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Embedding problem Summary Embedding_problem In Galois theory, a branch of mathematics, the embedding problem is a generalization of the inverse Galois problem. Roughly speaking, it asks whether a given Galois extension can be embedded into a Galois extension in such a way that the restriction map between the corresponding Galois groups is given. |
3D Aerobatics Aeroplane Manoeuvres 3D_Aerobatics > Aeroplane Manoeuvres Then neutralize aileron and lessen elevator and the plane will spin while motionless in the air. This manoeuvre has a large "wow factor" because the plane is literally stopped dead in the air for a second or two. Turn-Around A Turn-Around is a figure to go from upright to inverted and opposite. |
Software performance analysis Data granularity in profiler types Software_performance_analysis > Data granularity in profiler types Profilers, which are also programs themselves, analyze target programs by collecting information on their execution. Based on their data granularity, on how profilers collect information, they are classified into event based or statistical profilers. Profilers interrupt program execution to collect information, which may result in a limited resolution in the time measurements, which should be taken with a grain of salt. Basic block profilers report a number of machine clock cycles devoted to executing each line of code, or a timing based on adding these together; the timings reported per basic block may not reflect a difference between cache hits and misses. |
Augustin-Louis Cauchy Argument principle, stability Augustin-Louis_Cauchy > Work > Argument principle, stability In a paper published in 1855, two years before Cauchy's death, he discussed some theorems, one of which is similar to the "Principle of the argument" in many modern textbooks on complex analysis. In modern control theory textbooks, the Cauchy argument principle is quite frequently used to derive the Nyquist stability criterion, which can be used to predict the stability of negative feedback amplifier and negative feedback control systems. Thus Cauchy's work has a strong impact on both pure mathematics and practical engineering. |
Gravitometer Summary Gravitometer Gravitometer may refer to: Gravimeter, an instrument for measuring the local gravitational field Hydrometer, referred to in pipeline work as a gravitometer |
Minkowski's theorem Proof Minkowski's_theorem > Proof The following argument proves Minkowski's theorem for the specific case of L = ℤ2. Proof of the Z 2 {\textstyle \mathbb {Z} ^{2}} case: Consider the map f: S → R 2 / 2 L , ( x , y ) ↦ ( x mod 2 , y mod 2 ) {\displaystyle f:S\to \mathbb {R} ^{2}/2L,\qquad (x,y)\mapsto (x{\bmod {2}},y{\bmod {2}})} Intuitively, this map cuts the plane into 2 by 2 squares, then stacks the squares on top of each other. Clearly f (S) has area less than or equal to 4, because this set lies within a 2 by 2 square. Assume for a contradiction that f could be injective, which means the pieces of S cut out by the squares stack up in a non-overlapping way. |
COVID-19 pandemic Vaccines COVID-19_pandemic > Disease > Prevention > Vaccines The initial focus of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines was on preventing symptomatic and severe illness. The COVID-19 vaccines are widely credited for their role in reducing the severity and death caused by COVID-19.As of March 2023, more than 5.5 billion people had received one or more doses (11.8 billion in total) in over 197 countries. The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine was the most widely used. |
Neural modeling fields Neural modeling fields hierarchical organization Neural_modeling_fields > Neural modeling fields hierarchical organization The activated models initiate other actions. They serve as input signals to the next processing level, where more general concept-models are recognized or created. Output signals from a given level, serving as input to the next level, are the model activation signals, am, defined as am = Σn=1..N f(m|n). |
Thermochemistry Summary Thermochemistry Thermochemistry is useful in predicting reactant and product quantities throughout the course of a given reaction. In combination with entropy determinations, it is also used to predict whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous, favorable or unfavorable. Endothermic reactions absorb heat, while exothermic reactions release heat. |
Game balance Feedback Game_difficulty > Methods and tools > Feedback While tester feedback is important when developing and updating a game, there are certain things to be kept in mind: Skill and the ability to explain do not necessarily correlate with each other. There are typically more players than developers, so they are better at solving it. Additionally, new testers should be added from time to time since practice effects emerge. |
Computational simulation In science Computer_model > In science A two-dimensional model might be used to simulate the drag forces on the cross-section of an aeroplane wing. A three-dimensional simulation might estimate the heating and cooling requirements of a large building. An understanding of statistical thermodynamic molecular theory is fundamental to the appreciation of molecular solutions. |
Transient-key cryptography Summary Transient-key_cryptography Transient-key cryptography is a form of public-key cryptography wherein keypairs are generated and assigned to brief intervals of time instead of to individuals or organizations, and the blocks of cryptographic data are chained through time. In a transient-key system, private keys are used briefly and then destroyed, which is why it is sometimes nicknamed “disposable crypto.” Data encrypted with a private key associated with a specific time interval can be irrefutably linked to that interval, making transient-key cryptography particularly useful for digital trusted timestamping. Transient-key cryptography was invented in 1997 by Dr. Michael Doyle of Eolas, and has been adopted in the ANSI ASC X9.95 Standard for trusted timestamps. |
Authentication protocol CHAP - Challenge-handshake authentication protocol Authentication_protocol > Types > Authentication protocols developed for PPP Point-to-Point Protocol > CHAP - Challenge-handshake authentication protocol The authentication process in this protocol is always initialized by the server/host and can be performed anytime during the session, even repeatedly. Server sends a random string (usually 128B long). The client uses password and the string received as parameters for MD5 hash function and then sends the result together with username in plain text. Server uses the username to apply the same function and compares the calculated and received hash. An authentication is successful or unsuccessful. |
Empirical laws Conservation and symmetry Physical_law > Laws of physics > Conservation laws > Conservation and symmetry In general, this is only approximative because with the advent of relativity and experiments in nuclear and particle physics: mass can be transformed into energy and vice versa, so mass is not always conserved but part of the more general conservation of mass–energy. Conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum for isolated systems can be found to be symmetries in time, translation, and rotation. Conservation of charge was also realized since charge has never been observed to be created or destroyed and only found to move from place to place. |
Procedural control Techniques Procedural_control > Techniques This method evolved from similar techniques used in railroad dispatch. It simplifies conflict detection because aircraft on different routes can only possibly conflict at intersection points with other routes, or with aircraft on the same route. Each intersection point ("fix posting area") in the sector is made into a separate bay on the strip rack, and multiple strips are printed for each aircraft, one per bay. |
Human kidney Summary Kidney The global estimated prevalence of CKD is 13.4%, and patients with kidney failure needing renal replacement therapy are estimated between 5 and 7 million. Procedures used in the management of kidney disease include chemical and microscopic examination of the urine (urinalysis), measurement of kidney function by calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the serum creatinine; and kidney biopsy and CT scan to evaluate for abnormal anatomy. Dialysis and kidney transplantation are used to treat kidney failure; one (or both sequentially) of these are almost always used when renal function drops below 15%. |
Visual search Guided search model Visual_search > Theory > Guided search model This likelihood is based on preattentive, featural information of the perceiver. According to the guided search model, the initial processing of basic features produces an activation map, with every item in the visual display having its own level of activation. Attention is demanded based on peaks of activation in the activation map in a search for the target. |
Radiologic test Ultrasound Radiologic_test > Diagnostic imaging modalities > Ultrasound A clot, embedded deep in one of the inner veins of the legs, can be found via ultrasound before it dislodges and travels to the lungs, resulting in a potentially fatal pulmonary embolism. Ultrasound is useful as a guide to performing biopsies to minimize damage to surrounding tissues and in drainages such as thoracentesis. Small, portable ultrasound devices now replace peritoneal lavage in trauma wards by non-invasively assessing for the presence of internal bleeding and any internal organ damage. Extensive internal bleeding or injury to the major organs may require surgery and repair. |
Scale (map) Summary Map_scale_factor The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map. When scale varies noticeably, it can be accounted for as the scale factor. Tissot's indicatrix is often used to illustrate the variation of point scale across a map. |
PKIoverheid Summary PKIoverheid PKIoverheid is the public key infrastructure (PKI) from the Dutch government. Like any other PKI, the system issues and manages digital certificates such that they can be realized. PKIoverheid is run by Logius. |
Tiled merge sort In-place merge sort Merge_sort > In-place merge sort It merges in linear time and constant extra space. The algorithm takes little more average time than standard merge sort algorithms, free to exploit O(n) temporary extra memory cells, by less than a factor of two. Though the algorithm is much faster in a practical way but it is unstable also for some lists. |
Anti-transglutaminase antibodies Mechanism of autoimmunity Anti-transglutaminase_antibodies > Mechanism of autoimmunity ATA changes the behavior of tTG. Some studies have revealed that antibodies increase the activity of tTG, instead of inhibiting activity as is commonly encountered with function-altering antibodies. A recent study has shown that ATA also modify and increase replication in intestinal epithelial Cells, by apparently interacting with cell-surface transglutaminase. == References == |
Outline of algebra Algebraic equations Outline_of_algebra > Algebraic equations Differential equation – equation involving derivatives. Integral equation – equation involving integrals. Diophantine equation – equation where the only solutions of interest of the unknowns are the integer ones. |
Kinetic friction Dry friction Dynamic_friction > Dry friction It is parallel to the surface, in a direction opposite to the net applied force. μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials, F n {\displaystyle F_{\mathrm {n} }} is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal) to the surface.The Coulomb friction F f {\displaystyle F_{\mathrm {f} }} may take any value from zero up to μ F n {\displaystyle \mu F_{\mathrm {n} }} , and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. |
Quadratic equations Quadratic factorization Quadratic_equation > Solving the quadratic equation > Quadratic factorization The term x − r {\displaystyle x-r} is a factor of the polynomial a x 2 + b x + c {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c} if and only if r is a root of the quadratic equation a x 2 + b x + c = 0. {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c=0.} It follows from the quadratic formula that a x 2 + b x + c = a ( x − − b + b 2 − 4 a c 2 a ) ( x − − b − b 2 − 4 a c 2 a ) . {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c=a\left(x-{\frac {-b+{\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}}}{2a}}\right)\left(x-{\frac {-b-{\sqrt {b^{2}-4ac}}}{2a}}\right).} In the special case b2 = 4ac where the quadratic has only one distinct root (i.e. the discriminant is zero), the quadratic polynomial can be factored as a x 2 + b x + c = a ( x + b 2 a ) 2 . {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c=a\left(x+{\frac {b}{2a}}\right)^{2}.} |
Galectin Nuclear pre-mRNA splicing Galectin > Function > Nuclear pre-mRNA splicing Galectin-1 and galectin-3 have been found, surprisingly, to associate with nuclear ribonucleoprotein complexes including the spliceosome. Studies revealed that galectin-1 and -3 are required splicing factors, since removal of the galectins by affinity chromatography with lactose resulted in loss of splicing activity. It appears that the splicing capability of galectins is independent of their sugar-binding specificities. Site-directed mutagenesis studies to the carbohydrate recognition domain removes glycan binding but does not prevent association with the spliceosome. |
Healthy dietary pattern Research Health_food > Research Preliminary research indicated that a diet high in fruit and vegetables may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and death, but not cancer. Eating a healthy diet and getting enough exercise can maintain body weight within the normal range and reduce the risk of obesity in most people. A 2021 scientific review of evidence on diets for lowering the risk of atherosclerosis found that: low consumption of salt and foods of animal origin, and increased intake of plant-based foods—whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts—are linked with reduced atherosclerosis risk. The same applies for the replacement of butter and other animal/tropical fats with olive oil and other unsaturated-fat-rich oil. |
Glossary of aerospace engineering A Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering > A Aerodynamics is a sub-field of gas dynamics, which in turn is a sub-field of fluid dynamics. Many aspects and principles of aerodynamics theory are common to these three fields. Aeroelasticity – is the branch of physics and engineering that studies the interactions between the inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces that occur when an elastic body is exposed to a fluid flow. |
Peltier element Operating principle Thermoelectric_cooler > Operating principle Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect (one of three phenomena that make up the thermoelectric effect). A thermoelectric module is made from three components; the conductors, legs, and the substrate, and many of these modules are connected electrically in series, but thermally in parallel. When a DC electric current flows through the device, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side gets cooler while the other gets hotter. The "hot" side is attached to a heat sink so that it remains at ambient temperature, while the cool side goes below room temperature. |
WebAssembly SIMD SIMD multi-versioning WebAssembly_SIMD > Software > SIMD multi-versioning Consumer software is typically expected to work on a range of CPUs covering multiple generations, which could limit the programmer's ability to use new SIMD instructions to improve the computational performance of a program. The solution is to include multiple versions of the same code that uses either older or newer SIMD technologies, and pick one that best fits the user's CPU at run-time (dynamic dispatch). There are two main camps of solutions: Function multi-versioning (FMV): a subroutine in the program or a library is duplicated and compiled for many instruction set extensions, and the program decides which one to use at run-time. Library multi-versioning (LMV): the entire programming library is duplicated for many instruction set extensions, and the operating system or the program decides which one to load at run-time.FMV, manually coded in assembly language, is quite commonly used in a number of performance-critical libraries such as glibc and libjpeg-turbo. |
Slosh dynamics Summary Slosh_dynamics In fluid dynamics, slosh refers to the movement of liquid inside another object (which is, typically, also undergoing motion). Strictly speaking, the liquid must have a free surface to constitute a slosh dynamics problem, where the dynamics of the liquid can interact with the container to alter the system dynamics significantly. Important examples include propellant slosh in spacecraft tanks and rockets (especially upper stages), and the free surface effect (cargo slosh) in ships and trucks transporting liquids (for example oil and gasoline). However, it has become common to refer to liquid motion in a completely filled tank, i.e. without a free surface, as "fuel slosh".Such motion is characterized by "inertial waves" and can be an important effect in spinning spacecraft dynamics. |
Boundary Layer Predicting transient boundary layer thickness in a cylinder using dimensional analysis Shear_layers > Predicting transient boundary layer thickness in a cylinder using dimensional analysis By using the transient and viscous force equations for a cylindrical flow you can predict the transient boundary layer thickness by finding the Womersley Number ( N w {\displaystyle N_{w}} ). Transient Force = ρ v w {\displaystyle \rho vw} Viscous Force = μ v δ 1 2 {\displaystyle {\mu v \over \delta _{1}^{2}}} Setting them equal to each other gives: ρ v w = μ v δ 1 2 {\displaystyle \rho vw={\mu v \over \delta _{1}^{2}}} Solving for delta gives: δ 1 = μ ρ w = v w {\displaystyle \delta _{1}={\sqrt {\mu \over \rho w}}={\sqrt {\ v \over \ w}}} In dimensionless form: L δ 1 = L w v = N w {\displaystyle {L \over \delta _{1}}={L{\sqrt {w \over \ v}}}=N_{w}} where N w {\displaystyle N_{w}} = Womersley Number; ρ {\displaystyle \rho } = density; v {\displaystyle v} = velocity; w = {\displaystyle w=} ? ; δ 1 {\displaystyle \delta _{1}} = length of transient boundary layer; μ {\displaystyle \mu } = viscosity; L {\displaystyle L} = characteristic length. |
Layout extraction Summary Circuit_extraction The electric circuit extraction or simply circuit extraction, also netlist extraction, is the translation of an integrated circuit layout back into the electrical circuit (netlist) it is intended to represent. This extracted circuit is needed for various purposes including circuit simulation, static timing analysis, signal integrity, power analysis and optimization, and logic to layout comparison. Each of these functions require a slightly different representation of the circuit, resulting in the need for multiple layout extractions. |
Small nucleolar RNA SNORD34 Summary Small_nucleolar_RNA_SNORD34 snoRNA U34 belongs to the C/D box class of snoRNAs which contain the conserved sequence motifs known as the C box (UGAUGA) and the D box (CUGA). Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs.snoRNA U34 was initially characterised by a computational screen and in the human genome is encoded within intron 5 of the gene for ribosomal protein L13a. U34 is predicted to guide site-specific 2'-O-methylation of 25S rRNAs. Unusually for a snoRNA although the selection of the target nucleotide requires the antisense element and the conserved box D or D' of the snoRNA, in the case of U34 snoRNP the methyltransferase activity is thought to reside in one of the protein components. U34 snoRNA has homologues in mouse, Arabidopsis (annotated as snoR4) and in several copies in rice (alternatively named snoZ181). |
Actuality and potentiality Influence on early modern physics Actuality_and_potentiality > Post-Aristotelian usage > Influence on early modern physics The definition of energy in modern physics as the product of mass and the square of velocity, was derived by Leibniz, as a correction of Descartes, based upon Galileo's investigation of falling bodies. He preferred to refer to it as an entelecheia or 'living force' (Latin vis viva), but what he defined is today called kinetic energy, and was seen by Leibniz as a modification of Aristotle's energeia, and his concept of the potential for movement which is in things. Instead of each type of physical thing having its own specific tendency to a way of moving or changing, as in Aristotle, Leibniz said that instead, force, power, or motion itself could be transferred between things of different types, in such a way that there is a general conservation of this energy. |
Nondeterministic tree automaton Completeness and reduction Pumping_lemma_for_regular_tree_languages > Properties > Completeness and reduction A non-deterministic finite tree automaton is complete if there is at least one transition rule available for every possible symbol-states combination. A state q is accessible if there exists a ground term t such that there exists a reduction from t to q(t). An NFTA is reduced if all its states are accessible. |
Supramolecular polymer Copolymers Supramolecular_polymer > Copolymers A copolymer is formed from more than one monomeric species. Advanced polymerization techniques have been established for the preparation of covalent copolymers, however supramolecular copolymers are still in its infancy and is slowly progressing. In recent years, all plausible category of supramolecular copolymers such as random, alternating, block, blocky, or periodic has been demonstrated in a broad sense. |
Closed system (control theory) Summary Closed_system_(control_theory) The terms closed system and open system have long been defined in the widely (and long before any sort of amplifier was invented) established subject of thermodynamics, in terms that have nothing to do with the concepts of feedback and feedforward. The terms 'feedforward' and 'feedback' arose first in the 1920s in the theory of amplifier design, more recently than the thermodynamic terms. Negative feedback was eventually patented by H.S Black in 1934. In thermodynamics, an open system is one that can take in and give out ponderable matter. |
Algorithm Ancient Near East Algorithm_design > History: Development of the notion of "algorithm" > Ancient Near East Algorithms were later used in ancient Hellenistic mathematics. Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which was described in the Introduction to Arithmetic by Nicomachus,: Ch 9.2 and the Euclidean algorithm, which was first described in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC). : Ch 9.1 |
Open Platform Management Architecture Adoption Open_Platform_Management_Architecture > Adoption According to AMD's press releases, there has been significant interest in OPMA by the server industry platform and infrastructure providers. Some of the motherboards may be seen using links in the external links section. To date, no tier one computer OEMs have offered OPMA enabled motherboards for sale. |
OpenVMS Database management OpenVMS > Features > Programming > Database management Common Data Dictionary (CDD) – a central database schema repository, which allowed schemas to be shared between different applications, and data definitions to be generated for different programming languages. DATATRIEVE – a query and reporting tool which could access data from RMS files as well as Rdb and DBMS databases. Application Control Management System (ACMS) – A transaction processing monitor, which allows applications to be created using a high-level Task Description Language (TDL). |
Quantum triviality Summary Quantum_triviality In a quantum field theory, charge screening can restrict the value of the observable "renormalized" charge of a classical theory. If the only resulting value of the renormalized charge is zero, the theory is said to be "trivial" or noninteracting. Thus, surprisingly, a classical theory that appears to describe interacting particles can, when realized as a quantum field theory, become a "trivial" theory of noninteracting free particles. This phenomenon is referred to as quantum triviality. |
Ten-dimensional space Mirror symmetry Ten-dimensional_space > Connections to mathematics > Mirror symmetry Inspired by physicists' work on mirror symmetry, mathematicians have therefore constructed their own arguments proving the enumerative predictions of mirror symmetry. Today mirror symmetry is an active area of research in mathematics, and mathematicians are working to develop a more complete mathematical understanding of mirror symmetry based on physicists' intuition. Major approaches to mirror symmetry include the homological mirror symmetry program of Maxim Kontsevich and the SYZ conjecture of Andrew Strominger, Shing-Tung Yau, and Eric Zaslow. |
Negative feedback control system Environmental Science Negative_feedback_control_system > Areas of application > Environmental Science An increase in cloud cover leads to higher albedo, or surface reflectivity, of the Earth. As albedo increases, however, the amount of solar radiation decreases. This, in turn, affects the rest of the cycle. |
Thermal Radiation Properties Thermal_Radiation > Properties There are four main properties that characterize thermal radiation (in the limit of the far field): Thermal radiation emitted by a body at any temperature consists of a wide range of frequencies. The frequency distribution is given by Planck's law of black-body radiation for an idealized emitter as shown in the diagram at top. The dominant frequency (or color) range of the emitted radiation shifts to higher frequencies as the temperature of the emitter increases. For example, a red hot object radiates mainly in the long wavelengths (red and orange) of the visible band. |
C2HBrClF3 Ozone depletion C2HBrClF3 > Society and culture > Ozone depletion Halothane is an ozone depleting substance with an ODP of 1.56 and it is calculated to be responsible for 1% of total stratospheric ozone layer depletion. |
Goal setting Feedback Goal_setting > Secondary ideas > Feedback Feedback and goal setting are highly interrelated and more effective when used in conjunction with each other. : 708 Feedback cannot be given without goals in the same way that goals can not be established without providing feedback.Goal setting can lead to the creation of feedback loops, either negative or positive comparison of the output to the goal. Negative feedback loops lead to increasing the input associated with goal attainment to improve output in the next loop cycle. Positive feedback loops, if not sufficiently reinforced, can lead to subsequent setting of goals at a less difficult level. |
Pyruvate kinase Hormonal control Pyruvate_kinase > Regulation > Hormonal control In order to prevent a futile cycle, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are heavily regulated in order to ensure that they are never operating in the cell at the same time. As a result, the inhibition of pyruvate kinase by glucagon, cyclic AMP and epinephrine, not only shuts down glycolysis, but also stimulates gluconeogenesis. Alternatively, insulin interferes with the effect of glucagon, cyclic AMP and epinephrine, causing pyruvate kinase to function normally and gluconeogenesis to be shut down. Furthermore, glucose was found to inhibit and disrupt gluconeogenesis, leaving pyruvate kinase activity and glycolysis unaffected. Overall, the interaction between hormones plays a key role in the functioning and regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the cell. |
Density Functional Theory Derivation and formalism Density-functional_theory > Derivation and formalism As usual in many-body electronic structure calculations, the nuclei of the treated molecules or clusters are seen as fixed (the Born–Oppenheimer approximation), generating a static external potential V, in which the electrons are moving. A stationary electronic state is then described by a wavefunction Ψ(r1, …, rN) satisfying the many-electron time-independent Schrödinger equation H ^ Ψ = Ψ = Ψ = E Ψ , {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\Psi =\left\Psi =\left[\sum _{i=1}^{N}\left(-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m_{i}}}\nabla _{i}^{2}\right)+\sum _{i=1}^{N}V(\mathbf {r} _{i})+\sum _{i |
Design for Six Sigma Summary Design_for_Six_Sigma It is used for product or process design in contrast with process improvement. Measurement is the most important part of most Six Sigma or DFSS tools, but whereas in Six Sigma measurements are made from an existing process, DFSS focuses on gaining a deep insight into customer needs and using these to inform every design decision and trade-off. There are different options for the implementation of DFSS. |
Holo-(acyl-carrier-protein) synthase Summary Holo-(acyl-carrier-protein)_synthase In enzymology and molecular biology, a holo- synthase (ACPS, EC 2.7.8.7) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: CoA- + apo-acyl carrier protein ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } adenosine 3',5'-bisphosphate + holo-acyl carrier proteinThis enzyme belongs to the family of transferases, specifically those transferring non-standard substituted phosphate groups. It is also known as 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferase after the group it transfers. |
Genetic engineering in agriculture In popular culture Genetic_engineering_in_agriculture > In popular culture Genetic engineering methods are weakly represented in film; Michael Clark, writing for the Wellcome Trust, calls the portrayal of genetic engineering and biotechnology "seriously distorted" in films such as The 6th Day. In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically "given fantastic but visually arresting forms" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience.In the 2007 video game, BioShock, genetic engineering plays an important role in the central storyline and universe. The game takes place in the fictional underwater dystopia Rapture, in which its inhabitants possess genetic superhuman abilities after injecting themselves with "plasmids", a serum which grants such powers. Also in the city of Rapture are "Little Sisters", little girls who are generically engineered, as well as a side-plot in which a cabaret singer sells her foetus to genetic scientists who implant false memories into the newborn and genetically engineer it to grow into an adult. |
Binary logit model Bayesian Logit_regression > Model fitting > Bayesian In a Bayesian statistics context, prior distributions are normally placed on the regression coefficients, for example in the form of Gaussian distributions. There is no conjugate prior of the likelihood function in logistic regression. When Bayesian inference was performed analytically, this made the posterior distribution difficult to calculate except in very low dimensions. Now, though, automatic software such as OpenBUGS, JAGS, PyMC3, Stan or Turing.jl allows these posteriors to be computed using simulation, so lack of conjugacy is not a concern. However, when the sample size or the number of parameters is large, full Bayesian simulation can be slow, and people often use approximate methods such as variational Bayesian methods and expectation propagation. |
Public Internet IPv6 Public_Internet > Internet Protocol Suite > Internet protocol > IPv6 Because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 uses 128 bits for the IP address and was standardized in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s and is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. |
Problems with economic models Restrictive, unrealistic assumptions Problems_with_economic_models > Restrictive, unrealistic assumptions Probably unrealistic assumptions are pervasive in neoclassical economic theory (also called the "standard theory" or "neoclassical paradigm"), and those assumptions are inherited by simplified models for that theory. (Any model based on a flawed theory, cannot transcend the limitations of that theory.) Joseph Stiglitz' 2001 Nobel Prize lecture reviews his work on information asymmetries, which contrasts with the assumption, in standard models, of "perfect information". |
Spinning wheel Treadle wheel Spinning_wheel > Types > Treadle wheel This type of wheel is powered by the spinner's foot rather than their hand or a motor. The spinner sits and pumps a foot treadle that turns the drive wheel via a crankshaft and a connecting rod. This leaves both hands free for drafting the fibres, which is necessary in the short draw spinning technique, which is often used on this type of wheel. The old-fashioned pointed driven spindle is not a common feature of the treadle wheel. Instead, most modern wheels employ a flyer-and-bobbin system which twists the yarn and winds it onto a spool simultaneously. These wheels can be single- or double-treadle; which is a matter of preference and does not affect the operation of the wheel. |
Paxos (computer science) Basic Paxos Paxos_(computer_science) > Basic Paxos This protocol is the most basic of the Paxos family. Each "instance" (or "execution") of the basic Paxos protocol decides on a single output value. The protocol proceeds over several rounds. |
Beier variable-ratio gear Summary Beier_variable-ratio_gear When the disks are moved outwards, the central rim drives on the outside radius of the similar-sized tapered disks and the overall ratio is around 1:1. As the swing arms are moved inwards, the tapered disks are forced between the central rims against their spring-loading. The effective radius of the tapered disks is thus reduced and the gear ratio increases. |
Key signing party Summary Key_signing_party The fingerprint is created by a cryptographic hash function, which condenses the public key down to a string which is shorter and more manageable. Participants exchange these fingerprints as they verify each other's identification. Then, after the party, they obtain the public keys corresponding to the fingerprints they received and digitally sign them. |
Q-system (genetics) Intersectional expression Q-system_(genetics) > Use in Drosophila > Intersectional expression A variety of expression patterns may be achieved by combination of the three binary expression systems and the FLP/FRT or other recombinases. Expression patterns may be constructed as AND, OR, NOR etc. logic gates to e.g. narrow down expression patterns of available GAL4 lines. The resulting expression pattern somewhat depends on the developmental timing of activation of the transcription factors (discussed in ). |
Organic radical Homolysis Free_radical > Formation > Radical formation from spin-paired molecules > Homolysis Homolysis makes two new radicals from a spin-paired molecule by breaking a covalent bond, leaving each of the fragments with one of the electrons in the bond. Because breaking a chemical bond requires energy, homolysis occurs under the addition of heat or light. The bond dissociation energy associated with homolysis depends on the stability of a given compound, and some weak bonds are able to homolyze at relatively lower temperatures. Some homolysis reactions are particularly important because they serve as an initiator for other radical reactions. One such example is the homolysis of halogens, which occurs under light and serves as the driving force for radical halogenation reactions. Another notable reaction is the homolysis of dibenzoyl peroxide, which results in the formation of two benzoyloxy radicals and acts as an initiator for many radical reactions. |
John Tyndall Molecular physics of radiant heat John_Tyndall > Main scientific work > Molecular physics of radiant heat Invisible molecular behaviours were the ultimate basis of all physical activity. With this mindset, and his experiments, he outlined an account whereby differing types of molecules have differing absorptions of infrared radiation because their molecular structures give them differing oscillating resonances. He'd gotten into the oscillating resonances idea because he'd seen that any one type of molecule has differing absorptions at differing radiant frequencies, and he was entirely persuaded that the only difference between one frequency and another is the frequency. |
Equilibrium chemistry Determination Equilibrium_chemistry > Equilibrium constant > Determination Usually a Non-linear least squares procedure is used. A weighted sum of squares, U, is minimized. The weights, wi and quantities y may be vectors. Values of the equilibrium constants are refined in an iterative procedure. |
Fructolysis Summary Fructolysis Fructolysis refers to the metabolism of fructose from dietary sources. Though the metabolism of glucose through glycolysis uses many of the same enzymes and intermediate structures as those in fructolysis, the two sugars have very different metabolic fates in human metabolism. Unlike glucose, which is directly metabolized widely in the body, fructose is almost entirely metabolized in the liver in humans, where it is directed toward replenishment of liver glycogen and triglyceride synthesis. Under one percent of ingested fructose is directly converted to plasma triglyceride. |
Pierre-Simon Laplace Potential theory Théorie_analytique_des_probabilités > On the figure of the Earth > Potential theory An analogous result for the velocity potential of a fluid had been obtained some years previously by Leonhard Euler.Laplace's subsequent work on gravitational attraction was based on this result. The quantity ∇2V has been termed the concentration of V and its value at any point indicates the "excess" of the value of V there over its mean value in the neighbourhood of the point. Laplace's equation, a special case of Poisson's equation, appears ubiquitously in mathematical physics. |
Biquadratic function Ferrari's solution Fourth-degree_equation > Solution > Solution methods > Ferrari's solution Therefore, the solutions of the original quartic equation are x = − a 3 4 a 4 + ± 1 2 m ± 2 − ( 2 p + 2 m ± 1 2 q m ) 2 . {\displaystyle x=-{a_{3} \over 4a_{4}}+{\pm _{1}{\sqrt {2m}}\pm _{2}{\sqrt {-\left(2p+2m\pm _{1}{{\sqrt {2}}q \over {\sqrt {m}}}\right)}} \over 2}.} A comparison with the general formula above shows that √2m = 2S. |
Petroleum source rock Types of source rocks Source_rock > Types of source rocks Source rocks are classified from the types of kerogen that they contain, which in turn governs the type of hydrocarbons that will be generated: Type I source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited under anoxic conditions in deep lakes: they tend to generate waxy crude oils when submitted to thermal stress during deep burial. Type II source rocks are formed from marine planktonic and bacterial remains preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments: they produce both oil and gas when thermally cracked during deep burial. Type III source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic conditions: they tend to generate mostly gas with associated light oils when thermally cracked during deep burial. Most coals and coaly shales are generally Type III source rocks. |
Fourier Transform Translation / time shifting Table_of_Fourier_transforms > Properties of the Fourier transform > Basic properties > Translation / time shifting For any real number x0, if h(x) = f(x − x0), then ĥ(ξ) = e−i2πx0ξ f̂(ξ). |
Solar power Potential Solar_electricity > Potential This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the Sun and reduce the light available for solar cells. |
Graph (abstract data type) Breadth first search and depth first search Graph_(data_structure) > Graph traversal > Breadth first search and depth first search Breadth-first search (BFS) and depth-first search (DFS) are two closely-related approaches that are used for exploring all of the nodes in a given connected component. Both start with an arbitrary node, the "root". |
Chemical basis of life Photosynthesis Biological_sciences > Cells > Photosynthesis The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their concentration gradients from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the light-dependent reactions in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the Calvin cycle. |
Organizational ergonomics Methods Organizational_ergonomics > Methods Industry specific applications based on PTS are Seweasy, MODAPTS and GSD as seen in paper: Miller, Doug (2013). "Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail". |
Structural Dynamics Time history analysis Structural_Dynamics > Time history analysis A full time history will give the response of a structure over time during and after the application of a load. To find the full time history of a structure's response, you must solve the structure's equation of motion. |
God gene Religious response God_gene > Religious response It shows the poverty of reductionist thinking. "Walter Houston, the chaplain of Mansfield College, Oxford, and a fellow in theology, told the Telegraph: "Religious belief is not just related to a person's constitution; it's related to society, tradition, character—everything's involved. Having a gene that could do all that seems pretty unlikely to me." Hamer responded that the existence of such a gene would not be incompatible with the existence of a personal God: "Religious believers can point to the existence of God genes as one more sign of the creator's ingenuity—a clever way to help humans acknowledge and embrace a divine presence." He repeatedly notes in his book that, "This book is about whether God genes exist, not about whether there is a God." |
Electromagnetic wave equation Spectral decomposition Electromagnetic_wave_equation > Solutions to the homogeneous electromagnetic wave equation > Spectral decomposition Because of the linearity of Maxwell's equations in a vacuum, solutions can be decomposed into a superposition of sinusoids. This is the basis for the Fourier transform method for the solution of differential equations. The sinusoidal solution to the electromagnetic wave equation takes the form where t is time (in seconds), ω is the angular frequency (in radians per second), k = (kx, ky, kz) is the wave vector (in radians per meter), and ϕ 0 {\displaystyle \phi _{0}} is the phase angle (in radians).The wave vector is related to the angular frequency by where k is the wavenumber and λ is the wavelength. The electromagnetic spectrum is a plot of the field magnitudes (or energies) as a function of wavelength. |
Phage ecology Relationship with bacteria Phage_ecology > Phage community ecology > Relationship with bacteria Some phages have been found to be immune to this mechanism as well. In some way or another, the phages have managed to get rid of the sequence that would be replicated. A third way that bacteria have managed to escape the effects of bacteriophages is by abortive infection. |
Synchronous coordinates Synchronization in an arbitrary frame of reference Synchronous_coordinates > Synchronization in an arbitrary frame of reference To this class are assigned cases where g0α can be made zeros by a simple change in the time coordinate which does not involve a choice of a system of objects that define the space coordinates. In the special relativity theory, too, proper time elapses differently for clocks moving relatively to each other. In general relativity, proper time is different even in the same reference frame at different points of space. This means that the interval of proper time between two events occurring at some space point and the time interval between the events simultaneous with those at another space point are, in general, different. |
Asymptotic theory Summary Asymptotically_equal This is often written symbolically as f (n) ~ n2, which is read as "f(n) is asymptotic to n2". An example of an important asymptotic result is the prime number theorem. Let π(x) denote the prime-counting function (which is not directly related to the constant pi), i.e. π(x) is the number of prime numbers that are less than or equal to x. Then the theorem states that Asymptotic analysis is commonly used in computer science as part of the analysis of algorithms and is often expressed there in terms of big O notation. |
Grunwald–Winstein equation m values Grunwald–Winstein_equation > Definition > m values The equation parameter m, called the sensitivity factor of solvolysis, describes the compound’s ability to form the carbocation intermediate in given solvent system. It is the slope of the plot of log(ksol/k80%EtOH) vs Y values. Since the reference reaction has little solvent nucleophilic assistance, the reactions with m equal to 1 or larger than 1 have almost full ionized intermediates. If the compounds are not so sensitive to the ionizing ability of solvent, then the m values are smaller than 1. That is: m ≥ 1, the reactions proceed through SN1 mechanism. m < 1, the reactions proceed through a mechanism between SN1 and SN2. |
Coordinate time Coordinate time scales Coordinate_time_scale > Coordinate time scales A coordinate time scale (or coordinate time standard) is a time standard designed for use as the time coordinate in calculations that need to take account of relativistic effects. The choice of a time coordinate implies the choice of an entire frame of reference. As described above, a time coordinate can to a limited extent be illustrated by the proper time of a clock that is notionally infinitely far away from the objects of interest and at rest with respect to the chosen reference frame. This notional clock, because it is outside all gravity wells, is not influenced by gravitational time dilation. |
Cumulative learning Theory Cumulative_learning > Theory American psychologist Robert M. Gagne first introduced the concept of cumulative learning in 1968 on the basis that intellectual skills can be broken down into simpler ones. His model proposed that new learning builds upon prior learning and is dependent on the combination of previously acquired knowledge. Gagné believed that learning is cumulative and human intellectual development consistent of building up increasingly complex interacting structures of learned capabilities. Gagné's theory was explored by Bruner, who argued that as children grow, the curriculum should repeatedly present learned information and expand on it until the child understands the information and its relations more completely. |
Period 4 element Calcium Period_4_element > s-block elements > Calcium Calcium (Ca) is the second element in the period. An alkali earth metal, calcium is almost never found in nature due to its high reactivity with water. It has one of the most widely known and acknowledged biological roles in all animals and some plants, making up bones and teeth, and used in some applications in cells, such as signals for cellular processeses. It is regarded as the most abundant mineral in the body's mass. |
One particle irreducible correlation function Summary Effective_action In quantum field theory, the quantum effective action is a modified expression for the classical action taking into account quantum corrections while ensuring that the principle of least action applies, meaning that extremizing the effective action yields the equations of motion for the vacuum expectation values of the quantum fields. The effective action also acts as a generating functional for one-particle irreducible correlation functions. The potential component of the effective action is called the effective potential, with the expectation value of the true vacuum being the minimum of this potential rather than the classical potential, making it important for studying spontaneous symmetry breaking. It was first defined perturbatively by Jeffrey Goldstone and Steven Weinberg in 1962, while the non-perturbative definition was introduced by Bryce DeWitt in 1963 and independently by Giovanni Jona-Lasinio in 1964.The article describes the effective action for a single scalar field, however, similar results exist for multiple scalar or fermionic fields. |
Flash memory controller Garbage collection Flash_controller > Garbage collection Once every block of a solid-state storage device has been written one time, the flash controller will need to return to some of the initial blocks which no longer have current data (also called stale blocks). The data in these blocks were replaced with newly written blocks and now they are waiting to be erased so that new data can be written into them. This is a process called garbage collection (GC). |
SI defining constants Kilogram SI_defining_constants > Impact on base unit definitions > Kilogram The definition of the kilogram fundamentally changed from an artifact (the International Prototype of the Kilogram) to a constant of nature. The new definition relates the kilogram to the mass equivalent of the energy of a photon at a specific frequency. Previous definition: The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. |
Stem-cell research Mesenchymal stem cells Stem_Cell > Embryonic > Mesenchymal stem cells Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) or mesenchymal stromal cells, also known as medicinal signaling cells are known to be multipotent, which can be found in adult tissues, for example, in the muscle, liver, bone marrow and adipose tissue. Mesenchymal stem cells usually function as structural support in various organs as mentioned above, and control the movement of substances. MSC can differentiate into numerous cell categories as an illustration of adipocytes, osteocytes, and chondrocytes, derived by the mesodermal layer. Where the mesoderm layer provides an increase to the body's skeletal elements, such as relating to the cartilage or bone. |
Ethics of technology Technoethics Ethics_of_technology > External links > Technoethics RoboWarfare: can robots be more ethical than humans on the battlefield. Journal of Ethics and Information Technology, Vol. 12(3), 263–275. |
Image noise Useful noise Visual_noise > Useful noise High levels of noise are almost always undesirable, but there are cases when a certain amount of noise is useful, for example to prevent discretization artifacts (color banding or posterization). Some noise also increases acutance (apparent sharpness). Noise purposely added for such purposes is called dither; it improves the image perceptually, though it degrades the signal-to-noise ratio. |
Virtualization Hardware virtualization Nested_virtualization > Hardware virtualization Instead of relying on the old model of "one server, one application" that leads to underutilized resources, virtual resources are dynamically applied to meet business needs without any excess fat" (ConsonusTech).Hardware virtualization is not the same as hardware emulation. In hardware emulation, a piece of hardware imitates another, while in hardware virtualization, a hypervisor (a piece of software) imitates a particular piece of computer hardware or the entire computer. Furthermore, a hypervisor is not the same as an emulator; both are computer programs that imitate hardware, but their domain of use in language differs. |
Multiple sclerosis diagnosis Relapsing-remitting Diagnosis_of_multiple_sclerosis > Clinical courses > Relapsing-remitting On the other hand, the term malignant multiple sclerosis is used to describe people with MS having reached significant level of disability in a short period. The relapsing-remitting subtype usually begins with a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). In CIS, a person has an attack suggestive of demyelination, but does not fulfill the criteria for multiple sclerosis. 30 to 70% of persons experiencing CIS later develop MS. |
Diophantus and Diophantine Equations Topics Diophantus_and_Diophantine_Equations > Topics In the sense considered in the book, a Diophantine equation is an equation written using polynomials whose coefficients are rational numbers. These equations are to be solved by finding rational-number values for the variables that, when plugged into the equation, make it become true. Although there is also a well-developed theory of integer (rather than rational) solutions to polynomial equations, it is not included in this book.Diophantus of Alexandria studied equations of this type in the second century AD. Scholarly opinion has generally held that Diophantus only found solutions to specific equations, and had no methods for solving general families of equations. |
Spectral geometry Summary Spectral_geometry Spectral geometry is a field in mathematics which concerns relationships between geometric structures of manifolds and spectra of canonically defined differential operators. The case of the Laplace–Beltrami operator on a closed Riemannian manifold has been most intensively studied, although other Laplace operators in differential geometry have also been examined. The field concerns itself with two kinds of questions: direct problems and inverse problems. Inverse problems seek to identify features of the geometry from information about the eigenvalues of the Laplacian. |
Sónia Rocha Career and research highlights Sónia_Rocha > Career and research highlights In July 2017, she took up the position of head of the Biochemistry Department in the Institute of Integrative Biology, and from 2020 has been promoted to become executive dean of the Institute of Systems, Molecular & Integrative Biology at the University of Liverpool. Rocha is an experienced undergraduate and postgraduate teacher and convenor, and has delivered courses on cell signalling, genes and cancer module, genes and proteins, and was a lecturer in gene regulation and expression modules at the University of Dundee, including module coordination. As of 2019, she has published >60 peer-reviewed research articles, co-authored 12 peer-reviewed research reviews and contributed to one book chapter. |
Data access Details Data_access > Details Two fundamental types of data access exist: sequential access (as in magnetic tape, for example) random access (as in indexed media)Data access crucially involves authorization to access different data repositories. Data access can help distinguish the abilities of administrators and users. For example, administrators may have the ability to remove, edit and add data, while general users may not even have "read" rights if they lack access to particular information. Historically, each repository (including each different database, file system, etc.), might require the use of different methods and languages, and many of these repositories stored their content in different and incompatible formats. |
Hash-based cryptography One-time signature schemes Hash-based_cryptography > One-time signature schemes Commonly used one-time signature schemes include the Lamport–Diffie scheme, the Winternitz scheme and its improvements, such as the W-OTS+ scheme. Unlike the seminal Lamport–Diffie scheme, the Winternitz scheme and variants can sign many bits at once. The number of bits to be signed at once is determined by a value: the Winternitz parameter. |
Robust linear regression Presence of outliers Robust_regression > Applications > Presence of outliers Although it is sometimes claimed that least squares (or classical statistical methods in general) are robust, they are only robust in the sense that the type I error rate does not increase under violations of the model. In fact, the type I error rate tends to be lower than the nominal level when outliers are present, and there is often a dramatic increase in the type II error rate. The reduction of the type I error rate has been labelled as the conservatism of classical methods. |
Cardiotocography Accelerations Cardiotocography > Interpretation > Accelerations The NICHD nomenclature defines an acceleration as a visually apparent abrupt increase in fetal heart rate. An abrupt increase is defined as an increase from the onset of acceleration to the peak in 30 seconds or less. To be called an acceleration, the peak must be at least 15 bpm, and the acceleration must last at least 15 seconds from the onset to return to baseline. A prolonged acceleration is greater than 2 minutes but less than 10 minutes in duration, while an acceleration lasting 10 minutes or more is defined as a baseline change. Before 32 weeks of gestation, accelerations are defined as having a peak of at least 10 bpm and a duration of at least 10 seconds. |
TeX markup Hyphenation and justification TeX_markup > Aspects > Hyphenation and justification In comparison, the total-fit line-breaking algorithm used by TeX and developed by Donald Knuth and Michael Plass considers all the possible breakpoints in a paragraph, and finds the combination of line breaks that will produce the most globally pleasing arrangement. Formally, the algorithm defines a value called badness associated with each possible line break; the badness is increased if the spaces on the line must stretch or shrink too much to make the line the correct width. Penalties are added if a breakpoint is particularly undesirable: for example, if a word must be hyphenated, if two lines in a row are hyphenated, or if a very loose line is immediately followed by a very tight line. |
Log-structured File System (BSD) Design Log-structured_File_System_(BSD) > Design Inode map blocks updated to point at (3).Unlike UFS, inodes in LFS do not have fixed locations. An inode map—a flat list of inode block locations—is used to track them. As with everything else, inode map blocks are also written to the log when they are changed. |
Wizard of Oz experiment Concept Wizard_of_Oz_experiment > Concept The phrase Wizard of Oz (originally OZ Paradigm) has come into common usage in the fields of experimental psychology, human factors, ergonomics, linguistics, and usability engineering to describe a testing or iterative design methodology wherein an experimenter (the “wizard”), in a laboratory setting, simulates the behavior of a theoretical intelligent computer application (often by going into another room and intercepting all communications between participant and system). Sometimes this is done with the participant's prior knowledge and sometimes it is a low-level deceit employed to manage the participant's expectations and encourage natural behaviors. For example, a test participant may think they are communicating with a computer using a speech interface, when the participant's words are actually being covertly entered into the computer by a person in another room (the “wizard”) and processed as a text stream, rather than as an audio stream. The missing system functionality that the wizard provides may be implemented in later versions of the system (or may even be speculative capabilities that current-day systems do not have), but its precise details are generally considered irrelevant to the study. In testing situations, the goal of such experiments may be to observe the use and effectiveness of a proposed user interface by the test participants, rather than to measure the quality of an entire system. |
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