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Document-oriented database Relationship to relational databases Document_database > Relationship to other databases > Relationship to relational databases This leads to problems when trying to translate programming objects to and from their associated database rows, a problem known as object-relational impedance mismatch. Document stores more closely, or in some cases directly, map programming objects into the store. These are often marketed using the term NoSQL.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B Summary Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences,_India_Section_B Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of biological science. It is published by Springer on behalf of National Academy of Sciences, India four times a year, and is edited by Amit Ghosh.
Ecosystem models The Lotka–Volterra equations Ecosystem_models > Examples > The Lotka–Volterra equations X . Y {\displaystyle {\frac {dX}{dt}}=\alpha .X-\beta .X.Y} d Y d t = γ . β .
Robert H. Crabtree Manganese di-μ-oxo Dimers for Oxygen Evolution Robert_H._Crabtree > Research > Manganese di-μ-oxo Dimers for Oxygen Evolution Oxygen-18 isotope labeling experiments have demonstrated that the oxygen atoms in the evolved molecular oxygen originate from water. This system thus serves as a functional model for photosynthetic water oxidation. Crabtree has made significant contributions in C–H bond activation, water oxidation, and hydrogenation. His approach entails selecting unique projects, conducting early critical experiments, transitioning between problems, developing air-stable catalysts, and educating through his writing.
Social affordance Social affordances trends in social software Social_affordance > Social affordances trends in social software Wiki- Web 2.0 technologies (e.g., Wikis, blogs, social bookmarking) are being used as a tool to support collaborative learning among students. Wiki is an effective form to support collaborative learning practices. Wiki enables students to engage effectively in learning with peers. The affordance of Wiki as a learning tool attracts educators' interests frequently.
Minoru Ozima Papers Minoru_Ozima > Bibliography > Papers Hiyagon, H; Ozima, M (September 1986). "Partition of noble gases between olivine and basalt melt". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta.
Ovum quality Meiotic arrest and loss of cohesion Ovum_quality > Factors > Age > Meiotic arrest and loss of cohesion This cohesion is later broken by the enzyme separase, allowing the chiasmata to be broken and homologous chromosomes to segregate in a normal way. Age-related degeneration of the inhibitors and regulators of separase, may lead to inappropriate and premature cohesin degradation before anaphase. As a result, homologous chromosomes may align independently on the meiotic spindle, risking aneuploidy that represents a key mechanism of reduced reproductive success.
Transcriptome analysis Summary Transcriptome_analysis It would be almost impossible to interpret the information contained in a transcriptome without the knowledge of previous experiments. Measuring the expression of an organism's genes in different tissues or conditions, or at different times, gives information on how genes are regulated and reveals details of an organism's biology. It can also be used to infer the functions of previously unannotated genes. Transcriptome analysis has enabled the study of how gene expression changes in different organisms and has been instrumental in the understanding of human disease. An analysis of gene expression in its entirety allows detection of broad coordinated trends which cannot be discerned by more targeted assays.
Powers of 2 Computer science Power_of_two > Computer science Two to the exponent of n, written as 2n, is the number of ways the bits in a binary word of length n can be arranged. A word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 (000...0002) to 2n − 1 (111...1112) inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero; see signed number representations. Either way, one less than a power of two is often the upper bound of an integer in binary computers.
Data structure alignment Data structure padding Data_padding > Data structure padding For example, a structure containing a single byte (such as a char) and a four-byte integer (such as uint32_t) would require three additional bytes of padding. A large array of such structures would use 37.5% less memory if they are packed, although accessing each structure might take longer.
DNA data storage Summary DNA_digital_data_storage DNA digital data storage is the process of encoding and decoding binary data to and from synthesized strands of DNA.While DNA as a storage medium has enormous potential because of its high storage density, its practical use is currently severely limited because of its high cost and very slow read and write times.In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA. In 2021, scientists reported that a custom DNA data writer had been developed that was capable of writing data into DNA at 18 Mbps.
Cas9 DNA cleavage Cas9_nickase > Structural and biochemical studies > DNA cleavage The kinetics of DNA cleavage by Cas9 have been of great interest to the scientific community, as this data provides insight into the intricacies of the reaction. While the cleavage of DNA by RNA-bound Cas9 has been shown to be relatively rapid (k ≥ 700 s−1), the release of the cleavage products is very slow (t1/2 = ln(2)/k ≈ 43–91 h), essentially rendering Cas9 a single-turnover enzyme. Additional studies regarding the kinetics of Cas9 have shown engineered Cas9 to be effective in reducing off-target effects by modifying the rate of the reaction.The cleavage efficiency of Cas9 depends on numerous factors.
Kernel methods for vector output Regularization perspective Kernel_methods_for_vector_output > Notation > Regularization perspective From the regularization perspective, the problem is to learn f ∗ {\displaystyle f_{*}} belonging to a reproducing kernel Hilbert space of vector-valued functions ( H {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}} ). This is similar to the scalar case of Tikhonov regularization, with some extra care in the notation. † {\displaystyle ^{\dagger }} It is possible, though non-trivial, to show that a representer theorem also holds for Tikhonov regularization in the vector-valued setting.Note, the matrix-valued kernel K {\displaystyle \mathbf {K} } can also be defined by a scalar kernel R {\displaystyle R} on the space X × { 1 , … , D } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {X}}\times \{1,\ldots ,D\}} . An isometry exists between the Hilbert spaces associated with these two kernels: ( K ( x , x ′ ) ) d , d ′ = R ( ( x , d ) , ( x ′ , d ′ ) ) {\displaystyle (\mathbf {K} (x,x'))_{d,d'}=R((x,d),(x',d'))}
HL7 Services Aware Interoperability Framework Governance Framework HL7_Services_Aware_Interoperability_Framework > Document Divisions > Governance Framework The Governance Framework (GF) describes the motivation for, the structure, content and utilization of the GF. The ECCF and BF are discussed in detail in separate documents, and are mentioned in the course of this document only when necessary to either contextualize or logically link GF content to the larger context of the Services Aware Interoperability Framework.
Anaerobic exercise Examples Anaerobic_exercise > Examples Anaerobic exercises are high-intensity workouts completed over shorter durations, while aerobic exercises include variable-intensity workouts completed over longer durations. Some examples of anaerobic exercises include sprints, high-intensity interval training (HIIT), and strength training.
Bring radical Solution of the general quintic Bring_radical > Solution of the general quintic The roots of the polynomial can be expressed in terms of the Bring radical as and its four conjugates. The problem is now reduced to the Bring–Jerrard form in terms of solvable polynomial equations, and using transformations involving polynomial expressions in the roots only up to the fourth degree, which means inverting the transformation may be done by finding the roots of a polynomial solvable in radicals. This procedure gives extraneous solutions, but when the correct ones have been found by numerical means, the roots of the quintic can be written in terms of square roots, cube roots, and the Bring radical, which is therefore an algebraic solution in terms of algebraic functions (defined broadly to include Bring radicals) of a single variable — an algebraic solution of the general quintic.
Classification rule False positives Classification_rule > Application with Bayes’ Theorem > False positives We can use Bayes' theorem to determine the probability that a positive result is in fact a false positive. We find that if a disease is rare, then the majority of positive results may be false positives, even if the test is relatively accurate. Naively, one might think that only 5% of positive test results are false, but that is quite wrong, as we shall see.
Weighted planar stochastic lattice Properties of WPSLs Weighted_planar_stochastic_lattice > Properties of WPSLs It exhibits multiscaling.Before 2000 epidemic models, for instance, were studying by applying them on regular lattices like square lattice assuming that everyone can infect everyone else in the same way. The emergence of a network-based framework has brought a fundamental change, offering a much much better pragmatic skeleton than any time before. Today epidemic models is one of the most active applications of network science, being used to foresee the spread of influenza or to contain Ebola. The WPSL can be a good candidate for applying epidemic like models since it has the properties of graph or network and the properties of traditional lattice as well. == References ==
Cognitive Biology Cognitive biology as a category Cognitive_Biology > Cognitive biology as a category Some, for example, considered evolutionary epistemology a fellow-traveler. Others appropriated the keyword, as for example Donald Griffin in 1978, when he advocated the establishment of cognitive ethology.Meanwhile, breakthroughs in molecular, cell, evolutionary, and developmental biology generated a cornucopia of data-based theory relevant to cognition. Categorical assignments were problematic.
Proton tunneling Summary Proton_tunneling Electron tunneling is well-known. A proton is about 2000 times more massive than an electron, so it has a much lower probability of tunneling; nevertheless, proton tunneling still occurs especially at low temperatures and high pressures where the width of the potential barrier is decreased. Proton tunneling is usually associated with hydrogen bonds.
Noncoding RNA Distinction between functional RNA (fRNA) and ncRNA Non-coding_RNA > Distinction between functional RNA (fRNA) and ncRNA Scientists have started to distinguish functional RNA (fRNA) from ncRNA, to describe regions functional at the RNA level that may or may not be stand-alone RNA transcripts. This implies that fRNA (such as riboswitches, SECIS elements, and other cis-regulatory regions) is not ncRNA. Yet fRNA could also include mRNA, as this is RNA coding for protein, and hence is functional. Additionally artificially evolved RNAs also fall under the fRNA umbrella term.
Armored mud ball Pre-lithification Armored_mud_ball > Formation > Pre-lithification In the early 20th century, James Gardner hypothesized that these structures formed by the accumulation of fine clay particles as they flowed along a stream, gradually building up concentric rings of sediments by adhesion until their weight eventually stopped them rolling with the current. That view held sway for some 20 years, despite an earlier suggestion in 1875 by Jones and King that those mud balls found on beaches had formed from broken off fragments of clay from adjacent cliffs which had then been rolled by wave action. : 3 By 1940 it was generally accepted that their formation was due to rolling of broken off fragments of clay and not to concretion.Armored mud balls are derived from fragments of clay or mud that get broken off from their original sediment layers deposits by erosion, commonly in places such as sea cliffs or the cut bank of a river. The mud fragments are washed and rolled by flowing water and become covered in larger particles from the bed of the watercourse.
Chemical Thermodynamics Chemical affinity Chemical_energetics > Chemical reactions > Chemical affinity 37.62), and to the use of the partial derivative ∂G/∂ξ (in place of the widely used "ΔG", since the quantity at issue is not a finite change). The result is an understandable expression for the dependence of dG on chemical reactions (or other processes). If there is just one reaction ( d G ) T , P = ( ∂ G ∂ ξ ) T , P d ξ .
Propeller speed reduction unit Summary Propeller_speed_reduction_unit A propeller speed reduction unit is a gearbox or a belt and pulley device used to reduce the output revolutions per minute (rpm) from the higher input rpm of the powerplant. This allows the use of small displacement internal combustion engines to turn aircraft propellers within an efficient speed range.
Protocol Buffers Overview Google_Protocol_Buffers > Overview This compilation generates code that can be invoked by a sender or recipient of these data structures. For example, example.pb.cc and example.pb.h are generated from example.proto.
Mixed electoral systems Types of combinations Mixed_electoral_systems > Types of mixed systems > Types of combinations These may be seen in coexistence, when different methods are used in different regions of a country, such as when FPTP is used in single-member districts and list-PR in multi-member districts, but every voter is a member of only one district (one tier). Some hybrid systems are generally not referred to as mixed systems, such as when as FPTP districts are the exception (e.g. overseas constituency) and list-PR is the rule, the overall system is usually considered proportional. Similarly, when FPTP is in single-member districts and used block voting (or party block voting) is used in multi-member districts, the system is referred to as a majoritarian one, as all components are majoritarian. Most mixed systems are not referred to as hybrid systems
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution SNAr reaction mechanism Nucleophilic_aromatic_substitution > SNAr reaction mechanism Backside attack is blocked and this reaction is therefore not possible. An SN1 reaction is possible but very unfavourable. It would involve the unaided loss of the leaving group and the formation of an aryl cation.
Elliptic modular form Examples Nebentype_character > Modular forms for SL(2, Z) > Examples A celebrated conjecture of Ramanujan asserted that when Δ(z) is expanded as a power series in q, the coefficient of qp for any prime p has absolute value ≤ 2p11/2. This was confirmed by the work of Eichler, Shimura, Kuga, Ihara, and Pierre Deligne as a result of Deligne's proof of the Weil conjectures, which were shown to imply Ramanujan's conjecture. The second and third examples give some hint of the connection between modular forms and classical questions in number theory, such as representation of integers by quadratic forms and the partition function. The crucial conceptual link between modular forms and number theory is furnished by the theory of Hecke operators, which also gives the link between the theory of modular forms and representation theory.
Hydrogen molecular ion Precision spectroscopy Hydrogen_molecule_ion > Experimental studies > Precision spectroscopy Because of its relative simplicity, the dihydrogen cation is the molecule that is most precisely understood, in the sense that theoretical calculations of its energy levels match the experimental results with the highest level of agreement. Specifically, spectroscopically determined pure rotational and ro-vibrational transition frequencies of the particular isotopologue HD+ agree with theoretically computed transition frequencies. Four high-precision experiments yielded comparisons with total uncertainties between 2×10−11 and 5×10−11, fractionally.
Zero-shot learning Background and history Zero-shot_learning > Background and history The first paper on zero-shot learning in natural language processing appeared in 2008 at the AAAI’08, but the name given to the learning paradigm there was dataless classification. The first paper on zero-shot learning in computer vision appeared at the same conference, under the name zero-data learning. The term zero-shot learning itself first appeared in the literature in a 2009 paper from Palatucci, Hinton, Pomerleau, and Mitchell at NIPS’09. This terminology was repeated later in another computer vision paper and the term zero-shot learning caught on, as a take-off on one-shot learning that was introduced in computer vision years earlier.In computer vision, zero-shot learning models learned parameters for seen classes along with their class representations and rely on representational similarity among class labels so that, during inference, instances can be classified into new classes.
True vacuum Inflation Higgs_vacuum > Implications > Inflation A number of theories suggest that cosmic inflation may be an effect of a false vacuum decaying into the true vacuum. The inflation itself may be the consequence of the Higgs field trapped in a false vacuum state with Higgs self-coupling λ and its βλ function very close to zero at the planck scale. : 218 A future electron-positron collider would be able to provide the precise measurements of the top quark needed for such calculations.Chaotic inflation theory suggests that the universe may be in either a false vacuum or a true vacuum state. Alan Guth, in his original proposal for cosmic inflation, proposed that inflation could end through quantum mechanical bubble nucleation of the sort described above.
SCADA Security issues Supervisory_Control_and_Data_Acquisition > Security issues Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability in a Wonderware InBatchClient ActiveX control. Both vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release.
Scientific denialism HIV/AIDS Scientific_denialism > Politics and science > HIV/AIDS AIDS denialism is the denial that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS denialism has been described as being "among the most vocal anti-science denial movements". Some denialists reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that the virus exists but say that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as denialists acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of recreational drug use, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and side effects of antiretroviral medication, rather than infection with HIV.
Zero to the power of zero As a limiting form Zero_to_the_power_of_zero > History > As a limiting form Euler, when setting 00 = 1, mentioned that consequently the values of the function 0x take a "huge jump", from ∞ for x < 0, to 1 at x = 0, to 0 for x > 0. In 1814, Pfaff used a squeeze theorem argument to prove that xx → 1 as x → 0+.On the other hand, in 1821 Cauchy explained why the limit of xy as positive numbers x and y approach 0 while being constrained by some fixed relation could be made to assume any value between 0 and ∞ by choosing the relation appropriately. He deduced that the limit of the full two-variable function xy without a specified constraint is "indeterminate". With this justification, he listed 00 along with expressions like 0/0 in a table of indeterminate forms.
Nambu−Goldstone boson Breaking of spacetime symmetries Nambu–Goldstone_bosons > Extensions > Breaking of spacetime symmetries When solutions do exist, this is because the Goldstone modes are linearly dependent among themselves, in that the resulting mode can be expressed as a gradients of another mode. Since the spacetime dependence of the solutions c a ( r ) {\displaystyle c_{a}({\boldsymbol {r}})} is in the direction of the unbroken generators, when all translation generators are broken, no non-trivial solutions exist and the number of Goldstone modes is once again exactly the number of broken generators. In general, the phonon is effectively the Nambu–Goldstone boson for spontaneously broken translation symmetry.
C6H6O Summary C6H6O The molecular formula C6H6O (molar mass: 94.11 g/mol, exact mass: 94.0419 u) may refer to: Oxanorbornadiene (OND) Oxepin Phenol, also called carbolic acid or phenolic acid
Civic application Current Applications Civic_application > Current Applications For example, many civic applications struggle with financial sustainability. Such applications often have either non-profit or not-for-profit corporate strategies, which prevent them from adopting stable strategies of fundraising and a majority end up failing from lack of income stream or funding.Non-Governmental Organizations and public national institutions are noticing the value of civic applications and are inviting people working in the Information Technology domain to participate in their development (ex. in Greater Portland, Chicago, Boston, Boulder, Washington D.C, Seattle and other American cities as part of the Code For America initiative). Very often they are created as part of "hackathons", or IT development competitions which support entrepreneurial ventures.
Richard Lathe Gene technology Richard_Lathe > Gene technology The most highly cited paper regards a tool for isolating coding sequences, published in 1985 in the Journal of Molecular Biology. This paper makes him among the 1000 citations clan of authors who have achieved a thousand citations for a single-author work
Effect sizes Summary Effect_size The cluster of data-analysis methods concerning effect sizes is referred to as estimation statistics. Effect size is an essential component when evaluating the strength of a statistical claim, and it is the first item (magnitude) in the MAGIC criteria. The standard deviation of the effect size is of critical importance, since it indicates how much uncertainty is included in the measurement.
P element Use in molecular biology P_elements > Use in molecular biology The normal genetic tools are DNA coding for transposase with no transposase recognition sequences so it cannot insert and a "P Plasmid". P Plasmids always contain a Drosophila reporter gene, often a red-eye marker (the product of the white gene), and transposase recognition sequences. They may contain a gene of interest, an E. coli selectable marker gene, often some kind of antibiotic resistance, an origin of replication or other associated plasmid "housekeeping" sequences.
Models of communication Classifications Models_of_communication > Classifications Models of communication are classified in many ways and the proposed classifications often overlap. Some models are general in the sense that they aim to describe all forms of communication. Others are specialized: they only apply to specific fields or areas. For example, models of mass communication are specialized models that do not aim to give a universal account of communication.
Licensing factor Example in yeast Licensing_factor > Example in yeast Immediately after mitosis has finished the cell cycle starts again, entering G1 phase of the cycle. At this point protein synthesis of various products required for the rest of the cycle begins. Two of the proteins synthesised are called Cdc6 and Cdt1 and are only synthesised in G1 phase. These two together bind to the origin recognition complex (ORC), which is already bound at the origin and in fact never leaves these sites throughout the cycle.
BFG Technologies Summary BFG_Technologies BFG Technologies was a privately held U.S.-based supplier of power supplies and video cards based on Nvidia graphics technology and a manufacturer of high-end gaming/home theater computer systems. BFG Technologies branded products were available in North America and Europe at retailers and e-tailers. The company's main headquarters were located in Lake County, Illinois, near Lake Forest.
Ventilator-associated lung injury Cause Ventilator-associated_lung_injury > Cause This may be reduced by using smaller tidal volumes.During positive pressure ventilation, atelectatic regions will inflate, however, the alveoli will be unstable and will collapse during the expiratory phase of the breath (atelectotrauma). This repeated alveolar collapse and expansion (RACE) is thought to cause VALI. By opening the lung and keeping the lung open RACE (and VALI) is reduced.Another possible ventilator-associated lung injury is known as biotrauma.
Acceleration voltage Summary Acceleration_voltage See also shunt impedance. For the special case of an electrostatic field that is surpassed by a particle, the acceleration voltage is directly given by integrating the electric field along its path. The following considerations are generalized for time-dependent fields.
Law of averages Chicago Cubs Law_of_averages > Examples > Chicago Cubs The Steve Goodman song "A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request" mentions the Law of Averages in reference to the Chicago Cubs lack of championship success. At the time Goodman recorded the song in 1981, the Cubs had not won a National League championship since 1945, and had not won a World Series since 1908. This futility would continue until the Cubs would finally win both in 2016.
Electronic switches Types Electronic_switches > Types The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) cutoff and saturation regions of operation can respectively be treated as a closed and open switch. The most widely used electronic switch in digital circuits is the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET).The analogue switch uses two MOSFET transistors in a transmission gate arrangement as a switch that works much like a relay, with some advantages and several limitations compared to an electromechanical relay. The power transistor(s) in a switching voltage regulator, such as a power supply unit, are used like a switch to alternately let power flow and block power from flowing.
Internet of Everything Space considerations The_Internet_of_Things > Trends and characteristics > Space considerations However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbour operations. On the Internet of things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human-centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time-space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information ecosystem. Just as standards play a key role on the Internet and the Web, geo-spatial standards will play a key role on the Internet of things.
Outline of cell biology Cellular metabolism Outline_of_cell_biology > Biological activity of cells > Cellular metabolism Cellular respiration – Glycolysis – The foundational process of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. Pyruvate dehydrogenase – Enzyme in the eponymous complex linking glycolysis and the subsequent citric acid cycle. Citric acid cycle – Also known as the Krebs cycle, an important aerobic metabolic pathway.
Kidney infections Follow-up Chronic_pyelonephritis > Management > Follow-up If no improvement is made in one to two days post therapy, inpatients should repeat a urine analysis and imaging. Outpatients should check again with their doctor.
Cache coherency protocols (examples) Bus transactions Cache_coherency_protocols_(examples) > Snoopy coherency protocol > Snoopy coherency operations > Bus transactions Also the updating of the H in (H-MESI) state can be defined as snarfing. In the first case this happens in a write broadcast operation, on the second case both in read and write operations.Intervention-broadcasting– On an Intervention transaction, a cache with H state (H-MESI) updates its invalid copy with the value sent on the bus and its state is changed in S.Write invalidate vs broadcast– Write Invalidate is better when multiple writes, typically partial write, are done by a processor before that the cache line is read by another processor. – Write-broadcast (updating) is better when there is a single producer and many consumers of data, but it is worse when a cache is filled with data that will be not next read again (bus traffic increasing, cache interference increasing).- Invalidation is the common solution.
Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics The "new quantum theory" Mathematical_foundation_of_quantum_field_theory > History of the formalism > The "new quantum theory" Born's idea was soon taken over by Niels Bohr in Copenhagen who then became the "father" of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Schrödinger's wave function can be seen to be closely related to the classical Hamilton–Jacobi equation. The correspondence to classical mechanics was even more explicit, although somewhat more formal, in Heisenberg's matrix mechanics.
Enzyme linked immunosorbant assay Summary Enzyme-linked_immunosorbent_assay The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (, ) is a commonly used analytical biochemistry assay, first described by Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmann in 1971. The assay uses a solid-phase type of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presence of a ligand (commonly a protein) in a liquid sample using antibodies directed against the protein to be measured. ELISA has been used as a diagnostic tool in medicine, plant pathology, and biotechnology, as well as a quality control check in various industries. In the most simple form of an ELISA, antigens from the sample to be tested are attached to a surface.
Partitioned data set Partitioned data set Data_set_(IBM_mainframe) > Partitioned data set PDS files can only reside on DASD, not on magnetic tape, in order to use the directory structure to access individual members. Partitioned data sets are most often used for storing multiple job control language files, utility control statements, and executable modules. An improvement of this scheme is a Partitioned Data Set Extended (PDSE or PDS/E, sometimes just libraries) introduced with DFSMSdfp for MVS/XA and MVS/ESA systems.
Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knockout screens Limitations Genome-wide_CRISPR-Cas9_knockout_screens > Limitations This section will specifically address genome-wide CRISPR screens. For a review of CRISPR limitations see Lino et al. (2018)
Methodological naturalism Providing assumptions required for science Philosophical_naturalism > Providing assumptions required for science According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that cannot be tested by scientific processes; that is, that scientists must start with some assumptions as to the ultimate analysis of the facts with which it deals. These assumptions would then be justified partly by their adherence to the types of occurrence of which we are directly conscious, and partly by their success in representing the observed facts with a certain generality, devoid of ad hoc suppositions." Kuhn also claims that all science is based on assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions – a paradigm – comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation.
Geometric space Points Geometric_space > Main concepts > Objects > Points Points are generally considered fundamental objects for building geometry. They may be defined by the properties that they must have, as in Euclid's definition as "that which has no part", or in synthetic geometry. In modern mathematics, they are generally defined as elements of a set called space, which is itself axiomatically defined.
Lemierre's syndrome Pathophysiology Lemierre's_syndrome > Pathophysiology In this vein, the bacteria cause the formation of a thrombus containing these bacteria. Furthermore, the internal jugular vein becomes inflamed. This septic thrombophlebitis can give rise to septic microemboli that disseminate to other parts of the body where they can form abscesses and septic infarctions.
Power engineering Summary Power_systems_engineering Power engineering, also called power systems engineering, is a subfield of electrical engineering that deals with the generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of electric power, and the electrical apparatus connected to such systems. Although much of the field is concerned with the problems of three-phase AC power – the standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution across the modern world – a significant fraction of the field is concerned with the conversion between AC and DC power and the development of specialized power systems such as those used in aircraft or for electric railway networks. Power engineering draws the majority of its theoretical base from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.
Fick's laws of diffusion Sorption rate and collision frequency of diluted solute Diffusion_constant > Applications > Sorption rate and collision frequency of diluted solute The diffusion constant need to be updated to the relative diffusion constant between two diffusing molecules. This estimation is especially useful in studying the interaction between a small molecule and a larger molecule such as a protein. The effective diffusion constant is dominated by the smaller one whose diffusion constant can be used instead.
Metallic bonds History Metallic_bond > History Much research went into the study of clustering of metal atoms. As powerful as the concept of the band structure model proved to be in describing metallic bonding, it has the drawback of remaining a one-electron approximation of a many-body problem. In other words, the energy states of each electron are described as if all the other electrons simply form a homogeneous background. Researchers such as Mott and Hubbard realized that this was perhaps appropriate for strongly delocalized s- and p-electrons; but for d-electrons, and even more for f-electrons, the interaction with electrons (and atomic displacements) in the local environment may become stronger than the delocalization that leads to broad bands. Thus, the transition from localized unpaired electrons to itinerant ones partaking in metallic bonding became more comprehensible.
Ambient Vibrations Material needed Seismic_noise > Material needed For measurements in civil engineering structures, the amplitude is generally higher as well as the frequencies of interest, allowing the use of accelerometers or velocimeters with a higher corner frequency. However, since recording points on the ground may also be of interest in such experiments, sensitive instruments may be needed. Except for single station measurements, a common time stamping is necessary for all the stations. This can be achieved by GPS clock, common start signal using a remote control or the use of a single digitizer allowing the recording of several sensors. The relative location of the recording points is needed more or less precisely for the different techniques, requiring either manual distance measurements or differential GPS location.
Epitranscriptome Disease Epitranscriptome > Chemical Modifications of RNA > N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) > Disease On the other hand, increased m6A levels inhibit tumor progression in certain types of cancer. In addition, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the gene encoding FTO have been associated with increased risk of breast and pancreatic cancer. Altered m6A levels also contribute to hypoxia-induced enrichment of breast cancer stem cells phenotype.
Input-to-state stability Summary Input-to-state_stability ISS unified the Lyapunov and input-output stability theories and revolutionized our view on stabilization of nonlinear systems, design of robust nonlinear observers, stability of nonlinear interconnected control systems, nonlinear detectability theory, and supervisory adaptive control. This made ISS the dominating stability paradigm in nonlinear control theory, with such diverse applications as robotics, mechatronics, systems biology, electrical and aerospace engineering, to name a few. The notion of ISS was introduced for systems described by ordinary differential equations by Eduardo Sontag in 1989.Since that the concept was successfully used for many other classes of control systems including systems governed by partial differential equations, retarded systems, hybrid systems, etc.
Macdonald River railway bridge, Woolbrook History Macdonald_River_railway_bridge,_Woolbrook > History During the 20-year period 1873–1893 there was a massive program of public works in New South Wales, particularly in expanding the road and rail networks. It was a boom period that ended with a severe economic depression.Despite the boom conditions, the respective Chief Engineers, for Roads (William C. Bennett) and for Railways, John Whitton, were constrained to economise by using as much local material as possible, consequently an enormous amount of hardwood timber was used for bridgeworks, mostly timber beam and timber truss bridges. However, there were many major rivers to be crossed, requiring long span bridges, for which no form of timber bridge was suitable. These large bridges had to be metal and supplied from England, a very expensive import cost to the successive colonial governments.Both Chief Engineers were British so they chose the widely used wrought iron lattice truss bridge in the half-through form.
Case hardening (woodworking) Summary Case_hardening_(woodworking) However, any shrinkage is resisted by the already 'set' shell. This leads to reversed stresses; compression stresses on the shell and tension stresses in the core. This results in unrelieved stress called case hardening. Case-hardened may warp considerably and dangerously when the stress is released by sawing.
Information entropy Example Information_entropy > Example Every time it is tossed, one side is more likely to come up than the other. The reduced uncertainty is quantified in a lower entropy: on average each toss of the coin delivers less than one full bit of information. For example, if p = 0.7, then Uniform probability yields maximum uncertainty and therefore maximum entropy.
History of gravitational theory Islamic world History_of_gravitational_theory > Islamic world Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' (mayl), and argued that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the mayl is spent. Persian polymath Ibn al-Haytham describes gravity as a force in which heavier body moves towards the centre of the earth.He also describes the force of gravity will only move towards the direction of the centre of the earth not in different directions.
Insect morphology Dermaptera Insect_morphology > Internal morphology of different taxa > Dermaptera The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal ganglion, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neurone connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal aorta.
Theory of Special Relativity Journal articles Relativistic_velocities > Further reading > Journal articles 56 (6): 4405–09. Bibcode:1997PhRvA..56.4405W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.56.4405.
Comparative physiology Methodology Comparative_physiology > Methodology To use the "kind of animal" as an experimental variable. "While other branches of physiology use such variables as light, temperature, oxygen tension, and hormone balance, comparative physiology uses, in addition, species or animal type as a variable for each function." 25 years later, Prosser put things this way: "I like to think of it as that method in physiology which uses kind of organism as one experimental variable.
Nierenstein reaction Reaction mechanism Nierenstein_reaction > Reaction mechanism The result is a neutral diazoketone, which does not react with the chloride. Instead, the byproduct, diazonium-methyl from the other diazomethane molecule, can be attacked by the chloride to produce chloromethane. The unreactive diazoketone can be re-activated and reacted by treatment with hydrogen chloride to give the normal Nierenstein product. In some cases, even limiting the amount of diazomethane gives a reaction process that stalls via the neutral diazoketone pathway, requiring the addition of HCl gas to rescue it.
Galilean reference frame Summary Inertial_frame_of_reference the physics of a system can be described in terms of an inertial frame without causes external to the respective system, with the exception of an apparent effect due to so-called distant masses.In a non-inertial reference frame, viewed from a classical physics and special relativity perspective, the interactions between the fundamental constituents of the observable universe (the physics of a system) vary depending on the acceleration of that frame with respect to an inertial frame. Viewed from this perspective and due to the phenomenon of inertia, the 'usual' physical forces between two bodies have to be supplemented by apparently sourceless inertial forces. Viewed from a general relativity theory perspective, appearing inertial forces (the supplementary external causes) are attributed to geodesic motion in spacetime.
Animal model of schizophrenia Uses and limitations Animal_model_of_schizophrenia > Uses and limitations Developing models based on a particular sign or symptom of schizophrenia has thus become a more common approach. This approach has the advantage that the results are more likely to be valid across the species boundary.In order for an animal model to be useful in developing treatments, results from the animal model must translate into results in the patient with schizophrenia, this is called the validity of the model. Criteria for assessing the validity of animal models of schizophrenia include face validity, construct validity, and predictive validity. While no animal model can fully encompass all aspects of schizophrenia, progress has been made in using animals to model schizophrenia and its relationship to other mental disorders, such as addiction.
Chelsea Bridge Battersea Park Chelsea_Bridge > Background > Battersea Park In the early 1840s Thomas Cubitt and James Pennethorne had proposed a plan to use 150,000 tons of rocks and earth from the excavation of the Royal Victoria Dock to infill the marshy Battersea Fields and create a large public park to serve the growing population of Chelsea. In 1846 the Commissioners of Woods and Forests purchased the Red House Inn and 200 acres (0.81 km2) of surrounding land, and work began on the development that would become Battersea Park. It was expected that with the opening of the park the volume of cross river traffic would increase significantly, putting further strain on the dilapidated Battersea Bridge.Consequently, in 1846 an Act of Parliament authorised the building of a new toll bridge on the site of an ancient ford exactly one mile (1.6 km) downstream of Battersea Bridge.
Telecommunications circuit Definitions Data_transmission_circuit > Definitions A telecommunication circuit may be defined as follows: The complete path between two terminals over which one-way or two-way communications may be provided. An electronic path between two or more points, capable of providing a single or multiple communication channels. An electronic closed-loop path among two or more points used for signal transfer.In operational terms, a telecommunication circuit may be capable of transmitting information in only one direction (simplex circuit), or it may be bi-directional (duplex circuit). Bi-directional circuits may support half-duplex operation, when only one end of the channel transmits at any one time, or they may support full-duplex operation, when independent simultaneous transmission occurs in both directions.
N = 1 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory Gauge symmetry N_=_1_supersymmetric_Yang–Mills_theory > Symmetries of the action > Gauge symmetry The preliminary theory defined on spacetime is manifestly gauge invariant as it is built from terms studied in non-supersymmetric gauge theory which are gauge invariant. The superfield formulation requires a theory of generalized gauge transformations. (Not supergauge transformations, which would be transformations in a theory with local supersymmetry).
Training Simulation Purpose Training_Simulation > Purpose In recent years, however, this classification has become somewhat impractical, as increasing numbers of training simulations are involving both elements, and combining both an overall view of the industry with some decisions relating to specific sectors. Training Simulations normally form part of a program designed to educate employees or students about the skills needed to operate a business, as well as persuade them to "think outside the box" and see the bigger picture. This can make for a better organized, more fluid system in which all employees understand their part in making the company successful.
Group Theory Combinatorics Group_Theory > Applications of group theory > Combinatorics In combinatorics, the notion of permutation group and the concept of group action are often used to simplify the counting of a set of objects; see in particular Burnside's lemma.
Dessin d'enfant Summary Dessin_d'enfant It is natural to ask which Riemann surfaces arise in this way. The answer is provided by Belyi's theorem, which states that the Riemann surfaces that can be described by dessins are precisely those that can be defined as algebraic curves over the field of algebraic numbers. The absolute Galois group transforms these particular curves into each other, and thereby also transforms the underlying dessins. For a more detailed treatment of this subject, see Schneps (1994) or Lando & Zvonkin (2004).
Flywheel energy storage Pulse power Flywheel_energy_storage > Applications > Pulse power Flywheel Energy Storage Systems (FESS) are found in a variety of applications ranging from grid-connected energy management to uninterruptible power supplies. With the progress of technology, there is fast renovation involved in FESS application. Examples include high power weapons, aircraft powertrains and shipboard power systems, where the system requires a very high-power for a short period in order of a few seconds and even milliseconds.
Document database Relationship to key-value stores Document_database > Relationship to other databases > Relationship to key-value stores A document-oriented database is a specialized key-value store, which itself is another NoSQL database category. In a simple key-value store, the document content is opaque. A document-oriented database provides APIs or a query/update language that exposes the ability to query or update based on the internal structure in the document. This difference may be minor for users that do not need richer query, retrieval, or editing APIs that are typically provided by document databases. Modern key-value stores often include features for working with metadata, blurring the lines between document stores.
Industrial fans Functions and industries Industrial_fans > Functions and industries There are many uses for the continuous flow of air or gas that industrial fans generate, including combustion, ventilation, aeration, particulate transport, exhaust, cooling, air-cleaning, and drying, to name a few. The industries served include electrical power production, pollution control, metal manufacturing and processing, cement production, mining, petrochemical, food processing, cryogenics, and clean rooms.
Adenocarcinoma of the lung Immunotherapy Lung_adenocarcinoma > Treatment > Immunotherapy Immune response can be prevented via activation of immune checkpoints, which consist in the binding of a ligand protein (e.g. PD-L1) to a receptor (e.g. PD-1) on the immune cell surface. As a consequence, cancer cells expressing PD-L1 can inactivate T cells thus fostering tumor growth. Immune checkpoint inhibitors have been developed to restore T cell-mediated antitumor immunity by blocking either the ligand or the receptor.Immune checkpoint inhibitors have been approved for NSCLC, including anti-PD-1 nivolumab and pembrolizumab.
Eberlein–Šmulian theorem Statement Eberlein–Šmulian_theorem > Statement Eberlein–Šmulian theorem: If X is a Banach space and A is a subset of X, then the following statements are equivalent: each sequence of elements of A has a subsequence that is weakly convergent in X each sequence of elements of A has a weak cluster point in X the weak closure of A is weakly compact.A set A can be weakly compact in three different ways: Sequential compactness: Every sequence from A has a convergent subsequence whose limit is in A. Limit point compactness: Every infinite subset of A has a limit point in A. Compactness (or Heine-Borel compactness): Every open cover of A admits a finite subcover.The Eberlein–Šmulian theorem states that the three are equivalent on a weak topology of a Banach space. While this equivalence is true in general for a metric space, the weak topology is not metrizable in infinite dimensional vector spaces, and so the Eberlein–Šmulian theorem is needed.
Computability Beyond recursively enumerable languages Computability > Power of automata > Power of Turing machines > Beyond recursively enumerable languages The halting problem is easy to solve, however, if we allow that the Turing machine that decides it may run forever when given input which is a representation of a Turing machine that does not itself halt. The halting language is therefore recursively enumerable. It is possible to construct languages which are not even recursively enumerable, however. A simple example of such a language is the complement of the halting language; that is the language consisting of all Turing machines paired with input strings where the Turing machines do not halt on their input.
Cathepsin Cathepsin K Cathepsin > Clinical significance > Cathepsin K The genetic knockout for cathepsin S and K in mice with atherosclerosis was shown to reduce the size of atherosclerotic lesions. The expression of cathepsin K in cultured endothelial cells is regulated by shear stress. Cathepsin K has also been shown to play a role in arthritis.
Environmental finance Strategies Environmental_finance > Strategies Removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide has been proposed as a solution to mitigate climate change, by increasing tree densities to absorb carbon dioxide. Other methods involve new technologies which are still in research development stages.Research in environmental finance has sought how to strategically invest in clean technologies. When paired with international legislation, such as the case of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, environmentally based investments have stimulated emerging industries and reduced the consequences of climate change. The international collaboration would ultimately lead to the changes that repaired the hole in the ozone layer.
Heat source Bryan (1907) Heat_energy > History > Classical thermodynamics > Bryan (1907) When two bodies act thermically on one another the quantities of heat gained by one and lost by the other are not necessarily equal. In the case of bodies at a distance, heat may be taken from or given to the intervening medium. The quantity of heat received by any portion of the ether may be defined in the same way as that received by a material body.
Right ventricle Dimensions Cardiac_ventricles > Function > Dimensions The heart and its performance are also commonly measured in terms of dimensions, which in this case means one-dimensional distances, usually measured in millimeters. This is not as informative as volumes but may be much easier to estimate with (e.g., M-Mode echocardiography or with sonomicrometry, which is mostly used for animal model research). Optimally, it is specified with which plane the distance is measured in, e.g. the dimension of the longitudinal plane. Fractional shortening (FS) is the fraction of any diastolic dimension that is lost in systole.
Peano–Russell notation Variables Peano–Russell_notation > Variables In the notation, variables are ambiguous in denotation, preserve a recognizable identity appearing in various places in logical statements within a given context, and have a range of possible determination between any two variables which is the same or different. When the possible determination is the same for both variables, then one implies the other; otherwise, the possible determination of one given to the other produces a meaningless phrase. The alphabetic symbol set for variables includes the lower and upper case Roman letters as well as many from the Greek alphabet.
Neural substrate Summary Neural_substrate A neural substrate is a term used in neuroscience to indicate the part of the central nervous system (i.e., brain and spinal cord) that underlies a specific behavior, cognitive process, or psychological state. Neural is an adjective relating to "a nerve or the nervous system", while a substrate is an "underlying substance or layer".Some examples are the neural substrates of language acquisition, memory, prediction and reward, pleasure, facial recognition, envisioning the future, intentional empathy, religious experience, spontaneous musical performance, and anxiety.
Macaulay's method Summary Macaulay's_method over the span and a number of concentrated loads are conveniently handled using this technique. The first English language description of the method was by Macaulay. The actual approach appears to have been developed by Clebsch in 1862. Macaulay's method has been generalized for Euler-Bernoulli beams with axial compression, to Timoshenko beams, to elastic foundations, and to problems in which the bending and shear stiffness changes discontinuously in a beam.
Rheological weldability Nonlinear viscoelasticity Rheological_weldability > Viscoelasticity > Nonlinear viscoelasticity A polymer's response to fast and large deformation forces is a non linear behavior and is more representative of the reactions experienced during the welding processes.Knowing the viscoelastic behavior allows for adjustments to temperature and pressure during the weld process in order to improve the weld quality.
Synthetic DNA Summary Synthetic_DNA Synthetic genomics is a nascent field of synthetic biology that uses aspects of genetic modification on pre-existing life forms, or artificial gene synthesis to create new DNA or entire lifeforms.
Carotid body Relay Carotid_body > Function > Relay The feedback from the carotid body is sent to the cardiorespiratory centers in the medulla oblongata via the afferent branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The efferent fibres of the aortic body chemoreceptors are relayed by the vagus nerve. These centers, in turn, regulate breathing and blood pressure, with hypoxia causing an increase in ventilation.
Many Eyes Human perception/cognition and data visualization Many_Eyes > Principles > Visual perception and data visualization > Human perception/cognition and data visualization When properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It is estimated that 2/3 of the brain's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data. Visualization can become a means of data exploration. Studies have shown individuals used on average 19% less cognitive resources, and 4.5% better able to recall details when comparing data visualization with text.
The Machine Question Critical reception The_Machine_Question > Critical reception Blay Whitby, in a review for AISB Quarterly, lauded The Machine Question for its "clear exposition" and wide range of references to other works, concluding that the book is "essential reading for philosophers interested in AI, robot ethics, or animal ethics". In a twin review of The Machine Question and Robot Ethics: The Ethical and Social Implications of Robots by Patrick Lin, Keith Abney, and George A. Bekey, Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology reviewer Jeff Shaw called Gunkel's book a good introduction to the "complex field of robot ethics" and that both books are "highly recommended to both the general reader as well as to experts in the field of robotics, philosophy, and ethics. "In a 2017 paper for Ethics and Information Technology, Katharyn Hogan investigated whether the machine question presented by Gunkel in the book is any different from the longstanding animal question. She concludes that the real question that is revealed from this discussion is whether humans deserve any moral preference over artificial life in the first place.
Entity-attribute-value model History Entity-attribute-value_model > History Codd's relational database model were available, though HELP was much later ported to a relational architecture and commercialized by the 3M corporation. (Note that while Codd's landmark paper was published in 1970, its heavily mathematical tone had the unfortunate effect of diminishing its accessibility among non-computer-science types and consequently delaying the model's acceptance in IT and software-vendor circles. The value of the subsequent contribution of Christopher J. Date, Codd's colleague at IBM, in translating these ideas into accessible language, accompanied by simple examples that illustrated their power, cannot be overestimated.) A group at the Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center was the first to use a relational database engine as the foundation of an EAV system.The open-source TrialDB clinical study data management system of Nadkarni et al. was the first to use multiple EAV tables, one for each DBMS data type.The EAV/CR framework, designed primarily by Luis Marenco and Prakash Nadkarni, overlaid the principles of object orientation onto EAV; it built on Tom Slezak's object table approach (described earlier in the "Entity" section). SenseLab, a publicly accessible neuroscience database, is built with the EAV/CR framework.
Pressure retarded osmosis History Pressure-retarded_osmosis > History This method of generating power was invented by Prof. Sidney Loeb in 1973 at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel. In 2014 researchers verified that 95% of a PRO system's theoretical power output can be produced with a membrane that is half (or less) the size needed for achieving 100%. Output is proportional to the salinity. Desalination yields very salty brine, while treated municipal wastewater has relatively little salt. Combining those streams could produce energy to power both facilities. However, powering an existing wastewater treatment plant by mixing treated wastewater with seawater could require a membrane area of 2.5 million square meters.To deal with these membrane requirements, scientists are working on rolled membranes that will take up much less space.

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