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Amount of substance concentration Units Analytical_concentration > Units In the International System of Units (SI) the coherent unit for molar concentration is mol/m3. However, this is inconvenient for most laboratory purposes and most chemical literature traditionally uses mol/dm3, which is the same as mol/L. This traditional unit is often called a molar and denoted by the letter M, for example: mol/m3 = 10−3 mol/dm3 = 10−3 mol/L = 10−3 M = 1 mM = 1 mmol/L.The SI prefix "mega" (symbol M) has the same symbol. However, the prefix is never used alone, so "M" unambiguously denotes molar. Sub-multiples and multiples, such as "millimolar" (mM) and "megamolar" (MM), consist of the unit preceded by an SI prefix:
Frobenius-Perron eigenvector Algebraic graph theory Primitive_matrix > Applications > Algebraic graph theory The theorem has particular use in algebraic graph theory. The "underlying graph" of a nonnegative n-square matrix is the graph with vertices numbered 1, ..., n and arc ij if and only if Aij ≠ 0. If the underlying graph of such a matrix is strongly connected, then the matrix is irreducible, and thus the theorem applies. In particular, the adjacency matrix of a strongly connected graph is irreducible.
Multi-variable function General definition Real_multivariate_function > General definition In other words, a real-valued function of n real variables is a function f: X → R {\displaystyle f:X\to \mathbb {R} } such that its domain X is a subset of Rn that contains a nonempty open set. An element of X being an n-tuple (x1, x2, …, xn) (usually delimited by parentheses), the general notation for denoting functions would be f((x1, x2, …, xn)). The common usage, much older than the general definition of functions between sets, is to not use double parentheses and to simply write f(x1, x2, …, xn).
Quasi-random sequence Summary Quasi-random_sequences In mathematics, a low-discrepancy sequence is a sequence with the property that for all values of N, its subsequence x1, ..., xN has a low discrepancy. Roughly speaking, the discrepancy of a sequence is low if the proportion of points in the sequence falling into an arbitrary set B is close to proportional to the measure of B, as would happen on average (but not for particular samples) in the case of an equidistributed sequence. Specific definitions of discrepancy differ regarding the choice of B (hyperspheres, hypercubes, etc.) and how the discrepancy for every B is computed (usually normalized) and combined (usually by taking the worst value). Low-discrepancy sequences are also called quasirandom sequences, due to their common use as a replacement of uniformly distributed random numbers. The "quasi" modifier is used to denote more clearly that the values of a low-discrepancy sequence are neither random nor pseudorandom, but such sequences share some properties of random variables and in certain applications such as the quasi-Monte Carlo method their lower discrepancy is an important advantage.
Alluvial fans Summary Alluvial_fans Alluvial fans typically form where flow emerges from a confined channel and is free to spread out and infiltrate the surface. This reduces the carrying capacity of the flow and results in deposition of sediments. The flow can take the form of infrequent debris flows or one or more ephemeral or perennial streams.
Ground effect (cars) Theory Ground_effect_(cars) > Theory In racing cars, a designer's aim is for increased downforce and grip to achieve higher cornering speeds. A substantial amount of downforce is available by understanding the ground to be part of the aerodynamic system in question, hence the name "ground effect". Starting in the mid-1960s, 'wings' were routinely used in the design of race cars to increase downforce (which is not a type of ground effect). Designers shifted their efforts at understanding air flow around the perimeter, body skirts, and undersides of the vehicle to increase downforce with less drag than compared to using a wing.
Terra (blockchain) Design Terra_(blockchain) > Design Terra is a blockchain that leverages fiat-pegged stablecoins to power a payment system. For consensus the Terra blockchain uses a proof-of-stake codesign. Several stablecoins are built atop the Terra protocol, including TerraUSD, which was the third largest stablecoin by market capitalisation before its collapse in May 2022. The Terra blockchain has a fully-functional ecosystem of decentralized applications (or DApps), such as Anchor, Mirror, and Pylon, which utilised the stable-coin infrastructure of Terra.Terra is a group of algorithmic stablecoins, named according to the currencies to which they are pegged—for example, TerraUSD (UST) is pegged to the U.S.
Solar phenomena Sun Solar_phenomena > Sun The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth's climate and weather. As recently as the 19th century scientists had little knowledge of the Sun's physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still developing; a number of present-day anomalies in the Sun's behavior remain unexplained.
Test vector Summary Test_vector In computer science and engineering, a test vector is a set of inputs provided to a system in order to test that system. In software development, test vectors are a methodology of software testing and software verification and validation.
International trade law Summary International_trade_law International trade law includes the appropriate rules and customs for handling trade between countries. However, it is also used in legal writings as trade between private sectors. This branch of law is now an independent field of study as most governments have become part of the world trade, as members of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Since the transaction between private sectors of different countries is an important part of the WTO activities, this latter branch of law is now part of the academic works and is under study in many universities across the world.
Optical Fourier transform Fourier transforming property of lenses Fourier_optics > Applications of Fourier optics principles > Fourier transforming property of lenses We'll consider one such plane wave component, propagating at angle θ with respect to the optic axis. It is assumed that θ is small (paraxial approximation), so that and and In the figure, the plane wave phase, moving horizontally from the front focal plane to the lens plane, is and the spherical wave phase from the lens to the spot in the back focal plane is: and the sum of the two path lengths is f (1 + θ2/2 + 1 − θ2/2) = 2f; i.e., it is a constant value, independent of tilt angle, θ, for paraxial plane waves. Each paraxial plane wave component of the field in the front focal plane appears as a point spread function spot in the back focal plane, with an intensity and phase equal to the intensity and phase of the original plane wave component in the front focal plane.
Adrenal insufficiency Summary Adrenal_insufficiency Adrenal insufficiency is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce adequate amounts of steroid hormones. The adrenal glands, also referred to as adrenal cortex normally secretes glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol), mineralocorticoids (primarily aldosterone), and androgens. These hormones are important in regulating blood pressure, electrolytes, and metabolism as a whole.
Parallel breadth-first search Parallel BFS with shared memory Parallel_breadth-first_search > Parallel BFS with shared memory There is a trade-off between the cost for synchronization and data locality according to the place where the data is stored. These two data structures can be held in every processing entity (such as thread) which supports data locality but needs extra load balancing mechanisms. Alternatively, they can be global to provide implicit load balancing, where special data structures are used for concurrent access from processing entities.
Gross substitutes (indivisible items) Gross Substitutes (GS) Gross-substitute_valuations > Definitions > Gross Substitutes (GS) The original GS definition is based on a price vector and a demand set. A price vector p {\displaystyle p} is a vector containing a price for each item. Given a utility function u {\displaystyle u} and a price vector p {\displaystyle p} , a set X {\displaystyle X} is called a demand if it maximizes the net utility of the agent: u ( X ) − p ⋅ X {\displaystyle u(X)-p\cdot X} . The demand set D ( u , p ) {\displaystyle D(u,p)} is the set of all demands.The GS property means that when the price of some items increases, the demand for other items does not decrease. Formally, for any two price vectors q {\displaystyle q} and p {\displaystyle p} such that q ≥ p {\displaystyle q\geq p} , and any X ∈ D ( u , p ) {\displaystyle X\in D(u,p)} , there is a Y ∈ D ( u , q ) {\displaystyle Y\in D(u,q)} such that Y ⊇ { x ∈ X \| p x = q x } {\displaystyle Y\supseteq \{x\in X\|p_{x}=q_{x}\}} (Y contains all items in X whose price remained constant).
Bacterial skin infection Bacterial Bacterial_skin_disease > Causes > Bacterial Bacterial skin infections affected about 155 million people and cellulitis occurred in about 600 million people in 2013. Bacterial skin infections include: Cellulitis, a diffuse inflammation of connective tissue with severe inflammation of dermal and subcutaneous layers of the skin. Further, cellulitis can be classified based into purulent and non-purulent cellulitis, based on the most likely causative agent and the symptoms presentation. Purulent cellulitis is often caused by Staphylococcus aureus, including both methicillin-sensitive (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA).
Techniques of genetic engineering TALEN and CRISPR Techniques_of_genetic_engineering > Gene insertion targeting > TALEN and CRISPR Targeted DNA repair is possible by providing a donor DNA template that represents the desired change and that is (sometimes) used for double-strand break repair by homologous recombination. It was later demonstrated that CRISPR/Cas9 can edit human cells in a dish. Although the early generation lacks the specificity of TALEN, the major advantage of this technology is the simplicity of the design.
Immunologic adjuvant Adaptive immune response Immunologic_adjuvant > Adaptive immune response This means the organism will be exposed to the antigen for a longer duration, making the immune system more robust as it makes use of the additional time by upregulating the production of B and T cells needed for greater immunological memory in the adaptive immune response. Third, adjuvants may help to increase the capacity to cause local reactions at the injection site (during vaccination), inducing greater release of danger signals by chemokine releasing cells such as helper T cells and mast cells. Fourth, they may induce the release of inflammatory cytokines which helps to not only recruit B and T cells at sites of infection but also to increase transcriptional events leading to a net increase of immune cells as a whole. Finally, adjuvants are believed to increase the innate immune response to antigen by interacting with pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on or within accessory cells.
Construct validity History Construct_validity > History Throughout the 1940s scientists had been trying to come up with ways to validate experiments prior to publishing them. The result of this was a plethora of different validities (intrinsic validity, face validity, logical validity, empirical validity, etc.). This made it difficult to tell which ones were actually the same and which ones were not useful at all.
Reaction mixture Elementary reactions Reaction_conditions > Elementary reactions In the second case, both electrons of the chemical bond remain with one of the products, resulting in charged ions. Dissociation plays an important role in triggering chain reactions, such as hydrogen–oxygen or polymerization reactions. AB ⟶ A + B {\displaystyle {\ce {AB -> A + B}}} Dissociation of a molecule AB into fragments A and B For bimolecular reactions, two molecules collide and react with each other.
Secure Erase Association rule mining Secure_Erase > Applications of data sanitization > Association rule mining One type of data sanitization is rule based PPDM, which uses defined computer algorithms to clean datasets. Association rule hiding is the process of data sanitization as applied to transactional databases. Transactional databases are the general term for data storage used to record transactions as organizations conduct their business. Examples include shipping payments, credit card payments, and sales orders.
Binary large object Summary Binary_large_object A binary large object (BLOB or blob) is a collection of binary data stored as a single entity. Blobs are typically images, audio or other multimedia objects, though sometimes binary executable code is stored as a blob. They can exist as persistent values inside some databases or version control system, or exist at runtime as program variables in some programming languages. Blobs are not to be confused with binary files stored in a file system.
GRASP (object-oriented design) High cohesion GRASP_(object-oriented_design) > Patterns > High cohesion Alternatively, low cohesion is a situation in which a set of elements, of e.g., a subsystem, has too many unrelated responsibilities. Subsystems with low cohesion between their constituent elements often suffer from being hard to comprehend, reuse, maintain and change as a whole. : 314–315
Chaotic cryptology Summary Chaotic_cryptology Since chaotic maps in a real life scenario require a set of numbers that are limited, they may, in fact, have no real purpose in a cryptosystem if the chaotic behavior can be predicted. One of the most important issues for any cryptographic primitive is the security of the system. However, in numerous cases, chaos-based cryptography algorithms are proved insecure. The main issue in many of the cryptanalyzed algorithms is the inadequacy of the chaotic maps implemented in the system.
Novel virus Host defence mechanisms Virus_structure > Role in human disease > Host defence mechanisms HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. This is known as "escape mutation" as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration, blockade of antigen presentation, cytokine resistance, evasion of natural killer cell activities, escape from apoptosis, and antigenic shift. Other viruses, called 'neurotropic viruses', are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them due to immune privilege.
Continuous (topology) Summary Topological_continuity Continuity is one of the core concepts of calculus and mathematical analysis, where arguments and values of functions are real and complex numbers. The concept has been generalized to functions between metric spaces and between topological spaces. The latter are the most general continuous functions, and their definition is the basis of topology.
Animal cell Capsule Cellular_processes > Structures outside the cell membrane > Prokaryotic > Capsule A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci. Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue, which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation. : 87
Hippocratic Corpus Natural vs. divine causality Hippocratic_Corpus > Content > Theoretical and methodological reflections > Natural vs. divine causality An exception to this rule is found in Dreams (Regime IV), in which prayers to the gods are prescribed alongside more typically Hippocratic interventions. Though materialistic determinism goes back in Greek thought at least to Leucippus, "One of the greatest virtues of the physicians of the Hippocratic Collection is to have stated, in its most universal form, what was later to be called the principle of determinism. All that occurs has a cause. It is in the treatise of The Art that the most theoretical statement of this principle is to be found: 'Indeed, under a close examination spontaneity disappears; for everything that occurs will be found to do so through something .'" In a famous passage of On Ancient Medicine, the author insists on the importance of knowledge of causal explanations: "It is not sufficient to learn simply that cheese is a bad food, as it gives a pain to one who eats a surfeit of it; we must know what the pain is, the reasons for it , and which constituent of man is harmfully affected."
Diameter (protocol) Message flows Diameter_(protocol) > Protocol description > Message flows The communication between two diameter peers starts with the establishment of a transport connection (TCP or SCTP). The initiator then sends a Capabilities-Exchange-Request (CER) to the other peer, which responds with a Capabilities-Exchange-Answer (CEA). For RFC3588 compliant peers TLS (Transport Layer Security) may optionally be negotiated. For RFC6733 compliant peers TLS negotiation may optionally happen before the CER/CEA.
Isotopes of seaborgium Hot fusion Isotopes_of_seaborgium > Nucleosynthesis > Hot fusion This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of seaborgium by so-called "hot" fusion reactions. These are processes that create compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV, hence "hot"), leading to a reduced probability of survival from fission and quasi-fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the emission of 3–5 neutrons.
Bayesian epistemology Social epistemology Bayesian_epistemology > Applications > Social epistemology Social epistemology studies the relevance of social factors for knowledge. In the field of science, for example, this is relevant since individual scientists have to place their trust in some claimed discoveries of other scientists in order to progress. The Bayesian approach can be applied to various topics in social epistemology. For example, probabilistic reasoning can be used in the field of testimony to evaluate how reliable a given report is.
Five prime cap Function Five-prime_cap > Function Decapping of a 7-methylguanylate-capped mRNA is catalyzed by the decapping complex made up of at least Dcp1 and Dcp2, which must compete with eIF4E to bind the cap. Thus the 7-methylguanylate cap is a marker of an actively translating mRNA and is used by cells to regulate mRNA half-lives in response to new stimuli. Undesirable mRNAs are sent to P-bodies for temporary storage or decapping, the details of which are still being resolved.The mechanism of 5′ proximal intron excision promotion is not well understood, but the 7-methylguanylate cap appears to loop around and interact with the spliceosome in the splicing process, promoting intron excision.
Cadwork informatik AG Products and technical details Cadwork_informatik_AG > Products > Products and technical details Height information is particularly suitable for construction planning while transitioning from 2D to the 3D module, which in 3d provides for developing a tender for construction project competitions. An alternative to cadwork 2D is AutoCAD. A module of cadwork 2d allows for reinforced concrete and geographic information system (GIS) plans.
Single user mode Unix family Single_user_mode > Unix family Unix-like operating systems provide single-user mode functionality either through the System V-style runlevels, BSD-style boot-loader options, or other boot-time options. The run-level is usually changed using the init command, runlevel 1 or S will boot into single-user mode. Boot-loader options can be changed during startup before the execution of the kernel. In FreeBSD and DragonFly BSD it can be changed before rebooting the system with the command nextboot -o "-s" -k kernel, and its bootloader offers the option on bootup to start in single-user mode.
Last geometric statement of Jacobi Summary Last_geometric_statement_of_Jacobi In differential geometry the last geometric statement of Jacobi is a conjecture named after Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. According to this conjecture: Every caustic from any point p {\displaystyle p} on an ellipsoid other than umbilical points has exactly four cusps. While numerical experiments had indicated the statement is true, it wasn’t until 2004 that it was proven rigorously by Itoh and Kiyohara.It has since been extended to a wider class of surfaces beyond the ellipsoid.
Metrication opposition Government compulsion Metrication_opposition > Political arguments > Government compulsion The Board of Trade initiated metrication in 1965, with a target completion date of 1975 and the Metrication Board was established in 1968, five years before the UK actually joined the European Economic Community (on its second attempt). The EU's own Units of Measurement Directive dated from 1971 and was substantially revised in 1979. All Statutory Instruments about metrication since 1985 have relied on powers derived from the UK European Communities Act 1972.
Frequentist interpretation of probability History Statistical_probability > History He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without Bayes theorem). Gauss and Laplace used frequentist (and other) probability in derivations of the least squares method a century later, a generation before Poisson. Laplace considered the probabilities of testimonies, tables of mortality, judgments of tribunals, etc. which are unlikely candidates for classical probability.
Ozone depleting Interest in ozone layer depletion Ozone_Depletion > Ozone hole and its causes > Interest in ozone layer depletion The sudden identification in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole" was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.While the Antarctic ozone hole has a relatively small effect on global ozone, the hole has generated a great deal of public interest because: Many have worried that ozone holes might start appearing over other areas of the globe, though to date the only other large-scale depletion is a smaller ozone "dimple" observed during the Arctic spring around the North Pole.
Pearson's chi-square test Summary Pearson_chi-squared_test It tests a null hypothesis stating that the frequency distribution of certain events observed in a sample is consistent with a particular theoretical distribution. The events considered must be mutually exclusive and have total probability 1. A common case for this is where the events each cover an outcome of a categorical variable. A simple example is the hypothesis that an ordinary six-sided die is "fair" (i. e., all six outcomes are equally likely to occur.)
Insulin sensitivity Lifestyle factors Insulin_Resistance > Cause > Lifestyle factors Dietary factors likely contribute to insulin resistance, however, causative foods are difficult to determine given the limitations of nutrition research. Foods that have independently been linked to insulin resistance include those high in sugar with high glycemic indices, low in omega-3 and fiber, and which are hyper-palatable which increases risk of overeating. Overconsumption of fat- and sugar-rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the metabolic syndrome epidemic. Diet also has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated phospholipids in cell membranes.
Bell polynomial Determinant forms Bell_polynomials > Properties > Determinant forms }}&\cdots &\cdots &{\frac {x_{n-2}}{(n-3)! }}\\\\0&0&-3&{\frac {x_{1}}{0!
Purinergic signalling Respiratory system Purinergic_signalling > Purinergic signalling in humans > Respiratory system ATP and adenosine are crucial regulators of mucociliary clearance. The secretion of mucin involves P2RY2 receptors found on the apical membrane of goblet cells. Extracellular ATP signals acting on glial cells and the neurons of the respiratory rhythm generator contribute to the regulation of breathing.
Naperian logarithm Properties Napier's_logarithm > Properties Napier's "logarithm" is related to the natural logarithm by the relation N a p L o g ( x ) ≈ 10000000 ( 16.11809565 − ln ⁡ x ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {NapLog} (x)\approx 10000000(16.11809565-\ln x)} and to the common logarithm by N a p L o g ( x ) ≈ 23025851 ( 7 − log 10 ⁡ x ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {NapLog} (x)\approx 23025851(7-\log _{10}x).} Note that 16.11809565 ≈ 7 ln ⁡ ( 10 ) {\displaystyle 16.11809565\approx 7\ln \left(10\right)} and 23025851 ≈ 10 7 ln ⁡ ( 10 ) .
Periodic motion Driven oscillations Coupled_oscillation > Driven oscillations Some systems can be excited by energy transfer from the environment. This transfer typically occurs where systems are embedded in some fluid flow. For example, the phenomenon of flutter in aerodynamics occurs when an arbitrarily small displacement of an aircraft wing (from its equilibrium) results in an increase in the angle of attack of the wing on the air flow and a consequential increase in lift coefficient, leading to a still greater displacement. At sufficiently large displacements, the stiffness of the wing dominates to provide the restoring force that enables an oscillation.
Geometric mean Application to normalized values Arithmetic–harmonic_mean > Application to normalized values However, by presenting appropriately normalized values and using the arithmetic mean, we can show either of the other two computers to be the fastest. Normalizing by A's result gives A as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean: Table 2 while normalizing by B's result gives B as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean but A as the fastest according to the harmonic mean: Table 3 and normalizing by C's result gives C as the fastest computer according to the arithmetic mean but A as the fastest according to the harmonic mean: Table 4 In all cases, the ranking given by the geometric mean stays the same as the one obtained with unnormalized values. However, this reasoning has been questioned.
Classifier constructions in sign languages Classification Classifier_handshape > Description > Classification In 1993, Engberg-Pedersen grouped the handshapes used in classifier constructions in four categories: Whole entity classifiers: The handshape represents an object. It can also represent a non-physical concept, such as culture. The same object may be represented by multiple handshapes to focus on different aspects of the concept.
Dietary protein Anaerobic exercise protein needs Crude_protein > Dietary recommendations > Anaerobic exercise protein needs Research also indicates that individuals performing strength training activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength-training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4–1.8 g per kg body weight to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high-protein diet as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and also protein supplements.
Tractable problem Works on complexity Space_complexity_theory > Works on complexity Wuppuluri, Shyam; Doria, Francisco A., eds. (2020), Unravelling Complexity: The Life and Work of Gregory Chaitin, World Scientific, doi:10.1142/11270, ISBN 978-981-12-0006-9, S2CID 198790362
Intermediate code generation Summary Code_generation_(compiler) In computing, code generation is part of the process chain of a compiler and converts intermediate representation of source code into a form (e.g., machine code) that can be readily executed by the target system. Sophisticated compilers typically perform multiple passes over various intermediate forms. This multi-stage process is used because many algorithms for code optimization are easier to apply one at a time, or because the input to one optimization relies on the completed processing performed by another optimization.
Bombus transversalis Colony Cycle Bombus_transversalis > Colony Cycle The Bombus transversalis colony cycle is based on the season of the year. Colonies are formed during the wet season. During this time the colony is continually developing. When the dry season comes, they become reproductively active for a few months. However, once the wet season comes around again, the life of the colony comes to an end and a new colony is eventually formed when the queen finds a suitable site.
Rubber elasticity Variation of tensile stress with temperature Rubber_elasticity > Experiments > Variation of tensile stress with temperature This rule is only valid so long as the energy is restricted to thermal states of molecules. If a rubber sample is stretched far enough, energy may reside in non-thermal states such as the distortion of chemical bonds and the rule doesn't apply. At low to moderate strains, theory predicts that the required stretching force is due to a change in entropy in the network chains.
Polynomial kernel Summary Polynomial_kernel In machine learning, the polynomial kernel is a kernel function commonly used with support vector machines (SVMs) and other kernelized models, that represents the similarity of vectors (training samples) in a feature space over polynomials of the original variables, allowing learning of non-linear models. Intuitively, the polynomial kernel looks not only at the given features of input samples to determine their similarity, but also combinations of these. In the context of regression analysis, such combinations are known as interaction features. The (implicit) feature space of a polynomial kernel is equivalent to that of polynomial regression, but without the combinatorial blowup in the number of parameters to be learned. When the input features are binary-valued (booleans), then the features correspond to logical conjunctions of input features.
Ars Conjectandi Contents Ars_Conjectandi > Contents In this section, Bernoulli differs from the school of thought known as frequentism, which defined probability in an empirical sense. As a counter, he produces a result resembling the law of large numbers, which he describes as predicting that the results of observation would approach theoretical probability as more trials were held—in contrast, frequents defined probability in terms of the former. Bernoulli was very proud of this result, referring to it as his "golden theorem", and remarked that it was "a problem in which I've engaged myself for twenty years". This early version of the law is known today as either Bernoulli's theorem or the weak law of large numbers, as it is less rigorous and general than the modern version.After these four primary expository sections, almost as an afterthought, Bernoulli appended to Ars Conjectandi a tract on calculus, which concerned infinite series. It was a reprint of five dissertations he had published between 1686 and 1704.
Cardio-vascular diseases Prevention Cardiovascular_disorder > Prevention Decrease non-HDL cholesterol. Statin treatment reduces cardiovascular mortality by about 31%. Stopping smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke.
Calculus on Euclidean space Derivative of a map and chain rule Calculus_on_Euclidean_space > Basic notions > Derivative of a map and chain rule That is, each component of f {\displaystyle f} is differentiable at x {\displaystyle x} in each variable with the derivative ∂ f i ∂ x j ( x ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial f_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}}(x)} . In terms of Jacobian matrices, the chain rule says J ( g ∘ f ) ( x ) = J g ( y ) J f ( x ) {\displaystyle J(g\circ f)(x)=Jg(y)Jf(x)} ; i.e., as ( g ∘ f ) i = g i ∘ f {\displaystyle (g\circ f)_{i}=g_{i}\circ f} , ∂ ( g i ∘ f ) ∂ x j ( x ) = ∂ g i ∂ y 1 ( y ) ∂ f 1 ∂ x j ( x ) + ⋯ + ∂ g i ∂ y m ( y ) ∂ f m ∂ x j ( x ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial (g_{i}\circ f)}{\partial x_{j}}}(x)={\frac {\partial g_{i}}{\partial y_{1}}}(y){\frac {\partial f_{1}}{\partial x_{j}}}(x)+\cdots +{\frac {\partial g_{i}}{\partial y_{m}}}(y){\frac {\partial f_{m}}{\partial x_{j}}}(x),} which is the form of the chain rule that is often stated. A partial converse to the above holds.
Stable isotope composition of amino acids Summary Stable_isotope_composition_of_amino_acids Carbon skeletons from these diverse sources are further modified before transamination, the addition of an amino group that completes amino acid biosynthesis. Bonds to heavy isotopes are stronger than bonds to light isotopes, making reactions involving heavier isotopes proceed slightly slower in most cases. This phenomenon, known as a kinetic isotope effect, gives rise to isotopic differences between reactants and products that can be detected using isotope ratio mass spectrometry.
Tertiary endosymbiotic events Summary Endosymbiont In horizontal transmission, each new generation acquires free living symbionts from the environment. An example is the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in certain plant roots. Vertical transmission takes place when the symbiont is transferred directly from parent to offspring.
Numerical modeling (geology) Lagrangian Numerical_modeling_(geology) > Computation > Kinematic descriptions > Lagrangian The Lagrangian approach, on the other hand, considers the change of physical quantities, such as the volume, of fixed elements of matter over time. It is similar to looking at a certain collection of water molecules as they flow downstream in a river. Using the Lagrangian approach, it is easier to follow solid objects which have natural boundary to separate them from the surrounding.
Conical intersection Categorization by symmetry of intersecting electronic states Conical_intersection > Categorization by symmetry of intersecting electronic states It is called accidental because the states may or may not be degenerate when the symmetry is present. Movement along one of the dimensions along which the degeneracy is lifted, the direction of the difference of the energy gradients of the two electronic states, will preserve the symmetry while displacements along the other degeneracy lifting dimension, the direction of the non-adiabatic couplings, will break the symmetry of the molecule. Thus, by enforcing the symmetry of the molecule, the degeneracy lifting effect caused by inter-state couplings is prevented.
Electronic waste Cryptocurrency e-waste Electronic_waste > Global trade issues > Cryptocurrency e-waste Furthermore, the rate at which Bitcoin disposes of its waste exceeds that of major financial organizations such as VISA, which produces 40 grams of waste for every 100,000 transactions.A major point of concern is the rapid turnover of technology in the bitcoin industry which results in such high levels of e-waste. This can be attributed to the proof-of-work principle bitcoin employs where miners receive currency as a reward for being the first to decode the hashes that encode its blockchain. As such, miners are encouraged to compete with one another to decode the hash first.
Moore neighborhood Algorithm Moore_neighborhood > Algorithm Let b denote the backtrack of c (i.e. neighbor pixel of p that was previously tested) Begin Set B to be empty. From bottom to top and left to right scan the cells of T until a black pixel, s, of P is found. Insert s in B. Set the current boundary point p to s i.e. p=s Let b = the pixel from which s was entered during the image scan.
P53 protein Structure TP53_gene > Structure As such, mutations in the DBD are recessive loss-of-function mutations. Molecules of p53 with mutations in the OD dimerise with wild-type p53, and prevent them from activating transcription. Therefore, OD mutations have a dominant negative effect on the function of p53.
Steam methane reforming Challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells Steam_reforming > Steam reforming at small scale > For fuel cells > Challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells H2S, the main product in the reforming of organic sulfur, can bind to all transition metal catalysts to form metal–sulfur bonds and subsequently reduce catalyst activity by inhibiting the chemisorption of reforming reactants. Meanwhile, the adsorbed sulfur species increases the catalyst acidity, and hence indirectly promotes coking. Precious metal catalysts such as Rh and Pt have lower tendencies to form bulk sulfides than other metal catalysts such as Ni.
Verbal Behavior Logical and scientific Verbal_Behavior > Logical and scientific The special audience in this case is one concerned with "successful action". Special methods of stimulus control are encouraged that will allow for maximum effectiveness. Skinner notes that "graphs, models, tables" are forms of texts that allow for this kind of development. The logical and scientific community also sharpens responses to assure accuracy and avoiding distortion. Little progress in the area of science has been made from a verbal behavior perspective; however, suggestions of a research agenda have been laid out.
C2 photosynthesis Photorespiratory reactions Photorespiration > Photorespiratory reactions Glycerate reenters the chloroplast and by the same transporter that exports glycolate. A cost of 1 ATP is associated with conversion to 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) (Phosphorylation), within the chloroplast, which is then free to re-enter the Calvin cycle. Several costs are associated with this metabolic pathway; the production of hydrogen peroxide in the peroxisome (associated with the conversion of glycolate to glyoxylate).
Chest pain Hospital care Chest_pain > Management > Hospital care Hospital care of chest pain begins with initial survey of a person's vital signs, airway and breathing, and level of consciousness. This may also include attachment of ECG leads, cardiac monitors, intravenous lines and other medical devices depending on initial evaluation. After evaluation of a person's history, risk factors, physical examination, laboratory testing and imaging, management begins depending on suspected diagnoses. Depending upon the diagnosis, a person may be placed in the intensive care unit, admitted to the hospital, or be treated outpatient. For persons with suspected cardiac chest pain or acute coronary syndrome, or other emergent diagnoses such as pneumothorax, pulmonary embolism, or aortic dissection, admission to the hospital is most often recommended for further treatment.
Transformer (machine learning model) Positional encoding Transformer_(neural_network) > Architecture > Encoder > Positional encoding In the original paper, the authors chose N = 10000 {\displaystyle N=10000} . The function is in a simpler form when written as a complex function of type f: R → C d / 2 {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \to \mathbb {C} ^{d/2}} where r = N 2 / d {\displaystyle r=N^{2/d}} . The main reason the authors chose this as the positional encoding function is that it allows one to perform shifts as linear transformations:where Δ t ∈ R {\displaystyle \Delta t\in \mathbb {R} } is the distance one wishes to shift.
Covariance intersection Application Covariance_intersection > Application CI can be used in place of the conventional Kalman update equations to ensure that the resulting estimate is conservative, regardless of the correlation between the two estimates, with covariance strictly non-increasing according to the chosen measure. The use of a fixed measure is necessary for rigor to ensure that a sequence of updates does not cause the filtered covariance to increase.
Phosphodiester backbone Summary DNA_strand Deoxyribonucleic acid ( ; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.
Replisome DNA polymerase epsilon Replisome > Solving the challenges of DNA replication > High-fidelity DNA replication > DNA polymerase epsilon This polymerase synthesizes leading strand DNA in eukaryotes. (Thought to form an asymmetric dimer with DNA polymerase delta.)
Gnuplot Features Gnuplot > Features gnuplot can produce output directly on screen, or in many formats of graphics files, including Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Encapsulated PostScript (EPS), Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG), JPEG and many others. It is also capable of producing LaTeX code that can be included directly in LaTeX documents, making use of LaTeX's fonts and powerful formula notation abilities. The program can be used both interactively and in batch mode using scripts.gnuplot can read data in multiple formats, including ability to read data on the fly generated by other programs (piping), create multiple plots on one image, do 2D, 3D, contour plots, parametric equations, supports various linear and non-linear coordinate systems, projections, geographic and time data reading and presentation, box plots of various forms, histograms, labels, and other custom elements on the plot, including shapes, text and images, that can be set manually, computed by script or automatically from input data.
Stress space Summary Stress_space In continuum mechanics, Haigh–Westergaard stress space, or simply stress space is a 3-dimensional space in which the three spatial axes represent the three principal stresses of a body subject to stress. This space is named after Bernard Haigh and Harold M. Westergaard. In mathematical terms, H-W space can also be interpreted (understood) as a set of numerical markers of stress tensors orbits (with respect to proper rotations group – special orthogonal group SO3); every point of H-W space represents one orbit.Functions of the principal stresses, such as the yield function, can be represented by surfaces in 'stress space.
Einstellung effect Luchins and Luchins water jar experiment Einstellung_effect > Luchins and Luchins water jar experiment The water jar test, first described in Abraham S. Luchins' 1942 classic experiment, is a commonly cited example of an Einstellung situation. The experiment's participants were given the following problem: you have 3 water jars, each with the capacity to hold a different, fixed amount of water; figure out how to measure a certain amount of water using these jars. It was found that subjects used methods that they had used previously to find the solution even though there were quicker and more efficient methods available.
Human genome sequence map Summary Protein-coding_gene Although the sequence of the human genome has been completely determined by DNA sequencing in 2022 (including methylation), it is not yet fully understood. Most, but not all, genes have been identified by a combination of high throughput experimental and bioinformatics approaches, yet much work still needs to be done to further elucidate the biological functions of their protein and RNA products (in particular, annotation of the complete CHM13v2.0 sequence is still ongoing). And yet, overlapping genes are quite common, in some cases allowing two protein coding genes from each strand to reuse base pairs twice (for example, genes DCDC2 and KAAG1).
Invention of radio Summary Invention_of_radio Several inventors/experimenters came across the phenomenon of radio waves before its existence was proven; it was written off as electromagnetic induction at the time. The discovery of electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in the 1880s came after theoretical development on the connection between electricity and magnetism that started in the early 1800s. This work culminated in a theory of electromagnetic radiation developed by James Clerk Maxwell by 1873, which Hertz demonstrated experimentally.
Vector superfield Gauge theory Vector_superfield > Gauge theory A local symmetry is a symmetry which is position dependent. Gauge symmetry is an example of a local symmetry, with the symmetry described by a Lie group (which mathematically describe continuous symmetries), which in the context of gauge theory is called the gauge group of the theory. Quantum chromodynamics and quantum electrodynamics are famous examples of gauge theories.
Hardening (metallurgy) Applications Hardening_(metallurgy) > Applications Material hardening is required for many applications: Machine cutting tools (drill bits, taps, lathe tools) need be much harder than the material they are operating on in order to be effective. Knife blades – a high hardness blade keeps a sharp edge. Bearings – necessary to have a very hard surface that will withstand continued stresses.
Gene drives Spreading in the population Gene_drive > Mechanism > Spreading in the population Since it can never more than double in frequency with each generation, a gene drive introduced in a single individual typically requires dozens of generations to affect a substantial fraction of a population. Alternatively, releasing drive-containing organisms in sufficient numbers can affect the rest within a few generations; for instance, by introducing it in every thousandth individual, it takes only 12–15 generations to be present in all individuals. Whether a gene drive will ultimately become fixed in a population and at which speed depends on its effect on individual fitness, on the rate of allele conversion, and on the population structure. In a well mixed population and with realistic allele conversion frequencies (≈90%), population genetics predicts that gene drives get fixed for a selection coefficient smaller than 0.3; in other words, gene drives can be used to spread modifications as long as reproductive success is not reduced by more than 30%. This is in contrast with normal genes, which can only spread across large populations if they increase fitness.
Broadband viscoelastic spectroscopy Design Broadband_viscoelastic_spectroscopy > Design This spatial waveform is converted to an electrical one by a light detector and read out on an oscilloscope. This oscilloscope also displays the torque or force waveform from the capacitor driving the current in the Helmholtz coils. Phase delay is determined by comparing these waveforms.
DNA replication stress Replication fork DNA_replication_stress > Replication fork In this situation, the fork protection complex (FPC) is recruited to help maintain this linkage.In addition to stalling and maintaining the fork structure, protein phosphorylation can also create a signal cascade for replication restart. The protein Mrc1, which is part of the FPC, transmits the checkpoint signal by interacting with kinases throughout the cascade. When there is a loss of these kinases (from replication stress), an excess of ssDNA is produced, which is necessary for the restarting of replication.
Microsoft Active Accessibility Implementations of Microsoft Active Accessibility Microsoft_Active_Accessibility > Implementations of Microsoft Active Accessibility Active Accessibility is available for developers in all versions of Windows since Windows 95. Since its original introduction, MSAA has been used as a way to add support for programmatic access to the UI for many business and consumer applications, including Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Office, etc. In addition to accessibility aids such as screen readers, screen magnifiers, Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) devices, the technology has been used by Test automation software, such as QuickTest Pro, Functional Tester, and SilkTest. More implementations of MSAA in applications and AT products can be found by searching on the Microsoft Accessibility sites or on the AT Information website.
Symbolic integration Recent advances Symbolic_integration > Recent advances Holonomic functions are closed under addition and multiplication, derivation, and antiderivation. They include algebraic functions, exponential function, logarithm, sine, cosine, inverse trigonometric functions, inverse hyperbolic functions. They include also most common special functions such as Airy function, error function, Bessel functions and all hypergeometric functions.
Root mean square error Mean absolute error Root_mean_square_error > Mean absolute error Some researchers have recommended the use of the mean absolute error (MAE) instead of the root mean square deviation. MAE possesses advantages in interpretability over RMSD. MAE is the average of the absolute values of the errors. MAE is fundamentally easier to understand than the square root of the average of squared errors. Furthermore, each error influences MAE in direct proportion to the absolute value of the error, which is not the case for RMSD.
Solar irradiation Summary Solar_flux Solar irradiance is the power per unit area (surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m2) in SI units. Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in order to report the radiant energy emitted into the surrounding environment (joule per square metre, J/m2) during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar exposure, solar insolation, or insolation.
Bovine tuberculosis Global Bovine_tuberculosis > Epidemiology and control > Global To improve control and eliminate bTB, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency has split Manitoba into two management areas: The Riding Mountain TB eradication area, where the disease has been found, and the Manitoba TB Eradication Area, the rest of the province outside RMEA where the disease has not been found. The disease has also been found in African buffalo in South Africa.M. bovis can be transmitted from human to human; an outbreak occurred in Birmingham, England, in 2004, and from human to cattle, but such occurrences are rare. In Mexico, the disease is prevalent and rising among humans.
Mean value analysis Summary Mean_value_analysis In queueing theory, a discipline within the mathematical theory of probability, mean value analysis (MVA) is a recursive technique for computing expected queue lengths, waiting time at queueing nodes and throughput in equilibrium for a closed separable system of queues. The first approximate techniques were published independently by Schweitzer and Bard, followed later by an exact version by Lavenberg and Reiser published in 1980.It is based on the arrival theorem, which states that when one customer in an M-customer closed system arrives at a service facility he/she observes the rest of the system to be in the equilibrium state for a system with M − 1 customers.
Primitive recursive functions Truncated subtraction Primitive_recursive > Examples > Truncated subtraction The limited subtraction function (also called "monus", and denoted " − . {\displaystyle {\stackrel {. }{-}}} ") is definable from the predecessor function. It satisfies the equations y − .
Standard algorithms Summary Standard_algorithms In elementary arithmetic, a standard algorithm or method is a specific method of computation which is conventionally taught for solving particular mathematical problems. These methods vary somewhat by nation and time, but generally include exchanging, regrouping, long division, and long multiplication using a standard notation, and standard formulas for average, area, and volume. Similar methods also exist for procedures such as square root and even more sophisticated functions, but have fallen out of the general mathematics curriculum in favor of calculators (or tables and slide rules before them). The concepts of reform mathematics which the NCTM introduced in 1989 favors an alternative approach.
Locality-Sensitive Hashing Improvements Locality-Sensitive_Hashing > Algorithm for nearest neighbor search > Improvements When t is large, it is possible to reduce the hashing time from O ( n ρ ) {\displaystyle O(n^{\rho })} . This was shown by and which gave query time: O ( t log 2 ⁡ ( 1 / P 2 ) / P 1 + n ρ ( d + 1 / P 1 ) ) {\displaystyle O(t\log ^{2}(1/P_{2})/P_{1}+n^{\rho }(d+1/P_{1}))} ; space: O ( n 1 + ρ / P 1 + log 2 ⁡ ( 1 / P 2 ) / P 1 ) {\displaystyle O(n^{1+\rho }/P_{1}+\log ^{2}(1/P_{2})/P_{1})} ;It is also sometimes the case that the factor 1 / P 1 {\displaystyle 1/P_{1}} can be very large. This happens for example with Jaccard similarity data, where even the most similar neighbor often has a quite low Jaccard similarity with the query. In it was shown how to reduce the query time to O ( n ρ / P 1 1 − ρ ) {\displaystyle O(n^{\rho }/P_{1}^{1-\rho })} (not including hashing costs) and similarly the space usage.
Molecular mechanics Environment and solvation Molecular_mechanics > Environment and solvation In molecular mechanics, several ways exist to define the environment surrounding a molecule or molecules of interest. A system can be simulated in vacuum (termed a gas-phase simulation) with no surrounding environment, but this is usually undesirable because it introduces artifacts in the molecular geometry, especially in charged molecules. Surface charges that would ordinarily interact with solvent molecules instead interact with each other, producing molecular conformations that are unlikely to be present in any other environment.
Velocity stack Summary Velocity_stack A velocity stack, trumpet, or air horn is a trumpet shaped device fitted to the entry of an engine's air intake system. It can be of differing lengths and fitted to both carbureted and fuel injected engines. It is unrelated to the noise maker or signaling air horn.
Robert Penner Main journal publications Robert_Penner > Main journal publications ; Nielsen, Jakob T.; Andersen, Jørgen E. (2014). "Hydrogen bond rotations as a uniform structural tool for analyzing protein architecture".
Numerical continuation Singular point Numerical_continuation > Definitions > Singular point The constant term in the Taylor series of the scaled bifurcation equation is called the algebraic bifurcation equation, and the implicit function theorem applied the bifurcation equations states that for each isolated solution of the algebraic bifurcation equation there is a branch of solutions of the original problem which passes through the singular point. Another type of singular point is a turning point bifurcation, or saddle-node bifurcation, where the direction of the parameter λ {\displaystyle \lambda } reverses as the curve is followed. The red curve in the figure above illustrates a turning point.
History of mathematical notation Gauss, Hamilton, and Matrix notations History_of_mathematical_notation > Symbolic stage > High division operators and functions > Gauss, Hamilton, and Matrix notations Cayley used a single letter to denote a matrix, thus treating a matrix as an aggregate object. He also realized the connection between matrices and determinants, and wrote "There would be many things to say about this theory of matrices which should, it seems to me, precede the theory of determinants". has, or at least involves a reference to, four dimensions.
Solar lantern Summary Solar_lantern A solar lamp, also known as a solar light or solar lantern, is a lighting system composed of an LED lamp, solar panels, battery, charge controller and there may also be an inverter. The lamp operates on electricity from batteries, charged through the use of solar panel (solar photovoltaic panel) Solar-powered household lighting can replace other light sources like candles or kerosene lamps. Solar lamps have a lower operating cost than kerosene lamps because renewable energy from the sun is free, unlike fuel.
Glossary of chemistry terms W Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > W watch glass A circular, concave piece of glass commonly used in chemistry laboratories as a working surface for various purposes, such as evaporating liquids, holding solids while they are being weighed, heating small amounts of a substance, or as a cover for a beaker. water A polar inorganic compound with the chemical formula H2O that is a tasteless, odorless, and generally colorless liquid at standard temperature and pressure, though it also occurs naturally as a solid and a gas at the Earth's surface. It is the most abundant substance on Earth and therefore an integral component of virtually all chemical and biological systems. Water is often described as the "universal solvent" for its inherent ability to dissolve many substances.
Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor Serotonergic Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor > Role of monoamine neurotransmitters > Serotonergic In humans, the serotonergic system is implicated in various physiological processes such as sleep-wake cycles, maintenance of mood, control of food intake and regulation of blood pressure. In accordance with this, drugs that affect 5-HT-containing cells or 5-HT receptors are effective treatments for numerous indications, including depression, anxiety, obesity, nausea, and migraine.
Granule cell layer Function Granular_layer_(cerebellum) > Function Deficits in non-motor functions are more difficult to detect. Thus, the general conclusion reached decades ago is that the basic function of the cerebellum is to calibrate the detailed form of a movement, not to initiate movements or to decide which movements to execute.Prior to the 1990s the function of the cerebellum was almost universally believed to be purely motor-related, but newer findings have brought that view into question. Functional imaging studies have shown cerebellar activation in relation to language, attention, and mental imagery; correlation studies have shown interactions between the cerebellum and non-motor areas of the cerebral cortex; and a variety of non-motor symptoms have been recognized in people with damage that appears to be confined to the cerebellum.
Dioic acid Properties Dicarboxylic_acids > Properties Thus, in an aqueous solution at pH about 7, typical of biological systems, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation indicates they exist predominantly as dicarboxylate anions. The dicarboxylic acids, especially the small and linear ones, can be used as crosslinking reagents. Dicarboxylic acids where the carboxylic groups are separated by none or one carbon atom decompose when they are heated to give off carbon dioxide and leave behind a monocarboxylic acid.Blanc's Rule says that heating a barium salt of a dicarboxylic acid, or dehydrating it with acetic anhydride will yield a cyclic acid anhydride if the carbon atoms bearing acid groups are in position 1 and (4 or 5). So succinic acid will yield succinic anhydride. For acids with carboxylic groups at position 1 and 6 this dehydration causes loss of carbon dioxide and water to form a cyclic ketone, for example, adipic acid will form cyclopentanone.
Mechanism (philosophy) Universal mechanism Mechanism_(philosophy) > Universal mechanism An intellect which at any given moment knew all of the forces that animate nature and the mutual positions of the beings that compose it, if this intellect were vast enough to submit the data to analysis, could condense into a single formula the movement of the greatest bodies of the universe and that of the lightest atom; for such an intellect nothing could be uncertain and the future just like the past would be present before its eyes. One of the first and most famous expositions of universal mechanism is found in the opening passages of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes (1651). What is less frequently appreciated is that René Descartes was a staunch mechanist, though today, in the philosophy of mind, he is remembered for introducing the mind–body problem in terms of dualism and physicalism.
Photocurrent Summary Photocurrent Photocurrent is the electric current through a photosensitive device, such as a photodiode, as the result of exposure to radiant power. The photocurrent may occur as a result of the photoelectric, photoemissive, or photovoltaic effect. The photocurrent may be enhanced by internal gain caused by interaction among ions and photons under the influence of applied fields, such as occurs in an avalanche photodiode (APD).

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