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Liver fibrosis Liver dysfunction Liver_cirrhosis > Signs and symptoms > Liver dysfunction These features are a direct consequence of liver cells not functioning: Spider angiomata or spider nevi happen when there is dilatation of vasculature beneath the skin surface. There is a central, red spot with reddish extensions that radiate outward. This creates a visual effect that resembles a spider.
Cylinder (geometry) Right circular hollow cylinder (cylindrical shell) Cylinder > Properties > Right circular hollow cylinder (cylindrical shell) .Thus, the volume of a cylindrical shell equals 2π(average radius)(altitude)(thickness).The surface area, including the top and bottom, is given by A = 2 π ( R + r ) h + 2 π ( R 2 − r 2 ) . {\displaystyle A=2\pi (R+r)h+2\pi (R^{2}-r^{2}).} .Cylindrical shells are used in a common integration technique for finding volumes of solids of revolution.
Complex square root Geometric construction of the square root Square_root > Geometric construction of the square root However, Descartes made no claim to originality and his audience would have been quite familiar with Euclid. Euclid's second proof in Book VI depends on the theory of similar triangles. Let AHB be a line segment of length a + b with AH = a and HB = b. Construct the circle with AB as diameter and let C be one of the two intersections of the perpendicular chord at H with the circle and denote the length CH as h. Then, using Thales' theorem and, as in the proof of Pythagoras' theorem by similar triangles, triangle AHC is similar to triangle CHB (as indeed both are to triangle ACB, though we don't need that, but it is the essence of the proof of Pythagoras' theorem) so that AH:CH is as HC:HB, i.e. a/h = h/b, from which we conclude by cross-multiplication that h2 = ab, and finally that h = a b {\displaystyle h={\sqrt {ab}}} .
Tactile hallucination In schizophrenia Tactile_hallucinations > In schizophrenia They are usually triggered by emotional cues such as guilt, anger, fear and depression. Other types of tactile hallucinations takes on a sexual form in patients with schizophrenia. Patients with schizophrenia may sometimes experience the feeling of being kissed or the feeling of someone lying by their side in response to their emotion of being lonely.
Entropy of mixing Application to solutions Entropy_of_mixing > Statistical thermodynamical explanation of the entropy of mixing of ideal gases > Application to solutions The Flory–Huggins solution theory provides the entropy of mixing for polymer solutions, in which the macromolecules are huge compared to the solvent molecules. In this case, the assumption is made that each monomer subunit in the polymer chain occupies a lattice site. Note that solids in contact with each other also slowly interdiffuse, and solid mixtures of two or more components may be made at will (alloys, semiconductors, etc.). Again, the same equations for the entropy of mixing apply, but only for homogeneous, uniform phases.
Quantum Optics Quantum electronics Quantum_Optics > Quantum electronics Specific applications of quantum mechanics in electronics is researched within semiconductor physics. The term also encompassed the basic processes of laser operation, which is today studied as a topic in quantum optics. Usage of the term overlapped early work on the quantum Hall effect and quantum cellular automata.
Paranoid schizophrenic Summary Paranoid_schizophrenic Many people with schizophrenia have other mental disorders, especially substance use disorders, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and obsessive–compulsive disorder.About 0.3% to 0.7% of people are diagnosed with schizophrenia during their lifetime. In 2017, there were an estimated 1.1 million new cases and in 2022 a total of 24 million cases globally. Males are more often affected and on average have an earlier onset.
Biotechnology risk CRISPR Biotechnology_risk > CRISPR Following surprisingly fast advances in CRISPR editing, an international summit proclaimed in December 2015 that it was "irresponsible" to proceed with human gene editing until issues in safety and efficacy were addressed. One way in which CRISPR editing can cause existential risk is through gene drives, which are said to have potential to "revolutionize" ecosystem management. Gene drives are a novel technology that have potential to make genes spread through wild populations extremely quickly.
Crack propagation Irwin's modification Plastic_zone > Linear elastic fracture mechanics > Irwin's modification Griffith's work was largely ignored by the engineering community until the early 1950s. The reasons for this appear to be (a) in the actual structural materials the level of energy needed to cause fracture is orders of magnitude higher than the corresponding surface energy, and (b) in structural materials there are always some inelastic deformations around the crack front that would make the assumption of linear elastic medium with infinite stresses at the crack tip highly unrealistic. Griffith's theory provides excellent agreement with experimental data for brittle materials such as glass.
Block-diagonal matrix Block diagonal matrices Block_matrices > Block diagonal matrices A block diagonal matrix is a block matrix that is a square matrix such that the main-diagonal blocks are square matrices and all off-diagonal blocks are zero matrices. That is, a block diagonal matrix A has the form A = {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A} _{1}&\mathbf {0} &\cdots &\mathbf {0} \\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {A} _{2}&\cdots &\mathbf {0} \\\vdots &\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {0} &\cdots &\mathbf {A} _{n}\end{bmatrix}}} where Ak is a square matrix for all k = 1, ..., n. In other words, matrix A is the direct sum of A1, ..., An. It can also be indicated as A1 ⊕ A2 ⊕ ... ⊕ An or diag(A1, A2, ..., An) (the latter being the same formalism used for a diagonal matrix). Any square matrix can trivially be considered a block diagonal matrix with only one block.
Modular programming Key aspects Modular_programming > Key aspects When creating a modular system, instead of creating a monolithic application (where the smallest component is the whole), several smaller modules are written separately so when they are composed together, they construct the executable application program. Typically, these are also compiled separately, via separate compilation, and then linked by a linker. A just-in-time compiler may perform some of this construction "on-the-fly" at run time.
Bacterial transcription Summary Bacterial_transcription Bacterial RNA polymerase is made up of four subunits and when a fifth subunit attaches, called the σ-factor, the polymerase can recognize specific binding sequences in the DNA, called promoters. The binding of the σ-factor to the promoter is the first step in initiation. Once the σ-factor releases from the polymerase, elongation proceeds.
Fast protein liquid chromatography Optimizing protein purification Fast_protein_liquid_chromatography > Optimizing protein purification An extra intermediate purification step can be added or optimization of the different steps is performed for improving purity. This extra step usually involves another round of IEC under completely different conditions. Although this is an example of a common purification protocol for proteins, the buffer conditions, flow rates, and resins used to achieve final goals can be chosen to cover a broad range of target proteins. This flexibility is imperative for a functional purification system as all proteins behave differently and often deviate from predictions.
A* search algorithm Relations to other algorithms A*_algorithm > Relations to other algorithms What sets A* apart from a greedy best-first search algorithm is that it takes the cost/distance already traveled, g(n), into account. Some common variants of Dijkstra's algorithm can be viewed as a special case of A* where the heuristic h ( n ) = 0 {\displaystyle h(n)=0} for all nodes; in turn, both Dijkstra and A* are special cases of dynamic programming. A* itself is a special case of a generalization of branch and bound.A* is similar to beam search except that beam search maintains a limit on the numbers of paths that it has to explore.
System of units of measurement Non-standard units System_of_units_of_measurement > Non-standard units Non-standard measurement units also found in books, newspapers etc., include:
Nested function Purpose Nested_function_definition > Purpose Lexically nested function definitions are a form of information hiding and are useful for dividing procedural tasks into subtasks which are only meaningful locally. This avoids cluttering other parts of the program with functions and variables that are unrelated to those parts. They are typically used as helper functions or as recursive functions inside another function (as in the quicksort example above). This has the structural benefit of organizing the code, avoids polluting the scope, and also allows functions to share state easily.
Fly system Arbors Fly_system > Components > Arbors In order to avoid unreasonably tall counterweight stacks at high capacity line sets, arbors may employ more than one counterweight stack. Such arbors use multiple-width top and bottom plates with a tie bar and pair of connecting rods provided at each counterweight stack. Counterweight rigging systems use either tracked or wire-guided arbor guide systems.
Noncommutative polynomial ring Contrast with polynomials Non-commuting_polynomial > Contrast with polynomials For example, X1X2 does not equal X2X1. More generally, one can construct the free algebra R⟨E⟩ on any set E of generators. Since rings may be regarded as Z-algebras, a free ring on E can be defined as the free algebra Z⟨E⟩.
Data Encryption Standard Key schedule Data_Encryption_Standard > Description > Key schedule The rotations (denoted by "<<<" in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys. The key schedule for decryption is similar—the subkeys are in reverse order compared to encryption. Apart from that change, the process is the same as for encryption. The same 28 bits are passed to all rotation boxes.
Land vehicle Energy source Vehicle > Locomotion > Energy source Batteries also facilitate the use of electric motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low energy densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures, long charging times, and difficulties with disposal (although they can usually be recycled). Like fuel, batteries store chemical energy and can cause burns and poisoning in event of an accident.
Second law of thermodynamics History Second_principle_of_thermodynamics > History Equivalently, it says that time average and average over the statistical ensemble are the same. There is a traditional doctrine, starting with Clausius, that entropy can be understood in terms of molecular 'disorder' within a macroscopic system. This doctrine is obsolescent.
Cardiovascular examination Percussion and Auscultation Cardiovascular_examination > Cardiac examination > Percussion and Auscultation For the best cardiac examination, it is important to have the patient both sit up and lay down at a 30-45˚ angle. Tapping with the fingertips (also known as percussion) can be used to estimate the size of the heart, though palpation is more accurate. From the left side of the chest, the doctor can tap the spaces between the ribs with the tips of their middle finger to listen for the dullness that will be present over the heart. Listening with a stethoscope (also known as auscultation) to all four areas of the heart: aortic, pulmonic, tricuspid and mitral.
Opposite vector Representations Antiparallel_vector > Representations These numbers are often arranged into a column vector or row vector, particularly when dealing with matrices, as follows: Another way to represent a vector in n-dimensions is to introduce the standard basis vectors. For instance, in three dimensions, there are three of them: These have the intuitive interpretation as vectors of unit length pointing up the x-, y-, and z-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system, respectively. In terms of these, any vector a in R3 can be expressed in the form: or where a1, a2, a3 are called the vector components (or vector projections) of a on the basis vectors or, equivalently, on the corresponding Cartesian axes x, y, and z (see figure), while a1, a2, a3 are the respective scalar components (or scalar projections).
Short interspersed nuclear element microRNAs Short_interspersed_nuclear_element > Diseases > microRNAs The role of short-interspersed nuclear elements in gene regulation within cells has been supported by multiple studies. One such study examined the correlation between a certain family of SINEs with microRNAs (in zebrafish). The specific family of SINEs being examined was the Anamnia V-SINEs; this family of short interspersed nuclear elements is often found in the untranslated region of the 3' end of many genes and is present in vertebrate genomes. The study involved a computational analysis in which the genomic distribution and activity of the Anamnia V-SINEs in Danio rerio zebrafish was examined; furthermore, these V-SINEs potential to generate novel microRNA loci was analyzed.
Void type Summary Void_type The void type, in several programming languages derived from C and Algol68, is the return type of a function that returns normally, but does not provide a result value to its caller. Usually such functions are called for their side effects, such as performing some task or writing to their output parameters. The usage of the void type in such context is comparable to procedures in Pascal and syntactic constructs which define subroutines in Visual Basic. It is also similar to the unit type used in functional programming languages and type theory.
Compression member Description Compression_member > Description For a compression member, such as a column, the principal stress comes mainly from axial forces, that is forces that fall along one line, usually the centerline. The loading capacity of a short column is determined by the strength limit of the material. The strength of a column of intermediate size is limited by its degree of inelasticity. A long column is constrained by the elastic limit (that is by the amount of buckling).
Tetractys Pythagorean symbol Tetractys > Pythagorean symbol The Tetractys is an equilateral triangle formed from the sequence of the first ten numbers aligned in four rows. It is both a mathematical idea and a metaphysical symbol that embraces within itself—in seedlike form—the principles of the natural world, the harmony of the cosmos, the ascent to the divine, and the mysteries of the divine realm. So revered was this ancient symbol that it inspired ancient philosophers to swear by the name of the one who brought this gift to humanity.
Major basic protein Structure Major_basic_protein > Structure Structurally the major basic protein (MBP) is similar to lectins (sugar-binding proteins), and has a fold similar to that seen in C-type lectins. However, unlike other C-type lectins (those that bind various carbohydrates in the presence of calcium), MBP does not bind either calcium or any of the other carbohydrates that this family recognize. Instead, MBP recognises heparan sulfate proteoglycans. Two crystallographic structures of MBP have been determined.
Boethius De topicis differentiis Boethius > Major works > De topicis differentiis "This is the basis for the idea that demonstration (or the construction of arguments) is dependent ultimately upon ideas or proofs that are known so well and are so fundamental to human understanding of logic that no other proofs come before it. They must hold true in and of themselves. According to Stump, "the role of maximal propositions in argumentation is to ensure the truth of a conclusion by ensuring the truth of its premises either directly or indirectly.
Catoptric tessellation Enumeration Catoptric_tessellation > Enumeration The pairs of architectonic and catoptric tessellations are listed below with their symmetry group. These tessellations only represent four symmetry space groups, and also all within the cubic crystal system. Many of these tessellations can be defined in multiple symmetry groups, so in each case the highest symmetry is expressed.
Fickett–Jacobs cycle Thermal Efficiency Fickett–Jacobs_cycle > Mathematical interpretation of the cycle's total work > Thermal Efficiency The thermal efficiency decreases when the initial pressure decreases due to the increasing in dissociation at low pressures. Dissociation is an endothermic process, hence reducing the amount of energy released in a detonation or the maximum amount of work that can be obtained from the FJ cycle. Exothermic reactions are encouraged when increasing the initial pressure of the system, hence, increasing the amount of work generated during the FJ cycle.
Finite model theory Summary Finite_model_theory In other words: "In the history of mathematical logic most interest has concentrated on infinite structures. Yet, the objects computers have and hold are always finite. To study computation we need a theory of finite structures." Thus the main application areas of finite model theory are: descriptive complexity theory, database theory and formal language theory.
Uniparental disomy Pathophysiology Uniparental_disomy > Pathophysiology When the child receives two (identical) replica copies of a single homologue of a chromosome, this is called an isodisomic UPD. Isodisomy (homozygous) indicates either a meiosis II (if the gene loci in question didn't cross over) or postzygotic chromosomal duplication. A meiosis I error can result in isodisomic UPD if the gene loci in question crossed over, for example, a distal isodisomy would be due to duplicated gene loci from the maternal grandmother that crossed over and due to an error during meiosis I, ended up in the same gamete. A meiosis II error can result in heterodisomy UPD if the gene loci crossed over in a similar fashion.
Geologic sequestration of CO2 Surface Geologic_sequestration_of_CO2 > Monitoring > Surface Eddy covariance is a surface monitoring technique that measures the flux of CO2 from the ground's surface. It involves measuring CO2 concentrations as well as vertical wind velocities using an anemometer. This provides a measure of the vertical CO2 flux. Eddy covariance towers could potentially detect leaks, after accounting for the natural carbon cycle, such as photosynthesis and plant respiration.
Minichromosome Top-down Minichromosome > Production > Top-down This method utilizes the mechanism of telomere-mediated chromosomal truncation (TMCT). This process is the generation of truncation by selective transformation of telomeric sequences into a host genome. This insertion causes the generation of more telomeric sequences and eventual truncation. The newly synthesized truncated chromosome can then be altered through the insertion of new genes for desired traits.
Protein toxicity Symptoms Protein_toxicity > Symptoms Most of the problems stem from the accumulation of unfiltered toxins and wastes from protein metabolism. Kidney function naturally declines with age due to the gradual loss of nephrons (filters) in the kidney. Common causes of chronic kidney disease include diabetes, heart disease, long term untreated high blood pressure, as well as abuse of analgesics like ibuprofen, aspirin, and paracetamol. Kidney disease like the polycystic kidney disease can be genetic in nature and progress as the individual ages.
Water scarcity Population growth Water_scarcity > Causes and contributing factors > Population growth Around fifty years ago, the common view was that water was an infinite resource. At that time, there were fewer than half the current number of people on the planet. People were not as wealthy as today, consumed fewer calories and ate less meat, so less water was needed to produce their food. They required a third of the volume of water we presently take from rivers.
Stress (mechanics) History Stress_path > History Humans have known about stress inside materials since ancient times. Until the 17th century, this understanding was largely intuitive and empirical, though this did not prevent the development of relatively advanced technologies like the composite bow and glass blowing.Over several millennia, architects and builders in particular, learned how to put together carefully shaped wood beams and stone blocks to withstand, transmit, and distribute stress in the most effective manner, with ingenious devices such as the capitals, arches, cupolas, trusses and the flying buttresses of Gothic cathedrals. Ancient and medieval architects did develop some geometrical methods and simple formulas to compute the proper sizes of pillars and beams, but the scientific understanding of stress became possible only after the necessary tools were invented in the 17th and 18th centuries: Galileo Galilei's rigorous experimental method, René Descartes's coordinates and analytic geometry, and Newton's laws of motion and equilibrium and calculus of infinitesimals. With those tools, Augustin-Louis Cauchy was able to give the first rigorous and general mathematical model of a deformed elastic body by introducing the notions of stress and strain. Cauchy observed that the force across an imaginary surface was a linear function of its normal vector; and, moreover, that it must be a symmetric function (with zero total momentum). The understanding of stress in liquids started with Newton, who provided a differential formula for friction forces (shear stress) in parallel laminar flow.
Smart manufacturing 3D printing Smart_manufacturing > 3D printing As of 2019, 3D printing is mainly used in rapid prototyping, design iteration, and small-scale production. Improvements in speed, quality, and materials could make it useful in mass production and mass customization.However, 3D printing developed so much in recent years that it is no longer used just as technology for prototyping. 3D printing sector is moving beyond prototyping especially it is becoming increasingly widespread in supply chains. The industries where digital manufacturing with 3D printing is the most seen are automotive, industrial and medical.
Industrial Ecology Summary Industrial_Ecology Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resources into products and services which can be bought and sold to meet the needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural resources, and with problems of waste disposal.
Kernel density estimation Example Kernel_density_estimate > Example Kernel density estimates are closely related to histograms, but can be endowed with properties such as smoothness or continuity by using a suitable kernel. The diagram below based on these 6 data points illustrates this relationship: For the histogram, first, the horizontal axis is divided into sub-intervals or bins which cover the range of the data: In this case, six bins each of width 2. Whenever a data point falls inside this interval, a box of height 1/12 is placed there. If more than one data point falls inside the same bin, the boxes are stacked on top of each other.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Genes and genomes DNA_molecule > Biological functions > Genes and genomes A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control transcription of the open reading frame. In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein.
Equilibrium chemistry Partition Equilibrium_chemistry > Partition Such a compound may exist with a different extent of protonation depending on pH and the acid dissociation constant. Because the organic phase has a low dielectric constant the species with no electrical charge will be the most likely one to pass from the aqueous phase to the organic phase. Even at pH 7–7.2, the range of biological pH values, the aqueous phase may support an equilibrium between more than one protonated form.
Time integral Line integrals and surface integrals Time_integral > Extensions > Line integrals and surface integrals The value of the line integral is the sum of values of the field at all points on the curve, weighted by some scalar function on the curve (commonly arc length or, for a vector field, the scalar product of the vector field with a differential vector in the curve). This weighting distinguishes the line integral from simpler integrals defined on intervals. Many simple formulas in physics have natural continuous analogs in terms of line integrals; for example, the fact that work is equal to force, F, multiplied by displacement, s, may be expressed (in terms of vector quantities) as: W = F ⋅ s .
Hauke Harder Works Hauke_Harder > Works "Hyperfine structure of rotational transitions of 14NF3 in the v4 = 1 vibrational state". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy. 230 (1): 99–101.
Basis (universal algebra) Vector space algebras Basis_(universal_algebra) > Examples > Vector space algebras Still it is allowed, in case it serves some purpose. When the space is zero-dimensional, its ordered basis is empty. Then, being the empty function, it is a present basis. Yet, since this space only contains the null vector and its only endomorphism is the identity, any function b from any set I {\displaystyle I} (even a nonempty one) to this singleton space works as a present basis. This is not so strange from the point of view of universal algebra, where singleton algebras, which are called "trivial", enjoy a lot of other seemingly strange properties.
Döbereiner's triads Summary Döbereiner's_triads Take the example of F (Fluorine), Cl (Chlorine), and Br (Bromine). The atomic mass of Cl is not an arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of F and Br. As the techniques for accurately measuring atomic masses improved, the Döbereiner’s triad was found to fail to remain strictly valid.
Doublet lens Advantages Doublet_(lens) > Cement > Advantages Cementing elements can simplify raytracing operations as the cement may nearly always be ignored, with the tracer treating the ray as if it refracts directly from one element into the next. Cemented groups may assist to decrease the physical length of the optical system. Provides superior control for minimising spherochromatism and other aberrations, allowing the creation of more advanced optical systems using fewer elements.
PID algorithm Relay (Åström–Hägglund) method PID_algorithm > Loop tuning > Relay (Åström–Hägglund) method Published in 1984 by Karl Johan Åström and Tore Hägglund, the relay method temporarily operates the process using bang-bang control and measures the resultant oscillations. The output is switched (as if by a relay, hence the name) between two values of the control variable. The values must be chosen so the process will cross the setpoint, but they need not be 0% and 100%; by choosing suitable values, dangerous oscillations can be avoided. As long as the process variable is below the setpoint, the control output is set to the higher value.
Sternocostal surface of heart Summary Human_heart Cardiovascular diseases do not frequently have symptoms but may cause chest pain or shortness of breath. Diagnosis of heart disease is often done by the taking of a medical history, listening to the heart-sounds with a stethoscope, as well as with ECG, echocardiogram, and ultrasound. Specialists who focus on diseases of the heart are called cardiologists, although many specialties of medicine may be involved in treatment.
G Is for Genes Train New Teachers in Genetics and Give Them Tools to Put it Into Practice G_Is_for_Genes > Part Two: In Practice > Train New Teachers in Genetics and Give Them Tools to Put it Into Practice Include a course on genetics of learning in teacher training and make useful information about personalization of education available to all schools.
History of the periodic table Electron shell and quantum mechanics History_of_the_periodic_table > Atomic theory and isotopes > Electron shell and quantum mechanics Bohr proposed that elements in the same group behaved similarly because they have similar electron configurations, and that noble gases had filled valence shells; this forms the basis of the modern octet rule. Bohr's study of spectroscopy and chemistry was not usual among theoretical atomic physicists.
Half-integer Sphere volume Half-integer > Uses > Sphere volume Although the factorial function is defined only for integer arguments, it can be extended to fractional arguments using the gamma function. The gamma function for half-integers is an important part of the formula for the volume of an n-dimensional ball of radius R {\displaystyle R} , The values of the gamma function on half-integers are integer multiples of the square root of pi: where n ! !
Exponential tree Summary Exponential_tree An exponential tree is a type of search tree where the number of children of its nodes decreases doubly-exponentially with increasing depth. Values are stored only in the leaf nodes. Each node contains a splitter, a value less than or equal to all values in the subtree which is used during search.
Paralytic polio Signs and symptoms Polio > Signs and symptoms These symptoms are temporary and full recovery occurs within one or two weeks.In about 1 percent of infections the virus can migrate from the gastrointestinal tract into the central nervous system (CNS). Most patients with CNS involvement develop nonparalytic aseptic meningitis, with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting, stomach pain, lethargy, and irritability.
Batch normalization Decoupling Batch_normalization > Theoretical Understanding > Decoupling Another possible reason for the success of batch normalization is that it decouples the length and direction of the weight vectors and thus facilitates better training. By interpreting batch norm as a reparametrization of weight space, it can be shown that the length and the direction of the weights are separated and can thus be trained separately. For a particular neural network unit with input x {\displaystyle x} and weight vector w {\displaystyle w} , denote its output as f ( w ) = E x {\displaystyle f(w)=E_{x}} , where ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is the activation function, and denote S = E {\displaystyle S=E} .
OptiSLang History OptiSLang > History Since the 1980s, research teams at the University of Innsbruck and Bauhaus-Universität Weimar had been developing algorithms for optimization and reliability analysis in conjunction with finite element simulations. As a result, the software "Structural Language (SLang)" was created. In 2000, CAE engineers first applied it to conducted optimization and robustness analysis in the automotive industry.
Tracing just-in-time compilation History Tracing_just-in-time_compilation > History It enables the use of tracing JITs for language implementations that were written with PyPy's translation toolchain, thus improving the performance of any program that is executed using that interpreter. This is possible by tracing the interpreter itself, instead of the program that is executed by the interpreter.Tracing JITs have also been explored by Microsoft in the SPUR project for their Common Intermediate Language (CIL). SPUR is a generic tracer for CIL, which can also be used to trace through a JavaScript implementation.
System equivalence Overview System_equivalence > Overview This testing is necessary when designing new complex systems that have many components. Businesses do not want to spend millions of dollars on a system that does not perform the way that they were expecting. Using the equivalent system technique, engineers can verify and prove to the business that the system will work.
Mental causation Physicalist solutions Mental_causation > Traditional solutions > Physicalist solutions The other major option is to assert that mental events are either (at least contingently) identical to physical events, or supervene on physical events. Views that fall under this general heading are called physicalism or materialism. But, such views require a particular theory to explain how mental events are physical in nature. One such theory is behaviorism.
Center for Democracy and Technology Student privacy Center_for_Democracy_and_Technology > Project teams > Student privacy The CDT advocates for student data privacy due to the massive amounts of data being collected by school districts across the country, while also not having proper security measures in place to protect the data. The CDT helps school districts achieve higher security standards through policy advocacy and guidance. On December 2, 2021, the CDT published a research brief on student privacy titled Unmet Demand for Community Engagement on School Data and Technology Use where the CDT’s research found that parents and students want to play a role in the decisions around technology and data.
Toll bridge History Toll_bridge > History The practice of collecting tolls on bridges harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water. As boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles, and goods to cross it.The original London Bridge across the river Thames opened as a toll bridge, but an accumulation of funds by the charitable trust that operated the bridge (Bridge House Estates) saw that the charges were dropped.
Singular Value Decomposition Relation to eigenvalue decomposition Singular-value_decomposition > SVD and spectral decomposition > Relation to eigenvalue decomposition The columns of U (referred to as left-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of MM⁎. The non-zero elements of Σ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } } (non-zero singular values) are the square roots of the non-zero eigenvalues of M⁎M or MM⁎.In the special case of M being a normal matrix, and thus also squared, the spectral theorem ensures that it can be unitarily diagonalized using a basis of eigenvectors, and thus decomposed as M = U D U ∗ {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {D} \mathbf {U} ^{*}} for some unitary matrix U and diagonal matrix D with complex elements σi along the diagonal. When M is positive semi-definite, σi will be non-negative real numbers so that the decomposition M = UDU⁎ is also a singular value decomposition.
Randomized weighted majority algorithm Uses of Randomized Weighted Majority Algorithm (RWMA) Randomized_weighted_majority_algorithm > Uses of Randomized Weighted Majority Algorithm (RWMA) The Randomized Weighted Majority Algorithm can be used to combine multiple algorithms in which case RWMA can be expected to perform nearly as well as the best of the original algorithms in hindsight. Furthermore, one can apply the Randomized Weighted Majority Algorithm in situations where experts are making choices that cannot be combined (or can't be combined easily). For example, RWMA can be applied to repeated game-playing or the online shortest path problem. In the online shortest path problem, each expert is telling you a different way to drive to work.
Aircraft bridge Construction Aircraft_bridge > Construction Aircraft bridges must be designed for the substantial forces exerted by aircraft braking, affecting the lateral load in substructure design. Braking force of 70 percent of the live load is assumed in two recent taxiway bridge designs. And "deck design is more apt to be controlled by punching shear than flexure due to the heavy wheel loads.
Hemolysin α-hemolysin Hemolysin > Mechanism > Staphylococcus aureus hemolysins > α-hemolysin Secreted by Staphylococcus aureus, this toxin binds with the outer membrane, with subsequent oligomerization of the toxin monomers to form water-filled channels. These are responsible for osmotic phenomena, cell depolarization and loss of vital molecules (v.gr. ATP), leading to cell death.
Oligosaprobe Summary Oligosaprobe Oligosaprobes are organisms that inhabit clean water or water that is only slightly polluted by organic matter. Oxidation processes predominate in such waters owing to an excess of dissolved oxygen. Nitrates are among the nitrogen compounds present; there is little carbonic acid and no hydrogen sulfide. Oligosaprobic environments are aquatic environments rich in dissolved oxygen and (relatively) free from decayed organic matter.
Risk-return spectrum Leverage extends the spectrum Risk-return_spectrum > Leverage extends the spectrum The use of leverage can extend the progression out even further. Examples of this include borrowing funds to invest in equities, or use of derivatives. If leverage is used then there are two lines instead of one. This is because although one can invest at the risk-free rate, one can only borrow at an interest rate according to one's own credit-rating. This is visualised by the new line starting at the point of the riskiest unleveraged investment (equities) and rising at a lower slope than the original line. If this new line were traced back to the vertical axis of zero risk, it will cross it at the borrowing rate.
Thermodynamically stable Outside chemistry Thermodynamic_stability > Outside chemistry In everyday language, and often in materials science, a chemical substance is said to be "stable" if it is not particularly reactive in the environment or during normal use, and retains its useful properties on the timescale of its expected usefulness. In particular, the usefulness is retained in the presence of air, moisture or heat, and under the expected conditions of application. In this meaning, the material is said to be unstable if it can corrode, decompose, polymerize, burn or explode under the conditions of anticipated use or normal environmental conditions. == References ==
Proof of knowledge Schnorr protocol Proof_of_knowledge > Protocols > Schnorr protocol After receiving c {\displaystyle c} , the prover sends the third and last message (the response) s = r + c x {\displaystyle s=r+cx} reduced modulo the order of the group.The verifier accepts, if g s = t y c {\displaystyle g^{s}=ty^{c}} . We can see this is a valid proof of knowledge because it has an extractor that works as follows: Simulate the prover to output t = g r {\displaystyle t=g^{r}} . The prover is now in state Q {\displaystyle Q} .
Causal dynamical triangulation Related theories Causal_dynamical_triangulation > Related theories CDT has some similarities with loop quantum gravity, especially with its spin foam formulations. For example, the Lorentzian Barrett–Crane model is essentially a non-perturbative prescription for computing path integrals, just like CDT. There are important differences, however. Spin foam formulations of quantum gravity use different degrees of freedom and different Lagrangians.
Equimolar counterdiffusion Diffusion Equimolar_counterdiffusion > Diffusion The rate at which diffusion occurs depends on the state of the molecules: it occurs at a high rate in gases, a slower rate in liquids, and an even slower rate in solids. In gases, molecular diffusion is dependent on pressure and temperature. The higher the pressure, the slower the diffusion takes place, and the higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion takes place.
Plato's problem Universal grammar Plato's_problem > Contemporary parallels > Linguistics > Universal grammar These subjects are interrelated and viewed as evidence in support of the theory of UG. One of the simplest ways to approach the concept of universal grammar is to pose a hypothetical question about an aspect of language acquisition in children – why does a child learn the language that it does. As a specific example, how can a child of Asian descent (say, born of Chinese parents) be set down in the middle of Topeka, Kansas and acquire "perfect English?"
Steroid-induced osteoporosis Prevention and Treatment Steroid-induced_osteoporosis > Prevention and Treatment Importantly, FRAX does not take into account the dose and duration of glucocorticoid.The International Osteoporosis Foundation and the European Calcified Tissue Society recommend pharmacological therapy for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men ≥70 years, with a previous fragility fracture, or a dose equivalent of prednisone ≥7.5 mg daily for ≥3 months. For premenopausal women and men <50 years taking steroids for ≥3 months, osteoporosis therapy should be considered for those with a history of a fragility fracture. For all others, treatment decisions are individualized based upon patient characteristics and clinical judgement. References
Shake it Up Australia Foundation Parkinson's disease Shake_it_Up_Australia_Foundation > Parkinson's disease When dopamine levels are depleted, the motor system nerves are unable to control movement and coordination. Over time, the dopamine producing cells are lost and motor type symptoms occur. People live with Parkinson's for a substantial amount of time before diagnosis when 80% of the dopamine producing cells are already lost. Currently there is no definitive test to diagnose Parkinson's but current clinical trials are showing promising results into ways to identify biomarkers that will detect the disease by a simple blood test at an earlier stage.
Gompertz curve Gompertz curve Gompertz_function > Applications > Gompertz curve Population biology is especially concerned with the Gompertz function. This function is especially useful in describing the rapid growth of a certain population of organisms while also being able to account for the eventual horizontal asymptote, once the carrying capacity is determined (plateau cell/population number). It is modeled as follows: where: t {\textstyle t} is time N 0 {\textstyle N_{0}} is the initial density of cells N I {\textstyle N_{I}} is the plateau cell/population density b {\textstyle b} is the initial rate of tumor growthThis function consideration of the plateau cell number makes it useful in accurately mimicking real-life population dynamics. The function also adheres to the sigmoid function, which is the most widely accepted convention of generally detailing a population's growth.
Transition curve Geometry Transition_curve > Geometry While railroad track geometry is intrinsically three-dimensional, for practical purposes the vertical and horizontal components of track geometry are usually treated separately.The overall design pattern for the vertical geometry is typically a sequence of constant grade segments connected by vertical transition curves in which the local grade varies linearly with distance and in which the elevation therefore varies quadratically with distance. Here grade refers to the tangent of the angle of rise of the track. The design pattern for horizontal geometry is typically a sequence of straight line (i.e., a tangent) and curve (i.e. a circular arc) segments connected by transition curves. The degree of banking in railroad track is typically expressed as the difference in elevation of the two rails, commonly quantified and referred to as the superelevation.
Rendezvous hashing Properties Rendezvous_hashing > Problem Definition and Approach > Properties Remapping is required only for objects currently mapped to the failed site, and disruption is minimal.Rendezvous hashing has the following properties: Low overhead: The hash function used is efficient, so overhead at the clients is very low. Load balancing: Since the hash function is randomizing, each of the n sites is equally likely to receive the object O. Loads are uniform across the sites. Site capacity: Sites with different capacities can be represented in the site list with multiplicity in proportion to capacity.
Molybdenum blue Isopoly molybdenum blues Molybdenum_blue > Isopoly molybdenum blues Before then it was well known that there were polymolybdates of Mo(VI). Molybdenum(VI)oxide, MoO3, when dissolved in aqueous alkali forms the tetrahedral molybdate anion, MoO2−4. Dissolving molybdate salts in strong acid produces "molybdic acid", MoO3·2H2O.
Intel 64 Real mode Intel_64 > AMD64 > Operating modes > Legacy mode > Real mode Real mode is the initial mode of operation when the processor is initialized, and is a submode of legacy mode. It is backwards compatible with the original Intel 8086 and Intel 8088 processors. Real mode is primarily used today by operating system bootloaders, which are required by the architecture to configure virtual memory details before transitioning to higher modes. This mode is also used by any operating system that needs to communicate with the system firmware with a traditional BIOS-style interface.
Ct colonography Disadvantages Ct_colonography > Disadvantages Some research has demonstrated that ultra-low dose VC can be just as effective in demonstrating bowel disease due to the great difference in x-ray absorption between air and the tissue comprising the inner wall of the colon. Optical colonoscopy is taken as the "gold standard" for colorectal cancer screening by the vast majority of the medical and research communities. However, some radiologists recommend VC as a preferred approach to colorectal screening. Virtual colonoscopy is favored by some professionals because it permits complete visualization of the entire colon, hence providing more opportunity to identify precancerous polyps and cancer, and to then do prompt diagnostic biopsies or therapeutic removal of these lesions.
Concurrent algorithm Models Concurrent_programming_language > Models Input/output automata were introduced in 1987. Logics such as Lamport's TLA+, and mathematical models such as traces and Actor event diagrams, have also been developed to describe the behavior of concurrent systems. Software transactional memory borrows from database theory the concept of atomic transactions and applies them to memory accesses.
Integration by parts Functions multiplied by unity Integration_by_parts > Applications > Finding antiderivatives > Functions multiplied by unity Two other well-known examples are when integration by parts is applied to a function expressed as a product of 1 and itself. This works if the derivative of the function is known, and the integral of this derivative times x {\displaystyle x} is also known. The first example is ∫ ln ⁡ ( x ) d x {\displaystyle \int \ln(x)dx} . We write this as: Let: then: where C {\displaystyle C} is the constant of integration. The second example is the inverse tangent function arctan ⁡ ( x ) {\displaystyle \arctan(x)}: Rewrite this as Now let: then using a combination of the inverse chain rule method and the natural logarithm integral condition.
Model elimination Summary Model_elimination Model Elimination is the name attached to a pair of proof procedures invented by Donald W. Loveland, the first of which was published in 1968 in the Journal of the ACM. Their primary purpose is to carry out automated theorem proving, though they can readily be extended to logic programming, including the more general disjunctive logic programming. Model Elimination is closely related to resolution while also bearing characteristics of a Tableaux method.
Azure Cosmos DB Consistency levels Azure_Cosmos_DB > Global distribution > Consistency levels Data consistency is configurable on Cosmos DB, letting application developers choose among five different levels: Eventual does not guarantee any ordering and only ensures that replicas will eventually converge Consistent prefix adds ordering guarantees on top of eventual Session is scoped to a single client connection and basically ensures a read-your-own-writes consistency for each client; it is the default consistency level Bounded staleness augments consistent prefix by ensuring that reads won't lag beyond x versions of an item or some specified time window Strong consistency (or linearizable) ensures that clients always read the latest globally committed writeThe desired consistency level is defined at the account level but can be overridden on a per request basis by using a specific HTTP header or the corresponding feature exposed by the SDKs. All five consistency levels have been specified and verified using the TLA+ specification language, with the TLA+ model being open-sourced on GitHub.
Glossary of engineering: A–L E Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > E Electromagnetic radiationIn physics, electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves (or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. ElectromechanicsElectromechanics combines processes and procedures drawn from electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.
Giuseppe Mingione Scientific activity Giuseppe_Mingione > Scientific activity These are indeed called partial regularity results and one of the main issues is to establish whether the dimension of the singular set is strictly less than the ambient dimension. This question has found a positive answer for general integral functionals, thanks to the work of Kristensen and Mingione, who have also given explicit estimates for the dimension of the singular sets of minimisers. Subsequently, Mingione has worked on nonlinear potential theory obtaining potential estimates for solutions to nonlinear elliptic and parabolic equations. Such estimates allow to give a unified approach to the regularity theory of quasilinear, degenerate equations and relate to and upgrade previous work of Kilpeläinen, Malý, Trudinger, Wang.
John Wallis Geometry John_Wallis > Contributions to mathematics > Geometry The book was based on his father's thoughts and presented one of the earliest arguments for a non-Euclidean hypothesis equivalent to the parallel postulate. After reading this, Wallis then wrote about his ideas as he developed his own thoughts about the postulate, trying to prove it also with similar triangles.He found that Euclid's fifth postulate is equivalent to the one currently named "Wallis postulate" after him. This postulate states that "On a given finite straight line it is always possible to construct a triangle similar to a given triangle". This result was encompassed in a trend trying to deduce Euclid's fifth from the other four postulates which today is known to be impossible. Unlike other authors, he realised that the unbounded growth of a triangle was not guaranteed by the four first postulates.
Septic shock Causes Septic_shock > Causes Septic shock is a result of a systemic response to infection or multiple infectious causes. The precipitating infections that may lead to septic shock if severe enough include but are not limited to appendicitis, pneumonia, bacteremia, diverticulitis, pyelonephritis, meningitis, pancreatitis, necrotizing fasciitis, MRSA and mesenteric ischemia.According to the earlier definitions of sepsis updated in 2001, sepsis is a constellation of symptoms secondary to an infection that manifests as disruptions in heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and white blood cell count. If sepsis worsens to the point of end-organ dysfunction (kidney failure, liver dysfunction, altered mental status, or heart damage), then the condition is called severe sepsis. Once severe sepsis worsens to the point where blood pressure can no longer be maintained with intravenous fluids alone, then the criterion has been met for septic shock.
27 (number) In other fields 27_(number) > In other fields Twenty-seven is also: A-27, American attack aircraft. The code for international direct-dial phone calls to South Africa. The name of a cigarette, Marlboro Blend No. 27. The number of the French department Eure. One of the anthropomorphic math symbols Lisa Simpson imagines talking to her in The Simpsons episode "Girls Just Want to Have Sums", which, instead of offering the expected pun-based aphorism, rather unhelpfully only says "twenty seven". Number of planets needed to fuel the Reality Bomb in the episodes "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End" of Doctor Who (series 4).
Valence orbital Summary Valence_shell In chemistry and physics, a valence electron is an electron in the outer shell associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed. In a single covalent bond, a shared pair forms with both atoms in the bond each contributing one valence electron. The presence of valence electrons can determine the element's chemical properties, such as its valence—whether it may bond with other elements and, if so, how readily and with how many.
Stress (mechanics) Analysis Stress_path > Analysis Stress analysis is a branch of applied physics that covers the determination of the internal distribution of internal forces in solid objects. It is an essential tool in engineering for the study and design of structures such as tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or expected loads. It is also important in many other disciplines; for example, in geology, to study phenomena like plate tectonics, vulcanism and avalanches; and in biology, to understand the anatomy of living beings.
300 (number) 331 300_(number) > Integers from 301 to 399 > 330s > 331 331 is a prime number, super-prime, cuban prime, sum of five consecutive primes (59 + 61 + 67 + 71 + 73), centered pentagonal number, centered hexagonal number, and Mertens function returns 0.
Genetically modified animal Amphibians Genetically_modified_livestock > Amphibians Transfecting axolotl cells is thought to be more difficult because of the composition of the extracellular matrix (ECM). This technique allows spinal cord cells to be labeled and is very important in studying limb regeneration in many other cells; it has been used to study the role of the immune system in regeneration. Using gene knockout approaches, scientists can target specific regions of DNA using techniques like CRISPR/Cas9 to understand the function of certain genes based on the absence of the gene of interest.
Eukaryogenesis Context Eukaryogenesis > Context Life arose on Earth once it had cooled enough for oceans to form. The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) was an organism which had ribosomes and the genetic code; it lived some 4 billion years ago. It gave rise to two main branches of prokaryotic life, the bacteria and the archaea. From among these small-celled, rapidly-dividing ancestors arose the Eukaryotes, with much larger cells, nuclei, and distinctive biochemistry. The eukaryotes form a domain that contains all complex cells and most types of multicellular organism, including the animals, plants, and fungi.
Function-Behaviour-Structure ontology Applications Function-Behaviour-Structure_ontology > Applications As such, the FBS ontology becomes the FCBPSS ontology. In the FCBPSS ontology, the definition of Function and Structure remains the same as that in the FBS ontology. The concepts of Behavior, Context, Principle, and State are as follows.
Geometric mean theorem Theorem and applications Geometric_mean_theorem > Theorem and applications For such a rectangle with sides p and q we denote its top left vertex with D. Now we extend the segment q to its left by p (using arc AE centered on D) and draw a half circle with endpoints A and B with the new segment p + q as its diameter. Then we erect a perpendicular line to the diameter in D that intersects the half circle in C. Due to Thales' theorem C and the diameter form a right triangle with the line segment DC as its altitude, hence DC is the side of a square with the area of the rectangle. The method also allows for the construction of square roots (see constructible number), since starting with a rectangle that has a width of 1 the constructed square will have a side length that equals the square root of the rectangle's length.Another application of provides a geometrical proof of the AM–GM inequality in the case of two numbers.
P-matrix Spectra of P-matrices P-matrix > Spectra of P-matrices By a theorem of Kellogg, the eigenvalues of P- and P 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}} - matrices are bounded away from a wedge about the negative real axis as follows: If { u 1 , . . . , u n } {\displaystyle \{u_{1},...,u_{n}\}} are the eigenvalues of an n-dimensional P-matrix, where n > 1 {\displaystyle n>1} , then | arg ⁡ ( u i ) | < π − π n , i = 1 , .
Historical myth Evolution and paleontology Historical_myth > Science, technology, and mathematics > Biology > Evolution and paleontology The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. "Scientific fact and theory are not categorically separable", and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe.
MO diagram Heteronuclear diatomics Molecular_orbital_diagram > Heteronuclear diatomics In hydrogen fluoride (HF), the hydrogen 1s orbital can mix with fluorine 2pz orbital to form a sigma bond because experimentally the energy of 1s of hydrogen is comparable with 2p of fluorine. The HF electron configuration 1σ22σ23σ21π4 reflects that the other electrons remain in three lone pairs and that the bond order is 1. The more electronegative atom is the more energetically excited because it more similar in energy to its atomic orbital.