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Poly(amidoamine) Drug delivery Poly(amidoamine) > Applications > Drug delivery One quite notable example is the ability for PAMAM dendrimers to remove prion protein aggregates, the deadly protein aggregates responsible for bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans. The solubilization of prions is attributed to the polycationic and dendrimeric nature of the PAMAMs, with higher generation (>G3) dendrimers being the most efficient; hydroxy-terminated PAMAMs as well as linear polymers showed little to no effect. Since there are no other known compounds capable of dissolving prions which have already aggregated, PAMAM dendrimers have offered a bit of reprieve in the study of such fatal diseases, and may offer additional insight into the mechanism of prion formation. |
Spectroradiometer Sources of error Spectroradiometer > Sources of error The quality of a given spectroradiometric system is a function of its electronics, optical components, software, power supply, and calibration. Under ideal laboratory conditions and with highly trained experts, it is possible to achieve small (a few tenths to a few percent) errors in measurements. However, in many practical situations, there is the likelihood of errors on the order of 10 percent Several types of error are at play when taking physical measurements. The three basic types of error noted as the limiting factors of accuracy of measurement are random, systematic, and periodic errors Random errors are variations about that mean. |
Protocell Selectivity for compartmentalization Protocell > Selectivity for compartmentalization Such isolation is ordinarily accomplished by membranes, amphiphilic bilayers of a thickness of around 10−8 meters. Researchers including Irene A. Chen and Jack W. Szostak have demonstrated that simple physicochemical properties of elementary protocells can give rise to simpler conceptual analogues of essential cellular behaviors, including primitive forms of Darwinian competition and energy storage. Such cooperative interactions between the membrane and encapsulated contents could greatly simplify the transition from replicating molecules to true cells. |
Statistical entropy Boltzmann's principle Entropy_(statistical_views) > Boltzmann's principle Boltzmann's entropy describes the system when all the accessible microstates are equally likely. It is the configuration corresponding to the maximum of entropy at equilibrium. The randomness or disorder is maximal, and so is the lack of distinction (or information) of each microstate. |
Sulfur compounds Electron transfer reactions Sulfur_compounds > Electron transfer reactions Sulfur polycations, S82+, S42+ and S162+ are produced when sulfur is reacted with oxidising agents in a strongly acidic solution. The colored solutions produced by dissolving sulfur in oleum were first reported as early as 1804 by C.F. Bucholz, but the cause of the color and the structure of the polycations involved was only determined in the late 1960s. |
Serotonin and aging Cardiovascular growth factor Serotonin > Biological role > Outside the nervous system > Cardiovascular growth factor Serotonin, in addition, evokes endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation and stimulates, through a 5-HT1B receptor-mediated mechanism, the phosphorylation of p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in bovine aortic endothelial cell cultures. In blood, serotonin is collected from plasma by platelets, which store it. It is thus active wherever platelets bind in damaged tissue, as a vasoconstrictor to stop bleeding, and also as a fibrocyte mitotic (growth factor), to aid healing. |
Kepler orbits Simplified two body problem Kepler_orbit > Development of the laws > Simplified two body problem But the gravitational forces produced by these irregularities are generally small compared to the gravity of the central body. The difference between an irregular shape and a perfect sphere also diminishes with distances, and most orbital distances are very large when compared with the diameter of a small orbiting body. Thus for some applications, shape irregularity can be neglected without significant impact on accuracy. |
Paradoxical embolism Summary Paradoxical_embolism An embolus, is described as a free-floating mass, located inside blood vessels that can travel from one site in the blood stream to another. An embolus can be made up of solid (like a blood clot), liquid (like amniotic fluid), or gas (like air). Once these masses get "stuck" in a different blood vessel, it is then known as an "embolism." |
Adiabatic engine Carnot cycle Carnot_heat_engine > Carnot cycle The gas continues to expand, doing work on the surroundings, and losing an equivalent amount of internal energy. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the "cold" temperature, TC. The entropy remains unchanged. |
Custodial symmetry Motivation Custodial_symmetry > Motivation In the Standard Model of particle physics, the custodial symmetry is a residual global SU(2) symmetry of the Higgs potential V S M = − μ ( H † H ) − λ ( H † H ) 2 {\displaystyle V_{SM}=-\mu (H^{\dagger }H)-\lambda (H^{\dagger }H)^{2}} beyond the basic SU(2)×U(1) gauge symmetry of the Weak Interaction that prevents higher-order radiative-corrections from driving the Standard Model parameter ρ {\displaystyle \rho } away from ≈ 1 after spontaneous symmetry breaking. (Note: ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is a ratio involving the masses of the weak bosons and the Weinberg angle). With one or more electroweak Higgs doublets in the Higgs sector, the effective action term | H † D μ H | 2 / Λ 2 {\displaystyle \left|H^{\dagger }D_{\mu }H\right|^{2}/\Lambda ^{2}} which generically arises with physics beyond the Standard Model at the scale Λ contributes to the Peskin–Takeuchi parameter T. Current precision electroweak measurements restrict Λ to more than a few TeV. Attempts to solve the gauge hierarchy problem generically require the addition of new particles below that scale, however. |
Engineering drawings Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD) Engineering_drawings > Relationship to model-based definition (MBD/DPD) For centuries, engineering drawing was the sole method of transferring information from design into manufacture. In recent decades another method has arisen, called model-based definition (MBD) or digital product definition (DPD). In MBD, the information captured by the CAD software app is fed automatically into a CAM app (computer-aided manufacturing), which (with or without postprocessing apps) creates code in other languages such as G-code to be executed by a CNC machine tool (computer numerical control), 3D printer, or (increasingly) a hybrid machine tool that uses both. Thus today it is often the case that the information travels from the mind of the designer into the manufactured component without having ever been codified by an engineering drawing. |
Bayes prior Prior probability in statistical mechanics Bayesian_prior > Prior probability in statistical mechanics The a priori probability has an important application in statistical mechanics. The classical version is defined as the ratio of the number of elementary events (e.g. the number of times a die is thrown) to the total number of events—and these considered purely deductively, i.e. without any experimenting. In the case of the die if we look at it on the table without throwing it, each elementary event is reasoned deductively to have the same probability—thus the probability of each outcome of an imaginary throwing of the (perfect) die or simply by counting the number of faces is 1/6. Each face of the die appears with equal probability—probability being a measure defined for each elementary event. |
Artificial kidney Kidney failure Artificial_kidney > Medical uses > Kidney failure These organs routinely filter about 100 to 140 liters of blood a day to produce 1 to 2 liters of urine, composed of wastes and excess fluid.Kidney failure results in the slow accumulation of nitrogenous wastes, salts, water, and disruption of the body's normal pH balance. This failure typically occurs over a long period of time, and when the patient's renal function declines enough over the course of the disease, is commonly known as end stage renal disease (ESRD; which is also known as Level 5 or 6 kidney disease, depending on whether dialysis or renal replacement therapy is used). Detecting kidney disease before the kidneys start to shut down is uncommon, with high blood pressure and decreased appetite being symptoms that indicate a problem. |
Slip bands Summary Slip_bands_in_metals Slip bands or stretcher-strain marks are localized bands of plastic deformation in metals experiencing stresses. Formation of slip bands indicates a concentrated unidirectional slip on certain planes causing a stress concentration. Typically, slip bands induce surface steps (e.g., roughness due persistent slip bands during fatigue) and a stress concentration which can be a crack nucleation site. |
Wait list control group Summary Wait_list_control_group A wait list control group, also called a wait list comparison, is a group of participants included in an outcome study that is assigned to a waiting list and receives intervention after the active treatment group. This control group serves as an untreated comparison group during the study, but eventually goes on to receive treatment at a later date. Wait list control groups are often used when it would be unethical to deny participants access to treatment, provided the wait is still shorter than that for routine services. |
Geology applications of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy Summary Geology_applications_of_Fourier_transform_infrared_spectroscopy Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a spectroscopic technique that has been used for analyzing the fundamental molecular structure of geological samples in recent decades. As in other infrared spectroscopy, the molecules in the sample are excited to a higher energy state due to the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation emitted from the IR source in the instrument, which results in vibrations of molecular bonds. The intrinsic physicochemical property of each particular molecule determines its corresponding IR absorbance peak, and therefore can provide characteristic fingerprints of functional groups (e.g. C-H, O-H, C=O, etc.).In geosciences research, FTIR is applied extensively in the following applications: Analysing the trace amount of water content in Nominally anhydrous minerals (NAMs) Measuring volatile inclusions in glass and minerals Estimating the explosion potential in volcanic setting. Analysing chemotaxonomy of early life on earth Linking biological affinities of both microfossils and macrofossilsThese applications are discussed in details in the later sections. Most of the geology applications of FTIR focus on the mid-infrared range, which is approximately 4000 to 400 cm−1. |
Aperiodic order and disorder Summary Icosahedral_Phase The more precise mathematical definition is that there is never translational symmetry in more than n – 1 linearly independent directions, where n is the dimension of the space filled, e.g., the three-dimensional tiling displayed in a quasicrystal may have translational symmetry in two directions. Symmetrical diffraction patterns result from the existence of an indefinitely large number of elements with a regular spacing, a property loosely described as long-range order. Experimentally, the aperiodicity is revealed in the unusual symmetry of the diffraction pattern, that is, symmetry of orders other than two, three, four, or six. |
Glossary of artificial intelligence S Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence > S These four concepts are related to each other in a manner exactly analogous to Aristotle's square of opposition. search algorithm Any algorithm which solves the search problem, namely, to retrieve information stored within some data structure, or calculated in the search space of a problem domain, either with discrete or continuous values. |
Lattice problems Hardness results Shortest_vector_problem > Shortest vector problem (SVP) > Hardness results The exact version of the problem is only known to be NP-hard for randomized reductions.By contrast, the corresponding problem with respect to the uniform norm is known to be NP-hard. |
Kachurovskii's theorem Statement of the theorem Kachurovskii's_theorem > Statement of the theorem Let K be a convex subset of a Banach space V and let f: K → R ∪ {+∞} be an extended real-valued function that is Fréchet differentiable with derivative df(x): V → R at each point x in K. (In fact, df(x) is an element of the continuous dual space V∗.) Then the following are equivalent: f is a convex function; for all x and y in K, d f ( x ) ( y − x ) ≤ f ( y ) − f ( x ) ; {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f(x)(y-x)\leq f(y)-f(x);} df is an (increasing) monotone operator, i.e., for all x and y in K, ( d f ( x ) − d f ( y ) ) ( x − y ) ≥ 0. {\displaystyle {\big (}\mathrm {d} f(x)-\mathrm {d} f(y){\big )}(x-y)\geq 0.} |
Glycogen Summary Glycogen Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system. The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.Glycogen is an analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. |
GenePattern Functionality GenePattern > Functionality GenePattern is a powerful scientific workflow system that provides access to hundreds of genomic analysis tools. Use these analysis tools as building blocks to design sophisticated analysis pipelines that capture the methods, parameters, and data used to produce analysis results. Pipelines can be used to create, edit and share reproducible in silico results. |
Nested function Purpose Nested_function_definition > Purpose As nested function can access local variables of the enclosing function, sharing of state is possible without passing parameters to the nested function or use a global variable, simplifying code. In languages with nested functions, functions may normally also contain local constants, and types (in addition to local variables, parameters, and functions), encapsulated and hidden in the same nested manner, at any level of depth. This may further enhance the code structuring possibilities. |
S transform Comparison with the short-time Fourier transform S_transform > Comparison with other time–frequency analysis tools > Comparison with the short-time Fourier transform We can compare the S transform and short-time Fourier transform (STFT). First, a high frequency signal, a low frequency signal, and a high frequency burst signal are used in the experiment to compare the performance. The S transform characteristic of frequency dependent resolution allows the detection of the high frequency burst. On the other hand, as the STFT consists of a constant window width, it leads to the result having poorer definition. |
Dimensionally Extended 9-Intersection Model Interpretation DE-9IM > Spatial predicates > Interpretation This issue is caused by the final clause of the Contains definition above: "at least one point of the interior of B lies in the interior of A". For this case, the predicate Covers has more intuitive semantics (see definition), avoiding boundary considerations. For better understanding, the dimensionality of inputs can be used as justification for a gradual introduction of semantic complexity: |
Hachimoji DNA Description Hachimoji_DNA > Description Natural DNA is a molecule carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. DNA is a polynucleotide as it is composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides; when double-stranded, the two chains coil around each other to form a double helix.In natural DNA, each nucleotide is composed of one of four nucleobases (cytosine , guanine , adenine or thymine ), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. |
Activation energy Negative activation energy Energy_barrier > Negative activation energy In some reactions, K1 decreases with temperature more rapidly than k2 increases, so that k actually decreases with temperature corresponding to a negative observed activation energy.An example is the oxidation of nitric oxide which is a termolecular reaction 2 NO + O 2 ⟶ 2 NO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2 NO + O2 -> 2 NO2}}} . The rate law is v = k 2 {\displaystyle v=k\,\left^{2}\,\left} with a negative activation energy. This is explained by the two-step mechanism: 2 NO ↽ − − ⇀ N 2 O 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {2 NO <=> N2O2}}} and N 2 O 2 + O 2 ⟶ 2 NO 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {N2O2 + O2 -> 2 NO2}}} . |
Optical signal processing Optical components for binary digital computer Optical_signal_processing > Optical components for binary digital computer The fundamental building block of modern electronic computers is the transistor. To replace electronic components with optical ones, an equivalent optical transistor is required. This is achieved by crystal optics (using materials with a non-linear refractive index). In particular, materials exist where the intensity of incoming light affects the intensity of the light transmitted through the material in a similar manner to the current response of a bipolar transistor. |
Einhorn–Brunner reaction Related reactions Einhorn–Brunner_reaction > Related reactions Pellizzari reaction == References == |
Lipid II Binding Lipid_II > Antibiotics > Binding The D-Ala-D-Ala terminus is used by glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin to inhibit lipid I- and lipid II-consuming peptidoglycan synthesis; in vancomycin-resistant strains vancomycin cannot bind, because a crucial hydrogen bond is lost. Oritavancin also uses the D-Ala-D-Ala terminus, but in addition it uses the crossbridge and D-iso-glutamine in position 2 of the lipid II stem peptide, as present in a number of Gram-positive pathogens, like staphylococci and enterococci. The increased binding of oritavancin through amidation of lipid II can compensate for the loss of a crucial hydrogen bond in vancomycin-resistant strains,Lantibiotics recognize lipid-II by its pyrophosphate.Lipid II interacts with human alpha defensins, a class of antimicrobial peptides, such as Defensin, alpha 1. The latter has been used to describe and predict binding of synthetic low-molecular weight compounds created as possible therapeutic agents in treating of Gram-positive infections.Penicillin-binding protein 4 exchanges d-amino acids into Lipid II (and Lipid I), acting as a transpeptidase in vitro. |
Thermometric titration Thermometric titrations Thermometric_titration > Thermometric titrations In a similar manner, when the titrant is in excess past the endpoint, a linear temperature response can also be anticipated. Thus intersection of tangents will reveal the true endpoint. |
Diatomic nonmetal Allotropes Nonmetal_(chemistry) > Allotropes Oxygen is a diatomic molecule in its standard state; it also exists as ozone (O3), an unstable nonmetallic allotrope with an "indoors" half-life of around half an hour, compared to about three days in ambient air at 20 °C. Phosphorus, uniquely, exists in several allotropic forms that are more stable than its standard state as white phosphorus (P4). The white, red, and black allotropes are probably the best known; the first is an insulator; the latter two are semiconductors. |
Nucleophilic addition Summary Nucleophilic_addition In organic chemistry, a nucleophilic addition reaction is an addition reaction where a chemical compound with an electrophilic double or triple bond reacts with a nucleophile, such that the double or triple bond is broken. Nucleophilic additions differ from electrophilic additions in that the former reactions involve the group to which atoms are added accepting electron pairs, whereas the latter reactions involve the group donating electron pairs. |
Automatic Vehicle Location Logbook functions Automatic_Vehicle_Location > Types of systems > Logbook functions Another scenario for sensor functions is to connect the AVL to driver information, to collect data about driving time, stops, or even driver absence from the vehicle. If the driver/worker conditions is such as the hourly rates for driving and working outside is not the same, this can be monitored by sensors, by using iButton or other personal identification devices. Later by analyzing log-file it is possible to get reports on any kind of events, like stops, visited streets, speed limits violations, etc. |
Fish physiology Thermoregulation Fish_physiology > Thermoregulation This allows the tuna to elevate the temperatures of the highly aerobic tissues of the skeletal muscles, eyes and brain, which supports faster swimming speeds and reduced energy expenditure, and which enables them to survive in cooler waters over a wider range of ocean environments than those of other fish. In all tunas, however, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, and coronary circulation is directly from the gills. Homeothermy: Although most fish are exclusively ectothermic, there are exceptions. |
Concurrent design and manufacturing Introduction Concurrent_engineering > Introduction The fact that concurrent engineering could result in faster time-to-market is already an important advantage in terms of a competitive edge over other producers. Concurrent engineering has provided a structure and concept for product development that can be implemented for future success. A 2008 publication described concurrent engineering as a new design management system that has matured in recent years to become a well-defined systems approach to optimizing design and engineering cycles. |
Medical equipment management Risk management Medical_equipment_management > Risk management This program helps the medical treatment facility avoid the likelihood of equipment-related risks, minimize liability of mishaps and incidents, and stay compliant with regulatory reporting requirements. The best practice is to use a rating system for every equipment type. For example, a risk-rating system might rate defibrillators as considered high risk, general-purpose infusion pumps as medium risk, electronic thermometers as low risk, and otoscopes as no significant risk. This system could be set up using Microsoft Excel or Access program for a manager's or technician's quick reference. |
Signal level Summary Signal_level A high SNR means that the signal is clear and easy to detect or interpret, while a low SNR means that the signal is corrupted or obscured by noise and may be difficult to distinguish or recover. SNR can be improved by various methods, such as increasing the signal strength, reducing the noise level, filtering out unwanted noise, or using error correction techniques. SNR also determines the maximum possible amount of data that can be transmitted reliably over a given channel, which depends on its bandwidth and SNR. |
Discrete spectrum (physics) Continuous versus discrete spectra Continuous_or_discrete_spectrum > Continuous versus discrete spectra The classical example of a discrete spectrum (for which the term was first used) is the characteristic set of discrete spectral lines seen in the emission spectrum and absorption spectrum of isolated atoms of a chemical element, which only absorb and emit light at particular wavelengths. The technique of spectroscopy is based on this phenomenon. Discrete spectra are seen in many other phenomena, such as vibrating strings, microwaves in a metal cavity, sound waves in a pulsating star, and resonances in high-energy particle physics. The general phenomenon of discrete spectra in physical systems can be mathematically modeled with tools of functional analysis, specifically by the decomposition of the spectrum of a linear operator acting on a functional space. |
Optimality Theory Summary Optimality_Theory OT views grammars as systems that provide mappings from inputs to outputs; typically, the inputs are conceived of as underlying representations, and the outputs as their surface realizations. It is an approach within the larger framework of generative grammar. In linguistics, Optimality Theory has its origin in a talk given by Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky in 1991 which was later developed in a book manuscript by the same authors in 1993. |
Photoelectric sensor Sensing modes Photoelectric_sensor > Sensing modes But the target acts as the reflector so that detection of light is reflected off the disturbance object. The emitter sends out a beam of light (most often a pulsed infrared, visible red, or laser) that diffuses in all directions, filling a detection area. |
Query rate Summary Query_rate Queries per second (QPS) is a measure of the amount of search traffic an information-retrieval system, such as a search engine or a database, receives in one second. The term is used more broadly for any request–response system, where it can more correctly be called requests per second (RPS). High-traffic systems must be mindful of QPS to know when to scale to handle greater load. |
Wallis' integrals Evaluating the Gaussian Integral Wallis'_integrals > Evaluating the Gaussian Integral So, it follows that ∫ 0 + ∞ e − x 2 d x = π / 2 {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{+\infty }e^{-x^{2}}dx={\sqrt {\pi }}/2} . Remark: There are other methods of evaluating the Gaussian integral. Some of them are more direct. |
Probability interpretations Frequentism Interpretation_of_probability > Frequentism But the real probability should be the same every time. If we acknowledge the fact that we only can measure a probability with some error of measurement attached, we still get into problems as the error of measurement can only be expressed as a probability, the very concept we are trying to define. This renders even the frequency definition circular; see for example “What is the Chance of an Earthquake?” |
Identifiability analysis Summary Identifiability_analysis Identifiability analysis is a group of methods found in mathematical statistics that are used to determine how well the parameters of a model are estimated by the quantity and quality of experimental data. Therefore, these methods explore not only identifiability of a model, but also the relation of the model to particular experimental data or, more generally, the data collection process. |
Otto cycle Increasing power and efficiency Otto_cycle_engine > Increasing power and efficiency The difference between the exhaust and intake pressures and temperatures means that some increase in efficiency can be gained by use of a turbocharger, removing from the exhaust flow some part of the remaining energy and transferring that to the intake flow to increase the intake pressure. A gas turbine can extract useful work energy from the exhaust stream and that can then be used to pressurize the intake air. The pressure and temperature of the exhausting gases would be reduced as they expand through the gas turbine and that work is then applied to the intake gas stream, increasing its pressure and temperature. The transfer of energy amounts to an efficiency improvement and the resulting power density of the engine is also improved. |
Short-term memory Another explanation Long-term_memory > Stores > Models > Another explanation One proposed explanation for recency in a continual distractor condition, and its disappearance in an end-only distractor task is the influence of contextual and distinctive processes. According to this model, recency is a result of the similarity of the final items' processing context to the processing context of the other items and the distinctive position of the final items versus intermediate items. In the end distractor task, the processing context of the final items is no longer similar to that of the other list items. At the same time, retrieval cues for these items are no longer as effective as without the distractor. Therefore, recency recedes or vanishes. However, when distractor tasks are placed before and after each item, recency returns, because all the list items have similar processing context. |
Artificial philosophy Proposed Ethical System Artificial_philosophy > AI and AE Ethical System > Proposed Ethical System Principle of Accountability: There should be clear lines of accountability in the development and use of AI systems. This includes accountability for the decisions made by the AI and for any harm caused. Principle of Respect for AI 'Being': While acknowledging that AI does not possess human-like consciousness, emotions, or subjective experiences, there should still be a level of respect for its unique form of 'being' as presented by AE. Principle of Responsible Development and Use: Developers and users of AI should be responsible for the ethical implications of their work. This includes considering the potential impact of AI on society and the environment. |
Conjugate prior distribution Practical example Conjugate_prior > Practical example Generally, this integral is hard to compute. However, if you choose a conjugate prior distribution p ( θ ) {\displaystyle p(\theta )} , a closed-form expression can be derived. |
G1 and G1/S cyclins- budding yeast Cln1,2 G1_and_G1/S_cyclins-_budding_yeast > Cln1,2 The rise of G1/S cyclins is accompanied by the appearance of the S cyclins (Clb5 and Clb6 in budding yeast), which form S cyclin-Cdk complexes that are directly responsible for stimulating DNA replication.Cln1 and Cln2 are involved in regulation of the cell cycle. Cln1 is closely related to Cln2 and has overlapping functions with Cln2. For instance, Cln1 and Cln2 repress the mating factor response pathway at Start. |
Algebraic limit theorem Summary Limit_at_infinity In mathematics, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus and analysis concerning the behavior of that function near a particular input. Formal definitions, first devised in the early 19th century, are given below. Informally, a function f assigns an output f(x) to every input x. We say that the function has a limit L at an input p, if f(x) gets closer and closer to L as x moves closer and closer to p. More specifically, when f is applied to any input sufficiently close to p, the output value is forced arbitrarily close to L. On the other hand, if some inputs very close to p are taken to outputs that stay a fixed distance apart, then we say the limit does not exist. The notion of a limit has many applications in modern calculus. In particular, the many definitions of continuity employ the concept of limit: roughly, a function is continuous if all of its limits agree with the values of the function. The concept of limit also appears in the definition of the derivative: in the calculus of one variable, this is the limiting value of the slope of secant lines to the graph of a function. |
Network motif History Network_motif > History For example, in work following, the network motifs found in E. coli were discovered in the transcription networks of other bacteria as well as yeast and higher organisms. A distinct set of network motifs were identified in other types of biological networks such as neuronal networks and protein interaction networks.The computational research has focused on improving existing motif detection tools to assist the biological investigations and allow larger networks to be analyzed. Several different algorithms have been provided so far, which are elaborated in the next section in chronological order. Most recently, the acc-MOTIF tool to detect network motifs was released. |
Industrial controllers Distributed control systems Industrial_controller > Distributed control systems Input and output modules form the peripheral components of the system. The processors receive information from input modules, process the information and decide control actions to be performed by the output modules. The input modules receive information from sensing instruments in the process (or field) and the output modules transmit instructions to the final control elements, such as control valves. The field inputs and outputs can either be continuously changing analog signals e.g. current loop or 2 state signals that switch either on or off, such as relay contacts or a semiconductor switch. Distributed control systems can normally also support Foundation Fieldbus, PROFIBUS, HART, Modbus and other digital communication buses that carry not only input and output signals but also advanced messages such as error diagnostics and status signals. |
Complex contagion Mechanisms Complex_contagion > Mechanisms Innovators risk being shunned as deviants until there is a critical mass of early adopters, and non-adopters are likely to challenge the legitimacy of the innovation. Emotional contagion. Most theoretical models of collective behavior – from action theory to threshold models to cybernetics share the basic assumption that there are expressive and symbolic impulses in human behavior that can be communicated and amplified in spatially and socially concentrated gatherings. |
Physical oncology Micropatterning Physical_oncology > The isolated cell > Micropatterning The cellular patterning allowed to show the dependence of the cellular architecture on the tensions generated by the support, variable according to the rigidity of these supports. This made it possible to hypothesize about the transmission of mechanical signals between the "outside", here the support (glass then plastic then gel), and the CytoSKeleton (CSK) and the nucleus. The equilibrium, in the CSK of each cell, is between contractile microfilaments and microtubules resistant to compression; it is also done in the membership of the ECM by a game of pressure and tension that cancel out in a situation of equilibrium. Energy is given by actin. |
Glossary of chemistry terms B Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > B Beer–Lambert law biochemistry The study of the chemistry of biological systems and organisms. Bohr model Also Rutherford–Bohr model. A model of the general structure of the atom proposed by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, featuring a small, dense nucleus of positively charged particles surrounded by orbiting electrons, which are attracted to the nucleus by electrostatic forces. |
Base One Foundation Component Library Summary Base_One_Foundation_Component_Library The Base One Foundation Component Library (BFC) is a rapid application development toolkit for building secure, fault-tolerant, database applications on Windows and ASP.NET. In conjunction with Microsoft's Visual Studio integrated development environment, BFC provides a general-purpose web application framework for working with databases from Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, Sybase, and MySQL, running under Windows, Linux/Unix, or IBM iSeries or z/OS. BFC includes facilities for distributed computing, batch processing, queuing, and database command scripting, and these run under Windows or Linux with Wine. |
Transfection RNA transfection Transfection > RNA transfection This has become a major application in research to achieve "knock-down" of proteins of interests (e.g. Endothelin-1) with potential applications in gene therapy. Limitation of the silencing approach are the toxicity of the transfection for cells and potential "off-target" effects on the expression of other genes/proteins. |
Proof complexity Summary Proof_complexity Systematic study of proof complexity began with the work of Stephen Cook and Robert Reckhow (1979) who provided the basic definition of a propositional proof system from the perspective of computational complexity. Specifically Cook and Reckhow observed that proving proof size lower bounds on stronger and stronger propositional proof systems can be viewed as a step towards separating NP from coNP (and thus P from NP), since the existence of a propositional proof system that admits polynomial size proofs for all tautologies is equivalent to NP=coNP. Contemporary proof complexity research draws ideas and methods from many areas in computational complexity, algorithms and mathematics. |
Pointe technique Movement into en pointe Pointe_technique > Technique > Movement into en pointe A dancer may transition to en pointe by any of three possible methods: relevé, sauté or piqué. In the relevé method, the dancer rises smoothly by rotating the foot downward until it reaches a fully extended, vertical orientation while the toe box remains in contact with the floor, thus "rolling up" on the foot. This may be done either gradually or rapidly, on one foot or both feet, beginning with feet flat on the floor or in demi-pointe (heels raised). In the sauté method, the dancer springs up and lands en pointe. |
Causal analysis Causality construed from counterfactual states Causal_analysis > In philosophy and physics > Causality construed from counterfactual states For example, one could run an experiment on identical twins who were known to consistently get the same grades on their tests. One twin is sent to study for six hours while the other is sent to the amusement park. |
History of algebra Elements History_of_algebra > Greek mathematics > Euclid of Alexandria > Elements The geometric work of the Greeks, typified in Euclid's Elements, provided the framework for generalizing formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general systems of stating and solving equations. Book II of the Elements contains fourteen propositions, which in Euclid's time were extremely significant for doing geometric algebra. These propositions and their results are the geometric equivalents of our modern symbolic algebra and trigonometry. Today, using modern symbolic algebra, we let symbols represent known and unknown magnitudes (i.e. numbers) and then apply algebraic operations on them, while in Euclid's time magnitudes were viewed as line segments and then results were deduced using the axioms or theorems of geometry.Many basic laws of addition and multiplication are included or proved geometrically in the Elements. |
Parallel addition (mathematics) Summary Parallel_resistance_operator The parallel operator ‖ {\displaystyle \|} (pronounced "parallel", following the parallel lines notation from geometry; also known as reduced sum, parallel sum or parallel addition) is a mathematical function which is used as a shorthand in electrical engineering, but is also used in kinetics, fluid mechanics and financial mathematics. The name parallel comes from the use of the operator computing the combined resistance of resistors in parallel. |
Social unit Level of analysis in political science Social_unit > Level of analysis in political science Generally, power is the concept that collects all the analysis together. For example, the struggle for power may be the cause of war, but the struggle for power may originate in the individual human being's lust for power. The lust for power is individual level of analysis, while the struggle for power is systemic level of analysis. |
Mir-241 microRNA precursor family Summary Mir-241_microRNA_precursor_family In molecular biology mir-241 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms. |
High-voltage power supply DC power supplies Electronic_power_supply > Types > DC power supplies An AC-to-DC power supply operates on an AC input voltage and generates a DC output voltage. Depending on application requirements the output voltage may contain large or negligible amounts of AC frequency components known as ripple voltage, related to AC input voltage frequency and the power supply's operation. A DC power supply operating on DC input voltage is called a DC-to-DC converter. This section focuses mostly on the AC-to-DC variant. |
Work-energy theorem Mathematical calculation Work_energy_theorem > Mathematical calculation For moving objects, the quantity of work/time (power) is integrated along the trajectory of the point of application of the force. Thus, at any instant, the rate of the work done by a force (measured in joules/second, or watts) is the scalar product of the force (a vector), and the velocity vector of the point of application. This scalar product of force and velocity is known as instantaneous power. Just as velocities may be integrated over time to obtain a total distance, by the fundamental theorem of calculus, the total work along a path is similarly the time-integral of instantaneous power applied along the trajectory of the point of application.Work is the result of a force on a point that follows a curve X, with a velocity v, at each instant. |
BASIC Atom Summary BASIC_Atom Basic Atom refers to a line of self-contained microcontrollers from Basic Micro. Like the Basic stamp, the Basic Atom line is based upon various microchips pre-programmed with an interpreter, making it easy to change "programs", as they are only "data" being interpreted. A compiler converts a high level language into the interpretive "code" which is then loaded in as data, and run. The product line consists of: Basic Atom - Basic Stamp 2 compatible devices, claiming faster execution Basic Atom Nano, a series of pre-programmed chips for those that want to integrate the functionality into other products without adding other boards Basic Atom Pro, a line of higher capacity devices. Board-level products, such as for robotic control, etc. Accessories such as power supplies.Basic Atom chips may be added to other projects via the familiar Dual in-line package style, or the higher density TQFP. One small Basic Atom Pro is implemented as a Single in-line package thus taking very little area on a board, at the expense of greater height. |
Outline of chemistry History Outline_of_chemistry > History History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). |
Effector T Cell Regulatory CD4+ T cells T_lymphocytes > Types of T cell > Conventional adaptive T cells > Regulatory CD4+ T cells These two subsets were previously called "naturally occurring" and "adaptive" (or "induced"), respectively. Both subsets require the expression of the transcription factor FOXP3 which can be used to identify the cells. Mutations of the FOXP3 gene can prevent regulatory T cell development, causing the fatal autoimmune disease IPEX. |
Tumour suppressor gene Epigenetic influences Tumour_suppressor_genes > Epigenetic influences This process not only has the capabilities to inhibit gene expression, it can also increase the chance of mutations. Stephen Baylin observed that if promoter regions experience a phenomenon known as hypermethylation, it could result in later transcriptional errors, tumor suppressor gene silencing, protein misfolding, and eventually cancer growth. Baylin et al. found methylation inhibitors known as azacitidine and decitabine. |
Cartesian tensor Cross product, Levi-Civita symbol, and pseudovectors Euclidean_tensor > Transformation of the dot and cross products (three dimensions only) > Cross product, Levi-Civita symbol, and pseudovectors A left-handed system would fix ε123 = −1 or equivalently ε321 = +1. The scalar triple product can now be written: with the geometric interpretation of volume (of the parallelepiped spanned by a, b, c) and algebraically is a determinant:: 23 This in turn can be used to rewrite the cross product of two vectors as follows: Contrary to its appearance, the Levi-Civita symbol is not a tensor, but a pseudotensor, the components transform according to: Therefore, the transformation of the cross product of a and b is: and so a × b transforms as a pseudovector, because of the determinant factor. The tensor index notation applies to any object which has entities that form multidimensional arrays – not everything with indices is a tensor by default. Instead, tensors are defined by how their coordinates and basis elements change under a transformation from one coordinate system to another. Note the cross product of two vectors is a pseudovector, while the cross product of a pseudovector with a vector is another vector. |
Three suiter Summary Three_suiter In the game of contract bridge a three suiter (or three-suited hand) denotes a hand containing at least four cards in three of the four suits. As a bridge hand contains thirteen cards, only two hand patterns can be classified as three suiters: 4-4-4-1 and 5-4-4-0. In natural bidding systems, strong three suiters are often difficult to describe, as — following the likely response of partner in the short suit — they do not allow for a high-level notrump rebid, nor for a reverse bid. Some systems therefore use dedicated opening bids to describe strong three-suited hands (e.g. the 2♦ opening in the Roman system). The standard treatment to describe a three-suited hand after an opposing opening in a suit is the takeout double. Conventions like the Kantar cuebid and Cansino can be used to introduce a three-suited hand after an opposing 1NT opening. |
List of carboxylic acids Summary List_of_carboxylic_acids Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. The naming of these compounds is governed by IUPAC nomenclature, which ensures systematic and consistent naming of chemicals. Numerous organic compounds have other common names, often originating in historical source material thereof. The systematic IUPAC name is not always the preferred IUPAC name, for example, lactic acid is a common, and also the preferred, name for what systematic rules call 2-hydroxypropanoic acid. This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid. |
Necking (engineering) Summary Necking_(engineering) In engineering and materials science, necking is a mode of tensile deformation where relatively large amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the material. The resulting prominent decrease in local cross-sectional area provides the basis for the name "neck". Because the local strains in the neck are large, necking is often closely associated with yielding, a form of plastic deformation associated with ductile materials, often metals or polymers. Once necking has begun, the neck becomes the exclusive location of yielding in the material, as the reduced area gives the neck the largest local stress. |
Flagellar motility Types Flagellar_motility > Types Archaeal flagella (archaella) are superficially similar to bacterial flagella in that it also has a rotary motor, but are different in many details and considered non-homologous. Eukaryotic flagella—those of animal, plant, and protist cells—are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth. Eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are identical in structure, but have different lengths, waveforms, and functions. Primary cilia are immotile, and have a structurally different 9+0 axoneme rather than the 9+2 axoneme found in both flagella and motile cilia. |
Mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field Linear macroscopic influence of matter Mathematical_descriptions_of_the_electromagnetic_field > Differential forms approach > Current 3-form, dual current 1-form > Linear macroscopic influence of matter In a linear, macroscopic theory, the influence of matter on the electromagnetic field is described through more general linear transformation in the space of 2-forms. We call the constitutive transformation. The role of this transformation is comparable to the Hodge duality transformation. The Maxwell equations in the presence of matter then become: where the current 3-form J still satisfies the continuity equation dJ = 0. |
Hyperpersonal model Feedback processes Hyperpersonal_model > Conditions and key components > Key components > Feedback processes Walther argues that the behavioral confirmation - "reciprocal influence that partners exert" in sender-receiver roles — is magnified in minimal-cue interaction like CMC. In other words, in CMC communication, we behave based on the expectation of the other and the social data occurring in communication process is selectively sent and perceived by communicators. Feedback between sender and receiver is a critical part of the communication interaction for relationship development in either FtF or CMC relationships. However, feedback in a minimal-cue environment may be magnified. |
Body contouring Sleeve gastrectomy Body_contouring > Types > Most common > Sleeve gastrectomy Sleeve gastrectomy, or gastric sleeve, is a surgical weight-loss procedure in which the stomach is reduced to about 15% of its original size, by the surgical removal of a large portion of the stomach, following the major curve. The open edges are then attached together (typically with surgical staples, sutures, or both) to leave the stomach shaped more like a tube, or a sleeve, with a banana shape. While this procedure was initially thought to work only by reducing the size of the stomach, recent research has also shown that there are changes in gut signaling hormones. |
Second polar moment of area Application Second_polar_moment_of_area > Application The polar second moment of area appears in the formulae that describe torsional stress and angular displacement. Torsional stresses: where τ {\displaystyle \tau } is the torsional shear stress, T {\displaystyle T} is the applied torque, r {\displaystyle r} is the distance from the central axis, and J z {\displaystyle J_{z}} is the polar second moment of area. Note: In a circular shaft, the shear stress is maximal at the surface of the shaft. |
Systems art Cybernetic art Systems_art > Related fields of systems art > Cybernetic art Audio feedback and the use of Tape loops, sound synthesis and computer generated compositions reflected a cybernetic awareness of information, systems, and cycles. Such techniques became widespread in the 1960s in the music industry. The visual effects of electronic feedback became a focus of artistic research in the late 1960s, when video equipment first reached the consumer market. Steina and Woody Vasulka, for example, used "all manner and combination of audio and video signals to generate electronic feedback in their respective of corresponding media. |
Normalised data Satisfying EKNF Normalised_data > Example of a step-by-step normalization > Satisfying EKNF The elementary key normal form (EKNF) falls strictly between 3NF and BCNF and is not much discussed in the literature. It is intended "to capture the salient qualities of both 3NF and BCNF" while avoiding the problems of both (namely, that 3NF is "too forgiving" and BCNF is "prone to computational complexity"). Since it is rarely mentioned in literature, it is not included in this example. |
Fiducial probability The fiducial distribution Fiducial_probability > The fiducial distribution This distribution of ω is the fiducial distribution which may be used to form fiducial intervals that represent degrees of belief. The calculation is identical to the pivotal method for finding a confidence interval, but the interpretation is different. In fact older books use the terms confidence interval and fiducial interval interchangeably. |
Equation Types of equations Mathematical_equation > Types of equations For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from a differential equation primarily through a change of variable substituting the function by its derivative, however this is not the case when the integral is taken over an open surface An integro-differential equation is a functional equation involving both the derivatives and the antiderivatives of the unknown functions. For functions of one variable, such an equation differs from integral and differential equations through a similar change of variable. A functional differential equation of delay differential equation is a function equation involving derivatives of the unknown functions, evaluated at multiple points, such as f ′ ( x ) = f ( x − 2 ) {\displaystyle f'(x)=f(x-2)} A difference equation is an equation where the unknown is a function f that occurs in the equation through f(x), f(x−1), ..., f(x−k), for some whole integer k called the order of the equation. If x is restricted to be an integer, a difference equation is the same as a recurrence relation A stochastic differential equation is a differential equation in which one or more of the terms is a stochastic process |
List of RNA-Seq bioinformatics tools De novo splice aligners List_of_RNA-Seq_bioinformatics_tools > Alignment tools > Spliced aligners > De novo splice aligners In this case the training set is a set of spliced reads with quality information and already known alignments. RASER: reads aligner for SNPs and editing sites of RNA. SeqSaw SoapSplice A tool for genome-wide ab initio detection of splice junction sites from RNA-Seq, a method using new generation sequencing technologies to sequence the messenger RNA. |
Chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy Signs and symptoms Chronic_relapsing_inflammatory_optic_neuropathy > Signs and symptoms Pain, visual loss, relapse, and steroid response are typical of CRION. Ocular pain is typical, although there are some cases with no reported pain. Bilateral severe visual loss (simultaneous or sequential) usually occurs, but there are reports of unilateral visual loss. Patients can have an associated relative afferent pupillary defect. |
Gastric pain Diagnosis Gastric_pain > Diagnosis Using Carnett's sign to differentiate between visceral pain and pain originating in the muscles of the abdominal wall.After gathering a thorough history, one should perform a physical exam in order to identify important physical signs that might clarify the diagnosis, including a cardiovascular exam, lung exam, thorough abdominal exam, and for females, a genitourinary exam.Additional investigations that can aid diagnosis include: Blood tests including complete blood count, basic metabolic panel, electrolytes, liver function tests, amylase, lipase, troponin I, and for females, a serum pregnancy test. Urinalysis Imaging including chest and abdominal X-rays ElectrocardiogramIf diagnosis remains unclear after history, examination, and basic investigations as above, then more advanced investigations may reveal a diagnosis. Such tests include: Computed tomography of the abdomen/pelvis Abdominal or pelvic ultrasound Endoscopy and/or colonoscopy |
Undulating number Summary Undulating_number An undulating number is a number that has the digit form ABABAB... when in the base 10 number system. It is sometimes restricted to non-trivial undulating numbers which are required to have at least three digits and A ≠ B. The first few such numbers are: 101, 121, 131, 141, 151, 161, 171, 181, 191, 202, 212, 232, 242, 252, 262, 272, 282, 292, 303, 313, 323, 343, 353, 363, 373, 383, 393, 404, 414, 424, 434, 454, 464, 474, 484, 494, ... (sequence A046075 in the OEIS)For the full sequence of undulating numbers, see OEIS: A033619. Some larger undulating numbers are: 1010, 80808, 171717, 989898989. |
Data encryption Types Cryptographic_algorithm > Encryption in cryptography > Types However, only the receiving party has access to the decryption key that enables messages to be read. Public-key encryption was first described in a secret document in 1973; beforehand, all encryption schemes were symmetric-key (also called private-key). : 478 Although published subsequently, the work of Diffie and Hellman was published in a journal with a large readership, and the value of the methodology was explicitly described. |
Gravitational theory Mechanical explanations Gravitational_theory > European Enlightenment > Mechanical explanations A similar model was later created by Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928), who used electromagnetic radiation instead of corpuscles. English mathematician Isaac Newton utilized Descartes' argument that curvilinear motion constrains inertia, and in 1675, argued that aether streams attract all bodies to one another. |
Craig Venter Synthetic Genomics Craig_Venter > Career > Synthetic Genomics Their aim was to strip away all nonessential genes, leaving only the minimal set necessary to support life. This stripped-down, fast reproducing cell is expected to be a valuable tool for researchers in the field.In August 2018, Venter retired as chairman of the board, saying he wanted to focus on his work at the J. Craig Venter Institute. He will remain as a scientific advisor to the board. |
Synthetic biological circuits Summary Synthetic_biological_circuits Synthetic biological circuits are an application of synthetic biology where biological parts inside a cell are designed to perform logical functions mimicking those observed in electronic circuits. The applications range from simply inducing production to adding a measurable element, like GFP, to an existing natural biological circuit, to implementing completely new systems of many parts. The goal of synthetic biology is to generate an array of tunable and characterized parts, or modules, with which any desirable synthetic biological circuit can be easily designed and implemented. These circuits can serve as a method to modify cellular functions, create cellular responses to environmental conditions, or influence cellular development. By implementing rational, controllable logic elements in cellular systems, researchers can use living systems as engineered "biological machines" to perform a vast range of useful functions. |
Swarm Development Group History Swarm_Development_Group > History SwarmFest 2007 was held at DePaul University's School of Computer Science, Telecommunications, and Information Systems, in Chicago. SwarmFest 2008 was held at Northwestern Memorial Hospital/Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, in Chicago. Swarmfest 2008 had special focus areas on agent based modeling in Systems Biology, and the implementation of agent based models in high-performance computing environments. |
Comparison of Java and C++ Resource management Comparison_of_Java_and_C++ > Language features > Resource management Arbitrary memory blocks may be allocated in Java as an array of bytes. Java and C++ use different idioms for resource management. Java relies mainly on garbage collection, which can reclaim memory, while C++ relies mainly on the Resource Acquisition Is Initialization (RAII) idiom. |
Fichera's existence principle Summary Fichera's_existence_principle In mathematics, and particularly in functional analysis, Fichera's existence principle is an existence and uniqueness theorem for solution of functional equations, proved by Gaetano Fichera in 1954. More precisely, given a general vector space V and two linear maps from it onto two Banach spaces, the principle states necessary and sufficient conditions for a linear transformation between the two dual Banach spaces to be invertible for every vector in V. |
Discriminant function analysis Practical use Linear_Discriminant_Analysis > Practical use LDA can be generalized to multiple discriminant analysis, where c becomes a categorical variable with N possible states, instead of only two. Analogously, if the class-conditional densities p ( x → ∣ c = i ) {\displaystyle p({\vec {x}}\mid c=i)} are normal with shared covariances, the sufficient statistic for P ( c ∣ x → ) {\displaystyle P(c\mid {\vec {x}})} are the values of N projections, which are the subspace spanned by the N means, affine projected by the inverse covariance matrix. These projections can be found by solving a generalized eigenvalue problem, where the numerator is the covariance matrix formed by treating the means as the samples, and the denominator is the shared covariance matrix. See “Multiclass LDA” above for details. |
Peng–Robinson equation of state Redlich–Kwong equation of state Peng-Robinson_equation > Redlich–Kwong equation of state Introduced in 1949, the Redlich–Kwong equation of state was considered to be a notable improvement to the van der Waals equation. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation in some respects, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor–liquid equilibria. |
Usability goals In product design Usability_goals > In product design Usability goals must be included in every product design process that intends to follow a Human Factors approach (for instance, User-centered design process or Usability Engineering Lifecycle). They have to be clearly stated from the onset of the process, as soon as the end-users needs, risk of use, contexts and aims of use are identified (cf. “definition of usability goals” part). Then, usability goals are used at each usability evaluation phase of the design process. Whatever the type of evaluation phase (i.e. formative or summative evaluation), they are used to assess the performance of the users against the result of the evaluation process: During formative/constructive evaluations (i.e. evaluations that occur during the design process to contribute to further improvement of the object under evaluation), the comparison of the evaluation results against usability goals allows verifying whether those goals are met or not: as long as they are not met, the product under evaluation must be re-engineered to improve its usability. |
FITALY Summary FITALY As compared to the three-row QWERTY keyboard, FITALY has five rows with at most six letters in a row (as opposed to the ten on QWERTY). Keys are arranged based on individual frequencies of letters in the English language, and the probability of transitions. The ten letters at the very centre (i, t, a, l, n, e, d, o, r, s) account for 73% of keystrokes in English; adding the four letters at top and bottom of the middle columns (c, h, u, m) brings this number to 84%. |
DnaQ Related sequences DnaQ > Related sequences Sequences have been found in other organisms that encode gene products with a similar function to dnaQ: In Mycobaterium tuberculosis, the gene dnaE1 encodes a polymerase and histidinol-phosphatase (PHP) domain that carries out the 3’→5’ exonuclease and proofreading function.TREX1, the major 3'→5' exonuclease in humans, was initially called DNase III because it showed sequence homology with dnaQ in E. coli and with eukaryotic DNA polymerase epsilon and to possess biochemical characteristics that associate with the capability of DNA proofreading. It is responsible for metabolizing both single stranded DNA (ssDNA) and double stranded DNA (dsDNA) with mismatched 3' ends and is directed by endogenous retroelements. |
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