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Productivity improving technologies Automation, process control and servomechanisms Productivity_improving_technologies > Major sources of productivity growth in economic history > Automation, process control and servomechanisms Other controls such as interlocks, timers and limit switches could be added to the circuit. Today automation usually refers to feedback control. An example is cruise control on a car, which applies continuous correction when a sensor on the controlled variable (Speed in this example) deviates from a set-point and can respond in a corrective manner to hold the setting.
Ethical AI Intergovernmental initiatives Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence > Actors in AI ethics > Intergovernmental initiatives The European Commission has a High-Level Expert Group on Artificial Intelligence. On 8 April 2019, this published its "Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence". The European Commission also has a Robotics and Artificial Intelligence Innovation and Excellence unit, which published a white paper on excellence and trust in artificial intelligence innovation on 19 February 2020.
Electromagnetic motor Power Rotary_motor > Electromagnetism > Power Where ω r p m {\displaystyle \omega _{rpm}} is shaft speed in rpm and T is torque, a motor's mechanical power output Pem is given by,in Imperial units with T expressed in foot-pounds, P e m = ω r p m T 5252 {\displaystyle P_{em}={\frac {\omega _{rpm}T}{5252}}} (horsepower), and,in SI units with shaft angular speed, ω {\displaystyle \omega } , expressed in radians per second, and T expressed in newton-meters, P e m = ω T {\displaystyle P_{em}=\omega T} (watts).For a linear motor, with force F expressed in newtons and velocity v expressed in meters per second, P e m = F v {\displaystyle P_{em}=F{v}} (watts).In an asynchronous or induction motor, the relationship between motor speed and air gap power is given by the following: P a i r g a p = R r s I r 2 {\displaystyle P_{airgap}={\frac {R_{r}}{s}}I_{r}^{2}} , where Rr – rotor resistance Ir2 – square of current induced in the rotor s – motor slip; i.e., difference between synchronous speed and slip speed, which provides the relative movement needed for current induction in the rotor.
History of programming languages 1980s: consolidation, modules, performance History_of_programming_languages > 1980s: consolidation, modules, performance Research in Miranda, a functional language with lazy evaluation, began to take hold in this decade. One important new trend in language design was an increased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s.
Human-in-the-loop Within virtual simulation taxonomy Human-in-the-loop > Simulation > Within virtual simulation taxonomy Virtual simulations inject HITL in a central role by exercising motor control skills (e.g. flying an airplane), decision making skills (e.g. committing fire control resources to action), or communication skills (e.g. as members of a C4I team).
Simplicial homology Homology groups of higher-dimensional simplices Simplicial_homology > Example > Homology groups of higher-dimensional simplices Let S be a tetrahedron (without its interior), viewed as a simplicial complex. Thus S has four 0-dimensional vertices, six 1-dimensional edges, and four 2-dimensional faces. The construction of the homology groups of a tetrahedron is described in detail here. It turns out that H0(S) is isomorphic to Z, H2(S) is isomorphic to Z too, and all other groups are trivial.Therefore, the homological connectivity of the tetrahedron is 0. If the tetrahedron contains its interior, then H2(S) is trivial too. In general, if S is a d-dimensional simplex, the following holds: If S is considered without its interior, then H0(S) = Z and Hd−1(S) = Z and all other homologies are trivial; If S is considered with its interior, then H0(S) = Z and all other homologies are trivial.
Momentum vector Media Kinetic_momentum > Electromagnetic > Conservation > Media The above results are for the microscopic Maxwell equations, applicable to electromagnetic forces in a vacuum (or on a very small scale in media). It is more difficult to define momentum density in media because the division into electromagnetic and mechanical is arbitrary. The definition of electromagnetic momentum density is modified to where the H-field H is related to the B-field and the magnetization M by The electromagnetic stress tensor depends on the properties of the media.
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion Diagnosis Syndrome_of_inappropriate_antidiuretic_hormone_secretion > Diagnosis Diagnosis is based on clinical and laboratory findings of low serum osmolality and low serum sodium.Urinalysis reveals a highly concentrated urine with a high fractional excretion of sodium (high sodium urine content compared to the serum sodium). A suspected diagnosis is based on a serum sodium under 138. A confirmed diagnosis has seven elements: 1) a decreased effective serum osmolality - <275 mOsm/kg of water; 2) urinary sodium concentration high - over 40 mEq/L with adequate dietary salt intake; 3) no recent diuretic usage; 4) no signs of ECF volume depletion or excess; 5) no signs of decreased arterial blood volume - cirrhosis, nephrosis, or congestive heart failure; 6) normal adrenal and thyroid function; and 7) no evidence of hyperglycemia (diabetes mellitus), hypertriglyceridemia, or hyperproteinia (myeloma).There are nine supplemental features: 1) a low BUN; 2) a low uric acid; 3) a normal creatinine; 4) failure to correct hyponatremia with IV normal saline; 5) successful correction of hyponatremia with fluid restriction; 6) a fractional sodium excretion >1%; 7) a fractional urea excretion >55%; 8) an abnormal water load test; and 9) an elevated plasma AVP.
Trilaciclib Medical uses Trilaciclib > Medical uses Trilaciclib is indicated to reduce the frequency of chemotherapy-induced bone marrow suppression in adults receiving certain types of chemotherapy for extensive-stage (when the cancer has spread beyond the lungs) small cell lung cancer.
Transition metal alkene complex Monoalkenes Metal-alkene_complex > Monoalkenes Alkenes with electron-withdrawing groups commonly bind strongly to low-valent metals. Examples of such ligands are TCNE, tetrafluoroethylene, maleic anhydride, and esters of fumaric acid. These acceptors form adducts with many zero-valent metals.
Photon Wave–particle duality and uncertainty principles Photon_momentum > Wave–particle duality and uncertainty principles Rather, the received photon acts like a point-like particle since it is absorbed or emitted as a whole by arbitrarily small systems, including systems much smaller than its wavelength, such as an atomic nucleus (≈10−15 m across) or even the point-like electron. While many introductory texts treat photons using the mathematical techniques of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, this is in some ways an awkward oversimplification, as photons are by nature intrinsically relativistic. Because photons have zero rest mass, no wave function defined for a photon can have all the properties familiar from wave functions in non-relativistic quantum mechanics.
Chemical reactivity Causes of reactivity Chemically_reactive > Causes of reactivity This four equal bond configuration is called sp3 hybridization. The above three paragraphs rationalise, albeit very generally, the reactions of some common species, particularly atoms. One approach to generalise the above is the activation strain model of chemical reactivity which provides a causal relationship between, the reactants' rigidity & their electronic structure, and the height of the reaction barrier.
Graph transformation Classes of graph grammar and graph rewriting system Graph_rewriting_system > Classes of graph grammar and graph rewriting system Graph rewriting systems naturally group into classes according to the kind of representation of graphs that are used and how the rewrites are expressed. The term graph grammar, otherwise equivalent to graph rewriting system or graph replacement system, is most often used in classifications. Some common types are: Attributed graph grammars, typically formalised using either the single-pushout approach or the double-pushout approach to characterising replacements, mentioned in the above section on the algebraic approach to graph rewriting. Hypergraph grammars, including as more restrictive subclasses port graph grammars, linear graph grammars and interaction nets.
Rogue Data Cache Load Meltdown exploit Rogue_Data_Cache_Load > Mechanism > Meltdown exploit To understand Meltdown, consider the data that is mapped in virtual memory (much of which the process is not supposed to be able to access) and how the CPU responds when a process attempts to access unauthorized memory. The process is running on a vulnerable version of Windows, Linux, or macOS, on a 64-bit processor of a vulnerable type. This is a very common combination across almost all desktop computers, notebooks, laptops, servers and mobile devices.
Page replacement algorithms Least recently used Page_replacement_algorithms > Page replacement algorithms > Least recently used The most expensive method is the linked list method, which uses a linked list containing all the pages in memory. At the back of this list is the least recently used page, and at the front is the most recently used page. The cost of this implementation lies in the fact that items in the list will have to be moved about every memory reference, which is a very time-consuming process.
Observation Science Observation > Science Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, Geiger counters, and radio receivers. One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the process was unobserved. This is called the observer effect.
Constant folding Summary Constant_folding Constant folding and constant propagation are related compiler optimizations used by many modern compilers. An advanced form of constant propagation known as sparse conditional constant propagation can more accurately propagate constants and simultaneously remove dead code.
Satisfiability problem Summary Satisfiability_problem This concept is closely related to the consistency of a theory, and in fact is equivalent to consistency for first-order logic, a result known as Gödel's completeness theorem. The negation of satisfiability is unsatisfiability, and the negation of validity is invalidity. These four concepts are related to each other in a manner exactly analogous to Aristotle's square of opposition.
Clinical studies Types Medical_experimentation > Types These approaches may include drugs, vitamins or other micronutrients, vaccines, or lifestyle changes. Screening trials test for ways to identify certain diseases or health conditions. Diagnostic trials are conducted to find better tests or procedures for diagnosing a particular disease or condition.
Physical compression Summary Compressive_forces In uniaxial compression, the forces are directed along one direction only, so that they act towards decreasing the object's length along that direction. The compressive forces may also be applied in multiple directions; for example inwards along the edges of a plate or all over the side surface of a cylinder, so as to reduce its area (biaxial compression), or inwards over the entire surface of a body, so as to reduce its volume. Technically, a material is under a state of compression, at some specific point and along a specific direction x {\displaystyle x} , if the normal component of the stress vector across a surface with normal direction x {\displaystyle x} is directed opposite to x {\displaystyle x} .
Joseph Fourier The Analytic Theory of Heat Joseph_Fourier > The Analytic Theory of Heat Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough. The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries. Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject.
Van der Waals constants (data page) Units Van_der_Waals_constants_(data_page) > Units 1 J·m3/mol2 = 1 m6·Pa/mol2 = 10 L2·bar/mol21 L2atm/mol2 = 0.101325 J·m3/mol2 = 0.101325 Pa·m6/mol21 dm3/mol = 1 L/mol = 1 m3/kmol = 0.001 m3/mol (where kmol is kilomoles = 1000 moles) == References ==
Probability Applications Probability > Applications Probability theory is applied in everyday life in risk assessment and modeling. The insurance industry and markets use actuarial science to determine pricing and make trading decisions. Governments apply probabilistic methods in environmental regulation, entitlement analysis, and financial regulation.
Asymmetric flow field flow fractionation Operational procedures Asymmetric_flow_field_flow_fractionation > Operational procedures Once all the particles are in the same area of the channel, fractionation can occur.3. Fractionation There are two components that make up the FFF system. Firstly, the laminar flow that carries the sample through the separation chamber and secondly the separation field applied perpendicular to the channel, against the sample flow.As particles flow along the channel the cross flow separation field pushes the molecules towards the bottom of the channel.
Orthoretrovirinae Summary Orthoretrovirinae Orthoretrovirinae is a subfamily of viruses belonging to Retroviridae, a family of enveloped viruses that replicate in a host cell through the process of reverse transcription. The subfamily currently includes six genera, of which Lentivirus contains the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). These viruses cause a variety of tumors, malignancies and immune deficiency disease in humans, other mammals and birds. A few, like Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), apparently cause no disease in their natural hosts. == References ==
Game development Production Game_asset > Development process > Production Production is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced.Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production.
Unsupervised classification Summary Unsupervised_machine_learning Unsupervised learning is a paradigm in machine learning where, in contrast to supervised learning and semi-supervised learning, algorithms learn patterns exclusively from unlabeled data.
Pilot wave theory Mathematical formulation for a single particle Pilot_wave > Mathematical foundations > Mathematical formulation for a single particle {\displaystyle Q=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{\,2m\,}}{\frac {\nabla ^{2}{\sqrt {\rho \,}}}{\sqrt {\rho \,}}}~.} If we choose to neglect Q, our equation is reduced to the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of a classical point particle.
Minimal standard model Fermions Standard_Model > Particle content > Fermions Fermions are classified according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges they carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Each class is divided into pairs of particles that exhibit a similar physical behavior called a generation (see the table).
Maximum power principle Definition in words Maximum_power_principle > Definition in words In 2006, T.T. Cai, C.L. Montague and J.S.
Forced move T Forced_move > T 2. The number of moves to complete an objective; for example, if a king is racing to stop a pawn from queening, and the king has too few moves, that may be referred to as "not enough time".
Positive feedback cycle In physiology Positive_feedback_cycle > Examples and applications > In biology > In physiology A number of examples of positive feedback systems may be found in physiology. One example is the onset of contractions in childbirth, known as the Ferguson reflex. When a contraction occurs, the hormone oxytocin causes a nerve stimulus, which stimulates the hypothalamus to produce more oxytocin, which increases uterine contractions. This results in contractions increasing in amplitude and frequency.
Path planning algorithm Example Path_planning_algorithm > In video games > Hierarchical path finding > Example The number of clusters overall is 10x10=100. In the newly created graph the amount of nodes is small, it is possible to navigate between the 100 clusters, but not within the detailed map. If a valid path was found in the high-level-graph the next step is to plan the path within each cluster. The submap has 300x200 nodes which can be handled by a normal A* pathplanner easily.
Delaunay refinement Motivation Delaunay_refinement > Ruppert's algorithm > Motivation When doing computer simulations such as computational fluid dynamics, one starts with a model such as a 2D outline of a wing section. The input to a 2D finite element method needs to be in the form of triangles that fill all space, and each triangle to be filled with one kind of material – in this example, either "air" or "wing". Long, skinny triangles cannot be simulated accurately. The simulation time is generally proportional to the number of triangles, and so one wants to minimize the number of triangles, while still using enough triangles to give reasonably accurate results – typically by using an unstructured grid. The computer uses Ruppert's algorithm (or some similar meshing algorithm) to convert the polygonal model into triangles suitable for the finite element method.
Ingres (database) Storage Architecture Ingres_(database) > Architecture > Storage Architecture Ingres is a disk-oriented DBMS, and by default employ the n-ary storage model (NSM), also known as a row-store. However, Actian has incorporated columnar storage into its latest version of Ingres (Actian X) to improve its performance on OLAP tasks. Actian X has two storage engines, the traditional Ingres and X100, the same engine from Actian Vector. Although it is currently branded as the "Actian X Hybrid Database", the term "Hybrid" refers to its capability of performing both OLTP and OLAP tasks by employing a hybrid storage model (i.e. both row and column), not that it has a hybrid storage architecture.Regarding the storage organization, Ingres supports Heap, Hash, ISAM and B-tree.
Inverse curve Parabolas with center of inversion at the vertex Inverse_curve > Particular cases > Parabolas with center of inversion at the vertex The equation of a parabola is, up to similarity, translating so that the vertex is at the origin and rotating so that the axis is horizontal, x = y2. In polar coordinates this becomes r = cos ⁡ θ sin 2 ⁡ θ . {\displaystyle r={\frac {\cos \theta }{\sin ^{2}\theta }}.} The inverse curve then has equation r = sin 2 ⁡ θ cos ⁡ θ = sin ⁡ θ tan ⁡ θ {\displaystyle r={\frac {\sin ^{2}\theta }{\cos \theta }}=\sin \theta \tan \theta } which is the cissoid of Diocles.
Osmotic fragility Summary Osmotic_fragility Fragility testing can be useful to assess cells' ability (or lack thereof) to withstand sustained or repeated stress. Moreover, it can be used to assess how fragility itself varies under different or changing environmental or stress conditions, during or prior to the inducement of the hemolysis. Low fragility is often termed "stability," though technically stability refers to cells' resistance to both stress-induced lysis and spontaneous auto-lysis.
Hyetograph Summary Hyetograph A hyetograph is a graphical representation of the distribution of rainfall intensity over time. For instance, in the 24-hour rainfall distributions as developed by the Soil Conservation Service (now the NRCS or National Resources Conservation Service), rainfall intensity progressively increases until it reaches a maximum and then gradually decreases. Where this maximum occurs and how fast the maximum is reached is what differentiates one distribution from another. One important aspect to understand is that the distributions are for design storms, not necessarily actual storms. In other words, a real storm may not behave in this same fashion. The maximum intensity may not be reached as uniformly as shown in the SCS hyetographs.
Bohr–Sommerfeld model History Bohr-Sommerfeld_model > History In 1913, Niels Bohr displayed rudiments of the later defined correspondence principle and used it to formulate a model of the hydrogen atom which explained the line spectrum. In the next few years Arnold Sommerfeld extended the quantum rule to arbitrary integrable systems making use of the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum numbers introduced by Lorentz and Einstein. Sommerfeld made a crucial contribution by quantizing the z-component of the angular momentum, which in the old quantum era was called "space quantization" (German: Richtungsquantelung). This allowed the orbits of the electron to be ellipses instead of circles, and introduced the concept of quantum degeneracy.
Transcript variants Disease Alternative_splicing > Disease Changes in the RNA processing machinery may lead to mis-splicing of multiple transcripts, while single-nucleotide alterations in splice sites or cis-acting splicing regulatory sites may lead to differences in splicing of a single gene, and thus in the mRNA produced from a mutant gene's transcripts. A study in 2005 involving probabilistic analyses indicated that greater than 60% of human disease-causing mutations affect splicing rather than directly affecting coding sequences. A more recent study indicates that one-third of all hereditary diseases are likely to have a splicing component. Regardless of exact percentage, a number of splicing-related diseases do exist.
Electromagnetic theory of light Summary Light_generation The main source of natural light on Earth is the Sun. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps. With the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight.
Enthalpy of combustion Lower heating value Standard_enthalpy_change_of_combustion > Ways of determination > Lower heating value The lower heating value (LHV; net calorific value; NCV, or lower calorific value; LCV) is another measure of available thermal energy produced by a combustion of fuel, measured as a unit of energy per unit mass or volume of substance. In contrast to the HHV, the LHV considers energy losses such as the energy used to vaporize water - although its exact definition is not uniformly agreed upon. One definition is simply to subtract the heat of vaporization of the water from the higher heating value. This treats any H2O formed as a vapor.
Cardiac arrest Diagnosis Cardiac_arrest > Diagnosis POCUS can accurately diagnose cardiac arrest in hospital settings, overcoming some of the shortcomings of diagnosis through checking the central pulse (carotid arteries or subclavian arteries), as well as detecting movement and contractions of the heart.Using POCUS, clinicians can have limited, two-dimensional views of different parts of the heart during arrest. These images can help clinicians determine whether electrical activity within the heart is pulseless or pseudo-pulseless, as well as help them diagnose the potentially reversible causes of an arrest. Published guidelines from the American Society of Echocardiography, American College of Emergency Physicians, European Resuscitation Council, and the American Heart Association, as well as the 2018 preoperative Advanced Cardiac Life Support guidelines, have recognized the potential benefits of using POCUS in diagnosing and managing cardiac arrest.Owing to the inaccuracy of this method of diagnosis, some bodies like the European Resuscitation Council (ERC) have de-emphasized its importance.
Quantum Computation and Quantum Information Editions Quantum_Computation_and_Quantum_Information > Editions (2010). Quantum Computation and Quantum Information (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radar mapping Data processing Radar_mapping > Typical operation > Data processing Combining the series of observations requires significant computational resources, usually using Fourier transform techniques. The high digital computing speed now available allows such processing to be done in near-real time on board a SAR aircraft. (There is necessarily a minimum time delay until all parts of the signal have been received.) The result is a map of radar reflectivity, including both amplitude and phase.
Open Media Framework Interchange Summary Open_Media_Framework_Interchange (i.e. enabling a particular segment to play at a ratio of the speed of another segment)Some of the key benefits of OMFI are: It saves time by getting rid of tape-based file transfers. It brings in flexibility owing to its ability of using a number of applications on multiple workstations. The format preserves the best sound and picture quality during all imports.
Geospatial topology Topological data structures and validation Spatial_topology > Topological data structures and validation By the 1990s, the combination of cheaper storage and new users who were not concerned with topology led to a resurgence in spaghetti data structures, such as the shapefile. However, the need for stored topological relationships and integrity enforcement still exists. A common approach in current data is to store such as an extended layer on top of data that is not inherently topological.
P-adic Lie group The Lie algebra associated with a Lie group Group_manifold > Basic concepts > The Lie algebra associated with a Lie group The preceding description can be made more rigorous as follows. The Lie algebra of a closed subgroup G of GL(n, C), may be computed as Lie ⁡ ( G ) = { X ∈ M ( n ; C ) \| exp ⁡ ( t X ) ∈ G for all t in R } , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Lie} (G)=\{X\in M(n;\mathbb {C} )\|\operatorname {exp} (tX)\in G{\text{ for all }}t{\text{ in }}\mathbb {\mathbb {R} } \},} where exp(tX) is defined using the matrix exponential. It can then be shown that the Lie algebra of G is a real vector space that is closed under the bracket operation, = X Y − Y X {\displaystyle =XY-YX} .The concrete definition given above for matrix groups is easy to work with, but has some minor problems: to use it we first need to represent a Lie group as a group of matrices, but not all Lie groups can be represented in this way, and it is not even obvious that the Lie algebra is independent of the representation we use.
Klein's Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences Mentions Klein's_Encyclopedia_of_Mathematical_Sciences > Mentions This review article is significant in the history of aerodynamics because of its comprehensive scope and because it was submitted in August 1902. The date is more than a year before the Wrights achieved their powered flights at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, and two years before Prandtl introduced his theory of the boundary layer. It is therefore kind of a prenatal record of the science we now call aerodynamics.
Unordered pair Summary Unordered_pair In mathematics, an unordered pair or pair set is a set of the form {a, b}, i.e. a set having two elements a and b with no particular relation between them, where {a, b} = {b, a}. In contrast, an ordered pair (a, b) has a as its first element and b as its second element, which means (a, b) ≠ (b, a). While the two elements of an ordered pair (a, b) need not be distinct, modern authors only call {a, b} an unordered pair if a ≠ b. But for a few authors a singleton is also considered an unordered pair, although today, most would say that {a, a} is a multiset. It is typical to use the term unordered pair even in the situation where the elements a and b could be equal, as long as this equality has not yet been established.
Bag-of-words model in computer vision Pyramid match kernel Bag-of-words_model_in_computer_vision > Learning and recognition based on the BoW model > Supervised models > Pyramid match kernel The pyramid match kernel performs an approximate similarity match, without explicit search or computation of distance. Instead, it intersects the histograms to approximate the optimal match. Accordingly, the computation time is only linear in the number of features. Compared with other kernel approaches, the pyramid match kernel is much faster, yet provides equivalent accuracy. The pyramid match kernel was applied to ETH-80 database and Caltech 101 database with promising results.
Glossary of mycology M Glossary_of_mycology > M mitos, thread. mitosporic fungi Fungi imperfecti; Deuteromycetes; ana-holomorph; conidial fungi; asexual fungi Purely asexual fungi that reproduce by mitosis. mold mould, Micromycetes, microfungi A fungus of very small size, usually with microscopic sporocarps.
Workload Cognitive workload in time-critical decision-making processes Workload > Theory and modelling > Cognitive workload in time-critical decision-making processes It is well accepted that there is a relationship between the media by which information is transferred and presented to a decision maker and their cognitive workload. During times of concentrated activity, single-mode information exchange is a limiting factor. Therefore, the balance between the different information channels (most commonly considered visual processing and auditory, but could also include haptic, etc.) directly affects cognitive workload (Wickens 1984). In a time-critical decision situation, this workload can lead to human error or delayed decisions to accommodate the processing of the relevant information.
Undefined value Undefined behaviour Undefined_value > Handling > Undefined behaviour All of the preceding methods of handling undefined values require that the undefinedness be detected. That is, the called function determines that it cannot return a normal result and takes some action to notify the caller. At the other end of the spectrum, undefined behaviour places the onus on the caller to avoid calling a function with arguments outside of its domain. There is no limit on what might happen.
Myelodysplastic syndromes Iron levels Myelodysplastic_syndrome > Management > Iron levels Reversal of some of the consequences of iron overload in MDS by iron chelation therapy has been shown. Both the MDS Foundation and the National Comprehensive Cancer Network MDS Guidelines Panel have recommended that chelation therapy be considered to decrease iron overload in selected MDS patients. Evidence also suggests a potential value exists to iron chelation in patients who will undergo a stem-cell transplant.
Angular momentum quantization Spin angular momentum Angular_momentum_operators > Overview > Spin angular momentum There is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum (more often shortened to spin), represented by the spin operator S = ( S x , S y , S z ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {S} =\left(S_{x},S_{y},S_{z}\right)} . Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is only a metaphor: the closest classical analog is based on wave circulation. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin (scalar bosons have zero spin). For example, electrons always have "spin 1/2" while photons always have "spin 1" (details below).
Information Technology Enabled Services Performance measurement Outsourcing_services > Implications > Performance measurement Focusing on software quality metrics is a good way to maintain track of how well a project is performing.
Suicide inhibition Rational drug design Suicide_enzyme > Rational drug design Suicide inhibitors are used in what is called "rational drug design" where the aim is to create a novel substrate, based on already known mechanisms and substrates. The main goal of this approach is to create substrates that are unreactive until within that enzyme's active site and at the same time being highly specific. Drugs based on this approach have the advantage of very few resulting side effects.
Momentum Space Personnel Momentum_Space > Personnel Dewey Redman - tenor saxophone (tracks 1, 3 & 5-7) Cecil Taylor - piano (tracks 1 & 4-6) Elvin Jones - drums (tracks 1-3 & 6) == References ==
Nim (programming language) Syntax Nim_(programming_language) > Language design > Syntax Nim's type system allows for easy type conversion, casting, and provides syntax for generic programming. Nim notably provides type classes which can stand in for multiple types, and provides several such type classes 'out of the box'. Type classes allow working with several types as if they were a single type. For example: openarray – Represents arrays of different sizes, sequences, and strings SomeSignedInt – Represents all the signed integer types SomeInteger – Represents all the Integer types, signed or not SomeOrdinal – Represents all the basic countable and ordered types, except of non integer number This code sample demonstrates the use of typeclasses in Nim
List of antiviral drugs Summary List_of_antiviral_drugs Antiviral drugs are different from antibiotics. Flu antiviral drugs are different from antiviral drugs used to treat other infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Antiviral drugs prescribed to treat COVID-19 are not approved or authorized to treat flu. == References ==
Plumb bob Summary Plumb_bob The instrument has been used since at least the time of ancient Egypt to ensure that constructions are "plumb", or vertical. It is also used in surveying, to establish the nadir with respect to gravity of a point in space. It is used with a variety of instruments (including levels, theodolites, and steel tapes) to set the instrument exactly over a fixed survey marker or to transcribe positions onto the ground for placing a marker.
Mitotic exit Implications Mitotic_exit > Implications Eukaryotic cell cycle consists of various checkpoints and feedback loops to ensure faithful and successful cell division. During mitosis for example, when duplicated chromosomes are improperly attached to mitotic spindle, spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) proteins including Mad and Bub inhibit APC-Cdc20 to delay entry into anaphase and B-type cyclin degradations. In addition, when mitotic spindles are misaligned, MEN and subsequently Cdc14 are inhibited in a Bub2 and Bfa1-dependent manner to prevent degradation of mitotic cyclins and anaphase entry. Sic1 is a nice example demonstrating how systems-level feedbacks interact to sense the environmental conditions and trigger cell cycle transitions.
Weak reference Garbage collection Weak_reference > Garbage collection Garbage collection is used to clean up unused objects and so reduce the potential for memory leaks and data corruption. There are two main types of garbage collection: tracing and reference counting. Reference counting schemes record the number of references to a given object and collect the object when the reference count becomes zero. Reference-counting cannot collect cyclic (or circular) references because only one object may be collected at a time.
Geometric sum Binary encoded numbers Geometric_series > Instances > Power series > Taylor series > Binary encoded numbers Similarly, the geometric series with coefficient a=1 and common ratio r=2 is the foundation for binary encoded integers in digital computers. Again, the geometric series written in its normalized vector form is s/a = T. Keeping the column vector of basis functions T the same but generalizing the row vector so that each entry can be either a 0 or a 1 allows for an encoding of any integer. For example, the value v = 151 is encoded as v/a = T where coefficient a = 1 and common ratio r = 2.
Sieve C++ Parallel Programming System Parallelization and Scalability Sieve_C++_Parallel_Programming_System > Parallelization and Scalability In addition to these Iterator classes, the programmer is free to implement classes called 'Accumulators' which are used to carry out reduction operations. The way the Iterator classes are implemented opens up various means for scalability. The Sieve Parallel Runtime employs dynamic speculative execution when executing on a target platform. This can yield very good speedups, however running on a single core machine can incur overheads .
Limitations on exclusive rights: Computer programs Background Limitations_on_exclusive_rights:_Computer_programs > Background The revisions recommended by CONTU were approved with one important change. Instead of "rightful possessor" of a computer program Congress used the word "owner" of a computer program. It is not clear why this change was made. This one change resulted in a state of affairs in which software vendors began to take the position that customers do not own their software but rather only "license" it. The courts have split on whether the assertion in software agreements that the customer does not own the software, and has only a right to use it in accordance with the license agreement, is legally enforceable.
Three-pass protocol Summary Massey–Omura_cryptosystem The first three-pass protocol was developed by Adi Shamir circa 1980, and is described in more detail in a later section. The basic concept of the three-pass protocol is that each party has a private encryption key and a private decryption key. The two parties use their keys independently, first to encrypt the message, and then to decrypt the message.
Epitranscriptome Summary Epitranscriptome These modifications happen to many types of cellular RNA including, but not limited to, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). The most common and well-understood mRNA modification at present is N6-Methyladenosine (m6A), which has been observed to occur an average of three times in every mRNA molecule. Currently, work is focused on determining the types of and location of RNA modifications, determining if these modification have function, and if so, what is their mechanism of action.
Anaerobic fermentation Biological role Fermentation > Biological role : 63 In invertebrates, fermentation also produces succinate and alanine. : 141 Fermentative bacteria play an essential role in the production of methane in habitats ranging from the rumens of cattle to sewage digesters and freshwater sediments. They produce hydrogen, carbon dioxide, formate and acetate and carboxylic acids.
Stream Processors, Inc. Tools Stream_Processors,_Inc. > Technology > Tools Branch penalties are avoided by predicated selects and larger conditionals use conditional streams. Running under Eclipse, the Target Code Simulator provides comprehensive Host or Device binary code simulation with breakpoint and single-stepping capabilities with bandwidth and load statistics. A kernel view shows the VLIW pipeline for kernel optimizations, and a stream view shows kernel execution and stream loads to review global data movement for system profiling.
Visual noise Low and high-ISO technical examination Image_noise > Low and high-ISO technical examination If the capacity of the pixel wells is exceeded, this equates to over exposure. When the pixel wells are at near capacity, the photons themselves that have been exposed to the image sensor, generate enough energy to excite the emission of electrons in the image sensor and generate sufficient voltage at the image sensor output, equating to a lack of need for ISO gain (higher ISO above the base setting of the camera). This equates to a sufficient signal level (from the image sensor) which is passed through the remaining signal processing electronics, resulting in a high signal-to-noise ratio, or low noise, or optimal exposure.
Usability Engineering Usability Engineering International Standards Usability_Engineering > Usability Engineering International Standards Usability engineers sometimes work to shape an interface such that it adheres to accepted operational definitions of user requirements documentation. For example, the International Organization for Standardization approved definitions (see e.g., ISO 9241 part 11) usability are held by some to be a context, efficiency, and satisfaction with which specific users should be able to perform tasks. Advocates of this approach engage in task analysis, then prototype interface design, and usability testing on those designs. On the basis of such tests, the technology is potentially redesigned if necessary.The National Institute of Standards and Technology has collaborated with industry to develop the Common Industry Specification for Usability – Requirements, which serves as a guide for many industry professionals.
GnRH Neuron GnRH Physiology GnRH_Neuron > GnRH Physiology The shift to high frequency electrical activity in GnRH neurons is the signal that initiates puberty. GnRH neurons receive input from classical neurotransmitters like glutamate and GABA. These neurotransmitters cause electrical activity that is regulated through development to cause broad changes in calcium ion entry into the cell through voltage-sensitive ion channels. This triggers the release of GnRH into the hypophyseal portal capillary bloodstream, where the GnRH hormone activates the pituitary to release luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. In addition to classical neurotransmitters, some guidance molecules can change the wiring of GnRH neurons to the portal capillary system, altering the strength of the signal to the pituitary gland.
Langlands conjecture Implications Langlands_program > Current status > Implications Additionally, some connections between the Langlands program and M theory have been posited, as their dualities connect in nontrivial ways, providing potential exact solutions in superstring theory (as was similarly done in group theory through monstrous moonshine). Simply put, the Langlands project implies a deep and powerful framework of solutions, which touches the most fundamental areas of mathematics, through high-order generalizations in exact solutions of algebraic equations, with analytical functions, as embedded in geometric forms. It allows a unification of many distant mathematical fields into a formalism of powerful analytical methods.
Triple-line endometrium Structure Triple-line_endometrium > Structure The basal layer, adjacent to the myometrium and below the functional layer, is not shed at any time during the menstrual cycle. It contains stem cells that regenerate the functional layer, which develops on top of it.In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation. It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by reference to either the ovarian cycle or the uterine cycle by observing microscopic differences at each phase—for example in the ovarian cycle:
Neuroepigenetics Neuroplasticity Neuroepigenetics > Neuroplasticity Neuroplasticity refers to the ability of the brain to undergo synaptic rearrangement as a response to recurring stimuli. Neurotrophin proteins play a major role in synaptic rearrangement, amongst other factors. Depletion of neurotrophin BDNF or BDNF signaling is one of the main factors in developing diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and depression.
Distributed minimum spanning tree Progress property Distributed_minimum_spanning_tree > GHS algorithm > Progress property The GHS algorithm has a nice property that the lowest level fragments will not be blocked, although some operations in the non-lowest level fragments may be blocked. This property implies the algorithm will eventually terminate with a minimum spanning tree.
Transport protocol Analysis Transport_protocol > Analysis Some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, support virtual circuits, i.e. provide connection-oriented communication over an underlying packet-oriented datagram network. A byte-stream is delivered while hiding the packet mode communication for the application processes. This involves connection establishment, dividing of the data stream into packets called segments, segment numbering and reordering of out-of-order data.
DNA teleportation The DNA transduction experiment DNA_teleportation > The DNA transduction experiment This EMS is recorded by a microphone coil and saved as a 6-second WAV file at the lab in Paris. The WAV file is emailed to a partner team at the university of Benevento in Italy. The Italian team emits with a coil for 1 hour the EMS of the WAV file on a sample of distilled water in a sealed metal tube. The water sample is then placed in a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) machine. The PCR machine in Italy produces DNA, 98% identical to the initial DNA in Paris.
Pointing device Applying Fitts' Law in user interface design Pointing_device > Fitts' Law > Applying Fitts' Law in user interface design Interactive elementsCommand buttons for example should have different sizes than non-interactive elements. Larger interactive objects are easier to select with any pointing device.Edges and cornersDue to the fact, that the cursor gets pinned on the edges and corners of a graphical user interface, those points can be accessed faster than other spots on the display.Pop-up menusThey should support immediate selection of interactive elements in order to reduce the user's "travel time".Options for selectingWithin menus like dropdown menus or top-level navigation, the distance increases the further the user goes down the list. However in pie menus, the distance to the different buttons is always the same. In addition, the target areas in pie menus are larger.Task barsTo operate a task bar, the user needs a higher level of precision, thus more time. Generally they hinder the movement through the interface.
Concurrent Controls Multiuser DOS Intelligent_Micro_Software > Multiuser DOS Driver installation was more complex than the simple PC DOS method of copying the files onto the boot disk and modifying CONFIG.SYS appropriately – it was necessary to relink the Multiuser DOS kernel (known as a nucleus) using the SYSGEN command. Multiuser DOS was also unable to use many common PC DOS additions such as network stacks, and it was limited in its ability to support later developments in the PC-compatible world, such as graphics adaptors, sound cards, CD-ROM drives and mice. Although many of these were soon rectified – for example, graphical terminals were developed, allowing users to use CGA, EGA and VGA software – it was less flexible in this regard than a network of individual PCs, and as the prices of these fell, it became less and less competitive, although it still offered benefits in terms of management and lower total cost of ownership.
Earthquake simulation Summary Earthquake_performance_evaluation Earthquake simulation applies a real or simulated vibrational input to a structure that possesses the essential features of a real seismic event. Earthquake simulations are generally performed to study the effects of earthquakes on man-made engineered structures, or on natural features which may present a hazard during an earthquake. Dynamic experiments on building and non-building structures may be physical – as with shake-table testing – or virtual (based on computer simulation). In all cases, to verify a structure's expected seismic performance, researchers prefer to deal with so called 'real time-histories' though the last cannot be 'real' for a hypothetical earthquake specified by either a building code or by some particular research requirements.
Unix File System Summary Berkeley_Fast_File_System The Unix file system (UFS) is a family of file systems supported by many Unix and Unix-like operating systems. It is a distant descendant of the original filesystem used by Version 7 Unix.
List of important publications in physics Computational physics List_of_important_publications_in_physics > Computational physics T. D. Kühne; M. Krack; F. R. Mohamed; M. Parrinello (2007). "Efficient and Accurate Car-Parrinello-like Approach to Born-Oppenheimer Molecular Dynamics". Phys.
Convolutional neural networks Channel Max Pooling Convolutional_Neural_Network > Building blocks > Channel Max Pooling A CMP operation layer conducts the MP operation along the channel side among the corresponding positions of the consecutive feature maps for the purpose of redundant information elimination. The CMP makes the significant features gather together within fewer channels, which is important for fine-grained image classification that needs more discriminating features. Meanwhile, another advantage of the CMP operation is to make the channel number of feature maps smaller before it connects to the first fully connected (FC) layer. Similar to the MP operation, we denote the input feature maps and output feature maps of a CMP layer as F ∈ R(C×M×N) and C ∈ R(c×M×N), respectively, where C and c are the channel numbers of the input and output feature maps, M and N are the widths and the height of the feature maps, respectively. Note that the CMP operation only changes the channel number of the feature maps. The width and the height of the feature maps are not changed, which is different from the MP operation.
Ribosomal RNAs Structure Ribosomal_RNA > Structure These are combined with ~50 ribosomal proteins to form ribosomal subunits. There are three types of rRNA found in prokaryotic ribosomes: 23S and 5S rRNA in the LSU and 16S rRNA in the SSU. In the ribosomes of eukaryotes such as humans, the SSU contains a single small rRNA (~1800 nucleotides) while the LSU contains two small rRNAs and one molecule of large rRNA (~5000 nucleotides).
Geometrized units Summary Geometric_units A geometrized unit system, geometric unit system or geometrodynamic unit system is a system of natural units in which the base physical units are chosen so that the speed of light in vacuum, c, and the gravitational constant, G, are set equal to unity. c = 1 {\displaystyle c=1\ } G = 1 {\displaystyle G=1\ } The geometrized unit system is not a completely defined system. Some systems are geometrized unit systems in the sense that they set these, in addition to other constants, to unity, for example Stoney units and Planck units. This system is useful in physics, especially in the special and general theories of relativity.
Schauder basis Examples Faber–Schauder_system > Examples The Franklin system is another Schauder basis for C(), and it is a Schauder basis in Lp() when 1 ≤ p < ∞. Systems derived from the Franklin system give bases in the space C1(2) of differentiable functions on the unit square. The existence of a Schauder basis in C1(2) was a question from Banach's book.
Diffusing capacity Calculation Diffusion_capacity > Calculation The diffusion capacity for oxygen ( D L O 2 ) {\displaystyle (D_{L_{O_{2}}})} is the proportionality factor relating the rate of oxygen uptake into the lung to the oxygen gradient between the capillary blood and the alveoli (per Fick's laws of diffusion). In respiratory physiology, it is convenient to express the transport of gas molecules as changes in volume, since V O 2 ∝ n O 2 {\displaystyle {V_{O_{2}}}\propto {n_{O_{2}}}} (i.e., in a gas, a volume is proportional to the number of molecules in it). Further, the oxygen concentration (partial pressure) in the pulmonary artery is taken to be representative of capillary blood.
Antibiotic resistance in gonorrhea Summary Antibiotic_resistance_in_gonorrhea As of 2010, the recommended treatment is a single 250 mg intramuscular injection of ceftriaxone, sometimes in combination with azithromycin or doxycycline. However, certain strains of N. gonorrhoeae can be resistant to antibiotics that are normally used to treat it. These include: cefixime (an oral cephalosporin), ceftriaxone (an injectable cephalosporin), azithromycin, aminoglycosides, and tetracycline.
Jamming avoidance response Sensory coding Jamming_avoidance_response > Neurobiology > Pathway in Eigenmannia (Gymnotiformes) > Sensory coding Tuberous receptors themselves have two types, the T-unit and P-unit. The T-unit (T standing for time, meaning phase in the cycle) fires synchronously with the signal frequency by firing a spike on every cycle of the waveform. P-units (P standing for probability) tend to fire when the amplitude increases and fire less when it decreases. Under conditions of jamming, the P-unit fires on the amplitude peaks of the beat cycle where the two waves constructively interfere. So, a combined stimulus-EOD signal causes T-units to fire at the intermediate frequency, and causes P-unit firing to increase and decrease periodically with the beat.
Bayesian model of computational anatomy MAP estimation of volume templates from populations and the EM algorithm Bayesian_model_of_computational_anatomy > MAP estimation of volume templates from populations and the EM algorithm The observables are modelled as conditional random fields, I D i {\displaystyle I^{D_{i}}} a conditional-Gaussian random field with mean field φ i ⋅ I ≐ φ i ⋅ φ 0 ⋅ I 0 {\displaystyle \varphi _{i}\cdot I\doteq \varphi _{i}\cdot \varphi _{0}\cdot I_{0}} . The unknown variable to be estimated explicitly by MAP is the mapping of the hyper-template φ 0 {\displaystyle \varphi _{0}} , with the other mappings considered as nuisance or hidden variables which are integrated out via the Bayes procedure.
E-petitioner Signing the petition E-petitioner > The system > Signing the petition Signatories’ names are displayed for transparency, but addresses are stored privately, ensuring that the system complies with data protection laws. The system automatically deletes duplicate signatures and provides administrators with graphical indicators of confidence in the validity of signatures, based upon automated checks. These compare IP addresses, e-mail addresses and check the name against a list. These indicators support the administrator's scrutiny of input. Administrators may also remove signatures which are offensive. Once the petition has run for its period, the system automatically generates figures of the numbers of signatures made (valid and invalid) as well as the regions from which these signatures came.
Visual spatial attention Summary Visual_spatial_attention A region of space within the visual field is selected for attention and the information within this region then receives further processing. Research shows that when spatial attention is evoked, an observer is typically faster and more accurate at detecting a target that appears in an expected location compared to an unexpected location. Attention is guided even more quickly to unexpected locations, when these locations are made salient by external visual inputs (such as a sudden flash). According to the V1 Saliency Hypothesis, the human primary visual cortex plays a critical role for such an exogenous attentional guidance.Spatial attention is distinctive from other forms of visual attention such as object-based attention and feature-based attention. These other forms of visual attention select an entire object or a specific feature of an object regardless of its location, whereas spatial attention selects a specific region of space and the objects and features within that region are processed.
Leghemoglobin Debate on principal function Leghemoglobin > Debate on principal function Their study also showed a higher ATP/ADP ratio in wild-type root nodule cells with active leghemoglobin, suggesting that leghemoglobin also assists with delivery of oxygen for respiration. Plants contain both symbiotic and nonsymbiotic hemoglobins.
Cas9 Summary Cas9 Cas9 has gained traction in recent years because it can cleave nearly any sequence complementary to the guide RNA. Because the target specificity of Cas9 stems from the guide RNA:DNA complementarity and not modifications to the protein itself (like TALENs and zinc fingers), engineering Cas9 to target new DNA is straightforward. Versions of Cas9 that bind but do not cleave cognate DNA can be used to locate transcriptional activator or repressors to specific DNA sequences in order to control transcriptional activation and repression.
Inductive sensor Traffic sensor Inductive_sensor > Traffic sensor To control traffic signals at an intersection of roads, an induction loop can be buried in the pavement. A circuit connected to the loop can detect the change in its inductance when a vehicle passes over or stops on the loop. This can be used to detect vehicles and adjust the timing of traffic signals or provide a turning signal at a busy intersection.
Floating point error mitigation Monte Carlo arithmetic Floating-point_error_mitigation > Monte Carlo arithmetic Error analysis by Monte Carlo arithmetic is accomplished by repeatedly injecting small errors into an algorithm's data values and determining the relative effect on the results.
ST-elevation myocardial infarction Medications ST-elevation_myocardial_infarction > Prevention > Secondary prevention > Medications Following a heart attack, nitrates, when taken for two days, and ACE-inhibitors decrease the risk of death. Other medications include: Aspirin is continued indefinitely, as well as another antiplatelet agent such as clopidogrel or ticagrelor ("dual antiplatelet therapy" or DAPT) for up to twelve months. If someone has another medical condition that requires anticoagulation (e.g. with warfarin) this may need to be adjusted based on risk of further cardiac events as well as bleeding risk. In those who have had a stent, more than 12 months of clopidogrel plus aspirin does not affect the risk of death.Beta blocker therapy such as metoprolol or carvedilol is recommended to be started within 24 hours, provided there is no acute heart failure or heart block.

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