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Univariate (statistics) Frequency distribution tables Univariate_(statistics) > Graphical methods > Frequency distribution tables Frequency is how many times a number occurs. The frequency of an observation in statistics tells us the number of times the observation occurs in the data. For example, in the following list of numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9}, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5 times in this data set).
Communication privacy management theory Work environments Communication_privacy_management_theory > Theory applications > Work environments By the same token, some employees argue that companies should not be able to track what is being done on their personal devices or even on company computers even if they are in the work place. Even before stepping foot into the workplace, much can be said about CPM and interviewing. How much we decide to reveal within an interview and the boundaries we have in that situation is directly related to CPM. Even interviewing within a job (as a cop, for example) requires a certain sensitivity to people's boundaries and how much private information they are willing to reveal.
Physical symbol system Semantic symbols vs. dynamic signals Physical_symbol_system > Clarifications > Semantic symbols vs. dynamic signals Indeed, Touretzky and Pomerleau write that if symbols and signals are the same thing, then "ufficiency is a given, unless one is a dualist or some other sort of mystic, because physical symbol systems are Turing-universal." The widely accepted Church–Turing thesis holds that any Turing-universal system can simulate any conceivable process that can be digitized, given enough time and memory. Since any digital computer is Turing-universal, any digital computer can, in theory, simulate anything that can be digitized to a sufficient level of precision, including the behavior of intelligent organisms.
Alcohol use disorders Long-term effects Alcohol_use_disorders > Signs and symptoms > Warning signs > Physical > Long-term effects Long-term alcohol misuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and several cancers. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption.
Transcranial Doppler How it works Transcranial_Doppler > How it works Because the bones of the skull block most of the transmission of ultrasound, regions with thinner walls (called insonation windows), which offer the least distortion to the sound waves, must be used for analyzing. For this reason, recording is performed in the temporal region above the cheekbone/zygomatic arch, through the eyes, below the jaw, and from the back of the head. Patient age, sex, race, and other factors affect bone thickness and porosity, making some examinations more difficult or even impossible. Most can still be performed to obtain acceptable responses, sometimes requiring using alternative sites from which to view the vessels.
Diastolic blood pressure Regulation of blood pressure Home_blood_pressure_monitoring > Physiology > Regulation of blood pressure The resultant increase in blood volume results in an increased cardiac output by the Frank–Starling law of the heart, in turn increasing arterial blood pressure.These different mechanisms are not necessarily independent of each other, as indicated by the link between the RAS and aldosterone release. When blood pressure falls many physiological cascades commence in order to return the blood pressure to a more appropriate level. The blood pressure fall is detected by a decrease in blood flow and thus a decrease in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Uranium trichloride Catalyst UCl3 > Uses > Catalyst Uranium(III) chloride is used as a catalyst during reactions between lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) and olefins to produce alkyl aluminate compounds.
Degeneracy (math) Summary Degenerate_case Equivalently, it becomes a "line segment".Often, the degenerate cases are the exceptional cases where changes to the usual dimension or the cardinality of the object (or of some part of it) occur. For example, a triangle is an object of dimension two, and a degenerate triangle is contained in a line, which makes its dimension one. This is similar to the case of a circle, whose dimension shrinks from two to zero as it degenerates into a point.
Discrete calculus Applications Discrete_calculus > Applications In nuclear medicine, it is used to build models of radiation transport in targeted tumor therapies. In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by calculating both marginal cost and marginal revenue, as well as modeling of markets.Discrete calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used in probability theory to determine the probability of a discrete random variable from an assumed density function.
Jennifer Doudna CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing discovery Jennifer_Doudna > Career and research > CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing discovery Feng Zhang at the Broad Institute had shown that CRISPR-Cas9 could edit genes in cultured human cells a few months after Doudna and Charpentier published their method. Before the UC Berkeley patent application was decided, a patent was granted to the Broad investigators and UC Berkeley filed a lawsuit against the decision. In 2017, the court decided in favor of the Broad Institute, who claimed that they had initiated the research earliest and had first applied it to human cell engineering thus supporting editing in human cells with evidence but that the UC Berkeley group had only suggested this application.
Osmotic potential Summary Osmotic_potential Osmosis occurs when two solutions containing different concentrations of solute are separated by a selectively permeable membrane. Solvent molecules pass preferentially through the membrane from the low-concentration solution to the solution with higher solute concentration. The transfer of solvent molecules will continue until equilibrium is attained.
Vaccine adjuvant Adaptive immune response Vaccine_adjuvant > Adaptive immune response γδ T cells possess characteristics of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Macrophages can also activate T cells in a similar approach (but do not do so naturally).This process carried out by both dendritic cells and macrophages is termed antigen presentation and represents a physical link between the innate and adaptive immune responses. Upon activation, mast cells release heparin and histamine to effectively increase trafficking to and seal off the site of infection to allow immune cells of both systems to clear the area of pathogens.
Philosophy of healthcare Religious Ethics Philosophy_of_healthcare > Ethics of healthcare > Religious Ethics ": 167 In Western health care, dignity regarding human life can be traced back to imago dei, meaning "image of God", which asserts that human beings are created by God in a manner of resemblance to his own existence. This is to say that health care practitioners shouldn't merely perceive patients/clients to be fellow humans undergoing suffering, but also as unique likenesses of God. : 167 Following the Industrial Revolution, and the advent of the 20th Century, the face of modern medicine has evolved.
Attribute hierarchy method Cognitive model representation Attribute_hierarchy_method > Cognitive model representation Similar to the A matrix, each row and column in the matrix represents one attribute; the first row and column represents attribute A1 and the last row and column represents attribute A9. The first attribute is either directly or indirectly connected to all attributes A1 to A9. This is represented by the presence of 1's in all columns of row 1 (i.e., representing attribute A1).
Scientific theory In physics Scientific_theory > In physics In physics, the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries—like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—that is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. A good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism", reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations.
Velocity of light Astronomical unit Speed_of_Light > Measurement > Astronomical measurements > Astronomical unit An astronomical unit (AU) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun. It was redefined in 2012 as exactly 149597870700 m. Previously the AU was not based on the International System of Units but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics. The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit, which was determined by measurement. This redefinition is analogous to that of the metre and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second (via the exact speed of light in metres per second).Previously, the inverse of c expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets.
Dog-leg gearbox Trucks Dog-leg_gearbox > Trucks Many light trucks (e.g. Iveco Turbo Daily) have dog-leg five- or six-speed transmissions, because second gear is fine for normal starting; first is considered a "crawler" or "granny" gear in these trucks and is only used for starting with heavy loads and/or a trailer, or descending steep grades. In many older trucks, the shifter is marked with "Low" instead of "1", and 2nd gear is marked as 1st instead. A 4-speed truck gearshift might read "R, Low, 1, 2, 3", rather than "R, 1, 2, 3, 4", since the transmission is considered a 3-speed with an auxiliary low gear rather than a normal 4 speed.
Climate change effects Marine ecosystems Heat_waves_and_climate_change > Wildlife and nature > Marine ecosystems This is in response to warming waters, loss of oxygen and eutrophication. Melting sea ice destroys habitat, including for algae that grows on its underside.Ocean acidification can harm marine organisms in various ways. Shell-forming organisms like oysters are particularly vulnerable.
Transition metal nitrile complexes Reactions Acetonitrile_complex > Synthesis and reactions > Reactions Transition metal nitrile complexes are usually employed because the nitrile ligand is labile and relatively chemically inert. Cationic nitrile complexes are however susceptible to nucleophilic attack at carbon. Consequently some nitrile complexes catalyze the hydrolysis of nitriles to give the amides.Fe- and Co-nitrile complexes are intermediates in nitrile hydratase enzymes.
Common misunderstandings of genetics Genes as a blueprint Common_misunderstandings_of_genetics > Genes as a blueprint While the central dogma of molecular biology describes how information cannot be passed back to inheritable genetic information, the other causal arrows in this chain can be bidirectional, with complex feedbacks ultimately regulating gene expression. Instead of being a simple, linear mapping, this complex relationship between genotype and phenotype is not straightforward to decode. Rather than describing genetic information as a blueprint, some have suggested that a more appropriate analogy is that of a recipe for cooking, where a collection of ingredients is combined via a set of instructions to form an emergent structure, such as a cake, that is not described explicitly in the recipe itself.
Parallel-plate capacitor Hazards and safety Parallel_plate_capacitor > Hazards and safety PCB-filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications. Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion.
Measurement uncertainty Propagation of distributions Measurement_uncertainty > Propagation of distributions The true values of the input quantities X 1 , … , X N {\displaystyle X_{1},\ldots ,X_{N}} are unknown. In the GUM approach, X 1 , … , X N {\displaystyle X_{1},\ldots ,X_{N}} are characterized by probability distributions and treated mathematically as random variables. These distributions describe the respective probabilities of their true values lying in different intervals, and are assigned based on available knowledge concerning X 1 , … , X N {\displaystyle X_{1},\ldots ,X_{N}} . Sometimes, some or all of X 1 , … , X N {\displaystyle X_{1},\ldots ,X_{N}} are interrelated and the relevant distributions, which are known as joint, apply to these quantities taken together.
Patchy particles Monte Carlo Patchy_particles > Assembly of patchy particles > Simulations > Monte Carlo This is typically used to monitor phase behaviour. With these additional moves, the particle is added at a random orientation and random position. Other simulations involve biased Monte Carlo moves.
Machine Learning (journal) Selected articles Machine_Learning_(journal) > Selected articles P. Rossmanith and T. Zeugmann (2001). "Stochastic Finite Learning of the Pattern Languages". Machine Learning.
Gastrin releasing peptide Function Gastrin_releasing_peptide > Function Gastrin-releasing peptide is a regulatory human peptide that elicits gastrin release and regulates gastric acid secretion and enteric motor function. The post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve that innervate bombesin/GRP neurons of the stomach release GRP, which stimulates the G cells to release gastrin. GRP is also involved in the biology of the circadian system, playing a role in the signaling of light to the master circadian oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Furthermore, GRP seems to mediate certain aspects of stress. This is the reason for the observed fact that atropine does not block the vagal effect on gastrin release.
Rexx Simple variables Rexx > Syntax > Simple variables Variables in Rexx are typeless, and initially are evaluated as their names, in upper case. Thus a variable's type can vary with its use in the program:
Synchronous logic Summary Synchronous_system In digital electronics, a synchronous circuit is a digital circuit in which the changes in the state of memory elements are synchronized by a clock signal. In a sequential digital logic circuit, data are stored in memory devices called flip-flops or latches. The output of a flip-flop is constant until a pulse is applied to its "clock" input, upon which the input of the flip-flop is latched into its output. In a synchronous logic circuit, an electronic oscillator called the clock generates a string (sequence) of pulses, the "clock signal".
Knowbility Summary Knowbility Knowbility is an American non-governmental organization based in Austin, Texas, working to support the independence and empowerment of people with disabilities by promoting the use and improving the availability of accessible information technology. Its mission is to create an inclusive digital world for people of all abilities. Knowbility's signature program is the Accessibility Internet Rally, a web-building competition that brings together volunteer web designers to create accessible websites for nonprofit organizations and artists that serve communities all over the world.
GF method Further references GF_method > Further references Molecular Vibrational-Rotational Spectra. Elsevier. ISBN 0444997377.
Information bottleneck method Learning theory for deep learning Information_bottleneck_method > Learning theory for deep learning It has been mathematically proven that controlling information bottleneck is one way to control generalization error in deep learning. Namely, the generalization error is proven to scale as O ~ ( I ( X , T ) + 1 n ) {\displaystyle {\tilde {O}}\left({\sqrt {\frac {I(X,T)+1}{n}}}\right)} where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of training samples, X {\displaystyle X} is the input to a deep neural network, and T {\displaystyle T} is the output of a hidden layer. This generalization bound scale with the degree of information bottleneck, unlike the other generalization bounds that scale with the number of parameters, VC dimension, Rademacher complexity, stability or robustness.
OpenDocument software Implementations OpenDocument_software > Accessibility > Implementations Peter Korn gave an in-depth report on OpenDocument accessibility. He noted that there are many kinds of impairments, including visual (minor, major, or blind), physical (minor, major with vocal control, major without vocal control), auditory, and cognitive. He then noted that the situation varies, depending on the specific disability. For a vast number of disabilities, there are no known problems, though.
Cyclophosphamide Summary Cyclophosphamide Cyclophosphamide (CP), also known as cytophosphane among other names, is a medication used as chemotherapy and to suppress the immune system. As chemotherapy it is used to treat lymphoma, multiple myeloma, leukemia, ovarian cancer, breast cancer, small cell lung cancer, neuroblastoma, and sarcoma. As an immune suppressor it is used in nephrotic syndrome, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, and following organ transplant, among other conditions. It is taken by mouth or injection into a vein.Most people develop side effects.
Inverse image Examples Image_(mathematics) > Examples f: { 1 , 2 , 3 } → { a , b , c , d } {\displaystyle f:\{1,2,3\}\to \{a,b,c,d\}} defined by { 1 ↦ a , 2 ↦ a , 3 ↦ c . {\displaystyle \left\{{\begin{matrix}1\mapsto a,\\2\mapsto a,\\3\mapsto c.\end{matrix}}\right.} The image of the set { 2 , 3 } {\displaystyle \{2,3\}} under f {\displaystyle f} is f ( { 2 , 3 } ) = { a , c } . {\displaystyle f(\{2,3\})=\{a,c\}.}
Sex-linked barring Molecular pattern formation in the feather follicle Sex-linked_barring > Molecular pattern formation in the feather follicle Scientists were able to show that either both or one of the non-coding mutations present in all B alleles, cause an up-regulation of the activity of CDKN2A. ). With more of the gene product, which is called ARF (Alternate Reading frame Protein) in the cell, more of p53 is protected from degradation.
Linear-quadratic control General description Linear–quadratic_regulator > General description The LQR algorithm is essentially an automated way of finding an appropriate state-feedback controller. As such, it is not uncommon for control engineers to prefer alternative methods, like full state feedback, also known as pole placement, in which there is a clearer relationship between controller parameters and controller behavior. Difficulty in finding the right weighting factors limits the application of the LQR based controller synthesis.
Immunopathology Types of Immunity Immunopathology > Types of Immunity It is composed of physical blockades such as the skin, but also contains nonspecific immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and basophils. The second form of immunity is Adaptive immunity. This form of immunity requires recognition of the foreign antigen before a response is produced.
Endergonic reaction Gibbs free energy for endergonic reactions Non-spontaneous_reaction > Gibbs free energy for endergonic reactions All physical and chemical systems in the universe follow the second law of thermodynamics and proceed in a downhill, i.e., exergonic, direction. Thus, left to itself, any physical or chemical system will proceed, according to the second law of thermodynamics, in a direction that tends to lower the free energy of the system, and thus to expend energy in the form of work. These reactions occur spontaneously. A chemical reaction is endergonic when non spontaneous.
Multiprocessor system architecture Multiprocessor system featuring global data multiplication Multiprocessor_system_architecture > Multiprocessor system featuring global data multiplication This information is duplicated and stored in each local memory of each processor. Each time the global data is modified in a local memory, a hardware write-broadcasting is sent to the system bus to all other local memories to maintain the global data coherency. Thus, global data may be read by each processor accessing its own local memory without involving the system bus. System bus access is only required when global data is modified in a local memory to update the copy of this data stored in the other local memories. Local data can be exchanged in a loosely coupled system via message-passing == References ==
Doppler cooling limit Brief explanation Doppler_cooling_limit > Brief explanation Doppler cooling involves light with frequency tuned slightly below an electronic transition in an atom. Because the light is detuned to the "red" (i.e. at lower frequency) of the transition, the atoms will absorb more photons if they move towards the light source, due to the Doppler effect. Consider the simplest case of 1D motion on the x axis. Let the photon be traveling in the +x direction and the atom in the −x direction.
Allometry Determining if a system is scaling with allometry Allometry > Determining if a system is scaling with allometry It is also important to keep in mind what is being compared in the data. Comparing a characteristic such as head length to head width might yield different results from comparing head length to body length.
Adaptive response Function Adaptive_response > Function This DNA up-regulation is involved in the adaptive response because the organism is being conditioned to protect itself against these stressors. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are very damaging to DNA and highly associated with the adaptive response. When free radicals attack the important biomolecules that makeup organisms, harmful molecular intermediates react with and damage DNA leading to base damage or breaks in the dsDNA strand. The adaptive response is helpful to prevent damage and maintain the integrity of the genome.
Pierre Bourdieu Media and cultural production Pierre_Bourdieu > Field theory > Media and cultural production Further, a work of literature, for example, may not adequately be analysed either as the product of the author's life and beliefs (a naively biographical account), or without any reference to the author's intentions (as Barthes argued). In short, "the subject of a work is a habitus in relationship with a 'post', a position, that is, within a field. "According to Bourdieu, cultural revolutions are always dependent on the possibilities present in the positions inscribed in the field.
Model trains Scales and gauges Model_train > Scales and gauges The most popular scales are: G scale, Gauge 1, O scale, S scale, HO scale (in Britain, the similar OO), TT scale, and N scale (1:160 in the United States, but 1:148 in the UK). HO and OO are the most popular. Popular narrow-gauge scales include Sn3, HOn3 and Nn3, which are the same in scale as S, HO and N except with a narrower spacing between the tracks (in these examples, a scale 3 ft (914 mm) instead of the 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gauge).
Nanocircuitry Production methods Nanocircuitry > Production methods They also control electric current as they can turn it on off, or even amplify signals. Circuits now use silicon as a transistor because it can easily be switched between conducting and nonconducting states. However, in nanoelectronics, transistors might be organic molecules or nanoscale inorganic structures.
Exchange lemma Summary Exchange_lemma The Steinitz exchange lemma is a basic theorem in linear algebra used, for example, to show that any two bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the same number of elements. The result is named after the German mathematician Ernst Steinitz. The result is often called the Steinitz–Mac Lane exchange lemma, also recognizing the generalization by Saunders Mac Lane of Steinitz's lemma to matroids.
General relativistic Geometry of Newtonian gravity Spacetime_curvature > From classical mechanics to general relativity > Geometry of Newtonian gravity At the base of classical mechanics is the notion that a body's motion can be described as a combination of free (or inertial) motion, and deviations from this free motion. Such deviations are caused by external forces acting on a body in accordance with Newton's second law of motion, which states that the net force acting on a body is equal to that body's (inertial) mass multiplied by its acceleration. The preferred inertial motions are related to the geometry of space and time: in the standard reference frames of classical mechanics, objects in free motion move along straight lines at constant speed. In modern parlance, their paths are geodesics, straight world lines in curved spacetime.Conversely, one might expect that inertial motions, once identified by observing the actual motions of bodies and making allowances for the external forces (such as electromagnetism or friction), can be used to define the geometry of space, as well as a time coordinate.
Fast Fourier Transform Bounds on complexity and operation counts Fast_Fourier_Transform > Computational issues > Bounds on complexity and operation counts In 1973, Morgenstern proved an Ω ( N log ⁡ N ) {\displaystyle \Omega (N\log N)} lower bound on the addition count for algorithms where the multiplicative constants have bounded magnitudes (which is true for most but not all FFT algorithms). Pan (1986) proved an Ω ( N log ⁡ N ) {\displaystyle \Omega (N\log N)} lower bound assuming a bound on a measure of the FFT algorithm's "asynchronicity", but the generality of this assumption is unclear. For the case of power-of-two N, Papadimitriou (1979) argued that the number N log 2 ⁡ N {\textstyle N\log _{2}N} of complex-number additions achieved by Cooley–Tukey algorithms is optimal under certain assumptions on the graph of the algorithm (his assumptions imply, among other things, that no additive identities in the roots of unity are exploited).
List of particles Leptonic atoms Hypothetical_particles > Composite particles > Atoms > Leptonic atoms Leptonic atoms, named using -onium, are exotic atoms constituted by the bound state of a lepton and an antilepton. Examples of such atoms include positronium (e− e+), muonium (e− μ+), and "true muonium" (μ− μ+). Of these positronium and muonium have been experimentally observed, while "true muonium" remains only theoretical.
PNP transistor Voltage, current, and charge control N–p–n_transistor > Function > Voltage, current, and charge control The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However, because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control views are generally used in circuit design and analysis. In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately linear.
Johannes Kepler Astronomia Nova Johannes_Kepler > Astronomy > Astronomia Nova Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data (the Vicarious Hypothesis), Kepler immediately concluded that all planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus—his first law of planetary motion. Because he employed no calculating assistants, he did not extend the mathematical analysis beyond Mars. By the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova, though it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.
Resilient Packet Ring Class of service and traffic queues Resilient_Packet_Ring > Class of service and traffic queues All traffic on the ring is assigned a Class of Service (CoS) and the standard specifies three classes. Class A (or High) traffic is a pure committed information rate (CIR) and is designed to support applications requiring low latency and jitter, such as voice and video. Class B (or Medium) traffic is a mix of both a CIR and an excess information rate (EIR; which is subject to fairness queuing). Class C (or Low) is best effort traffic, utilizing whatever bandwidth is available. This is primarily used to support Internet access traffic.
Atmospheric carbon cycle Terrestrial biosphere Atmospheric_carbon_cycle > Interactions with other systems > Terrestrial biosphere Carbon is absorbed primarily during plant growth. A pattern of increased carbon uptake is observable both over the course of the day (less carbon is absorbed at night) and over the course of the year (less carbon is absorbed in winter).
Quick Sort Multi-pivot quicksort Quicksort > Relation to other algorithms > Variants > Multi-pivot quicksort Instead of partitioning into two subarrays using a single pivot, multi-pivot quicksort (also multiquicksort) partitions its input into some s number of subarrays using s − 1 pivots. While the dual-pivot case (s = 3) was considered by Sedgewick and others already in the mid-1970s, the resulting algorithms were not faster in practice than the "classical" quicksort. A 1999 assessment of a multiquicksort with a variable number of pivots, tuned to make efficient use of processor caches, found it to increase the instruction count by some 20%, but simulation results suggested that it would be more efficient on very large inputs. A version of dual-pivot quicksort developed by Yaroslavskiy in 2009 turned out to be fast enough to warrant implementation in Java 7, as the standard algorithm to sort arrays of primitives (sorting arrays of objects is done using Timsort). The performance benefit of this algorithm was subsequently found to be mostly related to cache performance, and experimental results indicate that the three-pivot variant may perform even better on modern machines.
Essential supremum Examples Ess_sup > Examples This function is unbounded both from above and from below, so its supremum and infimum are ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } and − ∞ , {\displaystyle -\infty ,} respectively. However, from the point of view of the Lebesgue measure, the set of rational numbers is of measure zero; thus, what really matters is what happens in the complement of this set, where the function is given as arctan ⁡ x . {\displaystyle \arctan x.}
PL/I programming language Storage type sharing PL/I_programming_language > Special topics in PL/I > Storage type sharing The data structures must be designed appropriately, typically using fields in a data structure to encode information about its type and size. The fields can be held in the preceding structure or, with some constraints, in the current one. Where the encoding is in the preceding structure, the program needs to allocate a based variable with a declaration that matches the current item (using expressions for extents where needed).
Analysis & PDE Summary Analysis_&_PDE Mathematical Sciences Publishers is a nonprofit publishing company run by and for mathematicians. It publishes several journals and the book series Geometry & Topology Monographs. It is run from a central office in the Department of Mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley.
Protein C History Protein_C > History Protein C's anticoagulant role in the human body was first noted by Seegers et al. in 1960, who gave protein C its original name, autoprothrombin II-a. : 6822 Protein C was first isolated by Johan Stenflo from bovine plasma in 1976, and Stenflo determined it to be a vitamin K-dependent protein. He named it protein C because it was the third protein ("peak C") that eluted from a DEAE-Sepharose ion-exchange chromotograph. Seegers was, at the time, searching for vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors undetected by clotting assays, which measure global clotting function.
General adversarial network Data poisoning Adversarial_machine_learning > Attack modalities > Strategies > Data poisoning Poisoning consists of contaminating the training dataset with data designed to increase errors in the output. Given that learning algorithms are shaped by their training datasets, poisoning can effectively reprogram algorithms with potentially malicious intent. Concerns have been raised especially for user-generated training data, e.g. for content recommendation or natural language models. The ubiquity of fake accounts offers many opportunities for poisoning.
Viral synapse Formation and function Viral_synapse > Formation and function Formation of these synapses has been shown to involve reorientation of the cytoskeleton, which is triggered by engagement of ICAM-1 on the infected cell's surface and expression of several viral proteins. Viruses use the microtubule cytoskeleton to migrate to the viral synapse. By recruiting the receptors and viral particles at the point of contact, these synaptic structures significantly enhance the likelihood of a productive infection. Viral synapses are thought to explain how cell-to-cell transfer can operate in the HIV infection even when there is a low number of viral particles and a relatively low number of CD4 receptors.
Prior-independent mechanism Alternatives Prior-independent_mechanism > Alternatives Prior-independent mechanisms (PIM) should be contrasted with two other mechanism types: Bayesian-optimal mechanisms (BOM) assume that the agents' valuations are drawn from a known probability distribution. The mechanism is tailored to the parameters of this distribution (e.g., its median or mean value). Prior-free mechanisms (PFM) do not assume that the agents' valuations are drawn from any probability distribution (known or unknown). The seller's goal is to design an auction that will produce a reasonable profit even in worst-case scenarios.From the point-of-view of the designer, BOM is the easiest, then PIM, then PFM. The approximation guarantees of BOM and PIM are in expectation, while those of PFM are in worst-case.
Tetracycline antibiotic Medical uses Tetracycline_antibiotics > Medical uses Tetracyclines remain the treatment of choice for infections caused by chlamydia (trachoma, psittacosis, salpingitis, urethritis and L. venereum infection), Rickettsia (typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever), brucellosis and spirochetal infections (Lyme disease/borreliosis and syphilis). They are also used in veterinary medicine. They may have a role in reducing the duration and severity of cholera, although drug-resistance is mounting and their effect on overall mortality is questioned.
Cryoscopic constant Summary Cryoscopic_constant Freezing point depression is a colligative property, so ΔT depends only on the number of solute particles dissolved, not the nature of those particles. Cryoscopy is related to ebullioscopy, which determines the same value from the ebullioscopic constant (of boiling point elevation). The value of Kf, which depends on the nature of the solvent can be found out by the following equation: K f = R ⋅ M ⋅ T f 2 Δ f u s H {\displaystyle K_{f}={\frac {R\cdot M\cdot T_{f}^{2}}{\Delta _{\mathrm {fus} }H}}} R is the ideal gas constant M is the molar mass of the solvent in kg mol−1 Tf is the freezing point of the pure solvent in kelvins ΔfusH represents the molar enthalpy of fusion of the solvent in J mol−1.The Kf for water is 1.853 K kg mol−1.
Separable filter Summary Separable_filter A separable filter in image processing can be written as product of two more simple filters. Typically a 2-dimensional convolution operation is separated into two 1-dimensional filters. This reduces the computational costs on an N × M {\displaystyle N\times M} image with a m × n {\displaystyle m\times n} filter from O ( M ⋅ N ⋅ m ⋅ n ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(M\cdot N\cdot m\cdot n)} down to O ( M ⋅ N ⋅ ( m + n ) ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {O}}(M\cdot N\cdot (m+n))} .
Quantum electrochemistry History and contributors Quantum_electrochemistry > History and contributors He was the main author of the Quantum-Mechanical Theory of Kinetics of the Elementary Act of Chemical, Electrochemical and Biochemical Processes in Polar Liquids. Another important contributor is Rudolph A. Marcus, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1992 for his Theory of Electron Transfer Reactions in Chemical Systems. Recently, Marcus theory has been shown to be part of a more general concept associated with the quantum rate theory, a theory that predicts the rate of electron transfer (electrochemistry being a particular case) based on the uses of conductance quantum and quantum capacitance concepts.
Euclidean space Motivation of the modern definition Euclidean_vector_space > Definition > Motivation of the modern definition One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance and angles. For example, there are two fundamental operations (referred to as motions) on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that every point is shifted in the same direction and by the same distance. The other is rotation around a fixed point in the plane, in which all points in the plane turn around that fixed point through the same angle.
Mir-181 microRNA precursor Summary Mir-181_microRNA_precursor In molecular biology miR-181 microRNA precursor is a small non-coding RNA molecule. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are transcribed as ~70 nucleotide precursors and subsequently processed by the RNase-III type enzyme Dicer to give a ~22 nucleotide mature product. In this case the mature sequence comes from the 5' arm of the precursor. They target and modulate protein expression by inhibiting translation and / or inducing degradation of target messenger RNAs.
New Brunswick neurological syndrome of unknown cause Autopsy reports New_Brunswick_neurological_syndrome_of_unknown_cause > Autopsy reports The abstract said that "in these eight patients no evidence for a prion disease was found, nor novel pathology". The virtual meeting of the CANP was held from the 14 to 16 October.
Geophysical surveying Geophysical signal detection Geophysical_surveying > Geophysical signal detection Then these measured values are corrected for various corrections and an anomaly map is prepared. By analyzing these anomaly maps one can get an idea about the structure of rock formations in that area. For this purpose one need to use various analog or digital filters.
John Trevor Stuart Research John_Trevor_Stuart > Research Stuart is known for his work on nonlinear waves in the onset of turbulence in fluids. He also extended the work of Lord Rayleigh with research into steady streaming in unsteady viscous flows at high Reynolds numbers.
Turing-computable function Computability theory Deterministic_Turing_machine > References > Computability theory Hennie, Fredrick (1977). Introduction to Computability. Addison–Wesley, Reading, Mass.
Acidilobus Scientific journals Acidilobus > Further reading > Scientific journals Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt. 1 Orig. C3: 304–317.
Evolutionary approaches to schizophrenia Summary Evolutionary_approaches_to_schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by experiencing persistent hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and thought disorder. These experiences are evident in multiple sensory modalities and include deviation in all facets of thought, cognition, and emotion. Compared to other psychological disorders like major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), schizophrenia has significantly higher heritability.
Poly-Weibull distribution Summary Poly-Weibull_distribution In probability theory and statistics, the poly-Weibull distribution is a continuous probability distribution. The distribution is defined to be that of a random variable defined to be the smallest of a number of statistically independent random variables having non-identical Weibull distributions.
Techno music Compositional techniques Techno_music > Music production practice > Compositional techniques A typical approach to using this type of technology compositionally is to overdub successive layers of material while continuously looping a single measure or sequence of measures. This process will usually continue until a suitable multi-track arrangement has been produced.Once a single loop-based arrangement has been generated, a producer may then focus on developing how the summing of the overdubbed parts will unfold in time, and what the final structure of the piece will be. Some producers achieve this by adding or removing layers of material at appropriate points in the mix.
Attention management Background Attention_management > Background Most of these filtering processes happen automatically and beyond conscious awareness. Limitations of attention capacities are revealed in many contexts, for example when speaking on a telephone while driving. The resulting high-frequency switching between processing of visual and auditory input is proven to constrict recognition of important information; driver's reactions to cars braking in front of them are affected, so is recollection of roadside billboards.Attention is also limited by the resources available to the neurons in the brain that enable humans to maintain focus as all processed information contributes to mental fatigue.
Nonsingular matrix In relation to the identity matrix Inverse_matrices > Properties > In relation to the identity matrix It follows from the associativity of matrix multiplication that if A B = I {\displaystyle \mathbf {AB} =\mathbf {I} \ } for finite square matrices A and B, then also B A = I {\displaystyle \mathbf {BA} =\mathbf {I} \ }
Self (programming language) Prototype-based programming languages Self_(programming_language) > Prototype-based programming languages In Self, and other prototype-based languages, the duality between classes and object instances is eliminated. Instead of having an "instance" of an object that is based on some "class", in Self one makes a copy of an existing object, and changes it. So Bob's car would be created by making a copy of an existing "Vehicle" object, and then adding the drive fast method, modelling the fact that it happens to be a Porsche 911.
Piezoelectric accelerometer Summary Piezoelectric_accelerometer A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and mechanical shock). As with all transducers, piezoelectrics convert one form of energy into another and provide an electrical signal in response to a quantity, property, or condition that is being measured. Using the general sensing method upon which all accelerometers are based, acceleration acts upon a seismic mass that is restrained by a spring or suspended on a cantilever beam, and converts a physical force into an electrical signal. Before the acceleration can be converted into an electrical quantity it must first be converted into either a force or displacement. This conversion is done via the mass spring system shown in the figure to the right.
Line spacing On the World Wide Web Line_spacing > On the World Wide Web In CSS, leading refers to the difference between the content height and the value of the line-height property. Half the leading is called the half-leading. User agents center glyphs vertically in an inline box, which adds half-leading on the top and bottom. For example, if a piece of text is "12pt" high and the line-height value is "14pt", 2pt of extra space should be added: 1pt above and 1pt below the text (this applies to empty boxes as well, as if the empty box contained zero-height text).
Distributed representation Neocognitron Types_of_artificial_neural_networks > Other types > Neocognitron Local features in the input are integrated gradually and classified at higher layers. Among the various kinds of neocognitron are systems that can detect multiple patterns in the same input by using back propagation to achieve selective attention. It has been used for pattern recognition tasks and inspired convolutional neural networks.
Vibrational analysis with scanning probe microscopy Pros and cons Vibrational_analysis_with_scanning_probe_microscopy > Pros and cons NSOM combined with FTIR/Raman techniques can provide local chemical information together with topographical details. This technique is non-destructive and can work in a variety of environments (liquids), for example, when detecting single biomolecules. The illuminated area of sample is relatively big at around 1 μm. However, the sampling area is only ~10 nm.
Apache Kylin Architecture Apache_Kylin > Architecture Apache Kylin is built on top of Apache Hadoop, Apache Hive, Apache HBase, Apache Parquet, Apache Calcite, Apache Spark and other technologies. These technologies enable Kylin to easily scale to support massive data loads.Kylin has the following core components: REST Server: Receive and response user or API requests Metadata: Persistent and manage system, especially the cube metadata; Query Engine: Parse SQL queries to execution plan, and then talk with storage engine; Storage Engine: Pushdown and scan underlying cube storage (default in HBase); Job Engine: Generate and execute MapReduce or Spark job to build source data into cube;
Interspecies quorum sensing Summary Interspecies_quorum_sensing However the bacteria were also found to recognize a second auto inducer AI-2. Scientist also found that V. harveyi luminescence could be induced by 75 other bacterial species AI-2 molecules. This discovery led to the proposal of AI-2 as a universal form of communication between bacteria species.
Mirror symmetry (string theory) Textbooks Mirror_symmetry_(string_theory) > Further reading > Textbooks American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-2127-5. Hori, Kentaro; Katz, Sheldon; Klemm, Albrecht; Pandharipande, Rahul; Thomas, Richard; Vafa, Cumrun; Vakil, Ravi; Zaslow, Eric, eds.
Anaerobic corrosion Abiotic Anaerobic_corrosion > Chemical mechanisms > Abiotic Under anoxic conditions, the mechanism for corrosion requires a substitute for oxygen as the oxidizing agent in the redox reaction. For abiotic anaerobic corrosion, that substitute is the hydrogen ion produced in the dissociation of water and the proceeding reduction of the hydrogen ions into diatomic hydrogen gas. The anodic half-reaction involves the oxidation of a metal in aqueous solution into a metal hydroxide.
History of cell membrane theory Early barrier theories History_of_cell_membrane_theory > Early barrier theories Based on these observations, Quincke asserted that the cell membrane comprised a fluid layer of fat less than 100 nm thick. This theory was further extended by evidence from the study of anesthetics. Hans Horst Meyer and Ernest Overton independently noticed that the chemicals which act as general anesthetics are also those soluble in both water and oil.
Decider (Turing machine) Functions computable by total Turing machines Decider_(Turing_machine) > Functions computable by total Turing machines We can further define a programming language in which we can ensure that even more sophisticated functions always halt. For example, the Ackermann function, which is not primitive recursive, nevertheless is a total computable function computable by a term rewriting system with a reduction ordering on its arguments (Ohlebusch, 2002, pp. 67). Despite the above examples of programming languages which guarantee termination of the programs, there exists no programming language which captures exactly the total recursive functions, i.e. the functions which can be computed by a Turing machine that always halts. This is because existence of such a programming language would be a contradiction to the non-semi-decidability of the problem whether a Turing machine halts on every input.
Metal ions Uses Metal_ion > Lifecycle > Uses Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. The thermal conductivity of metals is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame.
Rietdijk–Putnam argument Andromeda paradox Andromeda_paradox > Andromeda paradox As Penrose put it: Two people pass each other on the street; and according to one of the two people, an Andromedean space fleet has already set off on its journey, while to the other, the decision as to whether or not the journey will actually take place has not yet been made. How can there still be some uncertainty as to the outcome of that decision? If to either person the decision has already been made, then surely there cannot be any uncertainty.
Operant conditioning chamber Summary Operant_chamber The operant conditioning chamber may be used to observe or manipulate behaviour. An animal is placed in the box where it must learn to activate levers or respond to light or sound stimuli for reward. The reward may be food or the removal of noxious stimuli such as a loud alarm. The chamber is used to test specific hypotheses in a controlled setting.
DsDNA-RT virus Host range DsDNA-RT_virus > Multi-group characteristics > Host range Different Baltimore groups tend to be found within different branches of cellular life. In prokaryotes, the large majority of viruses are dsDNA viruses, and a significant minority are ssDNA viruses. Prokaryotic RNA viruses, in contrast, are relatively rare. Most eukaryotic viruses, including most animal and plant viruses, are RNA viruses, although eukaryotic DNA viruses are also common. By group, the vast majority of dsDNA viruses infect prokaryotes, ssDNA viruses are found in all three domains of life, dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses are primarily found in eukaryotes but also in bacteria, and -ssRNA and reverse transcribing viruses are only found in eukaryotes.
Photoelectric cells Vehicular applications Silicon_solar_cell > Applications > Vehicular applications General Motors ended up winning the event by a significant margin with their Sunraycer vehicle that achieved speeds of over 40 mph. Contrary to popular belief however solar powered cars are one of the oldest alternative energy vehicles.Current solar vehicles harness energy from the Sun via Solar panels which are a collected group of solar cells working in tandem towards a common goal. These solid-state devices use quantum mechanical transitions in order to convert a given amount of solar power into electrical power. The electricity produced as a result is then stored in the vehicle's battery in order to run the motor of the vehicle. Batteries in solar-powered vehicles differ from those in standard ICE cars because they are fashioned in a way to impart more power towards the electrical components of the vehicle for a longer duration.
Multivariate function Algebraic structure Function_of_several_real_variables > General definition > Algebraic structure The usual operations of arithmetic on the reals may be extended to real-valued functions of several real variables in the following way: For every real number r, the constant function is everywhere defined. For every real number r and every function f, the function: has the same domain as f (or is everywhere defined if r = 0). If f and g are two functions of respective domains X and Y such that X ∩ Y contains a nonempty open subset of Rn, then and are functions that have a domain containing X ∩ Y.It follows that the functions of n variables that are everywhere defined and the functions of n variables that are defined in some neighbourhood of a given point both form commutative algebras over the reals (R-algebras).
Singularity function Integration Singularity_function > Integration Integrating ⟨ x − a ⟩ n {\displaystyle \langle x-a\rangle ^{n}} can be done in a convenient way in which the constant of integration is automatically included so the result will be 0 at x = a.
Syntactic pattern recognition Summary Syntactic_pattern_recognition An item can be labeled as belonging to a class if its graph representation is isomorphic with prototype graphs of the class. Typically, patterns are constructed from simpler sub patterns in a hierarchical fashion.
Lattice diffusion coefficient Summary Lattice_diffusion In condensed matter physics, lattice diffusion (also called bulk or volume diffusion) refers to atomic diffusion within a crystalline lattice, which occurs by either interstitial or substitutional mechanisms. In interstitial lattice diffusion, a diffusant (such as carbon in an iron alloy), will diffuse in between the lattice structure of another crystalline element. In substitutional lattice diffusion (self-diffusion for example), the atom can only move by switching places with another atom. Substitutional lattice diffusion is often contingent upon the availability of point vacancies throughout the crystal lattice.
Gravitational potential field Mathematical form Rubber_Sheet_Model > Mathematical form The gravitational potential V at a distance x from a point mass of mass M can be defined as the work W that needs to be done by an external agent to bring a unit mass in from infinity to that point: where G is the gravitational constant, and F is the gravitational force. The product GM is the standard gravitational parameter and is often known to higher precision than G or M separately. The potential has units of energy per mass, e.g., J/kg in the MKS system. By convention, it is always negative where it is defined, and as x tends to infinity, it approaches zero.
Cellular homology Summary Cellular_homology In mathematics, cellular homology in algebraic topology is a homology theory for the category of CW-complexes. It agrees with singular homology, and can provide an effective means of computing homology modules.
Group structure and the axiom of choice A ZF set with no group structure Group_structure_and_the_axiom_of_choice > A ZF set with no group structure However these properties are not equivalent. Namely, it is possible for sets which cannot be well-ordered to have a group structure. For example, if X {\displaystyle X} is any set, then P ( X ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}(X)} has a group structure, with symmetric difference as the group operation.
Atomicity (chemistry) Classifications Atomicity_(chemistry) > Classifications Based on atomicity, molecules can be classified as: Monoatomic (composed of one atom). Examples include He (helium), Ne (neon), Ar (argon), and Kr (krypton). All noble gases are monoatomic. Diatomic (composed of two atoms).

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