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Placebo controlled trials Natural history groups Placebo-controlled_study > Methodology > Natural history groups The efficacy of the active drug's active ingredient: the difference between A and P (i.e., A-P). The magnitude of the placebo response: the difference between P and NH (i.e., P-NH).It is a matter of interpretation whether the value of P-NH indicates the efficacy of the entire treatment process or the magnitude of the "placebo response". The results of these comparisons then determine whether or not a particular drug is considered efficacious.
Membrane potential Summary Cell_excitability In neurons, the factors that influence the membrane potential are diverse. They include numerous types of ion channels, some of which are chemically gated and some of which are voltage-gated. Because voltage-gated ion channels are controlled by the membrane potential, while the membrane potential itself is influenced by these same ion channels, feedback loops that allow for complex temporal dynamics arise, including oscillations and regenerative events such as action potentials.
Rhomboid protease Function Rhomboid_protease > Function : 201 In mammals too, mitochondrial function is disrupted in mutants of PARL, the mitochondrial rhomboid, but the range of functions is more complex. PARL regulates the remodelling of mitochondrial cristae, is implicated in cell death and metabolism, and there is increasing evidence of an important role in Parkinson's disease; Apicomplexan parasites (including Plasmodium, the agent that causes malaria, and Toxoplasma) rhomboids are used to reposition between attachment to a target cell and entry,: 582, Figure 1 and most microneme: 519 -produced adhesins are released from the microneme by rhomboids. : 581 Rhomboids have also been implicated in the pathogenicity of other parasites.
Superdense coding Sending Quantum_dense_coding > The protocol > Sending After having performed one of the operations described above, Alice can send her entangled qubit to Bob using a quantum network through some conventional physical medium.
AC voltage Pioneers AC_frequency > History > Pioneers In the autumn of 1884, Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri (ZBD), three engineers associated with the Ganz Works of Budapest, determined that open-core devices were impractical, as they were incapable of reliably regulating voltage. In their joint 1885 patent applications for novel transformers (later called ZBD transformers), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either wound around a ring core of iron wires or else surrounded by a core of iron wires. In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see toroidal cores). The new transformers were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard and Gibbs.
Deficit round robin Algorithm Deficit_round_robin > Algorithm The DRR scans all non-empty queues in sequence. When a non-empty queue i {\displaystyle i} is selected, its deficit counter is incremented by its quantum value. Then, the value of the deficit counter is a maximal number of bytes that can be sent at this turn: if the deficit counter is greater than the packet's size at the head of the queue (HoQ), this packet can be sent, and the value of the counter is decremented by the packet size. Then, the size of the next packet is compared to the counter value, etc. Once the queue is empty or the value of the counter is insufficient, the scheduler will skip to the next queue. If the queue is empty, the value of the deficit counter is reset to 0. Variables and Constants const integer N // Nb of queues const integer Q // Per queue quantum integer DC // Per queue deficit counter queue queue // The queues Scheduling Loop while true do for i in 1..N do if not queue.empty() then DC:= DC + Q while( not queue.empty() and DC ≥ queue.head().size() ) do DC := DC − queue.head().size() send( queue.head() ) queue.dequeue() end while if queue.empty() then DC := 0 end if end if end for end while
Paradoxes of set theory Summary Paradoxes_of_set_theory This article contains a discussion of paradoxes of set theory. As with most mathematical paradoxes, they generally reveal surprising and counter-intuitive mathematical results, rather than actual logical contradictions within modern axiomatic set theory.
Luminous bacteria Mechanism Bioluminescent_bacteria > Mechanism The blue-green light emission of bioluminescence, such as that produced by Photobacterium phosphoreum and Vibro harveyi, results from this reaction. Because light emission involves expending six ATP molecules for each photon, it is an energetically expensive process. For this reason, light emission is not constitutively expressed in bioluminescent bacteria; it is expressed only when physiologically necessary.
Hash functions Uniformity Hashing_algorithm > Properties > Uniformity In particular, if m is less than n, very few buckets should have more than one or two records. A small number of collisions is virtually inevitable, even if n is much larger than m – see the birthday problem. In special cases when the keys are known in advance and the key set is static, a hash function can be found that achieves absolute (or collisionless) uniformity.
Hormone Introduction and overview Synthetic_hormones > Introduction and overview Breakdown of the hormone.Hormone producing cells are found in the endocrine glands, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Exocytosis and other methods of membrane transport are used to secrete hormones when the endocrine glands are signaled. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.
Biogenesis of lysosome-related organelles complex 1 Summary Biogenesis_of_lysosome-related_organelles_complex_1 Studies of BLOC-1 in the nervous system have begun to link numerous molecular and cellular mechanisms to its proposed contribution to schizophrenia. Knock-down studies of the dysbindin gene DTNBP1 via siRNA demonstrated that the dysbindin subunit is integral for the signaling and recycling of the D2 receptor (DRD2) but not the D1 receptor. BLOC-1 mutations in dysbindin therefore can alter dopaminergic signaling in the brain which may confer symptoms of schizophrenia.
Consumer privacy Legislation Consumer_privacy > Legislation Such common commercial measures as software-based customer relationship management, rewards programs, and target marketing tend to drastically increase the amount of information gathered (and sometimes shared). These very drastically increase privacy risks and have accelerated the shift to regulation, rather than relying on the corporate desire to preserve goodwill.Concerns have led to consumer privacy laws in most countries, especially in the European Union, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Notably, among developed countries, the United States has no such law and relies on corporate customer privacy disclosed in privacy policies to ensure consumer privacy in general.
Stochastic tunneling Dynamically adaptive stochastic tunneling Stochastic_tunneling > Dynamically adaptive stochastic tunneling A variation on always tunneling is to do so only when trapped at a local minimum. γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is then adjusted to tunnel out of the minimum and pursue a more globally optimum solution. Detrended fluctuation analysis is the recommended way of determining if trapped at a local minimum.
Constraint solver Local Search Constraint_solver > Constraint solving > Local Search Local search is an incomplete method for finding a solution to a problem. It is based on iteratively improving an assignment of the variables until all constraints are satisfied. In particular, local search algorithms typically modify the value of a variable in an assignment at each step. The new assignment is close to the previous one in the space of assignment, hence the name local search.
Regulator gene Summary Regulatory_gene A regulator gene may encode a protein, or it may work at the level of RNA, as in the case of genes encoding microRNAs. An example of a regulator gene is a gene that codes for a repressor protein that inhibits the activity of an operator (a gene which binds repressor proteins thus inhibiting the translation of RNA to protein via RNA polymerase).In prokaryotes, regulator genes often code for repressor proteins. Repressor proteins bind to operators or promoters, preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing RNA.
Mass defect Binding energy for atoms Nuclear_binding_energy > Binding energy for atoms Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not orbit in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus). A nuclear decay happens to the nucleus, meaning that properties ascribed to the nucleus change in the event. In the field of physics the concept of "mass deficit" as a measure for "binding energy" means "mass deficit of the neutral atom" (not just the nucleus) and is a measure for stability of the whole atom.
Nervous systems Pathology Nerve_system > Pathology Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in loss of sensation or movement. If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent. Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves.
Copper cycle Summary Copper_cycle The copper cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of natural and anthropogenic exchanges of copper between reservoirs in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. Human mining and extraction activities have exerted large influence on the copper cycle.
GlobalSign Services GlobalSign > Services One of the features of the platform is IoT Edge Enroll, which companies use to provision and manage the PKI-based identities. Edge Enroll provides device Registration Authority (RA), certificate lifecycle management and other support services. The platform also includes IoT CA Direct and IoT CA Connect.In May 2022, the latest version of the company’s AEG platform was released. It automatically configures S/MIME certificates in Outlook for Windows using GlobalSign’s cross-platform agent, XPA. XPA sets policies, and automatically enrolls, provisions, and installs certificates.
Color quantization Algorithms Color_quantization > Algorithms The most popular algorithm by far for color quantization, invented by Paul Heckbert in 1979, is the median cut algorithm. Many variations on this scheme are in use. Before this time, most color quantization was done using the population algorithm or population method, which essentially constructs a histogram of equal-sized ranges and assigns colors to the ranges containing the most points.
Rutherford Aris bibliography Journal articles Rutherford_Aris_bibliography > Journal articles 25, 863–872 (1979). "Traveling waves in a simple population model involving growth and death" (with C.R. Kennedy).
Glossary of machine vision F Machine_vision_glossary > F The field of view (FOV) is the part which can be seen by the machine vision system at one moment. The field of view depends from the lens of the system and from the working distance between object and camera. Focus. An image, or image point or region, is said to be in focus if light from object points is converged about as well as possible in the image; conversely, it is out of focus if light is not well converged. The border between these conditions is sometimes defined via a circle of confusion criterion.
Cellular neural network Communication systems Cellular_neural_network > Control and Actuator Systems > Communication systems They are often used in researching systemics, a trans-disciplinary, scientific field that studies natural systems. The goal of systemics researchers is to develop a conceptual and mathematical framework necessary to analyze, model, and understand systems, including, but not limited to, atomic, mechanical, molecular, chemical, biological, ecological, social and economic systems. Topics explored are emergence, collective behavior, local activity and its impact on global behavior, and quantifying the complexity of an approximately spatial and topologically invariant system. With another definition of complexity (MIT professor Seth Lloyd has identified 32 different definitions of complexity), it can potentially be mathematically advantageous when analyzing systems such as economic and social systems.
Limit (mathematics) Infinity in limits of functions Limit_(mathematics) > Types of limits > In functions > Infinity in limits of functions It is possible to define the notion of "tending to infinity" in the domain of f {\displaystyle f} , In this expression, the infinity is considered to be signed: either + ∞ {\displaystyle +\infty } or − ∞ {\displaystyle -\infty } . The "limit of f as x tends to positive infinity" is defined as follows. It is a real number L {\displaystyle L} such that, given any real ϵ > 0 {\displaystyle \epsilon >0} , there exists an M > 0 {\displaystyle M>0} so that if x > M {\displaystyle x>M} , \| f ( x ) − L \| < ϵ {\displaystyle \|f(x)-L\|<\epsilon } .
Unified scattering function Concept Unified_scattering_function > Concept Both Guinier's Law and Porod's Law refer to an aspect of a single structural level. A structural level is composed of a size that can be expressed in Rg, and a structure as reflected in a power-law decay, -4 in the case of Porod's Law for solid objects with smooth, sharp interfaces. For other structures the power-law decay yields the mass-fractal dimension, df, which relates the mass and size of the object, thereby partially defining the object.
Unimog 405 UG 100/8 gearbox Unimog_405 > Technical description > Gearbox and drivetrain > UG 100/8 gearbox This design results in eight forward and eight reverse gears. The reverse gear unit has a different gear ratio for the reverse range, and the last two gears are electronically locked by default to prevent reverse speeds beyond 30 km/h. In road-rail Unimogs, all reverse gears are usable; the highest reverse speed is 61.9 km/h.
Regular verb Constructed languages Regular_verb > By language > Constructed languages Most natural languages, to different extents, have a number of irregular verbs. Artificial auxiliary languages usually have a single regular pattern for all verbs (as well as other parts of speech) as a matter of design, because inflectional irregularities are considered to increase the difficulty of learning and using a language. Other constructed languages, however, need not show such regularity, especially if they are designed to look similar to natural ones.
Visual backward masking Trigger hypothesis Visual_backward_masking > Trigger hypothesis In the early stages of the disease, and in untreated patients, hypersensitivity to low spatial frequencies has been documented. During the further course (and medication) of schizophrenia, this hypersensitivity turns into hyposensitivity and begins to affect other spatial frequencies of visual perception. Alterations to the visual signal, which are largely inconsistent over the course of schizophrenia (remission and relapse phases), may lead to the formation of inconsistent internal models of the world. These signal alterations (noise-to-signal ratios) are associated with fluctuations in Dopamine and Acetylcholin levels, decreased activity of inhibitory GABAergic interneurons, and hypofunction of NMDAr associated with gradual loss of cell populations in the precortical visual circuit. The volatile and noisy signal from the visual periphery may then act as an amplifier of primarily decreased connectivity within frontal areas, which may then prograde retrogradely to lower cortical areas of the visual information processing circuit.
Theories of biological aging Variation among species Aging_clock > Variation among species Different speeds with which mortality increases with age correspond to different maximum life span among species. For example, a mouse is elderly at 3 years, a human is elderly at 80 years, and ginkgo trees show little effect of age even at 667 years.Almost all organisms senesce, including bacteria which have asymmetries between "mother" and "daughter" cells upon cell division, with the mother cell experiencing aging, while the daughter is rejuvenated. There is negligible senescence in some groups, such as the genus Hydra. Planarian flatworms have "apparently limitless telomere regenerative capacity fueled by a population of highly proliferative adult stem cells."
Concurrent Haskell Summary Concurrent_Haskell Concurrent Haskell extends Haskell 98 with explicit concurrency. Its two main underlying concepts are: A primitive type MVar α implementing a bounded/single-place asynchronous channel, which is either empty or holds a value of type α. The ability to spawn a concurrent thread via the forkIO primitive.Built atop this is a collection of useful concurrency and synchronisation abstractions such as unbounded channels, semaphores and sample variables. Haskell threads have very low overhead: creation, context-switching and scheduling are all internal to the Haskell runtime. These Haskell-level threads are mapped onto a configurable number of OS-level threads, usually one per processor core.
Eigenvalue perturbation Why generalized eigenvalues? Eigenvalue_perturbation > Why generalized eigenvalues? In the entry applications of eigenvalues and eigenvectors we find numerous scientific fields in which eigenvalues are used to obtain solutions. Generalized eigenvalue problems are less widespread but are a key in the study of vibrations. They are useful when we use the Galerkin method or Rayleigh-Ritz method to find approximate solutions of partial differential equations modeling vibrations of structures such as strings and plates; the paper of Courant (1943) is fundamental. The Finite element method is a widespread particular case.
Scientist–practitioner model Core tenets Scientist–practitioner_model > Core tenets Core tenets of the today's model included in the current Boulder Model: Giving psychological assessment, testing, and intervention in accordance with scientifically based protocols Accessing and integrating scientific findings to make informed healthcare decisions for patients Questioning and testing hypotheses that are relevant to current healthcare; Building and maintaining effective cross-disciplinary relationships with professionals in other fields Research-based training and support to other health professions in the process of providing psychological care; Contribute to practice-based research and development to improve the quality of health care.
Netherlands Bioinformatics Centre Bioinformatics software Netherlands_Bioinformatics_Centre > Achievements > Bioinformatics software A wide variety of bioinformatics software has been created by people involved in NBIC. NBIC also hosts a service to coordinate software development (Trac server with software releases and project documentation). Many tools are also made available through NBIC's own open Galaxy server
Vanesa Magar Brunner Research and publications Vanesa_Magar_Brunner > Research and publications Energies, 13(5): 1095. DOI: doi.org/10.3390/en13051095 Magar, Vanesa; Gross, Markus; González-García, L. (2018).
Biometal (biology) Potassium Biometal_(biology) > Naturally occurring biometals > Potassium Because of this correlation, it has been noted that potassium also plays a key part in stomatal movement and regulation as high concentrations of potassium are moved into the plant stomata to keep them open and promote photosynthesis. In animals, potassium also plays a key part along with sodium in maintaining resting cell membrane potential and in cell-cell communication via repolarization of axon pathways after an action potential between neurons. Potassium may also play a key part in maintaining blood pressure in animals as shown in a study where increased severity of periodontal disease and hypertension were inversely correlated to urinary potassium excretion (a telltale sign of low potassium intake).
Info-gap decision theory Treasure hunt Info-gap_decision_theory > Classical decision theory perspective > Treasure hunt Under severe uncertainty the estimate is assumed to be a poor indication of the true value of the parameter and is likely to be substantially wrong. The fundamental question therefore is: Given the Severity of the uncertainty Local nature of the analysis Poor quality of the estimate how meaningful and useful are the results generated by the analysis, and how sound is the methodology as a whole? More on this criticism can be found on Sniedovich's web site.
Segmental bridge Construction Segmental_bridge > Construction In pre-cast bridges, the concrete segment is constructed on the ground, and then transported and hoisted into place. As the new segment is suspended in place by the crane, workers install steel reinforcing that attaches the new segment to preceding segments. Each segment of the bridge is designed to accept connections from both preceding and succeeding segments. The process in step 3 is repeated until the span is completed.
Beta-propeller phytase Structure Beta-propeller_phytase > Structure There are hydrophobic interactions between these blades which are thought to keep the propeller structure together. These blades form a tunnel-like hole through the enzyme. This tunnel binds some water molecules. In front of the tunnel is the enzyme's active site which is positively charged in total due to Ca2+ ions it binds and certain positive amino acid residues. This site binds negatively charged calcium phytate and hydrolyzes phosphates from it.
Jordan canonical form Cayley–Hamilton theorem Jordan_canonical_form > Consequences > Cayley–Hamilton theorem The Cayley–Hamilton theorem asserts that every matrix A satisfies its characteristic equation: if p is the characteristic polynomial of A, then p A ( A ) = 0 {\displaystyle p_{A}(A)=0} . This can be shown via direct calculation in the Jordan form, since if λ i {\displaystyle \lambda _{i}} is an eigenvalue of multiplicity m {\displaystyle m} , then its Jordan block J i {\displaystyle J_{i}} clearly satisfies ( J i − λ i I ) m i = 0 {\displaystyle (J_{i}-\lambda _{i}I)^{m_{i}}=0} . As the diagonal blocks do not affect each other, the ith diagonal block of ( A − λ i I ) m i {\displaystyle (A-\lambda _{i}I)^{m_{i}}} is ( J i − λ i I ) m i = 0 {\displaystyle (J_{i}-\lambda _{i}I)^{m_{i}}=0} ; hence p A ( A ) = ∏ i ( A − λ i I ) m i = 0 {\textstyle p_{A}(A)=\prod _{i}(A-\lambda _{i}I)^{m_{i}}=0} . The Jordan form can be assumed to exist over a field extending the base field of the matrix, for instance over the splitting field of p; this field extension does not change the matrix p(A) in any way.
DNA metabarcoding Pollinator networks EDNA_metabarcoding > Applications > Pollinator networks Assessing the true networks (determined by ecological process) from field surveys that are subject to sampling effects still provides challenges.Recent research studies have clearly benefited from network concepts and tools to study the interaction patterns in large species assemblages. They showed that plant-pollinator networks were highly structured, deviating significantly from random associations. Commonly, networks have (1) a low connectance (the realized fraction of all potential links in the community) suggesting a low degree of generalization; (2) a high nestedness (the more-specialist organisms are more likely to interact with subsets of the species that more-generalist organisms interact with) the more specialist species interact only with proper subsets of those species interacting with the more generalist ones; (3) a cumulative distribution of connectivity (number of links per species, s) that follows a power or a truncated power law function characterized by few supergeneralists with more links than expected by chance and many specialists; (4) a modular organization.
SSH tunnel Technical overview Tunneling_protocol > Technical overview A tunnel is not encrypted by default: the TCP/IP protocol chosen determines the level of security. SSH uses port 22 to enable data encryption of payloads being transmitted over a public network (such as the Internet) connection, thereby providing VPN functionality. IPsec has an end-to-end Transport Mode, but can also operate in a tunneling mode through a trusted security gateway. To understand a particular protocol stack imposed by tunneling, network engineers must understand both the payload and delivery protocol sets.
Heterostrain Etymology Heterostrain > Etymology Heterostrain is constructed from the Greek prefix hetero- (different) and the noun strain. It means that the two layers constituting the structure are subject to different strains. This is in contrast with homostrain in which the two layers as subject to the same strain. Heterostrain is designated as "relative strain" by some authors.
Complex fluids Dynamics Complex_fluids > Dynamics The dynamics of the particles in complex fluids are an area of current research. Energy lost due to friction may be a nonlinear function of the velocity and normal forces. The topological inhibition to flow by the crowding of constituent particles is a key element in these systems. Under certain conditions, including high densities and low temperatures, when externally driven to induce flow, complex fluids are characterized by irregular intervals of solid-like behavior followed by stress relaxations due to particle rearrangements.
Aerobic decomposition Fresh Decomposition > Animal decomposition > Stages of decomposition > Fresh Once the heart stops, the blood can no longer supply oxygen or remove carbon dioxide from the tissues. The resulting decrease in pH and other chemical changes causes cells to lose their structural integrity, bringing about the release of cellular enzymes capable of initiating the breakdown of surrounding cells and tissues.
SERCOS III Data consistency SERCOS_III > General architecture > Data consistency A term usually associated with the IT enterprise, data consistency can also apply to real-time control (see for example Peer to Peer Communication). For this reason, Sercos III specifies that no data be overwritten (destroyed) during a transmission. Every slave on a network may access input and output data for every other slave on the network.
Parasitic life cycles Summary Parasitic_life_cycles Zygotic meiosis and gametic meiosis have one mitotic stage: mitosis occurs during the n phase in zygotic meiosis and during the 2n phase in gametic meiosis. Therefore, zygotic and gametic meiosis are collectively termed "haplobiontic" (single mitotic phase, not to be confused with haplontic). Sporic meiosis, on the other hand, has mitosis in two stages, both the diploid and haploid stages, termed "diplobiontic" (not to be confused with diplontic).
Data shaping Summary Logarithmic_data_transformation In statistics, data transformation is the application of a deterministic mathematical function to each point in a data set—that is, each data point zi is replaced with the transformed value yi = f(zi), where f is a function. Transforms are usually applied so that the data appear to more closely meet the assumptions of a statistical inference procedure that is to be applied, or to improve the interpretability or appearance of graphs. Nearly always, the function that is used to transform the data is invertible, and generally is continuous. The transformation is usually applied to a collection of comparable measurements. For example, if we are working with data on peoples' incomes in some currency unit, it would be common to transform each person's income value by the logarithm function.
Crossover (genetic algorithm) One-point crossover Crossover_(genetic_algorithm) > Crossover for binary arrays > One-point crossover A point on both parents' chromosomes is picked randomly, and designated a 'crossover point'. Bits to the right of that point are swapped between the two parent chromosomes. This results in two offspring, each carrying some genetic information from both parents.
OpenAI OpenAI's original GPT model ("GPT-1") OpenAI > Products and applications > Generative models > OpenAI's original GPT model ("GPT-1") The original paper on generative pre-training of a transformer-based language model was written by Alec Radford and his colleagues, and published in preprint on OpenAI's website on June 11, 2018. It showed how a generative model of language is able to acquire world knowledge and process long-range dependencies by pre-training on a diverse corpus with long stretches of contiguous text.
Self-diagnosis COVID-19 pandemic Self-diagnosis > Impact on varying demographics > Ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds > COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 also contributed to the increase in self-diagnosis among minority populations. Samantha Artiga from the Kaiser Family Foundation reports that when statistics were corrected to account for differences in age by race and ethnicity, it became clear that Black, Hispanic, AIAN, and NHOPI persons had the highest rates of COVID-19 cases and deaths in compared to white people. These demographics had a correlated surge in self-diagnosed COVID-19 cases. The Conversation highlights how using internet resources to evaluate COVID-19 symptoms and self-triage was promoted during the pandemic, exhibiting how online health information gained new significance.
Transcription control Regulatory landscape Transcription_control > In eukaryotes > Through transcription factors and enhancers > Regulatory landscape Cell-fate decisions are mediated upon highly dynamic genomic reorganizations at interphase to modularly switch on or off entire gene regulatory networks through short to long range chromatin rearrangements. Related studies demonstrate that metazoan genomes are partitioned in structural and functional units around a megabase long called Topological association domains (TADs) containing dozens of genes regulated by hundreds of enhancers distributed within large genomic regions containing only non-coding sequences. The function of TADs is to regroup enhancers and promoters interacting together within a single large functional domain instead of having them spread in different TADs.
Homogeneity (physics) Dimensional homogeneity Homogeneous_media > Dimensional homogeneity As said in the introduction, dimensional homogeneity is the quality of an equation having quantities of same units on both sides. A valid equation in physics must be homogeneous, since equality cannot apply between quantities of different nature. This can be used to spot errors in formula or calculations.
Bayesian confirmation theory In the courtroom Confirmation_theory > Applications > In the courtroom This will depend on the incidence of the crime, which is an unusual piece of evidence to consider in a criminal trial. Consider the following three propositions: A The known facts and testimony could have arisen if the defendant is guilty B The known facts and testimony could have arisen if the defendant is innocent C The defendant is guilty.Gardner-Medwin argues that the jury should believe both A and not-B in order to convict. A and not-B implies the truth of C, but the reverse is not true. It is possible that B and C are both true, but in this case he argues that a jury should acquit, even though they know that they will be letting some guilty people go free. See also Lindley's paradox.
Cipher disk Methods of encryption Cipher_disk > Methods of encryption The cipher disk can be used in one of two ways. The code can be a consistent monoalphabetic substitution for the entire cipher or the disks can be moved periodically throughout the cipher making it polyalphabetic. For a monoalphabetic use, the sender and the person receiving the messages would agree on a cipher key setting (e.g., the "G" in the regular alphabet would be positioned next to the "Q" in the cipher alphabet). The entire message is then encoded according to this key.
Ammonium sulfate precipitation Summary Ammonium_sulfate_precipitation Ammonium sulfate precipitation is one of the most commonly used methods for large and laboratory scale protein purification and fractionation that can be used to separate proteins by altering their solubility in the presence of a high salt concentration.
Mir-19 microRNA precursor family Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 Mir-19_microRNA_precursor_family > miR-19a roles > Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 It has been showing that the 3' UTR of the ATXN1 gene contains 3 target sites for miR-19, and this microRNA shows moderate down regulation of reporter genes containing the ATXN1 3' UTR. Furthermore, it directly binds to the ATXN1 3´UTR to suppress the translation of ATXN1. ATXN1 is also regulated by miR-101, and miR-130.
Angular momentum operators Total angular momentum Angular_momentum_quantization > Overview > Total angular momentum Finally, there is total angular momentum J = ( J x , J y , J z ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} =\left(J_{x},J_{y},J_{z}\right)} , which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of a particle or system: Conservation of angular momentum states that J for a closed system, or J for the whole universe, is conserved. However, L and S are not generally conserved. For example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total J remaining constant.
History of calculus Other developments History_of_calculus > Modern precursors > Other developments In 1647 Gregoire de Saint-Vincent noted that the required function F satisfied F ( s t ) = F ( s ) + F ( t ) , {\displaystyle F(st)=F(s)+F(t),} so that a geometric sequence became, under F, an arithmetic sequence. A. A. de Sarasa associated this feature with contemporary algorithms called logarithms that economized arithmetic by rendering multiplications into additions. So F was first known as the hyperbolic logarithm.
Sorting algorithms Classification Sorting_Algorithm > Classification Sorting algorithms can be classified by: Computational complexity Best, worst and average case behavior in terms of the size of the list. For typical serial sorting algorithms, good behavior is O(n log n), with parallel sort in O(log2 n), and bad behavior is O(n2). Ideal behavior for a serial sort is O(n), but this is not possible in the average case. Optimal parallel sorting is O(log n).
Symbolic artificial intelligence Search Symbolic_artificial_intelligence > Techniques and contributions > Search Search arises in many kinds of problem solving, including planning, constraint satisfaction, and playing games such as checkers, chess, and go. The best known AI-search tree search algorithms are breadth-first search, depth-first search, A*, and Monte Carlo Search. Key search algorithms for Boolean satisfiability are WalkSAT, conflict-driven clause learning, and the DPLL algorithm. For adversarial search when playing games, alpha-beta pruning, branch and bound, and minimax were early contributions.
Theory of computability Name Computability_theory_(computation) > Name These researchers also use terminology such as partial computable function and computably enumerable (c.e.) set instead of partial recursive function and recursively enumerable (r.e.) set.
Old French language Verbs Old_French_language > Grammar > Verbs Verbs in Old French show the same extreme phonological deformations as other Old French words; however, morphologically, Old French verbs are extremely conservative in preserving intact most of the Latin alternations and irregularities that had been inherited in Proto-Romance. Old French has much less analogical reformation than Modern French has and significantly less than the oldest stages of other languages (such as Old Spanish) despite that the various phonological developments in Gallo-Romance and Proto-French led to complex alternations in the majority of commonly-used verbs. For example, the OF verb laver "to wash" (Lat lavāre) is conjugated je lef, tu leves, il leve in the present indicative and je lef, tu les, il let in the present subjunctive, in both cases regular phonological developments from Latin indicative lavō, lavās, lavat and subjunctive lavem, lavēs, lavet. The following paradigm is typical in showing the phonologically regular but morphologically irregular alternations of most paradigms: The alternation je lef ~ tu leves is a regular result of the final devoicing triggered by loss of final /o/ but not /a/.
Cancer induction DNA damage Cancer_initiation > Causes > DNA damage The central elements of DNA damage, epigenetic alterations and deficient DNA repair in progression to cancer are shown in red. A deficiency in DNA repair would cause more DNA damage to accumulate, and increase the risk for cancer. For example, individuals with an inherited impairment in any of 34 DNA repair genes (see article DNA repair-deficiency disorder) are at increased risk of cancer, with some defects causing an up to 100% lifetime chance of cancer (e.g. p53 mutations).
Point mutation Repeat-induced point mutation Point_mutations > Repeat-induced point mutation The degree of RIP within these single copy regions was proportional to their proximity to repetitive elements.Rep and Kistler have speculated that the presence of highly repetitive regions containing transposons, may promote mutation of resident effector genes. So the presence of effector genes within such regions is suggested to promote their adaptation and diversification when exposed to strong selection pressure.As RIP mutation is traditionally observed to be restricted to repetitive regions and not single copy regions, Fudal et al. suggested that leakage of RIP mutation might occur within a relatively short distance of a RIP-affected repeat. Indeed, this has been reported in N. crassa whereby leakage of RIP was detected in single copy sequences at least 930 bp from the boundary of neighbouring duplicated sequences. To elucidate the mechanism of detection of repeated sequences leading to RIP may allow to understand how the flanking sequences may also be affected.
RNA silencing microRNA (miRNA) RNA_silencing > Background > microRNA (miRNA) The majority of miRNAs act in the cytoplasm and mediate mRNA degradation or translational arrest. However, some plant miRNAs have been shown to act directly to promote DNA methylation. miRNAs come from hairpin precursors generated by the RNaseIII enzymes Drosha and Dicer. Both miRNA and siRNA form either the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) or the nuclear form of RISC known as RNA-induced transcriptional silencing complex (RITS). The volume of literature on miRNA within the framework of RNAi is extensive.
Point plotting Summary Point_plotting As a result, one obtains the 2-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. To be able to plot points, one needs to first decide on a point in plane which will be called the origin, and a couple of perpendicular lines, called the x and y axes, as well as a preferred direction on each of the lines. Usually one chooses the x axis pointing right and the y axis pointing up, and these will be named the positive directions.
Relativistic quantum mechanics Summary Relativistic_quantum_mechanics The key result is the Dirac equation, from which these predictions emerge automatically. By contrast, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, terms have to be introduced artificially into the Hamiltonian operator to achieve agreement with experimental observations.
Hexamethylenediamine Summary Hexamethylenediamine Hexamethylenediamine is the organic compound with the formula H2N(CH2)6NH2. The molecule is a diamine, consisting of a hexamethylene hydrocarbon chain terminated with amine functional groups. The colorless solid (yellowish for some commercial samples) has a strong amine odor. About 1 billion kilograms are produced annually.
Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Reviews Mathematics_and_Plausible_Reasoning > Reviews 40 (333): 233–234. doi:10.2307/3608848. hdl:2027/mdp.39015008206248.
Hot atom Summary Hot_atom In physical chemistry, a hot atom is an atom that has a high kinetic or internal energy.When molecule AB adsorbs on a surface dissociatively, both A and B adsorb on the surface, or only A adsorbs on the surface, and B desorbs from the surface.In case 2, B gains a high translational energy from the adsorption energy of A, and hot atom B is generated. For example, the hydrogen molecule, because of its light mass, gets a high translational energy. Such a hot atom does not fly into vacuum but is trapped on the surface, where it diffuses with high energy.
Skyrmion Summary Skyrmion In particle theory, the skyrmion () is a topologically stable field configuration of a certain class of non-linear sigma models. It was originally proposed as a model of the nucleon by (and named after) Tony Skyrme in 1961. As a topological soliton in the pion field, it has the remarkable property of being able to model, with reasonable accuracy, multiple low-energy properties of the nucleon, simply by fixing the nucleon radius.
Hot Metal Bridge Summary Hot_Metal_Bridge The Hot Metal Bridge is a truss bridge in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, that crosses the Monongahela River. The bridge consists of two parallel spans on a single set of piers: the former Monongahela Connecting Railroad Bridge, built in 1887, on the upstream side and the former Hot Metal Bridge, built in 1900, on the downstream side. The Monongahela Connecting Railroad Bridge carried conventional railroad traffic, while the Hot Metal Bridge connected parts of the J&L Steel mill, carrying crucibles of molten iron from the blast furnaces in ladle transfer cars to the open hearth furnaces on the opposite bank to be converted to steel. During World War II 15% of America's steel making capacity crossed over the Hot Metal Bridge, up to 180 tons per hour.
RNA World RNA-peptide coevolution RNA_World_Hypothesis > Alternative hypotheses > RNA-peptide coevolution Another proposal is that the dual-molecule system we see today, where a nucleotide-based molecule is needed to synthesize protein, and a peptide-based (protein) molecule is needed to make nucleic acid polymers, represents the original form of life. This theory is called RNA-peptide coevolution, or the Peptide-RNA world, and offers a possible explanation for the rapid evolution of high-quality replication in RNA (since proteins are catalysts), with the disadvantage of having to postulate the coincident formation of two complex molecules, an enzyme (from peptides) and a RNA (from nucleotides). In this Peptide-RNA World scenario, RNA would have contained the instructions for life, while peptides (simple protein enzymes) would have accelerated key chemical reactions to carry out those instructions. The study leaves open the question of exactly how those primitive systems managed to replicate themselves — something neither the RNA World hypothesis nor the Peptide-RNA World theory can yet explain, unless polymerases (enzymes that rapidly assemble the RNA molecule) played a role.A research project completed in March 2015 by the Sutherland group found that a network of reactions beginning with hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide, in streams of water irradiated by UV light, could produce the chemical components of proteins and lipids, alongside those of RNA. The researchers used the term "cyanosulfidic" to describe this network of reactions. In November 2017, a team at the Scripps Research Institute identified reactions involving the compound diamidophosphate which could have linked the chemical components into short peptide and lipid chains as well as short RNA-like chains of nucleotides.
Fermeuse Formation Depositional environment Fermeuse_Formation > Depositional environment On Bonavista Peninsula the depositional environment was a slope and outer shelf–below photic zone Turbidites probably were the dominant sediment transporters.It is predominantly silts and sands, in contrast to underlying Trepassey Formation, which is mostly dark grey shales. There is a coarsening up sequence throughout the two formations, such that the top of the Fermeuse is predominantly sandstones.On Avalon Peninsula there were much shallower waters, particularly than in underlying Mistaken Point Formation and Trepassey Formation. It is indicated by sandy channel fills, slumping, occasional silts. There is a possible delta front and shallow slope setting.
Short hairpin RNA Mechanism of action Small_hairpin_RNA > Mechanism of action Once the vector has integrated into the host genome, the shRNA is then transcribed in the nucleus by polymerase II or polymerase III depending on the promoter choice. The product mimics pri-microRNA (pri-miRNA) and is processed by Drosha. The resulting pre-shRNA is exported from the nucleus by Exportin 5. This product is then processed by Dicer and loaded into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).
Fleiss' kappa Tests of Significance Fleiss'_kappa > Tests of Significance Statistical packages can calculate a standard score (Z-score) for Cohen's kappa or Fleiss's Kappa, which can be converted into a P-value. However, even when the P value reaches the threshold of statistical significance (typically less than 0.05), it only indicates that the agreement between raters is significantly better than would be expected by chance. The p value does not tell you, by itself, whether the agreement is good enough to have high predictive value.
Prior knowledge for pattern recognition Prior Knowledge Prior_knowledge_for_pattern_recognition > Prior Knowledge The importance of prior knowledge in machine learning is suggested by its role in search and optimization. Loosely, the no free lunch theorem states that all search algorithms have the same average performance over all problems, and thus implies that to gain in performance on a certain application one must use a specialized algorithm that includes some prior knowledge about the problem. The different types of prior knowledge encountered in pattern recognition are now regrouped under two main categories: class-invariance and knowledge on the data.
Achromatic refractor How it works Achromatic_telescope > How it works An achromatic lens is a compound lenses made with two types of glass with different dispersion. One element, a concave lens made out of Flint glass, has relatively high dispersion, while the other, a convex element made of Crown glass, has a lower dispersion. The crown lens is usually placed at the front due to the higher susceptibility of flint glass to atmospheric attack (exception: Steinheil doublet). The lens elements are mounted next to each other and shaped so that the chromatic aberration of one is counterbalanced by the chromatic aberration of the other, while the positive power of the crown lens element is not quite equaled by the negative power of the flint lens element. Together they form a weak positive lens that will bring two different wavelengths of light to a common focus.
Barrier island Constituent parts Barrier_island > Constituent parts The middle shoreface is strongly influenced by wave action because of its depth. Closer to shore the sand is medium-grained, with shell pieces common. Since wave action is heavier, bioturbation is not likely.
Third-cause fallacy Causality predicted by an extrapolation of trends Causation_and_correlation > Causal analysis > Causality predicted by an extrapolation of trends When experimental studies are impossible, and only pre-existing data are available, as is usually the case for example in economics, regression analysis can be used. Factors other than the potential causative variable of interest are controlled for by including them as regressors in addition to the regressor representing the variable of interest. False inferences of causation due to reverse causation (or wrong estimates of the magnitude of causation because of the presence of bidirectional causation) can be avoided by using explanators (regressors) that are necessarily exogenous, such as physical explanators like rainfall amount (as a determinant of, say, futures prices), lagged variables whose values were determined before the dependent variable's value was determined, instrumental variables for the explanators (chosen based on their known exogeneity), etc. See causality in statistics and economics. Spurious correlation from mutual influence from a third, common, causative variable, is harder to avoid: the model must be specified such that there is a theoretical reason to believe that no such underlying causative variable has been omitted from its analysis.
Inertial footpod Summary Inertial_footpod An inertial foot pod is a device used to track running measurements such as speed, distance travelled, pace, etc., which would generally only be available on treadmills or with a GPS unit.This device is usually small and attaches to a runner's foot. It uses one or more accelerometers and processes several times a second to compute speed. One example is the foot pod employed by the Polar S625x running computer.
Coherent diffractive imaging Reconstruction Coherent_diffractive_imaging > Reconstruction In a typical reconstruction the first step is to generate random phases and combine them with the amplitude information from the reciprocal space pattern. Then a Fourier transform is applied back and forth to move between real space and reciprocal space with the modulus squared of the diffracted wave field set equal to the measured diffraction intensities in each cycle. By applying various constraints in real and reciprocal space the pattern evolves into an image after enough iterations of the HIO process. To ensure reproducibility the process is typically repeated with new sets of random phases with each run having typically hundreds to thousands of cycles.
DNA binding domain Function DNA_binding_domain > Function Many proteins involved in the regulation of gene expression contain DNA-binding domains. For example, proteins that regulate transcription by binding DNA are called transcription factors. The final output of most cellular signaling cascades is gene regulation.
Timeline of binary prefixes 2001 Timeline_of_binary_prefixes > 2000s > 2001 IBM, z/Architecture, Reference Summary Page 59, list the power of 2 and 16, and their decimal value. There is a column name 'Symbol', which list K (kilo), M (mega), G (giga), T (tera), P (peta) and E (exa) for the power of 2 of, respectively, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60. Peuhkuri adopts IEC prefixes in his paper at the 2001 Internet Measurement Conference: "... allows maximum size of 224 that requires 1 GiB of RAM ... or acknowledgement numer is within 32 KiB range. ... on a PC with Celeron processor with 512 MiB of memory ..." The Linux kernel uses IEC prefixes.
Abel–Ruffini theorem General equation Abel–Ruffini_theorem > Proof > Polynomials with symmetric Galois groups > General equation It follows that the Galois group Gal ⁡ ( H / K ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Gal} (H/K)} is the symmetric group S n . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}_{n}.} The fundamental theorem of symmetric polynomials implies that the b i {\displaystyle b_{i}} are algebraic independent, and thus that the map that sends each a i {\displaystyle a_{i}} to the corresponding b i {\displaystyle b_{i}} is a field isomorphism from F to K. This means that one may consider P ( x ) = 0 {\displaystyle P(x)=0} as a generic equation. This finishes the proof that the Galois group of a general equation is the symmetric group, and thus proves the original Abel–Ruffini theorem, which asserts that the general polynomial equation of degree n cannot be solved in radicals for n > 4.
Communications technologies Interpersonal Social_communication > Human > Interpersonal For synchronous communication, both parties send messages at the same time. This happens, for example, when one person is talking while the other person sends non-verbal messages in response signaling whether they agree with what is being said. Some theorists, like Sarah Trenholm and Arthur Jensen, distinguish between content messages and relational messages. Content messages express the speaker's feelings toward the topic of discussion. Relational messages, on the other hand, demonstrate the speaker's feelings toward their relation with the other participants.
Deaf culture Importance of technology Deaf_culture > Characteristics > Importance of technology Alert systems such as fire alarms and alarm clocks must appeal to different senses in order for a deaf individual to notice the alert. Objects such as vibrating pillows and flashing lights often take the place of the noise-based alarms. Lack of understanding about technological accessibility for the deaf causes conflict and injustice for the deaf community. For example, a significant number of deaf individuals in the UK admit that they are dissatisfied with their banks because of their heavy reliance on telephone banking and lack of assistance to deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals. Architecture that is conducive to signed communication minimizes visual obstructions and may include such things as automatic sliding doors to free up the hands for continuous conversation.
Complex ion Classification Complex_formation > Classification The areas of coordination chemistry can be classified according to the nature of the ligands, in broad terms: Classical (or "Werner Complexes"): Ligands in classical coordination chemistry bind to metals, almost exclusively, via their lone pairs of electrons residing on the main-group atoms of the ligand. Typical ligands are H2O, NH3, Cl−, CN−, en. Some of the simplest members of such complexes are described in metal aquo complexes, metal ammine complexes,Examples: −, 3+, 3-Organometallic chemistry: Ligands are organic (alkenes, alkynes, alkyls) as well as "organic-like" ligands such as phosphines, hydride, and CO.Example: (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3Bioinorganic chemistry: Ligands are those provided by nature, especially including the side chains of amino acids, and many cofactors such as porphyrins.Example: hemoglobin contains heme, a porphyrin complex of iron Example: chlorophyll contains a porphyrin complex of magnesium Many natural ligands are "classical" especially including water.Cluster chemistry: Ligands include all of the above as well as other metal ions or atoms as well.Example Ru3(CO)12In some cases there are combinations of different fields:Example: 2−, in which a cluster is embedded in a biologically active species.Mineralogy, materials science, and solid state chemistry – as they apply to metal ions – are subsets of coordination chemistry in the sense that the metals are surrounded by ligands.
AI capability control Physical AI_capability_control > Boxing > Avenues of escape > Physical A superintelligent AI with access to the Internet could hack into other computer systems and copy itself like a computer virus. Less obviously, even if the AI only had access to its own computer operating system, it could attempt to send coded messages to a human sympathizer via its hardware, for instance by manipulating its cooling fans. In response, Professor Roman Yampolskiy takes inspiration from the field of computer security and proposes that a boxed AI could, like a potential virus, be run inside a "virtual machine" that limits access to its own networking and operating system hardware. An additional safeguard, completely unnecessary for potential viruses but possibly useful for a superintelligent AI, would be to place the computer in a Faraday cage; otherwise, it might be able to transmit radio signals to local radio receivers by shuffling the electrons in its internal circuits in appropriate patterns. The main disadvantage of implementing physical containment is that it reduces the functionality of the AI.
Virtual learning environment Standards Virtual_learning_environment > Standards Most VLEs support the Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) as a standard, but there are no commonly used standards that define how the learner's performance within a course can be transferred from one VLE to another. There are also standards for sharing content such as those defined by the IMS Global Consortium. Local bodies such as in the school's sector in the UK, the DCSF via Becta, have additionally defined a learning platform "conformance framework" to encourage interoperability. These systems may also be suited for the needs of independent educational programs, charter schools, and home-based education. As virtual teaching and learning become more deeply integrated into curricula, it is important to assess the quality and rigor of virtual programs. The Virtual Learning Program Standards provide a framework for identifying key areas for effective teaching and learning in Virtual Learning Programs.
Abelian categories History Abelian_categories > History Abelian categories were introduced by Buchsbaum (1955) (under the name of "exact category") and Grothendieck (1957) in order to unify various cohomology theories. At the time, there was a cohomology theory for sheaves, and a cohomology theory for groups. The two were defined differently, but they had similar properties. In fact, much of category theory was developed as a language to study these similarities. Grothendieck unified the two theories: they both arise as derived functors on abelian categories; the abelian category of sheaves of abelian groups on a topological space, and the abelian category of G-modules for a given group G.
Data ethics Summary Data_ethics Data ethics is of increasing relevance as the quantity of data increases because of the scale of the impact. Big data ethics are different from information ethics because the focus of information ethics is more concerned with issues of intellectual property and concerns relating to librarians, archivists, and information professionals, while big data ethics is more concerned with collectors and disseminators of structured or unstructured data such as data brokers, governments, and large corporations. However, since artificial intelligence or machine learning systems are regularly built using big data sets, the discussions surrounding data ethics are often intertwined with those in the ethics of artificial intelligence. More recently, issues of big data ethics have also been researched in relation with other areas of technology and science ethics, including ethics in mathematics and engineering ethics, as many areas of applied mathematics and engineering use increasingly large data sets.
Query Rewriting Summary Query_Rewriting For example, the input queries may be in relational algebra or SQL, and the rewritten queries may be closer to the physical representation of the data, e.g. array operations. Query rewriting can also involve materialization of views and other subqueries; operations that may or may not be available to the API user. The query rewriting transformation can be aided by creating indices from which the optimizer can choose (some database systems create their own indexes if deemed useful), mandating the use of specific indices, creating materialized and/or denormalized views, or helping a database system gather statistics on the data and query use, as the optimality depends on patterns in data and typical query usage. Query rewriting may be rule based or optimizer based. Some sources discuss query rewriting as a distinct step prior to optimization, operating at the level of the user accessible algebra API (e.g. SQL).There are other, largely unrelated concepts also named similarly, for example, query rewriting by search engines.
Inner loop Summary Inner_loop In computer programs, an important form of control flow is the loop which causes a block of code to be executed more than once. A common idiom is to have a loop nested inside another loop, with the contained loop being commonly referred to as the inner loop.
Λ calculus Recursion and fixed points Lambda-term_bound_variables > Additional programming techniques > Recursion and fixed points Thus the original lambda expression (FIX G) is re-created inside itself, at call-point, achieving self-reference. In fact, there are many possible definitions for this FIX operator, the simplest of them being: Y := λg. (λx.g (x x)) (λx.g (x x))In the lambda calculus, Y g is a fixed-point of g, as it expands to: Y g (λh.
Natural Evolution Strategy Method Natural_Evolution_Strategy > Method NES then performs a gradient ascent step along the natural gradient, a second order method which, unlike the plain gradient, renormalizes the update with respect to uncertainty. This step is crucial, since it prevents oscillations, premature convergence, and undesired effects stemming from a given parameterization. The entire process reiterates until a stopping criterion is met.
Delta-convergence Opial property Delta-convergence > Characterization in Banach spaces > Opial property Coincidence of weak convergence and Delta-convergence is equivalent, for uniformly convex Banach spaces, to the well-known Opial property
Protist flagella Flagellates Protist_locomotion > Flagellates Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are ultrastructurally identical, the beating pattern of the two organelles can be different. In the case of flagella, the motion is often planar and wave-like, whereas the motile cilia often perform a more complicated three-dimensional motion with a power and recovery stroke. Eukaryotic flagella—those of animal, plant, and protist cells—are complex cellular projections that lash back and forth.
Trace metal stable isotope biogeochemistry Fractionation as a result of diffusion Trace_metal_stable_isotope_biogeochemistry > Iron > Equilibrium Isotope Fractionation > Fractionation as a result of diffusion More work is required to fully understand fractionation as a result of diffusion, studies of diffusion of iron on metal have consistently given β values of approximately 0.25. Iron diffusion between silicate melts and basaltic/rhyolitic melts have given lower β values (~0.030). In aqueous environments, a β value of 0.0025 has been obtained.
GROW model Example GROW_model > Stages of GROW > Example The following is a very simple example of using the GROW model to achieve a goal. This example deals with weight loss. If the client wants: "To bring my weight down to 120 pounds in three months and keep it down", that is their Goal. The more heartfelt and personal, the more meaningful the goal is to the person and the more likely they will be to commit to and achieve the goal.

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