dipole moment. Suppose that the angular momentum for the orbital motion is L. Then the orbital magnetic dipole moment is Here gL is the electron orbital g-factor and μB is the Bohr magneton. The value of gL is exactly equal to one, by a quantum-mechanical argument analogous to the derivation of the classical gyromagnetic ratio.
Stoichiometric ratio Stoichiometry matrix Mass_ratio_(mixtures) > Stoichiometry matrix In complex reactions, stoichiometries are often represented in a more compact form called the stoichiometry matrix. The stoichiometry matrix is denoted by the symbol N.If a reaction network has n reactions and m participating molecular species, then the stoichiometry matrix will have correspondingly m rows and n columns. For example, consider the system of reactions shown below: S1 → S2 5 S3 + S2 → 4 S3 + 2 S2 S3 → S4 S4 → S5This system comprises four reactions and five different molecular species. The stoichiometry matrix for this system can be written as: N = {\displaystyle \mathbf {N} ={\begin{bmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\1&1&0&0\\0&-1&-1&0\\0&0&1&-1\\0&0&0&1\\\end{bmatrix}}} where the rows correspond to S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5, respectively.
Galactic nucleus Observational characteristics Host_galaxy > Observational characteristics In some radio-quiet AGN there is an excess of soft X-ray emission in addition to the power-law component. The origin of the soft X-rays is not clear at present. X-ray line emission. This is a result of illumination of cold heavy elements by the X-ray continuum that causes fluorescence of X-ray emission lines, the best-known of which is the iron feature around 6.4 keV. This line may be narrow or broad: relativistically broadened iron lines can be used to study the dynamics of the accretion disc very close to the nucleus and therefore the nature of the central black hole.
Electronic Materials Early transistors Electronic_Materials > Early history of semiconductors > Early transistors A slice cut from the specimen at the p–n boundary developed a voltage when exposed to light. The first working transistor was a point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947. Shockley had earlier theorized a field-effect amplifier made from germanium and silicon, but he failed to build such a working device, before eventually using germanium to invent the point-contact transistor.
Arbitrary constant of integration Necessity Constant_of_integration > Necessity This restriction can be rephrased in the language of differential equations. Finding an indefinite integral of a function f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} is the same as solving the differential equation d y d x = f ( x ) .
Spherical harmonics History Tesseral_harmonics > History The term "Laplace's coefficients" was employed by William Whewell to describe the particular system of solutions introduced along these lines, whereas others reserved this designation for the zonal spherical harmonics that had properly been introduced by Laplace and Legendre. The 19th century development of Fourier series made possible the solution of a wide variety of physical problems in rectangular domains, such as the solution of the heat equation and wave equation. This could be achieved by expansion of functions in series of trigonometric functions.
Unit Cell Summary Conventional_cell A lattice can be characterized by the geometry of its unit cell, which is a section of the tiling (a parallelogram or parallelepiped) that generates the whole tiling using only translations. There are two special cases of the unit cell: the primitive cell and the conventional cell. The primitive cell is a unit cell corresponding to a single lattice point, it is the smallest possible unit cell.
Fusion tree Fusion hashing Fusion_tree > Fusion hashing An application of fusion trees to hash tables was given by Willard, who describes a data structure for hashing in which an outer-level hash table with hash chaining is combined with a fusion tree representing each hash chain. In hash chaining, in a hash table with a constant load factor, the average size of a chain is constant, but additionally with high probability all chains have size O(log n / log log n), where n is the number of hashed items. This chain size is small enough that a fusion tree can handle searches and updates within it in constant time per operation. Therefore, the time for all operations in the data structure is constant with high probability. More precisely, with this data structure, for every inverse-quasipolynomial probability p(n) = exp((log n)O(1)), there is a constant C such that the probability that there exists an operation that exceeds time C is at most p(n).
Mario Molina Work on CFCs Mario_Molina > Work on CFCs ClO· + O3 → Cl· + 2O2The radical Cl atom is not consumed by this pair of reactions, so it remains in the system.Molina and Rowland predicted that chlorine atoms, produced by this decomposition of CFCs, would act as an ongoing catalyst for the destruction of ozone. When they calculated the amounts involved, they realized that CFCs could start a seriously damaging chain reaction to the ozone layer in the stratosphere.In 1974, as a postdoctoral researcher at University of California, Irvine, Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland co-authored a paper in the journal Nature highlighting the threat of CFCs to the ozone layer in the stratosphere. At the time, CFCs were widely used as chemical propellants and refrigerants.
Skeleton (computer programming) Task-parallel Skeleton_(computer_programming) > Parallel programming > Task-parallel This follows the order in which the programmer has written their code. This is made parallel by computing varied tasks on a set of data, typically input, simultaneously to improve performance and speed. Each simultaneous computation is known as a stage.
Reinforcement Learning Function approximation methods Reward_function > Algorithms for control learning > Value function > Function approximation methods The algorithms then adjust the weights, instead of adjusting the values associated with the individual state-action pairs. Methods based on ideas from nonparametric statistics (which can be seen to construct their own features) have been explored. Value iteration can also be used as a starting point, giving rise to the Q-learning algorithm and its many variants. Including Deep Q-learning methods when a neural network is used to represent Q, with various applications in stochastic search problems.The problem with using action-values is that they may need highly precise estimates of the competing action values that can be hard to obtain when the returns are noisy, though this problem is mitigated to some extent by temporal difference methods. Using the so-called compatible function approximation method compromises generality and efficiency.
Kilopondmetre Summary Kilopondmetre The Kilopondmetre is an obsolete unit of torque and energy in the gravitational metric system. It is abbreviated kp·m or m·kp, older publications often use mkg and kgm as well. Torque is a product of the length of a lever and the force applied to the lever. One kilopond is the force applied to one kilogram due to gravitational acceleration; this force is exactly 9.80665 N. This means 1 kp·m = 9.80665 kg·m/s2 = 9.80665 N·m. == References ==
Oceanic freshwater flux Influence on thermohaline circulation (THC) Oceanic_freshwater_flux > Influence on thermohaline circulation (THC) This leads to the formation of cold deep water in the North Atlantic. This cold deep water flows back to the south a depth of 2–3 km until it joins the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.The described differences in net precipitation-evaporation patterns between the Atlantic and the Pacific, with the Atlantic being net evaporative and the Pacific experiencing net precipitation, leads to a distinct difference in salinity contrast, with the Atlantic being more saline than the Pacific. This freshwater flux driven salinity contrast is the main reason that the Atlantic supports a meridional overturning circulation and the Pacific does not.
System Dynamics Overview Systems_dynamics > Overview This model forecast that exponential growth of population and capital, with finite resource sources and sinks and perception delays, would lead to economic collapse during the 21st century under a wide variety of growth scenarios. System dynamics is an aspect of systems theory as a method to understand the dynamic behavior of complex systems. The basis of the method is the recognition that the structure of any system, the many circular, interlocking, sometimes time-delayed relationships among its components, is often just as important in determining its behavior as the individual components themselves. Examples are chaos theory and social dynamics. It is also claimed that because there are often properties-of-the-whole which cannot be found among the properties-of-the-elements, in some cases the behavior of the whole cannot be explained in terms of the behavior of the parts.
Osgood's lemma Summary Osgood's_lemma If we assume that a function f: R n → R {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {R} } is globally continuous and separately differentiable on each variable (all partial derivatives exist everywhere), it is not true that f {\displaystyle f} will necessarily be differentiable. A counterexample in two dimensions is given by f ( x , y ) = 2 x 2 y + y 3 x 2 + y 2 . {\displaystyle f(x,y)={\dfrac {2x^{2}y+y^{3}}{x^{2}+y^{2}}}.} If in addition we define f ( 0 , 0 ) = 0 {\displaystyle f(0,0)=0} , this function is everywhere continuous and has well-defined partial derivatives in x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} everywhere (also at the origin), but is not differentiable at the origin.
Solvent effects Substitution reactions Solvent_effect > Reaction examples > Substitution reactions The following table shows the relative solvolysis rates of tert-butyl chloride with acetic acid (CH3CO2H), methanol (CH3OH), and water (H2O). The case for SN2 reactions is quite different, as the lack of solvation on the nucleophile increases the rate of an SN2 reaction. In either case (SN1 or SN2), the ability to either stabilize the transition state (SN1) or destabilize the reactant starting material (SN2) acts to decrease the ΔG‡activation and thereby increase the rate of the reaction.
École Nationale des Chartes Master's École_Nationale_des_Chartes > Training > Master's In 2006 the École des Chartes introduced a Master's program in Digital Technologies Applied to History and has since then trained approximately 20 students per year. In the first year, all students take the same basic modules plus three options (archiving, history of books and media, and history of art). The first year of the Master's is a continuance of the École des Chartes undergraduate training. In the second year, students follow more specialized training in the field of IT applied to webcasting.
Graph Theory Visual: Graph drawing Algorithmic_graph_theory > Representation > Visual: Graph drawing Graph drawing also can be said to encompass problems that deal with the crossing number and its various generalizations. The crossing number of a graph is the minimum number of intersections between edges that a drawing of the graph in the plane must contain. For a planar graph, the crossing number is zero by definition. Drawings on surfaces other than the plane are also studied. There are other techniques to visualize a graph away from vertices and edges, including circle packings, intersection graph, and other visualizations of the adjacency matrix.
Bland–Altman plot Application Bland–Altman_plot > Application One primary application of the Bland–Altman plot is to compare two clinical measurements each of which produced some error in their measures. It can also be used to compare a new measurement technique or method with a gold standard, as even a gold standard does not—and should not—imply it to be without error. See Analyse-it, MedCalc, NCSS, GraphPad Prism, R, or StatsDirect for software providing Bland–Altman plots.
Premature ventricular contraction Molecular basis Premature_ventricular_contraction > Pathophysiology > Molecular basis Other sympathomimetic molecules such as amphetamines and cocaine will also cause this effect. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors such as caffeine directly affect the G-coupled signal transduction cascade by inhibiting the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of cAMP, again leading to the increased concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol.potassium deficiency: Potassium ion concentrations are a major determinant in the magnitude of the electrochemical potential of cells, and hypokalemia makes it more likely that cells will depolarize spontaneously. Hypercalcemia has a similar effect, although clinically it is of less concern.
Quantum gate teleportation Summary Quantum_gate_teleportation Additionally, gate teleportation is a key component of magic state distillation, a technique that can be used to overcome the limitations of the Eastin-Knill theorem. Quantum gate teleportation has been demonstrated in various types of quantum computers, including linear optical, superconducting quantum computing, and trapped ion quantum computing. == References ==
Gram-molecule Standardization Mole_number > History > Standardization Developments in mass spectrometry led to the adoption of oxygen-16 as the standard substance, in lieu of natural oxygen.The oxygen-16 definition was replaced with one based on carbon-12 during the 1960s. The mole was defined by International Bureau of Weights and Measures as "the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12." Thus, by that definition, one mole of pure 12C had a mass of exactly 12 g. The four different definitions were equivalent to within 1%. Because a dalton, a unit commonly used to measure atomic mass, is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, this definition of the mole entailed that the mass of one mole of a compound or element in grams was numerically equal to the average mass of one molecule or atom of the substance in daltons, and that the number of daltons in a gram was equal to the number of elementary entities in a mole.
Petroleum refinement Chemical processes Petroleum_refinery > Chemical processes Fluid catalytic cracker (FCC) upgrades the heavier, higher-boiling fractions from the crude oil distillation by converting them into lighter and lower boiling, more valuable products. Hydrocracker uses hydrogen to upgrade heavy residual oils from the vacuum distillation unit by thermally cracking them into lighter, more valuable reduced viscosity products. Merox desulfurize LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.
Glossary of chemistry terms G Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > G Grignard reaction ground glass joint An apparatus designed to quickly and easily fit two pieces of leak-tight glassware together, featuring ground glass surfaces and typically a custom-made conical taper. ground state The lowest possible energy state for a given quantum mechanical system, at which the Gibbs energy is actually or theoretically minimized. Whatever energy remains in the system in its ground state is called the zero-point energy.
Array index Element identifier and addressing formulas Array_element > Element identifier and addressing formulas Arrays can have multiple dimensions, thus it is not uncommon to access an array using multiple indices. For example, a two-dimensional array A with three rows and four columns might provide access to the element at the 2nd row and 4th column by the expression A in the case of a zero-based indexing system. Thus two indices are used for a two-dimensional array, three for a three-dimensional array, and n for an n-dimensional array. The number of indices needed to specify an element is called the dimension, dimensionality, or rank of the array. In standard arrays, each index is restricted to a certain range of consecutive integers (or consecutive values of some enumerated type), and the address of an element is computed by a "linear" formula on the indices.
Chaotic complex system Complexity and chaos theory Physics_of_Complex_Systems > Applications > Complexity and chaos theory Ilya Prigogine argued that complexity is non-deterministic and gives no way whatsoever to precisely predict the future.The emergence of complex systems theory shows a domain between deterministic order and randomness which is complex. This is referred to as the "edge of chaos". When one analyzes complex systems, sensitivity to initial conditions, for example, is not an issue as important as it is within chaos theory, in which it prevails.
For (command) Loop variable scope and semantics Iterative_for_loop > Additional semantics and constructs > Loop variable scope and semantics Still another possibility is that the code generated may employ an auxiliary variable as the loop variable, possibly held in a machine register, whose value may or may not be copied to I on each iteration. Again, modifications of I would not affect the control of the loop, but now a disjunction is possible: within the loop, references to the value of I might be to the (possibly altered) current value of I or to the auxiliary variable (held safe from improper modification) and confusing results are guaranteed. For instance, within the loop a reference to element I of an array would likely employ the auxiliary variable (especially if it were held in a machine register), but if I is a parameter to some routine (for instance, a print-statement to reveal its value), it would likely be a reference to the proper variable I instead. It is best to avoid such possibilities.
Antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis Telomere Theory Antagonistic_pleiotropy_hypothesis > Potential Examples > DNA repair > Telomere Theory However, there is still the question whether telomere length causes these diseases or if the diseases cause shortened telomeres. Hence, the shortening of telomeres complies with antagonistic pleiotropy theory. The trade-off exists as the cell benefits from telomerase which prevents permanent growth arrest but telomere shortening is associated with functional loss.
Anti-sigma factors Summary Anti-sigma_factors In the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes, anti-sigma factors bind to sigma factors and inhibit transcriptional activity. Anti-sigma factors have been found in a number of bacteria, including Escherichia coli and Salmonella, and in the T4 bacteriophage. Anti-sigma factors are antagonists to the sigma factors, which regulate numerous cell processes including flagellar production, stress response, transport and cellular growth.
Mathematical Logic Set theory Symbolic_Logic > Set theory Set theory is the study of sets, which are abstract collections of objects. Many of the basic notions, such as ordinal and cardinal numbers, were developed informally by Cantor before formal axiomatizations of set theory were developed. The first such axiomatization, due to Zermelo, was extended slightly to become Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), which is now the most widely used foundational theory for mathematics. Other formalizations of set theory have been proposed, including von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory (NBG), Morse–Kelley set theory (MK), and New Foundations (NF).
Mycobacterium kansasii infection Pathogenesis Mycobacterium_kansasii_infection > Pathogenesis M. kansasii may cause chronic human pulmonary disease resembling tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary infections, such as cervical lymphadenitis in children, cutaneous and soft tissues infections, and musculoskeletal system involvement are uncommon. Rarely it causes disseminated disease in patients with severely impaired cellular immunity (such as organ transplants or AIDS). Pre-existing lung disease such as silicosis is a risk factor.
Physical stress Uniaxial normal Physical_stress > Simple types > Uniaxial normal If the bar's length L is many times its diameter D, and it has no gross defects or built-in stress, then the stress can be assumed to be uniformly distributed over any cross-section that is more than a few times D from both ends. (This observation is known as the Saint-Venant's principle). Normal stress occurs in many other situations besides axial tension and compression. If an elastic bar with uniform and symmetric cross-section is bent in one of its planes of symmetry, the resulting bending stress will still be normal (perpendicular to the cross-section), but will vary over the cross section: the outer part will be under tensile stress, while the inner part will be compressed. Another variant of normal stress is the hoop stress that occurs on the walls of a cylindrical pipe or vessel filled with pressurized fluid.
Torch (machine learning) nn Torch_(machine_learning) > nn What follows is an example use-case for building a multilayer perceptron using Modules: Loss functions are implemented as sub-classes of Criterion, which has a similar interface to Module. It also has forward() and backward() methods for computing the loss and backpropagating gradients, respectively. Criteria are helpful to train neural network on classical tasks. Common criteria are the Mean Squared Error criterion implemented in MSECriterion and the cross-entropy criterion implemented in ClassNLLCriterion. What follows is an example of a Lua function that can be iteratively called to train an mlp Module on input Tensor x, target Tensor y with a scalar learningRate: It also has StochasticGradient class for training a neural network using Stochastic gradient descent, although the optim package provides much more options in this respect, like momentum and weight decay regularization.
Exchange traded fund ETFs vs. Mutual Funds Exchange_traded_fund > ETFs vs. Mutual Funds ETFs are similar in many ways to mutual funds, except that ETFs are bought and sold from other owners throughout the day on stock exchanges, whereas mutual funds are bought and sold from the issuer based on their price at day's end. ETFs are also more transparent since their holdings are generally published online daily and, in the United States, are more tax efficient than mutual funds. Unlike mutual funds, ETFs trade on a stock exchange, can be sold short, can be purchased using funds borrowed from a stockbroker (margin), and can be purchased and sold using limit orders, with the buyer or seller aware of the price per share in advance.
Argument from reason Criticism by computationalists Argument_from_reason > Criticism by computationalists Some people think it is easy to refute any argument from reason just by appealing to the existence of computers. Computers, according to the objection, reason, they are also undeniably a physical system, but they are also rational. So whatever incompatibility there might be between mechanism and reason must be illusory. Since computers do not operate on beliefs and desires and yet come to justified conclusions about the world as in object recognition or proving mathematical theorems, it should not be a surprise on naturalism that human brains can do the same.
Causal adequacy principle Overview Causal_adequacy_principle > Overview Descartes defends CAP by quoting Roman philosopher Lucretius: "Ex nihilo nihil fit", meaning "Nothing comes from nothing".—Lucretius: 146–482 In his meditations, Descartes uses the CAP to support his trademark argument for the existence of God. : 430 Descartes' assertions were disputed by Thomas Hobbes in his "Third Set of Objections" published in 1641.: 379 René Descartes was not the founder of this philosophical claim. : 54–56 It is used in the classical metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, and features eminently in the works of Thomas Aquinas.
Bloom filters Distributed Bloom filters Bloom_filter > Extensions and applications > Distributed Bloom filters For both approaches a "Single Shot" Bloom filter is used which only calculates one hash, resulting in one flipped bit per element, to reduce the communication volume. Distributed Bloom filters are initiated by first hashing all elements on their local PE and then sorting them by their hashes locally.
Epiphyte Marine epiphytes Epiphyte > Marine epiphytes Photosynthetic epiphytes account for a large amount of the photosynthesis in systems in which they occur. This is typically between 20 and 60% of the total primary production of the ecosystem. They are a general group of organisms and are highly diverse, providing food for a great number of fauna.
Ruthlessness gene Rats Arginine_vasopressin_receptor_1A > Role in behavior > Rats Avpr1a transcripts are diurnally expressed 12 hours out of phase from vasopressin expression in vasopressin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in both vasopressin-normal Sprague-Dawley rats, as well as vasopressin-deficient Brattleboro rats.Rats with reduced Avpr1a in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis have increased incidences of the isolation potentiated startle, a measure of isolation-induced anxiety.Subchronic phencyclidine (PCP) treatment (which induces symptoms similar to those of schizophrenia) reduces Avpr1a density in many brain regions, implying there might be a role for AVPR1A in schizophrenia.Avpr1a is present in the lateral septum, neocortical layer IV, hippocampal formation, amygdalostriatal area, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, suprachiasmatic nucleus, ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, superior colliculus, dorsal raphe, nucleus of the solitary tract, spinal cord, and inferior olive, while mRNA transcripts for Avpr1a are found in the olfactory bulb, hippocampal formation, lateral septum, suprachiasmatic nucleus, paraventricular nucleus, anterior hypothalamic area, arcuate nucleus, lateral habenula, ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra (pars compacta), superior colliculus, raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus, inferior olive, choroid plexus, endothelial cells, area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract.
Electrochemical reactions Electrochemical cells Galvanic_couple > Electrochemical cells The anode is defined as the electrode where oxidation occurs and the cathode is the electrode where the reduction takes place. Electrodes can be made from any sufficiently conductive materials, such as metals, semiconductors, graphite, and even conductive polymers. In between these electrodes is the electrolyte, which contains ions that can freely move.
Election audits Ballot transport and storage Election_audit > Ballot transport and storage Seal numbers and photos would need their own secure storage. Experienced testers can usually bypass all physical security systems. Locks and cameras are vulnerable before and after delivery.Since 1850, people have known how to create a master key from any key in a building, such as a borrowed restroom key.
Uncertainty management theory Managing uncertainty in relationships Uncertainty_management_theory > Managing uncertainty in relationships Although this withholding reduces uncertainty around where the relationship is going, it can increase uncertainty or at least maintain uncertainty levels for the other party about the areas of the individual's life and being that are no longer being disclosed. Uncertainty is often the result of multiple contributing factors that are connected to how they can affect different aspects of an individual's life. The same can be true for the functioning of an organization.
Least mean squares filter Normalized least mean squares filter (NLMS) Least_mean_squares_filter > Normalized least mean squares filter (NLMS) The main drawback of the "pure" LMS algorithm is that it is sensitive to the scaling of its input x ( n ) {\displaystyle x(n)} . This makes it very hard (if not impossible) to choose a learning rate μ {\displaystyle \mu } that guarantees stability of the algorithm (Haykin 2002). The Normalised least mean squares filter (NLMS) is a variant of the LMS algorithm that solves this problem by normalising with the power of the input. The NLMS algorithm can be summarised as:
High resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy Impact scattering High_resolution_electron_energy_loss_spectroscopy > Physics of HREELS > Impact scattering Impact scattering is the regime which deals with electrons that are scattered further away from the specular direction. In those cases no macroscopic theory exists and a microscopic theory like, quantum mechanical dispersion theory, has to be applied. Symmetry considerations then also result in certain selection rules (it is also assumed that the energy loss in the inelastic scattering process is negligible): When the scattering plane is a plane of reflection symmetry then the scattering amplitude for every ks in the scattering plane vanishes. When the plane perpendicular to the surface and the scattering plane is a plane of reflection symmetry and time reversal symmetry holds then the scattering amplitudes in the specular direction vanish for modes whose normal coordinates are odd under the reflection. When the axis normal to the surface is an axis of two-fold symmetry, and time reversal symmetry holds then the scattering amplitudes in the specular direction vanish for modes whose normal modes are odd under the twofold rotation.All those selection rules make it possible to identify the normal coordinates of the adsorbed molecules.
Electromagnetic scattering Summary Scattering_theory Examples include: cosmic ray scattering in the Earth's upper atmosphere; particle collisions inside particle accelerators; electron scattering by gas atoms in fluorescent lamps; and neutron scattering inside nuclear reactors.The types of non-uniformities which can cause scattering, sometimes known as scatterers or scattering centers, are too numerous to list, but a small sample includes particles, bubbles, droplets, density fluctuations in fluids, crystallites in polycrystalline solids, defects in monocrystalline solids, surface roughness, cells in organisms, and textile fibers in clothing. The effects of such features on the path of almost any type of propagating wave or moving particle can be described in the framework of scattering theory. Some areas where scattering and scattering theory are significant include radar sensing, medical ultrasound, semiconductor wafer inspection, polymerization process monitoring, acoustic tiling, free-space communications and computer-generated imagery. Particle-particle scattering theory is important in areas such as particle physics, atomic, molecular, and optical physics, nuclear physics and astrophysics. In Particle Physics the quantum interaction and scattering of fundamental particles is described by the Scattering Matrix or S-Matrix, introduced and developed by John Archibald Wheeler and Werner Heisenberg.Scattering is quantified using many different concepts, including scattering cross section (σ), attenuation coefficients, the bidirectional scattering distribution function (BSDF), S-matrices, and mean free path.
Unconventional computing Cellular automata and amorphous computing Alternative_computing > Biological approaches > Cellular automata and amorphous computing Cellular automata are discrete models of computation consisting of a grid of cells in a finite number of states, such as on and off. The state of each cell is determined by a fixed rule based on the states of the cell and its neighbors. There are four primary classifications of cellular automata, ranging from patterns that stabilize into homogeneity to those that become extremely complex and potentially Turing-complete. Amorphous computing refers to the study of computational systems using large numbers of parallel processors with limited computational ability and local interactions, regardless of the physical substrate. Examples of naturally occurring amorphous computation can be found in developmental biology, molecular biology, neural networks, and chemical engineering. The goal of amorphous computation is to understand and engineer novel systems through the characterization of amorphous algorithms as abstractions.
Distributed Artificial Intelligence Approaches Distributed_Artificial_Intelligence > Approaches Two types of DAI has emerged: In Multi-agent systems agents coordinate their knowledge and activities and reason about the processes of coordination. Agents are physical or virtual entities that can act, perceive its environment and communicate with other agents. The agent is autonomous and has skills to achieve goals. The agents change the state of their environment by their actions.
Transitivity of identity Metaphysics of identity Transitivity_of_identity > Metaphysics of identity More mundanely, an identity in mathematics may be an equation that holds true for all values of a variable. Hegel argued that things are inherently self-contradictory and that the notion of something being self-identical only made sense if it were not also not-identical or different from itself and did not also imply the latter. In Hegel's words, "Identity is the identity of identity and non-identity."
Principal submatrix Matrices with more general entries Matrix_(mathematics) > Abstract algebraic aspects and generalizations > Matrices with more general entries Wherever eigenvalues are considered, as these are roots of a polynomial they may exist only in a larger field than that of the entries of the matrix; for instance, they may be complex in the case of a matrix with real entries. The possibility to reinterpret the entries of a matrix as elements of a larger field (for example, to view a real matrix as a complex matrix whose entries happen to be all real) then allows considering each square matrix to possess a full set of eigenvalues. Alternatively one can consider only matrices with entries in an algebraically closed field, such as C, from the outset.
Prime (liturgy) Summary Prime_(liturgy) Prime, or the First Hour, is one of the canonical hours of the Divine Office, said at the first hour of daylight (6:00 a.m. at the equinoxes but earlier in summer, later in winter), between the dawn hour of Lauds and the 9 a.m. hour of Terce. It remains part of the Christian liturgies of Eastern Christianity, but suppressed within the Latin liturgical rites by the Second Vatican Council.
Iterative for loop 1980: Ada For_(command) > Timeline of the for-loop syntax in various programming languages > 1980: Ada The exit statement may be used to exit the loop. Loops can be labeled, and exit may leave a specifically labeled loop in a group of nested loops:
Single threading Programming language support Single_threading > Programming language support A few interpreted programming languages have implementations (e.g., Ruby MRI for Ruby, CPython for Python) which support threading and concurrency but not parallel execution of threads, due to a global interpreter lock (GIL). The GIL is a mutual exclusion lock held by the interpreter that can prevent the interpreter from simultaneously interpreting the applications code on two or more threads at once, which effectively limits the parallelism on multiple core systems. This limits performance mostly for processor-bound threads, which require the processor, and not much for I/O-bound or network-bound ones.
Lobules of liver Clinical significance Liver_lobules > Clinical significance Bridging fibrosis, a type of fibrosis seen in several types of liver injury, describes fibrosis from the central vein to the portal triad.
Crystallization methods Thermodynamic view Crystallization_processes > Thermodynamic view The crystallization process appears to violate the second principle of thermodynamics. Whereas most processes that yield more orderly results are achieved by applying heat, crystals usually form at lower temperatures – especially by supercooling. However, due to the release of the heat of fusion during crystallization, the entropy of the universe increases, thus this principle remains unaltered.
Motorized bicycle Power sources Motorized_bicycle > Power sources Besides connecting the engine to a sprocket, the engine can also be connected directly to the crank. This is called "crank drive" or "mid-drive" and also allows incorporating the gears of the bicycle in the motorized system. Most of these bikes and kits are under 50 cc and do not have to be registered in most states (the exception being the Whizzer NE5). power may be transferred to a wheel from a motor mounted directly above, by bringing a powered roller or rubber belt into contact with the tire. These are called "friction drives".
Passive diffusion Osmosis Passive_transport > Osmosis In hypotonic solutions, the water moves into the cell, down its concentration gradient (from higher to lower water concentrations). That can cause the cell to swell.
Differential algebraic equation Summary Differential-algebraic_equation This distinction between ODEs and DAEs is made because DAEs have different characteristics and are generally more difficult to solve.In practical terms, the distinction between DAEs and ODEs is often that the solution of a DAE system depends on the derivatives of the input signal and not just the signal itself as in the case of ODEs; this issue is commonly encountered in nonlinear systems with hysteresis, such as the Schmitt trigger.This difference is more clearly visible if the system may be rewritten so that instead of x we consider a pair ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} of vectors of dependent variables and the DAE has the form x ˙ ( t ) = f ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) , t ) , 0 = g ( x ( t ) , y ( t ) , t ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {x}}(t)&=f(x(t),y(t),t),\\0&=g(x(t),y(t),t).\end{aligned}}} where x ( t ) ∈ R n {\displaystyle x(t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} , y ( t ) ∈ R m {\displaystyle y(t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{m}} , f: R n + m + 1 → R n {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} ^{n+m+1}\to \mathbb {R} ^{n}} and g: R n + m + 1 → R m .
Oxidation reaction Redox reactions in industry Redox_system > Redox reactions in industry Redox reactions are the foundation of electrochemical cells, which can generate electrical energy or support electrosynthesis. Metal ores often contain metals in oxidized states such as oxides or sulfides, from which the pure metals are extracted by smelting at high temperature in the presence of a reducing agent. The process of electroplating uses redox reactions to coat objects with a thin layer of a material, as in chrome-plated automotive parts, silver plating cutlery, galvanization and gold-plated jewelry.
Mathematical methods of physics Before Newton Mathematical_Physics > Prominent mathematical physicists > Before Newton Having introduced experimentation, Galileo then refuted geocentric cosmology by refuting Aristotelian physics itself. Galileo's 1638 book Discourse on Two New Sciences established the law of equal free fall as well as the principles of inertial motion, founding the central concepts of what would become today's classical mechanics. By the Galilean law of inertia as well as the principle of Galilean invariance, also called Galilean relativity, for any object experiencing inertia, there is empirical justification for knowing only that it is at relative rest or relative motion—rest or motion with respect to another object. René Descartes famously developed a complete system of heliocentric cosmology anchored on the principle of vortex motion, Cartesian physics, whose widespread acceptance brought the demise of Aristotelian physics. Descartes sought to formalize mathematical reasoning in science, and developed Cartesian coordinates for geometrically plotting locations in 3D space and marking their progressions along the flow of time.An older contemporary of Newton, Christiaan Huygens, was the first to idealize a physical problem by a set of parameters and the first to fully mathematize a mechanistic explanation of unobservable physical phenomena, and for these reasons Huygens is considered the first theoretical physicist and one of the founders of modern mathematical physics.
Stirling engines Theory Stirling_Cryocooler > Theory An internal regenerative heat exchanger increases the Stirling engine's thermal efficiency compared to simpler hot air engines lacking this feature. The Stirling engine uses the temperature difference between its hot end and cold end to establish a cycle of a fixed mass of gas, heated and expanded, and cooled and compressed, thus converting thermal energy into mechanical energy. The greater the temperature difference between the hot and cold sources, the greater the thermal efficiency.
Two New Sciences The law of falling bodies Two_New_Sciences > The two new sciences > The motion of objects > The law of falling bodies The data from the inclined plane experiments were used to calculate the expected horizontal motion. However, discrepancies were found in the results of the experiment: the observed horizontal distances disagreed with the calculated distances expected for a constant rate of acceleration. Galileo attributed the discrepancies to air resistance in the unreported experiment, and friction in the inclined plane experiment. These discrepancies forced Galileo to assert that the postulate held only under "ideal conditions," i.e., in the absence of friction and/or air resistance.
CAD model Summary Computer_Aided_Design The terms computer-aided drafting (CAD) and computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) are also used.Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA). In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation (MDA), which includes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes.
Active sensory system Chemical Active_sensory_system > Examples > Chemical Because propagation of chemicals take longer than other sources, only organisms with slow locomotion can utilize chemical signals to probe the environment. The slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum uses ammonia to probe the environment to avoid obstacles during formation of fruiting body. Deploying chemical signal is also limited by lack of return signals.
Nerve guidance conduits Olfactory ensheathing cells Nerve_guidance_conduit > Cellular therapies > Glial cells > Olfactory ensheathing cells Another interesting concept is that OECs are found in both the peripheral and central nervous system portions of the primary olfactory system, that is, the olfactory epithelium and bulb.OECs are similar to Schwann cells in that they provide an upregulation of low-affinity NGF receptor p75 following injury; however, unlike Schwann cells they produce lower levels of neurotrophins. Several studies have shown evidence of OECs being able to support regeneration of lesioned axons, but these results are often unable to be reproduced. Regardless, OECs have been investigated thoroughly in relation to spinal cord injuries, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and other neurodegenerative diseases. Researchers suggest that these cells possess a unique ability to remyelinate injured neurons.OECs have properties similar to those of astrocytes, both of which have been identified as being susceptible to viral infection.
Neural ensemble Encoding Neuronal_ensemble > Encoding An alternative to the ensemble hypothesis is the theory that there exist highly specialized neurons that serve as the mechanism of neuronal encoding. In the visual system, such cells are often referred to as grandmother cells because they would respond in very specific circumstances—such as when a person gazes at a photo of their grandmother. Neuroscientists have indeed found that some neurons provide better information than the others, and a population of such expert neurons has an improved signal-to-noise ratio.
Fragility (glass physics) Definition Fragility_(glass_physics) > Definition Glass-formers with a high fragility are called "fragile"; those with a low fragility are called "strong". For example, silica has a relatively low fragility and is called "strong", whereas some polymers have relatively high fragility and are called "fragile". Several fragility parameters have been introduced to characterise the fragility of liquids, including the Bruning–Sutton, Avramov and Doremus fragility parameters.
Tumor marker Uses Tumour_marker > Uses Tumor markers may be used for the following purposes: Screening for common cancers on a population basis. Broad screening for all or most types of cancer was originally suggested, but has since been shown not to be a realistic goal. Screening for specific cancer types or locations requires a level of specificity and sensitivity that has so far only been reached by Example: elevated prostate specific antigen suggests that is used in some countries to screen for prostate cancer. Monitoring of cancer survivors after treatment, detection of recurrent disease.
Quantum Tunnelling Composite Applications Quantum_Tunnelling_Composite > Applications Sensors on the material can relay information on the force of an impact. Mirror and window operation such as gesture, stroke, or swipe can be used in automotive applications. Depending on the amount of pressure applied from the gesture, the car parts will adjust to the desired setting at either a fast speed or a slow speed.
Paranoid schizophrenia Medication Negative_symptoms_of_schizophrenia > Management > Medication The first-line treatment for schizophrenia is an antipsychotic. The first-generation antipsychotics, now called typical antipsychotics, are dopamine antagonists that block D2 receptors, and affect the neurotransmission of dopamine. Those brought out later, the second-generation antipsychotics known as atypical antipsychotics, can also have an effect on another neurotransmitter, serotonin.
Model Engineer Summary Model_Engineer Model Engineer magazine was first published (in the United Kingdom) to support the hobby of model engineering in 1898 by Percival Marshall, who was to remain its editor for over 50 years. It has been owned by Mortons Media Group since 2022. The magazine addressed the emergence of a new hobby — the construction of models (often working) and experimental engineering, largely in metal. It transcended class barriers, appealing to professional engineers, jobbing machinists and anyone interested in making working mechanisms.
Small nucleolar RNA SNORD87 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_SNORD87 In molecular biology, SNORD87 (also known as U87) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the modification of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). This type of modifying RNA is usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryote cell which is a major site of snRNA bio genesis. It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. snoRNA U87 belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs which contain the conserved sequence motifs known as the C box (UGAUGA) and the D box (CUGA). Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs.U87 was identified by purification from yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and is the orthologue of mouse MBII-276
Plane segment Point–normal form and general form of the equation of a plane Planar_surface > Representation > Point–normal form and general form of the equation of a plane In mathematics it is a common convention to express the normal as a unit vector, but the above argument holds for a normal vector of any non-zero length. Conversely, it is easily shown that if a, b, c, and d are constants and a, b, and c are not all zero, then the graph of the equation is a plane having the vector n = (a, b, c) as a normal. This familiar equation for a plane is called the general form of the equation of the plane.Thus for example a regression equation of the form y = d + ax + cz (with b = −1) establishes a best-fit plane in three-dimensional space when there are two explanatory variables.
DI box Passive units DI_box > Passive units A passive DI unit consists of an audio transformer used as a balun. The term "passive" indicates that the unit does not require a power source (such as batteries or phantom power) to operate. This makes passive DIs less expensive, but it also means that they cannot amplify signal power.
Reproducibility crisis Base rate of hypothesis accuracy Reproducibility_crisis > Causes > Base rate of hypothesis accuracy Bird's argument works as follows. Assuming an ideal situation of a test of significance, whereby the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis is 5% (i.e. Type I error) and the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis is 80% (i.e. Power), in a context where a high proportion of tested hypotheses are false, it is conceivable that the number of false positives would be high compared to those of true positives. For example, in a situation where only 10% of tested hypotheses are actually true, one can calculate that as much as 36% of results will be false positives.The claim that the falsity of most tested hypotheses can explain low rates of replicability is even more relevant when considering that the average power for statistical tests in certain fields might be much lower than 80%.
Seismic wide-angle reflection and refraction Receiver Seismic_wide-angle_reflection_and_refraction > Acquisition > Receiver The sound waves are normally recorded using 3-component seismometers, with ocean-bottom seismometers (OBS) used offshore. The three components allow the recording of S-waves as well as the P-waves that single component instruments can record. The offset range used depends on the depth of the target. For the top few kilometres of the crust, such as when investigating beneath a thick layer of basalt, a range of 10–20 km may be appropriate, while for the lower crust and mantle, offsets greater than 100 km are normally necessary.
Tetrad (chromosomal formation) In mammals Metaphase_I > Occurrence > In mammals Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and two or three polar bodies. There are pauses during meiosis in females. Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle.
Primitive gut Diaphragm and thoracic cavity Primitive_gut > Diaphragm and thoracic cavity The diaphragm divides the body cavity into the thoracic cavity and the abdominal cavity. It develops from four components: the septum transversum (central tendon), the pleuroperitoneal membranes, the dorsal mesentery of the esophagus, and muscular components from somites at cervical levels three to five (C3–5) of the body wall. Since the septum transversum is located initially opposite cervical segments of three to five, and since muscle cells for the diaphragm originate from somites at these segments, the phrenic nerve, which innervates the diaphragm, also arises from these segments of the spinal cord (C3, 4, and 5). The thoracic cavity is divided into the pericardial cavity and two pleural cavities for the lungs by the pleuropericardial membranes.
Overlay network Internet Overlay_network > Uses > Internet Telecommunication transport networks and IP networks (which combined make up the broader Internet) are all overlaid with at least an optical fiber layer, a transport layer and an IP or circuit switching layers (in the case of the PSTN).
Quadratic eigenvalue problem Methods of solution Quadratic_eigenvalue_problem > Methods of solution Direct methods for solving the standard or generalized eigenvalue problems A x = λ x {\displaystyle Ax=\lambda x} and A x = λ B x {\displaystyle Ax=\lambda Bx} are based on transforming the problem to Schur or Generalized Schur form. However, there is no analogous form for quadratic matrix polynomials. One approach is to transform the quadratic matrix polynomial to a linear matrix pencil ( A − λ B {\displaystyle A-\lambda B} ), and solve a generalized eigenvalue problem. Once eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the linear problem have been determined, eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the quadratic can be determined.
Retroflect Summary Retroflect Retroflection is the movement of an ocean current that doubles back on itself.
Fermat's right triangle theorem Fermat's proof Fermat's_right_triangle_theorem > Fermat's proof Because u 2 + v 2 = ( r 2 + s 2 ) / 2 = p {\displaystyle u^{2}+v^{2}=(r^{2}+s^{2})/2=p} is a square, u {\displaystyle u} and v {\displaystyle v} are the legs of another primitive Pythagorean triangle whose area is u v / 2 = q / 4 {\displaystyle uv/2=q/4} . Since q {\displaystyle q} is itself a square and since u v {\displaystyle uv} is even, q / 4 {\displaystyle q/4} is a square. Thus, any Pythagorean triangle with square area leads to a smaller Pythagorean triangle with square area, completing the proof.
List of water-miscible solvents Summary List_of_water-miscible_solvents The following compounds are liquid at room temperature and are completely miscible with water; they are often used as solvents. Many of them are hygroscopic.
Metallogels Synthesis Method Metallogels > Synthesis Method Since the properties of gels depend on the type of non-covalent interactions involved, the metal-ligand interaction provide not only thermodynamic stability, but also kinetic liability. The general method for synthesizing gels is to heat the solution, which contains the metal ion being used and investigated, along with the ligand that will form the metallogel around it, as well as any other compounds used to create the appropriate conditions for the reaction to proceed well, until all added solids (depending on the type of gel prepared) are dissolved in the solvent used, and then cooling it down until the gels are self-assembled and properly formed. However, this method has not shown favorable results with the additions of several transition metals, along with the use of lanthanides, in an acetonitrile nitrile solution of the ligand. In these studies, the ligand used is a 2,6-Bis(1′-alkylbenzimidazolyl)pyridine, due to its commercial abundance and the wide variety of synthetic pathways that allow the functionalization of this ligand, and therefore the chemical tuning of the metallogel.
Psychological testing Sample of behavior Psychological_test > Principles > Sample of behavior The term sample of behavior refers to an individual's performance on tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand. The samples of behavior that make up a paper-and-pencil test, the most common type of psychological test, are a series of test items. Performance on these items produces a test score. A score on a well-constructed test is believed to reflect a psychological construct such as achievement in a school subject like mathematics knowledge, cognitive ability, aptitude, emotional functioning, personality, etc. Differences in test scores are thought to reflect individual differences in the construct the test is purported to measure.
Tree structure Layered "icicle" diagrams Tree_structure > Representing trees > Layered "icicle" diagrams Layered "icicle" diagrams that use alignment/adjacency.
Residue (complex analysis) Simple poles Residue_(complex_analysis) > Calculating residues > Simple poles If it is equal to infinity then the order is higher than 1. It may be that the function f can be expressed as a quotient of two functions, f ( z ) = g ( z ) h ( z ) {\displaystyle f(z)={\frac {g(z)}{h(z)}}} , where g and h are holomorphic functions in a neighbourhood of c, with h(c) = 0 and h'(c) ≠ 0. In such a case, L'Hôpital's rule can be used to simplify the above formula to: Res ⁡ ( f , c ) = lim z → c ( z − c ) f ( z ) = lim z → c z g ( z ) − c g ( z ) h ( z ) = lim z → c g ( z ) + z g ′ ( z ) − c g ′ ( z ) h ′ ( z ) = g ( c ) h ′ ( c ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\operatorname {Res} (f,c)&=\lim _{z\to c}(z-c)f(z)=\lim _{z\to c}{\frac {zg(z)-cg(z)}{h(z)}}\\&=\lim _{z\to c}{\frac {g(z)+zg'(z)-cg'(z)}{h'(z)}}={\frac {g(c)}{h'(c)}}.\end{aligned}}}
Mill (currency) Summary Mill_(currency) The mill (American English) or mil (Commonwealth English, except Canada) is a unit of currency (sometimes symbolized as ₥), used in several countries as one-thousandth of the base unit. In the United States, it is a notional unit equivalent to a thousandth of a United States dollar (a hundredth of a dime or a tenth of a cent). In the United Kingdom, it was proposed during the decades of discussion on decimalisation as a 1⁄1000 division of sterling's pound. While this system was never adopted in the United Kingdom, the currencies of some British or formerly British territories did adopt it, such as the Palestine pound and the Maltese lira. The term comes from the Latin "millesimum", meaning "thousandth part".
Finite element machine Summary Finite_element_machine Calculations on traditional computers are performed at each node point and results communicated to adjacent node points until the behavior of the entire structure is computed. On the Finite Element Machine, microprocessors located at each node point perform these nodal computations in parallel. If there are more node points (N) than microprocessors (P), then each microprocessor performs N/P computations.
Cancer genome sequencing Summary Cancer_genome_sequencing Cancer genome sequencing is not limited to WG sequencing and can also include exome, transcriptome, micronome sequencing, and end-sequence profiling. These methods can be used to quantify gene expression, miRNA expression, and identify alternative splicing events in addition to sequence data.
Teleparallelism New translation teleparallel gauge theory of gravity Teleparallelism > New translation teleparallel gauge theory of gravity Independently in 1967, Hayashi and Nakano revived Einstein's idea, and Pellegrini and Plebanski started to formulate the gauge theory of the spacetime translation group. Hayashi pointed out the connection between the gauge theory of the spacetime translation group and absolute parallelism. The first fiber bundle formulation was provided by Cho. This model was later studied by Schweizer et al., Nitsch and Hehl, Meyer; more recent advances can be found in Aldrovandi and Pereira, Gronwald, Itin, Maluf and da Rocha Neto, Münch, Obukhov and Pereira, and Schucking and Surowitz.Nowadays, teleparallelism is studied purely as a theory of gravity without trying to unify it with electromagnetism.
TCP SYN Window scaling Selective_acknowledgement > Protocol operation > Window scaling This causes sending and receiving sides to assume different TCP window sizes. The result is non-stable traffic that may be very slow. The problem is visible on some sites behind a defective router.
Gödel's First Incompleteness Theorem Implications for consistency proofs Godel's_Incompleteness_Theorem > Second incompleteness theorem > Implications for consistency proofs This corollary of the second incompleteness theorem shows that there is no hope of proving, for example, the consistency of Peano arithmetic using any finitistic means that can be formalized in a system the consistency of which is provable in Peano arithmetic (PA). For example, the system of primitive recursive arithmetic (PRA), which is widely accepted as an accurate formalization of finitistic mathematics, is provably consistent in PA. Thus PRA cannot prove the consistency of PA.
Noise curve Summary Noise_curve Different rooms, locations, regulations, and applications may allow different acceptable noise ratings. In most cases, the goal is that background noise should not interfere with the purpose of the room, e.g. the noise of an office air-conditioning system and consistent noise of traffic outside the building should not interfere with telephone calls or conversations. In other cases, special noise may also be tolerated or even introduced at higher levels, for example to create acoustic "privacy", or to help mask other more irritating noise sources.
Salt wedge (hydrology) Implications for marine life Tidal_estuary > Implications for marine life However, large numbers of bacteria are found within the sediment which has a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be further exacerbated by limited water flow. Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries.
CAD/CAM dentistry CAD Software CAD/CAM_dentistry > Computer-aided design (CAD) > CAD Software They can also be adjusted manually. The path of insertion axis can be determined automatically which dictates the direction the dental prosthesis must move to fit into the tooth/mouth. Measurements can be made between points on the digital model which can help inform the technician if any modifications to the tooth are needed to accommodate the dental prosthesis. The material must be thick enough to provide adequate strength but also not so thick as to cause the restored tooth to contact the opposing tooth before all other teeth in the arch – this would prop the patient’s mouth open and prevent them from being able to bite normally.
Direct Rendering Manager Kernel Mode Setting Graphics_Execution_Manager > Software architecture > Kernel Mode Setting Any DRM driver can choose to provide the DRIVER_MODESET flag when it registers with the DRM core to indicate that supports the KMS API. Those drivers that implement Kernel Mode-Setting are often called KMS drivers as a way to differentiate them from the legacy—without KMS—DRM drivers. KMS has been adopted to such an extent that certain drivers which lack 3D acceleration (or for which the hardware vendor doesn't want to expose or implement it) nevertheless implement the KMS API without the rest of the DRM API, allowing display servers (like Wayland) to run with ease.

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