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Fibonacci heap Structure Fibonacci_heap > Structure This additional time is then later combined and subtracted from the actual running time of slow operations. The amount of time saved for later use is measured at any given moment by a potential function. The potential of a Fibonacci heap is given by Potential = t + 2mwhere t is the number of trees in the Fibonacci heap, and m is the number of marked nodes.
Multi-Version Concurrency Control Description Multi-Version_Concurrency_Control > Description Without concurrency control, if someone is reading from a database at the same time as someone else is writing to it, it is possible that the reader will see a half-written or inconsistent piece of data. For instance, when making a wire transfer between two bank accounts if a reader reads the balance at the bank when the money has been withdrawn from the original account and before it was deposited in the destination account, it would seem that money has disappeared from the bank. Isolation is the property that provides guarantees in the concurrent accesses to data. Isolation is implemented by means of a concurrency control protocol.
PQ tree PC trees PQ_tree > PC trees The PC tree, developed by Wei-Kuan Shih and Wen-Lian Hsu, is a more recent generalization of the PQ tree. Like the PQ tree, it represents permutations by reorderings of nodes in a tree, with elements represented at the leaves of the tree. Unlike the PQ tree, the PC tree is unrooted. The nodes adjacent to any non-leaf node labeled P may be reordered arbitrarily as in the PQ tree, while the nodes adjacent to any non-leaf node labeled C have a fixed cyclic order and may only be reordered by reversing this order.
Semantic argument Argument from Verbal Classification Semantic_argument > Structure > Argument from Verbal Classification It also includes classification arguments (also called "attributive arguments"). In order to assess semantic argument one need to assess semantic modification made in it first. The criteria for assessing such modifications are: transparency of modification, coherence with usage, consequences of modification, authority of modifying party, alternative meanings. Also the individual premise (which attributes the key property to the given object) needs to be evaluated, since sometimes it is the most vulnerable piece of argument.
Polynomial functional calculus Spectral projections Polynomial_functional_calculus > Spectral considerations > Spectral projections Any isolated point of σ(T) is both open and closed in the subspace topology and therefore has an associated spectral projection. When X has finite dimension σ(T) consists of isolated points and the resultant spectral projections lead to a variant of Jordan normal form wherein all the Jordan blocks corresponding to the same eigenvalue are consolidated. In other words there is precisely one block per distinct eigenvalue.
Plastic bottle Petrochemical resins Plastic_bottle > Production > Petrochemical resins Polycarbonate (PC) PC is a clear plastic used to make bottles for milk and water. Five-gallon water bottles are a common application of PC. Polypropylene (PP) PP is used primarily for jars and closures.
Wall follower Shortest path algorithm Maze-solving_algorithm > Shortest path algorithm Each visited cell needs to keep track of its distance from the start or which adjacent cell nearer to the start caused it to be added to the queue. When the finish location is found, follow the path of cells backwards to the start, which is the shortest path. The breadth-first search in its simplest form has its limitations, like finding the shortest path in weighted graphs.
Generative artificial intelligence Deepfakes Generative_artificial_intelligence > Concerns > Deepfakes Deepfakes (a portmanteau of "deep learning" and "fake") are AI-generated media that take a person in an existing image or video and replace them with someone else's likeness using artificial neural networks. Deepfakes have garnered widespread attention and concerns for their uses in deepfake celebrity pornographic videos, revenge porn, fake news, hoaxes, and financial fraud. This has elicited responses from both industry and government to detect and limit their use.
BASIC-PLUS Variables, expressions and matrixes BASIC-PLUS > Syntax and features > Variables, expressions and matrixes Logical operators included the typical NOT A, A AND B and A OR B, along with A XOR B, A EQV B which return true if both A and B are true or both are false, and A IMP B which is false if A is true and B is false and otherwise always true.The DIM statement could allocate one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays of any of the three data types. The range of subscripts always began with 0 (but MAT statements did not set elements in row 0 or column 0).The language also included a number of MAT commands to work with the entire array (or MATrix). The MAT READ command would fill the matrix with values in a DATA statement, MAT INPUT would fill the array with user-typed values, and MAT PRINT would print out the elements in a 1D or 2D format.
Social graph Open Graph Social_graph > Open Graph Facebook's Graph API allows websites to draw information about more objects than simply people, including photos, events, and pages, and their relationships between each other. This expands the social graph concept to more than just relationships between individuals and instead applies it to virtual non-human objects between individuals, as well.
Thought suppression Cognitive dynamics Thought_suppression > Cognitive dynamics Wegner hypothesized that multiple retrieval cues not being forged explains, in part, the effectiveness of focused distraction (i.e., a reduction of mental load). This is because there may be an ideal balance between the two processes; if the cognitive demand that isn't too heavy, then the monitoring processes won't supersede it.
Equilibrium state Non-equilibrium Thermodynamic_Equilibrium > Non-equilibrium A system's internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium should be distinguished from a "stationary state" in which thermodynamic parameters are unchanging in time but the system is not isolated, so that there are, into and out of the system, non-zero macroscopic fluxes which are constant in time.Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems. The thermodynamic study of non-equilibrium systems requires more general concepts than are dealt with by equilibrium thermodynamics. Many natural systems still today remain beyond the scope of currently known macroscopic thermodynamic methods.
Kind of quantity Space Physical_quantity > Base and derived quantities > General derived quantities > Space Important applied base units for space and time are below. Area and volume are thus, of course, derived from the length, but included for completeness as they occur frequently in many derived quantities, in particular densities.
Decentralized information technology Free market Decentralized_information_technology > Economic decentralization > Free market In his view, there was no trend towards concentration and monopolization. While there were a wave of mergers of companies trying to corner markets, they found there was too much competition to do so. According to Kolko, this was also true in banking and finance, which saw decentralization as leading to instability as state and local banks competed with the big New York City firms.
Tetanus Pathophysiology Tetanus > Pathophysiology There are three domains, each of which contributes to the pathophysiology of the toxin. The heavy chain has two of the domains. The N-terminal side of the heavy chain helps with membrane translocation, and the C-terminal side helps the toxin locate the specific receptor site on the correct neuron. The light chain domain cleaves the VAMP protein once it arrives in the inhibitory neuron cytosol.There are four main steps in tetanus's mechanism of action: binding to the neuron, internalization of the toxin, membrane translocation, and cleavage of the target VAMP.
Generalized additive model Summary Generalized_additive_model In statistics, a generalized additive model (GAM) is a generalized linear model in which the linear response variable depends linearly on unknown smooth functions of some predictor variables, and interest focuses on inference about these smooth functions. GAMs were originally developed by Trevor Hastie and Robert Tibshirani to blend properties of generalized linear models with additive models. They can be interpreted as the discriminative generalization of the naive Bayes generative model.The model relates a univariate response variable, Y, to some predictor variables, xi. An exponential family distribution is specified for Y (for example normal, binomial or Poisson distributions) along with a link function g (for example the identity or log functions) relating the expected value of Y to the predictor variables via a structure such as g ( E ⁡ ( Y ) ) = β 0 + f 1 ( x 1 ) + f 2 ( x 2 ) + ⋯ + f m ( x m ) .
Computational RAM Processor-in-/near-memory Computational_RAM > Processor-in-/near-memory A processor-in-/near-memory (PINM) refers to a computer processor (CPU) tightly coupled to memory, generally on the same silicon chip. The chief goal of merging the processing and memory components in this way is to reduce memory latency and increase bandwidth. Alternatively reducing the distance that data needs to be moved reduces the power requirements of a system. Much of the complexity (and hence power consumption) in current processors stems from strategies to deal with avoiding memory stalls.
Hydrolytic enzymes Classification Hydrolytic_enzymes > Classification Hydrolases are classified as EC 3 in the EC number classification of enzymes. Hydrolases can be further classified into several subclasses, based upon the bonds they act upon: EC 3.1: ester bonds (esterases: nucleases, phosphodiesterases, lipase, phosphatase) EC 3.2: sugars (DNA glycosylases, glycoside hydrolase) EC 3.3: ether bonds EC 3.4: peptide bonds (Proteases/peptidases) EC 3.5: carbon-nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds EC 3.6 acid anhydrides (acid anhydride hydrolases, including helicases and GTPase) EC 3.7 carbon-carbon bonds EC 3.8 halide bonds EC 3.9: phosphorus-nitrogen bonds EC 3.10: sulphur-nitrogen bonds EC 3.11: carbon-phosphorus bonds EC 3.12: sulfur-sulfur bonds EC 3.13: carbon-sulfur bonds
Belief propagation Description of the sum-product algorithm Loopy_belief_propagation > Description of the sum-product algorithm Likewise, the estimated joint marginal distribution of the set of variables belonging to one factor is proportional to the product of the factor and the messages from the variables: p X a ( x a ) ∝ f a ( x a ) ∏ v ∈ N ( a ) μ v → a ( x v ) . {\displaystyle p_{X_{a}}(\mathbf {x} _{a})\propto f_{a}(\mathbf {x} _{a})\prod _{v\in N(a)}\mu _{v\to a}(x_{v}).} In the case where the factor graph is acyclic (i.e. is a tree or a forest), these estimated marginal actually converge to the true marginals in a finite number of iterations. This can be shown by mathematical induction.
Energy storage system Air conditioning Gravitational_potential_energy_storage > Applications > Air conditioning This ice is produced when electrical utility rates are lower. Off-peak cooling systems can lower energy costs. The U.S.
Gibbs sampler Inference Gibbs_sampler > Inference When a value for multiple variables is desired, the expected value is simply computed over each variable separately. (When computing the mode, however, all variables must be considered together.) Supervised learning, unsupervised learning and semi-supervised learning (aka learning with missing values) can all be handled by simply fixing the values of all variables whose values are known, and sampling from the remainder.
Lorentz transformation Physical implications Lorentz_boosts > Physical formulation of Lorentz boosts > Physical implications A critical requirement of the Lorentz transformations is the invariance of the speed of light, a fact used in their derivation, and contained in the transformations themselves. If in F the equation for a pulse of light along the x direction is x = ct, then in F′ the Lorentz transformations give x′ = ct′, and vice versa, for any −c < v < c. For relative speeds much less than the speed of light, the Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformation in accordance with the correspondence principle. It is sometimes said that nonrelativistic physics is a physics of "instantaneous action at a distance".Three counterintuitive, but correct, predictions of the transformations are: Relativity of simultaneity Suppose two events occur along the x axis simultaneously (Δt = 0) in F, but separated by a nonzero displacement Δx. Then in F′, we find that Δ t ′ = γ − v Δ x c 2 {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma {\frac {-v\,\Delta x}{c^{2}}}} , so the events are no longer simultaneous according to a moving observer.
Right lung Respiratory tract Pulmonary_acinus > Microanatomy > Respiratory tract Air is warmed to 37 °C (99 °F), humidified and cleansed by the conducting zone. Particles from the air being removed by the cilia on the respiratory epithelium lining the passageways, in a process called mucociliary clearance. Pulmonary stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of the airways initiate a reflex known as the Hering–Breuer reflex that prevents the lungs from over-inflation, during forceful inspiration.
AdS/CFT correspondence Nuclear physics AdS/CFT_duality > Applications to quantum field theory > Nuclear physics One physical system which has been studied using the AdS/CFT correspondence is the quark–gluon plasma, an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators. This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies. Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvins, conditions similar to those present at around 10−11 seconds after the Big Bang.The physics of the quark–gluon plasma is governed by quantum chromodynamics, but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark–gluon plasma.
RAD51 MicroRNA control of RAD51 expression RAD51 > MicroRNA control of RAD51 expression In mammals, microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate about 60% of the transcriptional activity of protein-encoding genes. Some miRNAs also undergo methylation-associated silencing in cancer cells. If a repressive miRNA is silenced by hypermethylation or deletion, then a gene it is targeting becomes over-expressed.
Neural network History Neural_network > History In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.Neural network research was boosted when computers achieved greater processing power. Also key in later advances was the backpropagation algorithm. It is an efficient application of the Leibniz chain rule (1673) to networks of differentiable nodes.
Inner planets Orbits Outer_planet > Structure and composition > Orbits : 433–437 These laws stipulate that each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus, which causes the body's distance from the Sun to vary over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. : 9-6 The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits.
Carboxylate–based metal–organic frameworks 1.4.2.1 CPO-27 / MOF-74 Carboxylate-based_metal–organic_frameworks > 1.4.1 Divalent Carboxylates > 1.4.2.1 CPO-27 / MOF-74 This organic molecule acts as a rigid pillar between chains with each linker bound to three different metal sites from each chain. Removal of the solvent molecules from the terminal metal sites creates five-coordinate metal cations with little freedom to rotate or distort the chain to change the coordination environment. This unfavourable coordination environment means that the activated metal site has a high enthalpy of adsorption and is readily filled by adsorbed guest species. The chain is topologically identical to that of the nickel bisphosphonate STA-12(Ni) but differs upon dehydration where the additional flexibility of the bisphosphonate linker allows the chain to twist and distort reducing the accessibility of the coordinatively unsaturated metal site. The availability of this metal site in the CPO-27 framework has been explored for a number of different adsorption applications involving gases such as CO2, H2 and NO.
Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy Behavioral Chemotherapy-induced_peripheral_neuropathy > Treatment and prevention > Behavioral Examples of stretches for the lower body include lunges and hamstring pulls. Stretches like these have been clinically shown to help alleviate pain and restore at least some mobility in patients with CIPN.Walking can be effective in alleviating CIPN symptoms by boosting muscle power, increasing blood circulation, and improving balance. Walking provides low to moderately intense aerobic exercise (60-85% of heart rate reserve), and a regular walking schedule can decrease intensity and frequency of neuropathic symptoms while promoting healthy nerve growth and function.
First derivative Continuity and differentiability First-order_derivative_expression > Continuity and differentiability For example, the absolute value function given by f ( x ) = \| x \| {\displaystyle f(x)=\|x\|} is continuous at x = 0 {\displaystyle x=0} , but it is not differentiable there. If h is positive, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is one; if h is negative, then the slope of the secant line from 0 to h is -1. This can be seen graphically as a "kink" or a "cusp" in the graph at x = 0 {\displaystyle x=0} .
Torque tube Construction Torque_tube > Construction The torque tube solves that problem by coupling the differential housing to the transmission housing and therefore propels the car forward by pushing up on the engine/transmission and then through the engine mounts to the car frame, with the reverse happening during braking. In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive transmits the traction forces to the car frame by using suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms.A type of ball and socket joint called a "torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and transmission due to suspension travel. Later American Motors Rambler models (1962 through 1966) used a flange and cushion mount in place of the ball and socket.
Multisensory integration Psychophysical development of integration Multisensory_integration > Development of multisensory operations > Psychophysical development of integration Therefore, sensory signals need to be constantly re-evaluated to appreciate these various physiological changes. Some support comes from animal studies that explore the neurobiology behind integration.
Independence of irrelevant alternatives In nature Independence_of_irrelevant_alternatives > In nature Natural selection can favor animals' non-IIA-type choices, thought to be due to occasional availability of foodstuffs, according to a study published in January 2014.
Immune response modifier Summary Biological_response_modifier Biological response modifiers (BRMs) are substances that modify immune responses. They can be both endogenous (produced naturally within the body) and exogenous (as pharmaceutical drugs), and they can either enhance an immune response or suppress it. Some of these substances arouse the body's response to an infection, and others can keep the response from becoming excessive. Thus they serve as immunomodulators in immunotherapy (therapy that makes use of immune responses), which can be helpful in treating cancer (where targeted therapy often relies on the immune system being used to attack cancer cells) and in treating autoimmune diseases (in which the immune system attacks the self), such as some kinds of arthritis and dermatitis.
Signaling peptide Example families Peptide_fragment > Example families The peptide families in this section are ribosomal peptides, usually with hormonal activity. All of these peptides are synthesized by cells as longer "propeptides" or "proproteins" and truncated prior to exiting the cell. They are released into the bloodstream where they perform their signaling functions.
History of mathematical notation Derivatives notation: Leibniz and Newton History_of_mathematical_notation > Symbolic stage > Derivatives notation: Leibniz and Newton The study of linear algebra emerged from the study of determinants, which were used to solve systems of linear equations. Calculus had two main systems of notation, each created by one of the creators: that developed by Isaac Newton and the notation developed by Gottfried Leibniz. Leibniz's is the notation used most often today. Newton's was simply a dot or dash placed above the function.
Differential privacy The Laplace mechanism Differential_privacy > ε-differentially private mechanisms > The Laplace mechanism Though we have used Laplace noise here, other forms of noise, such as the Gaussian Noise, can be employed, but they may require a slight relaxation of the definition of differential privacy.According to this definition, differential privacy is a condition on the release mechanism (i.e., the trusted party releasing information about the dataset) and not on the dataset itself. Intuitively, this means that for any two datasets that are similar, a given differentially private algorithm will behave approximately the same on both datasets. The definition gives a strong guarantee that presence or absence of an individual will not affect the final output of the algorithm significantly.
Orders of magnitude (time) Summary Orders_of_magnitude_(time) Prefixes are not usually used with a base unit of years. Therefore, it is said "a million years" instead of "a mega year".
Secure multiparty computation Two-party computation Secure_multi-party_computation > Protocols > Two-party computation Firstly, the ranges of the encryption function under any two distinct keys are disjoint (with overwhelming probability). The second property says that it can be checked efficiently whether a given ciphertext has been encrypted under a given key. With these two properties the receiver, after obtaining the labels for all circuit-input wires, can evaluate each gate by first finding out which of the four ciphertexts has been encrypted with his label keys, and then decrypting to obtain the label of the output wire.
0.999... Rigorous proof 0.999... > Elementary proof > Rigorous proof The previous explanation is not a proof, as one cannot define properly the relationship between a number and its representation as a point on the number line. For the accuracy of the proof, the number 0.999...9, with n nines after the decimal point, is denoted 0.(9)n. Thus 0.
Rainbow tables Background Rainbow_table > Background This is the same as inverting the hash function. Though brute-force attacks (e.g. dictionary attacks) may be used to try to invert a hash function, they can become infeasible when the set of possible passwords is large enough. An alternative to brute-force is to use precomputed hash chain tables. Rainbow tables are a special kind of such table that overcome certain technical difficulties.
Energy production Classification of resources Energy_technologies > Classification of resources Energy resources may be classified as primary resources, suitable for end use without conversion to another form, or secondary resources, where the usable form of energy required substantial conversion from a primary source. Examples of primary energy resources are wind power, solar power, wood fuel, fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, and uranium. Secondary resources are those such as electricity, hydrogen, or other synthetic fuels. Another important classification is based on the time required to regenerate an energy resource.
GNU Compiler Collection Other features GNU_C > Design > Other features Some features of GCC include: Link-time optimization Link-time optimization optimizes across object file boundaries to directly improve the linked binary. Link-time optimization relies on an intermediate file containing the serialization of some Gimple representation included in the object file. The file is generated alongside the object file during source compilation. Each source compilation generates a separate object file and link-time helper file.
Kernel (neurotechnology company) Kernel Flow Kernel_(neurotechnology_company) > History > Kernel Flow Kernel Flow is a wearable time-domain functional near-infrared spectroscopy (TD-fNIRS) system. fNIRs uses infrared light to measure changes in the oxygenation of blood, which is a proxy for neural activity. Kernel Flow can achieve a 200 Hz sampling rate. The spatial resolution of f-NIRS is strongly limited by scattering, with most existing f-NIRS systems having resolutions > 2 cm.
Geometry instancing Summary Geometry_instancing In real-time computer graphics, geometry instancing is the practice of rendering multiple copies of the same mesh in a scene at once. This technique is primarily used for objects such as trees, grass, or buildings which can be represented as repeated geometry without appearing unduly repetitive, but may also be used for characters. Although vertex data is duplicated across all instanced meshes, each instance may have other differentiating parameters (such as color, or skeletal animation pose) changed in order to reduce the appearance of repetition.
Glossary of mechanical engineering Y Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering > Y Yield point – In materials science and engineering, the yield point is the point on a stress-strain curve that indicates the limit of elastic behavior and the beginning of plastic behavior. Below the yield point, a material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible and is known as plastic deformation. Yield strength – or yield stress, is a material property and is the stress corresponding to the yield point at which the material begins to deform plastically.
C7H8N4O2 Summary C7H8N4O2 The molecular formula C7H8N4O2 (molar mass: 180.16 g/mol) may refer to: Paraxanthine Theobromine Theophylline
Neuronal group selection Completing Darwin's program – the problems of evolutionary and developmental morphology Neural_Darwinism > Completing Darwin's program – the problems of evolutionary and developmental morphology Things had changed by the early 1900s, the Neodarwinian synthesis had unified the population biology of Mendelian inheritance with Darwinian natural selection. By the 1940s, the theories had been shown to be mutually consistent and coherent with paleontology and comparative morphology. The theory came to be known as the modern synthesis on the basis of the title of the 1942 book Evolution: The Modern Synthesis by Julian Huxley.The modern synthesis really took off with the discovery of the structural basis of heredity in the form of DNA.
Product optimization Methods Product_optimization > Methods More recently companies started to adopt Evolutionary Optimization techniques for Product optimization. Evolutionary algorithms (such as IDDEA) are used to optimize products, concepts and messaging. == References ==
Donald Trump and handshakes Academic analysis Donald_Trump_and_handshakes > Analysis > Academic analysis O'Loughlin described the geopolitical effect of the handshakes as follows: Trump's win-lose, zero-sum handshakes offer a visual presentation of isolationism that produces a jarring effect; they are a shock to long-established and near-universally shared norms of diplomatic conduct as well as policies that ostensibly maintain a liberal, multilateral world order made up of plural but largely cooperative governance mechanisms. The rest of the world can refuse to play Trump's game here, or play the game by enduring the handshakes while otherwise sustaining multilateral order themselves and making deals without Trump as was case in 2017 when Trump's administration opted out of climate change and trade deals. O'Loughlin also described how the media's sustained amplification of the handshakes provide three significant insights into news values – the criteria which influence the selection and presentation of events as published news: News values' privileging of personalisation, calibration to powerful actors, and drama; all three criteria being met by the handshakes Modern digital "multisensorial mediums" allowing gesture to be communicated widely Journalistic realization of their complicity in overweighting the publicization of Trump's actions, and subsequent learning to contain and normalize their publication of such events
Insulinoma associated-2 Summary Insulinoma_associated-2 Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase-like N, also called "IA-2", is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTPRN gene.
Regional differentiation C. elegans Regional_specification > C. elegans In the two cell stage, the embryo of the nematode C. elegans exhibits mosaic behavior. There are two cells, the P1 cell and the AB cell. The P1 cell was able make all of its fated cells while the AB cell could only make a portion of the cells it was fated to produce. Thus, The first division gives the autonomous specification of the two cells, but the AB cells require a conditional mechanism to produce all of its fated cells.
Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System Summary Multiple_Integrated_Laser_Engagement_System Vehicles are typically outfitted with a belt of laser sensors or individual wireless detectors. Dismounted soldiers often wear a vest or harness with sensors as well as a "halo" of sensors on their helmets. MILES systems can be coupled with a real-time data link allowing position and event data to be transmitted back to a central site for data collection and display.
Hazards of synthetic biology Background Hazards_of_synthetic_biology > Background Synthetic biology is an outgrowth of biotechnology distinguished by the use of biological pathways or organisms not found in nature. This contrasts with "traditional" genetically modified organisms created by transferring existing genes from one cell type to another. Major goals of synthetic biology include re-designing genes, cells, or organisms for gene therapy; development of minimal cells and artificial protocells; and development of organisms based on alternative biochemistry.
Pointer swizzling Potential security weaknesses Pointer_swizzling > Potential security weaknesses For security, unswizzling and swizzling must be implemented with great caution. In particular, an attacker's presentation of a specially crafted file may allow access to addresses outside of the expected and proper bounds. In systems with weak memory protection this can lead to exposure of confidential data or modification of code likely to be executed. If the system does not implement guards against execution of data the system may be severely compromised by the installation of various kinds of malware.
Internet architecture Bow Tie Model Internet_architecture > Models of web page topology > Bow Tie Model This is the "Origination" or "In" group, as it contains links that lead into the core and originate outside it. The counterpart to this is the group of all pages that the strongly connected core links to, but which have no links back into the core. This is the "Termination" or "Out" group, as it contains links that lead out of the core and terminate outside it.
Conservation of Angular Momentum General considerations Introduction_to_angular_momentum > Conservation of angular momentum > General considerations Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom. For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth.
Entropy and life Early views Entropy_and_life > Early views McCulloh then goes on to show that these two laws may be combined in a single expression as follows: S = ∫ d Q τ {\displaystyle S=\int {dQ \over \tau }} where S = {\displaystyle S=} entropy d Q = {\displaystyle dQ=} a differential amount of heat passed into a thermodynamic system τ = {\displaystyle \tau =} absolute temperatureMcCulloh then declares that the applications of these two laws, i.e. what are currently known as the first law of thermodynamics and the second law of thermodynamics, are innumerable: When we reflect how generally physical phenomena are connected with thermal changes and relations, it at once becomes obvious that there are few, if any, branches of natural science which are not more or less dependent upon the great truths under consideration. Nor should it, therefore, be a matter of surprise that already, in the short space of time, not yet one generation, elapsed since the mechanical theory of heat has been freely adopted, whole branches of physical science have been revolutionized by it.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Other conditions Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disorder > Other conditions Most people with COPD die from comorbidities and not from respiratory problems.Anxiety and depression are often complications of COPD. Other complications include a reduced quality of life and increased disability, cor pulmonale, frequent chest infections including pneumonia, secondary polycythemia, respiratory failure, pneumothorax, lung cancer, and cachexia (muscle wasting).Cognitive impairment is common in those with COPD as it is for other lung conditions that affect airflow. Cognitive impairment is associated with the declining ability to cope with the basic activities of daily living.It is unclear if those with COPD are at greater risk of contracting COVID-19, though if infected they are at risk of hospitalization and developing severe COVID-19. Differentiating COVID-19 symptoms from an exacerbation is difficult; mild prodromal symptoms may delay its recognition and where they include loss of taste or smell COVID-19 is to be suspected.
Megaminx Number of combinations Megaminx > Number of combinations 20 ! × 3 19 × 30 ! × 2 27 ≈ 1.01 × 10 68 {\displaystyle 20!\times 3^{19}\times 30!\times 2^{27}\approx 1.01\times 10^{68}} The full number is 100 669 616 553 523 347 122 516 032 313 645 505 168 688 116 411 019 768 627 200 000 000 000 (roughly 101 unvigintillion on the short scale or 101 undecillion on the long scale).
Airplane Flying wing Airplane > Characteristics > Wings vs. bodies > Flying wing Due to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a tactical airlifter design. Interest in flying wings was renewed in the 1980s due to their potentially low radar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft - a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves.
Brine pools Summary Brine_pool A brine pool, sometimes called an underwater lake, deepwater or brine lake, is a volume of brine collected in a seafloor depression. The pools are dense bodies of water that have a salinity that is three to eight times greater than the surrounding ocean. Brine pools are commonly found below polar sea ice and in the deep ocean. Those below sea ice form through a process called brine rejection.
Rate-limiting step First step rate-determining Pre-equilibrium_(chemical_kinetics) > Example reaction: NO2 + CO > First step rate-determining {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\ce {}}}{dt}}=r_{1}-r_{2}-r_{-1}\approx 0.} The statement that the first step is the slow step actually means that the first step in the reverse direction is slower than the second step in the forward direction, so that almost all NO3 is consumed by reaction with CO and not with NO. That is, r−1 ≪ r2, so that r1 − r2 ≈ 0. But the overall rate of reaction is the rate of formation of final product (here CO2), so that r = r2 ≈ r1. That is, the overall rate is determined by the rate of the first step, and (almost) all molecules that react at the first step continue to the fast second step.
Radix Sort Stable MSD radix sort implementations Radix_Sort > Specialized variants > Stable MSD radix sort implementations MSD radix sort can be implemented as a stable algorithm, but requires the use of a memory buffer of the same size as the input array. This extra memory allows the input buffer to be scanned from the first array element to last, and move the array elements to the destination bins in the same order. Thus, equal elements will be placed in the memory buffer in the same order they were in the input array. The MSD-based algorithm uses the extra memory buffer as the output on the first level of recursion, but swaps the input and output on the next level of recursion, to avoid the overhead of copying the output result back to the input buffer.
Henri Lebesgue Mathematical career Henri_Lebesgue > Mathematical career This dissertation is considered to be one of the finest ever written by a mathematician.His lectures from 1902 to 1903 were collected into a "Borel tract" Leçons sur l'intégration et la recherche des fonctions primitives. The problem of integration regarded as the search for a primitive function is the keynote of the book. Lebesgue presents the problem of integration in its historical context, addressing Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, and Bernhard Riemann.
Chemically modified mRNA Summary Chemically_modified_mRNA A nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) is a synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) in which some nucleosides are replaced by other naturally modified nucleosides or by synthetic nucleoside analogues. modRNA is used to induce the production of a desired protein in certain cells. An important application is the development of mRNA vaccines, of which the first authorized were COVID-19 vaccines (such as Comirnaty and Spikevax).
Causal Markov condition Dependence and Causation Causal_Markov_condition > Implications > Dependence and Causation It follows from the definition that if X and Y are in V and are probabilistically dependent, then either X causes Y, Y causes X, or X and Y are both effects of some common cause Z in V. This definition was seminally introduced by Hans Reichenbach as the Common Cause Principle (CCP)
Electrical machine Brushed machines Electric_machine > Electromagnetic-rotor machines > Brushed machines This type of machine is often referred to in the literature as a synchronous machine. This machine can also be run by connecting the stator coils to the grid and supplying the rotor coils with AC from an inverter. The advantage is that it is possible to control the rotating speed of the machine with a fractionally rated inverter. When run this way the machine is known as a brushed double feed "induction" machine. "Induction" is misleading because there is no useful current in the machine which is set up by induction.
History of the periodic table Comprehensive formalizations History_of_the_periodic_table > Comprehensive formalizations It is sometimes said that he played "chemical solitaire" on long train journeys, using cards with the symbols and the atomic weights of the known elements. Another possibility is that he was inspired in part by the periodicity of the Sanskrit alphabet, which was pointed out to him by his friend and linguist Otto von Böhtlingk. Mendeleev used the trends he saw to suggest that atomic weights of some elements were incorrect, and accordingly changed their placements: for instance, he figured there was no place for a trivalent beryllium with the atomic weight of 14 in his work, and he cut both the atomic weight and valency of beryllium by a third, suggesting it was a divalent element with the atomic weight of 9.4.
Decision making process Neuroscience Decision-making_process > Neuroscience Decision-making is a region of intense study in the fields of systems neuroscience, and cognitive neuroscience. Several brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex, and the overlapping ventromedial prefrontal cortex are believed to be involved in decision-making processes. A neuroimaging study found distinctive patterns of neural activation in these regions depending on whether decisions were made on the basis of perceived personal volition or following directions from someone else.
Live, virtual, and constructive Summary LVC_Continuum Live, Virtual, & Constructive (LVC) Simulation is a broadly used taxonomy for classifying Modeling and Simulation (M&S). However, categorizing a simulation as a live, virtual, or constructive environment is problematic since there is no clear division among these categories. The degree of human participation in a simulation is infinitely variable, as is the degree of equipment realism. The categorization of simulations also lacks a category for simulated people working real equipment.
Uninitialized variable Example of the C language Uninitialized_variable > Example of the C language A common assumption made by novice programmers is that all variables are set to a known value, such as zero, when they are declared. While this is true for many languages, it is not true for all of them, and so the potential for error is there. Languages such as C use stack space for variables, and the collection of variables allocated for a subroutine is known as a stack frame. While the computer will set aside the appropriate amount of space for the stack frame, it usually does so simply by adjusting the value of the stack pointer, and does not set the memory itself to any new state (typically out of efficiency concerns).
H3K9me2 Summary H3K9me2 H3K9me2 levels are higher at silent compared to active genes in a 10kb region surrounding the transcriptional start site. H3K9me2 represses gene expression both passively, by prohibiting acetylation as therefore binding of RNA polymerase or its regulatory factors, and actively, by recruiting transcriptional repressors. H3K9me2 has also been found in megabase blocks, termed Large Organised Chromatin K9 domains (LOCKS), which are primarily located within gene-sparse regions but also encompass genic and intergenic intervals.
SARS coronavirus Summary SARS_virus SARS-CoV-1 was most transmissible when patients were sick, so its spread could be effectively suppressed by isolating patients with symptoms.On April 16, 2003, following the outbreak of SARS in Asia and secondary cases elsewhere in the world, the World Health Organization (WHO) issued a press release stating that the coronavirus identified by a number of laboratories was the official cause of SARS. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States and the National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) in Canada identified the SARS-CoV-1 genome in April 2003. Scientists at Erasmus University in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, demonstrated that the SARS coronavirus fulfilled Koch's postulates, thereby confirming it as the causative agent. In the experiments, macaques infected with the virus developed the same symptoms as human SARS patients.A virus very similar to SARS was discovered in late 2019. This virus, named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the causative pathogen of COVID-19, the propagation of which started the COVID-19 pandemic.
Integer sequences Summary Integer_sequences The sequence 0, 3, 8, 15, ... is formed according to the formula n2 − 1 for the nth term: an explicit definition. Alternatively, an integer sequence may be defined by a property which members of the sequence possess and other integers do not possess. For example, we can determine whether a given integer is a perfect number, even though we do not have a formula for the nth perfect number.
Markovian process Transitions Markov_analysis > Principles > Transitions By convention, we assume all possible states and transitions have been included in the definition of the process, so there is always a next state, and the process does not terminate. A discrete-time random process involves a system which is in a certain state at each step, with the state changing randomly between steps. The steps are often thought of as moments in time, but they can equally well refer to physical distance or any other discrete measurement.
Eukaryotic DNA replication Comparisons between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication Eukaryotic_DNA_replication > Comparisons between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication When compared to prokaryotic DNA replication, the completion of eukaryotic DNA replication is more complex and involves multiple origins of replication and replicative proteins to accomplish. Prokaryotic DNA is arranged in a circular shape, and has only one replication origin when replication starts. By contrast, eukaryotic DNA is linear. When replicated, there are as many as one thousand origins of replication.Eukaryotic DNA is bidirectional.
Henry's Law constant Fundamental types and variants of Henry's law constants Air–water_partitioning_coefficient > Fundamental types and variants of Henry's law constants There are many ways to define the proportionality constant of Henry's law, which can be subdivided into two fundamental types: One possibility is to put the aqueous phase into the numerator and the gaseous phase into the denominator ("aq/gas"). This results in the Henry's law solubility constant H s {\displaystyle H_{\rm {s}}} . Its value increases with increased solubility. Alternatively, numerator and denominator can be switched ("gas/aq"), which results in the Henry's law volatility constant H v {\displaystyle H_{\rm {v}}} .
R naught The SEIR model with vital dynamics and constant population Basic_reproduction_number > Definitions in specific cases > Compartmental models in epidemiology > Next-generation matrix for compartmental models > The SEIR model with vital dynamics and constant population Here, the formation of the next-generation matrix from the SEIR‌ model involves determining two compartments, infected and non-infected, since they are the populations that spread the infection. So we only need to model the exposed, E, and infected, I, compartments. Consider a population characterized by a death rate μ {\displaystyle \mu } and birth rate λ {\displaystyle \lambda } where a communicable disease is spreading.
Pattern recognition (psychology) Summary Pattern_recognition_(psychology) The process of pattern recognition involves matching the information received with the information already stored in the brain. Making the connection between memories and information perceived is a step of pattern recognition called identification. Pattern recognition requires repetition of experience.
Paranoid schizophrenic Substance use Negative_symptoms_of_schizophrenia > Risk factors > Environmental > Substance use About half of those with schizophrenia use recreational drugs, including alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis excessively. Use of stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine can lead to a temporary stimulant psychosis, which presents very similarly to schizophrenia. Rarely, alcohol use can also result in a similar alcohol-related psychosis. Drugs may also be used as coping mechanisms by people who have schizophrenia, to deal with depression, anxiety, boredom, and loneliness.
Floating dock (impounded) Summary Floating_dock_(impounded) A floating dock, floating harbour or wet dock is a dock alongside a tidal waterway which maintains a 'constant' level, despite the changing tides.
Designer steroid Summary Designer_drugs A designer drug is a structural or functional analog of a controlled substance that has been designed to mimic the pharmacological effects of the original drug, while avoiding classification as illegal and/or detection in standard drug tests. Designer drugs include psychoactive substances that have been designated by the European Union as new psychoactive substances (NPS) as well as analogs of performance-enhancing drugs such as designer steroids. Some of these were originally synthesized by academic or industrial researchers in an effort to discover more potent derivatives with fewer side effects and shorter duration (and possibly also because it is easier to apply for patents for new molecules) and were later co-opted for recreational use. Other designer drugs were prepared for the first time in clandestine laboratories.
Exponential time hypothesis Satisfiability Strong_exponential_time_hypothesis > Implications > Satisfiability Equivalently, if s k > 0 {\displaystyle s_{k}>0} for any k > 0 {\displaystyle k>0} , then s 3 > 0 {\displaystyle s_{3}>0} as well, and the exponential time hypothesis would be true. The limiting value s ∞ {\displaystyle s_{\infty }} of the sequence of numbers s k {\displaystyle s_{k}} is at most equal to s CNF {\displaystyle s_{\operatorname {CNF} }} , where s CNF {\displaystyle s_{\operatorname {CNF} }} is the infimum of the numbers δ {\displaystyle \delta } such that satisfiability of conjunctive normal form formulas without clause length limits can be solved in time O ( 2 δ n ) {\displaystyle O(2^{\delta n})} . Therefore, if the strong exponential time hypothesis is true, then there would be no algorithm for general CNF satisfiability that is significantly faster than a brute-force search over all possible truth assignments. However, if the strong exponential time hypothesis fails, it would still be possible for s CNF {\displaystyle s_{\operatorname {CNF} }} to equal one.
Microprocessor 16-bit designs Microprocessor > History > 16-bit designs The combination of an x86 CPU and an x87 coprocessor forms a single multi-chip microprocessor; the two chips are programmed as a unit using a single integrated instruction set. The 8087 and 80187 coprocessors are connected in parallel with the data and address buses of their parent processor and directly execute instructions intended for them. The 80287 and 80387 coprocessors are interfaced to the CPU through I/O ports in the CPU's address space, this is transparent to the program, which does not need to know about or access these I/O ports directly; the program accesses the coprocessor and its registers through normal instruction opcodes.
Romantic philosophy Method Romantic_philosophy > Method The means by which philosophy, or the general principles for seeking knowledge, is rendered into actual knowledge or science is “method.” Method involves the considered, thoughtful arrangement of parts that reflects the inner essence of things (association by continuity), and not simply their apparent association in space and time (association by contiguity). This involves a "preconception" a "leading Thought" - Bacon's 'forethoughtful inquiry' or 'dry light' (lumens siccum) - and a"progressive transition" not "a mere dead arrangement." But as, without continuous transition, there can be no Method, so without a preconception there can be no transition with continuity. The term, Method cannot therefore, otherwise than by abuse, be applied to a mere dead arrangement, containing in itself no principle of progression.Coleridge uses the example of electricity which had been known as an empirical fact for centuries, but it was not until science took on the organizing Idea of polarity (out of the genius of mind that derived this from the “given” of the world order), that rapid progress was made in revealing the nature and governing laws of this fact of nature.
Seven Bridges of Königsberg Euler's analysis Seven_Bridges_of_Königsberg > Euler's analysis In other words, during any walk in the graph, the number of times one enters a non-terminal vertex equals the number of times one leaves it. Now, if every bridge has been traversed exactly once, it follows that, for each land mass (except for the ones chosen for the start and finish), the number of bridges touching that land mass must be even (half of them, in the particular traversal, will be traversed "toward" the landmass; the other half, "away" from it). However, all four of the land masses in the original problem are touched by an odd number of bridges (one is touched by 5 bridges, and each of the other three is touched by 3).
Usability Engineering Bibliography for Usability Engineering Usability_Engineering > Bibliography for Usability Engineering Mayhew, Deborah (1999). The Usability Engineering Lifecycle: A Practitioner's Handbook. Morgan Kaufmann.
AA tree Deletion AA_tree > Deletion As in most balanced binary trees, the deletion of an internal node can be turned into the deletion of a leaf node by swapping the internal node with either its closest predecessor or successor, depending on which are in the tree or on the implementor's whims. Retrieving a predecessor is simply a matter of following one left link and then all of the remaining right links. Similarly, the successor can be found by going right once and left until a null pointer is found.
Dirac picture Definition Interaction_Hamiltonian > Definition Operators and state vectors in the interaction picture are related by a change of basis (unitary transformation) to those same operators and state vectors in the Schrödinger picture. To switch into the interaction picture, we divide the Schrödinger picture Hamiltonian into two parts: Any possible choice of parts will yield a valid interaction picture; but in order for the interaction picture to be useful in simplifying the analysis of a problem, the parts will typically be chosen so that H0,S is well understood and exactly solvable, while H1,S contains some harder-to-analyze perturbation to this system. If the Hamiltonian has explicit time-dependence (for example, if the quantum system interacts with an applied external electric field that varies in time), it will usually be advantageous to include the explicitly time-dependent terms with H1,S, leaving H0,S time-independent. We proceed assuming that this is the case. If there is a context in which it makes sense to have H0,S be time-dependent, then one can proceed by replacing e ± i H 0 , S t / ℏ {\displaystyle \mathrm {e} ^{\pm \mathrm {i} H_{0,{\text{S}}}t/\hbar }} by the corresponding time-evolution operator in the definitions below.
Scientific research Formulation of a question Scientific_methodology > Overview > Process > Formulation of a question The question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation, as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I design a drug to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.
Hypoxia in fish Tolerance of waste products Hypoxia_in_fish > Metabolic challenge > Tolerance of waste products When anaerobic pathways are turned on, glycogen stores are depleted and accumulation of acidic waste products occurs. This is known as a Pasteur effect. A challenge hypoxia-tolerant fish face is how to produce ATP anaerobically without creating a significant Pasteur effect. Along with a reduction in metabolism, some fish have adapted traits to avoid accumulation of lactate.
Ring object Multiplicative identity and the term "ring" Associative_rings > History > Multiplicative identity and the term "ring" Fraenkel's axioms for a "ring" included that of a multiplicative identity, whereas Noether's did not.Most or all books on algebra up to around 1960 followed Noether's convention of not requiring a 1 for a "ring". Starting in the 1960s, it became increasingly common to see books including the existence of 1 in the definition of "ring", especially in advanced books by notable authors such as Artin, Bourbaki, Eisenbud, and Lang. There are also books published as late as 2022 that use the term without the requirement for a 1.Gardner and Wiegandt assert that, when dealing with several objects in the category of rings (as opposed to working with a fixed ring), if one requires all rings to have a 1, then some consequences include the lack of existence of infinite direct sums of rings, and that proper direct summands of rings are not subrings. They conclude that "in many, maybe most, branches of ring theory the requirement of the existence of a unity element is not sensible, and therefore unacceptable."
E6B Construction E6B > Construction The ease of use of electronic calculators means typical flight training literature does not cover the use of calculators or computers at all. In the ground exams for numerous pilot ratings, programmable calculators or calculators containing flight planning software are permitted to be used.Many airspeed indicator (ASI) instruments have a movable ring built into the face of the instrument that is essentially a subset of the flight computer. Just like on the flight computer, the ring is aligned with the air temperature and the pressure altitude, allowing the true airspeed (TAS) to be read at the needle. In addition, computer programs emulating the flight computer functions are also available, both for computers and smartphones.
Genetic Modification Inserting DNA into the host genome Genetic_modifications > Process > Inserting DNA into the host genome In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture. In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary.
Group Theory History Symmetry_point_group > History The different scope of these early sources resulted in different notions of groups. The theory of groups was unified starting around 1880. Since then, the impact of group theory has been ever growing, giving rise to the birth of abstract algebra in the early 20th century, representation theory, and many more influential spin-off domains. The classification of finite simple groups is a vast body of work from the mid 20th century, classifying all the finite simple groups.
Voltage controller Summary Voltage_controller A voltage controller, also called an AC voltage controller or AC regulator is an electronic module based on either thyristors, triodes for alternating current, silicon-controlled rectifiers or insulated-gate bipolar transistors, which converts a fixed voltage, fixed frequency alternating current (AC) electrical input supply to obtain variable voltage in output delivered to a resistive load. This varied voltage output is used for dimming street lights, varying heating temperatures in homes or industry, speed control of fans and winding machines and many other applications, in a similar fashion to an autotransformer. Voltage controller modules come under the purview of power electronics. Because they are low-maintenance and very efficient, voltage controllers have largely replaced such modules as magnetic amplifiers and saturable reactors in industrial use.
Timestamp-based concurrency control Timestamp locking Timestamp-based_concurrency_control > Implementation issues > Timestamp locking Even though this technique is a non-locking one, in as much as the Object is not locked from concurrent access for the duration of a transaction, the act of recording each timestamp against the Object requires an extremely short duration lock on the Object or its proxy.
Intelligent agent Summary Intelligent_agent In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent (IA) is an agent acting in an intelligent manner; It perceives its environment, takes actions autonomously in order to achieve goals, and may improve its performance with learning or acquiring knowledge. An intelligent agent may be simple or complex: A thermostat or other control system is considered an example of an intelligent agent, as is a human being, as is any system that meets the definition, such as a firm, a state, or a biome. Leading AI textbooks define "artificial intelligence" as the "study and design of intelligent agents", a definition that considers goal-directed behavior to be the essence of intelligence. Goal-directed agents are also described using a term borrowed from economics, "rational agent".An agent has an "objective function" that encapsulates all the IA's goals.
Electric Motor Armature Electric_Motor > Components > Armature The armature consists of wire windings on a ferromagnetic core. Electric current passing through the wire causes the magnetic field from the field magnet to exert a force (Lorentz force) on it, turning the rotor, which delivers the mechanical output. Windings are wires that are laid in coils, usually wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron, ferromagnetic core so as to form magnetic poles when energized with current. Electric machines come in salient- and nonsalient-pole configurations.

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