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Entner–Doudoroff pathway Organisms that use the Entner–Doudoroff pathway Entner–Doudoroff_pathway > Organisms that use the Entner–Doudoroff pathway Thus, the ED pathway is favored due to the lesser amounts of proteins required. While anaerobic bacteria must rely on the glycolysis pathway to create a greater percentage of their required ATP thus its 2 ATP production is more favored over the ED pathway's 1 ATP production.Examples of bacteria using the pathway are: Pseudomonas, a genus of Gram-negative bacteria Azotobacter, a genus of Gram-negative bacteria Rhizobium, a plant root-associated and plant differentiation-active genus of Gram-negative bacteria Agrobacterium, a plant pathogen (oncogenic) genus of Gram-negative bacteria, also of biotechnologic use Escherichia coli, a Gram-negative bacterium Enterococcus faecalis, a Gram-positive bacterium Zymomonas mobilis, a Gram-negative facultative anaerobe Xanthomonas campestris, a Gram-negative bacterium which uses this pathway as main pathway for providing energy.To date there is evidence of Eukaryotes using the pathway, suggesting it may be more widespread than previously thought: Hordeum vulgare, barley uses the Entner–Duodoroff pathway. Phaeodactylum tricornutum diatom model species presents functional phosphogluconate dehydratase and dehoxyphosphogluconate aldolase genes in its genome The Entner–Doudoroff pathway is present in many species of Archaea (caveat, see following), whose metabolisms "resemble... in complexity those of Bacteria and lower Eukarya", and often include both this pathway and the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway of glycolysis, except most often as unique, modified variants.
Glial cell Neurotransmission Glial_cell > Functions > Neurotransmission Astrocytes are crucial participants in the tripartite synapse. They have several crucial functions, including clearance of neurotransmitters from within the synaptic cleft, which aids in distinguishing between separate action potentials and prevents toxic build-up of certain neurotransmitters such as glutamate, which would otherwise lead to excitotoxicity. Furthermore, astrocytes release gliotransmitters such as glutamate, ATP, and D-serine in response to stimulation.
Wireless transaction protocol Summary Wireless_transaction_protocol Wireless transaction protocol (WTP) is a standard used in mobile telephony. It is a layer of the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) that is intended to bring Internet access to mobile phones. WTP provides functions similar to TCP, except that WTP has reduced amount of information needed for each transaction (e.g. does not include a provision for rearranging out-of-order packets). WTP runs on top of UDP and performs many of the same tasks as TCP but in a way optimized for wireless devices, which saves processing and memory cost as compared to TCP. It Supports 3 types of transaction: Unreliable One-Way Request Reliable One-Way Request Reliable Two-Way Request
Data management plan Information about data & data format Data_management_plan > Major components > Information about data & data format Include information about Software used Algorithms Scientific workflows File formats that will be used, justify those formats, and describe the naming conventions used. Quality assurance & quality control measures that will be taken during sample collection, analysis, and processing. If existing data are used, what are their origins?
CRISPR gene editing CRISPR screening CRISPR_gene_editing > CRISPR screening CRISPR screening helps scientist to create a systematic and high-throughput genetic perturbation within live model organisms. This genetic perturbation is necessary for fully understanding gene function and epigenetic regulation. The advantage of pooled CRISPR libraries is that more genes can be targeted at once.
Specific heat capacity Monatomic gases Specific_heat_capacity > Physical basis > Monatomic gases Quantum mechanics predicts that, at room temperature and ordinary pressures, an isolated atom in a gas cannot store any significant amount of energy except in the form of kinetic energy. Thus, heat capacity per mole is the same for all monatomic gases (such as the noble gases). More precisely, c V , m = 3 R / 2 ≈ 12.5 J ⋅ K − 1 ⋅ m o l − 1 {\displaystyle c_{V,\mathrm {m} }=3R/2\approx \mathrm {12.5\,J\cdot K^{-1}\cdot mol^{-1}} } and c P , m = 5 R / 2 ≈ 21 J ⋅ K − 1 ⋅ m o l − 1 {\displaystyle c_{P,\mathrm {m} }=5R/2\approx \mathrm {21\,J\cdot K^{-1}\cdot mol^{-1}} } , where R ≈ 8.31446 J ⋅ K − 1 ⋅ m o l − 1 {\displaystyle R\approx \mathrm {8.31446\,J\cdot K^{-1}\cdot mol^{-1}} } is the ideal gas unit (which is the product of Boltzmann conversion constant from kelvin microscopic energy unit to the macroscopic energy unit joule, and the Avogadro number). Therefore, the specific heat capacity (per unit of mass, not per mole) of a monatomic gas will be inversely proportional to its (adimensional) atomic weight A {\displaystyle A} . That is, approximately, For the noble gases, from helium to xenon, these computed values are
International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior Summary International_Association_of_Seismology_and_Physics_of_the_Earth's_Interior International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI) is an international organization promoting the study of earthquakes and other seismic sources, the propagation of seismic waves, and the internal structure, properties and processes of the Earth.IASPEI is one of eight associations of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG). IASPEI initiates and co-ordinates international researches and scientific discussion on scientific and applied seismology.The activities of IASPEI focus on the societal impacts of earthquakes and tsunamis, with four regional commissions promoting high standards of seismological education, outreach and international scientific cooperation.
Chicken as biological research model Summary Chicken_as_biological_research_model Chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and their eggs have been used extensively as research models throughout the history of biology. Today they continue to serve as an important model for normal human biology as well as pathological disease processes.
Force dynamics Context Force_dynamics > Context Introduced by cognitive linguist Leonard Talmy in 1981, force dynamics started out as a generalization of the traditional notion of the causative, dividing causation into finer primitives and considering the notions of letting, hindering, and helping. Talmy further developed the field in his 1985, 1988 and 2000 works. Talmy places force dynamics within the broader context of cognitive semantics. In his view, a general idea underlying this discipline is the existence of a fundamental distinction in language between closed-class (grammatical) and open-class (lexical) categories.
HIV Structure and genome AIDS_virus > Virology > Structure and genome As the sole viral protein on the surface of the virus, the envelope protein is a major target for HIV vaccine efforts. Over half of the mass of the trimeric envelope spike is N-linked glycans. The density is high as the glycans shield the underlying viral protein from neutralisation by antibodies.
Binary priority list Summary Binary_priority_list Binary priority lists are a method of prioritization of software requirements. The objectives (or tasks) to be prioritised are successively added to a binary search tree, which defines a total order on the objectives. That is, it is a tree sort applied to software requirements, where the product manager's intuition about relative importance is used as the comparator function.
Biomass fuel Summary Biomass_fuels : 173 Biofuels (and bioenergy in general) are regarded as a renewable energy source. : 11 The two most common types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel. The U.S.
Log–log plot Finding the function from the log–log plot Log–log_plot > Equations > Finding the function from the log–log plot The above procedure now is reversed to find the form of the function F(x) using its (assumed) known log–log plot. To find the function F, pick some fixed point (x0, F0), where F0 is shorthand for F(x0), somewhere on the straight line in the above graph, and further some other arbitrary point (x1, F1) on the same graph. Then from the slope formula above: which leads to Notice that 10log10(F1) = F1. Therefore, the logs can be inverted to find: or which means that In other words, F is proportional to x to the power of the slope of the straight line of its log–log graph. Specifically, a straight line on a log–log plot containing points (F0, x0) and (F1, x1) will have the function: Of course, the inverse is true too: any function of the form will have a straight line as its log–log graph representation, where the slope of the line is m.
Drug-induced nonautoimmune hemolytic anemia Summary Drug-induced_nonautoimmune_hemolytic_anemia These include dapsone and sulfasalazine. Non-immune drug-induced hemolysis can also arise from drug-induced damage to cell volume control mechanisms; for example drugs can directly or indirectly impair regulatory volume decrease mechanisms, which become activated during hypotonic RBC swelling to return the cell to a normal volume. The consequence of the drugs actions are irreversible cell swelling and lysis (e.g. ouabain at very high doses).
Theory of Probability Continuous probability distributions Mathematical_probability > Treatment > Continuous probability distributions {\displaystyle f(x)={\frac {dF(x)}{dx}}\,.} For a set E ⊆ R {\displaystyle E\subseteq \mathbb {R} } , the probability of the random variable X being in E {\displaystyle E\,} is P ( X ∈ E ) = ∫ x ∈ E d F ( x ) . {\displaystyle P(X\in E)=\int _{x\in E}dF(x)\,.}
Lightweight cipher Symmetric-key cryptography Lightweight_cipher > Modern cryptography > Symmetric-key cryptography That internal state is initially set up using the secret key material. RC4 is a widely used stream cipher.
Classifier (linguistics) Noun classifiers versus noun classes Classifier_(linguistics) > Noun classifiers versus noun classes Often, the more formal the style, the richer the variety of classifiers used, and the higher the frequency of their use. Noun class markers are mandatory under all circumstances. Noun classifiers are usually derived from words used as names of concrete, discrete, moveable objects. Noun class markers are typically affixes without any literal meaning.Nevertheless, there is no clearly demarked difference between the two: since classifiers often evolve into class systems, they are two extremes of a continuum.
Programming library Linking Library_linking > Linking Some programming languages use a feature called smart linking whereby the linker is aware of or integrated with the compiler, such that the linker knows how external references are used, and code in a library that is never actually used, even though internally referenced, can be discarded from the compiled application. For example, a program that only uses integers for arithmetic, or does no arithmetic operations at all, can exclude floating-point library routines. This smart-linking feature can lead to smaller application file sizes and reduced memory usage.
K-independent hashing Polynomials with random coefficients K-independent_hashing > Techniques > Polynomials with random coefficients The original technique for constructing k-independent hash functions, given by Carter and Wegman, was to select a large prime number p, choose k random numbers modulo p, and use these numbers as the coefficients of a polynomial of degree k − 1 whose values modulo p are used as the value of the hash function. All polynomials of the given degree modulo p are equally likely, and any polynomial is uniquely determined by any k-tuple of argument-value pairs with distinct arguments, from which it follows that any k-tuple of distinct arguments is equally likely to be mapped to any k-tuple of hash values.In general the polynomial can be evaluated in any finite field. Besides the fields modulo prime, a popular choice is the field of size 2 n {\displaystyle 2^{n}} , which supports fast finite field arithmetic on modern computers. This was the approach taken by Daniel Lemire and Owen Kaser for CLHash.
Bernoulli process The 2x mod 1 map Bernoulli_sequence > Dynamical systems > The 2x mod 1 map The above can be made more precise. Given an infinite string of binary digits b 0 , b 1 , ⋯ {\displaystyle b_{0},b_{1},\cdots } write y = ∑ n = 0 ∞ b n 2 n + 1 . {\displaystyle y=\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {b_{n}}{2^{n+1}}}.} The resulting y {\displaystyle y} is a real number in the unit interval 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
Intuitionistic set theory Constructive set theory Intuitionistic_set_theory > Sorted theories > Constructive set theory Axioms asserting that the domain and range of a function are both sets. Additionally, an Axiom of non-choice asserts the existence of a choice function in cases where the choice is already made. Together these act like the usual Replacement axiom in classical set theory.One can roughly identify the strength of this theory with a constructive subtheories of Z F {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ZF}}} when comparing with the previous sections. And finally the theory adopts An Axiom of dependent choice, which is much weaker than the usual Axiom of choice.
Reinforced solid Utilization Reinforced_solid > Utilization The utilization is 1.32. This shows that the bars are overloaded and 32% more reinforcement is required. Combined compression and shear failure of the concrete can be checked with the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applied to the eigenvalues of the stress tensor of the brittle material.
Jacobi iteration Description Jacobi_method > Description . , n {\displaystyle i=1,2,...,n} ). We denote x ( k ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(k)}} as the k-th approximation or iteration of x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } , and x ( k + 1 ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{(k+1)}} is the next (or k+1) iteration of x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } .
Taylor polynomial Third example Maclaurin_series > Calculation of Taylor series > Third example Here we employ a method called "indirect expansion" to expand the given function. This method uses the known Taylor expansion of the exponential function. In order to expand (1 + x)ex as a Taylor series in x, we use the known Taylor series of function ex: e x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n n ! = 1 + x + x 2 2 !
Laws of science Properties Physical_laws > Properties Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present." The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science. Several general properties of scientific laws, particularly when referring to laws in physics, have been identified.
Fibonacci heap Implementation of operations Fibonacci_heap > Implementation of operations To allow fast deletion and concatenation, the roots of all trees are linked using a circular doubly linked list. The children of each node are also linked using such a list. For each node, we maintain its number of children and whether the node is marked. Moreover, we maintain a pointer to the root containing the minimum key.
Pneumatic medicine Aristotle Pneumatic_medicine > Aristotle Each of these implies not only a movement but also a change in the degree of power and strength of the animal. "when it contracts it is without force, and one and the same cause gives it force and enables it to thrust." (703a23).
Distributed Replicated Block Device Applications Distributed_Replicated_Block_Device > Applications Operating within the Linux kernel's block layer, DRBD is essentially workload agnostic. A DRBD can be used as the basis of: A conventional file system (this is the canonical example), a shared disk file system such as GFS2 or OCFS2, another logical block device (as used in LVM, for example), any application requiring direct access to a block device.DRBD-based clusters are often employed for adding synchronous replication and high availability to file servers, relational databases (such as MySQL), and many other workloads.
Uranium Processing Summary Uranium_metal Uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235, and to a lesser degree uranium-233, have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction.
Autophagy Type 2 diabetes Autophagy > Type 2 diabetes Excessive activity of the crinophagy form of autophagy in the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas could reduce the quantity of insulin available for secretion, leading to type 2 diabetes.
Necroptosis Targeting of organelles Necroptosis > Process > Targeting of organelles Cells can undergo necroptosis in response to perturbed homeostasis in specific circumstances. In response to DNA damage, the RIPK1 and RIPK3 are phosphorylated and lead to deterioration of the cell in the absence of caspase activation. The necrosome inhibits the adenine nucleotide translocase in mitochondria to decrease cellular ATP levels. Uncoupling of the mitochondrial electron transport chain leads to additional mitochondrial damage and opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, which releases mitochondrial proteins into the cytosol. The necrosome also causes leakage of lysosomal digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm by induction of reactive oxygen species by JNK, sphingosine production, and calpain activation by calcium release.
Clostridium septicum Association with malignancy Clostridium_septicum > Pathogenesis > Association with malignancy Clostridium septicum derived gas gangrene has shown strong correlations with increased levels of malignancy. Generally, patients with C. septicum infections present colonic carcinoma or a tumor that has metastasized to the colon. One particular study by Alpern and Dowell noted 85% comorbidity with malignancy, while another study by Koransky et al. noted 71% comorbidity. This relationship suggests the opportunistic nature of this pathogen raising the possibility that immunosuppression plays a key role in the ability of C. septicum to cause infection. It seems likely that either the treatment or the malignancy itself impairs the immune function of the gastrointestinal mucosa allowing C. septicum to gain access to the circulatory system.
MySQL Federated Summary MySQL_Federated Federated is a storage engine for the MySQL MariaDB relational database management system that allows creation of a table that is a local representation of a foreign (remote) table. It uses the MySQL client library API as a data transport, treating remote tables as if they were located on the local server. Each Federated table that is defined there is one .frm (data definition file containing information such as the URL of the data source). The actual data can exist on a local or remote MySQL instance.
Signs and symptoms of Graves' disease Neuropsychological manifestations Signs_and_symptoms_of_Graves'_disease > Neuropsychological manifestations However, a controlled study on 31 Graves' disease patients found that while patients had subjective reports of cognitive deficits in the toxic phase of Graves' thyrotoxicosis, formal testing found no cognitive impairment and suggested the reported symptoms may reflect the affective and somatic manifestations of hyperthyroidism. Notably, a literature review of 2006 notes methodology issues in the consistency of Graves' disease diagnostic criteria, which might explain the apparently contradicting findings. These researchers found many reports about residual complaints in patients who were euthyroid after treatment, with a high prevalence of anxiety disorders and bipolar disorder, as well as elevated scores on scales of anxiety, depression and psychological distress.
Fish-eye lens Mapping function Fisheye_lens > Mapping function This is particularly useful for creating panoramic images. All types of fisheye lenses bend straight lines. Aperture angles of 180° or more are possible only with large amounts of barrel distortion.
Asymptotology Perturbation theory, small and large parameters Asymptotology > Perturbation theory, small and large parameters The invention of a new word will often be sufficient to bring out the relation, and the word will be creative.... It is hardly possible to believe what economy of thought, as Mach used to say, can be effected by a well-chosen term.... Mathematics is the art of giving the same name to different things.... When language has been well chosen, one is astonished to find that all demonstrations made for a known object apply immediately to many new objects: nothing requires to be changed, not even the terms, since the names have become the same.... The bare fact, then, has sometimes no great interest ... it only acquires a value when some more careful thinker perceives the connection it brings out, and symbolizes it by a term. In addition, “the success of ‘cybernetics’, ‘attractors’ and ‘catastrophe theory’ illustrates the fruitfulness of word creation as scientific research”.Almost every physical theory, formulated in the most general manner, is rather difficult from a mathematical point of view. Therefore, both at the genesis of the theory and its further development, the simplest limiting cases, which allow analytical solutions, are of particular importance. In those limits, the number of equations usually decreases, their order reduces, nonlinear equations can be replaced by linear ones, the initial system becomes averaged in a certain sense, and so on. All these idealizations, different as they may seem, increase the degree of symmetry of the mathematical model of the phenomenon under consideration.
Stable isotope composition of amino acids Example Stable_isotope_composition_of_amino_acids > Isotopic fractionation in reaction networks > Example It is difficult to explain these trends because of limited data on the kinetic isotope effects associated with reactions that synthesize amino acid carbon skeletons. Nevertheless, some insights can be gained by applying the logic above to the reaction networks responsible for amino acid biosynthesis.Consider the amino acids synthesized from pyruvate. Pyruvate is produced during glycolysis and can be decarboxylated by pyruvate dehydrogenase to generate acetyl groups.
Forwarding plane Cache miss issues Data_plane > Forwarding information base design > Cache miss issues This approach is similar to an operating system with virtual memory, which keeps the most recently used information in physical memory. As memory costs went down and performance needs went up, FIBs emerged that had the same number of route entries as in the RIB, but arranged for fast lookup rather than fast update. Whenever a RIB entry changed, the router changed the corresponding FIB entry.
SolaRoad Technology SolaRoad > Technology The road surface consisted of prefabricated panels with a surface of 1 centimetre (0.39 in) thick hardened glass. Beneath the glass solar cells were installed. TNO stated that this energy can be used for lighting of the road, traffic lights and road signs.
Von Mises yield criterion Uniaxial (1D) stress Von_Mises_yield_criterion > Reduced von Mises equation for different stress conditions > Uniaxial (1D) stress In the case of uniaxial stress or simple tension, σ 1 ≠ 0 , σ 3 = σ 2 = 0 {\displaystyle \sigma _{1}\neq 0,\sigma _{3}=\sigma _{2}=0} , the von Mises criterion simply reduces to σ 1 = σ y {\displaystyle \sigma _{1}=\sigma _{\text{y}}\,\!} ,which means the material starts to yield when σ 1 {\displaystyle \sigma _{1}} reaches the yield strength of the material σ y {\displaystyle \sigma _{\text{y}}} , in agreement with the definition of tensile (or compressive) yield strength.
Conceptual model Conceptual model vs. semantics model Conceptual_model > Models in philosophy and science > Conceptual model vs. semantics model Semantic models are more flexible and open, and therefore more difficult to model. Potentially any semantic concept can be defined, hence the modelling support is very generic. Samples are terminologies, taxonomies or ontologies.
Thyroid hormone replacement Related diseases Thyroid_hormones > Related diseases Prolonged hypo- and hyperthyroid myopathy leads to atrophy of type II (fast-twitch/glycolytic) muscle fibres, and a predominance of type I (slow-twitch/oxidative) muscle fibres. Muscle biopsy shows abnormal muscle glycogen: high accumulation in hypothyroidism and low accumulation in hyperthyroidism. Myopathy associated with hypothyroidism includes Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome (childhood-onset), Hoffman syndrome (adult-onset), myasthenic syndrome, and atrophic form.
Constant capital Measurement Variable_capital > Measurement The flow value divided by the stock value provides a measure of the number of rotations of the stock (the speed of turnover or turnover time) in an accounting period. It is strongly related to the actual depreciation rate of fixed capital. Alternatively, the stock value divided by the flow value is what Marx called the "turnover time". The faster the turnover of constant capital (i.e., the shorter the turnover time), other things being equal, the higher the rate of profit.
Puiseux series Summary Puiseux_series In other words, every branch of an algebraic curve may be locally described by a Puiseux series in x (or in x − x0 when considering branches above a neighborhood of x0 ≠ 0). Using modern terminology, Puiseux's theorem asserts that the set of Puiseux series over an algebraically closed field of characteristic 0 is itself an algebraically closed field, called the field of Puiseux series. It is the algebraic closure of the field of formal Laurent series, which itself is the field of fractions of the ring of formal power series.
Genome-wide association studies Limitations Genome_wide_association_study > Limitations This is why all modern GWAS use a very low p-value threshold. In addition to easily correctible problems such as these, some more subtle but important issues have surfaced. A high-profile GWA study that investigated individuals with very long life spans to identify SNPs associated with longevity is an example of this.
Formability Fracture strain Formability > Fracture strain A general parameter that indicates the formability and ductility of a material is the fracture strain which is determined by a uniaxial tensile test (see also fracture toughness). The strain identified by this test is defined by elongation with respect to a reference length. For example, a length of 80 mm (3.1 in) is used for the standardized uniaxial test of flat specimens, pursuant to EN 10002. It is important to note that deformation is homogeneous up to uniform elongation.
Genetic entropy Deleterious mutation Genetic_entropy > Causes > Deleterious mutation Deleterious mutation load is the main contributing factor to genetic load overall. The Haldane-Muller theorem of mutation–selection balance says that the load depends only on the deleterious mutation rate and not on the selection coefficient. Specifically, relative to an ideal genotype of fitness 1, the mean population fitness is exp ⁡ ( − U ) {\displaystyle \exp(-U)} where U is the total deleterious mutation rate summed over many independent sites. The intuition for the lack of dependence on the selection coefficient is that while a mutation with stronger effects does more harm per generation, its harm is felt for fewer generations.
Tuberculosis Other animals Epidemiology_of_tuberculosis > Other animals Mycobacteria infect many different animals, including birds, fish, rodents, and reptiles. The subspecies Mycobacterium tuberculosis, though, is rarely present in wild animals. An effort to eradicate bovine tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis from the cattle and deer herds of New Zealand has been relatively successful. Efforts in Great Britain have been less successful.As of 2015, tuberculosis appears to be widespread among captive elephants in the US. It is believed that the animals originally acquired the disease from humans, a process called reverse zoonosis. Because the disease can spread through the air to infect both humans and other animals, it is a public health concern affecting circuses and zoos.
TMS 1000 Description TMS_1000 > Description On-chip RAM was addressed by X and Y registers, where Y had 4 bits and X had either 2 or 3 bits depending on the size of RAM on the part. The program counter was 6 bits wide, with "page" and "chapter" registers to address up to 2 KB of ROM program memory. No stack was provided, but a register was provided to store the program counter and carry flag to allow for one level of subroutine (some members of the family allowed for 2 or 3 levels).
Kynurenine pathway Neurodegenerative diseases and mental disorders Kynurenine_pathway > Research > Neurodegenerative diseases and mental disorders Scientists are investigating the role of dysregulation of this pathway in aging, neurodegenerative diseases, mental disorders, somatic symptom disorders, and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).
Dmitri Mendeleev Periodic table Dmitri_Mendeleev > Periodic table Prior to his work, uranium was supposed to have valence 3 and atomic weight about 120. Mendeleev realized that these values did not fit in his periodic table, and doubled both to valence 6 and atomic weight 240 (close to the modern value of 238).For his predicted three elements, he used the prefixes of eka, dvi, and tri (Sanskrit one, two, three) in their naming. Mendeleev questioned some of the currently accepted atomic weights (they could be measured only with a relatively low accuracy at that time), pointing out that they did not correspond to those suggested by his Periodic Law.
Exact division Two subsets (consensus halving) Near-exact_division > Computation of near-exact divisions with bounded number of cuts > Two subsets (consensus halving) If we are interested in finding an exact solution, then consensus halving is much harder: finding a solution with n cuts is FIXP-hard, and deciding whether there exists a solution with n-1 cuts is ETR-complete. When agents' valuations are represented by algebraic circuits, ε-approximate consensus-halving is polynomial-time equivalent to computing an approximation to an exact solution of the Borsuk-Ulam search problem. This means that it is complete for the complexity class BU – a superclass of FIXP that involves solutions to problems whose existence is guaranteed by the Borsuk-Ulam theorem.When the resource to divide is not a cake but rather a set of divisible resources, the problem becomes easier: For agents with additive utilities, there is a polynomial-time algorithm for computing a consensus halving with at most n cuts, and for computing a consensus k-division with at most (k-1)n cuts It is NP-hard to compute a consensus halving with the optimal number of cuts for a given instance.
Crack propagation Limitations Fracture_Mechanics > Linear elastic fracture mechanics > Limitations But a problem arose for the NRL researchers because naval materials, e.g., ship-plate steel, are not perfectly elastic but undergo significant plastic deformation at the tip of a crack. One basic assumption in Irwin's linear elastic fracture mechanics is small scale yielding, the condition that the size of the plastic zone is small compared to the crack length. However, this assumption is quite restrictive for certain types of failure in structural steels though such steels can be prone to brittle fracture, which has led to a number of catastrophic failures. Linear-elastic fracture mechanics is of limited practical use for structural steels and Fracture toughness testing can be expensive.
Membrane lipids Sterols Membrane_lipids > Major classes > Sterols Cell membranes require high levels of cholesterol – typically an average of 20% cholesterol in the whole membrane, increasing locally in raft areas up to 50% cholesterol (- % is molecular ratio). It associates preferentially with sphingolipids (see diagram) in cholesterol-rich lipid rafts areas of the membranes in eukaryotic cells. Formation of lipid rafts promotes aggregation of peripheral and transmembrane proteins including docking of SNARE and VAMP proteins. Phytosterols, such as sitosterol and stigmasterol, and hopanoids serve a similar function in plants and prokaryotes.
Point-to-point encryption The standard Point-to-point_encryption > The standard The determination of whether or not a solution meets the P2PE standard is the responsibility of a P2PE Qualified Security Assessor (P2PE-QSA). P2PE-QSA companies are independent third-party companies who employ assessors that have met the PCI Security Standards Council's requirements for education and experience, and have passed the requisite exam. The PCI Security Standards Council does not validate solutions.
Homogeneous differential equation Homogeneous linear differential equations Homogeneous_differential_equation > Homogeneous linear differential equations A linear differential equation is homogeneous if it is a homogeneous linear equation in the unknown function and its derivatives. It follows that, if φ(x) is a solution, so is cφ(x), for any (non-zero) constant c. In order for this condition to hold, each nonzero term of the linear differential equation must depend on the unknown function or any derivative of it. A linear differential equation that fails this condition is called inhomogeneous.
Loopless algorithm Summary Loopless_algorithm In computational combinatorics, a loopless algorithm or loopless imperative algorithm is an imperative algorithm that generates successive combinatorial objects, such as partitions, permutations, and combinations, in constant time and the first object in linear time. The objects must be immediately available in simple form without requiring any additional steps.A loopless functional algorithm is a functional algorithm that takes the form unfoldr step • prolog where step takes constant time and prolog takes linear time in the size of the input. The standard function unfoldr is a right-associative Bird unfold. == References ==
Decision trees Optimizing a decision tree Decision_trees > Optimizing a decision tree For example, if the classes in the data set are Cancer and Non-Cancer a leaf node would be considered pure when all the sample data in a leaf node is part of only one class, either cancer or non-cancer. It is important to note that a deeper tree is not always better when optimizing the decision tree. A deeper tree can influence the runtime in a negative way.
Opioid analgesic Rare side effects Opioid_agonist > Adverse effects > Other adverse effects > Rare side effects Infrequent adverse reactions in patients taking opioids for pain relief include: dose-related respiratory depression (especially with more potent opioids), confusion, hallucinations, delirium, urticaria, hypothermia, bradycardia/tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, headache, urinary retention, ureteric or biliary spasm, muscle rigidity, myoclonus (with high doses), and flushing (due to histamine release, except fentanyl and remifentanil). Both therapeutic and chronic use of opioids can compromise the function of the immune system. Opioids decrease the proliferation of macrophage progenitor cells and lymphocytes, and affect cell differentiation (Roy & Loh, 1996). Opioids may also inhibit leukocyte migration. However the relevance of this in the context of pain relief is not known.
DNS zone Domains and zones DNS_zone > Domains and zones As each domain is further divided into sub-domains, each becoming a DNS zone with its own set of administrators and DNS servers, the tree grows with the largest number of leaf nodes at the bottom. At this lowest level, in the end-nodes or leaves of the tree, the term DNS zone becomes essentially synonymous with the term "domain", both in terms of use and administration. The term domain is used in the business functions of the entity assigned to it, and the term zone is usually used for the configuration of DNS services.
Hydronic Balancing Summary Hydronic_Balancing Hydronic balancing, also called hydraulic balancing, is the process of optimising the distribution of water in a building's hydronic heating or cooling system by equalising the system pressure to provide the intended indoor climate at optimum energy efficiency and minimal operating cost. To provide the correct power output, heating or cooling devices require a certain flow known as the design flow. Theoretically, it is possible to design plants that deliver the design flow at each terminal unit (heating or cooling device). In reality, this is not possible because pipes and valves only come in certain sizes.
Relativistic quantum mechanics Densities and currents Relativistic_quantum_mechanics > Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics > Densities and currents In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the square modulus of the wavefunction ψ gives the probability density function ρ = \|ψ\|2. This is the Copenhagen interpretation, circa 1927. In RQM, while ψ(r, t) is a wavefunction, the probability interpretation is not the same as in non-relativistic QM.
Oblivious RAM History of ORAMs Oblivious_RAM > History of ORAMs Another important attribute of an ORAM construction is whether the access overhead is amortized or worst-case. Several of the earlier ORAM constructions have good amortized access overhead guarantees but have Ω ( N ) {\displaystyle \Omega (N)} worst-case access overheads. Some of the ORAM constructions with polylogarithmic worst-case computational overheads are.
Symbolic power Summary Symbolic_power The concept of symbolic power, also known as symbolic domination (domination symbolique in French language) or symbolic violence, was first introduced by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu to account for the tacit, almost unconscious modes of cultural/social domination occurring within the everyday social habits maintained over conscious subjects. Symbolic power accounts for discipline used against another to confirm that individual's placement in a social hierarchy, at times in individual relations but most basically through system institutions also. Also referred to as soft power, symbolic power includes actions that have discriminatory or injurious meaning or implications, such as gender dominance and racism. Symbolic power maintains its effect through the mis-recognition of power relations situated in the social matrix of a given field. While symbolic power requires a dominator, it also requires the dominated to accept their position in the exchange of social value that occurs between them.
Functional form Macros Higher-order_function > Support in programming languages > Alternatives > Macros Macros can also be used to achieve some of the effects of higher-order functions. However, macros cannot easily avoid the problem of variable capture; they may also result in large amounts of duplicated code, which can be more difficult for a compiler to optimize. Macros are generally not strongly typed, although they may produce strongly typed code.
Rate of reaction Influencing factors Reaction_rate > Influencing factors However, the main reason that temperature increases the rate of reaction is that more of the colliding particles will have the necessary activation energy resulting in more successful collisions (when bonds are formed between reactants). The influence of temperature is described by the Arrhenius equation. For example, coal burns in a fireplace in the presence of oxygen, but it does not when it is stored at room temperature.
Situated cognition Affordances/effectivities Situated_cognition > Key principles > Affordances/effectivities James J. Gibson introduced the idea of affordances as part of a relational account of perception. Perception should not be considered solely as the encoding of environmental features into the perceiver's mind, but as an element of an individual's interaction with her environment (Gibson, 1977). Central to his proposal of an ecological psychology was the notion of affordances. Gibson proposed that in any interaction between an agent and the environment, inherent conditions or qualities of the environment allow the agent to perform certain actions with the environment.
Orbit of the Moon Path of Earth and Moon around Sun Moon_orbit > Path of Earth and Moon around Sun The path of the Earth–Moon system in its solar orbit is defined as the movement of this mutual centre of gravity around the Sun. Consequently, Earth's centre veers inside and outside the solar orbital path during each synodic month as the Moon moves in its orbit around the common centre of gravity.The Sun's gravitational effect on the Moon is more than twice that of Earth's on the Moon; consequently, the Moon's trajectory is always convex (as seen when looking Sunward at the entire Sun–Earth–Moon system from a great distance outside Earth–Moon solar orbit), and is nowhere concave (from the same perspective) or looped. That is, the region enclosed by the Moon's orbit of the Sun is a convex set.
Lists of mathematics topics Integrals Lists_of_mathematics_topics > Reference tables > Integrals In calculus, the integral of a function is a generalization of area, mass, volume, sum, and total. The following pages list the integrals of many different functions. Lists of integrals List of integrals of exponential functions List of integrals of hyperbolic functions List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions List of integrals of irrational functions List of integrals of logarithmic functions List of integrals of rational functions List of integrals of trigonometric functions
Phall-O-Meter Summary Phall-O-Meter The Phall-O-meter is a satirical measure that critiques medical standards for normal male and female phalluses. The tool was developed by Kiira Triea (Denise Tree) based on a concept by Suzanne Kessler and is used to demonstrate concerns with the medical treatment of intersex bodies.
Monoculture (computer science) Individual level concerns Monoculture_(computer_science) > Individual level concerns Another main concern is increased spread of algorithmic bias. In the light of increased usage of machine learning there is a growing awareness of the biases introduced by algorithms. The nature of monocultures exacerbate this problem since it makes the bias systemic and spreading unfair decisions.
Artificial lifeform Protocell synthetic biology Artificial_lifeform > Categories of synthetic biology > Protocell synthetic biology In order to carry out a specific function, these lipid vesicles contain cell extracts or more specific sets of biological macromolecules and complex structures, such as enzymes, nucleic acids, or ribosomes. For instance, liposomes may carry out particular polymerase chain reactions or synthesise a particular protein.Protocell synthetic biology takes artificial life one step closer to reality by eventually synthesizing not only the genome but also every component of the cell in vitro, as opposed to the synthetic genomics approach, which relies on coercing a natural cell to carry out the instructions encoded by the introduced synthetic genome. Synthetic biologists in this field view their work as basic study into the conditions necessary for life to exist and its origin more than in any of the other techniques. The protocell technique, however, also lends itself well to applications; similar to other synthetic biology byproducts, protocells could be employed for the manufacture of biopolymers and medicines.
Mitochondrial toxicity Causes Mitochondrial_toxicity > Causes While the exact causes of mitochondrial toxicity are unknown, research has shown that a certain group of anti-viral drugs used to treat HIV, specifically nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), interfere with an enzyme needed in the production of mitochondria.
Persi Diaconis Recognition Persi_Diaconis > Recognition 1982 – Awarded a MacArthur Fellowship 1982 – Awarded the Rollo Davidson Prize 1990 – Invited Speaker of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) 1995 – Elected to the National Academy of Sciences 1997 – Gibbs Lecturer, American Mathematical Society 1998 – Plenary Speaker of the ICM 2003 – Received an honorary D. Sci. degree from the University of Chicago. 2005 – Elected to the American Philosophical Society 2006 – Awarded the Van Wijngaarden Award 2012 – Awarded the Levi L. Conant Prize 2012 – Fellow of the American Mathematical Society 2013 – Received an Honorary Degree from the University of St Andrews. 2014 – Recipient of Cahit Arf Lecture by Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Deep neural network Deep neural networks Deep_Learning > Neural networks > Deep neural networks Recurrent neural networks (RNNs), in which data can flow in any direction, are used for applications such as language modeling. Long short-term memory is particularly effective for this use.Convolutional deep neural networks (CNNs) are used in computer vision. CNNs also have been applied to acoustic modeling for automatic speech recognition (ASR).
Solar module quality assurance Summary Solar_module_quality_assurance Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic system consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters, and trackers. A photovoltaic system can be used to provide electricity for off-grid applications, such as remote homes or cabins, or to feed electricity back into the grid and earn credits or payments from the utility company.
High-performance sailing Apparent wind High-performance_sailing > Apparent wind sailing > Apparent wind Apparent wind is the wind velocity (direction and speed), VA, measured aboard a moving sailing craft; it is the net effect (vector sum) of the boat wind, VB—the air flow over the craft induced by its speed over the earth (equal to in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the craft's speed)—and the true wind, VT. The apparent wind measured aboard a craft under power, traveling in calm conditions, VT = 0 knots, would come from directly ahead and at a speed that is the same as the boat speed over the bottom (VA = VB + 0 = VB). If the craft travels at VB = 10 knots with a tailwind of VT = -5 knots, it experiences an apparent wind of VA = 5 knots directly on the bow (VA = VB + VT = 10 − 5).
Simple function Summary Simple_function In the mathematical field of real analysis, a simple function is a real (or complex)-valued function over a subset of the real line, similar to a step function. Simple functions are sufficiently "nice" that using them makes mathematical reasoning, theory, and proof easier. For example, simple functions attain only a finite number of values.
Level of analysis Algorithmic/representational Level_of_analysis > Level of analysis in cognitive science > Marr's tri-level hypothesis > Algorithmic/representational The algorithmic/representational level of analysis identifies how the information processing system performs its computations, specifically, what representations are used and what processes are employed to build and manipulate the representations.
Xenon chloride laser NMR spectroscopy Xenon_monofluoride > Applications > NMR spectroscopy Because of the xenon atom's large, flexible outer electron shell, the NMR spectrum changes in response to surrounding conditions and can be used to monitor the surrounding chemical circumstances. For instance, xenon dissolved in water, xenon dissolved in hydrophobic solvent, and xenon associated with certain proteins can be distinguished by NMR.Hyperpolarized xenon can be used by surface chemists. Normally, it is difficult to characterize surfaces with NMR because signals from a surface are overwhelmed by signals from the atomic nuclei in the bulk of the sample, which are much more numerous than surface nuclei. However, nuclear spins on solid surfaces can be selectively polarized by transferring spin polarization to them from hyperpolarized xenon gas. This makes the surface signals strong enough to measure and distinguish from bulk signals.
Stack canary Exploiting stack buffer overflows Stack_based_buffer_overflow > Exploiting stack buffer overflows The canonical method for exploiting a stack-based buffer overflow is to overwrite the function return address with a pointer to attacker-controlled data (usually on the stack itself). This is illustrated with strcpy() in the following example: This code takes an argument from the command line and copies it to a local stack variable c. This works fine for command-line arguments smaller than 12 characters (as can be seen in figure B below). Any arguments larger than 11 characters long will result in corruption of the stack. (The maximum number of characters that is safe is one less than the size of the buffer here because in the C programming language, strings are terminated by a null byte character.
Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface Protocols Cloud_Infrastructure_Management_Interface > Protocols CIMI currently supports the REST architectural style using HTTP for all interactions between the Consumer and the Providers. Mappings to SOAP and WS-MAN are also considered.This protocol binding follows REST principles and describes the mapping of HTTP protocol verbs to operations on the model: Each request is sent by using an HTTP verb such as GET, POST, PUT and DELETE, and includes a message body in either JSON or XML format. Each response uses a standard HTTP status code, whose semantics are interpreted in the context of the particular request that was made.
Total reflection Applications Frustrated_total_internal_reflection > Applications The Dove prism gives an inline view with mirror-reversal.Polarizing prisms: Although the Fresnel rhomb, which converts between linear and elliptical polarization, is not birefringent (doubly refractive), there are other kinds of prisms that combine birefringence with TIR in such a way that light of a particular polarization is totally reflected while light of the orthogonal polarization is at least partly transmitted. Examples include the Nicol prism, Glan–Thompson prism, Glan–Foucault prism (or "Foucault prism"), and Glan–Taylor prism.Refractometers, which measure refractive indices, often use the critical angle.Rain sensors for automatic windscreen/windshield wipers have been implemented using the principle that total internal reflection will guide an infrared beam from a source to a detector if the outer surface of the windshield is dry, but any water drops on the surface will divert some of the light.Edge-lit LED panels, used (e.g.) for backlighting of LCD computer monitors, exploit TIR to confine the LED light to the acrylic glass pane, except that some of the light is scattered by etchings on one side of the pane, giving an approximately uniform luminous emittance. Total internal reflection microscopy (TIRM) uses the evanescent wave to illuminate small objects close to the reflecting interface.
Biological network inference Centrality Analysis Biological_network_inference > Topology analysis > Centrality Analysis Centrality can be measured in different ways depending on the graph and the question that needs answering, they include the degree of nodes or the number of connected edges to a node, global centrality measures, or via random walks which is used by the Google PageRank algorithm to assign weight to each webpage. The centrality measures may be affected by errors due to noise on measurement and other causes. Therefore, the topological descriptors should be defined as random variable with the associated probability distribution encoding the uncertainty on their value.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Diagnosis Hypersensitivity_pneumonitis > Diagnosis The diagnosis is made through clinical judgement using a combination of findings because there does not exist a single, universal diagnostic criteria for the disease. The diagnosis is most commonly ascertained first with a detailed exposure history followed by a battery of clinical tests including: imaging, histopathology, pulmonary function testing, serology, bronchoscopy, and more. In 2020, official guidelines were published by American Thoracic Society, Japanese Respiratory Society, and Asociación Latinoamericana del Tórax which provides a systematic approach to the diagnosis of HP that relies on high-resolution computed tomography.
Glossary of engineering: A–L C Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > C Chemical kineticsChemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. Chemical reactionA chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
Methods of contour integration Contour integrals Calculus_of_residues > Contour integrals The contour integral of a complex function f: C → C is a generalization of the integral for real-valued functions. For continuous functions in the complex plane, the contour integral can be defined in analogy to the line integral by first defining the integral along a directed smooth curve in terms of an integral over a real valued parameter. A more general definition can be given in terms of partitions of the contour in analogy with the partition of an interval and the Riemann integral. In both cases the integral over a contour is defined as the sum of the integrals over the directed smooth curves that make up the contour.
Earthquake location Fault rupture Earthquake_location > Fault rupture The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the total area of its fault rupture. Most earthquakes are small, with rupture dimensions less than the depth of the focus so the rupture doesn't break the surface, but in high magnitude, destructive earthquakes, surface breaks are common. Fault ruptures in large earthquakes can extend for more than 100 km (62 mi). When a fault ruptures unilaterally (with the epicenter at or near the end of the fault break) the waves are stronger in one direction along the fault.
Fast Kalman Filter Applications Fast_Kalman_Filter > Applications The FKF method extends the very high accuracies of Satellite Geodesy to Virtual Reference Station (VRS) Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveying, mobile positioning and ultra-reliable navigation. First important applications will be real-time optimum calibration of global observing systems in Meteorology, Geophysics, Astronomy etc. For example, a Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) system can now forecast observations with confidence intervals and their operational quality control can thus be improved. A sudden increase of uncertainty in predicting observations would indicate that important observations are missing (observability problem) or an unpredictable change of weather is taking place (controllability problem). Remote sensing and imaging from satellites are partly based on forecasted information.
Cache performance measurement and metric Average memory access time Cache_performance_measurement_and_metric > Average memory access time It refers to the average time it takes to perform a memory access. It is the addition of the execution time for the memory instructions and the memory stall cycles. The execution time is the time for a cache access, and the memory stall cycles include the time to service a cache miss and access lower levels of memory. If the access latency, miss rate and miss penalty are known, the average memory access time can be calculated with: A M A T = T L 1 + M R L 1 ⋅ M P L 1 {\displaystyle AMAT=T_{L1}+MR_{L1}\cdot MP_{L1}} where T L 1 {\displaystyle T_{L1}} is the access latency of level one cache, M R L 1 {\displaystyle MR_{L1}} is the miss rate of level one cache and M P L 1 {\displaystyle MP_{L1}} is the additional cycles a miss at a higher level takes to be serviced compared to a hit at higher level, and is calculated with: M P L 1 = T L 2 + M R L 2 ⋅ M P L 2 {\displaystyle MP_{L1}=T_{L2}+MR_{L2}\cdot MP_{L2}} this formula can be expanded further and used recursively for all the further levels in the memory hierarchy to get the A M A T {\displaystyle AMAT} .
Zone transfer Operation Zone_transfer > Operation Although DNS technically supports AXFR over User Datagram Protocol (UDP), it is considered not acceptable due to the risk of lost, or spoofed packets. The server responds with a series of response messages, comprising all of the resource records for every domain name in the "zone". The first response comprises the SOA resource record for the zone apex.
Atomic fact Summary Atomic_proposition However, the truth or falsity of an atomic sentence is not a matter that is within the scope of logic itself, but rather whatever art or science the content of the atomic sentence happens to be talking about.Logic has developed artificial languages, for example sentential calculus and predicate calculus, partly with the purpose of revealing the underlying logic of natural-language statements, the surface grammar of which may conceal the underlying logical structure. In these artificial languages an atomic sentence is a string of symbols which can represent an elementary sentence in a natural language, and it can be defined as follows. In a formal language, a well-formed formula (or wff) is a string of symbols constituted in accordance with the rules of syntax of the language.
Sequence learning Ongoing research Sequence_learning > Ongoing research There are many other areas of application for sequence learning. How humans learn sequential procedures has been a long-standing research problem in cognitive science and currently is a major topic in neuroscience. Research work has been going on in several disciplines, including artificial intelligence, neural networks, and engineering. For a philosophical perspective, see Inductive reasoning and Problem of induction. For a theoretical computer-science perspective, see Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference and Inductive programming. For a mathematical perspective, see Extrapolation.
High pressure receptor zones Summary High_pressure_receptor_zones High pressure receptors are the baroreceptors found within the aortic arch and carotid sinus. They are only sensitive to blood pressures above 60 mmHg. When these receptors are activated they elicit a depressor response; which decreases the heart rate and causes a general vasodilation. An increase in arterial blood pressure reflexively elicits an increase in vagal neuronal activity to the heart (i.e. the resulting decreased heart rate). The afferent nerves from the baroreceptors are called buffer nerves.
Sexual size dimorphism Immune function Sexual_dimorphism > Immune function Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent' than males. This trait is not consistent among all animals, but differs depending on taxonomy, with the most female-biased immune systems being found in insects.
Fixed acids Reactions Nonvolatile_acid > Reactions The following reactions result in nonvolatile acids. Such reactions do not take place in volatile acids for obvious reasons. sulfur-containing amino acid oxidations:e.g. methionine or cysteine → urea + CO2 + H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO2−4 phosphorus-containing compound metabolism → H3PO4 → H+ + H2PO−4 cationic amino acid oxidation:e.g. lysine or arginine → urea + CO2 + H2O + H+ Non-metabolizable organic acid production:HA → H+ + A− Incomplete metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins → e.g. lactic acid or keto-acids
Adaptive dynamics Summary Evolutionary_invasion_analysis When branching occurs, the mutant establishes itself as a second resident in the environment. Central to evolutionary invasion analysis is the mutant's invasion fitness. This is a mathematical expression for the long-term exponential growth rate of the mutant subpopulation when it is introduced into the resident population in small numbers. If the invasion fitness is positive (in continuous time), the mutant population can grow in the environment set by the resident phenotype. If the invasion fitness is negative, the mutant population swiftly goes extinct.
NP = co-NP problem Unsatisfiability NP_=_co-NP_problem > Complementary Problems > Unsatisfiability An example of an NP-complete problem is the Boolean satisfiability problem: given a Boolean formula, is it satisfiable (is there a possible input for which the formula outputs true)? The complementary problem asks: "given a Boolean formula, is it unsatisfiable (do all possible inputs to the formula output false)?". Since this is the complement of the satisfiability problem, a certificate for a no-instance is the same as for a yes-instance from the original NP problem: a set of Boolean variable assignments which make the formula true. On the other hand, a certificate of a yes-instance for the complementary problem would be equally as complex as the no-instance of the original NP satisfiability problem.
Dual photon Summary Dual_photon In theoretical physics, the dual photon is a hypothetical elementary particle that is a dual of the photon under electric–magnetic duality which is predicted by some theoretical models, including M-theory.It has been shown that including magnetic monopole in Maxwell's equations introduces a singularity. The only way to avoid the singularity is to include a second four-vector potential, called dual photon, in addition to the usual four-vector potential, photon. Additionally, it is found that the standard Lagrangian of electromagnetism is not dual symmetric (i.e. symmetric under rotation between electric and magnetic charges) which causes problems for the energy–momentum, spin, and orbital angular momentum tensors. To resolve this issue, a dual symmetric Lagrangian of electromagnetism has been proposed, which has a self-consistent separation of the spin and orbital degrees of freedom. The Poincaré symmetries imply that the dual electromagnetism naturally makes self-consistent conservation laws.
Disease model Germ theory of disease Disease_model > Other uses > Germ theory of disease The rise of modern scientific medicine during the 19th century has a great impact on the development of the medical model. Especially important was the development of the "germ theory" of disease by European medical researchers such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the physical causes of a variety of diseases were uncovered, which, in turn, led to the development of effective forms of treatment.

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