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DiVincenzo's criteria A "universal" set of quantum gates DiVincenzo's_criteria > Justification > A "universal" set of quantum gates In both classical and quantum computing, the algorithms that we can compute are restricted by the number of gates we can implement. In the case of quantum computing, a universal quantum computer (a quantum Turing machine) can be constructed using a very small set of 1- and 2-qubit gates. Any experimental setup that manages to have well-characterised qubits; quick, faithful initialisation; and long decoherence times must also be capable of influencing the Hamiltonian (total energy) of the system, in order to effect coherent changes capable of implementing a universal set of gates. |
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 Activation Cytotoxic_T_cell > Activation To generate longlasting memory T cells and to allow repetitive stimulation of cytotoxic T cells, dendritic cells have to interact with both, activated CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ T cells. During this process, the CD4+ helper T cells "license" the dendritic cells to give a potent activating signal to the naive CD8+ T cells.Furthermore, maturation of CD8+ T cells is mediated by CD40 signalling. Once the naïve CD8+ T cell is bound to the infected cell, the infected cell is triggered to release CD40. |
Dedekind zeta functions Summary Dedekind_zeta_functions In mathematics, the Dedekind zeta function of an algebraic number field K, generally denoted ζK(s), is a generalization of the Riemann zeta function (which is obtained in the case where K is the field of rational numbers Q). It can be defined as a Dirichlet series, it has an Euler product expansion, it satisfies a functional equation, it has an analytic continuation to a meromorphic function on the complex plane C with only a simple pole at s = 1, and its values encode arithmetic data of K. The extended Riemann hypothesis states that if ζK(s) = 0 and 0 < Re(s) < 1, then Re(s) = 1/2. The Dedekind zeta function is named for Richard Dedekind who introduced it in his supplement to Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet's Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie. |
Physical strength Strength capability Physical_strength > Strength capability There are various ways to measure physical strength of a person or population. Strength capability analysis is usually done in the field of ergonomics where a particular task (e.g., lifting a load, pushing a cart, etc.) and/or a posture is evaluated and compared to the capabilities of the section of the population that the task is intended towards. The external reactive moments and forces on the joints are usually used in such cases. The strength capability of the joint is denoted by the amount of moment that the muscle force can create at the joint to counter the external moment. |
Transgenerational epigenetics Summary Epigenetic_trait Therefore, under lab conditions, inherited methyl marks are removed and restored to ensure TEI still occurs. However, observing TEI in wild populations is still in its infancy, as laboratory studies allow for more tractable systems.Environmental factors can induce the epigenetic marks (epigenetic tags) for some epigenetically influenced traits. |
Vertebrate telomerase RNA Summary Telomerase_RNA Telomerase RNA component, also known as TR, TER or TERC, is an ncRNA found in eukaryotes that is a component of telomerase, the enzyme used to extend telomeres. TERC serves as a template for telomere replication (reverse transcription) by telomerase. Telomerase RNAs differ greatly in sequence and structure between vertebrates, ciliates and yeasts, but they share a 5' pseudoknot structure close to the template sequence. The vertebrate telomerase RNAs have a 3' H/ACA snoRNA-like domain. |
Precision and recall Summary Precision_and_recall In pattern recognition, information retrieval, object detection and classification (machine learning), precision and recall are performance metrics that apply to data retrieved from a collection, corpus or sample space. Precision (also called positive predictive value) is the fraction of relevant instances among the retrieved instances. Written as a formula: r e l e v a n t _ r e t r i e v e d _ i n s t a n c e s a l l _ r e t r i e v e d _ i n s t a n c e s {\displaystyle {\frac {relevant\_retrieved\_instances}{all\_{\mathbf {retrieved}}\_instances}}} . Recall (also known as sensitivity) is the fraction of relevant instances that were retrieved. |
Imagined speech Processing Imagined_speech > Detection methods > Processing The first step in processing non-invasive data is to remove artifacts such as eye movement and blinking, as well as other electromyographic activity. After artifact-removal, a series of algorithms is used to translate raw data into the imagined speech content. Processing is also intended to occur in real-time—the information is processed as it is recorded, which allows for near-simultaneous viewing of the content as the subject imagines it. |
Emily M. Bender Articles Emily_M._Bender > Selected publications > Articles Efficient deep processing of Japanese. Proceedings of the 3rd workshop on Asian language resources and international standardization. Vol. |
Electrical power systems SCADA systems Electrical_power_systems > Components of power systems > SCADA systems In large electric power systems, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is used for tasks such as switching on generators, controlling generator output and switching in or out system elements for maintenance. The first supervisory control systems implemented consisted of a panel of lamps and switches at a central console near the controlled plant. The lamps provided feedback on the state of the plant (the data acquisition function) and the switches allowed adjustments to the plant to be made (the supervisory control function). Today, SCADA systems are much more sophisticated and, due to advances in communication systems, the consoles controlling the plant no longer need to be near the plant itself. Instead, it is now common for plants to be controlled with equipment similar (if not identical) to a desktop computer. The ability to control such plants through computers has increased the need for security—there have already been reports of cyber-attacks on such systems causing significant disruptions to power systems. |
Homeokinetics Self-organizing complex Systems Homeokinetics > Self-organizing complex Systems In complex systems, there is also a result of internal processes in the atomisms. They exhibit, in addition to the pair-by-pair interactions, internal actions such as vibrations, rotations, and association. If the energy and time involved internally creates a very large—in time—cycle of performance of their actions compared to their pair interactions, the collective system is complex. |
Horticultural crop Controlling environmental variables Horticultural_crop > Techniques and practices > Controlling environmental variables They can be built out of glass, although they are now primarily made from plastic sheets. More expensive and modern greenhouses can include temperature control through shade and light control or air-conditioning as well as automatic watering. Shade houses provide shading to limit water loss by evapotranspiration.Temperature control can be done through a variety of methods. |
Limbic system Academic dispute Limbic_system > History > Academic dispute More important, the "boundaries" of the limbic system have been repeatedly redefined because of advances in neuroscience. Therefore, while it is true that limbic interacting structures are more closely related to emotion, the limbic system itself is best thought of as a component of a larger emotional processing plant. It is essentially responsible for sifting through and organizing lower order processing, and relaying sensory information to other brain areas for higher order emotional processing. |
Support Vector Machines Structured SVM Support_vector_regression > Extensions > Structured SVM SVMs have been generalized to structured SVMs, where the label space is structured and of possibly infinite size. |
Square matrices Eigenvalues and eigenvectors Square_matrix > Operations > Eigenvalues and eigenvectors A number λ and a non-zero vector v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } satisfying are called an eigenvalue and an eigenvector of A {\displaystyle A} , respectively. The number λ is an eigenvalue of an n×n-matrix A if and only if A − λIn is not invertible, which is equivalent to The polynomial pA in an indeterminate X given by evaluation of the determinant det(XIn − A) is called the characteristic polynomial of A. It is a monic polynomial of degree n. Therefore the polynomial equation pA(λ) = 0 has at most n different solutions, i.e., eigenvalues of the matrix. They may be complex even if the entries of A are real. According to the Cayley–Hamilton theorem, pA(A) = 0, that is, the result of substituting the matrix itself into its own characteristic polynomial yields the zero matrix. |
Value at risk Backtesting Value_at_risk > Backtesting Backtesting is the process to determine the accuracy of VaR forecasts vs. actual portfolio profit and losses. A key advantage to VaR over most other measures of risk such as expected shortfall is the availability of several backtesting procedures for validating a set of VaR forecasts. Early examples of backtests can be found in Christoffersen (1998), later generalized by Pajhede (2017), which models a "hit-sequence" of losses greater than the VaR and proceed to tests for these "hits" to be independent from one another and with a correct probability of occurring. E.g. a 5% probability of a loss greater than VaR should be observed over time when using a 95% VaR, these hits should occur independently. |
Human impact on marine life Ocean warming Human_impact_on_marine_life > Climate change > Ocean warming The Antarctic oscillation (also called the Southern Annular Mode) is a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south according to which phase it is in. In its positive phase, the westerly wind belt that drives the Antarctic Circumpolar Current intensifies and contracts towards Antarctica, while its negative phase the belt moves towards the Equator. Winds associated with the Antarctic oscillation cause oceanic upwelling of warm circumpolar deep water along the Antarctic continental shelf. |
OptiSLang Sensitivity analysis OptiSLang > Methodology > Sensitivity analysis In the cross validation procedure, the set of support points is mapped to q {\displaystyle q} subsets. Then the approximation model is built by removing subset i {\displaystyle i} from the support points and approximating the subset model output y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} using the remaining point set. This means that the model quality is estimated only at those points which are not used to build the approximation model. |
Rock cycle An evolving process Rock_cycle > Forces that drive the rock cycle > Plate tectonics > An evolving process The plate tectonics rock cycle is an evolutionary process. Magma generation, both in the spreading ridge environment and within the wedge above a subduction zone, favors the eruption of the more silicic and volatile rich fraction of the crustal or upper mantle material. This lower density material tends to stay within the crust and not be subducted back into the mantle. The magmatic aspects of plate tectonics tends to gradual segregation within or between the mantle and crust. |
Wave Equation Scalar wave equation in three space dimensions Linear_wave_equation > Scalar wave equation in three space dimensions A solution of the initial-value problem for the wave equation in three space dimensions can be obtained from the corresponding solution for a spherical wave. The result can then be also used to obtain the same solution in two space dimensions. |
Neural network Criticism Neural_network > Criticism These issues are common in neural networks that must decide from amongst a wide variety of responses, but can be dealt with in several ways, for example by randomly shuffling the training examples, by using a numerical optimization algorithm that does not take too large steps when changing the network connections following an example, or by grouping examples in so-called mini-batches. A. K. Dewdney, a former Scientific American columnist, wrote in 1997, "Although neural nets do solve a few toy problems, their powers of computation are so limited that I am surprised anyone takes them seriously as a general problem-solving tool. "Arguments for Dewdney's position are that to implement large and effective software neural networks, much processing and storage resources need to be committed. |
Intze principle Summary Intze_principle The Intze Principle (German: Intze-Prinzip) is a name given to two engineering principles, both named after the hydraulic engineer, Otto Intze, (1843–1904). In the one case, the Intze Principle relates to a type of water tower; in the other, a type of dam. |
Real number Topological completeness Real_numbers > Topological completeness A main reason for using real numbers is so that many sequences have limits. More formally, the reals are complete (in the sense of metric spaces or uniform spaces, which is a different sense than the Dedekind completeness of the order in the previous section): A sequence (xn) of real numbers is called a Cauchy sequence if for any ε > 0 there exists an integer N (possibly depending on ε) such that the distance |xn − xm| is less than ε for all n and m that are both greater than N. This definition, originally provided by Cauchy, formalizes the fact that the xn eventually come and remain arbitrarily close to each other. A sequence (xn) converges to the limit x if its elements eventually come and remain arbitrarily close to x, that is, if for any ε > 0 there exists an integer N (possibly depending on ε) such that the distance |xn − x| is less than ε for n greater than N. Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence, and the converse is true for real numbers, and this means that the topological space of the real numbers is complete. The set of rational numbers is not complete. |
Bullwheel Summary Bullwheel The bullwheel began use in farm implements with the reaper. The term described the traveling wheel, traction wheel, drive wheel, or harvester wheel. The bullwheel powered all the moving parts of these farm machines including the reciprocating knives, reel, rake, and self binder. |
Energy Journals Energy > Further reading > Journals The Journal of Energy History / Revue d'histoire de l'énergie (JEHRHE), 2018– |
List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions Summary List_of_integrals_of_inverse_trigonometric_functions The following is a list of indefinite integrals (antiderivatives) of expressions involving the inverse trigonometric functions. For a complete list of integral formulas, see lists of integrals. The inverse trigonometric functions are also known as the "arc functions". |
C5H6O2 Summary C5H6O2 The molecular formula C5H6O2 (molar mass: 98.10 g/mol) may refer to: Ethyl propiolate Furfuryl alcohol Glutaconaldehyde Tulipalin A 1,2-Cyclopentanedione 1,3-Cyclopentanedione |
Base saturation Definition and principles Cation-exchange_capacity > Definition and principles Cation-exchange capacity is defined as the amount of positive charge that can be exchanged per mass of soil, usually measured in cmolc/kg. Some texts use the older, equivalent units me/100g or meq/100g. CEC is measured in moles of electric charge, so a cation-exchange capacity of 10 cmolc/kg could hold 10 cmol of Na+ cations (with 1 unit of charge per cation) per kilogram of soil, but only 5 cmol Ca2+ (2 units of charge per cation).Cation-exchange capacity arises from various negative charges on soil particle surfaces, especially those of clay minerals and soil organic matter. Phyllosilicate clays consist of layered sheets of aluminium and silicon oxides. |
Negative area Summary Negative_area In the case of the natural logarithm, obtained by integrating area under the hyperbola xy=1, the density dx ∧ dy is positive for x>1, but since the logarithm is anchored to 1, the orientation of the x-axis is reversed in the unit interval. For this integration the (− dx) orientation yields the opposite density to the one used for x>1. With this opposite density the area, under the hyperbola and above the unit interval, is taken as negative area, and the natural logarithm consequently is negative in this domain. |
FD mount Special-purpose lenses FD_mount > Special-purpose lenses Both lenses include internal filters. The remaining specialty lenses are the 20mm f/3.5 and 35mm f/2.8 Macrophoto lenses. Similar to microscope objectives, they provide magnifications of 4X-10X and 2X-6X respectively when mounted on the FD Auto Bellows. They can only be used with a bellows, via an FD adapter; while the adapter can mechanically mount them directly to a camera, they cannot function optically. They are not properly FD lenses, but are listed here because they are part of the whole system. |
Nitrogen Oxides Dinitrogen > Chemistry and compounds > Oxides It is a deliquescent, colourless crystalline solid that is sensitive to light. In the solid state it is ionic with structure +−; as a gas and in solution it is molecular O2N–O–NO2. |
Term symbol Atomic term symbols of the chemical elements Term_symbol > Ground state term symbol > Atomic term symbols of the chemical elements In the periodic table, because atoms of elements in a column usually have the same outer electron structure, and always have the same electron structure in the "s-block" and "p-block" elements (see block (periodic table)), all elements may share the same ground state term symbol for the column. Thus, hydrogen and the alkali metals are all 2S1⁄2, the alkaline earth metals are 1S0, the boron column elements are 2P1⁄2, the carbon column elements are 3P0, the pnictogens are 4S3⁄2, the chalcogens are 3P2, the halogens are 2P3⁄2, and the inert gases are 1S0, per the rule for full shells and subshells stated above. Term symbols for the ground states of most chemical elements are given in the collapsed table below. |
Computability Theory Turing computability Computability_theory_(computation) > Turing computability The main form of computability studied in computability theory was introduced by Turing in 1936. A set of natural numbers is said to be a computable set (also called a decidable, recursive, or Turing computable set) if there is a Turing machine that, given a number n, halts with output 1 if n is in the set and halts with output 0 if n is not in the set. A function f from natural numbers to natural numbers is a (Turing) computable, or recursive function if there is a Turing machine that, on input n, halts and returns output f(n). The use of Turing machines here is not necessary; there are many other models of computation that have the same computing power as Turing machines; for example the μ-recursive functions obtained from primitive recursion and the μ operator. |
Gödel's completeness theorem More general form Gödel's_completeness_theorem > Statement > More general form The theorem can be expressed more generally in terms of logical consequence. We say that a sentence s is a syntactic consequence of a theory T, denoted T ⊢ s {\displaystyle T\vdash s} , if s is provable from T in our deductive system. We say that s is a semantic consequence of T, denoted T ⊨ s {\displaystyle T\models s} , if s holds in every model of T. The completeness theorem then says that for any first-order theory T with a well-orderable language, and any sentence s in the language of T, Since the converse (soundness) also holds, it follows that T ⊨ s {\displaystyle T\models s} if and only if T ⊢ s {\displaystyle T\vdash s} , and thus that syntactic and semantic consequence are equivalent for first-order logic. This more general theorem is used implicitly, for example, when a sentence is shown to be provable from the axioms of group theory by considering an arbitrary group and showing that the sentence is satisfied by that group. Gödel's original formulation is deduced by taking the particular case of a theory without any axiom. |
Arago's rotations Investigations of the phenomena by other scientists Arago's_rotations > History > Investigations of the phenomena by other scientists Sturgeon showed that the damping effect of a magnet pole upon a moving copper disk was diminished by the presence of a second magnet pole of contrary kind placed beside the first. Five years later he returned to the subject and came to the conclusion that the effect was an electrical disturbance, "a kind of reaction to that which takes place in electro-magnetism," when the publication of Faraday's brilliant research on magneto-electric induction, in 1831, forestalled the complete explanation of which he was in search. Faraday, in fact, showed that relative motion between magnet and copper disk inevitably set up currents in the metal of the disk, which, in turn, reacted on the magnet pole with mutual forces tending to diminish the relative motion—that is, tending to drag the stationary part (whether magnet or disk) in the direction of the moving part, and tending always to oppose the motion of the moving part. In fact, the currents go eddying round in the moving disk, unless led off by sliding contacts. |
The Art of Computer Programming Complete volumes The_Art_of_Computer_Programming > English editions > Previous editions > Complete volumes These volumes were superseded by newer editions and are in order by date. Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms. First edition, 1968, xxi+634pp, ISBN 0-201-03801-3. Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms. |
Induction of regular languages k-reversible languages Induction_of_regular_languages > Approaches > k-reversible languages Angluin considers so-called "k-reversible" regular automata, that is, deterministic automata in which each state can be reached from at most one state by following a transition chain of length k. Formally, if Σ, Q, and δ denote the input alphabet, the state set, and the transition function of an automaton A, respectively, then A is called k-reversible if: ∀a0, ..., ak ∈ Σ ∀s1, s2 ∈ Q: δ*(s1, a0...ak) = δ*(s2, a0...ak) ⇒ s1 = s2, where δ* means the homomorphic extension of δ to arbitrary words. Angluin gives a cubic algorithm for learning of the smallest k-reversible language from a given set of input words; for k = 0, the algorithm has even almost linear complexity. The required state uniqueness after k + 1 given symbols forces unifying automaton states, thus leading to a proper generalization different from the trivial undergeneralized automaton. This algorithm has been used to learn simple parts of English syntax; later, an incremental version has been provided. Another approach based on k-reversible automata is the tail clustering method. |
Gellish Information models in Gellish Gellish > Information models in Gellish Each category of information model requires its own semantics, because the expression of the individual fact that something real is the case requires other kinds of relations than the expression of the general fact that something can be the case, which again differs from a fact that expresses that something shall be the case in a particular context or that something is by definition always the case. These semantic differences cause that the various categories of information models require their own subsets of standard relation types. Therefore Gellish makes a distinction between the following categories of relation types: Relation types for relations between kinds of things (classes). |
Discrete-time Markov chain Communicating classes and properties Discrete-time_Markov_chain > Communicating classes and properties A state j is said to be accessible from a state i (written i → j) if a system started in state i has a non-zero probability of transitioning into state j at some point. Formally, state j is accessible from state i if there exists an integer nij ≥ 0 such that Pr ( X n i j = j ∣ X 0 = i ) = p i j ( n i j ) > 0. {\displaystyle \Pr(X_{n_{ij}}=j\mid X_{0}=i)=p_{ij}^{(n_{ij})}>0.} |
Common misunderstandings of genetics Genes as words Common_misunderstandings_of_genetics > Genes as words It is popularly supposed that a gene is "a linear sequence of nucleotides along a segment of DNA that provides the coded instructions for synthesis of RNA" and even some current medical dictionaries define a gene as "a hereditary unit that occupies a specific location on a chromosome, determines a particular characteristic in an organism by directing the formation of a specific protein, and is capable of replicating itself at each cell division. "In fact, as the diagram illustrates schematically, genes are much more complicated and elusive concepts. A reasonable modern definition of a gene is "a locatable region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance, which is associated with regulatory regions, transcribed regions and/or other functional sequence regions. "This kind of misperception is perpetuated when mainstream media report that an organism's genome has been "deciphered" when they mean that it has simply been sequenced. == References == |
Zombie satellite Summary Zombie_satellite A zombie satellite is a satellite that begins communicating again after an extended period of inactivity. It is a type of space debris, which describes all defunct human-made objects in outer space. At the end of their service life, the majority of satellites suffer from orbital decay and are destroyed by the heat of atmospheric entry. Zombie satellites, however, maintain a stable orbit but are either partially or completely inoperable, preventing operators from communicating with them consistently. |
Efficient Probabilistic Public-Key Encryption Scheme Summary Efficient_Probabilistic_Public-Key_Encryption_Scheme EPOC (Efficient Probabilistic Public Key Encryption) is a probabilistic public-key encryption scheme. EPOC was developed in 1999 by T. Okamoto, S. Uchiyama and E. Fujisaki of NTT Labs in Japan. It is based on the random oracle model, in which a primitive public-key encryption function is converted to a secure encryption scheme by use of a truly random hash function; the resulting scheme is designed to be semantically secure against a chosen ciphertext attack. EPOC's primitive encryption function is the OU (Okamoto–Uchiyama) function, in which to invert the OU function is proven to be as hard as factoring a composite integer public key. There are three versions of EPOC: EPOC-1 uses a one-way trapdoor function and a random function (hash function); EPOC-2 uses a one-way trapdoor function, two random functions (hash functions) and a symmetric-key encryption (e.g., one-time padding and block-ciphers); EPOC-3 uses the Okamoto–Uchiyama one-way trapdoor function and two random functions (hash functions) as well as any symmetric encryption scheme such as the one-time pad, or any classical block cipher.EPOC-1 is designed for key distribution; EPOC-2 and EPOC-3 are designed for both key distribution and encrypted data transfer. |
Rheoscopic fluid Summary Kalliroscope In fluid mechanics (specifically rheology), rheoscopic fluids are fluids whose internal currents are visible as it flows. Such fluids are effective in visualizing dynamic currents, such as convection and laminar flow. They are microscopic crystalline platelets such as mica, metallic flakes, or fish scales in suspension in a fluid such as water or glycol stearate. |
Colorectal surgery Scope of the specialty Colorectal_surgery > Scope of the specialty Colorectal surgical disorders include: varicosities or swelling, and inflammation of veins in the rectum and anus (hemorrhoids) unnatural cracks or tears in the anus (anal fissures) abnormal connections or passageways between the rectum or other anorectal area to the skin surface (fistulas) severe constipation conditions fecal incontinence protrusion of the walls of the rectum through the anus (rectal prolapse) birth defects such as the imperforate anus treatment of severe colic disorders, such as Crohn's disease cancer of the colon and rectum (colorectal cancer) repositioning of the rectal area if fallen out anal cancer any injuries to the anus removal of objects inserted into anus performing colonoscopies performing ] |
Info-gap decision theory Uncertainty models Info-gap_decision_theory > Uncertainty models Furthermore, the nesting axiom implies that the uncertainty sets U ( α , u ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}(\alpha ,u)} become more inclusive as α {\displaystyle \alpha } grows, thus endowing α {\displaystyle \alpha } with its meaning as a horizon of uncertainty. The contraction axiom implies that, at horizon of uncertainty zero, the estimate u ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {u}}} is correct. Recall that the uncertain element u {\displaystyle u} may be a parameter, vector, function or set. The info-gap model is then an unbounded family of nested sets of parameters, vectors, functions or sets. |
Nicoletti assay Summary Cell_cycle_analysis The cellular DNA content of individual cells is often plotted as their frequency histogram to provide information about relative frequency (percentage) of cells in the major phases of the cell cycle. Cell cycle anomalies revealed on the DNA content frequency histogram are often observed after different types of cell damage, for example such DNA damage that interrupts the cell cycle progression at certain checkpoints. Such an arrest of the cell cycle progression can lead either to an effective DNA repair, which may prevent transformation of normal into a cancer cell (carcinogenesis), or to cell death, often by the mode of apoptosis. |
Statistical interpretation Probability; propensity Statistical_interpretation > Probability; propensity As noted by Paul Humphreys, many physical examples show the lack of reciprocal correlation, for example, the propensity for smokers to get lung cancer does not imply lung cancer has a propensity to cause smoking. Propensity closely matches the application of quantum theory: single event probability can be predicted by theory but only verified by repeated samples in experiment. Popper explicitly developed propensity theory to eliminate subjectivity in quantum mechanics. |
Smart building Sensors Building_automation > Types of inputs and outputs > Sensors Digital inputs could also be pulse inputs counting the pulses over a period of time. An example is a turbine flow meter transmitting flow data as a frequency of pulses to an input. |
Ground-effect vehicle Advantages and disadvantages Wing-in-ground_effect_vehicle > Advantages and disadvantages Careful design, usually with multiple redesigns of hullforms, is required to get this right, which increases engineering costs. This obstacle is more difficult for GEVs with short production runs to overcome. For the vehicle to work, its hull needs to be stable enough longitudinally to be controllable yet not so stable that it cannot lift off the water. |
Storage heater Principle of operation Storage_heater > Principle of operation Storage heaters are typically composed of clay bricks or other ceramic material (grog), of concrete walls, or of water containers. There are also special materials such as feolite. This material serves as a heat storage medium. There are electrical heating elements embedded in the material which can be switched on to heat the storage medium and thus to store energy. The stored heat is given off continuously (through thermal radiation and convection). To speed up the heat transfer, storage heaters may come equipped with mechanical fans that can move air through the heater; see the section on fan-assisted storage heaters. |
Outer mitochondrial membrane Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle Mitochondrial_proteins > Function > Energy conversion > Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2, acetyl-CoA, and NADH, or they can be carboxylated (by pyruvate carboxylase) to form oxaloacetate. This latter reaction "fills up" the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction, increasing the cycle's capacity to metabolize acetyl-CoA when the tissue's energy needs (e.g., in muscle) are suddenly increased by activity.In the citric acid cycle, all the intermediates (e.g. citrate, iso-citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, malate and oxaloacetate) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle. Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that the additional amount is retained within the cycle, increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other. Hence, the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect, and its removal has a cataplerotic effect. |
Hormone-sensitive lipase Activation Hormone-sensitive_lipase > Activation In addition to phosphorylating HSL, PKA phosphorylates perilipins on the surface of lipid droplets within adipose cells. This triggers them to "spread out" and allow for HSL to enter the lipid droplet. Activation of partially purified HSL requires Mg2+, ATP, and cyclic AMP. Activation can be blocked when Ser552 is not phosphorylated because Ser554 is phosphorylated and when the dephosphorylation of Ser552 causes insulin to the insulin receptor, causing inhibition of lipolysis and stimulation of glucose transport.Hormone stimulation of lipolysis in humans is similar to rats. |
List of software to detect low complexity regions in proteins Summary List_of_software_to_detect_low_complexity_regions_in_proteins Furthermore, the union or intersection of the results of the search on a query sequence can be obtained. A Neural Network webserver, named LCR-hound has been developed to predict the function of prokaryotic and eukaryotic LCRs, based on their amino acid or di-amino acid content. == References == |
Micro-g environment Orbital Motion Micro-g_environment > Weightless and reduced weight environments > Orbits > Orbital Motion At a 400 km LEO altitude, the overall differential in g-force is approximately 0.384 μg/m. Gravity between the spacecraft and an object within it may make the object slowly "fall" toward a more massive part of it. |
Cutting speed Summary Speeds_and_feeds It is expressed in units of distance across the workpiece surface per unit of time, typically surface feet per minute (sfm) or meters per minute (m/min). Feed rate (also often styled as a solid compound, feedrate, or called simply feed) is the relative velocity at which the cutter is advanced along the workpiece; its vector is perpendicular to the vector of cutting speed. Feed rate units depend on the motion of the tool and workpiece; when the workpiece rotates (e.g., in turning and boring), the units are almost always distance per spindle revolution (inches per revolution or millimeters per revolution ). |
Cryptographic algorithm Summary Encryption In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding information. This process converts the original representation of the information, known as plaintext, into an alternative form known as ciphertext. Ideally, only authorized parties can decipher a ciphertext back to plaintext and access the original information. |
Cross section (physics) Collision among gas particles Differential_cross_section > Collision among gas particles In a gas of finite-sized particles there are collisions among particles that depend on their cross-sectional size. The average distance that a particle travels between collisions depends on the density of gas particles. These quantities are related by σ = 1 n λ , {\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {1}{n\lambda }},} where σ is the cross section of a two-particle collision (SI units: m2), λ is the mean free path between collisions (SI units: m), n is the number density of the target particles (SI units: m−3).If the particles in the gas can be treated as hard spheres of radius r that interact by direct contact, as illustrated in Figure 1, then the effective cross section for the collision of a pair is σ = π ( 2 r ) 2 {\displaystyle \sigma =\pi \left(2r\right)^{2}} If the particles in the gas interact by a force with a larger range than their physical size, then the cross section is a larger effective area that may depend on a variety of variables such as the energy of the particles. Cross sections can be computed for atomic collisions but also are used in the subatomic realm. For example, in nuclear physics a "gas" of low-energy neutrons collides with nuclei in a reactor or other nuclear device, with a cross section that is energy-dependent and hence also with well-defined mean free path between collisions. |
James Clerk Maxwell Summary James_Clerk_Maxwell James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish physicist with broad interests and scientist responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism have been called the "second great unification in physics" where the first one had been realised by Isaac Newton. With the publication of "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light. He proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. |
Direct product (Matrix) Powers of a matrix Matrix_multiplication > Square matrices > Powers of a matrix As this may be very time consuming, one generally prefers using exponentiation by squaring, which requires less than 2 log2 k matrix multiplications, and is therefore much more efficient. An easy case for exponentiation is that of a diagonal matrix. Since the product of diagonal matrices amounts to simply multiplying corresponding diagonal elements together, the kth power of a diagonal matrix is obtained by raising the entries to the power k: k = . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a_{11}&0&\cdots &0\\0&a_{22}&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&0&\cdots &a_{nn}\end{bmatrix}}^{k}={\begin{bmatrix}a_{11}^{k}&0&\cdots &0\\0&a_{22}^{k}&\cdots &0\\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\0&0&\cdots &a_{nn}^{k}\end{bmatrix}}.} |
Intrinsically disordered proteins Summary Intrinsically_unstructured_proteins In molecular biology, an intrinsically disordered protein (IDP) is a protein that lacks a fixed or ordered three-dimensional structure, typically in the absence of its macromolecular interaction partners, such as other proteins or RNA. IDPs range from fully unstructured to partially structured and include random coil, molten globule-like aggregates, or flexible linkers in large multi-domain proteins. They are sometimes considered as a separate class of proteins along with globular, fibrous and membrane proteins.IDPs are a very large and functionally important class of proteins and their discovery has disproved the idea that three-dimensional structures of proteins must be fixed to accomplish their biological functions. For example, IDPs have been identified to participate in weak multivalent interactions that are highly cooperative and dynamic, lending them importance in DNA regulation and in cell signaling. Many IDPs can also adopt a fixed three-dimensional structure after binding to other macromolecules. Overall, IDPs are different from structured proteins in many ways and tend to have distinctive function, structure, sequence, interactions, evolution and regulation. |
Phylogenetic trees File formats Phylogenetic_tree > Construction > File formats Trees can be encoded in a number of different formats, all of which must represent the nested structure of a tree. They may or may not encode branch lengths and other features. Standardized formats are critical for distributing and sharing trees without relying on graphics output that is hard to import into existing software. Commonly used formats are Nexus file format Newick format |
Cord factor Host responses and cytokines Cord_factor > Host responses and cytokines Furthermore, cord factor's stimulation of TNF-α production, also known as cachectin, is also able to induce cachexia, or loss of weight, within hosts. Cord factor also increases NADase activity in the host, and thus it lowers NAD; enzymes that require NAD decrease in activity accordingly. Cord factor is thus able to obstruct oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain in mitochondrial membranes. In mice, cord factor has shown to cause atrophy in the thymus through apoptosis; similarly in rabbits, atrophy of the thymus and spleen occurred. This atrophy occurs in conjunction with granuloma formation, and if granuloma formation is disturbed, so is the progression of atrophy. |
Odontoblast process Summary Odontoblast_process An odontoblast process (also called Tomes's fibers or Tomes fibers, or by a dated term Tomes's fibrils) is an extension of a cell called an odontoblast, which forms dentin in a tooth. The odontoblast process is located in dentinal tubules. It forms during dentinogenesis and results from a part of the odontoblast staying in its location as the main body of the odontoblast moves toward the center of the tooth's pulp. The odontoblast process causes the secretion of hydroxyapatite crystals and mineralization of the matrix secreted by the odontoblasts. |
Computer-based information technology Search system Computer_business > Services > Search system A software and hardware complex with a web interface that provides the ability to search for information on the Internet. A search engine usually means a site that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software part of a search engine is a search engine (search engine) — a set of programs that provides the functionality of a search engine and is usually a trade secret of the search engine developer company. Most search engines look for information on World Wide Web sites, but there are also systems that can look for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and information on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the modern Internet (see the Deep Web article about the main problems in the work of search engines). |
Aircraft engine controls Summary Aircraft_engine_controls Aircraft engine controls provide a means for the pilot to control and monitor the operation of the aircraft's powerplant. This article describes controls used with a basic internal-combustion engine driving a propeller. Some optional or more advanced configurations are described at the end of the article. Jet turbine engines use different operating principles and have their own sets of controls and sensors. |
Smart City Commercialization Smart_City > Commercialization Large IT, telecommunication and energy management companies such as Apple, Baidu, Alibaba, Tencent, Huawei, Google, Microsoft, Cisco, IBM, and Schneider Electric launched market initiatives for intelligent cities. Baidu is working on Apollo, a self-driving technology Alibaba has created the City Brain Tencent is working on medical technology, such as WeChat Intelligent Healthcare, Tencent Doctorwork, and AI Medical Innovation System (AIMIS) Huawei has its Safe City Compact Solution which focuses on improving safety in cities Google's subsidiary Sidewalk Labs is focusing on smart cities Microsoft has CityNext Cisco, launched the global "Intelligent Urbanization" initiative to help cities using the network as the fourth utility for integrated city management, better quality of life for citizens, and economic development. IBM announced its Smarter Cities Challenge to stimulate economic growth and quality of life in cities and metropolitan areas with the activation of new approaches of thinking and acting in the urban ecosystem. Schneider Electric is working on EcoStruxure Sensor developers and startup companies are also continually developing new smart city applications. |
Artificial moral agents Development and analysis Artificial_moral_agents > Development and analysis More likely, it was the indeterminate consequence of his chance genetics, chance experiences and chance circumstances relevant at the time of the 'cause'. In Kant's philosophy, this calls for an act of faith, the faith free agent is based on something a priori, yet to be known, or immaterial. Otherwise, without free agent's a priori fundamental source, socially essential concepts created from human mind, such as justice, would be undermined (responsibility implies freedom of choice) and, in short, civilization and human values would crumble. |
Gangrenous necrosis Gas gangrene Gangrene > Causes > Gas gangrene Gas gangrene is caused by bacterial exotoxin-producing clostridial species, which are mostly found in soil, and other anaerobes such as Bacteroides and anaerobic streptococci. These environmental bacteria may enter the muscle through a wound and subsequently proliferate in necrotic tissue and secrete powerful toxins that destroy nearby tissue, generating gas at the same time. A gas composition of 5.9% hydrogen, 3.4% carbon dioxide, 74.5% nitrogen, and 16.1% oxygen was reported in one clinical case.Gas gangrene can cause necrosis, gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. |
Local linearity Differentiability in higher dimensions Nowhere_differentiable_function > Differentiability in higher dimensions If all the partial derivatives of a function exist in a neighborhood of a point x0 and are continuous at the point x0, then the function is differentiable at that point x0. However, the existence of the partial derivatives (or even of all the directional derivatives) does not guarantee that a function is differentiable at a point. For example, the function f: R2 → R defined by f ( x , y ) = { x if y ≠ x 2 0 if y = x 2 {\displaystyle f(x,y)={\begin{cases}x&{\text{if }}y\neq x^{2}\\0&{\text{if }}y=x^{2}\end{cases}}} is not differentiable at (0, 0), but all of the partial derivatives and directional derivatives exist at this point. For a continuous example, the function f ( x , y ) = { y 3 / ( x 2 + y 2 ) if ( x , y ) ≠ ( 0 , 0 ) 0 if ( x , y ) = ( 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle f(x,y)={\begin{cases}y^{3}/(x^{2}+y^{2})&{\text{if }}(x,y)\neq (0,0)\\0&{\text{if }}(x,y)=(0,0)\end{cases}}} is not differentiable at (0, 0), but again all of the partial derivatives and directional derivatives exist. |
Emissivity Emissivities of common surfaces Thermal_emissivity > Emissivities of common surfaces Emissivities ε can be measured using simple devices such as Leslie's cube in conjunction with a thermal radiation detector such as a thermopile or a bolometer. The apparatus compares the thermal radiation from a surface to be tested with the thermal radiation from a nearly ideal, black sample. The detectors are essentially black absorbers with very sensitive thermometers that record the detector's temperature rise when exposed to thermal radiation. For measuring room temperature emissivities, the detectors must absorb thermal radiation completely at infrared wavelengths near 10×10−6 metre. |
Hang Gliding Stability and equilibrium Hang_gliders > Stability and equilibrium The pilot lies prone (sometimes supine) within a large, triangular, metal control frame. Controlled flight is achieved by the pilot pushing and pulling on this control frame thus shifting his weight fore or aft, and right or left in coordinated maneuvers. Roll Most flexible wings are set up with near neutral roll due to sideslip (anhedral effect). |
Amidase Summary Amidase In enzymology, an amidase (EC 3.5.1.4, acylamidase, acylase (misleading), amidohydrolase (ambiguous), deaminase (ambiguous), fatty acylamidase, N-acetylaminohydrolase (ambiguous)) is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of an amide. In this way, the two substrates of this enzyme are an amide and H2O, whereas its two products are monocarboxylate and NH3. This enzyme belongs to the family of hydrolases, those acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds other than peptide bonds, specifically in linear amides. The systematic name of this enzyme class is acylamide amidohydrolase. |
Cook's theorem Proof Cook's_theorem > Proof The remaining lines depend only on the input length n {\displaystyle n} and on the machine M {\displaystyle M} ; they formalize a generic computation of M {\displaystyle M} for up to p ( n ) {\displaystyle p(n)} steps. The transformation makes extensive use of the polynomial p ( n ) {\displaystyle p(n)} . As a consequence, the above proof is not constructive: even if M {\displaystyle M} is known, witnessing the membership of the given problem in NP, the transformation cannot be effectively computed, unless an upper bound p ( n ) {\displaystyle p(n)} of M {\displaystyle M} 's time complexity is also known. |
Eye movement in music reading Reader skill Eye_movement_in_music_reading > Reader skill This raises the question as to why skilled readers should distribute more numerous and shorter fixations over a score than the unskilled. Only one plausible explanation appears in the literature. Kinsler & Carpenter (1995) proposed a model for the processing of music notation, based on their data from the reading of rhythm patterns, in which an iconic representation of each fixated image is scanned by a 'processor' and interpreted to a given level of accuracy. |
Internet Protocol Security Security association IPsec_tunnelling > Security architecture > Security association Authentication is possible through pre-shared key, where a symmetric key is already in the possession of both hosts, and the hosts send each other hashes of the shared key to prove that they are in possession of the same key. IPsec also supports public key encryption, where each host has a public and a private key, they exchange their public keys and each host sends the other a nonce encrypted with the other host's public key. Alternatively if both hosts hold a public key certificate from a certificate authority, this can be used for IPsec authentication.The security associations of IPsec are established using the Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP). |
Peripheral nervous system Structure Peripheral_nerves > Structure The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscles. The sensory nervous system is part of the somatic nervous system and transmits signals from senses such as taste and touch (including fine touch and gross touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The autonomic nervous system is a 'self-regulating' system which influences the function of organs outside voluntary control, such as the heart rate, or the functions of the digestive system. |
Roman mathematics Summary History_of_mathematics All of these texts mention the so-called Pythagorean triples, so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and geometry. The study of mathematics as a "demonstrative discipline" began in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, who coined the term "mathematics" from the ancient Greek μάθημα (mathema), meaning "subject of instruction". Greek mathematics greatly refined the methods (especially through the introduction of deductive reasoning and mathematical rigor in proofs) and expanded the subject matter of mathematics. |
Glossary of engineering: A–L G Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > G Rate2 is the rate of effusion for the second gas.M1 is the molar mass of gas 1 M2 is the molar mass of gas 2. Gravitational constantThe gravitational constant (also known as the universal gravitational constant, the Newtonian constant of gravitation, or the Cavendish gravitational constant), denoted by the letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Gravitational energyGravitational energy or gravitational potential energy is the potential energy a massive object has in relation to another massive object due to gravity. |
Artificial philosophy Gödelian anti-mechanist arguments Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence > Can a machine display general intelligence? > Arguments that a machine can display general intelligence > Arguments against symbol processing > Gödelian anti-mechanist arguments Existing quantum computers are only capable of reducing the complexity of Turing computable tasks and are still restricted to tasks within the scope of Turing machines.. By Penrose and Lucas's arguments, the fact that quantum computers are only able to complete Turing computable tasks implies that they cannot be sufficient for emulating the human mind. Therefore, Penrose seeks for some other process involving new physics, for instance quantum gravity which might manifest new physics at the scale of the Planck mass via spontaneous quantum collapse of the wave function. These states, he suggested, occur both within neurons and also spanning more than one neuron. However, other scientists point out that there is no plausible organic mechanism in the brain for harnessing any sort of quantum computation, and furthermore that the timescale of quantum decoherence seems too fast to influence neuron firing. |
Continuous (topology) Definition in terms of limits of sequences Sequential_continuity > Real functions > Definition > Definition in terms of limits of sequences One can instead require that for any sequence ( x n ) n ∈ N {\displaystyle (x_{n})_{n\in \mathbb {N} }} of points in the domain which converges to c, the corresponding sequence ( f ( x n ) ) n ∈ N {\displaystyle \left(f(x_{n})\right)_{n\in \mathbb {N} }} converges to f ( c ) . {\displaystyle f(c).} In mathematical notation, |
Measurement Quantum mechanics Measurement > Definitions and theories > Quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, a measurement is an action that determines a particular property (position, momentum, energy, etc.) of a quantum system. Quantum measurements are always statistical samples from a probability distribution; the distribution for many quantum phenomena is discrete. : 197 Quantum measurements alter quantum states and yet repeated measurements on a quantum state are reproducible. The measurement appears to act as a filter, changing the quantum state into one with the single measured quantum value. The unambiguous meaning of the quantum measurement is an unresolved fundamental problem in quantum mechanics; the most common interpretation is that when a measurement is performed, the wavefunction of the quantum system "collapses" to a single, definite value. |
Cyclorotor Unsteady aerodynamics Cyclorotor > Design advantages and challenges > Unsteady aerodynamics Considering a traditional wing profile it is evident that those conditions minimizes the speed differences between upper and lower face of the wing. It is then evident that both lift and stall speed are reduced. A consequence is a reduction of angle of attack at which stall conditions are reached. |
Process Biology and psychology Process > Science and technology > Biology and psychology Process (anatomy), a projection or outgrowth of tissue from a larger body Biological process, a process of a living organism Cognitive process, such as attention, memory, language use, reasoning, and problem solving Mental process, a function or processes of the mind Neuronal process, also neurite, a projection from the cell body of a neuron |
Augustin-Jean Fresnel Legacy Augustin-Jean_Fresnel > Legacy The second revision, initiated by Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into quanta, which were eventually identified with particles called photons. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. |
Explicit symmetry breaking Perturbation theory in quantum mechanics Explicit_symmetry_breaking > Perturbation theory in quantum mechanics A common setting for explicit symmetry breaking is perturbation theory in quantum mechanics. The symmetry is evident in a base Hamiltonian H 0 {\displaystyle H_{0}} . This H 0 {\displaystyle H_{0}} is often an integrable Hamiltonian, admitting symmetries which in some sense make the Hamiltonian integrable. The base Hamiltonian might be chosen to provide a starting point close to the system being modelled. |
Eco-costs value ratio Eco-efficient value creation Eco-costs_value_ratio > Use > Eco-efficient value creation But people who buy these fast cars hardly use it. For these people acceleration is more part of the image of the product than it is part of the product qualities they use on a daily basis. So reducing the acceleration is the wrong strategy: it eliminates the extra value, and it hardly reduces the overall eco-costs in practice. |
Ring of functions Module Ring_axioms > Module Using this and denoting repeated addition by a multiplication by a positive integer allows identifying abelian groups with modules over the ring of integers. Any ring homomorphism induces a structure of a module: if f: R → S is a ring homomorphism, then S is a left module over R by the multiplication: rs = f(r)s. If R is commutative or if f(R) is contained in the center of S, the ring S is called a R-algebra. In particular, every ring is an algebra over the integers. |
Floating-point math "Fast math" optimization Floating_point_format > Accuracy problems > "Fast math" optimization The aforementioned lack of associativity of floating-point operations in general means that compilers cannot as effectively reorder arithmetic expressions as they could with integer and fixed-point arithmetic, presenting a roadblock in optimizations such as common subexpression elimination and auto-vectorization. The "fast math" option on many compilers (ICC, GCC, Clang, MSVC...) turns on reassociation along with unsafe assumptions such as a lack of NaN and infinite numbers in IEEE 754. Some compilers also offer more granular options to only turn on reassociation. In either case, the programmer is exposed to many of the precision pitfalls mentioned above for the portion of the program using "fast" math.In some compilers (GCC and Clang), turning on "fast" math may cause the program to disable subnormal floats at startup, affecting the floating-point behavior of not only the generated code, but also any program using such code as a library.In most Fortran compilers, as allowed by the ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004 Fortran standard, reassociation is the default, with breakage largely prevented by the "protect parens" setting (also on by default). |
Childbed fever Diagnosis Puerperal_fever > Diagnosis Instead, contemporary terminology specifies: the specific target of infection: endometritis (inflammation of the inner lining of the uterus), metrophlebitis (inflammation of the veins of the uterus), and peritonitis (inflammation of the membrane lining of the abdomen). the severity of the infection: less serious infection (contained multiplication of microbes) or possibly life-threatening sepsis (uncontrolled and uncontained multiplication of microbes throughout the blood stream).Endometritis is a polymicrobial infection. It frequently includes organisms such as Ureaplasma, Streptococcus, Mycoplasma, and Bacteroides, and may also include organisms such as Gardnerella, Chlamydia, Lactobacillus, Escherichia, and Staphylococcus. |
Burnup Measures of burnup Burnup > Measures of burnup Expressed as a percentage: if 5% of the initial heavy metal atoms have undergone fission, the burnup is 5%FIMA. If these 5% were the total of 235U that were in the fuel at the beginning, the burnup is 100%FIFA (as 235U is fissile and the other 95% heavy metals like 238U are not). In reactor operations, this percentage is difficult to measure, so the alternative definition is preferred. This can be computed by multiplying the thermal power of the plant by the time of operation and dividing by the mass of the initial fuel loading. |
Normal order Bosons Normal_order > Bosons Bosons are particles which satisfy Bose–Einstein statistics. We will now examine the normal ordering of bosonic creation and annihilation operator products. |
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Radiology Idiopathic_pulmonary_fibrosis > Diagnosis > Radiology Chest X-rays are useful in the follow-up routine of IPF patients. Plain chest X-rays are unfortunately not diagnostic but may reveal decreased lung volumes, typically with prominent reticular interstitial markings near the lung bases. The radiological evaluation through HRCT is an essential point in the diagnostic pathway in IPF. HRCT is performed using a conventional computed axial tomographic scanner without injection of contrast agents. |
Mobile Electronic Signature Consortium Technologies used Mobile_Electronic_Signature_Consortium > Technologies used The mSign consortium created the standards on the assumption that a WAP phone with a WAP 1.2 implementation and digital keys stored on the SIM card (i.e. WIM) would be used to generate a mobile (digital) signature. During the standardization process, room was given also to other mechanisms for authenticating the mobile phone subscriber such as the sending of a password via SMS or Dialtone communication and voice identification. The specification also allowed for server-based digital signatures. In other words, digital signatures not generated in the mobile phone but on a central server that would then communicate with the signature requesting Service Providers via the mSign interface. |
Antibiotic synergy Summary Antibiotic_synergy Antibiotic synergy is one of three responses possible when two or more antibiotics are used simultaneously to treat an infection. In the synergistic response, the applied antibiotics work together to produce an effect more potent than if each antibiotic were applied singly. Compare to the additive effect, where the potency of an antibiotic combination is roughly equal to the combined potencies of each antibiotic singly, and antagonistic effect, where the potency of the combination is less than the combined potencies of each antibiotic. |
Incremental compiler Imperative programming Incremental_compiler > Definition > Imperative programming In imperative programming and software development, incremental compilation takes only the changes of a known set of source files and updates any corresponding output files (in the compiler's target language, often bytecode) that may already exist from previous compilations. By effectively building upon previously compiled output files, an incremental compiler avoids the wasteful recompiling of entire source files, where most of the code remains unchanged. For most incremental compilers, compiling a program with small changes to its source code is usually near instantaneous. It can be said that an incremental compiler reduces the granularity of a language's traditional compiling units while maintaining the language's semantics, such that the compiler can append and replace smaller parts. |
Cardiolipin Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and heart failure Cardiolipin > Clinical significance > Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and heart failure Recently, it is reported that in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and heart failure, decreased CL levels and change in acyl chain composition are also observed in the mitochondrial dysfunction. However, the role of CL in aging and ischemia/reperfusion is still controversial. |
Non-invasive ventilation Chronic/home use Non-invasive_ventilation > Medical uses > Chronic/home use Chronic use of NIV ("home NIV") may be indicated for severe COPD. A review from 2021 demonstrated that the chronic use of non-invasive ventilation improves daytime hypercapnia. In addition, in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, survival seems to be improved and there might be a short term benefit of health-related quality of life.Home NIV may also be indicated in people with neuromuscular disease and chest wall deformity.People with obesity hypoventilation syndrome often require NIV initially in their care, but many can be switched to CPAP. |
List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics > Undergraduate > Quantum mechanics The Physics of Quantum Mechanics (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968856-2. |
Formal logical system Logical system Logical_system > Background > Inference and entailment > Logical system Conversely, a logic system is (semantically) complete if each well-formed formula that is satisfied by every model of the logical system can be inferred from the axioms. An example of a logical system is Peano arithmetic. The standard model of arithmetic sets the domain of discourse to be the nonnegative integers and gives the symbols their usual meaning. There are also non-standard models of arithmetic. |
Amphidromic point Formation of amphidromic points Amphidromic_system > Formation of amphidromic points In real oceans, the tides cannot endlessly propagate as progressive waves. The waves reflect due to changes in water depth (for example when entering shelf seas) and at coastal boundaries. The result is a reflected wave that propagates in the opposite direction to the incident wave. |
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