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Rectangular mask short-time Fourier transform Advantage and disadvantage Rectangular_mask_short-time_Fourier_transform > Advantage and disadvantage Compared with the Fourier transform: Advantage: The instantaneous frequency can be observed. Disadvantage: Higher complexity of computation.Compared with other types of time-frequency analysis: Advantage: Least computation time for digital implementation. Disadvantage: Quality is worse than other types of time-frequency analysis. The jump discontinuity of the edges of the rectangular mask results in Gibbs ringing artifacts in the frequency domain, which can be alleviated with smoother windows.
Autonomous bus Technology used in vehicular automation Automated_Driving > Technology used in vehicular automation These instances include allowing the user to minimize time, follow a precise route and accommodate any possible disabilities that the operator may have. Along with accommodating the driver, autonomous vehicles also impose a technological factor onto the environment around it, generally needing a higher sense of connectivity in the vehicle's environment. With this new factor to consider, many urban governments are considering becoming a smart city in order to provide a sufficient foundation for autonomous vehicles. Along these same lines of the vehicle's environment accommodating the vehicle, the user of these vehicles may also have to be technologically connected in order to operate these autonomous vehicles. With the advent of smartphones, it is predicted that autonomous vehicles will be able to have this connection with the user's smartphone or other technological devices similar to a smartphone.
Radon Transform Reconstruction approaches Filtered_back_projection > Reconstruction approaches The process of reconstruction produces the image (or function f {\displaystyle f} in the previous section) from its projection data. Reconstruction is an inverse problem.
Fatigue cracking Stress-life (S-N) method Fatigue_life > Predicting fatigue life > Stress-life and strain-life methods > Stress-life (S-N) method Analysis of fatigue data requires techniques from statistics, especially survival analysis and linear regression. The progression of the S-N curve can be influenced by many factors such as stress ratio (mean stress), loading frequency, temperature, corrosion, residual stresses, and the presence of notches. A constant fatigue life (CFL) diagram is useful for the study of stress ratio effect.
Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema Diagnosis Combined_pulmonary_fibrosis_and_emphysema > Diagnosis The diagnosis is confirmed with high resolution CT scan.
Special and general relativity General relativity Theory_of_Relativity > General relativity Some of the consequences of general relativity are: Gravitational time dilation: Clocks run slower in deeper gravitational wells. Precession: Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton's theory of gravity. (This has been observed in the orbit of Mercury and in binary pulsars).
Permissioned blockchain Summary Blockchain_2.0 Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance.A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server.
Sedimentation Summary Sedimentation In geology, sedimentation is the deposition of sediments which results in the formation of sedimentary rock. The term is broadly applied to the entire range of processes that result in the formation of sedimentary rock, from initial erosion through sediment transport and settling to the lithification of the sediments.
Systemic acquired resistance Mechanism Systemic_acquired_resistance > Mechanism Pathogens can then evolve and develop new effectors for overcoming ETI, to which plants can respond by developing new R genes capable of recognizing the pathogen effector, thereby providing a new ETI. When PTI and ETI are activated in the local infected plant tissues, there is a signaling cascade that induces an immune response throughout the whole plant. This "whole plant" immune response is called systemic acquired resistance (SAR).
Thermoelectric generator Materials for TEG Thermoelectric_power_source > Materials for TEG During operation, ideally, the thermoelectric generator has a large temperature gradient across it. Thermal expansion will then introduce stress in the device which may cause fracture of the thermoelectric legs or separation from the coupling material. The mechanical properties of the materials must be considered and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the n and p-type material must be matched reasonably well.
Somatization disorder DSM-IV-TR Somatization_disorder > Criteria > DSM-IV-TR The DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria are: A history of somatic complaints over several years, starting prior to the age of 30. Such symptoms cannot be fully explained by a general medical condition or substance use or, when there is an associated medical condition, the impairments due to the somatic symptoms are more severe than generally expected. Complaints are not feigned as in malingering or factitious disorder.The symptoms do not all have to occur at the same time, but may occur over the course of the disorder. A somatization disorder itself is chronic but fluctuating that rarely remits completely.
ADO.NET data provider Architecture ADO.NET > Architecture They can also provide access to hierarchical data stores such as email systems. Because different data store technologies can have different capabilities, every ADO.NET provider cannot implement every possible interface available in the ADO.NET standard. Microsoft describes the availability of an interface as "provider-specific," as it may not be applicable depending on the data store technology involved. Providers may augment the capabilities of a data store; these capabilities are known as "services" in Microsoft parlance.
Einstein Equations Mathematical form Vacuum_field_equations > Mathematical form The EFE is a tensor equation relating a set of symmetric 4 × 4 tensors. Each tensor has 10 independent components. The four Bianchi identities reduce the number of independent equations from 10 to 6, leaving the metric with four gauge-fixing degrees of freedom, which correspond to the freedom to choose a coordinate system.
Authentication History and state-of-the-art Authentication > History and state-of-the-art That the originator (or anyone other than an attacker) knows (or doesn't know) about a compromise is irrelevant. However, it is not known whether these cryptographically based authentication methods are provably secure, since unanticipated mathematical developments may make them vulnerable to attack in the future. If that were to occur, it may call into question much of the authentication in the past. In particular, a digitally signed contract may be questioned when a new attack on the cryptography underlying the signature is discovered.
Newton's Second Law Antiquity and medieval background Newton's_laws_of_motion > History > Antiquity and medieval background The subject of physics is often traced back to Aristotle; however, the history of the concepts involved is obscured by multiple factors. An exact correspondence between Aristotelian and modern concepts is not simple to establish: Aristotle did not clearly distinguish what we would call speed and force, and he used the same term for density and viscosity; he conceived of motion as always through a medium, rather than through space. In addition, some concepts often termed "Aristotelian" might better be attributed to his followers and commentators upon him. These commentators found that Aristotelian physics had difficulty explaining projectile motion.
Limit price Summary Limit_price A limit price (or limit pricing) is a price, or pricing strategy, where products are sold by a supplier at a price low enough to make it unprofitable for other players to enter the market. It is used by monopolists to discourage entry into a market, and is illegal in many countries. The quantity produced by the incumbent firm to act as a deterrent to entry is usually larger than would be optimal for a monopolist, but might still produce higher economic profits than would be earned under perfect competition. The problem with limit pricing as strategic behavior is that once the entrant has entered the market, the quantity used as a threat to deter entry is no longer the incumbent firm's best response.
Flexible drive Advantages Compliant_mechanism > Advantages Compliant structures are often created as an alternative to similar mechanisms that use multiple parts. There are two main advantages for using compliant mechanisms: Low cost: A compliant mechanism can usually be fabricated into a single structure, which is a dramatic simplification in the number of required parts. A single-piece compliant structure can be manufactured through injection molding, extrusion, and 3d printing, among other methods. This makes the manufacturing relatively cheap and accessible. Better efficiency: Compliant mechanisms do not suffer from some issues that affect multi-bodied mechanisms, such as backlash or surface wear. Due to the usage of flexible elements, compliant mechanisms can easily store energy to be released at a later time or transformed into other forms of energy.
First law of thermodynamics Cited sources First_law_of_thermodynamics > References > Cited sources See English Translation: On the Moving Force of Heat, and the Laws regarding the Nature of Heat itself which are deducible therefrom. Phil. Mag.
Prior knowledge for pattern recognition Knowledge of the data Prior_knowledge_for_pattern_recognition > Knowledge of the data Other forms of prior knowledge than class-invariance concern the data more specifically and are thus of particular interest for real-world applications. The three particular cases that most often occur when gathering data are: Unlabeled samples are available with supposed class-memberships; Imbalance of the training set due to a high proportion of samples of a class; Quality of the data may vary from a sample to another.Prior knowledge of these can enhance the quality of the recognition if included in the learning. Moreover, not taking into account the poor quality of some data or a large imbalance between the classes can mislead the decision of a classifier.
Secular equation Properties Characteristic_polynomial_of_a_graph > Properties The characteristic polynomial p A ( t ) {\displaystyle p_{A}(t)} of a n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix is monic (its leading coefficient is 1 {\displaystyle 1} ) and its degree is n . {\displaystyle n.} The most important fact about the characteristic polynomial was already mentioned in the motivational paragraph: the eigenvalues of A {\displaystyle A} are precisely the roots of p A ( t ) {\displaystyle p_{A}(t)} (this also holds for the minimal polynomial of A , {\displaystyle A,} but its degree may be less than n {\displaystyle n} ). All coefficients of the characteristic polynomial are polynomial expressions in the entries of the matrix.
Optical bandpass filter Summary Optical_bandpass_filter Optical filters selectively transmit light in a particular range of wavelengths, that is, colours, while absorbing the remainder. They can usually pass long wavelengths only (longpass), short wavelengths only (shortpass), or a band of wavelengths, blocking both longer and shorter wavelengths (bandpass). The passband may be narrower or wider; the transition or cutoff between maximal and minimal transmission can be sharp or gradual.
Maschke's theorem Category-theoretic Maschke's_theorem > Formulations > Category-theoretic Reformulated in the language of semi-simple categories, Maschke's theorem states
Interactive kiosk Regulatory Issues Internet_kiosk > Kiosk industry segments > Regulatory Issues The main regulatory issues are ADA and Accessibility, PCI-EMV, UL, CE, and HIPAA. There are many more regulations including state-specific regulations (e.g. Unruh Act in California). In 2019 the Kiosk Association released a new Code of Practice for Accessibility. It was presented to the entire U.S. Access Board in 2019.
Biliary fistula Diagnosis Biliary_fistula > Diagnosis For bronchobiliary fistula, the following tests are performed: 1) ultrasound abdomen, may show subdiaphragmatic collection around the surface of the right lobe of the liver. 2) preoperative chest X-ray, may demonstrate mild to moderate right-sided pleural effusion without an active lung pathology. 3) CT scan, may reveal focal collection along the liver's right lateral margin, which can be communicating with one of the right lower lobe bronchi, supporting the diagnosis of a BBF.
Greenhouse warming Effective temperature Greenhouse_Effect > Energy balance and temperature > Effective temperature The power of outgoing longwave radiation emitted by a planet corresponds to the effective temperature of the planet. The effective temperature is the temperature that a planet radiating with a uniform temperature (a blackbody) would need to have in order to radiate the same amount of energy. This concept may be used to compare the amount of longwave radiation emitted to space and the amount of longwave radiation emitted by the surface: Emissions to space: Based on its emissions of longwave radiation to space, Earth's overall effective temperature is −18 °C (0 °F).
Guanylyl cyclase Effects Guanylyl_cyclase > Effects sGC expression has been shown to be highest in the striatum compared to other brain regions and has been explored as a possible candidate for restoring striatal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. sGC acts as an intracellular intermediary for regulating dopamine and glutamate. Upregulation, which creates neuronal sensitivity, of the cGMP in a dopamine-depleted striatum has been associated with the symptoms of Parkinson's. Increased intracellular cGMP has been shown to contribute to excessive neuron excitability and locomotor activity. Activation of this pathway can also stimulate presynaptic glutamate release and cause an upregulation of AMPA receptors postsynaptically.
Modularity (biology) Evolution of Modularity Modularity_(biology) > Evolution of Modularity Compounded effect of stabilizing and directional selection: This is the explanation seemingly favored by Wagner and his contemporaries as it provides a model through which modularity is constricted, but still able to unidirectionally explore different evolutionary outcomes. The semi-antagonistic relationship is best illustrated using the corridor model, whereby stabilizing selection forms barriers in phenotype space that only allow the system to move towards the optimum along a single path. This allows directional selection to act and inch the system closer to optimum through this evolutionary corridor.
Isotopic shift Mass effects Isotopic_shift > Atomic spectra > Mass effects However, for a nucleus with finite mass M N {\displaystyle M_{N}} , reduced mass is used in the expression of Rydberg constant instead of mass of electron: With two isotopes with atomic mass approximately A ′ M p {\displaystyle A^{\prime }M_{p}} and A ′ ′ M p {\displaystyle A^{\prime \prime }M_{p}} , then the difference in the energies of the same transition is The above equations imply that such mass shift is greatest for hydrogen and deuterium since their mass ratio is the largest A ′ ′ = 2 A ′ {\displaystyle A^{\prime \prime }=2A^{\prime }} . The effect of the specific mass shift was first observed in the spectrum of neon isotopes by Nagaoka and Mishima.Considering the kinetic energy operator in Schrödinger equation of multi-electron atoms, For a stationary atom, the conservation of momentum gives Therefore, the kinetic energy operator becomes Ignoring the second term, then the rest two terms in equation can be combined and original mass term need to be replaced by the reduced mass μ = m e M N m e + M N {\displaystyle \mu ={\frac {m_{e}M_{N}}{m_{e}+M_{N}}}} , and this gives the normal mass shift formulated above. The second term in the kinetic term gives an additional isotope shift in spectral lines known as specific mass shift, giving Using perturbation theory, the first order energy shift can be calculated as which requires the knowledge of accurate many-electron wave function. Due to the 1 M N {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{M_{N}}}} term in the expression, the specific mass shift also decrease as 1 M N 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{M_{N}^{2}}}} as mass of nucleus increase, same as normal mass shift.
Contraction principle (large deviations theory) Summary Contraction_principle_(large_deviations_theory) In mathematics — specifically, in large deviations theory — the contraction principle is a theorem that states how a large deviation principle on one space "pushes forward" (via the pushforward of a probability measure) to a large deviation principle on another space via a continuous function.
Factory automation Agent-assisted automation Automatic_control_system > Recent and emerging applications > Industrial automation > Agent-assisted automation Agent-assisted automation refers to automation used by call center agents to handle customer inquiries. The key benefit of agent-assisted automation is compliance and error-proofing. Agents are sometimes not fully trained or they forget or ignore key steps in the process. The use of automation ensures that what is supposed to happen on the call actually does, every time.
Arantza Díaz de Ilarraza Sánchez Academic career Arantza_Díaz_de_Ilarraza_Sánchez > Academic career In 2015, the DeepL translator provided quality results in translations across ten languages, but Basque was not among them; the Ixa Group began working on that in the TADEEP project, and the first public demo was available in 2017. That year various organisations (Ixa Group, Elhuyar, Vicomtech, Ametzagaña, Mondragon Lingua, etc.) collaborated and launched the MODELA project. The first service offering neuronal translation into Basque over the Internet for the general public was published a year later in 2018.
Hardwired control unit Summary Control_unit The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that directs the operation of the processor. A CU typically uses a binary decoder to convert coded instructions into timing and control signals that direct the operation of the other units (memory, arithmetic logic unit and input and output devices, etc.). Most computer resources are managed by the CU.
Inclusion (disability rights) Inclusion in the U.S. Inclusion_(disability_rights) > Inclusion in the U.S. Additionally, the attitudes and prejudices held by people without disabilities towards the disabled community remain a persistent issue. To this end, when it comes to societal perceptions of individuals with disabilities, barriers to inclusion generally include other people's behaviors, misunderstandings, lack of awareness about disabilities, and even a lack of understanding about the functions performed by service animals. This is in addition to physical barriers already present, including transportation, level of lighting, or handicap accessible buildings and equipment.
Micromachinery Transducers Micromachinery > Transducers The field competes with a restoring force on the rotor (usually a spring force produced by the bending or stretching of the rotor) to move the rotor. The greater the electric field, the farther the rotor will move. Thermal actuators use the force of thermal expansion to move objects.
Transpiration stream Osmosis Transpiration_stream > Osmosis After this, the water moves up the xylem vessels to the leaves through diffusion: A pressure change between the top and bottom of the vessel. Diffusion takes place because there is a water potential gradient between water in the xylem vessel and the leaf (as water is transpiring out of the leaf). This means that water diffuses up the leaf.
Jennifer Logan Research Jennifer_Logan > Research An overarching theme of Logan's research is how anthropogenic activities influence the composition of the atmosphere. Broadly, her research includes investigations into how fires impact particles in the atmosphere, how changes in climate impact air quality, the use of satellite data to measure ozone, and modeling efforts that link current and past atmospherical datasets.After her Ph.D. research on halogens, Logan considered how people influence atmospheric chemistry through actions including biomass burning, agriculture, and the release of chlorocarbons. She extended this research to identify spatial and temporal variability in ozone levels in the troposphere and directly linked the loss of atmospheric ozone with the presence of halogens, chlorine, and bromine.
Classification of manifolds Dimension 4: exotic Classification_of_manifolds > Dimension 4: exotic Four-dimensional manifolds are the most unusual: they are not geometrizable (as in lower dimensions), and surgery works topologically, but not differentiably. Since topologically, 4-manifolds are classified by surgery, the differentiable classification question is phrased in terms of "differentiable structures": "which (topological) 4-manifolds admit a differentiable structure, and on those that do, how many differentiable structures are there?" Four-manifolds often admit many unusual differentiable structures, most strikingly the uncountably infinitely many exotic differentiable structures on R4. Similarly, differentiable 4-manifolds is the only remaining open case of the generalized Poincaré conjecture.
Variational free energy Variational Bayesian inference Variational_free_energy > Motivation > Variational Bayesian inference Since there are not many explicitly parametrized distribution families (all the classical distribution families, such as the normal distribution, the Gumbel distribution, etc, are far too simplistic to model the true distribution), we consider implicitly parametrized probability distributions: First, define a simple distribution p ( z ) {\displaystyle p(z)} over a latent random variable Z {\displaystyle Z} . Usually a normal distribution or a uniform distribution suffices. Next, define a family of complicated functions f θ {\displaystyle f_{\theta }} (such as a deep neural network) parametrized by θ {\displaystyle \theta } .
Homeotic genes Summary Homeotic_genes Homeotic genes are genes which regulate the development of anatomical structures in various organisms such as echinoderms, insects, mammals, and plants. Homeotic genes often encode transcription factor proteins, and these proteins affect development by regulating downstream gene networks involved in body patterning.Mutations in homeotic genes cause displaced body parts (homeosis), such as antennae growing at the posterior of the fly instead of at the head. Mutations that lead to development of ectopic structures are usually lethal.
Web accessibility United Kingdom Web_accessibility > Web accessibility legislation > United Kingdom 2006). PAS 78, produced by the Disability Rights Commission and usable by disabled people. The standard has been designed to introduce non-technical professionals to improved accessibility, usability and user experience for disabled and older people.
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Differential diagnosis Idiopathic_pulmonary_fibrosis > Diagnosis > Differential diagnosis Recognizing IPF in clinical practice can be challenging as symptoms often appear similar to those of more common diseases, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and congestive heart failure (www.diagnoseipf.com). The key issue facing clinicians is whether the presenting history, symptoms (or signs), radiology, and pulmonary function testing are collectively in keeping with the diagnosis of IPF or whether the findings are due to another process. It has long been recognized that patients with ILD related to asbestos exposure, drugs (such as chemotherapeutic agents or nitrofurantoin), rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma/systemic sclerosis may be difficult to distinguish from IPF. Other differential diagnostic considerations include interstitial lung disease related to mixed connective tissue disease, advanced sarcoidosis, chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pulmonary Langerhan's cell histiocytosis and radiation-induced lung injury.
Converting (metallurgy) Equipment Converting_(metallurgy) > Equipment A hood for the purpose of the loading/unloading operations is located on the upper side of the converter. Two belts of tuyeres come along the axis on either sides of the converter. Molten sulfide material, referred to as matte, is poured through the hood into the converter during the operation of loading.
Aldolase B Mechanism Aldolase_B > Mechanism Depending on the reactant, F1P or FBP, the products are DHAP and glyceraldehyde or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, respectively.The ΔG°’ of this reaction is +23.9 kJ/mol. Though the reaction may seem too uphill to occur, it is of note that under physiological conditions, the ΔG of the reaction falls to close to or below zero. For example, the ΔG of this reaction under physiological conditions in erythrocytes is -0.23 kJ/mol.
FirstClass FCP, the FirstClass Protocol FirstClass > FCP, the FirstClass Protocol Both the client and server could communicate over any of these links, allowing a user to move from office to home and have access to the same server. FCP was based on a sliding window protocol, using a wide variety of packet sizes tuned to different networking protocols. Later versions of FCP could turn off their own error correction systems when running over error-free links like TCP/IP.
Classical geometry 17th century: Descartes Plane_geometry > Later history > 17th century: Descartes In terms of analytic geometry, the restriction of classical geometry to compass and straightedge constructions means a restriction to first- and second-order equations, e.g., y = 2x + 1 (a line), or x2 + y2 = 7 (a circle). Also in the 17th century, Girard Desargues, motivated by the theory of perspective, introduced the concept of idealized points, lines, and planes at infinity. The result can be considered as a type of generalized geometry, projective geometry, but it can also be used to produce proofs in ordinary Euclidean geometry in which the number of special cases is reduced.
Inorganic compounds by element Sn Calcium_salt > T > Sn Stannane – SnH4 Tin(II) bromide – SnBr2 Tin(II) chloride (stannous chloride) – SnCl2 Tin(II) fluoride – SnF2 Tin(II) hydroxide – Sn(OH)2 Tin(II) iodide – SnI2 Tin(II) oxide – SnO Tin(II) sulfate – SnSO4 Tin(II) sulfide – SnS Tin(IV) bromide – SnBr4 Tin(IV) chloride – SnCl4 Tin(IV) fluoride – SnF4 Tin(IV) iodide – SnI4 Tin(IV) oxide – SnO2 Tin(IV) sulfide – SnS2 Tin(IV) cyanide – Sn(CN)4 Tin selenide – SnSe2 Tin telluride – SnTe
Euler's criterion Examples Euler's_criterion > Examples We can find quadratic residues or verify them using the above formula. To test if 2 is a quadratic residue modulo 17, we calculate 2(17 − 1)/2 = 28 ≡ 1 (mod 17), so it is a quadratic residue. To test if 3 is a quadratic residue modulo 17, we calculate 3(17 − 1)/2 = 38 ≡ 16 ≡ −1 (mod 17), so it is not a quadratic residue. Euler's criterion is related to the law of quadratic reciprocity.
Data Matrix Technical specifications Data_matrix_(computer) > Technical specifications Each data region is delimited by a finder pattern, and this is surrounded on all four sides by a quiet zone border (margin). (Note: The modules may be round or square- no specific shape is defined in the standard. For example, dot-peened cells are generally round.)
Adult stem cells Cell division Adult_stem_cells > Properties > Cell division Perturbed niches cause the stem cell to begin actively dividing again to replace lost or damaged cells until the niche is restored. In hematopoietic stem cells, the MAPK/ERK pathway and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway regulate this transition. The ability to regulate the cell cycle in response to external cues helps prevent stem cell exhaustion, or the gradual loss of stem cells following an altered balance between dormant and active states. Infrequent cell divisions also help reduce the risk of acquiring DNA mutations that would be passed on to daughter cells.
Bell's Theorem The Copenhagen Interpretation Bell_test_loopholes > Interpretations of Bell's theorem > The Copenhagen Interpretation The Copenhagen interpretation is a collection of views about the meaning of quantum mechanics principally attributed to Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg. It is one of the oldest of numerous proposed interpretations of quantum mechanics, as features of it date to the development of quantum mechanics during 1925–1927, and it remains one of the most commonly taught. There is no definitive historical statement of what is the Copenhagen interpretation. In particular, there were fundamental disagreements between the views of Bohr and Heisenberg.
Stress–strain analysis Experimental methods Stress_analysis > Experimental methods Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are the ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in cross-section area. From these measurements, properties such as Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and the strain-hardening characteristics of the sample can be determined. Strain gauges can be used to experimentally determine the deformation of a physical part.
Deaf rights movement Public accommodations Deaf_rights_movement > Public accommodations The Americans with Disabilities Act, also known as the ADA, has made a huge impact on the deaf community. In 1990 it was a landmark for people with disabilities. The ADA has been a great benefit for hard of hearing and deaf people to help them gain every aspect of life that a hearing person has. The ADA took the important principles in these laws and extended them to the broad mainstream of Americans public life.
Gaps between prime numbers Upper bounds Prime_gaps > Further results > Upper bounds {\displaystyle \theta >(1+4c)/(2+4c).} Here, O refers to the big O notation, ζ denotes the Riemann zeta function and π the prime-counting function.
Slip fit Force fits Slip_fit > ANSI fit classes (USA only) > Interference fits > Force fits Force fits are designed to maintain a controlled pressure between mating parts, and are used where forces or torques are being transmitted through the joining point. Like interference fits, force fits are achieved by applying a force during component assembly. FN 1 to FN 5
Cyclic sequence Summary Cyclic_sequence Any linear order can be bent into a circle, and any cyclic order can be cut at a point, resulting in a line. These operations, along with the related constructions of intervals and covering maps, mean that questions about cyclic orders can often be transformed into questions about linear orders. Cycles have more symmetries than linear orders, and they often naturally occur as residues of linear structures, as in the finite cyclic groups or the real projective line.
Acid soil pH effects on soil biota Soil_pH > pH effects on soil biota Soil biota (soil microflora, soil animals) are sensitive to soil pH, either directly upon contact or after soil ingestion or indirectly through the various soil properties to which pH contributes (e.g. nutrient status, metal toxicity, humus form). According to the various physiological and behavioural adaptations of soil biota, the species composition of soil microbial and animal communities varies with soil pH. Along altitudinal gradients, changes in the species distribution of soil animal and microbial communities can be at least partly ascribed to variation in soil pH. The shift from toxic to non-toxic forms of aluminium around pH5 marks the passage from acid-tolerance to acid-intolerance, with few changes in the species composition of soil communities above this threshold, even in calcareous soils.
Kelvin temperature Summary Kelvin_temperature Thermodynamic temperature is a quantity defined in thermodynamics as distinct from kinetic theory or statistical mechanics. Historically, thermodynamic temperature was defined by Lord Kelvin in terms of a macroscopic relation between thermodynamic work and heat transfer as defined in thermodynamics, but the kelvin was redefined by international agreement in 2019 in terms of phenomena that are now understood as manifestations of the kinetic energy of free motion of microscopic particles such as atoms, molecules, and electrons. From the thermodynamic viewpoint, for historical reasons, because of how it is defined and measured, this microscopic kinetic definition is regarded as an "empirical" temperature. It was adopted because in practice it can generally be measured more precisely than can Kelvin's thermodynamic temperature.
History of entropy Information theory History_of_entropy > Information theory "Why don’t you call it entropy", von Neumann suggested. "In the first place, a mathematical development very much like yours already exists in Boltzmann's statistical mechanics, and in the second place, no one understands entropy very well, so in any discussion you will be in a position of advantage.In 1948 Shannon published his seminal paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication, in which he devoted a section to what he calls Choice, Uncertainty, and Entropy. In this section, Shannon introduces an H function of the following form: H = − K ∑ i = 1 k p ( i ) log ⁡ p ( i ) , {\displaystyle H=-K\sum _{i=1}^{k}p(i)\log p(i),} where K is a positive constant.
List decoding Applications in complexity theory and cryptography List_decoding > Applications in complexity theory and cryptography Algorithms developed for list decoding of several interesting code families have found interesting applications in computational complexity and the field of cryptography. Following is a sample list of applications outside of coding theory: Construction of hard-core predicates from one-way permutations. Predicting witnesses for NP-search problems. Amplifying hardness of Boolean functions.
Differential privacy The Laplace mechanism Differential_privacy > ε-differentially private mechanisms > The Laplace mechanism and f {\displaystyle f\,\!} is the original real valued query/function we planned to execute on the database.
Genome editing Targeted gene modification in plants Cytosine_base_editing > Applications > Targeted gene modification in plants Genome editing using Meganuclease, ZFNs, and TALEN provides a new strategy for genetic manipulation in plants and are likely to assist in the engineering of desired plant traits by modifying endogenous genes. For instance, site-specific gene addition in major crop species can be used for 'trait stacking' whereby several desired traits are physically linked to ensure their co-segregation during the breeding processes. Progress in such cases have been recently reported in Arabidopsis thaliana and Zea mays. In Arabidopsis thaliana, using ZFN-assisted gene targeting, two herbicide-resistant genes (tobacco acetolactate synthase SuRA and SuRB) were introduced to SuR loci with as high as 2% transformed cells with mutations.
Data Mining Summary Knowledge_discovery_in_databases It also is a buzzword and is frequently applied to any form of large-scale data or information processing (collection, extraction, warehousing, analysis, and statistics) as well as any application of computer decision support system, including artificial intelligence (e.g., machine learning) and business intelligence. The book Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java (which covers mostly machine learning material) was originally to be named Practical Machine Learning, and the term data mining was only added for marketing reasons. Often the more general terms (large scale) data analysis and analytics—or, when referring to actual methods, artificial intelligence and machine learning—are more appropriate.
Memory dependency speculation Detecting RAW dependence violations Memory_dependency_speculation > Memory disambiguation mechanisms > RAW dependence violations > Detecting RAW dependence violations Modern out-of-order CPUs can use a number of techniques to detect a RAW dependence violation, but all techniques require tracking in-flight loads from execution until retirement. When a load executes, it accesses the memory system and/or store queue to obtain its data value, and then its address and data are buffered in a load queue until retirement. The load queue is similar in structure and function to the store queue, and in fact in some processors may be combined with the store queue in a single structure called a load-store queue, or LSQ. The following techniques are used or have been proposed to detect RAW dependence violations:
Deep Image Prior Specifics Deep_Image_Prior > Method > Specifics In this approach, the R ( x ) {\displaystyle R(x)} prior is replaced with the implicit prior captured by the neural network (where R ( x ) = 0 {\displaystyle R(x)=0} for images that can be produced by a deep neural networks and R ( x ) = + ∞ {\displaystyle R(x)=+\infty } otherwise). This yields the equation for the minimizer θ ∗ = a r g m i n θ E ( f θ ( z ) ; x 0 ) {\displaystyle \theta ^{}=argmin_{\theta }E(f_{\theta }(z);x_{0})} and the result of the optimization process x ∗ = f θ ∗ ( z ) {\displaystyle x^{}=f_{\theta ^{}}(z)} . The minimizer θ ∗ {\displaystyle \theta ^{}} (typically a gradient descent) starts from a randomly initialized parameters and descends into a local best result to yield the x ∗ {\displaystyle x^{*}} restoration function.
Light-front computational methods Renormalization group Light-front_computational_methods > Renormalization group The two types of concepts of renormalization mentioned above are associated with the following two questions: How should the parameters p {\displaystyle p} depend on the cutoffs Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } so that all observables X ( p , Λ , μ ) {\displaystyle X(p,\Lambda ,\mu )} of physical interest do not depend on Λ {\displaystyle \Lambda } , including the case where one removes the cutoffs by sending them formally to infinity? What is the required set of parameters p {\displaystyle p} ?The renormalization group concept associated with the first question predates the concept associated with the second question. Certainly, if one were in possession of a good answer to the second question, the first question could also be answered.
RNA therapeutics Mechanisms RNA_therapeutics > mRNA > Mechanisms In vitro transcription (IVT) is performed on a linearized DNA plasmid template containing the targeted coding sequence. Then, naked mRNA or mRNA complexed in a nanoparticle will be delivered systemically or locally. Subsequently, a part of the exogenous naked mRNA or complexed mRNA will go through cell-specific mechanisms. Once in the cytoplasm, the IVT mRNA is translated by the protein synthesis machinery.There are two identified RNA sensors, toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the RIG-I-like receptor family.
Wilms tumor protein Effects of editing Wilms_tumor_protein > RNA editing > Effects of editing RNA editing results in an alternative amino acid being translated. The changes in amino acid occur in a region identified as a domain involved in transcription activation function.Editing has been shown to decrease repressive regulation of transcription of growth promoting genes in vitro compared to the non edited protein. Although the physiological role of editing has yet to be determined, suggestions have been made that editing may play a role in the pathogenesis of Wilms tumour.
List of model organisms Prokaryotes List_of_model_organisms > Prokaryotes Bacteria: Escherichia coli (E. coli), common Gram-negative gut bacterium widely used in molecular genetics. Main lab strain is 'K-12'. Bacillus subtilis, endospore forming Gram-positive bacterium. Main lab strain is '168'.
PID control Origins PI_controller > History > Origins Pressure control provided only a proportional control that, if the control gain was too high, would become unstable and go into overshoot with considerable instability of depth-holding. The pendulum added what is now known as derivative control, which damped the oscillations by detecting the torpedo dive/climb angle and thereby the rate-of-change of depth. This development (named by Whitehead as "The Secret" to give no clue to its action) was around 1868.Another early example of a PID-type controller was developed by Elmer Sperry in 1911 for ship steering, though his work was intuitive rather than mathematically-based.It was not until 1922, however, that a formal control law for what we now call PID or three-term control was first developed using theoretical analysis, by Russian American engineer Nicolas Minorsky.
Ductile-brittle transition Materials science Ductile-to-brittle_transition > Materials science Ductility is especially important in metalworking, as materials that crack, break or shatter under stress cannot be manipulated using metal-forming processes such as hammering, rolling, drawing or extruding. Malleable materials can be formed cold using stamping or pressing, whereas brittle materials may be cast or thermoformed. High degrees of ductility occur due to metallic bonds, which are found predominantly in metals; this leads to the common perception that metals are ductile in general. In metallic bonds valence shell electrons are delocalized and shared between many atoms.
Lactobacillus sakei Other genes Lactobacillus_sakei > Genetics > Other genes In strain LTH677, a starter organism used in meat fermentation, there is an oxygen-dependent regulation of the expression of the catalase gene katA.In strain LTH681, the stress operon dnaK has been characterized in 1999 as a heat shock protein gene.There is only one gene (IdhL) responsible for the lactic fermentation.
Sleep onset Direct mechanism Sleep_onset > Neural circuit > Direct mechanism This mutual inhibition may provide the basis for establishing periods of sleep and waking. A reciprocal inhibition also characterizes an electronic circuit known as the flip-flop. A flip-flop can assume one of two states, usually referred to as on or off. Thus, either the sleep neurons are active and inhibit the wakefulness neurons, or the wakefulness neurons are active and inhibit the sleep neurons, Because these regions are mutually inhibitory, it is impossible for neurons in both sets of regions to be active at the same time. This flip-flop, switching from one state to another quickly, can be unstable.
Polyelectrolyte Charge Polyelectrolyte > Charge Acids are classified as either weak or strong (and bases similarly may be either weak or strong). Similarly, polyelectrolytes can be divided into "weak" and "strong" types. A "strong" polyelectrolyte is one that dissociates completely in solution for most reasonable pH values.
OBject EXchange Comparison to HTTP OBject_EXchange > Comparison to HTTP HTTP transactions are inherently stateless; generally an HTTP client opens a connection, makes a single request, receives its response, and either closes the connection or makes other unrelated requests. In OBEX, a single transport connection may bear many related operations. In fact, recent additions to the OBEX specification allow an abruptly closed transaction to be resumed with all state information intact.
Integer number Cardinality Rational_integer > Cardinality . {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} =\{0,1,2,...\}.} Such a function may be defined as f ( x ) = { − 2 x , if x ≤ 0 2 x − 1 , if x > 0 , {\displaystyle f(x)={\begin{cases}-2x,&{\mbox{if }}x\leq 0\\2x-1,&{\mbox{if }}x>0,\end{cases}}} with graph (set of the pairs ( x , f ( x ) ) {\displaystyle (x,f(x))} is {... (−4,8), (−3,6), (−2,4), (−1,2), (0,0), (1,1), (2,3), (3,5), ...}.Its inverse function is defined by { g ( 2 x ) = − x g ( 2 x − 1 ) = x , {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}g(2x)=-x\\g(2x-1)=x,\end{cases}}} with graph {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, −1), (3, 2), (4, −2), (5, −3), ...}.
Anti-CRISPR Reducing CRISPR-Cas9 off-target cuts Anti-CRISPR > Applications > Reducing CRISPR-Cas9 off-target cuts AcrIIA4 is one of the proteins responsible for the CRISPR-Cas9 system inhibition, the mechanism used in mammalian cells edition. Addition of AcrIIA4 in human cells avoids Cas9 interaction with the CRISPR system, reducing its ability to cut DNA. However, diverse studies have reached the conclusion that adding it in small proportions after the genome editing has been done, reduces the number of off-target cuts at the concrete sites in which Cas9 interacts, a thing that makes the whole system much more precise.
Insulin Secretion Insulin > Function > Secretion Upon depolarization, voltage-gated calcium ion (Ca2+) channels open, allowing calcium ions to move into the cell by facilitated diffusion. The cytosolic calcium ion concentration can also be increased by calcium release from intracellular stores via activation of ryanodine receptors. The calcium ion concentration in the cytosol of the beta cells can also, or additionally, be increased through the activation of phospholipase C resulting from the binding of an extracellular ligand (hormone or neurotransmitter) to a G protein-coupled membrane receptor.
Casimir vacuum Papers, books and lectures Dynamical_Casimir_Effect > Further reading > Papers, books and lectures arXiv:quant-ph/0106045. Bibcode:2001PhR...353....1B. doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(01)00015-1.
Mixed methods In Contrast to Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies Mixed_methods > In Contrast to Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies "Methodology" connotes a discourse about methods — i.e., a discourse about the adequacy and appropriateness of particular combination of research principles and procedures. The terms methodology and biology share a common suffix "logy." Just as bio-logy is a discourse about life — all kinds of life; so too, methodo-logy is a discourse about methods — all kinds of methods. It seems unproductive, therefore, to speak of multi-biologies or of multi-methodologies. It is very productive, however, to speak of multiple biological perspectives or of multiple methodological perspectives.
Proof by exhaustion Summary Proof_by_cases Expert systems can be used to arrive at answers to many of the questions posed to them. In theory, the proof by exhaustion method can be used whenever the number of cases is finite. However, because most mathematical sets are infinite, this method is rarely used to derive general mathematical results.In the Curry–Howard isomorphism, proof by exhaustion and case analysis are related to ML-style pattern matching.
Value-stream mapping Using the method Value_Stream_Mapping > Using the method He calls the value stream the process and the non-value streams the operations. The thinking here is that the non–value-adding steps are often preparatory or tidying up to the value-adding step and are closely associated with the person or machine/workstation that executes that value-adding step.
Maxwell's demon Criticism and development Maxwell's_demon > Criticism and development In 1960, Rolf Landauer raised an exception to this argument. He realized that some measuring processes need not increase thermodynamic entropy as long as they were thermodynamically reversible.
Discrimination learning Summary Discrimination_learning Classical conditioning involves learning through association when two stimuli are paired together repeatedly. This conditioning demonstrates discrimination through specific micro-instances of reinforcement and non-reinforcement.
Ternary tree Internal nodes Ternary_tree > Common operations > Insertion > Internal nodes Insertion on internal nodes is more complex than on external nodes. Say that the internal node is node A and that node B is the child of A. (If the insertion is to insert a right child, then B is the right child of A, and similarly with a left child insertion or mid child.) A assigns its child to the new node and the new node assigns its parent to A. Then the new node assigns its child to B and B assigns its parent as the new node.
Environmental gradient Impact of climate change Environmental_gradient > Impact of climate change Current models predict that as climate change intensifies, certain environmental gradients may experience the effects as changing rates of natural processes or impacts on distribution and characteristics of species within them. Given the interconnectedness of abiotic factors, long-term disturbances of one gradient have the possibility of affecting other gradients.
Khmer script Consonants with no dependent vowel Khmer_alphabet > Dependent vowels > Consonants with no dependent vowel In some words, however, the inherent vowel is pronounced in its reduced form, as if modified by a bântăk diacritic, even though the diacritic is not written (e.g. សព "corpse"). Such reduction regularly takes place in words ending with a consonant with a silent subscript (such as សព្វ "every"), although in most such words it is the bânták-reduced form of the vowel a that is heard, as in សព្ទ "noise". The word អ្នក "you, person" has the highly irregular pronunciation .
Amoxicillin Pharmacology Amoxicillin > Pharmacology As a derivative of ampicillin, amoxicillin is a member of the penicillin family and, like penicillins, is a β-lactam antibiotic. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the bacterial cell wall. It has two ionizable groups in the physiological range (the amino group in alpha-position to the amide carbonyl group and the carboxyl group).
FK-space Summary FK-space Thus the name coordinate space because a sequence in an FK-space converges if and only if it converges for each coordinate. FK-spaces are examples of topological vector spaces. They are important in summability theory.
QED vacuum Quantization of the fields QED_vacuum > Fluctuations > Quantization of the fields The standard approach to the quantization of the electromagnetic field begins by introducing a vector potential A and a scalar potential V to represent the basic electromagnetic electric field E and magnetic field B using the relations: The vector potential is not completely determined by these relations, leaving open a so-called gauge freedom. Resolving this ambiguity using the Coulomb gauge leads to a description of the electromagnetic fields in the absence of charges in terms of the vector potential and the momentum field Π, given by: where ε0 is the electric constant of the SI units. Quantization is achieved by insisting that the momentum field and the vector potential do not commute.
Tracing garbage collection Basic algorithm Generational_garbage_collection > Basic algorithm Tracing collectors are so called because they trace through the working set of memory. These garbage collectors perform collection in cycles. It is common for cycles to be triggered when there is not enough free memory for the memory manager to satisfy an allocation request. But cycles can often be requested by the mutator directly or run on a time schedule. The original method involves a naïve mark-and-sweep in which the entire memory set is touched several times.
Jet force Drag Jet_force > Thrust, lift, weight and drag > Drag Drag, or air resistance, is a force that opposes motion. Since the thrust is a force that provides "forward motion" and, lift one that produces "upward motion", the drag opposes both of these forces. Air resistance is friction between the air itself and the moving object (in this case the aircraft). The calculation of air resistance is far more complicated than that of thrust and lift- it has to do with the material of the aircraft, the speed of the aircraft and other variable factors. However, rockets and airplanes are built with materials and in shapes that minimize drag force, maximizing the force that moves the aircraft upward/forward.
Apodization Apodization in astronomy Apodization > Apodization in optics > Apodization in astronomy In fact, the notion of resolution, as it is commonly defined with the Rayleigh criterion, is in this case partially irrelevant. One has to understand that the image formed in the focal plane of a lens (or a mirror) is modeled through the Fresnel diffraction formalism. The classical diffraction pattern, the Airy disk, is connected to a circular pupil, without any obstruction, and with a uniform transmission. Any change in the shape of the pupil (for example a square instead of a circle), or its transmission, results in an alteration in the associated diffraction pattern.
T helper 17 cell Role in autoimmune disorders T_helper_17_cell > In disease > Role in autoimmune disorders Th17 cells, particularly auto-specific Th17 cells, are associated with autoimmune disease such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. Th17 overactivation against autoantigen will cause type 3 immune complex and complement-mediated hypersensitivity. Rheumatoid arthritis or Arthus reaction belong to this category.
Jacobi rotation Summary Jacobi_rotation That is, Qkℓ is an identity matrix except for four entries, two on the diagonal (qkk and qℓℓ, both equal to c) and two symmetrically placed off the diagonal (qkℓ and qℓk, equal to s and −s, respectively). Here c = cos θ and s = sin θ for some angle θ; but to apply the rotation, the angle itself is not required. Using Kronecker delta notation, the matrix entries can be written q i j = δ i j + ( δ i k δ j k + δ i ℓ δ j ℓ ) ( c − 1 ) + ( δ i k δ j ℓ − δ i ℓ δ j k ) s .
Noble gases Occurrence and production Rare_gases > Occurrence and production Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds. The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the adjacent table lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas.
Wolfgang Pauli Scientific research Wolfgang_Pauli > Scientific research Pauli made repeated criticisms of the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, and his contemporary admirers point to modes of epigenetic inheritance as supporting his arguments.Paul Drude in 1900 proposed the first theoretical model for a classical electron moving through a metallic solid. Drude's classical model was also augmented by Pauli and other physicists. Pauli realized that the free electrons in metal must obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics.
Feedforward (behavioral and cognitive science) Summary Feedforward_(behavioral_and_cognitive_science) Feedforward often works in concert with feedback loops for guidance systems in cybernetics or self-control in biology. Feedforward in management theory enables the prediction and control of organizational behavior. These concepts have developed during and since the 1990s. == References ==
Home prime Summary Home_prime Investigations into home primes make up a minor side issue in number theory. Its questions have served as test fields for the implementation of efficient algorithms for factoring composite numbers, but the subject is really one in recreational mathematics. The outstanding computational problem as of 2016 is whether HP(49) = HP(77) can be calculated in practice.
Expressed gene Inheritance Number_of_genes > Inheritance Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent. : 1
GQL Graph Query Language Project for a new International Standard Graph Query Language GQL_Graph_Query_Language > History > Project for a new International Standard Graph Query Language Such structures can be easily encoded into the graph model as edges. This can be more convenient than the relational model, which requires the normalization of the data set into a set of tables with fixed row types. Secondly, the graph model enables efficient execution of expensive queries or data analytic functions that need to observe multi-hop relationships among data entities, such as reachability queries, shortest or cheapest path queries, or centrality analysis.

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