text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medieval castles housed the nobles of medieval times whose living style was quite lavish, particularly in comparison with the common people.
Accordingly, medieval castles employed a lot of servants as medieval castle staff for different kinds of work in the medieval castle. For instance, there would be separate cooking staff, cleaning staff, overlooking staff, maintenance staff, and such.
Medieval Castle Staff Duties
Staff that worked in a medieval castle had certain pre-defined tasks to take care of, for instance, there was a head cook who had his staff and was responsible for taking care of meals.
The serving staff was responsible for setting up the trestle tables during the meals. Other senior members of the service staff that worked in a medieval castle included a butler, seneschal, head maid, and constable.
Medieval Castle Staff Jobs
Medieval castle staff who were at the bottom of the hierarchy of staff members were the cleaning staff which was generally under the command of a head maid.
Among other members, the job of a chamberlain was to manage the castle finances, while the seneschal looked after the administration of the estate and special events.
There was also a special part of medieval castle staff that looked after the animals, horses in particular.
The stable-master was in charge of these castle staff members which additionally included teamsters, master of the hounds, and falconers etc.
Medieval Castle Staff – Military
The Majority of the male servants of a medieval castle were military personnel who performed specific duties.
There were the gatekeepers and various knights and esquires who overlooked the military unit of the castle.
This military unit of the medieval castle was dispatched whenever the king required the services of the nobles during battles, which frequently happened during the medieval times.
Medieval Castle Maintenance Staff
Medieval castle maintenance staff were responsible of making sure that everything in the castle was in order. This included a variety of duties such as looking after the fireplace, dusting, keeping the wardrobe of lords and ladies in order, and such. The maintenance staff was generally responsible to the head maid.
Medieval Castle Staff – Cooks and Service Staff
The cooking staff in a medieval castle was responsible for meals and worked in a large kitchen under the charge of a head cook.
The head cook was also responsible for purchasing various food items and overlooked the storage and preservation of food in pantries.
Medieval castle staff that served food during meals was headed by the butler who was assisted by multiple footmen.
A Medieval Princess is talking to the Military castle staff
Medieval Castle Staff Entertainers
Medieval castle staff for entertainment generally displayed their skills during special events such as weddings, ceremonies, and festivals.
Common types of entertainment in a medieval castle included dancing, juggling, mystery plays, and others.
Sometimes, if there was no dedicated staff for entertainment in a medieval castle, it could be hired for special services.
Medieval Castle Staff Summary
The duties and responsibilities of medieval castle staff varied depending on the size of the castle and the inhabitants. During the medieval times, the castles were large and sometimes housed hundreds of inhabitants.
In this case, the number and variety of servants was also large. Eventually, however, the size of the estate and thus the castles began the shrink which also resulted in a reduced number of servants and limited staff. | <urn:uuid:a3fffccf-3bbc-4881-92f4-718f027d0f59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-castles/medieval-castle-staff/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.981992 | 690 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.1330714076757... | 4 | Medieval castles housed the nobles of medieval times whose living style was quite lavish, particularly in comparison with the common people.
Accordingly, medieval castles employed a lot of servants as medieval castle staff for different kinds of work in the medieval castle. For instance, there would be separate cooking staff, cleaning staff, overlooking staff, maintenance staff, and such.
Medieval Castle Staff Duties
Staff that worked in a medieval castle had certain pre-defined tasks to take care of, for instance, there was a head cook who had his staff and was responsible for taking care of meals.
The serving staff was responsible for setting up the trestle tables during the meals. Other senior members of the service staff that worked in a medieval castle included a butler, seneschal, head maid, and constable.
Medieval Castle Staff Jobs
Medieval castle staff who were at the bottom of the hierarchy of staff members were the cleaning staff which was generally under the command of a head maid.
Among other members, the job of a chamberlain was to manage the castle finances, while the seneschal looked after the administration of the estate and special events.
There was also a special part of medieval castle staff that looked after the animals, horses in particular.
The stable-master was in charge of these castle staff members which additionally included teamsters, master of the hounds, and falconers etc.
Medieval Castle Staff – Military
The Majority of the male servants of a medieval castle were military personnel who performed specific duties.
There were the gatekeepers and various knights and esquires who overlooked the military unit of the castle.
This military unit of the medieval castle was dispatched whenever the king required the services of the nobles during battles, which frequently happened during the medieval times.
Medieval Castle Maintenance Staff
Medieval castle maintenance staff were responsible of making sure that everything in the castle was in order. This included a variety of duties such as looking after the fireplace, dusting, keeping the wardrobe of lords and ladies in order, and such. The maintenance staff was generally responsible to the head maid.
Medieval Castle Staff – Cooks and Service Staff
The cooking staff in a medieval castle was responsible for meals and worked in a large kitchen under the charge of a head cook.
The head cook was also responsible for purchasing various food items and overlooked the storage and preservation of food in pantries.
Medieval castle staff that served food during meals was headed by the butler who was assisted by multiple footmen.
A Medieval Princess is talking to the Military castle staff
Medieval Castle Staff Entertainers
Medieval castle staff for entertainment generally displayed their skills during special events such as weddings, ceremonies, and festivals.
Common types of entertainment in a medieval castle included dancing, juggling, mystery plays, and others.
Sometimes, if there was no dedicated staff for entertainment in a medieval castle, it could be hired for special services.
Medieval Castle Staff Summary
The duties and responsibilities of medieval castle staff varied depending on the size of the castle and the inhabitants. During the medieval times, the castles were large and sometimes housed hundreds of inhabitants.
In this case, the number and variety of servants was also large. Eventually, however, the size of the estate and thus the castles began the shrink which also resulted in a reduced number of servants and limited staff. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is often referred to as the “Father of Microbiology.” The discovery of the cell occurred in 1665 and is attributed to Robert Hooke. Hooke wrote a book called Micrographia and offer 60 observations of detailed objects that were seen under a compound microscope. Leeuwenhoek would go on to expand upon the cell theories that Hooke first offered.
How a Childhood Developed a Lens Maker
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was born in 1632 in the city of Delft, which was located in the Dutch Republic. His father was a basket maker, but died when Anton was just 5 years old. His mother, who came from a wealthy family, would then marry a painter. Anton’s stepfather died when he was 10 years old. Yet despite being a widow twice-over, his mother supported his initial education with the help of an uncle who worked as an attorney.
Leeuwenhoek would make a name for himself not by going on to receive a university education, but by becoming active in municipal politics. It was during his time as a politician that he developed a hobby that involved making lenses. He would handcraft the lenses needed for microscopes and that would eventually lead to his first descriptions of microorganisms that would become the foundation of his cell theory.
How Leeuwenhoek’s Cell Theory Came About
Leeuwenhoek observed cells at nearly the same time that Hooke first observed them. Leeuwenhoek’s microscope used improved lenses over Hooke’s, however, which allowed him to magnify objects up to 270 times. This allowed him to see motile objects, which led him to write that “motility is a quality of life.” That meant the cell structures he saw under the microscope were living organisms.
Leeuwenhoek would go on to view many different forms of microorganisms for the first time. Bacteria and protozoa were referred to as “animalcules.” He would provide the first accurate descriptions of a red blood cell. He would also be the first to observe sperm cells and identify an accurate fertilization process.
He would also go on to use measurements and samples to determine microorganism counts, similar to the process of a complete blood count today. This would lead him to discover the vacuole of a cell and even the banded patterns on muscle fibers.
Leeuwenhoek’s contemporaries thought his cell theories were implausible at best. It would be Robert Hooke who would confirm his findings. And Leeuwenhoek did all of this without receiving a formal education.
A Monopoly on Microscopic Studies and Discoveries
By the year 1700, Leeuwenhoek would wind up being responsible for almost all of the current studies and discoveries in microbiology at the time. Hooke would often comment about the fact that everything in the field was routed through Leeuwenhoek. Yet because Leeuwenhoek’s lenses were far superior to any others that were being created, the scientific world was forced to rely on Anton for discoveries.
Part of the reputation Leeuwenhoek was able to create for himself was due to his business acumen. Many nobles and dignitaries would visit him, hoping to see the microscopes and lenses that were leading to his discoveries. Instead of showing his audiences these items, he would break out the same equipment that everyone else was using, keeping his cutting-edge equipment a secret.
His microscopes were made of copper or silver. He is believed to have made more than 500 optical lenses and at least 25 single-lens microscopes. Nine of those microscopes have survived to this date, each capable of a magnification of 275 times. Leeuwenhoek may have been an “amateur,” but his scientific research met or exceeded quality standards in every regard.
By the end of his life in 1723, Anton van Leeuwenhoek had written over 550 letters to the Royal Society in London and other institutions regarding his discoveries and observations. In his final observations, he even reported on the illness that would wind up killing him, which caused uncontrolled movements in his midriff. It is even called Van Leeuwenhoek’s disease and it is so rare that only about 50 people in the world have been diagnosed with it.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s cell theory advancements helped to open up an entirely new realm of scientific discovery. His work helped to set the foundation of disease identification, antibiotics, and modern vaccines because he was able to see how the world worked at some of the smallest levels. Even without a formal advanced education, the title of “Father of Microbiology” is indeed fitting for this man. | <urn:uuid:df5b4789-d9fa-4b37-a0a3-90ea91a2fe92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://healthresearchfunding.org/anton-van-leeuwenhoeks-cell-theory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00505.warc.gz | en | 0.988667 | 999 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.4062138199... | 6 | Anton van Leeuwenhoek is often referred to as the “Father of Microbiology.” The discovery of the cell occurred in 1665 and is attributed to Robert Hooke. Hooke wrote a book called Micrographia and offer 60 observations of detailed objects that were seen under a compound microscope. Leeuwenhoek would go on to expand upon the cell theories that Hooke first offered.
How a Childhood Developed a Lens Maker
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was born in 1632 in the city of Delft, which was located in the Dutch Republic. His father was a basket maker, but died when Anton was just 5 years old. His mother, who came from a wealthy family, would then marry a painter. Anton’s stepfather died when he was 10 years old. Yet despite being a widow twice-over, his mother supported his initial education with the help of an uncle who worked as an attorney.
Leeuwenhoek would make a name for himself not by going on to receive a university education, but by becoming active in municipal politics. It was during his time as a politician that he developed a hobby that involved making lenses. He would handcraft the lenses needed for microscopes and that would eventually lead to his first descriptions of microorganisms that would become the foundation of his cell theory.
How Leeuwenhoek’s Cell Theory Came About
Leeuwenhoek observed cells at nearly the same time that Hooke first observed them. Leeuwenhoek’s microscope used improved lenses over Hooke’s, however, which allowed him to magnify objects up to 270 times. This allowed him to see motile objects, which led him to write that “motility is a quality of life.” That meant the cell structures he saw under the microscope were living organisms.
Leeuwenhoek would go on to view many different forms of microorganisms for the first time. Bacteria and protozoa were referred to as “animalcules.” He would provide the first accurate descriptions of a red blood cell. He would also be the first to observe sperm cells and identify an accurate fertilization process.
He would also go on to use measurements and samples to determine microorganism counts, similar to the process of a complete blood count today. This would lead him to discover the vacuole of a cell and even the banded patterns on muscle fibers.
Leeuwenhoek’s contemporaries thought his cell theories were implausible at best. It would be Robert Hooke who would confirm his findings. And Leeuwenhoek did all of this without receiving a formal education.
A Monopoly on Microscopic Studies and Discoveries
By the year 1700, Leeuwenhoek would wind up being responsible for almost all of the current studies and discoveries in microbiology at the time. Hooke would often comment about the fact that everything in the field was routed through Leeuwenhoek. Yet because Leeuwenhoek’s lenses were far superior to any others that were being created, the scientific world was forced to rely on Anton for discoveries.
Part of the reputation Leeuwenhoek was able to create for himself was due to his business acumen. Many nobles and dignitaries would visit him, hoping to see the microscopes and lenses that were leading to his discoveries. Instead of showing his audiences these items, he would break out the same equipment that everyone else was using, keeping his cutting-edge equipment a secret.
His microscopes were made of copper or silver. He is believed to have made more than 500 optical lenses and at least 25 single-lens microscopes. Nine of those microscopes have survived to this date, each capable of a magnification of 275 times. Leeuwenhoek may have been an “amateur,” but his scientific research met or exceeded quality standards in every regard.
By the end of his life in 1723, Anton van Leeuwenhoek had written over 550 letters to the Royal Society in London and other institutions regarding his discoveries and observations. In his final observations, he even reported on the illness that would wind up killing him, which caused uncontrolled movements in his midriff. It is even called Van Leeuwenhoek’s disease and it is so rare that only about 50 people in the world have been diagnosed with it.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek’s cell theory advancements helped to open up an entirely new realm of scientific discovery. His work helped to set the foundation of disease identification, antibiotics, and modern vaccines because he was able to see how the world worked at some of the smallest levels. Even without a formal advanced education, the title of “Father of Microbiology” is indeed fitting for this man. | 993 | ENGLISH | 1 |
SECTION A COMPREHENSION
Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions which follow
Antobam‟s first day in senior secondary school was the day he would never forget. That morning he got up earlier than usual ready for his father to take him to the new school. With the help of his father‟s houseboy, his trunk and chop box were packed into his father‟s car. At exactly eleven o‟clock, the car sped off as Antobam happily waved goodbye to his brothers and sisters.
After about one and a half hours‟ drive, they arrived at the school. Antobam beamed with smiles as the car pulled up in front of the administration block. Some huge boys rushed to the car shouting, “Hommo, welcome; hommo, welcome!” Antobam misunderstood this for a warm welcome, but he was soon proved wrong.
From the list of newcomers displayed on the notice board, Antobam‟s father saw his son‟s name under House Two and wanted to take the luggage there. But one of the boys politely said, “Daddy, stop. We have a tradition here.” Before he knew what was happening, two of the boys had lifted his trunk and chop box and put them on Antobam‟s head. He had never carried any load on his head before, but here he was with the arduous task of carrying two heavy boxes. Tears started flowing as his father looked on in disbelief. He later left the school very disturbed, wondering what was going to happen to his beloved son.
1. Antobam got up early that morning because he …..
A. was very happy
B. was anxious to go to his new school
C. would never forget that day
D. was woken up by his father
2. Antobam arrived at his new school at half past ……….
3. The senior boys made Antobam carry his boxes because they …………
A. welcomed his father
B. were following tradition
C. thought he was strong
D. tried to seize his provisions
4. Arduous in the passage means
5. Antobam‟s father left the school ……
A. a happy man
B. crying for his son
C. a worried man
D. promising to come back
Every year, thousands of African school leavers from the rural areas rush to the urban areas to seek employment. Apart from leaving the countryside thinly populated, these youths cause overcrowding in the cities. They cannot get any house to live in so they are found sleeping in market places and on verandas.
Most of our youths regard agriculture as a poor man‟s business. They prefer white-collar jobs to farming and forget that one can gain fame or wealth through agriculture. Most of these youths are greatly disappointed in the townships. Lack of jobs and money force them to join bad companies, break into houses at night or snatch people‟s bags at lorry parks or in the street during the day. They often wear dirty clothes and are seen in the streets trying to find something to eat.
One way of checking this movement is by setting up factories in the rural areas and establishing large farms where the school leavers can easily find work. Other ways are providing good means of transport and communication. Libraries, medical services and post offices are equally important amenities necessary in rural areas.
These facilities together with good drinking water and electricity will make these areas attractive enough for the youth to remain and help grow food and cash crops for the country. They can also produce raw materials for our industries.
6. School leavers migrate to the cities and towns to …….
A. seek enjoyment
B. look for work
C. look for amenities
D. continue their education
7. One of the results of the movement of the youth in the rural areas is that the
A. towns are overcrowded
B. rural areas lack money
C. youth are greatly disappointed
D. rural areas lose their people
8. White-collar jobs as used in the passage means ………
A. working in the cities
B. working in offices
C. wearing white-collar shirts
D. working for white men
9. The word snatch means ……….
A. carry B. steal C. push
10. When the youth come into the cities ………
A. there is over population B. amenities are provided C. jobs are created
D. they become very happy | <urn:uuid:6363057b-0a5e-4933-9532-0e70b9936523> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.becepastquestions.com/english/bece-past-questions-answers-2002-english/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.981232 | 949 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.385517299175... | 10 | SECTION A COMPREHENSION
Read the following passages carefully and answer the questions which follow
Antobam‟s first day in senior secondary school was the day he would never forget. That morning he got up earlier than usual ready for his father to take him to the new school. With the help of his father‟s houseboy, his trunk and chop box were packed into his father‟s car. At exactly eleven o‟clock, the car sped off as Antobam happily waved goodbye to his brothers and sisters.
After about one and a half hours‟ drive, they arrived at the school. Antobam beamed with smiles as the car pulled up in front of the administration block. Some huge boys rushed to the car shouting, “Hommo, welcome; hommo, welcome!” Antobam misunderstood this for a warm welcome, but he was soon proved wrong.
From the list of newcomers displayed on the notice board, Antobam‟s father saw his son‟s name under House Two and wanted to take the luggage there. But one of the boys politely said, “Daddy, stop. We have a tradition here.” Before he knew what was happening, two of the boys had lifted his trunk and chop box and put them on Antobam‟s head. He had never carried any load on his head before, but here he was with the arduous task of carrying two heavy boxes. Tears started flowing as his father looked on in disbelief. He later left the school very disturbed, wondering what was going to happen to his beloved son.
1. Antobam got up early that morning because he …..
A. was very happy
B. was anxious to go to his new school
C. would never forget that day
D. was woken up by his father
2. Antobam arrived at his new school at half past ……….
3. The senior boys made Antobam carry his boxes because they …………
A. welcomed his father
B. were following tradition
C. thought he was strong
D. tried to seize his provisions
4. Arduous in the passage means
5. Antobam‟s father left the school ……
A. a happy man
B. crying for his son
C. a worried man
D. promising to come back
Every year, thousands of African school leavers from the rural areas rush to the urban areas to seek employment. Apart from leaving the countryside thinly populated, these youths cause overcrowding in the cities. They cannot get any house to live in so they are found sleeping in market places and on verandas.
Most of our youths regard agriculture as a poor man‟s business. They prefer white-collar jobs to farming and forget that one can gain fame or wealth through agriculture. Most of these youths are greatly disappointed in the townships. Lack of jobs and money force them to join bad companies, break into houses at night or snatch people‟s bags at lorry parks or in the street during the day. They often wear dirty clothes and are seen in the streets trying to find something to eat.
One way of checking this movement is by setting up factories in the rural areas and establishing large farms where the school leavers can easily find work. Other ways are providing good means of transport and communication. Libraries, medical services and post offices are equally important amenities necessary in rural areas.
These facilities together with good drinking water and electricity will make these areas attractive enough for the youth to remain and help grow food and cash crops for the country. They can also produce raw materials for our industries.
6. School leavers migrate to the cities and towns to …….
A. seek enjoyment
B. look for work
C. look for amenities
D. continue their education
7. One of the results of the movement of the youth in the rural areas is that the
A. towns are overcrowded
B. rural areas lack money
C. youth are greatly disappointed
D. rural areas lose their people
8. White-collar jobs as used in the passage means ………
A. working in the cities
B. working in offices
C. wearing white-collar shirts
D. working for white men
9. The word snatch means ……….
A. carry B. steal C. push
10. When the youth come into the cities ………
A. there is over population B. amenities are provided C. jobs are created
D. they become very happy | 915 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 14/06/2012)
The Princely State of Agar was an Indian native state during the rule of the British Empire in India
. During the early 19th century, the region was appointed as one of the princely states of India
under the indirect rule of the British administration. The region was scattered over a total area of 17 sq miles and comprised of a total population of 3,984 in the year 1941. The territory of Agar was one of the 27 states which formed up the Sankheda Mehvassi, located on the banks of the Narbada (Narmada
) River, in eastern Gujarat
. The region included several villages and was incorporated as a part of the former Rewa Kantha Agency
. Most of the villages incorporated in the territory of the state of Agar were in a compact area, bounded by the princely state of Vajiria in the west; by Jiral Kamsoli and Vasan Virpur
in the south; and by the region of Vanmala in the west and the north. The village of Shahpura was surrounded by Vanmala and Vora in the south and by the princely state of Baroda on the other three sides.
The Princely State of Agar was incorporated as a part of the Baroda Agency, which was a sub division of Western India States Agency
. Later the region became a part of the Indian state of Gujarat
History of Princely State of Agar
The Chauhan Rajputs were the original rulers of the state of Agar. The native rulers of the erstwhile princely state originally belonged to the Chouhan class of Rajputs
. Later embraced the Islamic religion, but still they retained several Hindu customs. They were bhayats of Agar and the succession of the throne was governed by the rule of male primogeniture. Although the princely state of Agar was amongst the largest of the Sankheda states, the region was reduced to a great extent by the allotment to Sindhiapura and Vanmala. Further more, a number of villages were mortgaged to the chief of Virpur.
The Princely State of Agar was jurisdictionary native state of the sixth class, before the abolition of the class system in the year 1928. The courts of the state exercised very limited criminal and civil jurisdictional authority. The native ruler of Agar, who held the title of Thakor, was granted jurisdictional authority in the year 1931. The Thakor supervised the administration of the territory and the decisions of the native prince were final and non-appealable. Agar state paid annual tribute to Baroda. According to the Attachment Scheme of 1943, the princely state of Agar was attached to Baroda. The native chiefs who exercised jurisdictional powers were formally addressed as Meherban.
After the withdrawal of the British and the independence of India on 15th August 1947, the last native ruler of Agar, acceded his state to the newly formed Union of India
, also known as the Dominion of India. | <urn:uuid:55b0c664-a410-4dd1-96aa-0ceadb18ddc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/61/princely_state_agar.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00144.warc.gz | en | 0.98211 | 642 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2439945787191... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 14/06/2012)
The Princely State of Agar was an Indian native state during the rule of the British Empire in India
. During the early 19th century, the region was appointed as one of the princely states of India
under the indirect rule of the British administration. The region was scattered over a total area of 17 sq miles and comprised of a total population of 3,984 in the year 1941. The territory of Agar was one of the 27 states which formed up the Sankheda Mehvassi, located on the banks of the Narbada (Narmada
) River, in eastern Gujarat
. The region included several villages and was incorporated as a part of the former Rewa Kantha Agency
. Most of the villages incorporated in the territory of the state of Agar were in a compact area, bounded by the princely state of Vajiria in the west; by Jiral Kamsoli and Vasan Virpur
in the south; and by the region of Vanmala in the west and the north. The village of Shahpura was surrounded by Vanmala and Vora in the south and by the princely state of Baroda on the other three sides.
The Princely State of Agar was incorporated as a part of the Baroda Agency, which was a sub division of Western India States Agency
. Later the region became a part of the Indian state of Gujarat
History of Princely State of Agar
The Chauhan Rajputs were the original rulers of the state of Agar. The native rulers of the erstwhile princely state originally belonged to the Chouhan class of Rajputs
. Later embraced the Islamic religion, but still they retained several Hindu customs. They were bhayats of Agar and the succession of the throne was governed by the rule of male primogeniture. Although the princely state of Agar was amongst the largest of the Sankheda states, the region was reduced to a great extent by the allotment to Sindhiapura and Vanmala. Further more, a number of villages were mortgaged to the chief of Virpur.
The Princely State of Agar was jurisdictionary native state of the sixth class, before the abolition of the class system in the year 1928. The courts of the state exercised very limited criminal and civil jurisdictional authority. The native ruler of Agar, who held the title of Thakor, was granted jurisdictional authority in the year 1931. The Thakor supervised the administration of the territory and the decisions of the native prince were final and non-appealable. Agar state paid annual tribute to Baroda. According to the Attachment Scheme of 1943, the princely state of Agar was attached to Baroda. The native chiefs who exercised jurisdictional powers were formally addressed as Meherban.
After the withdrawal of the British and the independence of India on 15th August 1947, the last native ruler of Agar, acceded his state to the newly formed Union of India
, also known as the Dominion of India. | 678 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The judge remembers his final conversation with his friend Bose, which had been thirty-three years after they had last seen each other in person. It was a month before Sai arrived in Kalimpong, and they had gone to a restaurant in Darjeeling. They exchanged memories of England. Bose recalled how he had corrected the judge’s pronunciation and took him to buy an English coat. The judge was angered by these memories, thinking that Bose was trying to put him down.
The judge’s final interaction with Bose again affirms just how much self-hatred the judge has internalized due to the racism inherent in colonialism. When Bose brings up events that made the judge seem less English, the judge becomes upset, because he strove to be as English as he possibly could be.
Bose had been one of the ICS men who mounted a court case to win a pension equal to that of white ICS men—but they lost. After that, his son had also tried to bring a case against his employer, Shell Oil, and also lost. People in England had laughed at him, but so, too, had people in India. They believed that Bose thought he was superior to them. The judge had criticized the case for other reasons.
The systemic issues from colonization not only cause the judge’s hatred but also cause a deep imbalance and misunderstanding in Indian culture. In trying to win an equal pension to the British, many Indians believed that Bose simply thought himself superior to them, implying that it was inconceivable that Bose could think Indian people and British people were universally equal.
Bose pressed the issue, exclaiming that white people were responsible for all the crimes of the century. The judge was silent. Bose continued, trying to understand his silence, by saying that at least white people eventually left India. The judge burst out, agreeing that they were bad, but so were he and Bose.
Bose had asked if he and the judge were still friends. The judge responded that things had changed. When Bose said that what was in the past remains unchanged, the judge contradicted him, saying that the present did change the past. The judge was upset that Bose had forced him to grapple with the past, after he had been silent for so long. They parted ways.
Though the judge is upset with Bose for bringing up the past, he for the first time acknowledges some of the damage that colonization has done to himself and to others, recognizing that he had been on the wrong side of history.
On his way home, the judge remembered an incident of boys taunting him at a bus stop, throwing stones and jeering. He then remembered another incident: an Indian boy being kicked and beaten by a group of men. One of them had unzipped his pants and pissed on him. The judge had turned and run away.
The judge provides two examples of how he personally turned his back on justice for other people like him, with the knowledge that he did so out of self-preservation.
The judge returned home to find the telegram regarding Sai’s parents’ deaths. He knew he would find comfort in her as a Westernized Indian. He found himself happy to have someone in his life whom he didn’t hate.
Proving that people often constitute the largest aspect of what makes something feel like home, the judge finally gains some sense of belonging in having a granddaughter whose upbringing made her similar to himself. | <urn:uuid:0708cd1f-b768-4d37-8c9e-602d24709bd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-inheritance-of-loss/chapter-32 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.995723 | 719 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.4821152985095... | 7 | The judge remembers his final conversation with his friend Bose, which had been thirty-three years after they had last seen each other in person. It was a month before Sai arrived in Kalimpong, and they had gone to a restaurant in Darjeeling. They exchanged memories of England. Bose recalled how he had corrected the judge’s pronunciation and took him to buy an English coat. The judge was angered by these memories, thinking that Bose was trying to put him down.
The judge’s final interaction with Bose again affirms just how much self-hatred the judge has internalized due to the racism inherent in colonialism. When Bose brings up events that made the judge seem less English, the judge becomes upset, because he strove to be as English as he possibly could be.
Bose had been one of the ICS men who mounted a court case to win a pension equal to that of white ICS men—but they lost. After that, his son had also tried to bring a case against his employer, Shell Oil, and also lost. People in England had laughed at him, but so, too, had people in India. They believed that Bose thought he was superior to them. The judge had criticized the case for other reasons.
The systemic issues from colonization not only cause the judge’s hatred but also cause a deep imbalance and misunderstanding in Indian culture. In trying to win an equal pension to the British, many Indians believed that Bose simply thought himself superior to them, implying that it was inconceivable that Bose could think Indian people and British people were universally equal.
Bose pressed the issue, exclaiming that white people were responsible for all the crimes of the century. The judge was silent. Bose continued, trying to understand his silence, by saying that at least white people eventually left India. The judge burst out, agreeing that they were bad, but so were he and Bose.
Bose had asked if he and the judge were still friends. The judge responded that things had changed. When Bose said that what was in the past remains unchanged, the judge contradicted him, saying that the present did change the past. The judge was upset that Bose had forced him to grapple with the past, after he had been silent for so long. They parted ways.
Though the judge is upset with Bose for bringing up the past, he for the first time acknowledges some of the damage that colonization has done to himself and to others, recognizing that he had been on the wrong side of history.
On his way home, the judge remembered an incident of boys taunting him at a bus stop, throwing stones and jeering. He then remembered another incident: an Indian boy being kicked and beaten by a group of men. One of them had unzipped his pants and pissed on him. The judge had turned and run away.
The judge provides two examples of how he personally turned his back on justice for other people like him, with the knowledge that he did so out of self-preservation.
The judge returned home to find the telegram regarding Sai’s parents’ deaths. He knew he would find comfort in her as a Westernized Indian. He found himself happy to have someone in his life whom he didn’t hate.
Proving that people often constitute the largest aspect of what makes something feel like home, the judge finally gains some sense of belonging in having a granddaughter whose upbringing made her similar to himself. | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “The Scarlet Letter” Rev. Arthur Dimmesdale is a main character. In the novel, Dimmesdale comes out as a hypocrite. He is depicted as a kind man, full of wisdom and eloquent speaker. He is a respected clergyman. But he is involved in sin of adultery and he keeps it a secret for seven years.
As a result guilt consumes him for seven years until he goes through a transformation. This paper explores the effects of hiding his sin and his transformation.
First effect is that, hiding his sin erodes his conscience. He is a preacher of the word of God and encourages the congregation to confess their sins openly. On the contrary, he chooses to conceal his sin which makes his conscience questionable. Keeping his sin a secret punishes him inwardly.
He knows the shame that he may face but he prefers to punish himself by remaining silent about his sin. He remains in a state of self condemnation hence eroding his conscience. Dimmesdale feels like a coward because he lacks the courage to admit his wrongs.
As a result he chooses to conceal his sin which exposes him to an inward pain. Concealing of his sin also costs him his soul’s peace; he remains disturbed for seven years.
Secondly, concealing of his sin affects his physical and mental well- being. He knows revelation of truth about him would make people in the town look down upon him. These thoughts torment him and as a result he goes through a period of depression. His concealed sin leaves him without peace.
The thought of shame that may befall him results to mental distress. The burden of his sin wears him out mentally and physically thus resulting to depleted health and which makes him so weak that he even thinks of his death.
Since the sin was committed Hester and Dimmesdale had no chance to be alone. At some point, the burden of fear of shame overpowered Dimmesdale “-how his dark complexion seemed to have grown duskier, and his figure more misshapen- since the days when she had familiarly known him” (102)
He decided to run away with Hester and their baby; Pearl. Unfortunately the ship was not leaving for the next four days. At some point Hester discloses to Dimmesdale that her husband knows the two sins that had been tormenting him. Hester and Dimmesdale talk and he seems to be happy and relaxed.
“Do I feel joy again?” Dimmesdale wonders at himself. “Me thought the germ of it was dead in me! -I seem to have flung myself- sick, sin stained and sorrow blackened- down upon these forest leaves, and to have risen up all made anew, and with new powers to glorify Him that hath been merciful! -This is already the better life! Why did we not find it sooner?”(198) Dimmesdale is delighted.
Dimmesdale decides to confess his sin to the rest of the congregation once they return from the forest. He wonders at himself. “That self was gone! Another man had returned out of the forest; a wiser one-” (200) Dimmesdale finds it wise and peaceful to confess his sin.
After giving his sermon, Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold and he tells the congregation of his sin. He also reveals the mark he bears at his breast. “He tells you, that, with all mysterious horror, it is but the shadow of what he bears on his own breast-. He tore away ministerial band before his chest.
It was revealed! -the gaze of horror stricken multitude was concentrated on the ghastly miracle; while the minister stood with a flush of triumph on his face, as one who, in the crisis of acutest pain, had won a victory.”(228) After the confession Dimmesdale was happy and died. “Farewell!” that final word came forth with the minister’s expiring breath.”(252) He finally set his soul free from the guilt of seven years.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel Inc, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The Scarlet Letter: 1850. New York: Informotions incorporated, 2001. Print. | <urn:uuid:6737b398-5416-4c22-b8c5-fe8a177295d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivypanda.com/essays/rev-arthur-dimmesdale-in-nathaniel-hawthornes-the-scarlet-letter/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00335.warc.gz | en | 0.986374 | 888 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0.008084459230... | 2 | In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “The Scarlet Letter” Rev. Arthur Dimmesdale is a main character. In the novel, Dimmesdale comes out as a hypocrite. He is depicted as a kind man, full of wisdom and eloquent speaker. He is a respected clergyman. But he is involved in sin of adultery and he keeps it a secret for seven years.
As a result guilt consumes him for seven years until he goes through a transformation. This paper explores the effects of hiding his sin and his transformation.
First effect is that, hiding his sin erodes his conscience. He is a preacher of the word of God and encourages the congregation to confess their sins openly. On the contrary, he chooses to conceal his sin which makes his conscience questionable. Keeping his sin a secret punishes him inwardly.
He knows the shame that he may face but he prefers to punish himself by remaining silent about his sin. He remains in a state of self condemnation hence eroding his conscience. Dimmesdale feels like a coward because he lacks the courage to admit his wrongs.
As a result he chooses to conceal his sin which exposes him to an inward pain. Concealing of his sin also costs him his soul’s peace; he remains disturbed for seven years.
Secondly, concealing of his sin affects his physical and mental well- being. He knows revelation of truth about him would make people in the town look down upon him. These thoughts torment him and as a result he goes through a period of depression. His concealed sin leaves him without peace.
The thought of shame that may befall him results to mental distress. The burden of his sin wears him out mentally and physically thus resulting to depleted health and which makes him so weak that he even thinks of his death.
Since the sin was committed Hester and Dimmesdale had no chance to be alone. At some point, the burden of fear of shame overpowered Dimmesdale “-how his dark complexion seemed to have grown duskier, and his figure more misshapen- since the days when she had familiarly known him” (102)
He decided to run away with Hester and their baby; Pearl. Unfortunately the ship was not leaving for the next four days. At some point Hester discloses to Dimmesdale that her husband knows the two sins that had been tormenting him. Hester and Dimmesdale talk and he seems to be happy and relaxed.
“Do I feel joy again?” Dimmesdale wonders at himself. “Me thought the germ of it was dead in me! -I seem to have flung myself- sick, sin stained and sorrow blackened- down upon these forest leaves, and to have risen up all made anew, and with new powers to glorify Him that hath been merciful! -This is already the better life! Why did we not find it sooner?”(198) Dimmesdale is delighted.
Dimmesdale decides to confess his sin to the rest of the congregation once they return from the forest. He wonders at himself. “That self was gone! Another man had returned out of the forest; a wiser one-” (200) Dimmesdale finds it wise and peaceful to confess his sin.
After giving his sermon, Dimmesdale stands on the scaffold and he tells the congregation of his sin. He also reveals the mark he bears at his breast. “He tells you, that, with all mysterious horror, it is but the shadow of what he bears on his own breast-. He tore away ministerial band before his chest.
It was revealed! -the gaze of horror stricken multitude was concentrated on the ghastly miracle; while the minister stood with a flush of triumph on his face, as one who, in the crisis of acutest pain, had won a victory.”(228) After the confession Dimmesdale was happy and died. “Farewell!” that final word came forth with the minister’s expiring breath.”(252) He finally set his soul free from the guilt of seven years.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel Inc, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The Scarlet Letter: 1850. New York: Informotions incorporated, 2001. Print. | 876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Key point: These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away.
During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 the primary target was Battleship Row. These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. Among the battleships lined up alongside Ford Island was the USS West Virginia, a twenty-year-old warship with a crew of over a thousand. During the battle the ship took seven torpedo hits along the port side along with two bomb strikes around its superstructure. The ship rapidly flooded, settling on the floor of the harbor with her superstructure above water.
In the aftermath of the attack frantic efforts were made to save survivors trapped below decks on the sunken and damaged ships. Hulls were cut open and divers darted beneath the waves in desperate attempts to save them. The minesweeper Tern lay alongside the “Weevee,” as the battleship was nicknamed, playing water over the fires burning aboard her. When the fires were extinguished at 2PM, the Tern moved over to the Arizona. Commander D. H. Clark, the Fleet Maintenance Officer, reported on December 9 the West Virginia was “doubtful,” estimating twelve to eighteen months for repairs if she could be saved at all.
Stripped for Useful Items
Since the ship couldn’t be quickly salvaged, it was stripped for useful items. Guards were posted on the ship starting on December 8 to protect against looting, theft or espionage. Sentry duty aboard the half-sunken wreck of their former home was a sad time for them. During the quiets times some sailors reported hearing tapping noises coming from below decks. They believed the noise came from trapped crew members signaling desperately for help. There were some 70 men missing from the ship’s complement. Their officers told them it was only the sound of wreckage and loose items floating in and around the ship, banging into the hull.
Not As Bad as First Suspected
Several 5-inch guns were removed and installed on other ships and shore batteries. Weeks later divers inspected her damage and learned it was not as bad as first suspected; the ship could be refloated and repaired sooner than expected. On December 23 inspectors went through the upper decks, finding burn damage and opened lockers as if someone looted the ship in the aftermath. Larger items such as the main guns, masts and stacks were removed, lightening the ship in preparation for refloating her.
Next began the process of sealing her hull. As diver’s inspected the ship, they found a previously unseen torpedo hit at her stern. The ship had suffered extensive damage; whole compartments were essentially open to the sea. Painstakingly, these holes were patched and covered in order to refloat the ship so permanent repairs could be made. Eventually, these efforts paid off and they were ready to return the battleship to life.
Pumps began to slowly send water flowing out of the ship. Decomposed bodies were found and carefully placed into waiting body-bags. Valuables were collected and cataloged. If the owners could be identified the items were returned; the rest were auctioned for the crew’s emergency fund. On 17 May West Virginia was floating again after over five months. Work went on to prepare the ship for dry dock and finish cleaning out the flooded decks. Even a few .50-caliber machine guns were mounted in case of another Japanese air attack.
It was only on May 27 the most disturbing discoveries of the salvage operation were made. In the aft engine room, several bodies were found lying on steam pipes. They had evidently been able to survive a short time in an air pocket, suffocating when the oxygen finally ran out. Worse still was found in compartment A-111, a storeroom. When the door to this compartment was opened, only three feet of water was inside. On the shelves of the storeroom lay the bodies of three sailors, Louis Costin, 21, Clifford Olds, 20, and Ronald Endicott, 18. With them was a calendar with the dates December 7 to 23 marked off in red pencil. There were emergency rations and access to a fresh water tank in the compartment.
Each man had a watch, enabling them to mark the passage of time. The crew was horrified by the news, especially divers that had sounded the hull and listened for replies but heard nothing. The sentries who reported hearing banging below were angry, though whether anything could have been done at the time is debatable. The matter was a subject of quiet discussion among crew members for years after.
West Virginia was rebuilt and served out the war mainly as a fire support vessel for amphibious landings. She did serve at the Battle of Surigao Strait, the last big-gun ship battle. West Virginia was also present at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. Decommissioned after the war, she was sold for scrap in 1959.
Originally Published September 17, 2018.
This article originally appeared on the Warfare History Network.
Image: Creative Commons. | <urn:uuid:cdb0262d-90f8-4d7b-8045-393e7649c1ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://news.yahoo.com/why-japan-targeted-battleship-row-093000333.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00078.warc.gz | en | 0.988777 | 1,043 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.22162143886... | 1 | Key point: These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away.
During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 the primary target was Battleship Row. These capital ships had to suffice since the American carriers were away. Among the battleships lined up alongside Ford Island was the USS West Virginia, a twenty-year-old warship with a crew of over a thousand. During the battle the ship took seven torpedo hits along the port side along with two bomb strikes around its superstructure. The ship rapidly flooded, settling on the floor of the harbor with her superstructure above water.
In the aftermath of the attack frantic efforts were made to save survivors trapped below decks on the sunken and damaged ships. Hulls were cut open and divers darted beneath the waves in desperate attempts to save them. The minesweeper Tern lay alongside the “Weevee,” as the battleship was nicknamed, playing water over the fires burning aboard her. When the fires were extinguished at 2PM, the Tern moved over to the Arizona. Commander D. H. Clark, the Fleet Maintenance Officer, reported on December 9 the West Virginia was “doubtful,” estimating twelve to eighteen months for repairs if she could be saved at all.
Stripped for Useful Items
Since the ship couldn’t be quickly salvaged, it was stripped for useful items. Guards were posted on the ship starting on December 8 to protect against looting, theft or espionage. Sentry duty aboard the half-sunken wreck of their former home was a sad time for them. During the quiets times some sailors reported hearing tapping noises coming from below decks. They believed the noise came from trapped crew members signaling desperately for help. There were some 70 men missing from the ship’s complement. Their officers told them it was only the sound of wreckage and loose items floating in and around the ship, banging into the hull.
Not As Bad as First Suspected
Several 5-inch guns were removed and installed on other ships and shore batteries. Weeks later divers inspected her damage and learned it was not as bad as first suspected; the ship could be refloated and repaired sooner than expected. On December 23 inspectors went through the upper decks, finding burn damage and opened lockers as if someone looted the ship in the aftermath. Larger items such as the main guns, masts and stacks were removed, lightening the ship in preparation for refloating her.
Next began the process of sealing her hull. As diver’s inspected the ship, they found a previously unseen torpedo hit at her stern. The ship had suffered extensive damage; whole compartments were essentially open to the sea. Painstakingly, these holes were patched and covered in order to refloat the ship so permanent repairs could be made. Eventually, these efforts paid off and they were ready to return the battleship to life.
Pumps began to slowly send water flowing out of the ship. Decomposed bodies were found and carefully placed into waiting body-bags. Valuables were collected and cataloged. If the owners could be identified the items were returned; the rest were auctioned for the crew’s emergency fund. On 17 May West Virginia was floating again after over five months. Work went on to prepare the ship for dry dock and finish cleaning out the flooded decks. Even a few .50-caliber machine guns were mounted in case of another Japanese air attack.
It was only on May 27 the most disturbing discoveries of the salvage operation were made. In the aft engine room, several bodies were found lying on steam pipes. They had evidently been able to survive a short time in an air pocket, suffocating when the oxygen finally ran out. Worse still was found in compartment A-111, a storeroom. When the door to this compartment was opened, only three feet of water was inside. On the shelves of the storeroom lay the bodies of three sailors, Louis Costin, 21, Clifford Olds, 20, and Ronald Endicott, 18. With them was a calendar with the dates December 7 to 23 marked off in red pencil. There were emergency rations and access to a fresh water tank in the compartment.
Each man had a watch, enabling them to mark the passage of time. The crew was horrified by the news, especially divers that had sounded the hull and listened for replies but heard nothing. The sentries who reported hearing banging below were angry, though whether anything could have been done at the time is debatable. The matter was a subject of quiet discussion among crew members for years after.
West Virginia was rebuilt and served out the war mainly as a fire support vessel for amphibious landings. She did serve at the Battle of Surigao Strait, the last big-gun ship battle. West Virginia was also present at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. Decommissioned after the war, she was sold for scrap in 1959.
Originally Published September 17, 2018.
This article originally appeared on the Warfare History Network.
Image: Creative Commons. | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fort Batenstein was built in the 17th century, precisely 1656 by the Dutch traders who had arrived in the Gold Coast and taken up residence on the coastal areas of the Western region, near Butre where the Dutch had claimed territorial control at a time when the struggle by European nations for control over important trading routes and areas in the Gold Coast was at its peak.
Like most forts built in Ghana by the Europeans, the Dutch West India Company built Fort Batenstein to challenge the growing commercial influence of the Swedes through the Swedish Africa Company which had successfully built a fort on the coast first years earlier, even though they came to meet the Dutch on their arrival in Gold Coast.
The Dutch later managed to instigate the local people against the Swedish, resulting in the local people attacking the Swedish and forcing them to leave the area. After this, the Dutch signed a treaty with the elders and chiefs of the Butre and Ahanta area, in which the people and entire area was to come under the control of the Dutch.
The treaty remained in place until a war broke out between the Dutch and the local people in what was known as the Dutch-Ahanta war of 1837. It was during this chaotic period that Fort Batenstein gained attention and became an important fort in the Gold Coast, as it was used by the Dutch as their central military point where decisions were taken, refuge was sort and plans hatched.
By the end of the war, the Dutch had successfully defeated the Ahanta people and made the area a protectorate of the Dutch, with the commander of the Fort serving as the Vice governor of the protectorate.
Some forty years later, the Dutch decided to pack up and leave the Gold Coast altogether after the British had proven too strong and taken control of most part of the Gold Coast. As part of their departing arrangements, the Dutch ceded the Fort to Britain in 1872. Hence from that time till the departure of the British in 1957, Fort Batenstein was regarded as a property of Britain.
Unfortunately, the Fort is not in the same shape as it was in the 17th century as some parts of it which are important in telling its story have worn off. Notwithstanding, Fort Batenstein receives lot of tourists on regular basis, and is one of the most important and visited attractions within the Western region.
WHAT OTHERS ARE READING:
- Reasons you could be denied boarding on a flight
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- ‘My bank statement is genuine, why was my visa application refused’ – Question from reader
- Three Ways To Move To Spain Legally | <urn:uuid:898ab191-77d3-41f9-b49f-fa516b3f95b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jetsanza.com/forts-in-ghana-fort-batenstein/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.985315 | 539 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.53098231554031... | 1 | Fort Batenstein was built in the 17th century, precisely 1656 by the Dutch traders who had arrived in the Gold Coast and taken up residence on the coastal areas of the Western region, near Butre where the Dutch had claimed territorial control at a time when the struggle by European nations for control over important trading routes and areas in the Gold Coast was at its peak.
Like most forts built in Ghana by the Europeans, the Dutch West India Company built Fort Batenstein to challenge the growing commercial influence of the Swedes through the Swedish Africa Company which had successfully built a fort on the coast first years earlier, even though they came to meet the Dutch on their arrival in Gold Coast.
The Dutch later managed to instigate the local people against the Swedish, resulting in the local people attacking the Swedish and forcing them to leave the area. After this, the Dutch signed a treaty with the elders and chiefs of the Butre and Ahanta area, in which the people and entire area was to come under the control of the Dutch.
The treaty remained in place until a war broke out between the Dutch and the local people in what was known as the Dutch-Ahanta war of 1837. It was during this chaotic period that Fort Batenstein gained attention and became an important fort in the Gold Coast, as it was used by the Dutch as their central military point where decisions were taken, refuge was sort and plans hatched.
By the end of the war, the Dutch had successfully defeated the Ahanta people and made the area a protectorate of the Dutch, with the commander of the Fort serving as the Vice governor of the protectorate.
Some forty years later, the Dutch decided to pack up and leave the Gold Coast altogether after the British had proven too strong and taken control of most part of the Gold Coast. As part of their departing arrangements, the Dutch ceded the Fort to Britain in 1872. Hence from that time till the departure of the British in 1957, Fort Batenstein was regarded as a property of Britain.
Unfortunately, the Fort is not in the same shape as it was in the 17th century as some parts of it which are important in telling its story have worn off. Notwithstanding, Fort Batenstein receives lot of tourists on regular basis, and is one of the most important and visited attractions within the Western region.
WHAT OTHERS ARE READING:
- Reasons you could be denied boarding on a flight
- Bank Statement For Visa Application: How much balance is enough?
- ‘My bank statement is genuine, why was my visa application refused’ – Question from reader
- Three Ways To Move To Spain Legally | 550 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Brazil recovers ancient human fossil fragments from burnt Rio museum
Brazilian officials said Friday they have recovered pieces of a 12,000-year-old fossil of a neolithic woman that was among the prized artifacts in Rio de Janeiro's burnt down National Museum.
"We found almost all of the skull and 80 percent of its fragments have been identified," museum director Alexander Kellner said, adding that fragments of a femur were also uncovered from the ashes.
The fossil, nicknamed "Luzia," was discovered in 1970 in the southeastern state of Minas Gerais by a French-led expedition.
A Manchester University team later did a digital face reconstruction based on the skull, which was used to model a sculpture of the ancient woman.
That sculpture went up in flames on September 2 along with most of the museum's 20 million artifacts. But the original skull fragments, kept in a metal urn in a closet, were found a few days ago.
"They've suffered alterations, damage. But we're very optimistic at the find and all it represents," said Claudia Rodrigues, a professor at the museum who has been picking through the debris.
The 200-year-old institution was considered the main natural history museum in Latin America, and was known for its paleontology department and its 26,000 fossils.
The cause of the fire is under investigation.
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0.803827106952667... | 3 | Brazil recovers ancient human fossil fragments from burnt Rio museum
Brazilian officials said Friday they have recovered pieces of a 12,000-year-old fossil of a neolithic woman that was among the prized artifacts in Rio de Janeiro's burnt down National Museum.
"We found almost all of the skull and 80 percent of its fragments have been identified," museum director Alexander Kellner said, adding that fragments of a femur were also uncovered from the ashes.
The fossil, nicknamed "Luzia," was discovered in 1970 in the southeastern state of Minas Gerais by a French-led expedition.
A Manchester University team later did a digital face reconstruction based on the skull, which was used to model a sculpture of the ancient woman.
That sculpture went up in flames on September 2 along with most of the museum's 20 million artifacts. But the original skull fragments, kept in a metal urn in a closet, were found a few days ago.
"They've suffered alterations, damage. But we're very optimistic at the find and all it represents," said Claudia Rodrigues, a professor at the museum who has been picking through the debris.
The 200-year-old institution was considered the main natural history museum in Latin America, and was known for its paleontology department and its 26,000 fossils.
The cause of the fire is under investigation.
© 2018 AFP | 291 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The untold story of the 999 young, unmarried Jewish women who were tricked into boarding a train in Poprad, Slovakia on March 25, 1942 that became the first official transport to Auschwitz.
'Books such as this are essential: they remind modern readers of events that should never be forgotten' - Caroline Moorehead
On March 25, 1942, nearly a thousand young, unmarried Jewish women boarded a train in Poprad, Slovakia. Filled with a sense of adventure and national pride, they left their parents' homes wearing their best clothes and confidently waving good-bye. Believing they were going to work in a factory for a few months, they were eager to report for government service. Instead, the young women-many of them teenagers-were sent to Auschwitz. Their government paid 500 Reichsmarks (about 160) apiece for the Nazis to take them as slave labour. Of those 999 innocent deportees, only a few would survive.
The facts of the first official Jewish transport to Auschwitz are little known, yet profoundly relevant today. These were not resistance fighters or prisoners of war. There were no men among them. Sent to almost certain death, the young women were powerless and insignificant not only because they were Jewish-but also because they were female. Now, acclaimed author Heather Dune Macadam reveals their poignant stories, drawing on extensive interviews with survivors, and consulting with historians, witnesses, and relatives of those first deportees to create an important addition to Holocaust literature and women's history. | <urn:uuid:fbd1c9e7-f5d7-495a-8ccf-d94e644ced00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hachette.com.au/heather-dune-macadam-caroline-moorehead/the-nine-hundred-the-extraordinary-young-women-of-the-first-official-jewish-transport-to-auschwitz | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.9805 | 302 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.3718251287... | 1 | The untold story of the 999 young, unmarried Jewish women who were tricked into boarding a train in Poprad, Slovakia on March 25, 1942 that became the first official transport to Auschwitz.
'Books such as this are essential: they remind modern readers of events that should never be forgotten' - Caroline Moorehead
On March 25, 1942, nearly a thousand young, unmarried Jewish women boarded a train in Poprad, Slovakia. Filled with a sense of adventure and national pride, they left their parents' homes wearing their best clothes and confidently waving good-bye. Believing they were going to work in a factory for a few months, they were eager to report for government service. Instead, the young women-many of them teenagers-were sent to Auschwitz. Their government paid 500 Reichsmarks (about 160) apiece for the Nazis to take them as slave labour. Of those 999 innocent deportees, only a few would survive.
The facts of the first official Jewish transport to Auschwitz are little known, yet profoundly relevant today. These were not resistance fighters or prisoners of war. There were no men among them. Sent to almost certain death, the young women were powerless and insignificant not only because they were Jewish-but also because they were female. Now, acclaimed author Heather Dune Macadam reveals their poignant stories, drawing on extensive interviews with survivors, and consulting with historians, witnesses, and relatives of those first deportees to create an important addition to Holocaust literature and women's history. | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Standards Covered During my Action Research
Common Core State Standards: Even though I am teaching physical education, I was able to cover some common core standards. The areas that I included during this action research were the listening and speaking sections of the common core standards. They were things that were good to cover especially because my students speak primarily different languages.
21st Century Skill (4 C's): Before this program, I had zero clue what the Four C's were. After learning about them, they are a must in today's classroom. The skills that are used when covering the Four C's will set students up for success in today's technology heavy world.
TPACK: TPACK and the Four C's work together. TPACK is how technology is incorporated into the classroom. In TPACK, there are three main components: content, pedagogy, and technology. In this action research, I had to take steps to integrate technology into the physical education classroom. This was something that my students were not used to in that setting.
Physical Education Model Content Standards for California Public Schools: Being a Physical Educator, these are content standards are what I primarily focus on. There are different standards for each grade level and it usually progresses from basic movements in Kindergarten to offensive and defensive strategies at the high school level. | <urn:uuid:f3e4bf87-cfa2-40dd-87e5-8eb3e4e16bc0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.learninginnovationlab.com/williams-standards--competencies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.9808 | 268 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.180968016386... | 8 | Standards Covered During my Action Research
Common Core State Standards: Even though I am teaching physical education, I was able to cover some common core standards. The areas that I included during this action research were the listening and speaking sections of the common core standards. They were things that were good to cover especially because my students speak primarily different languages.
21st Century Skill (4 C's): Before this program, I had zero clue what the Four C's were. After learning about them, they are a must in today's classroom. The skills that are used when covering the Four C's will set students up for success in today's technology heavy world.
TPACK: TPACK and the Four C's work together. TPACK is how technology is incorporated into the classroom. In TPACK, there are three main components: content, pedagogy, and technology. In this action research, I had to take steps to integrate technology into the physical education classroom. This was something that my students were not used to in that setting.
Physical Education Model Content Standards for California Public Schools: Being a Physical Educator, these are content standards are what I primarily focus on. There are different standards for each grade level and it usually progresses from basic movements in Kindergarten to offensive and defensive strategies at the high school level. | 264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elizabeth Blackwell's Fight to Become the First Female Doctor
Elizabeth Blackwell Portrait
Elizabeth Blackwell Born in England
Elizabeth was born the daughter of Hannah Lane and Samuel Blackwell in 1821 their third child. She was born in Bristol, England. Her family enjoyed a prosperous lifestyle until riots broke out and they lost their business. Her father made the decision to move the family to America while she was still a young girl. Samuel Blackwell felt he would have more job opportunities in America and he wanted to support the anti slavery movement and women’s rights movement for his daughters. The Blackwell family settled in New York in 1832.
Elizabeth’s father did not want his children educated by the church so they received their education through their parents and private tutors. Elizabeth could speak several languages including French and German as well as English. She also received education in music and literature. Elizabeth was fortunate that her father believed in education for his daughters as well as for his sons. This was a time when usually women did not have the same opportunities for education as men. In fact, it was rare for a woman to have access to higher education at all. To become a doctor, Elizabeth would have to fight long held views and preconceived ideas on the roles of women in society.
First Work Experiences
When Elizabeth was eighteen her father died unexpectedly, he left her mother Hannah, with nine young children to provide for. For some time, Elizabeth along with her two sisters and mother worked as teachers to support the family. Teaching was one of the few occupations that society accepted for women at that time. Together the Blackwell women opened a private academy for young women in Cincinnati, Ohio. Elizabeth also moved to Henderson, Kentucky to take a teaching position. However, her anti-slavery views seemed to be in contrast with the schools teachings and she left there after her first year.
During this time period, Elizabeth had a close friend who was dying of a disease that affected women only. This friend was the person who most influenced Elizabeth to pursue a career in medicine. She confided to Elizabeth how embarrassing it was for her to let male doctors examine her. Her friend wished that females were allowed to enter the medical field and treat women like her. This was the first time that Elizabeth had ever considered the possibility of studying to become a doctor. She had never considered medicine as a career. In fact, she had found the study of the body, diseases and sickness to be appalling and disgusting. But now, in honor of her friend’s thoughts and wishes, Elizabeth set her sights on becoming the first world’s first woman doctor. It would not be an easy path to forge.
The Fight For a Career As a Woman Doctor
In the beginning of her quest to earn a medical degree, many of her friends were against the idea, and tried to discourage her. They didn’t feel she had any chance of becoming a doctor due to being a woman. Elizabeth persisted even though she had no idea how to begin. So she began by studying with private doctors John and Samuel Dickison, who were willing to teach her. She also spent a lot of time reading and studying on her own. From there, she began to apply to different medical schools but was always told that because she was a woman they would not accept her. Finally, one school did admit her to their medical program of study. It was the Geneva Medical College in New York. Although she was admitted to the college it was not going to be an easy road to her medical degree. The male students treated her as a sort of an oddity and a joke; some actually went so far as to bully her. Some professors refused to let her in their classrooms and demonstrations. Elizabeth refused to give up no matter how much abuse she received and just worked and studied even harder. In Jan 1849, it paid off and she received her medical degree and graduated first in her class. I wonder how chagrined and embarrassed those boys who had bullied her felt.
After graduating with her medical degree, she moved to London and Paris where she continued studying. Here she took courses in mid wife studies. Unfortunately, it was here that she would encounter an eye infection from one of her patients. She lost her eye due to the infection and thus ended her ambition of becoming a surgeon.
Doctoring in New York
Upon returning to New York, she set about helping poor women and children. She opened several facilities for women and children to receive medical treatment. She also opened the first medical college for women in New York. Elizabeth’s younger sister Emily had followed her into the field of medicine and the two of them worked together in opening and operating these facilities for poor women and children, as well as many other causes. Doctor Rebecca Cole would be the first black woman doctor to work with Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell at her Infirmary for women and children.
Civil War And President Lincoln
During the Civil War, Elizabeth helped the Union effort with her knowledge of medical practices. This included advocating for clean sanitary conditions as well as proper personal hygiene in Union hospitals and army camps. She also worked with President Lincoln in establishing The US sanitary commission. She trained other nurses in proper sanitary procedures for war time. These trained nurses helped to reduce diseases from spreading though hospitals and among the men in the army camps.
Elizabeth Blackwell Achievements
- First woman to receive a medical degree
- Worked and studied at Bartholomew’s Hospital in London
- Opened a private practice when no one hospital would hire her
- Opened the New York Dispensary for poor women and children
- Opened the New York Infirmary for indigent women and children
- First woman listed on the British Medical Register
- Opened the first medical college for women
- Worked with President Lincoln during the Civil War to establish the US sanitary Commission in 1861
- Lectured at the London School of Medicine for Women
- Inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame 1973
This is only a short list of the achievements of Elizabeth Blackwell. I am sure there are many others as well.
Elizabeth Blackwell Medical Degree
Books by Elizabeth Blackwell
- The Religion of Health
- Essays in Medical Sociology
- The Human Element in Sex
- Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women
- Medicine as a Profession for Women
- Address on the Medical Education of Women
Again this is only a short list of books and articles written by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell. I believe she also wrote many articles about women's health as well as articles about sanitation, cleanliness, and hygiene.
Elizabeth Blackwell: A Lasting Legacy
Elizabeth forged a path into the medical field for many other women to follow, including her sister Emily. The two of them together whether working together or separately brought about the acceptance of women in a field that had viewed women as inferior, ignorant, lacking sense and not having the mental attitude for the medical profession. Elizabeth proved them wrong
Elizabeth Blackwell: Her Story
Questions & Answers
© 2019 L.M. Hosler | <urn:uuid:d2c7e520-7300-47c1-9b79-bd21eaf1f41f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/First-Female-Medical-Doctor-Elizabeth-Blackwell | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.988908 | 1,447 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.215998917818... | 2 | Elizabeth Blackwell's Fight to Become the First Female Doctor
Elizabeth Blackwell Portrait
Elizabeth Blackwell Born in England
Elizabeth was born the daughter of Hannah Lane and Samuel Blackwell in 1821 their third child. She was born in Bristol, England. Her family enjoyed a prosperous lifestyle until riots broke out and they lost their business. Her father made the decision to move the family to America while she was still a young girl. Samuel Blackwell felt he would have more job opportunities in America and he wanted to support the anti slavery movement and women’s rights movement for his daughters. The Blackwell family settled in New York in 1832.
Elizabeth’s father did not want his children educated by the church so they received their education through their parents and private tutors. Elizabeth could speak several languages including French and German as well as English. She also received education in music and literature. Elizabeth was fortunate that her father believed in education for his daughters as well as for his sons. This was a time when usually women did not have the same opportunities for education as men. In fact, it was rare for a woman to have access to higher education at all. To become a doctor, Elizabeth would have to fight long held views and preconceived ideas on the roles of women in society.
First Work Experiences
When Elizabeth was eighteen her father died unexpectedly, he left her mother Hannah, with nine young children to provide for. For some time, Elizabeth along with her two sisters and mother worked as teachers to support the family. Teaching was one of the few occupations that society accepted for women at that time. Together the Blackwell women opened a private academy for young women in Cincinnati, Ohio. Elizabeth also moved to Henderson, Kentucky to take a teaching position. However, her anti-slavery views seemed to be in contrast with the schools teachings and she left there after her first year.
During this time period, Elizabeth had a close friend who was dying of a disease that affected women only. This friend was the person who most influenced Elizabeth to pursue a career in medicine. She confided to Elizabeth how embarrassing it was for her to let male doctors examine her. Her friend wished that females were allowed to enter the medical field and treat women like her. This was the first time that Elizabeth had ever considered the possibility of studying to become a doctor. She had never considered medicine as a career. In fact, she had found the study of the body, diseases and sickness to be appalling and disgusting. But now, in honor of her friend’s thoughts and wishes, Elizabeth set her sights on becoming the first world’s first woman doctor. It would not be an easy path to forge.
The Fight For a Career As a Woman Doctor
In the beginning of her quest to earn a medical degree, many of her friends were against the idea, and tried to discourage her. They didn’t feel she had any chance of becoming a doctor due to being a woman. Elizabeth persisted even though she had no idea how to begin. So she began by studying with private doctors John and Samuel Dickison, who were willing to teach her. She also spent a lot of time reading and studying on her own. From there, she began to apply to different medical schools but was always told that because she was a woman they would not accept her. Finally, one school did admit her to their medical program of study. It was the Geneva Medical College in New York. Although she was admitted to the college it was not going to be an easy road to her medical degree. The male students treated her as a sort of an oddity and a joke; some actually went so far as to bully her. Some professors refused to let her in their classrooms and demonstrations. Elizabeth refused to give up no matter how much abuse she received and just worked and studied even harder. In Jan 1849, it paid off and she received her medical degree and graduated first in her class. I wonder how chagrined and embarrassed those boys who had bullied her felt.
After graduating with her medical degree, she moved to London and Paris where she continued studying. Here she took courses in mid wife studies. Unfortunately, it was here that she would encounter an eye infection from one of her patients. She lost her eye due to the infection and thus ended her ambition of becoming a surgeon.
Doctoring in New York
Upon returning to New York, she set about helping poor women and children. She opened several facilities for women and children to receive medical treatment. She also opened the first medical college for women in New York. Elizabeth’s younger sister Emily had followed her into the field of medicine and the two of them worked together in opening and operating these facilities for poor women and children, as well as many other causes. Doctor Rebecca Cole would be the first black woman doctor to work with Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell at her Infirmary for women and children.
Civil War And President Lincoln
During the Civil War, Elizabeth helped the Union effort with her knowledge of medical practices. This included advocating for clean sanitary conditions as well as proper personal hygiene in Union hospitals and army camps. She also worked with President Lincoln in establishing The US sanitary commission. She trained other nurses in proper sanitary procedures for war time. These trained nurses helped to reduce diseases from spreading though hospitals and among the men in the army camps.
Elizabeth Blackwell Achievements
- First woman to receive a medical degree
- Worked and studied at Bartholomew’s Hospital in London
- Opened a private practice when no one hospital would hire her
- Opened the New York Dispensary for poor women and children
- Opened the New York Infirmary for indigent women and children
- First woman listed on the British Medical Register
- Opened the first medical college for women
- Worked with President Lincoln during the Civil War to establish the US sanitary Commission in 1861
- Lectured at the London School of Medicine for Women
- Inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame 1973
This is only a short list of the achievements of Elizabeth Blackwell. I am sure there are many others as well.
Elizabeth Blackwell Medical Degree
Books by Elizabeth Blackwell
- The Religion of Health
- Essays in Medical Sociology
- The Human Element in Sex
- Pioneer Work in Opening the Medical Profession to Women
- Medicine as a Profession for Women
- Address on the Medical Education of Women
Again this is only a short list of books and articles written by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell. I believe she also wrote many articles about women's health as well as articles about sanitation, cleanliness, and hygiene.
Elizabeth Blackwell: A Lasting Legacy
Elizabeth forged a path into the medical field for many other women to follow, including her sister Emily. The two of them together whether working together or separately brought about the acceptance of women in a field that had viewed women as inferior, ignorant, lacking sense and not having the mental attitude for the medical profession. Elizabeth proved them wrong
Elizabeth Blackwell: Her Story
Questions & Answers
© 2019 L.M. Hosler | 1,448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Louis de Rochemont had a bone to pick in 1938. In the 1930s, American attitudes toward Nazi Germany and Adolph Hitler were mixed. Even as Hitler ratcheted up his attacks on German Jews and increased his rhetoric about Germany reclaiming countries lost in World War I, there was some admiration for his restoration of the German economy. Streets were clean, men had jobs and the country was attractive.
The 1936 Olympic games had provided a showcase for German achievement, as well as its volatile leader, who some still believed was a laughable buffoon. But Louis de Rochemont saw, instead, the harsh fascist policies Hitler employed to make his vision for Germany come true. True, men had jobs, but they had no labor unions to demand good pay or protect their rights. German farms were booming, but it was because families were forced to support them. German children were well-cared for, but only while being indoctrinated in fascist principles.
By 1938, many in America still believed Hitler could be moderated by others in Germany, and that the worst of his threats against Jews and other minorities were just rhetoric. Within Germany itself some didn’t believe Hitler was serious in his threats. Some Jewish German bankers even gave money to the Nazi party, believing it would have a moderating influence on Hitler.
Back in America some journalists sounded alarms about Hitler’s Germany, but their voices were mixed in with others who were less critical and repeated the American government’s more moderate line. Those sounding the alarm simply didn’t have a loud enough voice. But Louis de Rochemont did. He had a much louder megaphone than most, and he decided to direct it at Hitler’s Germany.
Louis de Rochemont’s megaphone was: The March of Time. It was a documentary-style film series that each month showed at movie theaters around the country. News reels were not new, but The March of Time advanced the art of news reels. It ran 20 to 30 minutes, much longer than most, and it dramatized its stories using actual footage, as well as actors and staged scenes, to bring the story lines to life. And it was not afraid to be political.
de Rochemont had taken over as producer of The March of Time in 1935, in partnership with Time Magazine. He tackled topics such as the harsh working conditions of American blacks working in the cotton fields of the South and environmental issues, such as the farming practices that caused the dust bowl and controversy over developing Florida’s wild lands.
But it was fascism that drew most of de Rochemont’s fire. In January, 1938 – almost a year before the Nazi’s launched the Kristallnacht rioting and violence that openly targeted Jewish families and businesses – de Rochemont put his film, Inside Nazi Germany, into American theaters. You can watch it here.
Today, with the benefit of hindsight, the film seems tame as it looks at how Hitler’s fascist government impinged on the liberties of the typical German household and how antisemitism was spreading in the country as it built up a fierce war machine.
de Rochemont had in his sights not just changing opinion about Hitler, who was not popular in America, but also snuffing out support for Nazi politics in America. The German American Bund – a U.S.-based organization of German-Americans who supported Nazi politics – was slowly growing across the country. Among the group’s organizing tools were a series of summer camps for Germans to visit.
As he did in other films, de Rochemont found material for Inside Nazi Germany in his own back yard: Southbury, Connecticut. While the American Nazis had been able to build camps throughout other parts of the country, Connecticut reacted in horror at news that the Nazis had bought land in Southbury for a campground. Two of the campground builders were arrested for working on a Sunday in violation of the state’s blue laws. The town organized to block the camp by changing its zoning laws, which drove the American Nazis to sell the land and move on.
The message to moviegoers was clear: they should follow the lead of flinty New Englanders and not give Nazi ideals a home.
de Rochemont himself could be described as a flinty New Englander. He was born in Massachusetts in 1899 and his family moved to Newington, N.H. when he was a boy. It would be his lifelong home. He developed a love of theater as a youngster, and cut his teeth working for the newsreels, covering news.
By the time he was heading The March of Time, de Rochemont had polished his craft. He had a knack for spotting international hot-spots and highlighting them for viewers at just the right moment. And he knew how to dramatize news stories for easy consumption. Inside Nazi Germany has been recognized as very influential in shaping American attitudes toward Germany and Nazism.
de Rochemont and The March of Time would inspire characters in Orson Welle’s film, Citizen Kane, which featured the work of journalists working for the fictional newsreel News on the March.
After the war, de Rochemont left The March of Time in the hands of his brother, Richard. Richard would win an Academy Award for a March of Time episode that focused on the post-World War II struggles of Italians.
Louis, meanwhile, would go on to producing feature films. Two films he produced were set in his home state of New Hampshire. The Whistle at Eaton Falls (1951) was set in a New Hampshire mill town and highlighted labor-management strife. It marked the film debut of Ernest Borgnine. Lost Boundaries (1949) told the story of a New Hampshire couple who were black but passed as white to avoid racism, and the complications that brought to their lives.
Perhaps his most unusual work was de Rochemont’s production of an animated version of George Orwell’s Animal Farm. He developed the cartoon in partnership with the CIA, which lead his critics to categories de Rochemont as an anti-communist propagandist. You can watch it here.
Critics of de Rochemont’s work argue that in his docu-drama style he was too free with his use of actors and fabricating scenes to tell his stories. And his reputation suffered because of his staunch anti-communism and the ugly aspects of the communist purges in the film industry in the 1950s. | <urn:uuid:fea3efd9-ea4f-4225-9ba4-38874fa447d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/louis-de-rochemont-new-hampshire-moviemaker-took-hitler-1838-won/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.987505 | 1,353 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.40679627656936646... | 10 | Louis de Rochemont had a bone to pick in 1938. In the 1930s, American attitudes toward Nazi Germany and Adolph Hitler were mixed. Even as Hitler ratcheted up his attacks on German Jews and increased his rhetoric about Germany reclaiming countries lost in World War I, there was some admiration for his restoration of the German economy. Streets were clean, men had jobs and the country was attractive.
The 1936 Olympic games had provided a showcase for German achievement, as well as its volatile leader, who some still believed was a laughable buffoon. But Louis de Rochemont saw, instead, the harsh fascist policies Hitler employed to make his vision for Germany come true. True, men had jobs, but they had no labor unions to demand good pay or protect their rights. German farms were booming, but it was because families were forced to support them. German children were well-cared for, but only while being indoctrinated in fascist principles.
By 1938, many in America still believed Hitler could be moderated by others in Germany, and that the worst of his threats against Jews and other minorities were just rhetoric. Within Germany itself some didn’t believe Hitler was serious in his threats. Some Jewish German bankers even gave money to the Nazi party, believing it would have a moderating influence on Hitler.
Back in America some journalists sounded alarms about Hitler’s Germany, but their voices were mixed in with others who were less critical and repeated the American government’s more moderate line. Those sounding the alarm simply didn’t have a loud enough voice. But Louis de Rochemont did. He had a much louder megaphone than most, and he decided to direct it at Hitler’s Germany.
Louis de Rochemont’s megaphone was: The March of Time. It was a documentary-style film series that each month showed at movie theaters around the country. News reels were not new, but The March of Time advanced the art of news reels. It ran 20 to 30 minutes, much longer than most, and it dramatized its stories using actual footage, as well as actors and staged scenes, to bring the story lines to life. And it was not afraid to be political.
de Rochemont had taken over as producer of The March of Time in 1935, in partnership with Time Magazine. He tackled topics such as the harsh working conditions of American blacks working in the cotton fields of the South and environmental issues, such as the farming practices that caused the dust bowl and controversy over developing Florida’s wild lands.
But it was fascism that drew most of de Rochemont’s fire. In January, 1938 – almost a year before the Nazi’s launched the Kristallnacht rioting and violence that openly targeted Jewish families and businesses – de Rochemont put his film, Inside Nazi Germany, into American theaters. You can watch it here.
Today, with the benefit of hindsight, the film seems tame as it looks at how Hitler’s fascist government impinged on the liberties of the typical German household and how antisemitism was spreading in the country as it built up a fierce war machine.
de Rochemont had in his sights not just changing opinion about Hitler, who was not popular in America, but also snuffing out support for Nazi politics in America. The German American Bund – a U.S.-based organization of German-Americans who supported Nazi politics – was slowly growing across the country. Among the group’s organizing tools were a series of summer camps for Germans to visit.
As he did in other films, de Rochemont found material for Inside Nazi Germany in his own back yard: Southbury, Connecticut. While the American Nazis had been able to build camps throughout other parts of the country, Connecticut reacted in horror at news that the Nazis had bought land in Southbury for a campground. Two of the campground builders were arrested for working on a Sunday in violation of the state’s blue laws. The town organized to block the camp by changing its zoning laws, which drove the American Nazis to sell the land and move on.
The message to moviegoers was clear: they should follow the lead of flinty New Englanders and not give Nazi ideals a home.
de Rochemont himself could be described as a flinty New Englander. He was born in Massachusetts in 1899 and his family moved to Newington, N.H. when he was a boy. It would be his lifelong home. He developed a love of theater as a youngster, and cut his teeth working for the newsreels, covering news.
By the time he was heading The March of Time, de Rochemont had polished his craft. He had a knack for spotting international hot-spots and highlighting them for viewers at just the right moment. And he knew how to dramatize news stories for easy consumption. Inside Nazi Germany has been recognized as very influential in shaping American attitudes toward Germany and Nazism.
de Rochemont and The March of Time would inspire characters in Orson Welle’s film, Citizen Kane, which featured the work of journalists working for the fictional newsreel News on the March.
After the war, de Rochemont left The March of Time in the hands of his brother, Richard. Richard would win an Academy Award for a March of Time episode that focused on the post-World War II struggles of Italians.
Louis, meanwhile, would go on to producing feature films. Two films he produced were set in his home state of New Hampshire. The Whistle at Eaton Falls (1951) was set in a New Hampshire mill town and highlighted labor-management strife. It marked the film debut of Ernest Borgnine. Lost Boundaries (1949) told the story of a New Hampshire couple who were black but passed as white to avoid racism, and the complications that brought to their lives.
Perhaps his most unusual work was de Rochemont’s production of an animated version of George Orwell’s Animal Farm. He developed the cartoon in partnership with the CIA, which lead his critics to categories de Rochemont as an anti-communist propagandist. You can watch it here.
Critics of de Rochemont’s work argue that in his docu-drama style he was too free with his use of actors and fabricating scenes to tell his stories. And his reputation suffered because of his staunch anti-communism and the ugly aspects of the communist purges in the film industry in the 1950s. | 1,334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Maryam Tahseen
For my site visit as a summer researcher, I decided to visit the American Civil War Museum at Tredegar. Even though the Civil War was fought between 1861 and 1865, the museum’s timeline started from 1775 to demonstrate the build-up to the war. The war was fought between the Union in the North and the Confederacy in the South. According to the museum exhibit, many economic and political reasons were given for the war; however, the main issue underlying all these reasons was slavery. The Confederates advocated for each state’s right to perpetual slavery and its expansion into other states while the Unionists swore their allegiance to the United States constitution and eventually fought for the freedom of slaves.
The exhibit was organized chronologically. It had uniforms and pictures of some of the soldiers who fought in the war, the first Confederate flag, posters that were used to inform black people of slave hunters, weapons and medical kits used in the war, and much more. The museum attempted to present the war from multiple perspectives. One could hear the narrative of the South and the North, read stories of the enslaved black people who fled to the North for their freedom and those who remained loyal to their masters, read quotes from the white soldiers of the North who fought for the freedom of the black people and those who contested their freedom.
Furthermore, the museum not only depicted black people as enslaved individuals who needed to be rescued by the “whites”, but also as dignified and independent individuals who participated in the war for their freedom and organized rebellions. One such example was a diorama in the museum of Colonel Tye, an escaped enslaved individual, who organized a rebellion for freedom of the people of his race. He was depicted as a valiant and feared warrior, which was unlike the ubiquitous narrative of black people only as a helpless populace. The museum also told the story of the enslaved black community in Haiti who revolted against their French masters and were able to establish the independent Republic of Haiti. These incidents depicted the role of black people as more than a community that needed to be rescued by the “whites”.
One the other hand, I felt as if the museum implicitly glorified some of the Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee. There was one story where Lee was offered the command of Union forces by Abraham Lincoln but he refused by saying that he “could not raise hand” against his birthplace. Such quotes by Confederate generals show them as very patriotic when in reality they believed that black people were three-fifths of a human and fought to keep them enslaved. Another incident of implicit racism that I found at the museum was a diorama of canon-making at the Tredegar foundry. Just before the diorama, there was this prolonged description of the black people who worked at the foundry either as enslaved people or as free people. However, when I looked at the figures portrayed in the diorama, none of them was black.
Overall, visiting the Civil War museum was a great learning experience for me and I had a great time until I saw the opinions section at the end of the museum. The opinions section asked how the museum made the attendees feel. On one of the post-its by an attendee, it said: “I am proud of my Confederate ancestors.”
Maryam Tahseen is a rising Junior majoring in Accounting with a concentration in Finance and minoring in Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. She is from Islamabad, Pakistan. As an international student, she is very excited to uncover the lives of international students along with underrepresented minorities through this project. | <urn:uuid:987a645c-f75d-4473-9f71-1e0ba1b06312> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.richmond.edu/memory/2017/07/12/american-civil-war-museum/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.983016 | 752 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.492431282997131... | 2 | By Maryam Tahseen
For my site visit as a summer researcher, I decided to visit the American Civil War Museum at Tredegar. Even though the Civil War was fought between 1861 and 1865, the museum’s timeline started from 1775 to demonstrate the build-up to the war. The war was fought between the Union in the North and the Confederacy in the South. According to the museum exhibit, many economic and political reasons were given for the war; however, the main issue underlying all these reasons was slavery. The Confederates advocated for each state’s right to perpetual slavery and its expansion into other states while the Unionists swore their allegiance to the United States constitution and eventually fought for the freedom of slaves.
The exhibit was organized chronologically. It had uniforms and pictures of some of the soldiers who fought in the war, the first Confederate flag, posters that were used to inform black people of slave hunters, weapons and medical kits used in the war, and much more. The museum attempted to present the war from multiple perspectives. One could hear the narrative of the South and the North, read stories of the enslaved black people who fled to the North for their freedom and those who remained loyal to their masters, read quotes from the white soldiers of the North who fought for the freedom of the black people and those who contested their freedom.
Furthermore, the museum not only depicted black people as enslaved individuals who needed to be rescued by the “whites”, but also as dignified and independent individuals who participated in the war for their freedom and organized rebellions. One such example was a diorama in the museum of Colonel Tye, an escaped enslaved individual, who organized a rebellion for freedom of the people of his race. He was depicted as a valiant and feared warrior, which was unlike the ubiquitous narrative of black people only as a helpless populace. The museum also told the story of the enslaved black community in Haiti who revolted against their French masters and were able to establish the independent Republic of Haiti. These incidents depicted the role of black people as more than a community that needed to be rescued by the “whites”.
One the other hand, I felt as if the museum implicitly glorified some of the Confederate generals such as Robert E. Lee. There was one story where Lee was offered the command of Union forces by Abraham Lincoln but he refused by saying that he “could not raise hand” against his birthplace. Such quotes by Confederate generals show them as very patriotic when in reality they believed that black people were three-fifths of a human and fought to keep them enslaved. Another incident of implicit racism that I found at the museum was a diorama of canon-making at the Tredegar foundry. Just before the diorama, there was this prolonged description of the black people who worked at the foundry either as enslaved people or as free people. However, when I looked at the figures portrayed in the diorama, none of them was black.
Overall, visiting the Civil War museum was a great learning experience for me and I had a great time until I saw the opinions section at the end of the museum. The opinions section asked how the museum made the attendees feel. On one of the post-its by an attendee, it said: “I am proud of my Confederate ancestors.”
Maryam Tahseen is a rising Junior majoring in Accounting with a concentration in Finance and minoring in Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies. She is from Islamabad, Pakistan. As an international student, she is very excited to uncover the lives of international students along with underrepresented minorities through this project. | 738 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Commonwealth of Oceana (1656) by James Harrington, is a philosophical novel that described the existence of an ideal constitution, one that is designed to allow for the existence of a utopian republic. It depicted the functions of everyone in this fictional republic - from the agrarian workers, to the low officials, al up to the rights of the ruling senate.
The optimistic views which the author held regarding the inevitable progress of human society were somewhat undermined by the events of World War I, as is demonstrated in his later writings. He came to question whether or not scientific progress would always achieve social improvement. His warning of the possibility of developing mind control through blatant advertising and through drugs is prophetic.
The Renaissance age has been styled "this brave new world" by many historians, viewing it as a radically new and brilliant development in Western civilization. That view, however, is not universal, some scholars quarreling with the claim that it was new, representing a great change from the late Middle Ages, and other scholars doubting its brilliance. Debate seems perpetual over the nature and the importance of the Renaissance; nevertheless, it can scarcely be denied that the outlook and the life style of Western people were greatly affected by certain achievements of the period; namely, the invention of printing, the development of gunpowder, and the improvement of navigational instruments and ship designs. Somewhat later than those developments, but still important contributions of the Renaissance, were the Copernican revolution in astronomy and the development of the telescope by Galileo. All of these factors not only produced substantial changes in people's lives, but they also generated a charged atmosphere of excitement and curiosity throughout Europe.
Yet, the puzzle is that some of the practices and institutions of the Utopians, such as the ease of divorce, euthanasia and both married priests and female priests, seem to be polar opposites of More's beliefs and the teachings of the Catholic Church of which he was a devout member. Another often cited apparent contradiction is that of the religious tolerance of Utopia contrasted with his persecution of Protestants as Lord Chancellor. Similarly, the criticism of lawyers comes from a writer who, as Lord Chancellor, was arguably the most influential lawyer in England. It can be answered, however, that as a pagan society Utopians had the best ethics that could be reached through reason alone, or that More changed from his early life to his later when he was Lord Chancellor.
H. G. Wells, A Modern Utopia. Wells was repeatedly drawn to utopias and dystopias, as is evident right from the beginning of his career and his first novel, The Time Machine (1895). The 1905 novel A Modern Utopia posits the existence of an alternate Earth, very much like our own world and populated with doubles of every human being on our own planet. The rule of law is maintained by the Samurai, a voluntary noble order.
Gattaca is a science fiction film directed by Andrew Niccol, starring Ethan Hawke, Uma Thurman, and Jude Law. It depicts the life in the futuristic dystopian Earth society, in which quality genetic makeup controls the destiny of every person. The main protagonist Vincent was born in an old-fashioned way. He is seen as genetically inferior and is doomed to a life of servitude. He tries to change his destiny by buying identity of Jerome Eugene Morrow, a potential swimming star whose career ended in a car accident.
The reports of the above books must not be regarded as reviews of them as literary works. They are all cast in novel form with a plot line and cast of characters. Our study is concerned only with those aspects that throw light on the concepts of society reshaped. In each case it is fair to say that the author has concentrated more attention on the "brave new world" concept than on the accompanying romantic fiction.
The multiplayer component of Journey was designed to facilitate cooperation between players without forcing it, and without allowing competition. It is intended to allow the players to feel a connection to other people through exploring with them, rather than talking to them or fighting them. The plan was "to create a game where people felt they are connected with each other, to show the positive side of humanity in them". The developers felt the focus on caring about the other player would be diluted by too many game elements, such as additional goals or tasks, as players would focus on those and "ignore" the other player. They also felt having text or voice communication between players or showing usernames would allow players' biases and preconceptions to come between them and the other player. | <urn:uuid:b77727fb-8641-41c5-9931-585d36bf602a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://utopoians.info/voyage-2013-automatico-utopia-novel-summary.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.980765 | 928 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.211602121591568,... | 1 | The Commonwealth of Oceana (1656) by James Harrington, is a philosophical novel that described the existence of an ideal constitution, one that is designed to allow for the existence of a utopian republic. It depicted the functions of everyone in this fictional republic - from the agrarian workers, to the low officials, al up to the rights of the ruling senate.
The optimistic views which the author held regarding the inevitable progress of human society were somewhat undermined by the events of World War I, as is demonstrated in his later writings. He came to question whether or not scientific progress would always achieve social improvement. His warning of the possibility of developing mind control through blatant advertising and through drugs is prophetic.
The Renaissance age has been styled "this brave new world" by many historians, viewing it as a radically new and brilliant development in Western civilization. That view, however, is not universal, some scholars quarreling with the claim that it was new, representing a great change from the late Middle Ages, and other scholars doubting its brilliance. Debate seems perpetual over the nature and the importance of the Renaissance; nevertheless, it can scarcely be denied that the outlook and the life style of Western people were greatly affected by certain achievements of the period; namely, the invention of printing, the development of gunpowder, and the improvement of navigational instruments and ship designs. Somewhat later than those developments, but still important contributions of the Renaissance, were the Copernican revolution in astronomy and the development of the telescope by Galileo. All of these factors not only produced substantial changes in people's lives, but they also generated a charged atmosphere of excitement and curiosity throughout Europe.
Yet, the puzzle is that some of the practices and institutions of the Utopians, such as the ease of divorce, euthanasia and both married priests and female priests, seem to be polar opposites of More's beliefs and the teachings of the Catholic Church of which he was a devout member. Another often cited apparent contradiction is that of the religious tolerance of Utopia contrasted with his persecution of Protestants as Lord Chancellor. Similarly, the criticism of lawyers comes from a writer who, as Lord Chancellor, was arguably the most influential lawyer in England. It can be answered, however, that as a pagan society Utopians had the best ethics that could be reached through reason alone, or that More changed from his early life to his later when he was Lord Chancellor.
H. G. Wells, A Modern Utopia. Wells was repeatedly drawn to utopias and dystopias, as is evident right from the beginning of his career and his first novel, The Time Machine (1895). The 1905 novel A Modern Utopia posits the existence of an alternate Earth, very much like our own world and populated with doubles of every human being on our own planet. The rule of law is maintained by the Samurai, a voluntary noble order.
Gattaca is a science fiction film directed by Andrew Niccol, starring Ethan Hawke, Uma Thurman, and Jude Law. It depicts the life in the futuristic dystopian Earth society, in which quality genetic makeup controls the destiny of every person. The main protagonist Vincent was born in an old-fashioned way. He is seen as genetically inferior and is doomed to a life of servitude. He tries to change his destiny by buying identity of Jerome Eugene Morrow, a potential swimming star whose career ended in a car accident.
The reports of the above books must not be regarded as reviews of them as literary works. They are all cast in novel form with a plot line and cast of characters. Our study is concerned only with those aspects that throw light on the concepts of society reshaped. In each case it is fair to say that the author has concentrated more attention on the "brave new world" concept than on the accompanying romantic fiction.
The multiplayer component of Journey was designed to facilitate cooperation between players without forcing it, and without allowing competition. It is intended to allow the players to feel a connection to other people through exploring with them, rather than talking to them or fighting them. The plan was "to create a game where people felt they are connected with each other, to show the positive side of humanity in them". The developers felt the focus on caring about the other player would be diluted by too many game elements, such as additional goals or tasks, as players would focus on those and "ignore" the other player. They also felt having text or voice communication between players or showing usernames would allow players' biases and preconceptions to come between them and the other player. | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greek tragedies were plays written by ancient Greeks for performance on stage. Though there were other types of Greek plays, such as comedy and satire, tragedy tended to be more dramatic and were often take very seriously by audiences and connoisseurs. Famous Greek playwrights, such as Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus often wrote plays that ended in devastation or sorrow for the main characters of the piece. Some plays, however, had a hint of comedy to them, though they were classed as tragedies.
Read and study famous ancient Greek tragedies to better understand how authors wrote their masterpieces. Read commentaries on the plays to determine what made them so likable and how the playwright executed his vision.
Familiarize yourself with the structure of the Greek tragedies, then write out an outline for your own structure. Greek tragedies had prologues, Parados, which were songs and dances; episodes, during which characters interact and the chorus speaks; stasimons, which comes in between episodes and during which the actors leave and the chorus sings and dances; and the exodos, which comes at the very end, during which the chorus sings a processional number and leaves the stage.
Develop the character of your play. In Greek tragedies, there are usually tragic heroes who fail miserably at what they attempt to do, often losing loved ones and possessions in the process; there are also usually villains, wise advisers and lovers. Though the hero does not necessarily need to die at the end, they should have a tragic flaw which ultimately leads to some sort of downfall.
Write the music and choreograph the dances for the choral numbers in your Greek tragedy. Several parts of the play will require singing and dancing by the chorus. The musical numbers should clarify happenings and events in the play and are usually directed at the audience, as if the chorus was having a conversation with the audience apart form the actors.
Write out the dialogue and scene directions for your play by listing the name of the character, a colon and the words that they must say. Scene directions come after the colon as well, but have parentheses around them and are sometimes written in italics to differentiate them from dialogue.
- Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:c42d5635-214d-40ee-bee5-678dc5d4a83b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ourpastimes.com/how-to-write-a-greek-tragedy-12569347.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00371.warc.gz | en | 0.984868 | 464 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.29581278562... | 2 | Greek tragedies were plays written by ancient Greeks for performance on stage. Though there were other types of Greek plays, such as comedy and satire, tragedy tended to be more dramatic and were often take very seriously by audiences and connoisseurs. Famous Greek playwrights, such as Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus often wrote plays that ended in devastation or sorrow for the main characters of the piece. Some plays, however, had a hint of comedy to them, though they were classed as tragedies.
Read and study famous ancient Greek tragedies to better understand how authors wrote their masterpieces. Read commentaries on the plays to determine what made them so likable and how the playwright executed his vision.
Familiarize yourself with the structure of the Greek tragedies, then write out an outline for your own structure. Greek tragedies had prologues, Parados, which were songs and dances; episodes, during which characters interact and the chorus speaks; stasimons, which comes in between episodes and during which the actors leave and the chorus sings and dances; and the exodos, which comes at the very end, during which the chorus sings a processional number and leaves the stage.
Develop the character of your play. In Greek tragedies, there are usually tragic heroes who fail miserably at what they attempt to do, often losing loved ones and possessions in the process; there are also usually villains, wise advisers and lovers. Though the hero does not necessarily need to die at the end, they should have a tragic flaw which ultimately leads to some sort of downfall.
Write the music and choreograph the dances for the choral numbers in your Greek tragedy. Several parts of the play will require singing and dancing by the chorus. The musical numbers should clarify happenings and events in the play and are usually directed at the audience, as if the chorus was having a conversation with the audience apart form the actors.
Write out the dialogue and scene directions for your play by listing the name of the character, a colon and the words that they must say. Scene directions come after the colon as well, but have parentheses around them and are sometimes written in italics to differentiate them from dialogue.
- Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the common monuments in the Sassanid era was the square dome. Interestingly, corners and parts of the square dome were always geometrically proportionate to each other. Square domes have been mainly studied in terms of their historical background as well as the materials used. The present research, however, aimed to examine the geometric proportions governing the formation of square domes in the Sassanid era. The data were mainly gathered from field studies. First, the intended monuments were individually studied: the sizes were carefully measured and recorded. Then, the data were simulated by Auto CAD and the geometric repetitive proportions of the parts were extracted. The results indicated that the ratio of the corner depth to the radius of the dome circle was 0.3; the ratio of the angle length to the inward length was 0.11 and that of the outward side to the inward side was 1.6. | <urn:uuid:28742f89-1ea9-4317-b7b7-02a502d89530> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.ijhcum.net/article_32542.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.986067 | 180 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.599115014076232... | 13 | One of the common monuments in the Sassanid era was the square dome. Interestingly, corners and parts of the square dome were always geometrically proportionate to each other. Square domes have been mainly studied in terms of their historical background as well as the materials used. The present research, however, aimed to examine the geometric proportions governing the formation of square domes in the Sassanid era. The data were mainly gathered from field studies. First, the intended monuments were individually studied: the sizes were carefully measured and recorded. Then, the data were simulated by Auto CAD and the geometric repetitive proportions of the parts were extracted. The results indicated that the ratio of the corner depth to the radius of the dome circle was 0.3; the ratio of the angle length to the inward length was 0.11 and that of the outward side to the inward side was 1.6. | 182 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of approximately 60,000 Native Americans in the United States from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve, and approximately 4,000 died before reaching their destinations or shortly after from disease. The forced removals included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, as well as their African slaves. The phrase “Trail of Tears” originates from a description of the removal of many Native American tribes, including the Cherokee Nation relocation in 1838. | <urn:uuid:6b87cfda-d61c-417f-87f7-7a6f76d555e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://barryatwar.info/trail-of-tears-coloring-pages/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00364.warc.gz | en | 0.983439 | 180 | 4.40625 | 4 | [
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-0.0121403811... | 1 | The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of approximately 60,000 Native Americans in the United States from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve, and approximately 4,000 died before reaching their destinations or shortly after from disease. The forced removals included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, as well as their African slaves. The phrase “Trail of Tears” originates from a description of the removal of many Native American tribes, including the Cherokee Nation relocation in 1838. | 191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/Aftermath of the war
The war left millions dead, millions more homeless and much of Europe destroyed. Even though Britain had not suffered invasion, bombings left much of Britain destroyed too. The United States gave Europe 13 billion dollars to help aid reconstruction. Britain, France and the Soviet Union wanted Germany to pay for the damage caused by the war. Germany was forced to give up factory machines, coal, land and to provide workers. The United States also took many German scientists, some of whom had worked on the V1 and V2 rockets.
France, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied and took control of Germany. Some parts of Germany were given away to other countries. Millions of Germans who lived in these places were ordered to leave. Up to two million more Germans died during this time. Some died from starvation, others from wounds, but many were killed by local people taking revenge as they marched by.
In 1949 the three parts controlled by the Western Allies were joined together and became the Federal Republic of Germany, which was often known as West Germany. The Soviet Union renamed their part the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. East and West Germany would become one again in 1990 as modern day Germany.
Japan surrendered before the allies invaded, but after the surrender the United States sent soldiers to take control of the country. Over the next seven years a new system of government was set up, the Japanese weapons factories were destroyed and the Japanese army shut down. In 1952, the allies left. Even today Japanese law does not allow their soldiers to fight outside of Japan - the army is for their own protection only.
Korea was split between the United States and the Soviet Union. Just five years later, the Korean War began when the Soviet controlled North Korea invaded South Korea with China's help. Even today the two parts of Korea remain apart.
Before the war, parts of China had been controlled by other countries for nearly 100 years. After the war, China was free. But soon two different groups in China began to fight in the Chinese Revolution. This ended in 1949 when the original rulers left for Taiwan. Even today China believes Taiwan is part of China, but the Taiwanese believe they are not and run it as a separate country.
The Soviet UnionEdit
The Soviet Union wanted a greater say in running eastern European countries that it freed from German occupation. The Soviets replaced German occupations with their own in countries like Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. In other countries, the Soviets set-up governments that were controlled by and did what the Soviets wanted (a "puppet" government").
Unlike the Soviet Union, the Western Allies had planned to withdraw from countries they had occupied. This started "The Cold War", a 40 year "stand off" between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.
Changing Borders in EuropeEdit
As well as parts of Germany being taken away, other changes were made. The Soviet Union took over parts of Poland, Japan and Finland. Poland took over parts of Germany. Part of Germany was given to France. All these changes lead to 15 million Germans and 4 million Poles being forced to leave their homes as their homes were now in a "foreign country".
End of the EmpiresEdit
Before the war many countries in Europe had empires. They controlled countries in other parts of the world. The British empire was the largest of all - the modern countries of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and many others were part of the empire. These countries all sent soldiers to help in the war. India sent nearly seven million men. In in every seven Australians joined the war.
After the war, these countries wanted to be set free to run themselves. Their rulers in Europe had enough of their own problems and many were set free by agreement - like the Philippines, India and Pakistan. Others though had to fight for their freedom. | <urn:uuid:3484da3c-62b3-47fe-8f8d-f49eb3f126f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Aftermath_of_the_war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.985386 | 795 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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The war left millions dead, millions more homeless and much of Europe destroyed. Even though Britain had not suffered invasion, bombings left much of Britain destroyed too. The United States gave Europe 13 billion dollars to help aid reconstruction. Britain, France and the Soviet Union wanted Germany to pay for the damage caused by the war. Germany was forced to give up factory machines, coal, land and to provide workers. The United States also took many German scientists, some of whom had worked on the V1 and V2 rockets.
France, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union occupied and took control of Germany. Some parts of Germany were given away to other countries. Millions of Germans who lived in these places were ordered to leave. Up to two million more Germans died during this time. Some died from starvation, others from wounds, but many were killed by local people taking revenge as they marched by.
In 1949 the three parts controlled by the Western Allies were joined together and became the Federal Republic of Germany, which was often known as West Germany. The Soviet Union renamed their part the German Democratic Republic, or East Germany. East and West Germany would become one again in 1990 as modern day Germany.
Japan surrendered before the allies invaded, but after the surrender the United States sent soldiers to take control of the country. Over the next seven years a new system of government was set up, the Japanese weapons factories were destroyed and the Japanese army shut down. In 1952, the allies left. Even today Japanese law does not allow their soldiers to fight outside of Japan - the army is for their own protection only.
Korea was split between the United States and the Soviet Union. Just five years later, the Korean War began when the Soviet controlled North Korea invaded South Korea with China's help. Even today the two parts of Korea remain apart.
Before the war, parts of China had been controlled by other countries for nearly 100 years. After the war, China was free. But soon two different groups in China began to fight in the Chinese Revolution. This ended in 1949 when the original rulers left for Taiwan. Even today China believes Taiwan is part of China, but the Taiwanese believe they are not and run it as a separate country.
The Soviet UnionEdit
The Soviet Union wanted a greater say in running eastern European countries that it freed from German occupation. The Soviets replaced German occupations with their own in countries like Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. In other countries, the Soviets set-up governments that were controlled by and did what the Soviets wanted (a "puppet" government").
Unlike the Soviet Union, the Western Allies had planned to withdraw from countries they had occupied. This started "The Cold War", a 40 year "stand off" between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.
Changing Borders in EuropeEdit
As well as parts of Germany being taken away, other changes were made. The Soviet Union took over parts of Poland, Japan and Finland. Poland took over parts of Germany. Part of Germany was given to France. All these changes lead to 15 million Germans and 4 million Poles being forced to leave their homes as their homes were now in a "foreign country".
End of the EmpiresEdit
Before the war many countries in Europe had empires. They controlled countries in other parts of the world. The British empire was the largest of all - the modern countries of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Zimbabwe, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and many others were part of the empire. These countries all sent soldiers to help in the war. India sent nearly seven million men. In in every seven Australians joined the war.
After the war, these countries wanted to be set free to run themselves. Their rulers in Europe had enough of their own problems and many were set free by agreement - like the Philippines, India and Pakistan. Others though had to fight for their freedom. | 813 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the well-known proponents of the philosophy of existentialism is Martin Heidegger. This German philosopher is widely regarded to be one of the most influential and original thinkers of the 20th century. His works have contributed to the development of diverse areas such as psychology, hermeneutics, phenomenology, political theory, theology, and literary criticism. Due to his pioneering work in metaphysics and ontology, he was able to set the progress of philosophy in Europe.
- Birth: Martin Heidegger was born on the September 26, 1889 in Messkirch, Germany. His family was a member of the Roman Catholic Church. During his younger days, Martin was trained in preparation for the priesthood.
- Early life: In 1903, he got a scholarship from the church to attend high school in Konstanz and later on moved to Freiburg in 1906. It was at Freiburg he stumbled on a book written by Franz Brentano about Aristotle’s “Meaning of Being”. In 1909, he left the order of priesthood on health grounds to study theology at Freiburg University. However, he switched to philosophy and mathematics in 1911.
- Lecturer: In 1913, Martin earned a doctorate in philosophy and began teaching in 1915 at Freiburg University after completing his thesis, a requirement for all intending lecturers. As a lecturer, his major courses were scholastic and Aristotelian philosophy.
- Family: In 1917, he got married to a Protestant student, Thea Elfride Petri, with whom he had two sons, Herman and Jorge.
- Military: In 1918, his career was disrupted by military service and he had to serve for ten months. In January 1919, on his return to lecturing, he severed ties with Catholicism and began teaching on phenomenology. He also interpreted the works of Aristotle creatively.
- Professor: In 1923, he left Freiburg for Marburg University and got appointed as an associate professor. It was at Marburg that he expanded his courses to include lectures on Plato, Aquinas, Leibniz and Kant. In February 1927, Heidegger published his treatise, “Being and Time”. This work went on to be heralded as groundbreaking. This paper also earned him a full professorship. A year later, he became the head of philosophy at Freiburg University.
- Philosopher: In 1929, Martin published, ‘On the Essence of Ground,” “What is Metaphysics?” and “Kant and the problem of Metaphysics.” These works further introduced to the populace his brand of philosophy known as phenomenological ontology.
- Politics: In April 1933, after Hitler’s rise to power, his faculty elected him as the rector of Freiburg University. In May 1933, he became a part of the Nazi party with the intention of pushing the growing movement towards the right path. During his inaugural speech as rector, he spoke on “The Self-Assertion of the German University” which most analysts saw as tacit support for Hitler’s regime. Martin also produced speeches to further the cause of the Nazi during his time as rector. In April 1934, Martin resigned from his office and gave up politics, a decision that pitted him against the authorities. He was sacked from his position as head of philosophy and forbidden to teach in 1946. This ban was lifted in 1949.
- Writings: From 1946 to the mid-1970s, Martin published many works among which are “What are Poets for?” (1946), “Letter on Humanism” (1947), “The Way to Language” (1959), and “Time and Being” (1962).
- Death: On May 26, 1976, Martins died in Freiburg and was buried in his hometown of Messkirch.
As a philosopher, Martin Heidegger broke the rules of many traditions and set his course. He believed his job as a philosopher was to provoke his readers to think and reflect rather than giving them already-made answers. In spite of his involvement with the Nazis, he helped to further the course of development in Europe.
Photo Credit: Thefamouspeople | <urn:uuid:331c9d77-4ddf-4219-af31-9d63b474bec1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.freeforall.org/annals-of-martin-heidegger/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.987704 | 887 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1266427785158... | 2 | One of the well-known proponents of the philosophy of existentialism is Martin Heidegger. This German philosopher is widely regarded to be one of the most influential and original thinkers of the 20th century. His works have contributed to the development of diverse areas such as psychology, hermeneutics, phenomenology, political theory, theology, and literary criticism. Due to his pioneering work in metaphysics and ontology, he was able to set the progress of philosophy in Europe.
- Birth: Martin Heidegger was born on the September 26, 1889 in Messkirch, Germany. His family was a member of the Roman Catholic Church. During his younger days, Martin was trained in preparation for the priesthood.
- Early life: In 1903, he got a scholarship from the church to attend high school in Konstanz and later on moved to Freiburg in 1906. It was at Freiburg he stumbled on a book written by Franz Brentano about Aristotle’s “Meaning of Being”. In 1909, he left the order of priesthood on health grounds to study theology at Freiburg University. However, he switched to philosophy and mathematics in 1911.
- Lecturer: In 1913, Martin earned a doctorate in philosophy and began teaching in 1915 at Freiburg University after completing his thesis, a requirement for all intending lecturers. As a lecturer, his major courses were scholastic and Aristotelian philosophy.
- Family: In 1917, he got married to a Protestant student, Thea Elfride Petri, with whom he had two sons, Herman and Jorge.
- Military: In 1918, his career was disrupted by military service and he had to serve for ten months. In January 1919, on his return to lecturing, he severed ties with Catholicism and began teaching on phenomenology. He also interpreted the works of Aristotle creatively.
- Professor: In 1923, he left Freiburg for Marburg University and got appointed as an associate professor. It was at Marburg that he expanded his courses to include lectures on Plato, Aquinas, Leibniz and Kant. In February 1927, Heidegger published his treatise, “Being and Time”. This work went on to be heralded as groundbreaking. This paper also earned him a full professorship. A year later, he became the head of philosophy at Freiburg University.
- Philosopher: In 1929, Martin published, ‘On the Essence of Ground,” “What is Metaphysics?” and “Kant and the problem of Metaphysics.” These works further introduced to the populace his brand of philosophy known as phenomenological ontology.
- Politics: In April 1933, after Hitler’s rise to power, his faculty elected him as the rector of Freiburg University. In May 1933, he became a part of the Nazi party with the intention of pushing the growing movement towards the right path. During his inaugural speech as rector, he spoke on “The Self-Assertion of the German University” which most analysts saw as tacit support for Hitler’s regime. Martin also produced speeches to further the cause of the Nazi during his time as rector. In April 1934, Martin resigned from his office and gave up politics, a decision that pitted him against the authorities. He was sacked from his position as head of philosophy and forbidden to teach in 1946. This ban was lifted in 1949.
- Writings: From 1946 to the mid-1970s, Martin published many works among which are “What are Poets for?” (1946), “Letter on Humanism” (1947), “The Way to Language” (1959), and “Time and Being” (1962).
- Death: On May 26, 1976, Martins died in Freiburg and was buried in his hometown of Messkirch.
As a philosopher, Martin Heidegger broke the rules of many traditions and set his course. He believed his job as a philosopher was to provoke his readers to think and reflect rather than giving them already-made answers. In spite of his involvement with the Nazis, he helped to further the course of development in Europe.
Photo Credit: Thefamouspeople | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Louis Philippe I (1773-1850), King of the French (1830-1848), Duke of Orléans (Louis Philippe III) from 1814 to 1830, 1846
Louis Philippe I (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. As a member of the cadet branch of the Royal House of France and a cousin of King Louis XVI of France by reason of his descent from their common ancestors Louis XIII and Louis XIV, he had earlier found it necessary to flee France during the period of the French Revolution in order to avoid imprisonment and execution, a fate that actually befell his father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793. He was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and numerous former Napoleonic officials. He followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria. His popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in United Kingdom.
Read more: Wikipedia
Find out about full size: | <urn:uuid:8225775e-74de-4e86-9280-eb6ff9a7c1f6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://portraitsofkings.com/gallery/france-duchy-of-burgundy-duchy-of-lorraine-kingdom-of-belgium/louis-philippe-i-1773-1850/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.982137 | 323 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.002459511393681168... | 2 | Louis Philippe I (1773-1850), King of the French (1830-1848), Duke of Orléans (Louis Philippe III) from 1814 to 1830, 1846
Louis Philippe I (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 as the leader of the Orléanist party. As a member of the cadet branch of the Royal House of France and a cousin of King Louis XVI of France by reason of his descent from their common ancestors Louis XIII and Louis XIV, he had earlier found it necessary to flee France during the period of the French Revolution in order to avoid imprisonment and execution, a fate that actually befell his father Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. He spent 21 years in exile after he left France in 1793. He was proclaimed king in 1830 after his cousin Charles X was forced to abdicate in the wake of the events of the July Revolution of that year. His government, known as the July Monarchy, was dominated by members of a wealthy French elite and numerous former Napoleonic officials. He followed conservative policies, especially under the influence of the French statesman François Guizot during the period 1840–48. He also promoted friendship with Britain and sponsored colonial expansion, notably the conquest of Algeria. His popularity faded as economic conditions in France deteriorated in 1847, and he was forced to abdicate after the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1848. He lived out his life in exile in United Kingdom.
Read more: Wikipedia
Find out about full size: | 380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Isabel married Gaston d’Orleans, Count d’Eu, and had three sons. While she was still in her twenties, her father began leaving her in charge of Brazil as Regent during his numerous travels abroad. She came from progressive roots. When the military asked to be relieved of the responsibility of re-capturing runaway slaves, she agreed. She is best remembered in Brazilian history for her signing of the Golden Law that abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.
For this act and for her pious character, she was awarded the Golden Rose by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. During these times, the Catholic Church bestowed this honor on royalty to acknowledge enlightened behavior. The award, symbolizing redemption and hope, was presented on Rose Sunday, a centuries-old custom. Isabel was one of the last people to receive the honor which since 1956 has only been awarded to holy places.
With no surviving brothers to inherit the throne, Princess Isabel might have become Empress of the country she loved, but the 1822 declaration of independence had set political change in motion, and the year following abolition, her father was deposed, and the family returned to France in exile. Dom Pedro II died in 1891, but the monarchy was not restored. Her succession was not to be.
To commemorate the hundred-year anniversary of independence, Brazil’s exile law was overturned, allowing Isabel to return to her homeland. As they made plans for their departure, Isabel, already in ill-health, died. Her husband set sail without her, aboard the steamship Massilia, but died during the voyage.
The remains of the princess, her husband, mother and father all ended up in Brazil. The Royal Family was buried on the grounds of the royal summer palace in the colonial city of Petropolis, forty miles north of Rio de Janeiro. Petropolis means “City of Peter,” in honor of her father, Dom Pedro II. They are interred in the Imperial Mausoleum of the Sao Pedro de Alcabtara Cathedral.
Visitors on Brazil tours may trace the life and times of Princess Isabel by visiting the Palace of Sao Cristovao, which since 1893 has served as the National Museum of Brazil, as well as the public botanical gardens in Quinta da Boa Vista Park, all located in what is called the Sao Cristovao neighborhood, north of Leblon beach. All of Southern Explorations’ travel to Brazil includes time on Rio de Janeiro tours. | <urn:uuid:ceb9e10f-29dc-4cb9-af00-48f04a1558b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.southernexplorations.com/princess-isabel-portugal | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.981742 | 511 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.0351785197... | 2 | Isabel married Gaston d’Orleans, Count d’Eu, and had three sons. While she was still in her twenties, her father began leaving her in charge of Brazil as Regent during his numerous travels abroad. She came from progressive roots. When the military asked to be relieved of the responsibility of re-capturing runaway slaves, she agreed. She is best remembered in Brazilian history for her signing of the Golden Law that abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888.
For this act and for her pious character, she was awarded the Golden Rose by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. During these times, the Catholic Church bestowed this honor on royalty to acknowledge enlightened behavior. The award, symbolizing redemption and hope, was presented on Rose Sunday, a centuries-old custom. Isabel was one of the last people to receive the honor which since 1956 has only been awarded to holy places.
With no surviving brothers to inherit the throne, Princess Isabel might have become Empress of the country she loved, but the 1822 declaration of independence had set political change in motion, and the year following abolition, her father was deposed, and the family returned to France in exile. Dom Pedro II died in 1891, but the monarchy was not restored. Her succession was not to be.
To commemorate the hundred-year anniversary of independence, Brazil’s exile law was overturned, allowing Isabel to return to her homeland. As they made plans for their departure, Isabel, already in ill-health, died. Her husband set sail without her, aboard the steamship Massilia, but died during the voyage.
The remains of the princess, her husband, mother and father all ended up in Brazil. The Royal Family was buried on the grounds of the royal summer palace in the colonial city of Petropolis, forty miles north of Rio de Janeiro. Petropolis means “City of Peter,” in honor of her father, Dom Pedro II. They are interred in the Imperial Mausoleum of the Sao Pedro de Alcabtara Cathedral.
Visitors on Brazil tours may trace the life and times of Princess Isabel by visiting the Palace of Sao Cristovao, which since 1893 has served as the National Museum of Brazil, as well as the public botanical gardens in Quinta da Boa Vista Park, all located in what is called the Sao Cristovao neighborhood, north of Leblon beach. All of Southern Explorations’ travel to Brazil includes time on Rio de Janeiro tours. | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William the Conqueror is a source of fascination to me. As the man who created the New Forest, his motives and actions also continue to be debated by many historians and scholars. For some he was the first medieval conservationist, as by his policies and laws he attempted to preserve animal species, ancient woodland and large tracts of habitat; and for others he is a tyrant who laid waste to villages, towns and cities, causing the deaths of many thousands of people, particularly in the north. By all accounts William the Conqueror was a man’s man, who was crowned King of England on Christmas Day in 1066. His physical description indicates that he was about 5 feet 10 inches tall, which was above average height for the period, of great strength of arm, and with a deep, gravelly voice. When he wanted to marry Matilda of Flanders she is said to have refused him haughtily, perhaps because he was illegitimate by birth and, therefore, not worthy of a woman of noble descent. He was not happy about her decision. In one account he pulled her off her horse by her long braids and in another he threw her violently to the ground, all in view of her family and their servants. William was not above getting physically violent when it came to getting his own way. At only 4 feet 2 inches tall, Matilda is recorded as England’s smallest queen (according to the Guinness World Records), which in the circumstances perhaps makes William I one of the realms biggest bullies. Apparently his rough wooing worked with Matilda though, and they were married, had a large family, and when she died he was said to have sunk into a deep depression.
Medieval hunting was a practice for warfare
As King William I he established the New Forest, in around 1079, as a royal hunting preserve and created harsh laws to protect the venison (game animals) and the vert (the vegetation that they fed on and which gave them shelter). So keen was he on hunting that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported: ‘He made many deer-parks; and he established laws therewith; so that whosoever slew a hart, or a hind, should be deprived of his eyesight. As he forbade men to kill the harts, so also the boars; and he loved the tall deer as if he were their father’. Hunting in medieval times was not just about putting food on the table, especially for the nobility. Red deer were the favoured prey of the hunters, particularly the large, mature stags, and there were plenty living in the New Forest back then. A healthy stag could be chased for upwards of thirty miles giving good sport to his pursuers. Such a long pursuit depended upon an unenclosed landscape that was free of fences and other man-made obstacles. The New Forest was ideal terrain for this. More than sport though, hunting was a method of practicing many of the skills required for battle. Hunting required preparation and planning, good horsemanship, the ability to handle weapons and a fair amount of bloodlust. It was also very dangerous. King William’s second son, Richard, and third son, William, were both killed whilst hunting on the New Forest as was his grandson, also called Richard. Medieval commentators saw these deaths as divine judgements on William I as a man and a king. But in reality just as in warfare, hunting carried the risk of death only because sometimes nature fought back! | <urn:uuid:f04a7d9a-a1ca-4846-b48a-ad8a8dc5fea8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://newforestcommoner.co.uk/2015/12/13/new-forest-the-bully-boy-conqueror-hunting-and-warfare/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00128.warc.gz | en | 0.989943 | 709 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.06816506385... | 9 | William the Conqueror is a source of fascination to me. As the man who created the New Forest, his motives and actions also continue to be debated by many historians and scholars. For some he was the first medieval conservationist, as by his policies and laws he attempted to preserve animal species, ancient woodland and large tracts of habitat; and for others he is a tyrant who laid waste to villages, towns and cities, causing the deaths of many thousands of people, particularly in the north. By all accounts William the Conqueror was a man’s man, who was crowned King of England on Christmas Day in 1066. His physical description indicates that he was about 5 feet 10 inches tall, which was above average height for the period, of great strength of arm, and with a deep, gravelly voice. When he wanted to marry Matilda of Flanders she is said to have refused him haughtily, perhaps because he was illegitimate by birth and, therefore, not worthy of a woman of noble descent. He was not happy about her decision. In one account he pulled her off her horse by her long braids and in another he threw her violently to the ground, all in view of her family and their servants. William was not above getting physically violent when it came to getting his own way. At only 4 feet 2 inches tall, Matilda is recorded as England’s smallest queen (according to the Guinness World Records), which in the circumstances perhaps makes William I one of the realms biggest bullies. Apparently his rough wooing worked with Matilda though, and they were married, had a large family, and when she died he was said to have sunk into a deep depression.
Medieval hunting was a practice for warfare
As King William I he established the New Forest, in around 1079, as a royal hunting preserve and created harsh laws to protect the venison (game animals) and the vert (the vegetation that they fed on and which gave them shelter). So keen was he on hunting that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported: ‘He made many deer-parks; and he established laws therewith; so that whosoever slew a hart, or a hind, should be deprived of his eyesight. As he forbade men to kill the harts, so also the boars; and he loved the tall deer as if he were their father’. Hunting in medieval times was not just about putting food on the table, especially for the nobility. Red deer were the favoured prey of the hunters, particularly the large, mature stags, and there were plenty living in the New Forest back then. A healthy stag could be chased for upwards of thirty miles giving good sport to his pursuers. Such a long pursuit depended upon an unenclosed landscape that was free of fences and other man-made obstacles. The New Forest was ideal terrain for this. More than sport though, hunting was a method of practicing many of the skills required for battle. Hunting required preparation and planning, good horsemanship, the ability to handle weapons and a fair amount of bloodlust. It was also very dangerous. King William’s second son, Richard, and third son, William, were both killed whilst hunting on the New Forest as was his grandson, also called Richard. Medieval commentators saw these deaths as divine judgements on William I as a man and a king. But in reality just as in warfare, hunting carried the risk of death only because sometimes nature fought back! | 714 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mass hysteria is when everyone is afraid or feels unsafe about something in a certain community drawn from fear and rumors. Japanese Internment began during World War II because the Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbor. Franklin D. Roosevelt passed Executive Order 9066 and sent Japanese- Americans to ten internment camps on the west coast. The Crucible happened during the 1600’s in Salem because Reverend Parris found girls dancing in the woods and said it was witchcraft. Then the constant allegations of the girls, led by Abigail Williams, set off a mass hysteria in Salem. When one points out that both those accused of witchcraft and those accused of being spy could not prove their innocence, one person called all of the shots, and there were light protest in both communities, it is clear that the events of Japanese Internment during WW2 is similar to those of the Crucible. Those being accused of witchcraft and the ones accused of being a spy had no way of proving their innocence. Mary Matsuda Gruenewald, a Japanese- American prisoner, emphasizes that, “It was a prison indeed… There was barbed wire along the top of the fence and because the soldiers in the guard towers had machine guns, one would be foolish to try to escape.” This is important because it shows how she felt they were imprisoned even though she was innocent. During World War II, the Japanese- Americans were placed in camps because they could not prove if they were loyal to America or Japan. Proctor implies that how do people know if the accusers, Abigail or Reverend Parris are not guilty. He states in Act II, ” Why do you never wonder if Parris be innocent, or Abigail? Is the accuser always holy now? Were they born this morning as clean as God’s fingers?” What Proctor is trying to say is that, Abigail is accusing everyone of witchcraft but what if the one who wants to seem good is really the criminal. This is important because it “opens the eyes” of some of the characters. | <urn:uuid:62503ad0-cec2-49c1-8438-9043d001e30a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://firstnightdanbury.org/mass-world-war-ii-the-japanese-americans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.981224 | 421 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.5217896103... | 2 | Mass hysteria is when everyone is afraid or feels unsafe about something in a certain community drawn from fear and rumors. Japanese Internment began during World War II because the Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbor. Franklin D. Roosevelt passed Executive Order 9066 and sent Japanese- Americans to ten internment camps on the west coast. The Crucible happened during the 1600’s in Salem because Reverend Parris found girls dancing in the woods and said it was witchcraft. Then the constant allegations of the girls, led by Abigail Williams, set off a mass hysteria in Salem. When one points out that both those accused of witchcraft and those accused of being spy could not prove their innocence, one person called all of the shots, and there were light protest in both communities, it is clear that the events of Japanese Internment during WW2 is similar to those of the Crucible. Those being accused of witchcraft and the ones accused of being a spy had no way of proving their innocence. Mary Matsuda Gruenewald, a Japanese- American prisoner, emphasizes that, “It was a prison indeed… There was barbed wire along the top of the fence and because the soldiers in the guard towers had machine guns, one would be foolish to try to escape.” This is important because it shows how she felt they were imprisoned even though she was innocent. During World War II, the Japanese- Americans were placed in camps because they could not prove if they were loyal to America or Japan. Proctor implies that how do people know if the accusers, Abigail or Reverend Parris are not guilty. He states in Act II, ” Why do you never wonder if Parris be innocent, or Abigail? Is the accuser always holy now? Were they born this morning as clean as God’s fingers?” What Proctor is trying to say is that, Abigail is accusing everyone of witchcraft but what if the one who wants to seem good is really the criminal. This is important because it “opens the eyes” of some of the characters. | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you’ve been watching the news lately…or at least the Weather, you’ll know that today is truly the calm before a stormy (and possibly severe) Friday. Make sure you stay safe during this severe weather and we will do our best at school to keep y’all safe.
In the case of Algebra II, you could also say this calm relates to today’s lesson, which was another review of Algebra 1 concepts. We spent the day looking at compound inequalities. Remember, these are the AND/OR inequalities. “AND” means that we shade in the middle when graphing be our x is between two numbers. “OR” means we shade outwards. Other than that, it was just more algebraic manipulation to solve for the “x” and put that as an inequality. Now…prepare for the “storm” coming tomorrow in the form of all things absolute value.
In Finite, today was actually the “storm” with tomorrow being the “calm”. Due to the possibility of me being out, we had to try to cram 2 days worth of lecture into one day. This meant that we were looking at ALL of Section 1.6 (First-Order Equations) and getting started on Section 1.7 (Quadratic Equations). We didn’t get as far as I had wanted, but that’s okay. We’ll survive 🙂 | <urn:uuid:8458620d-799e-43f5-86db-29076861b0b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sites.lufkinisd.org/raschuldt/2020/01/09/calm-before-the-storm/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00553.warc.gz | en | 0.98548 | 309 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3731256127357483,... | 2 | If you’ve been watching the news lately…or at least the Weather, you’ll know that today is truly the calm before a stormy (and possibly severe) Friday. Make sure you stay safe during this severe weather and we will do our best at school to keep y’all safe.
In the case of Algebra II, you could also say this calm relates to today’s lesson, which was another review of Algebra 1 concepts. We spent the day looking at compound inequalities. Remember, these are the AND/OR inequalities. “AND” means that we shade in the middle when graphing be our x is between two numbers. “OR” means we shade outwards. Other than that, it was just more algebraic manipulation to solve for the “x” and put that as an inequality. Now…prepare for the “storm” coming tomorrow in the form of all things absolute value.
In Finite, today was actually the “storm” with tomorrow being the “calm”. Due to the possibility of me being out, we had to try to cram 2 days worth of lecture into one day. This meant that we were looking at ALL of Section 1.6 (First-Order Equations) and getting started on Section 1.7 (Quadratic Equations). We didn’t get as far as I had wanted, but that’s okay. We’ll survive 🙂 | 278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After Dido’s tragic death, Anna finds refuge from her brother Pygmalion on Malta, with Battus the king of the island and a wealthy host. The “fertile island” of Melite, near Cossyra, provided hospitality to Anna, with Battus saying that ‘This land, however small, is yours.’ Battus would have continued to provide sanctuary to Anna and her companions, but in the third year of her exile, Anna’s brother came in her pursuit. The king hated war, as the island was a peaceable sanctuary, and asked Anna to flee for her own safety. She fled at his command, with Battus giving her a ship.
After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found on the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.
Lampécia e Fetusa
In Greek mythology, Phaethusa or Phaëthusa /ˌfeɪəˈθjuːzə/ (Ancient Greek: Φαέθουσα Phaéthousa, “radiance”) was a daughter of Helios and Neaera, the personification of the brilliant, blinding rays of the sun. With her sister, Lampetia, she guarded the cattle of Thrinacia. She carried a copper staff with which she tended to her father’s herd of sheep. She is listed as among the Heliades.
Lampetia /ˌlæmˈpiːʃə/ (Ancient Greek: Λαμπετίη, romanized: Lampetíē or Ancient Greek: Λαμπετία, romanized: Lampetía, lit. ‘shining’) was the daughter of Helios and Neaera; she was the personification of light. Her sister, Phaethusa, and she were taken by their mother to guard the cattle and sheep of Thrinacia. She looked after 700 animals in total. She ran to her father when Odysseus‘ men slaughtered and sacrificed some of his ageless and deathless cattle. Her father, Helios, was enraged and asked the gods to avenge the deaths of his cattle, threatening to bring sunlight to the underworld if the men were not punished. Zeus then sent a lightning bolt down and a storm, killing all of Odysseus’ men, a doom that was portended by the meat writhing and lowing on the spits.
The stars called PLEIADES in the constellation of Taurus commemorate the PLEIADES, daughters of Atlas and Pleione, daughter of Oceanus. The rising of the PLEIADES is a sign of summer, and their setting of winter, and for this reason this constellation has been more honored than the others.
Number of PLEIADES
It is said that the PLEIADES are seven in number but only six can be seen. Some say that the reason is that all mated with immortals except one of them (Merope 1). However, others affirm that because of the sack of Troy and the destruction of the house of Dardanus 1, Electra 3 left her sisters, and took a place in the Artic circle. That is why they sing: … In Troy‘s last hour … Electra shrouded her form in mist and cloud, and left the Pleiad-band … Still rises up … their bright troop in the skies; but she alone hides viewless ever since the town of her son Dardanus in ruin fell … (Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 13.555).
Pleione attacked by Orion
But ancient astronomers placed the PLEIADES apart from the constellation Taurus. They say that when Pleione once was traveling with her daughters through Boeotia, she was attacked by Orion, and as she managed to escape from him, he sought her for seven years without being able to find her. Zeus then, pitying the girls, appointed a way to the stars, and later astronomers said that they were in the Bull’s tail (Taurus’ tail). That is why Orion goes after them as they flee towards the west.
The HYADES 1 were sisters of Hyas, or else his daughters, and when Hyas died while hunting, killed by a lion, a boar, or a Lybian lioness, they grieved his death exceedingly, and turned into the stars called Hyades which are in the constellation of Taurus.
It is said that Atlas and Aethra 1 had fifteen daughters, out of which five were called Hyades because they were sisters of Hyas. When due to continual lamentation they perished, the remaining ten sisters killed themselves; and it is said that they were called PLEIADES because so many experienced the same grief. But others have said that the HYADES 1 were so called after their father Hyas, and the PLEIADES after their mother Pleione, wife of Atlas.
Among the stars
For it has also been said that Atlas had by Pleione twelve daughters, and a son Hyas, who was killed by a wild boar or a lion. On his death, the sisters died of their grief and some of them (Phaesyla, Ambrosia, Coronis 1, Eudore 1, and Polyxo 2) were put in the constellation of Taurus between the horns of the bull, being called Hyades (the Suculae) after their brother, whom they grieved. The rest of the sisters, who also died of grief although for the death of the HYADES 1, were called PLEIADES, some say because of their number, others because of their mother, and still others for other reasons.
Nurses of Dionysus 2
Also the HYADES 1, who previously were the NYMPHS DODONIDES (see NYMPHS), are called nurses of Dionysus 2, and it is said that they, and not Hermes, delivered the god, when he still was a defenceless child, to Athamas 1‘s wife Ino, so that she and her husband should rear him. For this, they say, Zeus rewarded them by putting them among the CONSTELLATIONS. It is also said that these NYMPHS DODONIDES, at a request of Dionysus 2, were changed into young girls by Medea, who put off their Old Age before they were consecrated among the stars; for the god had witnessed the rejuvenation of Jason‘s father Aeson, which the witch had performed, and marvelling at it, asked Medea that his nurses might be restored to Youth. At other times, the HYADES 1 are considered to be the MAENADS who were put to flight by Lycurgus 1, the King of the Edonians (Thrace) or of the island of Naxos, or of the Arabians, who was the first to oppose and expel Dionysus 2.
A vase shows Alcmena seated on an altar stacked with wood. According to this version of the myth (which is depicted in yet another vase), Alcmena‘s infidelity was punished by her husband Amphitryon (the figure holding the torches). Alcmena was saved by Zeus, who sent a storm. The HYADES (‘sisters of rain’) are seen pouring water on the pyre. The scene could be a representation of Euripides’ Alcmena.
Others so called | <urn:uuid:69920c15-226c-433c-b276-7b2524d2eef5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://micenas.net/ilhas/malta/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.981611 | 1,718 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.36743736267... | 9 | After Dido’s tragic death, Anna finds refuge from her brother Pygmalion on Malta, with Battus the king of the island and a wealthy host. The “fertile island” of Melite, near Cossyra, provided hospitality to Anna, with Battus saying that ‘This land, however small, is yours.’ Battus would have continued to provide sanctuary to Anna and her companions, but in the third year of her exile, Anna’s brother came in her pursuit. The king hated war, as the island was a peaceable sanctuary, and asked Anna to flee for her own safety. She fled at his command, with Battus giving her a ship.
After 2500 BC, the Maltese Islands were depopulated for several decades until the arrival of a new influx of Bronze Age immigrants, a culture that cremated its dead and introduced smaller megalithic structures called dolmens to Malta. In most cases there are small chambers here, with the cover made of a large slab placed on upright stones. They are claimed to belong to a population certainly different from that which built the previous megalithic temples. It is presumed the population arrived from Sicily because of the similarity of Maltese dolmens to some small constructions found on the largest island of the Mediterranean sea.
Lampécia e Fetusa
In Greek mythology, Phaethusa or Phaëthusa /ˌfeɪəˈθjuːzə/ (Ancient Greek: Φαέθουσα Phaéthousa, “radiance”) was a daughter of Helios and Neaera, the personification of the brilliant, blinding rays of the sun. With her sister, Lampetia, she guarded the cattle of Thrinacia. She carried a copper staff with which she tended to her father’s herd of sheep. She is listed as among the Heliades.
Lampetia /ˌlæmˈpiːʃə/ (Ancient Greek: Λαμπετίη, romanized: Lampetíē or Ancient Greek: Λαμπετία, romanized: Lampetía, lit. ‘shining’) was the daughter of Helios and Neaera; she was the personification of light. Her sister, Phaethusa, and she were taken by their mother to guard the cattle and sheep of Thrinacia. She looked after 700 animals in total. She ran to her father when Odysseus‘ men slaughtered and sacrificed some of his ageless and deathless cattle. Her father, Helios, was enraged and asked the gods to avenge the deaths of his cattle, threatening to bring sunlight to the underworld if the men were not punished. Zeus then sent a lightning bolt down and a storm, killing all of Odysseus’ men, a doom that was portended by the meat writhing and lowing on the spits.
The stars called PLEIADES in the constellation of Taurus commemorate the PLEIADES, daughters of Atlas and Pleione, daughter of Oceanus. The rising of the PLEIADES is a sign of summer, and their setting of winter, and for this reason this constellation has been more honored than the others.
Number of PLEIADES
It is said that the PLEIADES are seven in number but only six can be seen. Some say that the reason is that all mated with immortals except one of them (Merope 1). However, others affirm that because of the sack of Troy and the destruction of the house of Dardanus 1, Electra 3 left her sisters, and took a place in the Artic circle. That is why they sing: … In Troy‘s last hour … Electra shrouded her form in mist and cloud, and left the Pleiad-band … Still rises up … their bright troop in the skies; but she alone hides viewless ever since the town of her son Dardanus in ruin fell … (Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 13.555).
Pleione attacked by Orion
But ancient astronomers placed the PLEIADES apart from the constellation Taurus. They say that when Pleione once was traveling with her daughters through Boeotia, she was attacked by Orion, and as she managed to escape from him, he sought her for seven years without being able to find her. Zeus then, pitying the girls, appointed a way to the stars, and later astronomers said that they were in the Bull’s tail (Taurus’ tail). That is why Orion goes after them as they flee towards the west.
The HYADES 1 were sisters of Hyas, or else his daughters, and when Hyas died while hunting, killed by a lion, a boar, or a Lybian lioness, they grieved his death exceedingly, and turned into the stars called Hyades which are in the constellation of Taurus.
It is said that Atlas and Aethra 1 had fifteen daughters, out of which five were called Hyades because they were sisters of Hyas. When due to continual lamentation they perished, the remaining ten sisters killed themselves; and it is said that they were called PLEIADES because so many experienced the same grief. But others have said that the HYADES 1 were so called after their father Hyas, and the PLEIADES after their mother Pleione, wife of Atlas.
Among the stars
For it has also been said that Atlas had by Pleione twelve daughters, and a son Hyas, who was killed by a wild boar or a lion. On his death, the sisters died of their grief and some of them (Phaesyla, Ambrosia, Coronis 1, Eudore 1, and Polyxo 2) were put in the constellation of Taurus between the horns of the bull, being called Hyades (the Suculae) after their brother, whom they grieved. The rest of the sisters, who also died of grief although for the death of the HYADES 1, were called PLEIADES, some say because of their number, others because of their mother, and still others for other reasons.
Nurses of Dionysus 2
Also the HYADES 1, who previously were the NYMPHS DODONIDES (see NYMPHS), are called nurses of Dionysus 2, and it is said that they, and not Hermes, delivered the god, when he still was a defenceless child, to Athamas 1‘s wife Ino, so that she and her husband should rear him. For this, they say, Zeus rewarded them by putting them among the CONSTELLATIONS. It is also said that these NYMPHS DODONIDES, at a request of Dionysus 2, were changed into young girls by Medea, who put off their Old Age before they were consecrated among the stars; for the god had witnessed the rejuvenation of Jason‘s father Aeson, which the witch had performed, and marvelling at it, asked Medea that his nurses might be restored to Youth. At other times, the HYADES 1 are considered to be the MAENADS who were put to flight by Lycurgus 1, the King of the Edonians (Thrace) or of the island of Naxos, or of the Arabians, who was the first to oppose and expel Dionysus 2.
A vase shows Alcmena seated on an altar stacked with wood. According to this version of the myth (which is depicted in yet another vase), Alcmena‘s infidelity was punished by her husband Amphitryon (the figure holding the torches). Alcmena was saved by Zeus, who sent a storm. The HYADES (‘sisters of rain’) are seen pouring water on the pyre. The scene could be a representation of Euripides’ Alcmena.
Others so called | 1,681 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The method of offering solid food in pieces for baby to try when they are ready is named after the English researcher Gill Rapley.
This method of supplementary feeding is increasingly being used. There are also many parents who still opt for the traditional way of supplementary feeding, which is also a great way. You could even choose to combine the 'mashed' variant with offering pieces of solid food. It is not the case that food is only suitable for breastfed children, as is sometimes claimed. The main difference is that breastfed children have a stronger mouth and jaw development and are accustomed to taking food at their own request.
Babies of six months can chew. Not because they have learned this from their parents, but because their own development allows them to do so. However, a baby will only start chewing after he has learned to take things and bring them to his mouth. In principle, a too young baby does not run the 'risk' of eating through this method, because he will not bring food to his mouth independently.
There is one drawback: it can result in a lot of rubbish! The advantages are that a child can decide for himself what and how much it eats. A child can listen carefully to one's own body and follow their own needs. From birth it is already apparent at the breast: a child knows instinctively well to find the breast and indicates when he is hungry or has drunk enough. It is important that a child does not forget to listen to his own body, just as he did during breastfeeding. Hunger is hunger, enough is enough. Another advantage is that you can always dine together pleasantly; after all, you do not have to feed your child, but he will eat independently.
When refeeding with treated / mashed food, a parent is in charge: the child is generally fed with a spoon and gets, for example, the food the parent has made, or food from jars made by the manufacturer. Then parents decide what, how much, and when the child eats. If food is offered separately and independently then baby comes into contact with different scents, flavors, colors and textures. Your child can smell, feel, taste and learn about solid food in a playful way. As a result, a child often eats more variedly and they are less picky.
If all that is offered is pulped or pureed food, a child can often not choose what he wants to eat or not. When a child does not like something it can ruin the entire meal. Sometimes it is also difficult to find out what the child does not like exactly. At the same time, food itself proves to be good for the development of gross and fine motor skills. Think of, for example, carrots / banana (gross motor skills) and eating rice or peas (fine motor skills). He sees, smells, feels, grabs, tastes ... all learning moments for the child, with a positive effect on his well-being.
Watching your child remains essential. A child who can not sit up straight and can not keep his head straight can not eat well either. If you offer the child food and he does not put it in his mouth, it's not yet time for solid food. Your child will in due course indicate when it is ready for solid food, by putting it in his mouth and eating in a novel way.
The gag reflex is important in learning to eat. It is present in the mouth at birth and moves backwards over time. This happens around six months. If you give the child solid food and he continues to push it out with his tongue, it is a sign that the child is not ready for solid food yet. You often hear that people find it scary due to the danger of suffocation or malnutrition. But every way of feeding can be unsafe. It is always important that you keep an eye on the child while eating, in whatever way the child gets his food.
If your child is born prematurely, or there is another reason why your child can not safely process food, consultation with an expert is necessary before you can introduce this supplementary feeding method.
From angelababy In Q&A | <urn:uuid:868e0b4f-fb7d-4498-9785-203593e13c0e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pregnology.com/Information/R/Rapley | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.980362 | 841 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1023... | 1 | The method of offering solid food in pieces for baby to try when they are ready is named after the English researcher Gill Rapley.
This method of supplementary feeding is increasingly being used. There are also many parents who still opt for the traditional way of supplementary feeding, which is also a great way. You could even choose to combine the 'mashed' variant with offering pieces of solid food. It is not the case that food is only suitable for breastfed children, as is sometimes claimed. The main difference is that breastfed children have a stronger mouth and jaw development and are accustomed to taking food at their own request.
Babies of six months can chew. Not because they have learned this from their parents, but because their own development allows them to do so. However, a baby will only start chewing after he has learned to take things and bring them to his mouth. In principle, a too young baby does not run the 'risk' of eating through this method, because he will not bring food to his mouth independently.
There is one drawback: it can result in a lot of rubbish! The advantages are that a child can decide for himself what and how much it eats. A child can listen carefully to one's own body and follow their own needs. From birth it is already apparent at the breast: a child knows instinctively well to find the breast and indicates when he is hungry or has drunk enough. It is important that a child does not forget to listen to his own body, just as he did during breastfeeding. Hunger is hunger, enough is enough. Another advantage is that you can always dine together pleasantly; after all, you do not have to feed your child, but he will eat independently.
When refeeding with treated / mashed food, a parent is in charge: the child is generally fed with a spoon and gets, for example, the food the parent has made, or food from jars made by the manufacturer. Then parents decide what, how much, and when the child eats. If food is offered separately and independently then baby comes into contact with different scents, flavors, colors and textures. Your child can smell, feel, taste and learn about solid food in a playful way. As a result, a child often eats more variedly and they are less picky.
If all that is offered is pulped or pureed food, a child can often not choose what he wants to eat or not. When a child does not like something it can ruin the entire meal. Sometimes it is also difficult to find out what the child does not like exactly. At the same time, food itself proves to be good for the development of gross and fine motor skills. Think of, for example, carrots / banana (gross motor skills) and eating rice or peas (fine motor skills). He sees, smells, feels, grabs, tastes ... all learning moments for the child, with a positive effect on his well-being.
Watching your child remains essential. A child who can not sit up straight and can not keep his head straight can not eat well either. If you offer the child food and he does not put it in his mouth, it's not yet time for solid food. Your child will in due course indicate when it is ready for solid food, by putting it in his mouth and eating in a novel way.
The gag reflex is important in learning to eat. It is present in the mouth at birth and moves backwards over time. This happens around six months. If you give the child solid food and he continues to push it out with his tongue, it is a sign that the child is not ready for solid food yet. You often hear that people find it scary due to the danger of suffocation or malnutrition. But every way of feeding can be unsafe. It is always important that you keep an eye on the child while eating, in whatever way the child gets his food.
If your child is born prematurely, or there is another reason why your child can not safely process food, consultation with an expert is necessary before you can introduce this supplementary feeding method.
From angelababy In Q&A | 829 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dr. Samuel Mudd was an American physician and farmer who lived near Bryantown, Maryland, during the American Civil War. Like many people who lived near Bryantown, Mudd was a slave owner who supported the Confederate States of America. In 1864, the state of Maryland abolished slavery, making the future of Mudd’s tobacco plantation uncertain. That same year, Mudd was introduced to the actor John Wilkes Booth. Booth claimed he was interested in buying land in the region, but was really touring the area to map an escape route for his planned kidnapping of Abraham Lincoln. To what extent Mudd and Booth discussed the kidnapping plot is unclear. Historians do know that Booth stayed overnight at Mudd’s farm and purchased a horse from him. Ultimately, the kidnapping plan failed to come into fruition. Booth and Mudd met again in Washington in late December of 1864 but the details of the meeting remain unknown as well.
On April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth shot President Lincoln at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. While managing a desperate escape from the theater, Booth broke his leg. Despite his injury, he was able to escape Washington that night and rode toward southern Maryland. One of his accomplices, David Herold, met Booth in the wilderness in an attempt to guide him to safety. When it became clear that Booth would be unable to continue without medical attention, Herold guided him to the house of Dr. Mudd. At 4:00 in the morning, they knocked on Mudd’s door. Mudd recognized Booth but was likely unaware that he had just assassinated the president. Mudd diagnosed the broken fibula, fashioned a splint, and arranged for a pair of crutches to be delivered. Booth and Herold were extended hospitality and spent the remainder of the morning and much of the next day at Mudd’s farm.
The next morning, Mudd rode into Bryantown, where he quickly learned news of Lincoln’s assassination and the identity of the assassin. Unbelievably, Mudd found himself at crossroads of American history. He had two choices. He could tell the authorities in Bryantown that Lincoln’s assassin was incapacitated at his farm less than five miles away, and thus, become one of America’s great heroes. Or, he could say nothing and protect the assassin. Mudd’s decision would have a major impact on his life and on the course of American history!
Mudd chose to protect Booth. Although there are conflicting accounts of what followed, Mudd probably calmly returned to his farm and demanded that both Booth and Herold leave immediately. It is thought that Mudd waited at least 24 hours to tell the authorities anything about his visitors. When he was finally questioned by the authorities, he may have also led them in the wrong direction in their quest to capture Booth. Mudd’s explanations drew the suspicion of detectives, who continued to question him over the course of the next few days. Mudd initially claimed to never have met Booth before, but eventually it was revealed he had in fact met him several times.
On April 26, 1865, Dr. Samuel Mudd was arrested and charged with conspiracy to murder Abraham Lincoln. In this context, conspiracy means he was involved with the planning and execution of the murder and escape. On June 29, 1865, Mudd was sentenced to life in prison. He escaped the death penalty by a single vote.
In 1869, Mudd was pardoned by President Andrew Johnson for helping to stop an epidemic of yellow fever in prison. He was released from jail and returned to his farm near Bryantown. He died at the age of 49 from pneumonia. Mudd’s conviction remain a source of controversy today. | <urn:uuid:0d7e0744-53f9-436e-9f64-242663c11af4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/dr-samuel-mudd-the-wrong-path-through-the-ages | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.986203 | 777 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.339081197977... | 1 | Dr. Samuel Mudd was an American physician and farmer who lived near Bryantown, Maryland, during the American Civil War. Like many people who lived near Bryantown, Mudd was a slave owner who supported the Confederate States of America. In 1864, the state of Maryland abolished slavery, making the future of Mudd’s tobacco plantation uncertain. That same year, Mudd was introduced to the actor John Wilkes Booth. Booth claimed he was interested in buying land in the region, but was really touring the area to map an escape route for his planned kidnapping of Abraham Lincoln. To what extent Mudd and Booth discussed the kidnapping plot is unclear. Historians do know that Booth stayed overnight at Mudd’s farm and purchased a horse from him. Ultimately, the kidnapping plan failed to come into fruition. Booth and Mudd met again in Washington in late December of 1864 but the details of the meeting remain unknown as well.
On April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth shot President Lincoln at Ford’s Theater in Washington, D.C. While managing a desperate escape from the theater, Booth broke his leg. Despite his injury, he was able to escape Washington that night and rode toward southern Maryland. One of his accomplices, David Herold, met Booth in the wilderness in an attempt to guide him to safety. When it became clear that Booth would be unable to continue without medical attention, Herold guided him to the house of Dr. Mudd. At 4:00 in the morning, they knocked on Mudd’s door. Mudd recognized Booth but was likely unaware that he had just assassinated the president. Mudd diagnosed the broken fibula, fashioned a splint, and arranged for a pair of crutches to be delivered. Booth and Herold were extended hospitality and spent the remainder of the morning and much of the next day at Mudd’s farm.
The next morning, Mudd rode into Bryantown, where he quickly learned news of Lincoln’s assassination and the identity of the assassin. Unbelievably, Mudd found himself at crossroads of American history. He had two choices. He could tell the authorities in Bryantown that Lincoln’s assassin was incapacitated at his farm less than five miles away, and thus, become one of America’s great heroes. Or, he could say nothing and protect the assassin. Mudd’s decision would have a major impact on his life and on the course of American history!
Mudd chose to protect Booth. Although there are conflicting accounts of what followed, Mudd probably calmly returned to his farm and demanded that both Booth and Herold leave immediately. It is thought that Mudd waited at least 24 hours to tell the authorities anything about his visitors. When he was finally questioned by the authorities, he may have also led them in the wrong direction in their quest to capture Booth. Mudd’s explanations drew the suspicion of detectives, who continued to question him over the course of the next few days. Mudd initially claimed to never have met Booth before, but eventually it was revealed he had in fact met him several times.
On April 26, 1865, Dr. Samuel Mudd was arrested and charged with conspiracy to murder Abraham Lincoln. In this context, conspiracy means he was involved with the planning and execution of the murder and escape. On June 29, 1865, Mudd was sentenced to life in prison. He escaped the death penalty by a single vote.
In 1869, Mudd was pardoned by President Andrew Johnson for helping to stop an epidemic of yellow fever in prison. He was released from jail and returned to his farm near Bryantown. He died at the age of 49 from pneumonia. Mudd’s conviction remain a source of controversy today. | 781 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Behind the heroic revolt against the Greeks, our sources are clear, it is Jewish women who provided the inspiration for this sensational victory.
In the final years of Greek rule in Israel, a series of new decrees aimed at the fabric of Jewish life, radically intensified the Hellenisation of Judea. One edict, aimed at undermining the family unit and progeny gave the Greek Governor ‘first rites’ to every Jewish bride on the day she was due to be married.
Jewish weddings were public events that were hard to miss. This was especially so following a rabbinic proclamation protecting the ‘daughters of Israel’ that a wedding feast needed to be suitably fancy that it should take three days to prepare. Since it was not possible to prepare food for the wedding on Shabbat, and fridges were not so easy to find, most weddings would take place mid week, making them easy picking for the Greeks.
The decree created a number of dilemmas for the rabbis since there were women who were highly modest and would likely resist the governors attempts, even to the point of death.
Understanding the danger, the rabbis relaxed the rule regarding wedding preparations, therefore increasing the days on which weddings would take place and lessening the chance of being caught by the Greek governor – who did not live among the Jews but would send soldiers into the town on certain days of the week.
In addition, they called on the people to continue Jewish life, but to conduct weddings in a clandestine way. If the worst happened, the women should neither resist, nor should they show willing, instead survive the ordeal and be like a stone.
What complicated the situation further was another group of women – those who were destined to marry kohanim, members of the Jewish priesthood for whom there was another very serious implication. Having relations with another man, would disallow the marriage to their intended husband, making these women the most likely of all to risk death. Acknowledging the desperate situation they were in, they had no other answers and hoped only that the decree would be a passing phase. It lasted three long years.
Why did the rabbis not advocate mounting resistance against the Greek rule? Why not fight back? Now we are hitting on the deeper meaning the of the ‘light of Judaism being dimmed’ which we speak about in the ‘Al Ha Nissim’ (about the miracles) prayer. The Greek empire had spent a hundred years slowly chipping away at Jewish values, in response the rabbis always chose life over death, but at what point would the threat of spiritual death warrant risking physical life? This was the conundrum of the rabbis at the time. The lines were blurred even further since many Jews had assimilated embracing parts of Greek culture, even within the highest ranks of the priesthood.
As the candle of Jewish independence faded to a flicker, it was women who were in the eye of the storm, at the heart of a ‘me-too movement’ 2200 years ago that brought the greatest mysogenest empire to its knees.
Open up the laws of Hanukkah and you will find a curious custom for women to rest when the candles are lit. The reason given is to recall their role in the Hanukkah miracle with special praise reserved for Yehudit, the daughter of Yochanan the High Priest, who is credited with cutting off the Greek governor’s head kick-starting the war. There are lots of questions to ask, and thankfully we have a set of midrashim (Jewish sources) to help put the pieces together.
Yehudit, daughter of the High Priest was engaged to be married to the son of the nasi -(president) the highest lay office in the nation. It was possible to keep some weddings quiet but this was not one of them. Imagine telling Hello magazine not to report on a royal wedding and you start to understand the predicament. The Greek edict regarding Jewish brides was in full effect, but life didn’t stand still. Yehudit was on her way to the Greek governor, accompanied by her wedding party, before her marriage could take place, when she stopped the ‘procession’ stepped down from her carriage and tore open her dress.
As her shocked brothers called for her to be punished for such an act of immodesty, Yehudit stepped forward calling out her brothers hypocrisy. “You want to punish me for showing some flesh, yet as you speak you are escorting me to be raped! When will you see that it is time to fight back?”
These stinging words shattered the glass, exposed the desperation of the Jewish predicament and filled the hearts of those present with an abounding courage to fight back. With any doubt removed that there was still any other option to a full-on revolt, together with his family, Yehudah a grandson of the high priest hatched a plan.
Yehudit continued on her way, with her family singing and dancing around her, holding a canopy over her head as the Greek governor looked on boastfully. “Look how happy the leaders of Israel and the descendants of Aharon the kohen are to do my will.” Taking the bait, he ordered his guards away leaving Yehudit to wine and dine him until he fell asleep sleep, whereupon she killed him, cut off his head and fled to the hills, cue the dreidels, donuts and latkes.
The role of women in this festival is closely tied to the role of the lights. Just as we don’t make use of the light of the candles except to publicise the miracle that took place through them, so too, as we stand in wonder at the miracle of our national survival, our attention is also turned to the courage of the Jewish women who are also are reminded to rest, since the miracle, was inspired by their daring courage to hold up a mirror to society, stand up for Jewish values and for their own dignity.
Behind the heroic revolt against the Greeks, our sources are clear, it is Jewish women who provided the inspiration for this sensational victory.
This week, we meet Rachel and Leah, the leading Mothers of the Children of Israel, who Midrash tells us imbued their children with their own distinct signature characteristics.
When Leah bore her fourth son, Since Yaakov was due to have four wives, (Leah, Rachel, Bilha & Zilpa) a simple equation would mean that each mother should give birth 3 of the 12 tribes of Israel. Accordingly when Leah bore her fourth son, she felt she felt overwhelmed with thanks for having been granted more than her quota of children and named this son Yehuda, stemming from the words ‘Hoda’ meaning gratitude and ‘Ada’ meaning acknowledgement. Leah was grateful for what she had and was willing to acknowledge that publicly with a full heart.
Midrash explains that particularly these qualities were later to be the prominent characteristics of this child Yehuda in adulthood, who when confronted by Tamar, his daughter in law who he had unknowingly borne a child, acknowledged his guilt publicly without a shred of hesitation. Our rabbis even teach us that it was this very quality of honesty and humility that caused allowed Kingship to flower from the tribe of Yehuda. These qualities, first exhibited by Leah can be seen clearly to King David who also stands out for embodying the values of gratitude and admission throughout his life – His book of Tehilim (Psalms) expresses deep thanks to G-d with consistent humility, honesty and acknowledgement about his own struggles, mistakes and failings.
Leah is not the only mother who seals a character trait into future generations. Rachel, according to Midrash, Rachel’s defining feature is her silence pointing to how she observed a complete and difficult silence on the night of Yaakov’s marriage to her sister Leah even though Rachel was meant to be under the huppa that day. Rachel broke all fences of selfishness to keep this silence – inspired by a desire not to embarrass or envy her sister, even giving her the secret code she and Yaakov had agreed before the wedding to be
used in such a case that Lavan would switch the brides.
Midrash points out that Rachel’s descendants inherited this trait of restraint with their words. Yosef her son managed to keep the secret of his identity, while Midrash states her other son Binyamin kept secret the sale of his brother Yosef into slavery for over 20 years. Meanwhile, King Saul another descendant also inherited this quality – not disclosing that he had been anointed King for some time, and Queen Esther also kept quiet about her Jewish lineage during the Purim story until the appropriate moment.
The word בן Ben – meaning son in Hebrew is closely related to the words בונן (bonen) meaning to cause to understanding, לבנות (livnot) meaning to build and בין (bain) meaning to penetrate to the core. The important questions of who we are and what we believe in become the building blocks that reach to the core of who our children are and will become.
As Rabbi Israel Salanter said, “Once I tried to change the world but the world did not change, and so I resolved to change my town, but my town did not change. Then I looked to my family and tried to change them, but they too did not change until I finally resolved to change myself.”
We each have the positive characteristics that are there to be shared and maximized and the negative characteristics which are there to be conquered and perfected.
Rachel and Leah imbued their descendants with gratitude, humility, honesty and immense self-control. B’ezrat Hashem we can also maximize and actualize each of our own unique personal character traits for ourselves and also for future generations.
Wishing you Shabbat Shalom!
Jerusalem or as we pronounce it in Hebrew ‘Yerushalayim’ is the city of ‘complete seeing.’
This is the meaning of its name which comprises two words, ‘Yirah’ meaning seeing, and ‘Shalem’ meaning whole or complete.
It is the site of the Akeida, where Abraham’s eyes were opened to the sanctity of life and the evil of child sacrifice.
It is the place where Jacob dreamed a vision so clearly of angels going up and down a ladder connection heaven and earth.
It is the location of King Solomon’s Temple which Kings and Queens from across the world came to see a place where spirituality was tangible.
In Midrash the world is compared to an eye, with the oceans – the white of the eye. The Iris is the center of the world and at its heart, the pupil is Jerusalem. The reflection inside the pupil is that of the Temple.
The concept of complete seeing, is something which Jerusalem is meant to give to the world. A place where we see clearly, where things become clearer.
The Talmud teaches, there is no greater vessel for holding bracha (blessing) than shalom -a sense of wholeness, of peace and of unity. Seeing completely, or seeing using the vessel of wholeness and peace, means that when we look at each other, we are, in a certain way looking at an extension of ourselves.
Seeing the good in each other, wanting the best for each other, increasing understanding, and lowering the jealousy, envy and feelings of being threatened by others success.
What does complete seeing mean when it comes to each other – trying as hard as possible to see things from their perspective. This will bring us closer.
In the three weeks , we are now living, between the 17th of Tammuz when the walls of Jerusalem were breached, and the 9th of Av when the Temple was destroyed, one of the things we are mourning is what happened to the city of complete seeing, and how the world grew darker as a result. We may not have a Temple, but that shouldn’t stop us from challenging ourselves to try and see the people around us with greater completeness – perhaps it is the first step to the city of Jerusalem – Yerushalayim – the city of complete seeing, being rebuilt in its material and spiritual sense speedily in our days.
Imagine a person who has a bird on his shoulder he would consult before any doing anything… Welcome to the world of Balak ben Zippor, or Balak the son of a bird. Midrash explains he was a devoted follower of a form of witchcraft idolatry which saw him pay homage to a bird named ‘Yadua’ – the knowing bird, and the bird would indicate the answer to all of his questions…
He was a man who had little grasp of his own head. He delegated others to do the thinking for him. We meet Balak in this week’s parasha, described as terrified of the Children of Israel, deciding to take them down – not going to war with them but trying to enlist mystical powers to remove their spiritual protection.
The whole episode is strange not least because Balak is from the nation of Moab and the Jewish People had been commanded not to attack them. Commentaries explain that Ruth would later emerge from this nation who would convert and include as one of her descendants, King David. Why then would Balak be so scared to take this action ..? Didn’t he know there was no reason to be scared?
Any answer is given by Rabbi Yosef Dov Soloveichik of Brisk who says the answer can be found in Balak’s thought process – or lack of.
Although the Jewish People were not to attack Moab, if Moab attacked them, they were permitted to respond with force. Here is what went through Balak’s mind. ‘The Children of Israel will go around conquering all of the areas around me, and then we will get scared and will attack them from fear,’ then he reasoned, ‘after this, they will respond and attack us’
Balak feared that he wouldn’t manage to hold on to the power of logic when it was tested with fear..
But after we saw how he rarely flexed the muscles in his brain we can start to understand why he lacked confidence in his own thinking. He teaches us, we all ask others to make our decisions for us at different times in our lives… what should I do, where should I go, who should I date, which job should I apply for? Of course advice can be great, and it has its place – usually after we have first respected ourselves enough to have a good go at thinking things through.
If we find that we are taking ourselves out of the decision making process too much, walking around with a proverbial bird on our shoulder, we may find ourselves like Balak, not only susceptible to inappropriate advice, but also lacking faith and confidence in our ability to think well at all in the future.
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“Whether you say you can or whether you say you can’t…. You’re probably right.” The words of Henry Ford. Yes, I know he was anti Semitic. Maybe even more reason to add a Jewish source to help explain this piece of wisdom.
We determine so much of our lives by how we speak, which impacts strongly on how we think, and act.
If a person wakes up and says, it’d going to be an awful day -this will likely be the prism through which the day pans out and vice-versa.
The Talmud tells of Bar Hedya, a renowned dream interpreter in Jerusalem who would give out a positive interpretation of a dream to those who paid him for this services, and a negative approach to those who didn’t pay. Whatever he said, happened. Two rabbis went to see him. Rav paid him and Abaye didn’t. Rav saw great wealth, was promoted, and had many children, whilst Abaye lost his job, his wife died, you get the picture. Even when Rav had a negative sounding dream, Bar Hedya spun it in an upbeat way, and when Abaya came with a positive dream, Bar Hedya said it only bore more bad news. Much later, the truth finally surfaced about Bar Hedya’s secret. Dreams always pan out according to how they are interpreted.
Those who had their lives destroyed realise the opposite could have happened to them, had the interpreter said something pleasant.
We see this also beautifully demonstrated in this week’s parasha (in Israel) Shelach where 12 spies tour the land of Israel and come back with differing reports.
Ten of the spies, return with a bad report, and two come back with a glowing report.
The first group had previously expressed their feeling that conquering the land of Israel was beyond them, and subsequently this mentality never left them. They brought back a negative account of their 40 day expedition, even finding evidence to prove their case, in the form of huge grapes and pomegranates, not to praise the produce of the land, but rather to subtly scare their brothers into imagining the giants who lived there who would eat such fruits.
Meanwhile the two men who returned with good words to say, Calev and Yehoshua went into the episode with a positive frame of mind. They returned saying “This is a beautiful land,” and “We can do it with G-d’s help!”
What’s the message, we speak out the lives we will live.
We hold the key to so much, in how we choose to speak about it. The reality we choose to create with our words and frame of mind.
As King David asked in his book of Psalms,
“Who is a person that desires life? And the answers he gives, “ a person who loves looking forward to seeing good days.” If you want to live in a beautiful world, start speaking it into reality. Perhaps it’s not easy to always be staying upbeat and looking forward to seeing good, there are many obstacles, and changing a mindset over night is not easy, but whenever we succeed we give our world a lift.
Just by starting each day with a short list of things to be grateful for and appreciate or a positive statement about the day and what it might bring can have a big impact.
Wishing us all a Shabbat Shalom.
Danny, remembered feeling a part of a big group of friends but now that felt pretty distant. A lot of water had passed under the bridge. He had been missed a lot of days of school the previous year for a whole number of reasons, some of them legitimate, but when he did return it wasn’t the same. He had assumed a group was something you could slip in and out of, but increasingly he felt on the outside, and on more than one occasion his frustration had got the better of him. A few lunchtime scuffles didn’t make things any easier.
Mr Reubens had a knack of seeing the bigger picture in the school yard and had noted Danny’s predicament. He had taught him Geography a year earlier when he was more settled with his friends, and had known a successful, bright student, however a brief word with his teachers this year spelled out the opposite. His grades had slipped, his work was poor and he wasn’t participating in class to any of his teacher’s satisfaction. Taking a few days to think about the situation, came up with a plan.
The school hiking trip was coming up which he knew Danny would be attending – Mr Reubens was running the trip and before the trip assigned a special role for Danny – it would be his role to stay at the back and collect any lost property that the the other students had dropped along the way.
Danny, sighed when he was given the job. Although he had not been relishing the idea of three days with the group he had fallen out if sorts with, a small part of him hoped the time together might resolve things. Now he was sure, being left at the back forced to follow behind the other 70 students would just make things worse.
As the hike began, Mr Reubens, took him aside to give some specific instructions. “Your job is not just to collect all the lost items, it is to work out which item belongs to who and to personally return it to them.” He added sternly, “By the end of each day, I want to see this bag empty with everything returned.”
This is exactly what happened. On the first day alone, as predicted, Danny’s bag filled up, by the end of the afternoon it was brimming with 5 water bottles, 2 sets of headphones, 4 pens, 3 folders, 2 key-rings, a baseball cap, a wallet, two bottles of sun lotion and a phone. Danny got to work, some of things he knew immediately having seen them in the hands of their owners. Some had names on, and others had distinguishing signs, but most made him think hard, whose it could be, how he could be sure, who he would ask. Although still on his own, his mind was filled with the other members of his group, what they had lost, what they were missing and how to return it to them as quickly as possible. All the while he thought about returning these items, more appeared.
Each time he returned an item, he received a wide smile and profuse thanks, with almost each person asking him how he knew it was theirs. With each item returned he connected another dot in the group, feeling himself increasingly closer to them, on better terms, invested in them. After three days, even though still at the back, he felt very much a part of the group and the feeling in the group towards him had also completely changed. On return to school, Danny’s entire demeanour lifted and his grades improved.
In this week’s parashah, Bamidbar, the Jewish people are counted. In his commentary, Rabbi Avigdor Nebenzal, rabbi of the Old City in Jerusalem, points out that the tribe of Dan are counted last. He brings a midrash to explain the reason why. They had succumbed to avoda zara- idol worship in Egypt more than the other tribes and felt disconnected to the bigger group. They trailed behind. The midrash explains why they weren’t moved further forward. Wouldn’t that have helped them feel more included? By keeping them trailing behind, the mitzvah of hashavat aveida – returning lost property – fell to them, everything the other tribes dropped, or left behind. Through the process of thinking and doing for the other tribes, day in, day out, they grew closer and closer to the heart of ‘Klal Yisrael’ the Jewish People.
The Torah was given at Mount Sinai when the Jewish People were Ish Echad K’lev echad – like one person with one heart. Our rabbis teach, there is no greater vessel for receiving bracha – blessing – than seeing the world from the perspective of others. However distant we feel in life, to the people around us, the communities around us, thinking about what others lack and doing kindness will always take us a step closer.
Wishing us all a Shabbat Shalom
The walls in Dana’s office were bright white and empty, except for the giant poster sitting behind her desk. The words, emblazoned in thick black ink read, simply “Be what you want to be.”
A day earlier, Oded had returned from yet another walk around the park, the third of that afternoon alone. It was the only way he knew to calm his nerves while he waited for the phone to ring, still hoping the last of the interviews he had been invited to would yield his first job since graduating. When the phone finally rang it was not good news. “They said they would keep my resume on file,” he told his mother, looking down feeling the burden of another knock back. It was the fifth rejection in a matter of two months.
“Do you think it’s worth seeing a coach,” his mother asked gently. “It could be, they might have some good advice?” Without any good reason why not, Oded had agreed to an initial meeting.
“That’s the key,” Dana said, pointing to the words jumping out from the wall, that seemed, somehow to fill the room. “So tell me,” she fired at him, “What is it you want to be?”
Slightly taken aback, at her directness, he stammered, “A sports writer.” Looking straight at him, as if searching his soul, she shot back her reply, “How much?” Oded shuffled in his seat preparing his answer.
“This is the first step,” she continued, “Building up your desire for the things that you want. Every day you need to tell yourself over and over again, how much you want this, why you want this, what it means to you and what you will do with it.” She continued, “You need to do this so much that becomes alive in you,” Oded listened intently, “The Second step, is about becoming that which you desire so strongly to be, but that,” she added, “will come later.”
Over the course of the following two weeks, Oded spent five minutes each day talking to himself aloud, awakening and strengthening his desire to find his perfect job. Soon his face began to shine with the glow of a person living with a purpose so real he could almost taste. As he continued to visualise what it would be like to be working in his dream job, he began to feel like he was already a successful sports writer, it felt it was getting closer.
As his next coaching session approached Oded called Dana, happy to relate that he wouldn’t need to attend after all. He had just received an offer from the leading sports news service in Boston.
These few weeks in the Jewish year are weeks of ‘desire and the ‘will to make change’’ or in Hebrew ‘ratzon.’ This is encompassed in the mitzvah of the Counting of the Omer, which began on the second day of Pesach and continues through Shavuout.
The daily count up is meant to instill into our deepest essence, an empassioned desire for the gift of the Torah that awaits us – and was given on Shavuot at Mount Sinai. The more we want it, the more likely we are to acquire our portion in it. We learn here, profoundly that the yearning for something, is a prerequisite for receiving it.
Perhaps we can say, when bracha comes into the world, we have to have open hands and be ready to receive it.
The Maggid of Koznitz, one of the great Hasidic leaders of Poland from the 18th century explained that the words given in the Torah ‘Usphartem lechem’ – count for yourselves – can also be read, -’and explain to yourselves,’ with the word ‘lispor’ – to count, spelt with same letters as the word l’saper meaning to explain. and closely connected to ‘sapir’ meaning a sapphire. Here’s his message:
The more you explain something, the brighter the idea becomes until it shines like a sapphire.
The Maggid of Koznitz explains that this is the key to reaching any kind of goal – is to increase your will and desire for it, by ‘telling it to yourself’, again and again and again. To make it so real that it actually starts to shine bright in you. Once this desire for something has such energy, he adds, it is only a matter of time before the goal you are dreaming of, like a magnet, is drawn to you and starts to take shape.
During this process of increasing our ‘ratzon’- our will, we have to get over a number of obstacles. These can be doubts of our own ability or inability, self worth and challenging the things we have subconsciously already placed into the realm of the impossible. In the words of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav ‘A person is where they are thinking about being,’ when that light is strong, its starts to guide the way.
This also explains why the Torah commands that we count 50 days, whereas in reality we only actually count 49. The 50th day, our rabbis explain is finished up for us by some divine assistance – which teaches us we can reach our goals when we put in our maximum effort and truly desire something that is for the sake of heaven. Then these efforts will be blessed and the shortfall made up.
As we count up toward the Omer, we all have an opportunity to increase the desire within ourselves for the things that we want, or want to become. It all starts with ‘telling ourselves’ repeatedly until it starts to feel real, and before we know, with help from shamayim, Bezrat Hashem we are already halfway there.
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0.08645457... | 1 | Behind the heroic revolt against the Greeks, our sources are clear, it is Jewish women who provided the inspiration for this sensational victory.
In the final years of Greek rule in Israel, a series of new decrees aimed at the fabric of Jewish life, radically intensified the Hellenisation of Judea. One edict, aimed at undermining the family unit and progeny gave the Greek Governor ‘first rites’ to every Jewish bride on the day she was due to be married.
Jewish weddings were public events that were hard to miss. This was especially so following a rabbinic proclamation protecting the ‘daughters of Israel’ that a wedding feast needed to be suitably fancy that it should take three days to prepare. Since it was not possible to prepare food for the wedding on Shabbat, and fridges were not so easy to find, most weddings would take place mid week, making them easy picking for the Greeks.
The decree created a number of dilemmas for the rabbis since there were women who were highly modest and would likely resist the governors attempts, even to the point of death.
Understanding the danger, the rabbis relaxed the rule regarding wedding preparations, therefore increasing the days on which weddings would take place and lessening the chance of being caught by the Greek governor – who did not live among the Jews but would send soldiers into the town on certain days of the week.
In addition, they called on the people to continue Jewish life, but to conduct weddings in a clandestine way. If the worst happened, the women should neither resist, nor should they show willing, instead survive the ordeal and be like a stone.
What complicated the situation further was another group of women – those who were destined to marry kohanim, members of the Jewish priesthood for whom there was another very serious implication. Having relations with another man, would disallow the marriage to their intended husband, making these women the most likely of all to risk death. Acknowledging the desperate situation they were in, they had no other answers and hoped only that the decree would be a passing phase. It lasted three long years.
Why did the rabbis not advocate mounting resistance against the Greek rule? Why not fight back? Now we are hitting on the deeper meaning the of the ‘light of Judaism being dimmed’ which we speak about in the ‘Al Ha Nissim’ (about the miracles) prayer. The Greek empire had spent a hundred years slowly chipping away at Jewish values, in response the rabbis always chose life over death, but at what point would the threat of spiritual death warrant risking physical life? This was the conundrum of the rabbis at the time. The lines were blurred even further since many Jews had assimilated embracing parts of Greek culture, even within the highest ranks of the priesthood.
As the candle of Jewish independence faded to a flicker, it was women who were in the eye of the storm, at the heart of a ‘me-too movement’ 2200 years ago that brought the greatest mysogenest empire to its knees.
Open up the laws of Hanukkah and you will find a curious custom for women to rest when the candles are lit. The reason given is to recall their role in the Hanukkah miracle with special praise reserved for Yehudit, the daughter of Yochanan the High Priest, who is credited with cutting off the Greek governor’s head kick-starting the war. There are lots of questions to ask, and thankfully we have a set of midrashim (Jewish sources) to help put the pieces together.
Yehudit, daughter of the High Priest was engaged to be married to the son of the nasi -(president) the highest lay office in the nation. It was possible to keep some weddings quiet but this was not one of them. Imagine telling Hello magazine not to report on a royal wedding and you start to understand the predicament. The Greek edict regarding Jewish brides was in full effect, but life didn’t stand still. Yehudit was on her way to the Greek governor, accompanied by her wedding party, before her marriage could take place, when she stopped the ‘procession’ stepped down from her carriage and tore open her dress.
As her shocked brothers called for her to be punished for such an act of immodesty, Yehudit stepped forward calling out her brothers hypocrisy. “You want to punish me for showing some flesh, yet as you speak you are escorting me to be raped! When will you see that it is time to fight back?”
These stinging words shattered the glass, exposed the desperation of the Jewish predicament and filled the hearts of those present with an abounding courage to fight back. With any doubt removed that there was still any other option to a full-on revolt, together with his family, Yehudah a grandson of the high priest hatched a plan.
Yehudit continued on her way, with her family singing and dancing around her, holding a canopy over her head as the Greek governor looked on boastfully. “Look how happy the leaders of Israel and the descendants of Aharon the kohen are to do my will.” Taking the bait, he ordered his guards away leaving Yehudit to wine and dine him until he fell asleep sleep, whereupon she killed him, cut off his head and fled to the hills, cue the dreidels, donuts and latkes.
The role of women in this festival is closely tied to the role of the lights. Just as we don’t make use of the light of the candles except to publicise the miracle that took place through them, so too, as we stand in wonder at the miracle of our national survival, our attention is also turned to the courage of the Jewish women who are also are reminded to rest, since the miracle, was inspired by their daring courage to hold up a mirror to society, stand up for Jewish values and for their own dignity.
Behind the heroic revolt against the Greeks, our sources are clear, it is Jewish women who provided the inspiration for this sensational victory.
This week, we meet Rachel and Leah, the leading Mothers of the Children of Israel, who Midrash tells us imbued their children with their own distinct signature characteristics.
When Leah bore her fourth son, Since Yaakov was due to have four wives, (Leah, Rachel, Bilha & Zilpa) a simple equation would mean that each mother should give birth 3 of the 12 tribes of Israel. Accordingly when Leah bore her fourth son, she felt she felt overwhelmed with thanks for having been granted more than her quota of children and named this son Yehuda, stemming from the words ‘Hoda’ meaning gratitude and ‘Ada’ meaning acknowledgement. Leah was grateful for what she had and was willing to acknowledge that publicly with a full heart.
Midrash explains that particularly these qualities were later to be the prominent characteristics of this child Yehuda in adulthood, who when confronted by Tamar, his daughter in law who he had unknowingly borne a child, acknowledged his guilt publicly without a shred of hesitation. Our rabbis even teach us that it was this very quality of honesty and humility that caused allowed Kingship to flower from the tribe of Yehuda. These qualities, first exhibited by Leah can be seen clearly to King David who also stands out for embodying the values of gratitude and admission throughout his life – His book of Tehilim (Psalms) expresses deep thanks to G-d with consistent humility, honesty and acknowledgement about his own struggles, mistakes and failings.
Leah is not the only mother who seals a character trait into future generations. Rachel, according to Midrash, Rachel’s defining feature is her silence pointing to how she observed a complete and difficult silence on the night of Yaakov’s marriage to her sister Leah even though Rachel was meant to be under the huppa that day. Rachel broke all fences of selfishness to keep this silence – inspired by a desire not to embarrass or envy her sister, even giving her the secret code she and Yaakov had agreed before the wedding to be
used in such a case that Lavan would switch the brides.
Midrash points out that Rachel’s descendants inherited this trait of restraint with their words. Yosef her son managed to keep the secret of his identity, while Midrash states her other son Binyamin kept secret the sale of his brother Yosef into slavery for over 20 years. Meanwhile, King Saul another descendant also inherited this quality – not disclosing that he had been anointed King for some time, and Queen Esther also kept quiet about her Jewish lineage during the Purim story until the appropriate moment.
The word בן Ben – meaning son in Hebrew is closely related to the words בונן (bonen) meaning to cause to understanding, לבנות (livnot) meaning to build and בין (bain) meaning to penetrate to the core. The important questions of who we are and what we believe in become the building blocks that reach to the core of who our children are and will become.
As Rabbi Israel Salanter said, “Once I tried to change the world but the world did not change, and so I resolved to change my town, but my town did not change. Then I looked to my family and tried to change them, but they too did not change until I finally resolved to change myself.”
We each have the positive characteristics that are there to be shared and maximized and the negative characteristics which are there to be conquered and perfected.
Rachel and Leah imbued their descendants with gratitude, humility, honesty and immense self-control. B’ezrat Hashem we can also maximize and actualize each of our own unique personal character traits for ourselves and also for future generations.
Wishing you Shabbat Shalom!
Jerusalem or as we pronounce it in Hebrew ‘Yerushalayim’ is the city of ‘complete seeing.’
This is the meaning of its name which comprises two words, ‘Yirah’ meaning seeing, and ‘Shalem’ meaning whole or complete.
It is the site of the Akeida, where Abraham’s eyes were opened to the sanctity of life and the evil of child sacrifice.
It is the place where Jacob dreamed a vision so clearly of angels going up and down a ladder connection heaven and earth.
It is the location of King Solomon’s Temple which Kings and Queens from across the world came to see a place where spirituality was tangible.
In Midrash the world is compared to an eye, with the oceans – the white of the eye. The Iris is the center of the world and at its heart, the pupil is Jerusalem. The reflection inside the pupil is that of the Temple.
The concept of complete seeing, is something which Jerusalem is meant to give to the world. A place where we see clearly, where things become clearer.
The Talmud teaches, there is no greater vessel for holding bracha (blessing) than shalom -a sense of wholeness, of peace and of unity. Seeing completely, or seeing using the vessel of wholeness and peace, means that when we look at each other, we are, in a certain way looking at an extension of ourselves.
Seeing the good in each other, wanting the best for each other, increasing understanding, and lowering the jealousy, envy and feelings of being threatened by others success.
What does complete seeing mean when it comes to each other – trying as hard as possible to see things from their perspective. This will bring us closer.
In the three weeks , we are now living, between the 17th of Tammuz when the walls of Jerusalem were breached, and the 9th of Av when the Temple was destroyed, one of the things we are mourning is what happened to the city of complete seeing, and how the world grew darker as a result. We may not have a Temple, but that shouldn’t stop us from challenging ourselves to try and see the people around us with greater completeness – perhaps it is the first step to the city of Jerusalem – Yerushalayim – the city of complete seeing, being rebuilt in its material and spiritual sense speedily in our days.
Imagine a person who has a bird on his shoulder he would consult before any doing anything… Welcome to the world of Balak ben Zippor, or Balak the son of a bird. Midrash explains he was a devoted follower of a form of witchcraft idolatry which saw him pay homage to a bird named ‘Yadua’ – the knowing bird, and the bird would indicate the answer to all of his questions…
He was a man who had little grasp of his own head. He delegated others to do the thinking for him. We meet Balak in this week’s parasha, described as terrified of the Children of Israel, deciding to take them down – not going to war with them but trying to enlist mystical powers to remove their spiritual protection.
The whole episode is strange not least because Balak is from the nation of Moab and the Jewish People had been commanded not to attack them. Commentaries explain that Ruth would later emerge from this nation who would convert and include as one of her descendants, King David. Why then would Balak be so scared to take this action ..? Didn’t he know there was no reason to be scared?
Any answer is given by Rabbi Yosef Dov Soloveichik of Brisk who says the answer can be found in Balak’s thought process – or lack of.
Although the Jewish People were not to attack Moab, if Moab attacked them, they were permitted to respond with force. Here is what went through Balak’s mind. ‘The Children of Israel will go around conquering all of the areas around me, and then we will get scared and will attack them from fear,’ then he reasoned, ‘after this, they will respond and attack us’
Balak feared that he wouldn’t manage to hold on to the power of logic when it was tested with fear..
But after we saw how he rarely flexed the muscles in his brain we can start to understand why he lacked confidence in his own thinking. He teaches us, we all ask others to make our decisions for us at different times in our lives… what should I do, where should I go, who should I date, which job should I apply for? Of course advice can be great, and it has its place – usually after we have first respected ourselves enough to have a good go at thinking things through.
If we find that we are taking ourselves out of the decision making process too much, walking around with a proverbial bird on our shoulder, we may find ourselves like Balak, not only susceptible to inappropriate advice, but also lacking faith and confidence in our ability to think well at all in the future.
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“Whether you say you can or whether you say you can’t…. You’re probably right.” The words of Henry Ford. Yes, I know he was anti Semitic. Maybe even more reason to add a Jewish source to help explain this piece of wisdom.
We determine so much of our lives by how we speak, which impacts strongly on how we think, and act.
If a person wakes up and says, it’d going to be an awful day -this will likely be the prism through which the day pans out and vice-versa.
The Talmud tells of Bar Hedya, a renowned dream interpreter in Jerusalem who would give out a positive interpretation of a dream to those who paid him for this services, and a negative approach to those who didn’t pay. Whatever he said, happened. Two rabbis went to see him. Rav paid him and Abaye didn’t. Rav saw great wealth, was promoted, and had many children, whilst Abaye lost his job, his wife died, you get the picture. Even when Rav had a negative sounding dream, Bar Hedya spun it in an upbeat way, and when Abaya came with a positive dream, Bar Hedya said it only bore more bad news. Much later, the truth finally surfaced about Bar Hedya’s secret. Dreams always pan out according to how they are interpreted.
Those who had their lives destroyed realise the opposite could have happened to them, had the interpreter said something pleasant.
We see this also beautifully demonstrated in this week’s parasha (in Israel) Shelach where 12 spies tour the land of Israel and come back with differing reports.
Ten of the spies, return with a bad report, and two come back with a glowing report.
The first group had previously expressed their feeling that conquering the land of Israel was beyond them, and subsequently this mentality never left them. They brought back a negative account of their 40 day expedition, even finding evidence to prove their case, in the form of huge grapes and pomegranates, not to praise the produce of the land, but rather to subtly scare their brothers into imagining the giants who lived there who would eat such fruits.
Meanwhile the two men who returned with good words to say, Calev and Yehoshua went into the episode with a positive frame of mind. They returned saying “This is a beautiful land,” and “We can do it with G-d’s help!”
What’s the message, we speak out the lives we will live.
We hold the key to so much, in how we choose to speak about it. The reality we choose to create with our words and frame of mind.
As King David asked in his book of Psalms,
“Who is a person that desires life? And the answers he gives, “ a person who loves looking forward to seeing good days.” If you want to live in a beautiful world, start speaking it into reality. Perhaps it’s not easy to always be staying upbeat and looking forward to seeing good, there are many obstacles, and changing a mindset over night is not easy, but whenever we succeed we give our world a lift.
Just by starting each day with a short list of things to be grateful for and appreciate or a positive statement about the day and what it might bring can have a big impact.
Wishing us all a Shabbat Shalom.
Danny, remembered feeling a part of a big group of friends but now that felt pretty distant. A lot of water had passed under the bridge. He had been missed a lot of days of school the previous year for a whole number of reasons, some of them legitimate, but when he did return it wasn’t the same. He had assumed a group was something you could slip in and out of, but increasingly he felt on the outside, and on more than one occasion his frustration had got the better of him. A few lunchtime scuffles didn’t make things any easier.
Mr Reubens had a knack of seeing the bigger picture in the school yard and had noted Danny’s predicament. He had taught him Geography a year earlier when he was more settled with his friends, and had known a successful, bright student, however a brief word with his teachers this year spelled out the opposite. His grades had slipped, his work was poor and he wasn’t participating in class to any of his teacher’s satisfaction. Taking a few days to think about the situation, came up with a plan.
The school hiking trip was coming up which he knew Danny would be attending – Mr Reubens was running the trip and before the trip assigned a special role for Danny – it would be his role to stay at the back and collect any lost property that the the other students had dropped along the way.
Danny, sighed when he was given the job. Although he had not been relishing the idea of three days with the group he had fallen out if sorts with, a small part of him hoped the time together might resolve things. Now he was sure, being left at the back forced to follow behind the other 70 students would just make things worse.
As the hike began, Mr Reubens, took him aside to give some specific instructions. “Your job is not just to collect all the lost items, it is to work out which item belongs to who and to personally return it to them.” He added sternly, “By the end of each day, I want to see this bag empty with everything returned.”
This is exactly what happened. On the first day alone, as predicted, Danny’s bag filled up, by the end of the afternoon it was brimming with 5 water bottles, 2 sets of headphones, 4 pens, 3 folders, 2 key-rings, a baseball cap, a wallet, two bottles of sun lotion and a phone. Danny got to work, some of things he knew immediately having seen them in the hands of their owners. Some had names on, and others had distinguishing signs, but most made him think hard, whose it could be, how he could be sure, who he would ask. Although still on his own, his mind was filled with the other members of his group, what they had lost, what they were missing and how to return it to them as quickly as possible. All the while he thought about returning these items, more appeared.
Each time he returned an item, he received a wide smile and profuse thanks, with almost each person asking him how he knew it was theirs. With each item returned he connected another dot in the group, feeling himself increasingly closer to them, on better terms, invested in them. After three days, even though still at the back, he felt very much a part of the group and the feeling in the group towards him had also completely changed. On return to school, Danny’s entire demeanour lifted and his grades improved.
In this week’s parashah, Bamidbar, the Jewish people are counted. In his commentary, Rabbi Avigdor Nebenzal, rabbi of the Old City in Jerusalem, points out that the tribe of Dan are counted last. He brings a midrash to explain the reason why. They had succumbed to avoda zara- idol worship in Egypt more than the other tribes and felt disconnected to the bigger group. They trailed behind. The midrash explains why they weren’t moved further forward. Wouldn’t that have helped them feel more included? By keeping them trailing behind, the mitzvah of hashavat aveida – returning lost property – fell to them, everything the other tribes dropped, or left behind. Through the process of thinking and doing for the other tribes, day in, day out, they grew closer and closer to the heart of ‘Klal Yisrael’ the Jewish People.
The Torah was given at Mount Sinai when the Jewish People were Ish Echad K’lev echad – like one person with one heart. Our rabbis teach, there is no greater vessel for receiving bracha – blessing – than seeing the world from the perspective of others. However distant we feel in life, to the people around us, the communities around us, thinking about what others lack and doing kindness will always take us a step closer.
Wishing us all a Shabbat Shalom
The walls in Dana’s office were bright white and empty, except for the giant poster sitting behind her desk. The words, emblazoned in thick black ink read, simply “Be what you want to be.”
A day earlier, Oded had returned from yet another walk around the park, the third of that afternoon alone. It was the only way he knew to calm his nerves while he waited for the phone to ring, still hoping the last of the interviews he had been invited to would yield his first job since graduating. When the phone finally rang it was not good news. “They said they would keep my resume on file,” he told his mother, looking down feeling the burden of another knock back. It was the fifth rejection in a matter of two months.
“Do you think it’s worth seeing a coach,” his mother asked gently. “It could be, they might have some good advice?” Without any good reason why not, Oded had agreed to an initial meeting.
“That’s the key,” Dana said, pointing to the words jumping out from the wall, that seemed, somehow to fill the room. “So tell me,” she fired at him, “What is it you want to be?”
Slightly taken aback, at her directness, he stammered, “A sports writer.” Looking straight at him, as if searching his soul, she shot back her reply, “How much?” Oded shuffled in his seat preparing his answer.
“This is the first step,” she continued, “Building up your desire for the things that you want. Every day you need to tell yourself over and over again, how much you want this, why you want this, what it means to you and what you will do with it.” She continued, “You need to do this so much that becomes alive in you,” Oded listened intently, “The Second step, is about becoming that which you desire so strongly to be, but that,” she added, “will come later.”
Over the course of the following two weeks, Oded spent five minutes each day talking to himself aloud, awakening and strengthening his desire to find his perfect job. Soon his face began to shine with the glow of a person living with a purpose so real he could almost taste. As he continued to visualise what it would be like to be working in his dream job, he began to feel like he was already a successful sports writer, it felt it was getting closer.
As his next coaching session approached Oded called Dana, happy to relate that he wouldn’t need to attend after all. He had just received an offer from the leading sports news service in Boston.
These few weeks in the Jewish year are weeks of ‘desire and the ‘will to make change’’ or in Hebrew ‘ratzon.’ This is encompassed in the mitzvah of the Counting of the Omer, which began on the second day of Pesach and continues through Shavuout.
The daily count up is meant to instill into our deepest essence, an empassioned desire for the gift of the Torah that awaits us – and was given on Shavuot at Mount Sinai. The more we want it, the more likely we are to acquire our portion in it. We learn here, profoundly that the yearning for something, is a prerequisite for receiving it.
Perhaps we can say, when bracha comes into the world, we have to have open hands and be ready to receive it.
The Maggid of Koznitz, one of the great Hasidic leaders of Poland from the 18th century explained that the words given in the Torah ‘Usphartem lechem’ – count for yourselves – can also be read, -’and explain to yourselves,’ with the word ‘lispor’ – to count, spelt with same letters as the word l’saper meaning to explain. and closely connected to ‘sapir’ meaning a sapphire. Here’s his message:
The more you explain something, the brighter the idea becomes until it shines like a sapphire.
The Maggid of Koznitz explains that this is the key to reaching any kind of goal – is to increase your will and desire for it, by ‘telling it to yourself’, again and again and again. To make it so real that it actually starts to shine bright in you. Once this desire for something has such energy, he adds, it is only a matter of time before the goal you are dreaming of, like a magnet, is drawn to you and starts to take shape.
During this process of increasing our ‘ratzon’- our will, we have to get over a number of obstacles. These can be doubts of our own ability or inability, self worth and challenging the things we have subconsciously already placed into the realm of the impossible. In the words of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav ‘A person is where they are thinking about being,’ when that light is strong, its starts to guide the way.
This also explains why the Torah commands that we count 50 days, whereas in reality we only actually count 49. The 50th day, our rabbis explain is finished up for us by some divine assistance – which teaches us we can reach our goals when we put in our maximum effort and truly desire something that is for the sake of heaven. Then these efforts will be blessed and the shortfall made up.
As we count up toward the Omer, we all have an opportunity to increase the desire within ourselves for the things that we want, or want to become. It all starts with ‘telling ourselves’ repeatedly until it starts to feel real, and before we know, with help from shamayim, Bezrat Hashem we are already halfway there.
Wishing you a Shabbat Shalom. | 5,927 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How does Mrs. Mallard’s death in the conclusion contribute to the story’s overall meaning? Cite evidence in your answer.
Kate Chopin’s short story “The Story of an Hour” argues the importance of self-discovery and personal freedom. In the story, Mrs. Louise Mallard learns that her husband has died in a train accident. Instead of reacting in an expected way, tears of sadness over her loss, she retreats to her room and begins to imagine the new world that waits for her without him.
She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister's arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would have no one follow her.
In her room, she sits and looks out the window. As she calms down, she sees the blue sky beyond the storm clouds, a symbol of the freedom waiting for her now that her husband is gone. In fact, as her “storm of grief” passes her the realization that she is “free, free, free!” escapes her as she talks to herself about her new life. This recognition gives her power as for the first time she looks at her hands and considers all that she can do with them. She continues to describe this new world, a long and happy life, where she would be in charge of her own life and able to make decisions for herself.
There would be no one to live for her during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature.
Her death at the end comes suddenly. In the hour since learning of her husband’s death she’s realized that though she loved her husband, her life was not her own. When she comes downstairs, “unwittingly like a goddess of Victory,” she had accepted his death and had already begun to move on. Seeing her husband come through the front door, alive and well, killed all of her hopes and dreams for the future. Unable to handle the idea of losing her newfound freedom, she dies.
Much like her life with Brently Mallard, even her death is misunderstood. Having watched her transformation, the reader knows that her death comes after her self-discovery. Threatened with having to put aside her own desires for her husband is too much for her. Even the doctor misdiagnoses her death. He believes that she was so happy to see her husband alive that her heart gave out: “When the doctors came, they said she had died of heart disease—of joy that kills.”
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-0.2092158794403076... | 1 | How does Mrs. Mallard’s death in the conclusion contribute to the story’s overall meaning? Cite evidence in your answer.
Kate Chopin’s short story “The Story of an Hour” argues the importance of self-discovery and personal freedom. In the story, Mrs. Louise Mallard learns that her husband has died in a train accident. Instead of reacting in an expected way, tears of sadness over her loss, she retreats to her room and begins to imagine the new world that waits for her without him.
She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister's arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would have no one follow her.
In her room, she sits and looks out the window. As she calms down, she sees the blue sky beyond the storm clouds, a symbol of the freedom waiting for her now that her husband is gone. In fact, as her “storm of grief” passes her the realization that she is “free, free, free!” escapes her as she talks to herself about her new life. This recognition gives her power as for the first time she looks at her hands and considers all that she can do with them. She continues to describe this new world, a long and happy life, where she would be in charge of her own life and able to make decisions for herself.
There would be no one to live for her during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature.
Her death at the end comes suddenly. In the hour since learning of her husband’s death she’s realized that though she loved her husband, her life was not her own. When she comes downstairs, “unwittingly like a goddess of Victory,” she had accepted his death and had already begun to move on. Seeing her husband come through the front door, alive and well, killed all of her hopes and dreams for the future. Unable to handle the idea of losing her newfound freedom, she dies.
Much like her life with Brently Mallard, even her death is misunderstood. Having watched her transformation, the reader knows that her death comes after her self-discovery. Threatened with having to put aside her own desires for her husband is too much for her. Even the doctor misdiagnoses her death. He believes that she was so happy to see her husband alive that her heart gave out: “When the doctors came, they said she had died of heart disease—of joy that kills.”
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 568 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Containing The Interval Of Two Years.
From The Exodus Out Of Egypt, To The Rejection Of That Generation.
How The Amalekeites And The Neighbouring Nations Made War With The Hebrews And Were Beaten And Lost A Great Part Of Their Army.
1. THE name of the Hebrews began already to be every where renowned, and rumors about them ran abroad. This made the inhabitants of those countries to be in no small fear. Accordingly they sent ambassadors to one another, and exhorted one another to defend themselves, and to endeavor to destroy these men. Those that induced the rest to do so, were such as inhabited Gobolitis and Petra.
They were called Amalekites, and were the most warlike of the nations that lived thereabout; and whose kings exhorted one another, and their neighbors, to go to this war against the Hebrews; telling them that an army of strangers, and such a one as had run away from slavery under the Egyptians, lay in wait to ruin them; which army they were not, in common prudence and regard to their own safety, to overlook, but to crush them before they gather strength, and come to be in prosperity: and perhaps attack them first in a hostile manner, as presuming upon our indolence in not attacking them before; and that we ought to avenge ourselves of them for what they have done in the wilderness, but that this cannot be so well done when they have once laid their hands on our cities and our goods: that those who endeavor to crush a power in its first rise, are wiser than those that endeavor to put a stop to its progress when it is become formidable; for these last seem to be angry only at the flourishing of others, but the former do not leave any room for their enemies to become troublesome to them. After they had sent such embassages to the neighboring nations, and among one another, they resolved to attack the Hebrews in battle.
2. These proceedings of the people of those countries occasioned perplexity and trouble to Moses, who expected no such warlike preparations. And when these nations were ready to fight, and the multitude of the Hebrews were obliged to try the fortune of war, they were in a mighty disorder, and in want of all necessaries, and yet were to make war with men who were thoroughly well prepared for it. Then therefore it was that Moses began to encourage them, and to exhort them to have a good heart, and rely on God's assistance by which they had been state of freedom and to hope for victory over those who were ready to fight with them, in order to deprive them of that blessing: that they were to suppose their own army to be numerous, wanting nothing, neither weapons, nor money, nor provisions, nor such other conveniences as, when men are in possession of, they fight undauntedly; and that they are to judge themselves to have all these advantages in the Divine assistance.
They are also to suppose the enemy's army to be small, unarmed, weak, and such as want those conveniences which they know must be wanted, when it is God's will that they shall be beaten; and how valuable God's assistance is, they had experienced in abundance of trials; and those such as were more terrible than war, for that is only against men; but these were against famine and thirst, things indeed that are in their own nature insuperable; as also against mountains, and that sea which afforded them no way for escaping; yet had all these difficulties been conquered by God's gracious kindness to them. So he exhorted them to be courageous at this time, and to look upon their entire prosperity to depend on the present conquest of their enemies.
3. And with these words did Moses encourage the multitude, who then called together the princes of their tribes, and their chief men, both separately and conjointly. The young men he charged to obey their elders, and the elders to hearken to their leader. So the people were elevated in their minds, and ready to try their fortune in battle, and hoped to be thereby at length delivered from all their miseries: nay, they desired that Moses would immediately lead them against their enemies without the least delay, that no backwardness might be a hindrance to their present resolution. So Moses sorted all that were fit for war into different troops, and set Joshua, the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, over them; one that was of great courage, and patient to undergo labors; of great abilities to understand, and to speak what was proper; and very serious in the worship of God; and indeed made like another Moses, a teacher of piety towards God.
He also appointed a small party of the armed men to be near the water, and to take care of the children, and the women, and of the entire camp. So that whole night they prepared themselves for the battle; they took their weapons, if any of them had such as were well made, and attended to their commanders as ready to rush forth to the battle as soon as Moses should give the word of command. Moses also kept awake, teaching Joshua after what manner he should order his camp. But when the day began, Moses called for Joshua again, and exhorted him to approve himself in deeds such a one as a his reputation made men expect from him; and to gain glory by the present expedition, in the opinion of those under him, for his exploits in this battle. He also gave a particular exhortation to the principal men of the Hebrews, and encouraged the whole army as it stood armed before him. And when he had thus animated the army, both by his words and works, and prepared every thing, he retired to a mountain, and committed the army to God and to Joshua.
4. So the armies joined battle; and it came to a close fight, hand to hand, both sides showing great alacrity, and encouraging one another. And indeed while Moses stretched out his hand towards heaven (7) the Hebrews were too hard for the Amalekites: but Moses not being able to sustain his hands thus stretched out, (for as often as he let down his hands, so often were his own people worsted,) he bade his brother Aaron, and Hur their sister Miriam's husband, to stand on each side of him, and take hold of his hands, and not permit his weariness to prevent it, but to assist him in the extension of his hands. When this was done, the Hebrews conquered the Amalekites by main force; and indeed they had all perished, unless the approach of the night had obliged the Hebrews to desist from killing any more.
So our forefathers obtained a most signal and most seasonable victory; for they not only overcame those that fought against them, but terrified also the neighboring nations, and got great and splendid advantages, which they obtained of their enemies by their hard pains in this battle: for when they had taken the enemy's camp, they got ready booty for the public, and for their own private families, whereas till then they had not any sort of plenty, of even necessary food. The forementioned battle, when they had once got it, was also the occasion of their prosperity, not only for the present, but for the future ages also; for they not only made slaves of the bodies of their enemies, but subdued their minds also, and after this battle, became terrible to all that dwelt round about them.
Moreover, they acquired a vast quantity of riches; for a great deal of silver and gold was left in the enemy's camp; as also brazen vessels, which they made common use of in their families; many utensils also that were embroidered there were of both sorts,that is, of what were weaved, and what were the ornaments of their armor, and other things that served for use in the family, and for the furniture of their rooms; they got also the prey of their cattle, and of whatsoever uses to follow camps, when they remove from one place to another. So the Hebrews now valued themselves upon their courage, and claimed great merit for their valor; and they perpetually inured themselves to take pains, by which they deemed every difficulty might be surmounted. Such were the consequences of this battle.
5. On the next day, Moses stripped the dead bodies of their enemies, and gathered together the armor of those that were fled, and gave rewards to such as had signalized themselves in the action; and highly commended Joshua, their general, who was attested to by all the army, on account of the great actions he had done. Nor was any one of the Hebrews slain; but the slain of the enemy's army were too many to be enumerated. So Moses offered sacrifices of thanksgiving to God, and built an altar, which he named The Lord the Conqueror. He also foretold that the Amalekites should utterly be destroyed; and that hereafter none of them should remain, because they fought against the Hebrews, and this when they were in the wilderness, and in their distress also.
Moreover, he refreshed the army with feasting. And thus did they fight this first battle with those that ventured to oppose them, after they were gone out of Egypt. But when Moses had celebrated this festival for the victory, he permitted the Hebrews to rest for a few days, and then he brought them out after the fight, in order of battle; for they had now many soldiers in light armor. And going gradually on, he came to Mount Sinai, in three months' time after they were removed out of Egypt; at which mountain, as we have before related, the vision of the bush, and the other wonderful appearances, had happened.
(7) This eminent circumstance, that while Moses's hands were lift up towards heaven, the Israelites prevailed, and while they were let down towards the earth, the Amalekites prevailed, seems to me the earliest intimation we have of the proper posture, used of old, in solemn prayer, which was the stretching out of the hands [and eyes] towards heaven, as other passages of the Old and New Testament inform us. Nay, by the way, this posture seemed to have continued in the Christian church, till the clergy, instead of learning their prayers by heart, read them out of a book, which is in a great measure inconsistent with such an elevated posture, and which seems to me to have been only a later practice, introduced under the corrupt state of the church; though the constant use of divine forms of prayer, praise, and thanksgiving, appears to me to have been the practice of God's people, patriarchs, Jews, and Christians, in all the past ages. | <urn:uuid:e7339b36-5133-4add-86f1-f8ffd27e7a47> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.christianwalks.org/ancient_writings/AntiquitiesJews/ajb03c02.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.990776 | 2,227 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.069096781313419... | 2 | Containing The Interval Of Two Years.
From The Exodus Out Of Egypt, To The Rejection Of That Generation.
How The Amalekeites And The Neighbouring Nations Made War With The Hebrews And Were Beaten And Lost A Great Part Of Their Army.
1. THE name of the Hebrews began already to be every where renowned, and rumors about them ran abroad. This made the inhabitants of those countries to be in no small fear. Accordingly they sent ambassadors to one another, and exhorted one another to defend themselves, and to endeavor to destroy these men. Those that induced the rest to do so, were such as inhabited Gobolitis and Petra.
They were called Amalekites, and were the most warlike of the nations that lived thereabout; and whose kings exhorted one another, and their neighbors, to go to this war against the Hebrews; telling them that an army of strangers, and such a one as had run away from slavery under the Egyptians, lay in wait to ruin them; which army they were not, in common prudence and regard to their own safety, to overlook, but to crush them before they gather strength, and come to be in prosperity: and perhaps attack them first in a hostile manner, as presuming upon our indolence in not attacking them before; and that we ought to avenge ourselves of them for what they have done in the wilderness, but that this cannot be so well done when they have once laid their hands on our cities and our goods: that those who endeavor to crush a power in its first rise, are wiser than those that endeavor to put a stop to its progress when it is become formidable; for these last seem to be angry only at the flourishing of others, but the former do not leave any room for their enemies to become troublesome to them. After they had sent such embassages to the neighboring nations, and among one another, they resolved to attack the Hebrews in battle.
2. These proceedings of the people of those countries occasioned perplexity and trouble to Moses, who expected no such warlike preparations. And when these nations were ready to fight, and the multitude of the Hebrews were obliged to try the fortune of war, they were in a mighty disorder, and in want of all necessaries, and yet were to make war with men who were thoroughly well prepared for it. Then therefore it was that Moses began to encourage them, and to exhort them to have a good heart, and rely on God's assistance by which they had been state of freedom and to hope for victory over those who were ready to fight with them, in order to deprive them of that blessing: that they were to suppose their own army to be numerous, wanting nothing, neither weapons, nor money, nor provisions, nor such other conveniences as, when men are in possession of, they fight undauntedly; and that they are to judge themselves to have all these advantages in the Divine assistance.
They are also to suppose the enemy's army to be small, unarmed, weak, and such as want those conveniences which they know must be wanted, when it is God's will that they shall be beaten; and how valuable God's assistance is, they had experienced in abundance of trials; and those such as were more terrible than war, for that is only against men; but these were against famine and thirst, things indeed that are in their own nature insuperable; as also against mountains, and that sea which afforded them no way for escaping; yet had all these difficulties been conquered by God's gracious kindness to them. So he exhorted them to be courageous at this time, and to look upon their entire prosperity to depend on the present conquest of their enemies.
3. And with these words did Moses encourage the multitude, who then called together the princes of their tribes, and their chief men, both separately and conjointly. The young men he charged to obey their elders, and the elders to hearken to their leader. So the people were elevated in their minds, and ready to try their fortune in battle, and hoped to be thereby at length delivered from all their miseries: nay, they desired that Moses would immediately lead them against their enemies without the least delay, that no backwardness might be a hindrance to their present resolution. So Moses sorted all that were fit for war into different troops, and set Joshua, the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, over them; one that was of great courage, and patient to undergo labors; of great abilities to understand, and to speak what was proper; and very serious in the worship of God; and indeed made like another Moses, a teacher of piety towards God.
He also appointed a small party of the armed men to be near the water, and to take care of the children, and the women, and of the entire camp. So that whole night they prepared themselves for the battle; they took their weapons, if any of them had such as were well made, and attended to their commanders as ready to rush forth to the battle as soon as Moses should give the word of command. Moses also kept awake, teaching Joshua after what manner he should order his camp. But when the day began, Moses called for Joshua again, and exhorted him to approve himself in deeds such a one as a his reputation made men expect from him; and to gain glory by the present expedition, in the opinion of those under him, for his exploits in this battle. He also gave a particular exhortation to the principal men of the Hebrews, and encouraged the whole army as it stood armed before him. And when he had thus animated the army, both by his words and works, and prepared every thing, he retired to a mountain, and committed the army to God and to Joshua.
4. So the armies joined battle; and it came to a close fight, hand to hand, both sides showing great alacrity, and encouraging one another. And indeed while Moses stretched out his hand towards heaven (7) the Hebrews were too hard for the Amalekites: but Moses not being able to sustain his hands thus stretched out, (for as often as he let down his hands, so often were his own people worsted,) he bade his brother Aaron, and Hur their sister Miriam's husband, to stand on each side of him, and take hold of his hands, and not permit his weariness to prevent it, but to assist him in the extension of his hands. When this was done, the Hebrews conquered the Amalekites by main force; and indeed they had all perished, unless the approach of the night had obliged the Hebrews to desist from killing any more.
So our forefathers obtained a most signal and most seasonable victory; for they not only overcame those that fought against them, but terrified also the neighboring nations, and got great and splendid advantages, which they obtained of their enemies by their hard pains in this battle: for when they had taken the enemy's camp, they got ready booty for the public, and for their own private families, whereas till then they had not any sort of plenty, of even necessary food. The forementioned battle, when they had once got it, was also the occasion of their prosperity, not only for the present, but for the future ages also; for they not only made slaves of the bodies of their enemies, but subdued their minds also, and after this battle, became terrible to all that dwelt round about them.
Moreover, they acquired a vast quantity of riches; for a great deal of silver and gold was left in the enemy's camp; as also brazen vessels, which they made common use of in their families; many utensils also that were embroidered there were of both sorts,that is, of what were weaved, and what were the ornaments of their armor, and other things that served for use in the family, and for the furniture of their rooms; they got also the prey of their cattle, and of whatsoever uses to follow camps, when they remove from one place to another. So the Hebrews now valued themselves upon their courage, and claimed great merit for their valor; and they perpetually inured themselves to take pains, by which they deemed every difficulty might be surmounted. Such were the consequences of this battle.
5. On the next day, Moses stripped the dead bodies of their enemies, and gathered together the armor of those that were fled, and gave rewards to such as had signalized themselves in the action; and highly commended Joshua, their general, who was attested to by all the army, on account of the great actions he had done. Nor was any one of the Hebrews slain; but the slain of the enemy's army were too many to be enumerated. So Moses offered sacrifices of thanksgiving to God, and built an altar, which he named The Lord the Conqueror. He also foretold that the Amalekites should utterly be destroyed; and that hereafter none of them should remain, because they fought against the Hebrews, and this when they were in the wilderness, and in their distress also.
Moreover, he refreshed the army with feasting. And thus did they fight this first battle with those that ventured to oppose them, after they were gone out of Egypt. But when Moses had celebrated this festival for the victory, he permitted the Hebrews to rest for a few days, and then he brought them out after the fight, in order of battle; for they had now many soldiers in light armor. And going gradually on, he came to Mount Sinai, in three months' time after they were removed out of Egypt; at which mountain, as we have before related, the vision of the bush, and the other wonderful appearances, had happened.
(7) This eminent circumstance, that while Moses's hands were lift up towards heaven, the Israelites prevailed, and while they were let down towards the earth, the Amalekites prevailed, seems to me the earliest intimation we have of the proper posture, used of old, in solemn prayer, which was the stretching out of the hands [and eyes] towards heaven, as other passages of the Old and New Testament inform us. Nay, by the way, this posture seemed to have continued in the Christian church, till the clergy, instead of learning their prayers by heart, read them out of a book, which is in a great measure inconsistent with such an elevated posture, and which seems to me to have been only a later practice, introduced under the corrupt state of the church; though the constant use of divine forms of prayer, praise, and thanksgiving, appears to me to have been the practice of God's people, patriarchs, Jews, and Christians, in all the past ages. | 2,215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The holiday of Thanksgiving may seem straightforward with turkey and stuffing but has an uglier side that many are unaware of… The origin of Thanksgiving is more complicated than just the story of the pilgrims and Native Americans celebrating at Plymouth rock. It gets a bit darker, and peace ultimately didn’t win out.
This will be a look back at the Thanksgiving origin and the real story behind the story.
Setting The Stage For The Origin Of Thanksgiving
The story still starts with the pilgrims but more because of the tragic circumstances they were facing. The winter of 1620 was a notably brutal winter that ended up killing almost half of their people. The colonists decided it was time to create a relationship with their “neighbors.” These neighbors were the Wampanoag Tribe.
The Wampanoags taught the pilgrims everything about survival, including fishing, planting crops, and how to better hunt. By that autumn of 1621, the colonists – with their newly developed skills – had enough food and provisions to last them through the winter. They invited the Wampanoag to enjoy their haul and join them in a three-day feast.
This event didn’t feature the foods we would associate with Thanksgiving today such as stuffing and cranberry sauce but would feature things like goose, corn, and even lobster.
A Different Story
The above description is one that seems familiar, and it is true, but the way Thanksgiving evolved may not have been based on this event from 1621. For some later generations of colonists, the roots of their Thanksgiving had little to do with that 1621 event.
For some settlers in New England, Thanksgiving was a religious holiday that came from the Puritan days. They would observe periods of prayer, fasting, and giving thanks to God. Different colonies would observe various days of Thanksgiving determined by the leaders of each one.
But just one generation later after 1621, when we return to the relationship between the colonists and the Wampanoag, things start to break down. With thousands of new colonists arriving in the area, resources became more scarce. The authorities in Plymouth started to take up more land and dictate the way of life for the Wampanoag.
The origin of Thanksgiving as we know it is about to fade away.
The Spread Of Disease
It’s important to note that before those events of 1621, disease had already begun to decimate the Native American population. By 1619, nearly 90% of the Native American population in New England had been reduced. The spread of disease would still continue into the 1620s.
A new leader of the Wampanoag tribe emerged named Metacomet also known as “King Philip.” He had taken ownership after the passing of his father Massasoit. Relationships were starting to fray with the Wampanoag and the colonists, but things would fall apart when Metacomet would wage war after the murder of some of his men.
The Wampanoag would raid the New England colonies who eventually would declare war themselves in 1675. The war was brutal and ongoing. A large number of colonies would get involved with their members being taken hostage and held for ransom. The war pushed colonists into relocating and the Wampanoag to flee their villages.
Many towns – including Springfield, Massachusets – would be burned to the ground. The bloodshed and loss of lives were substantial. Not only was there the devastation of villages and land, but supplies, food, and provisions were being diminished.
Alliances and Attacks
The Colonists – knowing their backs were up against the wall – made alliances with other tribes such as the Mohegans and the Pequots. The Wampanoag looked to fellow tribes to form alliances and grow in power. When they approached the Mohawks in New York State, they were rejected and attacked.
Things then unraveled for “King Philip” who was shot and killed in a final battle. This man’s father was celebrating with the pilgrims just one generation earlier, and now he lay dead. It gets more gruesome as he would be beheaded and his head displayed on a stick in Plymouth for 25 years.
The other members of the Wampanoag would either be killed or sold into slavery in the West Indies. What had started as a celebration of thanksgiving ended up descending into war and death. It is thought that nearly 30% of the English population and half of the Native Americans were wiped out during the wars.
The controversial history behind Thanksgiving
The origin of Thanksgiving can make this a tough time of the year to look back on. On one hand, we have the traditional story with the idyllic setting and the coming together of different peoples. This is the image we have embraced, but it wasn’t the end of the story.
It’s hard to picture that this original peaceful situation would descend into a bloody war. The battles were vicious and have been overlooked over the course of time. Today, we tend to just embrace turkey and football while not being aware of what has transpired over the course of this “holiday”.
Even though the core of the original day of thanks has stayed with us, we would be remiss to not remember all the events that unfolded. The best thing is to not ignore the entire origins of this holiday, focus on the positive and uphold those original values of sharing, community, and giving thanks.
Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us. | <urn:uuid:9bc051da-3e14-4f3b-9edf-855cd924e969> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.learning-mind.com/little-known-origin-of-thanksgiving/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00282.warc.gz | en | 0.981294 | 1,136 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2648857235... | 1 | The holiday of Thanksgiving may seem straightforward with turkey and stuffing but has an uglier side that many are unaware of… The origin of Thanksgiving is more complicated than just the story of the pilgrims and Native Americans celebrating at Plymouth rock. It gets a bit darker, and peace ultimately didn’t win out.
This will be a look back at the Thanksgiving origin and the real story behind the story.
Setting The Stage For The Origin Of Thanksgiving
The story still starts with the pilgrims but more because of the tragic circumstances they were facing. The winter of 1620 was a notably brutal winter that ended up killing almost half of their people. The colonists decided it was time to create a relationship with their “neighbors.” These neighbors were the Wampanoag Tribe.
The Wampanoags taught the pilgrims everything about survival, including fishing, planting crops, and how to better hunt. By that autumn of 1621, the colonists – with their newly developed skills – had enough food and provisions to last them through the winter. They invited the Wampanoag to enjoy their haul and join them in a three-day feast.
This event didn’t feature the foods we would associate with Thanksgiving today such as stuffing and cranberry sauce but would feature things like goose, corn, and even lobster.
A Different Story
The above description is one that seems familiar, and it is true, but the way Thanksgiving evolved may not have been based on this event from 1621. For some later generations of colonists, the roots of their Thanksgiving had little to do with that 1621 event.
For some settlers in New England, Thanksgiving was a religious holiday that came from the Puritan days. They would observe periods of prayer, fasting, and giving thanks to God. Different colonies would observe various days of Thanksgiving determined by the leaders of each one.
But just one generation later after 1621, when we return to the relationship between the colonists and the Wampanoag, things start to break down. With thousands of new colonists arriving in the area, resources became more scarce. The authorities in Plymouth started to take up more land and dictate the way of life for the Wampanoag.
The origin of Thanksgiving as we know it is about to fade away.
The Spread Of Disease
It’s important to note that before those events of 1621, disease had already begun to decimate the Native American population. By 1619, nearly 90% of the Native American population in New England had been reduced. The spread of disease would still continue into the 1620s.
A new leader of the Wampanoag tribe emerged named Metacomet also known as “King Philip.” He had taken ownership after the passing of his father Massasoit. Relationships were starting to fray with the Wampanoag and the colonists, but things would fall apart when Metacomet would wage war after the murder of some of his men.
The Wampanoag would raid the New England colonies who eventually would declare war themselves in 1675. The war was brutal and ongoing. A large number of colonies would get involved with their members being taken hostage and held for ransom. The war pushed colonists into relocating and the Wampanoag to flee their villages.
Many towns – including Springfield, Massachusets – would be burned to the ground. The bloodshed and loss of lives were substantial. Not only was there the devastation of villages and land, but supplies, food, and provisions were being diminished.
Alliances and Attacks
The Colonists – knowing their backs were up against the wall – made alliances with other tribes such as the Mohegans and the Pequots. The Wampanoag looked to fellow tribes to form alliances and grow in power. When they approached the Mohawks in New York State, they were rejected and attacked.
Things then unraveled for “King Philip” who was shot and killed in a final battle. This man’s father was celebrating with the pilgrims just one generation earlier, and now he lay dead. It gets more gruesome as he would be beheaded and his head displayed on a stick in Plymouth for 25 years.
The other members of the Wampanoag would either be killed or sold into slavery in the West Indies. What had started as a celebration of thanksgiving ended up descending into war and death. It is thought that nearly 30% of the English population and half of the Native Americans were wiped out during the wars.
The controversial history behind Thanksgiving
The origin of Thanksgiving can make this a tough time of the year to look back on. On one hand, we have the traditional story with the idyllic setting and the coming together of different peoples. This is the image we have embraced, but it wasn’t the end of the story.
It’s hard to picture that this original peaceful situation would descend into a bloody war. The battles were vicious and have been overlooked over the course of time. Today, we tend to just embrace turkey and football while not being aware of what has transpired over the course of this “holiday”.
Even though the core of the original day of thanks has stayed with us, we would be remiss to not remember all the events that unfolded. The best thing is to not ignore the entire origins of this holiday, focus on the positive and uphold those original values of sharing, community, and giving thanks.
Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us. | 1,156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Tim Miller
What began as a polite truce between armies that allowed each to draw water from the same river turned into the battle that would give Greece to Rome. After a Roman mule escaped across the water into the lines of the Macedonians, one Macedonian ally ended up dead, and the whole army began crossing for revenge. It almost could have been planned, for both the Romans and Macedonians were impatient to get on with the battle.
By the spring of 168 bc, Macedonian King Perseus had been complicit in the execution of his brother and, by extension, the early death of his father, Philip V. In the decade since his ascension, Perseus had been able to fill the coffers of Macedonia, increase its military force, and swell the home front population with disaffected people from all over the Aegean. He achieved this despite the growing influence of Rome in Greece and the Balkans and the resistance from neighboring Greek states.
When the complaints of neighboring states had brought Roman armies to Greece, Perseus had defeated them all, though never decisively. At last, on a scorching day in late June, as he led his army across the Leucus River in Macedonia, just south of the city of Pydna and not far from the Gulf of Thessalonica, that decisive battle was finally at hand. The battle pitted Macedonian King Perseus’s 40,000 troops against Roman Consul and General Lucius Aemilius Paullus’s army of nearly equal strength.
As the Romans began to gather themselves, they must have wondered what advantage Perseus had gained by crossing the river to attack the Roman camp, which lay at the foot of Mount Olocrus, since they had given up the more level terrain in the fields south of Pydna. Paullus watched in awe as the Macedonians advanced boldly through the water. The first phase of the battle went badly for the Romans, for they were driven up the mountain. The Romans had also brought along 20 war elephants, but they were of questionable value on the mountainous terrain.
It was not long before Perseus’s assault began to falter. As each section of the Macedonian army encountered uphill terrain and varying degrees of Roman resistance, the men rushed ahead or lagged behind those beside them. What had been a successful push became a wildly uneven one, and gaps began to appear in their battle line. The Roman commander saw this development and immediately ordered his men to thrust themselves into the gaps to engage them in hand-to-hand combat. In this way they would not be “fighting a single battle against them all, but many separate and successive battles,” wrote Roman historian Plutarch. In those gaps, the successor state Macedonia, established on the death of Alexander the Great, came to an end.
In 168 bc Rome was barely 30 years removed the Second Punic War, that traumatic but ultimately victorious struggle with the Carthaginian general Hannibal. Hannibal was a tactician of particular genius who wreaked havoc through Roman Spain. He crossed the daunting Alps with his army and descended into northern Italy where he nearly wiped out the Roman army first at Lake Trasimene and again at Cannae. Yet in the end the Romans prevailed.
When a Roman army under the command of Cornelius Scipio Africanus crossed to north Africa and threatened Carthage in the way Hannibal had always hoped to threaten Rome, he abandoned Italy and was eventually defeated at Zama in 202 bc. Hannibal remained for the time being in Carthage; however, when Rome became worried over a resurgence of Carthaginian influence in the Mediterranean, they demanded Hannibal surrender to them. But Hannibal went into voluntary exile and was received into the court of King Antiochus III, the ruler of the Seleucid Empire.
With Carthage no longer a threat, Rome suddenly found itself in the position of a Mediterranean and Aegean power, a position that needed constant defending and refinement. As such, the countryside of Italy was emptied of men either because their land had been destroyed during the war or because they were recruited for the army. Thus, Rome came to depend upon slave labor as it never had before, as well as the continuation of war. As a result of these pressures, Rome’s burgeoning democracy was jeopardized. The death of the Roman Republic would occur less than two centuries later. For the time being, though, Rome fought abroad against aggression in order to maintain stability in a nearby region. It had no interest in conquering and assimilating new territories.
The pressure to become involved in foreign wars began almost immediately after Hannibal was defeated at Zama when Rome was dragged into defending the kingdom of Pergamum in northeastern Anatolia and the island kingdom of Rhodes in the Agean Sea. Both of these minor kingdoms appealed to Rome for help when Philip V of Macedonia began threatening them. Rome feared that if they fell, it would not be long before Philip tried to move into Italy itself.
The Romans soundly defeated Philip at Cynoscephalae in 197 bc. Rome won the battle primarily because of the characteristics of its army. The Roman army was based on the maniple formation. Although the Romans were organized in squares as the Greeks were, the maniple was a more versatile formation on the battlefield. The Roman soldier fought with a short, double-edged sword known as a gladius. Armed with the gladius and fighting in the maniple, the Roman troops were able to manuever more easily than the Greek soldiers, who were armed with 21-foot spears known as sarissas. The Greeks, who were packed tightly together, could only fight from the front with their long spears. If attacked in the flank or rear they were in serious trouble.
Another Roman ally in the Aegean, the Aetolians, upset over the terms that Philip V was granted, entered into negotiations with Antiochus. He saw an opportunity to break into Anatolia and hence Greece by defeating the Romans.
In 190 bc Antiochus met a Roman and Greek army commanded by Consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio on a field of battle at Magnesia in Lydia in western Anatolia.
In that sanguine contest, the Roman infantry contained the attack of Antiochus’s Macedonian-style phalanx. Although Antiochus led the cataphracts in a charge that punched through the Roman infantry, he wound up behind enemy lines facing the well-defended Roman camp. Unable to take the camp, he was boxed in for the duration of the contest.
The battle was decided in the contest between the Roman right wing’s cavalry and Antiochus’s left wing consisting of half the heavy cavalry, elephants, chariots, and skirmishers. The Roman light infantry’s missile attack startled the elephants. The great beasts, which were driven back on their own troops, broke up the Seleucid phalanx attack. Having eventually fought his way out of the Roman rear, Antiochus returned to his army to find that his left had collapsed. He fled the field and the Romans captured his camp. It was a battle full of portent for it showed that it was no easy task bringing a phalanx to bear against Roman legions.
The Romans demanded that Hannibal be handed over to them since it was well known that he had been advising Antiochus for the past five years. As it happened, Hannibal had foreseen this event and escaped. He ultimately committed suicide in Bithynia rather than fall into Roman hands. But Rome also demanded that the Seleucid Empire abandon all Asian land west of the Taurus Mountains. This once again isolated the Balkans and the Peloponnese from outside forces while also putting Rome in the position of having to be available to oversee any developments. The lesser kingdoms, like Rhodes and Pergamum, also favored Rome’s help in part because it did not desire to annex them.
The region was convulsed by instability for the next 20 years. Greece and Anatolia by this time had very nearly become areas of Roman administration. As such, the Romans could no longer ignore internal squabbles of minor powers or even the most seemingly petty appeals if they were to maintain order.
Among the various quarrels that surfaced were complaints made by the Thessalians against Philip V. Rather than sending an army, though, Rome dispatched embassies to investigate each complaint. Philip saw this as a sign of Rome’s weakness and attempted to regain power. He told one Roman delegation that “his days had not yet set,” according to Roman historian Livy.
To stall for more time, apparently to build up an army, he sent his youngest son, Demetrius, to Rome to make Philip’s own case for authority in the area. However, Philip’s oldest son, Perseus, jealous of his younger brother’s successes and the attention he was receiving, fed such convincing lies to his father that Philip had Demetrius poisoned. Philip, learning almost immediately that Perseus had lied to him, sank into a haunted depression and died in 179 bc.
Perseus was now ruler in Macedonia, and he saw no reason to end his country’s enmity for Rome; however, he made sure to officially renew the same terms of alliance with Rome that this father had, if only to present a good face. Meanwhile, he shored up the support of many of Greek states and did so by never once resorting to battle. Instead, he took advantage of the fact that Roman policy in Greece and the Balkans had forced many erstwhile mercenaries to cease their activities.
The new Macedonian ruler made a call for all such people to come to Macedonia and in general asked for the support of anyone who had become a political exile or gone into impossible debt thanks to Roman incursion in the area. Even as the Achaean League officially denounced Macedonia in 175 bc, Perseus was still able to create an anti-Roman fifth column in every city throughout an area to which Rome only recently thought it had brought peace.
The Romans dispatched commissioners to Greece to assess its current political environment. In the meantime, King Eumenes travelled to Rome where he presented a detailed list of Perseus’s crimes to the Roman Senate. Ambassadors from Rhodes, also present, accused Eumenes of the very crimes of which he was accusing Perseus. The senators chose to believe Eumenes over the Rhodians. On his way back to Pergamum, and at the Oracle of Delphi no less, Perseus arranged for an attempt to be made on his life. By that time, the Romans had begun to fully appreciate how serious a threat Perseus posed to them. With ample amounts of money and food with which feed his own people and pay his army for more than a decade, Perseus assumed a defensive stance and awaited a Roman attack.
Perhaps Perseus was aware of the limitations of his own army, even as its numbers continued to swell. At some point between the time of Alexander and Perseus, the Macedonian commanders had subordinated the cavalry to the infantry, putting all of their faith in the infantry phalanx. It has been suggested that this focus evolved from the fact that after Alexander’s death warfare in Macedonia remained a much more local affair, which meant battle in mountainous and uneven terrain unsuitable for cavalry. In theory, a phalanx of moving infantry could maneuver such ground more easily; but by Perseus’s day, the phalanx had developed a series of fatal flaws. The Macedonian phalanx was composed primarily of half-trained citizen-soldiers. Moreover, the spearmen were packed so tightly together that they could only move forward. Thus, the mobility that was typically associated with infantry had disappeared altogether. This meant that the phalanx was most effective on level ground. Since Macedonia was mostly mountainous, its troops would be in serious trouble defending their homeland.
For a moment, though, Perseus succeeded. The first Roman army ferried across the Adriatic Sea to face him was led by Consul Publius Licinius Crassus, who crossed to Epirus in the summer of 171 bc. Perseus soundly defeated Crassus’ army at Callinicus in Thessaly; afterward, Perseus indicated to the Romans that he wanted to enter into peace negotiations. This was extremely distasteful to the Romans, and they responded by demanding unconditional surrender.
As it happened, Perseus would get two more chances in 170 bc. Aulus Hostilius Mancinus was sent to replace Licinius, but he too was defeated by Perseus. The following year Quintus Marcius Philippus also proved wanting. Although he led the Roman forces deeper into Macedonian territory than his predecessor, he realized only too late that they were beyond the reach of their supply train. Perseus, though, did not know that the Roman army was overextended. He only knew that the Roman army was nearer to him than it had ever come before. He fell back on Pydna, a city on the Gulf of Thessalonica. Philippus was unable to follow, so Perseus repositioned his troops on the Elpeus River. Becoming increasingly dispirited, Philippus refused to attack the Macedonians. Perseus, who could have forced the Romans to fight, decided not to make the first move. The two armies remained in position on opposite sides of the river in a baffling stalemate.
The Roman Senate decided in 168 bc that Perseus could be dealt with properly only by a general and a consul who showed no interest in his own aggrandizement or the attainment of riches won from a protracted foreign campaign, or any of the other excuses thought up for Philippus and Licinius. The man chosen was Lucius Aemilius Paullus, whose father had fallen at Cannae and whose brother-in-law was Scipio Africanus, who defeated Hannibal at Zama. Indeed, by this time Paullus had already had an illustrious career himself in Spain and Liguria, and by 168 BC he was a sexagenarian.
As if making up for lost time, the Roman Senate not only agreed to Paullus’s suggestion that a committee be sent to Greece before any definitive plans were made, but also allowed Paullus to select its members. It only took two days for the three chosen men to set off. Upon returning, the ignorance of the Macedonian situation back in Rome was finally rectified. The forces of Perseus and Philippus were at a standoff on either side of the Elpeus River, both leaders either unable or unwilling to initiate a fight. Meanwhile, Appius Claudius’s Roman forces in Illyricum were running out of food and succumbing to apathy. It was immediately suggested that if both armies received renewed support and the vigor of leadership, Perseus and his men could be caught between these two forces.
Meanwhile, Perseus committed several foolhardy mistakes. In attempting to buy off Rome’s Gallic allies, Perseus refused to hand over the agreed amount up front, and it soon became clear to the Gauls that he was not going to pay them at all. The Gallic force, which was led by Clondicus, numbered 10,000 infantry and cavalry.
Perseus was a “better guardian of his money than his kingdom,” wrote Livy. When the Gauls gave up and withdrew north to the Danube, Perseus justified his decision by saying it was dangerous to allow so many Gauls into Macedonia anyway.
The Macedonian troops, which had pinned their hopes on the Gauls, clearly thought otherwise since the Gauls’ presence in Thessaly alone would have cut off the Roman army’s main food supply. Yet Perseus tried the same tactic with Gentius, the king of the Ardiaei in Illyricum, another Roman ally. He promised Gentius a large sum of money. Gentius seized two Roman envoys in the hopes of proving that he meant business. Perseus hoped that Gentius’s actions would provoke such a strong Roman response that his men would be forced into a war regardless of whether they received complete payment, which he refused to give them in advance. “It was as if Perseus’s every action was designed to preserve as much booty as possible for the Romans after his defeat,” Livy wrote.
Such was the news delivered to Paullus and the Senate. Paullus then immediately selected tribunes for the two legions under his command, numbering 14,000 Roman foot soldiers and 1,200 cavalry. Two more legions, totaling 10,000 foot soldiers and 400 cavalry, were called up to serve under Lucius Anicius Gallus and the other forces stationed in Illyricum. Before leaving with his army, Paullus gave a lengthy speech to the Senate, warning them against second guessing. “At dinner parties, there are men who can march the army into Macedonia, who know where the camps should be established, which places should be occupied by garrisons, when and by which pass Macedonia should be invaded,” Livy quoted Paullus as saying.
In the spring of 168 bc Paullus and his legions crossed the Adriatic at Brundisium and landed in Greece. Gallus’s two legions made their way north to Illyricum, and a month later the would-be traitor to Rome, Gentius, was seized. By that time, Paullus had reached the Roman forces on the Elpeus River. He quickly gained the affection of the men when he found them short of water. The army was situated at the foothills of Mount Olocrus, and Paullus rightly assumed that it contained a hidden source of water. He ordered the soldiers to dig wells closer to the shoreline and the effort proved successful.
Taking stock of the situation with his officers, Paullus nixed the idea of a direct frontal assault on Perseus’s forces, which were heavily defended by catapults and ballistae. Instead, he chose to divert Perseus’s attention with a feint against his northernmost forces; at the same time he sent a large force around the mountains with instructions to fall on Perseus’s rear. He assigned two Perrhaebian merchants, who knew the mountain passes, as guides for approximately 1,000 men under the command of his son and Publius Scipio Nasica. Over the course of the next four days, and traveling only at night to avoid detection, they marched south along the coast of the Gulf of Thessalonica. When they reached the Tempe River they turned west and then north through the mountains toward Pythium and Petra. In the final leg, they angled east toward the gulf where they hoped to fall on Perseus’s camp. At the same time, more than 8,000 infantry and 300 cavalry arrived at the port of Heracleum in a diversion intended to deceive Perseus into believing that a large naval force was headed his way.
For the next few days, the plan worked. Paullus skirmished with Macedonian forces and then withdrew in the middle of the day, slowly drawing them more to the south and more vulnerable to attack from Nasica’s advancing army. As it happened, though, even Roman setbacks turned to their advantage. A short time after they set out, Cretan soldiers under Nasica’s command deserted and fled to the Macedonian camp. Perseus immediately sent a force immensely larger than Nasica’s 2,000 troops, but the Romans easily defeated them. Additionally, the Roman guides had been mistaken in assuming that many of the mountain passes were guarded. This not being the case, the way was open for Nasica and his men to descend downhill to strike Perseus’s camp. Afraid of being caught between Nasica and Paullus, Perseus fled north with his army. He marched his troops past Dium and established a new camp just south of Katerini. This placed his army 10 miles south of the town of Pydna.
In no time Nasica’s army, which was heading east, and Paullus’s army, which was advancing north, converged at Dium. While the former feared that Perseus would again slip away and suggested that they attack immediately, Paullus refused. Their men needed a rest, and he decided to set up camp only a mile or so away from Perseus’s forces with the Leucus River between them. The flat plain Perseus had chosen for his camp was suddenly neutralized as well, since even when fully rested the Romans were not about to cross the river onto such disadvantageous ground. The Roman camp, which was situated on the slope of Mount Olocrus, was equally unsuitable for the Macedonian army given that its phalanxes would not function well in that terrain. One of the armies might have to cross to unfavorable ground. It remained to be seen what matter of random and unforeseen circumstances would finally force it to do so.
A stalemate ensued, but there was no shortage of drama. The clash at Pydna can be dated precisely to June 22, 168 bc, because a lunar eclipse took place the previous evening. One of the Roman military tribunes, Gaius Sulpicius Galus, was aware of the event beforehand. He announced the event to a gathering of soldiers and advised his troops that no one should regard it as an omen. While Galus succeeded on this point, the soldiers still held his knowledge in awe.
While the Romans saw the eclipse as a good sign, the Macedonians regarded it as an evil omen. “The Macedonians regarded the eclipse as a bad omen, signaling the fall of their kingdom and the ruination of their people,” wrote Livy. “So did their prophets, and wailing and shouting filled the Macedonian camp until the light of the moon re-emerged.”
Still, both leaders were reluctant to enter battle the following morning. Even though he offered them a much needed rest, Paullus had been criticized by his men for not seeking battle immediately upon arriving on the scene, and he realized that, if given the chance, the standoff could end up no different than the one which had prompted his appointment in the first place. Meanwhile, Perseus had no desire to fight with a Roman army that was now well rested.
That morning detachments from both sides gathered drinking water from the Leucus River. Sent to retrieve the water for the Romans were two cohorts and some cavalry, and likely a similar complement of troops on the Macedonian side. While a truce had held as the troops gathered water, it is not surprising that such an arrangement did not last for long. At mid-afternoon a Roman mule broke loose and was chased by three soldiers into the water. Two Thracians in the Macedonian army led the animal over to their side, but the Romans killed one of them. Not long afterward the entire Macedonian army crossed the river.
The Romans, who had been itching for a fight, were more than happy to oblige. The noise of the initial skirmish alerted Paullus to what was going on. The fighting had progressed to such an extent that “it seemed neither easy nor safe to recall or stop the impetuosity of those who were rushing to arms,” wrote Plutarch. “Paullus thought it best to avail himself of the ardor of his soldiers, and to turn an accident into an opportunity.” Just as he began to lead his forces out for a proper battle, Nasica informed Paullus that Perseus was doing the same thing.
Paullus probably placed his two legions in the center with allied troops flanking them on the right and cavalry beside them on the left. His elephants were behind his troops. Giving in to the passion of his men, Perseus surrendered his advantageous position in the fields near his camp and crossed the Leucus River to the lower slopes of Mount Olocrus. His phalanxes initially forced back the experienced Roman infantry.
“First the Thracians advanced, whose appearance … was most terrible, men of lofty stature, clad in tunics which showed black beneath the white and gleaming armor of their shields and greaves, and tossing high on their right shoulders battle-axes with heavy iron heads,” wrote Plutarch. Following the Thracian division was a second division composed of mercenaries.
The third division consisted of “picked men, the flower of the Macedonians themselves for youthful strength and valor, gleaming with gilded armor and fresh scarlet coats,” wrote Plutarch. “As these took their places in line, they were illumined by the phalanx-lines of the bronze-shields which issued from the camp behind them and filled the plain with the gleam of iron and the flitter of bronze, the hills too, with the tumultuous shouts of their cheering.”
There is a sense from Livy’s fragmented account that Paullus suddenly found himself gripped by fear at the sight of the advancing Macedonians with their bristling spears. If this is the case, the astonishment and terror the spectacle initially presented was shared by the rest of the army. The lower slopes of Olocrus were defended by the Roman right line—that is, by their Italian allies and the Roman cavalry—and they were unsuccessful in beating back the Macedonians. Salvius, their commander, sought to inspire them by throwing their standard over to the enemy forces, but that had the opposite effect. Rather than inspire them, it served to demoralize them. The Roman line was driven back and gradually forced up the slopes of Olocrus.
The Macedonians must have felt their advantage swelling as they continued to push forward, and even the elephants the Romans introduced to the fight proved ineffective. But until this moment the Macedonian phalanx also had the advantage of fighting on relatively level ground. As the army began to ascend the Olocrus, this advantage dissipated and did so piecemeal. With whole sections of men advancing to different sections of the mountain, the Macedonian line began to peel back and break, and gaps opened up. “Either on account of the unevenness of the ground, or on account of the very length of the front,” wrote Livy, “those who attempted to occupy higher ground were necessarily, though unwillingly, separated from those who occupied lower positions.”
Plutarch describes how quickly and almost seamlessly Paullus perceived this development to turn it to the final advantage the Romans needed. “Dividing up his cohorts, Paullus ordered them to plunge quickly into the interstices and empty spaces in the enemy’s line and thus come to close quarters, not fighting a single battle against them all, but many separate and successive battles,” he wrote. “As soon as they got between the ranks of the enemy and separated them, they attacked some of them in the flank where their armor did not shield them, and cut off others by falling upon their rear, and the strength and general efficiency of the phalanx was lost when it was thus broken up.”
In the rough terrain, the Macedonian line became uneven, and the Romans were quick to exploit the situation by inserting units into the gaps that opened up before them. Sensing the day was lost, the Macedonian cavalry on the flanks quit the fight. “The cavalry left the battle virtually unscathed. Perseus himself led the flight,” wrote Livy.
Left to fend for themselves, the Macedonians were ripe for the slaughter. “The remaining Macedonian squadrons also rode off with their ranks intact since the infantry column lay in the path of the enemy; the killing of these men, which detained the victors, had made them forget to pursue the cavalry,” wrote Livy. “The slaughter of the phalanx, from the front, from the flanks, from the rear, went on for a long time.”
Those Macedonian foot soldiers who were able to escape the slaughter headed for the Gulf of Thessalonica. Once there, some drowned while others were cut down in the water by Roman troops in ships. In their desperation, the Macedonians had mistaken the ships for those of their allies. Some of the Macedonians turned inland only to be trampled by the Roman elephants. Even by the standards of warfare in the ancient world, the carnage was awful. Among the captives taken after the battle was the Greek historian Polybius, who would chronicle in his epic historical work how the Roman Republic advanced to the point that it dominated the Mediterranean region.
In the aftermath of the decisive defeat of the Macedonian army, Rome demanded the virtual impotence of their enemy, as well as its allies throughout the Aegean Sea. Macedonia ceased to exist and was divided into four separate leagues, with marriage and business alliances prohibited across boundaries. Its top officials and ruling class were shipped off to Rome, while show trials were held throughout Greece and many officials were executed. Illyricum and Epirus received the same treatment. Against his better judgment, Paullus allowed his men to plunder Epirus at will, enslaving thousands. Meanwhile, more than 1,000 members of the Achaean League, including Polybius and all of the Roman allies in the struggle, also were deported to Italy. Rome then imposed its rule on their lands.
Pydna made Rome into a world power. Whether this happened by choice or by chance, the Romans still embraced that status, or at least saw its maintenance as the only way of assuring their own survival. On the one hand, there is the belief that Rome became an empire reluctantly, and that without the succession of Punic and Macedonian wars, which forced the Roman Republic into the wider net of eastern Mediterranean politics and warfare, Rome may have remained satisfied without such expansion. On the other hand, many believe that the culture of Greece eventually defeated their conquerors, and that Hellenism won out in the end.
The famous sack of Corinth in 146 bc led to the wholesale deportation of Greek art and sculpture that would have a vast influence on Rome in the centuries that followed. This point is no better illustrated than by the fact that the victorious commander at Pydna, the Roman Consul Paullus, took Polybius into his household and entrusted him with the education of his children. | <urn:uuid:38f3f836-da7f-4d97-9d87-932a99fb34f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2019/12/24/roman-army-pluck-at-the-battle-of-pydna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.984844 | 6,366 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.1920650601387... | 8 | By Tim Miller
What began as a polite truce between armies that allowed each to draw water from the same river turned into the battle that would give Greece to Rome. After a Roman mule escaped across the water into the lines of the Macedonians, one Macedonian ally ended up dead, and the whole army began crossing for revenge. It almost could have been planned, for both the Romans and Macedonians were impatient to get on with the battle.
By the spring of 168 bc, Macedonian King Perseus had been complicit in the execution of his brother and, by extension, the early death of his father, Philip V. In the decade since his ascension, Perseus had been able to fill the coffers of Macedonia, increase its military force, and swell the home front population with disaffected people from all over the Aegean. He achieved this despite the growing influence of Rome in Greece and the Balkans and the resistance from neighboring Greek states.
When the complaints of neighboring states had brought Roman armies to Greece, Perseus had defeated them all, though never decisively. At last, on a scorching day in late June, as he led his army across the Leucus River in Macedonia, just south of the city of Pydna and not far from the Gulf of Thessalonica, that decisive battle was finally at hand. The battle pitted Macedonian King Perseus’s 40,000 troops against Roman Consul and General Lucius Aemilius Paullus’s army of nearly equal strength.
As the Romans began to gather themselves, they must have wondered what advantage Perseus had gained by crossing the river to attack the Roman camp, which lay at the foot of Mount Olocrus, since they had given up the more level terrain in the fields south of Pydna. Paullus watched in awe as the Macedonians advanced boldly through the water. The first phase of the battle went badly for the Romans, for they were driven up the mountain. The Romans had also brought along 20 war elephants, but they were of questionable value on the mountainous terrain.
It was not long before Perseus’s assault began to falter. As each section of the Macedonian army encountered uphill terrain and varying degrees of Roman resistance, the men rushed ahead or lagged behind those beside them. What had been a successful push became a wildly uneven one, and gaps began to appear in their battle line. The Roman commander saw this development and immediately ordered his men to thrust themselves into the gaps to engage them in hand-to-hand combat. In this way they would not be “fighting a single battle against them all, but many separate and successive battles,” wrote Roman historian Plutarch. In those gaps, the successor state Macedonia, established on the death of Alexander the Great, came to an end.
In 168 bc Rome was barely 30 years removed the Second Punic War, that traumatic but ultimately victorious struggle with the Carthaginian general Hannibal. Hannibal was a tactician of particular genius who wreaked havoc through Roman Spain. He crossed the daunting Alps with his army and descended into northern Italy where he nearly wiped out the Roman army first at Lake Trasimene and again at Cannae. Yet in the end the Romans prevailed.
When a Roman army under the command of Cornelius Scipio Africanus crossed to north Africa and threatened Carthage in the way Hannibal had always hoped to threaten Rome, he abandoned Italy and was eventually defeated at Zama in 202 bc. Hannibal remained for the time being in Carthage; however, when Rome became worried over a resurgence of Carthaginian influence in the Mediterranean, they demanded Hannibal surrender to them. But Hannibal went into voluntary exile and was received into the court of King Antiochus III, the ruler of the Seleucid Empire.
With Carthage no longer a threat, Rome suddenly found itself in the position of a Mediterranean and Aegean power, a position that needed constant defending and refinement. As such, the countryside of Italy was emptied of men either because their land had been destroyed during the war or because they were recruited for the army. Thus, Rome came to depend upon slave labor as it never had before, as well as the continuation of war. As a result of these pressures, Rome’s burgeoning democracy was jeopardized. The death of the Roman Republic would occur less than two centuries later. For the time being, though, Rome fought abroad against aggression in order to maintain stability in a nearby region. It had no interest in conquering and assimilating new territories.
The pressure to become involved in foreign wars began almost immediately after Hannibal was defeated at Zama when Rome was dragged into defending the kingdom of Pergamum in northeastern Anatolia and the island kingdom of Rhodes in the Agean Sea. Both of these minor kingdoms appealed to Rome for help when Philip V of Macedonia began threatening them. Rome feared that if they fell, it would not be long before Philip tried to move into Italy itself.
The Romans soundly defeated Philip at Cynoscephalae in 197 bc. Rome won the battle primarily because of the characteristics of its army. The Roman army was based on the maniple formation. Although the Romans were organized in squares as the Greeks were, the maniple was a more versatile formation on the battlefield. The Roman soldier fought with a short, double-edged sword known as a gladius. Armed with the gladius and fighting in the maniple, the Roman troops were able to manuever more easily than the Greek soldiers, who were armed with 21-foot spears known as sarissas. The Greeks, who were packed tightly together, could only fight from the front with their long spears. If attacked in the flank or rear they were in serious trouble.
Another Roman ally in the Aegean, the Aetolians, upset over the terms that Philip V was granted, entered into negotiations with Antiochus. He saw an opportunity to break into Anatolia and hence Greece by defeating the Romans.
In 190 bc Antiochus met a Roman and Greek army commanded by Consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio on a field of battle at Magnesia in Lydia in western Anatolia.
In that sanguine contest, the Roman infantry contained the attack of Antiochus’s Macedonian-style phalanx. Although Antiochus led the cataphracts in a charge that punched through the Roman infantry, he wound up behind enemy lines facing the well-defended Roman camp. Unable to take the camp, he was boxed in for the duration of the contest.
The battle was decided in the contest between the Roman right wing’s cavalry and Antiochus’s left wing consisting of half the heavy cavalry, elephants, chariots, and skirmishers. The Roman light infantry’s missile attack startled the elephants. The great beasts, which were driven back on their own troops, broke up the Seleucid phalanx attack. Having eventually fought his way out of the Roman rear, Antiochus returned to his army to find that his left had collapsed. He fled the field and the Romans captured his camp. It was a battle full of portent for it showed that it was no easy task bringing a phalanx to bear against Roman legions.
The Romans demanded that Hannibal be handed over to them since it was well known that he had been advising Antiochus for the past five years. As it happened, Hannibal had foreseen this event and escaped. He ultimately committed suicide in Bithynia rather than fall into Roman hands. But Rome also demanded that the Seleucid Empire abandon all Asian land west of the Taurus Mountains. This once again isolated the Balkans and the Peloponnese from outside forces while also putting Rome in the position of having to be available to oversee any developments. The lesser kingdoms, like Rhodes and Pergamum, also favored Rome’s help in part because it did not desire to annex them.
The region was convulsed by instability for the next 20 years. Greece and Anatolia by this time had very nearly become areas of Roman administration. As such, the Romans could no longer ignore internal squabbles of minor powers or even the most seemingly petty appeals if they were to maintain order.
Among the various quarrels that surfaced were complaints made by the Thessalians against Philip V. Rather than sending an army, though, Rome dispatched embassies to investigate each complaint. Philip saw this as a sign of Rome’s weakness and attempted to regain power. He told one Roman delegation that “his days had not yet set,” according to Roman historian Livy.
To stall for more time, apparently to build up an army, he sent his youngest son, Demetrius, to Rome to make Philip’s own case for authority in the area. However, Philip’s oldest son, Perseus, jealous of his younger brother’s successes and the attention he was receiving, fed such convincing lies to his father that Philip had Demetrius poisoned. Philip, learning almost immediately that Perseus had lied to him, sank into a haunted depression and died in 179 bc.
Perseus was now ruler in Macedonia, and he saw no reason to end his country’s enmity for Rome; however, he made sure to officially renew the same terms of alliance with Rome that this father had, if only to present a good face. Meanwhile, he shored up the support of many of Greek states and did so by never once resorting to battle. Instead, he took advantage of the fact that Roman policy in Greece and the Balkans had forced many erstwhile mercenaries to cease their activities.
The new Macedonian ruler made a call for all such people to come to Macedonia and in general asked for the support of anyone who had become a political exile or gone into impossible debt thanks to Roman incursion in the area. Even as the Achaean League officially denounced Macedonia in 175 bc, Perseus was still able to create an anti-Roman fifth column in every city throughout an area to which Rome only recently thought it had brought peace.
The Romans dispatched commissioners to Greece to assess its current political environment. In the meantime, King Eumenes travelled to Rome where he presented a detailed list of Perseus’s crimes to the Roman Senate. Ambassadors from Rhodes, also present, accused Eumenes of the very crimes of which he was accusing Perseus. The senators chose to believe Eumenes over the Rhodians. On his way back to Pergamum, and at the Oracle of Delphi no less, Perseus arranged for an attempt to be made on his life. By that time, the Romans had begun to fully appreciate how serious a threat Perseus posed to them. With ample amounts of money and food with which feed his own people and pay his army for more than a decade, Perseus assumed a defensive stance and awaited a Roman attack.
Perhaps Perseus was aware of the limitations of his own army, even as its numbers continued to swell. At some point between the time of Alexander and Perseus, the Macedonian commanders had subordinated the cavalry to the infantry, putting all of their faith in the infantry phalanx. It has been suggested that this focus evolved from the fact that after Alexander’s death warfare in Macedonia remained a much more local affair, which meant battle in mountainous and uneven terrain unsuitable for cavalry. In theory, a phalanx of moving infantry could maneuver such ground more easily; but by Perseus’s day, the phalanx had developed a series of fatal flaws. The Macedonian phalanx was composed primarily of half-trained citizen-soldiers. Moreover, the spearmen were packed so tightly together that they could only move forward. Thus, the mobility that was typically associated with infantry had disappeared altogether. This meant that the phalanx was most effective on level ground. Since Macedonia was mostly mountainous, its troops would be in serious trouble defending their homeland.
For a moment, though, Perseus succeeded. The first Roman army ferried across the Adriatic Sea to face him was led by Consul Publius Licinius Crassus, who crossed to Epirus in the summer of 171 bc. Perseus soundly defeated Crassus’ army at Callinicus in Thessaly; afterward, Perseus indicated to the Romans that he wanted to enter into peace negotiations. This was extremely distasteful to the Romans, and they responded by demanding unconditional surrender.
As it happened, Perseus would get two more chances in 170 bc. Aulus Hostilius Mancinus was sent to replace Licinius, but he too was defeated by Perseus. The following year Quintus Marcius Philippus also proved wanting. Although he led the Roman forces deeper into Macedonian territory than his predecessor, he realized only too late that they were beyond the reach of their supply train. Perseus, though, did not know that the Roman army was overextended. He only knew that the Roman army was nearer to him than it had ever come before. He fell back on Pydna, a city on the Gulf of Thessalonica. Philippus was unable to follow, so Perseus repositioned his troops on the Elpeus River. Becoming increasingly dispirited, Philippus refused to attack the Macedonians. Perseus, who could have forced the Romans to fight, decided not to make the first move. The two armies remained in position on opposite sides of the river in a baffling stalemate.
The Roman Senate decided in 168 bc that Perseus could be dealt with properly only by a general and a consul who showed no interest in his own aggrandizement or the attainment of riches won from a protracted foreign campaign, or any of the other excuses thought up for Philippus and Licinius. The man chosen was Lucius Aemilius Paullus, whose father had fallen at Cannae and whose brother-in-law was Scipio Africanus, who defeated Hannibal at Zama. Indeed, by this time Paullus had already had an illustrious career himself in Spain and Liguria, and by 168 BC he was a sexagenarian.
As if making up for lost time, the Roman Senate not only agreed to Paullus’s suggestion that a committee be sent to Greece before any definitive plans were made, but also allowed Paullus to select its members. It only took two days for the three chosen men to set off. Upon returning, the ignorance of the Macedonian situation back in Rome was finally rectified. The forces of Perseus and Philippus were at a standoff on either side of the Elpeus River, both leaders either unable or unwilling to initiate a fight. Meanwhile, Appius Claudius’s Roman forces in Illyricum were running out of food and succumbing to apathy. It was immediately suggested that if both armies received renewed support and the vigor of leadership, Perseus and his men could be caught between these two forces.
Meanwhile, Perseus committed several foolhardy mistakes. In attempting to buy off Rome’s Gallic allies, Perseus refused to hand over the agreed amount up front, and it soon became clear to the Gauls that he was not going to pay them at all. The Gallic force, which was led by Clondicus, numbered 10,000 infantry and cavalry.
Perseus was a “better guardian of his money than his kingdom,” wrote Livy. When the Gauls gave up and withdrew north to the Danube, Perseus justified his decision by saying it was dangerous to allow so many Gauls into Macedonia anyway.
The Macedonian troops, which had pinned their hopes on the Gauls, clearly thought otherwise since the Gauls’ presence in Thessaly alone would have cut off the Roman army’s main food supply. Yet Perseus tried the same tactic with Gentius, the king of the Ardiaei in Illyricum, another Roman ally. He promised Gentius a large sum of money. Gentius seized two Roman envoys in the hopes of proving that he meant business. Perseus hoped that Gentius’s actions would provoke such a strong Roman response that his men would be forced into a war regardless of whether they received complete payment, which he refused to give them in advance. “It was as if Perseus’s every action was designed to preserve as much booty as possible for the Romans after his defeat,” Livy wrote.
Such was the news delivered to Paullus and the Senate. Paullus then immediately selected tribunes for the two legions under his command, numbering 14,000 Roman foot soldiers and 1,200 cavalry. Two more legions, totaling 10,000 foot soldiers and 400 cavalry, were called up to serve under Lucius Anicius Gallus and the other forces stationed in Illyricum. Before leaving with his army, Paullus gave a lengthy speech to the Senate, warning them against second guessing. “At dinner parties, there are men who can march the army into Macedonia, who know where the camps should be established, which places should be occupied by garrisons, when and by which pass Macedonia should be invaded,” Livy quoted Paullus as saying.
In the spring of 168 bc Paullus and his legions crossed the Adriatic at Brundisium and landed in Greece. Gallus’s two legions made their way north to Illyricum, and a month later the would-be traitor to Rome, Gentius, was seized. By that time, Paullus had reached the Roman forces on the Elpeus River. He quickly gained the affection of the men when he found them short of water. The army was situated at the foothills of Mount Olocrus, and Paullus rightly assumed that it contained a hidden source of water. He ordered the soldiers to dig wells closer to the shoreline and the effort proved successful.
Taking stock of the situation with his officers, Paullus nixed the idea of a direct frontal assault on Perseus’s forces, which were heavily defended by catapults and ballistae. Instead, he chose to divert Perseus’s attention with a feint against his northernmost forces; at the same time he sent a large force around the mountains with instructions to fall on Perseus’s rear. He assigned two Perrhaebian merchants, who knew the mountain passes, as guides for approximately 1,000 men under the command of his son and Publius Scipio Nasica. Over the course of the next four days, and traveling only at night to avoid detection, they marched south along the coast of the Gulf of Thessalonica. When they reached the Tempe River they turned west and then north through the mountains toward Pythium and Petra. In the final leg, they angled east toward the gulf where they hoped to fall on Perseus’s camp. At the same time, more than 8,000 infantry and 300 cavalry arrived at the port of Heracleum in a diversion intended to deceive Perseus into believing that a large naval force was headed his way.
For the next few days, the plan worked. Paullus skirmished with Macedonian forces and then withdrew in the middle of the day, slowly drawing them more to the south and more vulnerable to attack from Nasica’s advancing army. As it happened, though, even Roman setbacks turned to their advantage. A short time after they set out, Cretan soldiers under Nasica’s command deserted and fled to the Macedonian camp. Perseus immediately sent a force immensely larger than Nasica’s 2,000 troops, but the Romans easily defeated them. Additionally, the Roman guides had been mistaken in assuming that many of the mountain passes were guarded. This not being the case, the way was open for Nasica and his men to descend downhill to strike Perseus’s camp. Afraid of being caught between Nasica and Paullus, Perseus fled north with his army. He marched his troops past Dium and established a new camp just south of Katerini. This placed his army 10 miles south of the town of Pydna.
In no time Nasica’s army, which was heading east, and Paullus’s army, which was advancing north, converged at Dium. While the former feared that Perseus would again slip away and suggested that they attack immediately, Paullus refused. Their men needed a rest, and he decided to set up camp only a mile or so away from Perseus’s forces with the Leucus River between them. The flat plain Perseus had chosen for his camp was suddenly neutralized as well, since even when fully rested the Romans were not about to cross the river onto such disadvantageous ground. The Roman camp, which was situated on the slope of Mount Olocrus, was equally unsuitable for the Macedonian army given that its phalanxes would not function well in that terrain. One of the armies might have to cross to unfavorable ground. It remained to be seen what matter of random and unforeseen circumstances would finally force it to do so.
A stalemate ensued, but there was no shortage of drama. The clash at Pydna can be dated precisely to June 22, 168 bc, because a lunar eclipse took place the previous evening. One of the Roman military tribunes, Gaius Sulpicius Galus, was aware of the event beforehand. He announced the event to a gathering of soldiers and advised his troops that no one should regard it as an omen. While Galus succeeded on this point, the soldiers still held his knowledge in awe.
While the Romans saw the eclipse as a good sign, the Macedonians regarded it as an evil omen. “The Macedonians regarded the eclipse as a bad omen, signaling the fall of their kingdom and the ruination of their people,” wrote Livy. “So did their prophets, and wailing and shouting filled the Macedonian camp until the light of the moon re-emerged.”
Still, both leaders were reluctant to enter battle the following morning. Even though he offered them a much needed rest, Paullus had been criticized by his men for not seeking battle immediately upon arriving on the scene, and he realized that, if given the chance, the standoff could end up no different than the one which had prompted his appointment in the first place. Meanwhile, Perseus had no desire to fight with a Roman army that was now well rested.
That morning detachments from both sides gathered drinking water from the Leucus River. Sent to retrieve the water for the Romans were two cohorts and some cavalry, and likely a similar complement of troops on the Macedonian side. While a truce had held as the troops gathered water, it is not surprising that such an arrangement did not last for long. At mid-afternoon a Roman mule broke loose and was chased by three soldiers into the water. Two Thracians in the Macedonian army led the animal over to their side, but the Romans killed one of them. Not long afterward the entire Macedonian army crossed the river.
The Romans, who had been itching for a fight, were more than happy to oblige. The noise of the initial skirmish alerted Paullus to what was going on. The fighting had progressed to such an extent that “it seemed neither easy nor safe to recall or stop the impetuosity of those who were rushing to arms,” wrote Plutarch. “Paullus thought it best to avail himself of the ardor of his soldiers, and to turn an accident into an opportunity.” Just as he began to lead his forces out for a proper battle, Nasica informed Paullus that Perseus was doing the same thing.
Paullus probably placed his two legions in the center with allied troops flanking them on the right and cavalry beside them on the left. His elephants were behind his troops. Giving in to the passion of his men, Perseus surrendered his advantageous position in the fields near his camp and crossed the Leucus River to the lower slopes of Mount Olocrus. His phalanxes initially forced back the experienced Roman infantry.
“First the Thracians advanced, whose appearance … was most terrible, men of lofty stature, clad in tunics which showed black beneath the white and gleaming armor of their shields and greaves, and tossing high on their right shoulders battle-axes with heavy iron heads,” wrote Plutarch. Following the Thracian division was a second division composed of mercenaries.
The third division consisted of “picked men, the flower of the Macedonians themselves for youthful strength and valor, gleaming with gilded armor and fresh scarlet coats,” wrote Plutarch. “As these took their places in line, they were illumined by the phalanx-lines of the bronze-shields which issued from the camp behind them and filled the plain with the gleam of iron and the flitter of bronze, the hills too, with the tumultuous shouts of their cheering.”
There is a sense from Livy’s fragmented account that Paullus suddenly found himself gripped by fear at the sight of the advancing Macedonians with their bristling spears. If this is the case, the astonishment and terror the spectacle initially presented was shared by the rest of the army. The lower slopes of Olocrus were defended by the Roman right line—that is, by their Italian allies and the Roman cavalry—and they were unsuccessful in beating back the Macedonians. Salvius, their commander, sought to inspire them by throwing their standard over to the enemy forces, but that had the opposite effect. Rather than inspire them, it served to demoralize them. The Roman line was driven back and gradually forced up the slopes of Olocrus.
The Macedonians must have felt their advantage swelling as they continued to push forward, and even the elephants the Romans introduced to the fight proved ineffective. But until this moment the Macedonian phalanx also had the advantage of fighting on relatively level ground. As the army began to ascend the Olocrus, this advantage dissipated and did so piecemeal. With whole sections of men advancing to different sections of the mountain, the Macedonian line began to peel back and break, and gaps opened up. “Either on account of the unevenness of the ground, or on account of the very length of the front,” wrote Livy, “those who attempted to occupy higher ground were necessarily, though unwillingly, separated from those who occupied lower positions.”
Plutarch describes how quickly and almost seamlessly Paullus perceived this development to turn it to the final advantage the Romans needed. “Dividing up his cohorts, Paullus ordered them to plunge quickly into the interstices and empty spaces in the enemy’s line and thus come to close quarters, not fighting a single battle against them all, but many separate and successive battles,” he wrote. “As soon as they got between the ranks of the enemy and separated them, they attacked some of them in the flank where their armor did not shield them, and cut off others by falling upon their rear, and the strength and general efficiency of the phalanx was lost when it was thus broken up.”
In the rough terrain, the Macedonian line became uneven, and the Romans were quick to exploit the situation by inserting units into the gaps that opened up before them. Sensing the day was lost, the Macedonian cavalry on the flanks quit the fight. “The cavalry left the battle virtually unscathed. Perseus himself led the flight,” wrote Livy.
Left to fend for themselves, the Macedonians were ripe for the slaughter. “The remaining Macedonian squadrons also rode off with their ranks intact since the infantry column lay in the path of the enemy; the killing of these men, which detained the victors, had made them forget to pursue the cavalry,” wrote Livy. “The slaughter of the phalanx, from the front, from the flanks, from the rear, went on for a long time.”
Those Macedonian foot soldiers who were able to escape the slaughter headed for the Gulf of Thessalonica. Once there, some drowned while others were cut down in the water by Roman troops in ships. In their desperation, the Macedonians had mistaken the ships for those of their allies. Some of the Macedonians turned inland only to be trampled by the Roman elephants. Even by the standards of warfare in the ancient world, the carnage was awful. Among the captives taken after the battle was the Greek historian Polybius, who would chronicle in his epic historical work how the Roman Republic advanced to the point that it dominated the Mediterranean region.
In the aftermath of the decisive defeat of the Macedonian army, Rome demanded the virtual impotence of their enemy, as well as its allies throughout the Aegean Sea. Macedonia ceased to exist and was divided into four separate leagues, with marriage and business alliances prohibited across boundaries. Its top officials and ruling class were shipped off to Rome, while show trials were held throughout Greece and many officials were executed. Illyricum and Epirus received the same treatment. Against his better judgment, Paullus allowed his men to plunder Epirus at will, enslaving thousands. Meanwhile, more than 1,000 members of the Achaean League, including Polybius and all of the Roman allies in the struggle, also were deported to Italy. Rome then imposed its rule on their lands.
Pydna made Rome into a world power. Whether this happened by choice or by chance, the Romans still embraced that status, or at least saw its maintenance as the only way of assuring their own survival. On the one hand, there is the belief that Rome became an empire reluctantly, and that without the succession of Punic and Macedonian wars, which forced the Roman Republic into the wider net of eastern Mediterranean politics and warfare, Rome may have remained satisfied without such expansion. On the other hand, many believe that the culture of Greece eventually defeated their conquerors, and that Hellenism won out in the end.
The famous sack of Corinth in 146 bc led to the wholesale deportation of Greek art and sculpture that would have a vast influence on Rome in the centuries that followed. This point is no better illustrated than by the fact that the victorious commander at Pydna, the Roman Consul Paullus, took Polybius into his household and entrusted him with the education of his children. | 6,357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator who, in 1492, sailed across the Atlantic from Spain with the ships La Pinta and La Niña hoping to find a new route to India. He made a total of four voyages to the Caribbean and South America and is credited with opening the Americas to European colonization.
He was a man full of polemics and mysteries, navigator and discoverer, self-taught and an observer who came to discover what we know today as the New World, being the first admiral, viceroy and governor of the Indies.
Some characteristics of Christopher Columbus were the following:
Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, or what is now Italy. When he was 20, he moved to Lisbon, Portugal, and later relocated to Spain, which was his base of operations throughout his life.
Columbus went to sea as a teenager, participating in several commercial trips in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One of those trips, to the island of Khios, in modern Greece, brought him as close as he could get to Asia.
His first voyage to the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 almost cost him his life because the commercial fleet with which he sailed was attacked by French corsairs off the coast of Portugal. His ship was burned and Columbus had to swim towards the Portuguese coast. He went to Lisbon, Portugal, where he finally settled and married with Felipa Perestrelo. They had a son, Diego and his wife died shortly after, and Columbus moved to Spain. He had a second son, Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488 with Beatriz Enríquez de Arana.
On August 3, 1492, he left Puerto de Palos with two caravels, La Niña and La Pinta and La Santa María. Seeing time go by without touching land, the crew were desperate, provoking a mutiny that Columbus calmed, assuring that if in three days they did not see land, they would return to Spain.
On October 12, 1492, sailor Rodrigo de Triana spotted land. Christopher Columbus and his expedition reached the island that the natives called Guanahani, which Columbus named San Salvador, located in the Bahamas. He immediately explored and arrived in what is now Cuba, which he called Juana.
Columbus believed he had arrived in the East Indies and so he called his inhabitants “Indians“. Then he came to the island that today is from Haiti and the Dominican Republic and called it Hispaniola. On January 4, 1493, Christopher Columbus returned to Spain with the two caravels he had left, leaving 40 men at the Navidad Fort.
Supported by the kings, he begins his second journey to discover oriental treasures. He left Cadiz on September 25, 1493 and discovered the Antilles, Cuba and Puerto Rico. He managed to reach Hispaniola, where he found the Navidad Fort destroyed and the men murdered. Columbus founded in that place the Isabela in honor of the Queen of Spain. After traveling and discovering Jamaica he returned to Isabela where he found chaos as the Spaniards forced the Indians to hand over the gold and killed each other.
Several conditions and requirements were imposed on him so that, he could make the trip, and it took him longer to find people who would like to go with him. He left Cadiz on May 30th, 1498, with 6 ships. They arrived at the Canary Islands where 3 caravels left for the island of Hispaniola and another 3, where Columbus was travelling to Cape Green. On July 31 they discovered the Orinoco River and arrived in Venezuela. In this trip the rebellion of Francisco Roldán, who was the mayor of Hispaniola, took place.
He left Cadiz on May 9, 1502 for the Canary Islands, then for the Lesser Antilles and from there, they went to Santo Domingo, where the governor Frey Nicolás de Obando, by order of the Catholic Monarchs, prohibited him from disembarking, so he had to continue towards Jamaica and Cuba, then descending towards Honduras, where on August 1 a contact between Europeans and Mayans was made.
They traveled the Caribbean coast of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama arriving at Belén River, where they founded the first Spanish city: Santa María de Belén. There, they lost one of the caravels, destroyed by the storms. Then they arrived in Veragua where they lost another caravel. They only had two caravels left. They arrived in Jamaica on June 25, 1503 where they parked their two remaining caravels so as not to lose them in the sea.
Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid on May 20th, 1506, at the age of 55, as a result of a heart attack. According to a study, published by Antonio Rodríguez Cuartero, of the Department of Internal Medicine at the University of Granada, Columbus died of a heart attack caused by Reiter’s syndrome or reactive arthritis. According to his personal diaries and his friends’ references, the symptoms of this disease were very visible in his last three years.
His remains were buried in Valladolid and then in the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville.
The exact origin of Christopher Columbus has not yet been defined. His origin has been attributed to Italian nationality, specifically Genoa, however, it is said that he did not speak Italian. Many countries claim their nationality, Genoese, Corsican French, Portuguese, Spanish, Galician, Andalusian, Catalan, Majorcan, etc..
There is also a theory that Columbus was hiding that he was Jewish, since at that time, Jews were about to be expelled from Spain. The letters he sent to Italy were in Spanish and were addressed to Italian people who did not speak the language. On the other hand, studies show that he wrote with Catalan characters and his maps have the Catalan style. Finally, in his will, he says that he was of Genovese origin.
Among the main contributions of Christopher Columbus we can mention the following:
The greatest importance given to Christopher Columbus was that thanks to his travels, he managed to know different and new routes for trade and how to get to Asia by west, in addition to the great wealth that were obtained by Europeans.
The importance of Columbus’ voyages was also the official conquest of the Americas, taking into consideration that these lands had already been discovered by Vikings and others.
His father’s name was Domenico Colombo and he was born in the Republic of Genoa, and his mother’s name was Sunsanna Fontanarrossa who was a young woman who was born in the district of Val Bisagno in Genoa and whose father was a master weaver and also a merchant.
Some of his most important phrases are:
Some famous books that tell the story of Christopher Columbus are:
Several films have also been created where the story is reflected, among them we can mention: | <urn:uuid:b01ecbb4-2032-44c9-9825-785178e8a5ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/christopher-columbus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.987465 | 1,478 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.56313425302505... | 5 | Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator who, in 1492, sailed across the Atlantic from Spain with the ships La Pinta and La Niña hoping to find a new route to India. He made a total of four voyages to the Caribbean and South America and is credited with opening the Americas to European colonization.
He was a man full of polemics and mysteries, navigator and discoverer, self-taught and an observer who came to discover what we know today as the New World, being the first admiral, viceroy and governor of the Indies.
Some characteristics of Christopher Columbus were the following:
Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa, or what is now Italy. When he was 20, he moved to Lisbon, Portugal, and later relocated to Spain, which was his base of operations throughout his life.
Columbus went to sea as a teenager, participating in several commercial trips in the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. One of those trips, to the island of Khios, in modern Greece, brought him as close as he could get to Asia.
His first voyage to the Atlantic Ocean in 1476 almost cost him his life because the commercial fleet with which he sailed was attacked by French corsairs off the coast of Portugal. His ship was burned and Columbus had to swim towards the Portuguese coast. He went to Lisbon, Portugal, where he finally settled and married with Felipa Perestrelo. They had a son, Diego and his wife died shortly after, and Columbus moved to Spain. He had a second son, Fernando, who was born out of wedlock in 1488 with Beatriz Enríquez de Arana.
On August 3, 1492, he left Puerto de Palos with two caravels, La Niña and La Pinta and La Santa María. Seeing time go by without touching land, the crew were desperate, provoking a mutiny that Columbus calmed, assuring that if in three days they did not see land, they would return to Spain.
On October 12, 1492, sailor Rodrigo de Triana spotted land. Christopher Columbus and his expedition reached the island that the natives called Guanahani, which Columbus named San Salvador, located in the Bahamas. He immediately explored and arrived in what is now Cuba, which he called Juana.
Columbus believed he had arrived in the East Indies and so he called his inhabitants “Indians“. Then he came to the island that today is from Haiti and the Dominican Republic and called it Hispaniola. On January 4, 1493, Christopher Columbus returned to Spain with the two caravels he had left, leaving 40 men at the Navidad Fort.
Supported by the kings, he begins his second journey to discover oriental treasures. He left Cadiz on September 25, 1493 and discovered the Antilles, Cuba and Puerto Rico. He managed to reach Hispaniola, where he found the Navidad Fort destroyed and the men murdered. Columbus founded in that place the Isabela in honor of the Queen of Spain. After traveling and discovering Jamaica he returned to Isabela where he found chaos as the Spaniards forced the Indians to hand over the gold and killed each other.
Several conditions and requirements were imposed on him so that, he could make the trip, and it took him longer to find people who would like to go with him. He left Cadiz on May 30th, 1498, with 6 ships. They arrived at the Canary Islands where 3 caravels left for the island of Hispaniola and another 3, where Columbus was travelling to Cape Green. On July 31 they discovered the Orinoco River and arrived in Venezuela. In this trip the rebellion of Francisco Roldán, who was the mayor of Hispaniola, took place.
He left Cadiz on May 9, 1502 for the Canary Islands, then for the Lesser Antilles and from there, they went to Santo Domingo, where the governor Frey Nicolás de Obando, by order of the Catholic Monarchs, prohibited him from disembarking, so he had to continue towards Jamaica and Cuba, then descending towards Honduras, where on August 1 a contact between Europeans and Mayans was made.
They traveled the Caribbean coast of Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama arriving at Belén River, where they founded the first Spanish city: Santa María de Belén. There, they lost one of the caravels, destroyed by the storms. Then they arrived in Veragua where they lost another caravel. They only had two caravels left. They arrived in Jamaica on June 25, 1503 where they parked their two remaining caravels so as not to lose them in the sea.
Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid on May 20th, 1506, at the age of 55, as a result of a heart attack. According to a study, published by Antonio Rodríguez Cuartero, of the Department of Internal Medicine at the University of Granada, Columbus died of a heart attack caused by Reiter’s syndrome or reactive arthritis. According to his personal diaries and his friends’ references, the symptoms of this disease were very visible in his last three years.
His remains were buried in Valladolid and then in the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville.
The exact origin of Christopher Columbus has not yet been defined. His origin has been attributed to Italian nationality, specifically Genoa, however, it is said that he did not speak Italian. Many countries claim their nationality, Genoese, Corsican French, Portuguese, Spanish, Galician, Andalusian, Catalan, Majorcan, etc..
There is also a theory that Columbus was hiding that he was Jewish, since at that time, Jews were about to be expelled from Spain. The letters he sent to Italy were in Spanish and were addressed to Italian people who did not speak the language. On the other hand, studies show that he wrote with Catalan characters and his maps have the Catalan style. Finally, in his will, he says that he was of Genovese origin.
Among the main contributions of Christopher Columbus we can mention the following:
The greatest importance given to Christopher Columbus was that thanks to his travels, he managed to know different and new routes for trade and how to get to Asia by west, in addition to the great wealth that were obtained by Europeans.
The importance of Columbus’ voyages was also the official conquest of the Americas, taking into consideration that these lands had already been discovered by Vikings and others.
His father’s name was Domenico Colombo and he was born in the Republic of Genoa, and his mother’s name was Sunsanna Fontanarrossa who was a young woman who was born in the district of Val Bisagno in Genoa and whose father was a master weaver and also a merchant.
Some of his most important phrases are:
Some famous books that tell the story of Christopher Columbus are:
Several films have also been created where the story is reflected, among them we can mention: | 1,484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
首頁 > If you were...
What would you do if you were Annie?刊登日期: 2018.10.05
作者: Auntie Isa
Annie has always been weak in Mathematics but has a high English level. Her classmate Carlos is just the opposite, Math is never a challenge but he has difficulty in understanding the word problems(文字題). One day, their class teacher suggested that they should help each other out. At first they were shy because of their gender(性別). Later on, little by little, they feel more at ease and it becomes a daily routine(常規) that they each take a quick lunch and meet up in the library. They find this very effective in complementing(互補)eachother.
On the National Day Holiday last week, Annie and Carlos agreed to spend more time in preparing for the test week coming up soon. Since the school campus was closed, they went to the nearest public library. At the entrance before going in, they ran into(遇上)a few Carlos’ basketball teammates passing by. The boys insisted that they were on a date and kept joking at the two since then. It has been over a week now. Both Annie and Carlos feel embarrassed(尷尬).
- If I were not really dating Carlos, I would stop revising(溫習)with him in order to avoid further misunderstanding. It’d definitely affect my mood(情緒)to study if there were gossips(閒聊) about me.
I’d continue to help Carlos and let him help me if our strengths can complement each other’s weakness. Gossips will disappear after some time and it would be important that we all keep calm, the more we react(反應), the more people would have to say. More, the whole idea was initiated(提議)by the class teacher. | <urn:uuid:d0ae358e-66a7-4feb-8f3c-b90fcca40499> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://jy.catholic.org.hk/node/4052 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.982374 | 428 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.30809053778... | 1 | 首頁 > If you were...
What would you do if you were Annie?刊登日期: 2018.10.05
作者: Auntie Isa
Annie has always been weak in Mathematics but has a high English level. Her classmate Carlos is just the opposite, Math is never a challenge but he has difficulty in understanding the word problems(文字題). One day, their class teacher suggested that they should help each other out. At first they were shy because of their gender(性別). Later on, little by little, they feel more at ease and it becomes a daily routine(常規) that they each take a quick lunch and meet up in the library. They find this very effective in complementing(互補)eachother.
On the National Day Holiday last week, Annie and Carlos agreed to spend more time in preparing for the test week coming up soon. Since the school campus was closed, they went to the nearest public library. At the entrance before going in, they ran into(遇上)a few Carlos’ basketball teammates passing by. The boys insisted that they were on a date and kept joking at the two since then. It has been over a week now. Both Annie and Carlos feel embarrassed(尷尬).
- If I were not really dating Carlos, I would stop revising(溫習)with him in order to avoid further misunderstanding. It’d definitely affect my mood(情緒)to study if there were gossips(閒聊) about me.
I’d continue to help Carlos and let him help me if our strengths can complement each other’s weakness. Gossips will disappear after some time and it would be important that we all keep calm, the more we react(反應), the more people would have to say. More, the whole idea was initiated(提議)by the class teacher. | 379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plants have been proven to improve productivity and reaction times, a study in America has shown.
Using two similar groups working in windowless computer labs, one group with plants and one without, both groups used a specially designed computer programme so that they both undertook similar work. Their emotional states, pre- and post-task blood pressures and pulse rates were measured before, during and after the experiment.
Whilst both groups made a similar number of mistakes, the group that worked with plants present recorded a reaction time that was 12% quicker than those working without. In effect, this meant their productivity rate was greater too.
The blood pressure and pulse rates of the participants also returned to normal more quickly and their scores showed significant increases in post-task attentiveness. | <urn:uuid:40463e85-ed05-4bc7-a527-7341976bd072> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.urbanplanters.co.uk/benefits-of-plants-article/increase-student-productivity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.982587 | 154 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.2701207697391... | 4 | Plants have been proven to improve productivity and reaction times, a study in America has shown.
Using two similar groups working in windowless computer labs, one group with plants and one without, both groups used a specially designed computer programme so that they both undertook similar work. Their emotional states, pre- and post-task blood pressures and pulse rates were measured before, during and after the experiment.
Whilst both groups made a similar number of mistakes, the group that worked with plants present recorded a reaction time that was 12% quicker than those working without. In effect, this meant their productivity rate was greater too.
The blood pressure and pulse rates of the participants also returned to normal more quickly and their scores showed significant increases in post-task attentiveness. | 151 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Think hearing loss is a modern-day condition, occurring in line with the development of personal music players and industrial equipment? Think again. This is the evolution of the hearing aid.
Hearing loss has been around for centuries. Up until the 16th century, people assumed individuals with hearing loss also had other disabilities. Individuals were heavily discriminated against until a Spanish monk named Pedro Ponce disproved this theory by teaching the deaf sons of a nobleman how to read, write, speak and do math.
What Was the First Hearing Aid Invented?
The ear trumpet, considered the first hearing aid, was invented in the 17th century. The device came in a number of shapes and sizes and was made of everything from animal horns to sheet iron.
The collapsible ear trumpet was invented next in the late 18th century. The first commercial device was created by Frederick C. Rein in 1800. He tried to make his ear trumpets more aesthetically pleasing, leading to the popular "acoustic headbands," which were able to hide the device in the user's hair.
When Was the First Hearing Aid Invented?
Thanks to Alexander Graham Bell's 1876 invention of the telephone, the first electronic hearing aid was close to a reality. The telephone included technology that could control the loudness, frequency and distortion of sounds, essential components of a hearing aid.
In 1898, Miller Reese Hutchison created the first electric hearing aid device. His design used an electric current to amplify weak signals.
The first commercially manufactured hearing aids came to market in 1913. These devices were cumbersome and not very portable.
Vacuum-tube hearing aids were produced in 1920; these tubes were able to turn speech into electric signals and then the signal itself was amplified.
WWII brought about many technological advances, one of which was miniaturization. The transistor was invented in 1948. Transistors were able to replace the vacuum tubes in hearing aids; they were also smaller, needed less battery power and produced less distortion.
The 1970s saw the creation of the microprocessor and the multi-channel amplitude compression. The microprocessor took miniaturization to a new level and the compression ushered in the use of digital technology.
From this point, hearing aids began to quickly evolve. High-speed processors and microcomputers were invented in the 1980s. The first all-digital hearing aids were created in the 1990s. And the 2010s brought the idea of Bluetooth® enabled devices into the mix.
As you can see, hearing aids have had quite the journey from their humble beginnings to where they are today. Miller Reese Hutchison would not even recognize the tiny, in-ear devices or the larger, technology-rich aids. To learn more about what makes modern-day hearing aids exceptional, contact our office today. | <urn:uuid:54a68a38-1c3e-4703-b3d1-6c1f032b5c1c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hearingaiddevice.com/2019/12/global-hearing-aids-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.981528 | 573 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0175330974... | 1 | Think hearing loss is a modern-day condition, occurring in line with the development of personal music players and industrial equipment? Think again. This is the evolution of the hearing aid.
Hearing loss has been around for centuries. Up until the 16th century, people assumed individuals with hearing loss also had other disabilities. Individuals were heavily discriminated against until a Spanish monk named Pedro Ponce disproved this theory by teaching the deaf sons of a nobleman how to read, write, speak and do math.
What Was the First Hearing Aid Invented?
The ear trumpet, considered the first hearing aid, was invented in the 17th century. The device came in a number of shapes and sizes and was made of everything from animal horns to sheet iron.
The collapsible ear trumpet was invented next in the late 18th century. The first commercial device was created by Frederick C. Rein in 1800. He tried to make his ear trumpets more aesthetically pleasing, leading to the popular "acoustic headbands," which were able to hide the device in the user's hair.
When Was the First Hearing Aid Invented?
Thanks to Alexander Graham Bell's 1876 invention of the telephone, the first electronic hearing aid was close to a reality. The telephone included technology that could control the loudness, frequency and distortion of sounds, essential components of a hearing aid.
In 1898, Miller Reese Hutchison created the first electric hearing aid device. His design used an electric current to amplify weak signals.
The first commercially manufactured hearing aids came to market in 1913. These devices were cumbersome and not very portable.
Vacuum-tube hearing aids were produced in 1920; these tubes were able to turn speech into electric signals and then the signal itself was amplified.
WWII brought about many technological advances, one of which was miniaturization. The transistor was invented in 1948. Transistors were able to replace the vacuum tubes in hearing aids; they were also smaller, needed less battery power and produced less distortion.
The 1970s saw the creation of the microprocessor and the multi-channel amplitude compression. The microprocessor took miniaturization to a new level and the compression ushered in the use of digital technology.
From this point, hearing aids began to quickly evolve. High-speed processors and microcomputers were invented in the 1980s. The first all-digital hearing aids were created in the 1990s. And the 2010s brought the idea of Bluetooth® enabled devices into the mix.
As you can see, hearing aids have had quite the journey from their humble beginnings to where they are today. Miller Reese Hutchison would not even recognize the tiny, in-ear devices or the larger, technology-rich aids. To learn more about what makes modern-day hearing aids exceptional, contact our office today. | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“I would like to learn how clothes are made”, “I would like to know what clothes are made of!”
One of the first “missions” of our Early Years (our nursery school, the first part of the Primary Years Programme) teachers is to engage the natural curiosity of the children. Guiding them by starting with their questions is the best way to explore the world. And if you think there are things that are too difficult to explain or teach, this is simply not the case.
Children who design and sew their own clothes? It's certainly possible! In the past few weeks, Fashion was one of the themes of the creative ateliers created by our teachers: together with their teacher Vicky Cheban, the children first investigated what they already knew about clothes and fashion ("Fashion means dressing to keep warm" , said Lorenzo), and then they thought of what things they wanted to learn about clothes ("Where does the glitter on my t shirt come from?"). They also learned to dress themselves and the name of the different items of clothing by singing the song, "“This is the way we get dressed in the morning” and helping each other to “get dressed.” The students showed each other that they are "caring". Through an educational game on the iPad, they built on their vocabulary of clothing and body parts, and read a book on how to make cotton. They were all surprised to learn that it comes from a plant.
Using their iPads again, they sketched designs of clothes and then made them themselves, with a needle and thread. This journey allowed them to discover the various types of materials (which are hot? which are light?) and the many types of clothes we can find in our closet.
During the Atelier, the children had the opportunity to develop their teamwork and communication skills, helping each other and asking the adults at school what fashion means to them. They also refined their fine motor skills through sewing and expressed their creativity. An important aspect of the IB programme is the moment of reflection at the end of the Atelier. Nicolò said, "I do the T-shirt. I learn to put my shoes on by myself. I learn what is the cotton and what is not. I learn that cotton is a plant and wool comes from sheep. Plastic from petroleum under the sea. I like best do the T-shirt ”. | <urn:uuid:d61faaca-c58b-4b96-b806-51fcbf122fca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.h-is.com/en/h-is-live/fabric-clothing-fashion-atelier-eyu | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.98174 | 499 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3488458096981... | 2 | “I would like to learn how clothes are made”, “I would like to know what clothes are made of!”
One of the first “missions” of our Early Years (our nursery school, the first part of the Primary Years Programme) teachers is to engage the natural curiosity of the children. Guiding them by starting with their questions is the best way to explore the world. And if you think there are things that are too difficult to explain or teach, this is simply not the case.
Children who design and sew their own clothes? It's certainly possible! In the past few weeks, Fashion was one of the themes of the creative ateliers created by our teachers: together with their teacher Vicky Cheban, the children first investigated what they already knew about clothes and fashion ("Fashion means dressing to keep warm" , said Lorenzo), and then they thought of what things they wanted to learn about clothes ("Where does the glitter on my t shirt come from?"). They also learned to dress themselves and the name of the different items of clothing by singing the song, "“This is the way we get dressed in the morning” and helping each other to “get dressed.” The students showed each other that they are "caring". Through an educational game on the iPad, they built on their vocabulary of clothing and body parts, and read a book on how to make cotton. They were all surprised to learn that it comes from a plant.
Using their iPads again, they sketched designs of clothes and then made them themselves, with a needle and thread. This journey allowed them to discover the various types of materials (which are hot? which are light?) and the many types of clothes we can find in our closet.
During the Atelier, the children had the opportunity to develop their teamwork and communication skills, helping each other and asking the adults at school what fashion means to them. They also refined their fine motor skills through sewing and expressed their creativity. An important aspect of the IB programme is the moment of reflection at the end of the Atelier. Nicolò said, "I do the T-shirt. I learn to put my shoes on by myself. I learn what is the cotton and what is not. I learn that cotton is a plant and wool comes from sheep. Plastic from petroleum under the sea. I like best do the T-shirt ”. | 476 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Comparison of Hitler and Jack Merridew from Lord of the Flies
Lord of the Flies by William Golding is a fascinating story that examines the darker side of human nature by exploring the cruelty and barbarism that exists in society. In the story, a group of boys finds themselves stranded on an island with no direction and has to do what they can to survive before they can be rescued. The boys are in categories of little ones and big ones with the first consisting of younger boys of around six and the second one consisting of slightly older boys between ten to twelve years of age. In the beginning of the story, the boys mimic the world they left behind and even elect a leader who is tasked with directing the activities of the group and establishing rules. However, the leadership of Ralph faces a major challenge from another boy called Jack who also has wants to lead. This is among many events in the story which can be compared to that of Germany during the reign of Hitler. In comparing these two, the character of Jack in the story appears similar to that of Hitler. This essay seeks to establish a comparison between Jack and Hitler by examining their traits.
Jack Merridew Character
Jack is portrayed as a strong character who is selfish and radical in his approach to issues. In the story, he represents the negative human traits such as cruelty, greed for power, and use of violence. From the beginning of the story, Jack’s desire and greed for power is revealed as he tries to incite the rest of the boys in the group to reject Ralph as their leader. This can be seen in the way he becomes furious after losing the elections to Ralph. He rebels against Ralph’s authority by exercising more freedom than he is supposed to as a subject in the group. At first, he tries to hold on to the morals instilled in him by society but with time, he turns away from his morals and turns to evil. His hunger for power makes him embrace violence, which in the end makes the others especially Simon to fear him. He starts hunting for a supposed beast without realizing that the evil beast was one of them. In a dream, Simon has a vision of the beast exclaiming, “Fancy thinking the Beast was something you could hunt and kill.” It is then he realizes one of them is the beast he has been hunting.
Who was Hitler
Hitler was a politician and leader of the Nazi in Germany. He grew up a normal child but soon discovered the power of oratory skills, which made him one of the most influential leaders in Germany. His skills and greed for power made him adopt the use of violence and fear to control the German population. He defied authority and was jailed for a period before being released. Upon release, Hitler became even more influential as he spread propaganda in the country and got people to follow him. Eventually, he became responsible for carrying out the historical Holocaust. His spread of hate and fear led to an organized massacre of over six million Jews.
Hitler vs Jack Merridew
The use of violence, intimidation, and fear is among the major similarities between Jack and Hitler. In their quest for power, Hitler and Jack use fear, intimidation, and violence to gain power and maintaining it. Jack just like Hitler uses shows of violence and might to get the other boys to look at him as a figure of authority. Golding mentions, “The desire to squeeze and hurt was over-mastering.” For instance, Jack kills the sow to influence the boys to applaud him as a fearless leader and capable provider. Jack maximizes on this admiration and uses it to stamp his authority. Also, he employs the use of violence by stealing Peggy’s glasses then leads the group into praising this accomplishment.
In a similar manner, Hitler also employed the use of violence and fear to control the German people. His killing of opponents and violent reaction to known challenges instilled fear that enabled him to control the population. In this way, no one dared go against his authority even when there were others who did not agree. This is the same way no one dared question Jack even though there were others like Sanmeric who silently disapproved of him and felt more loyalty towards Ralph.
The natural uncivilized, cruel, and savage nature of man is established through Jack in the story just as can be seen through Hitler during his reign in Germany. Both characters quickly learn to control the masses through fear and intimidation in addition to the use of violence. The need for power and greed for authority explains the nature of man and the dark side of the human nature, which can be used in a negative way. Society, as seen through the story and through the actions of Jack as well as Hitler, has people who can be said to be naturally evil. This evil side can be nurtured and made into a tool of oppression and destruction. | <urn:uuid:6d359209-052b-4b8f-a828-bec0ec231375> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wrhhs.org/lord-of-the-flies-analysis/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.983285 | 990 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.28248995542526... | 6 | Comparison of Hitler and Jack Merridew from Lord of the Flies
Lord of the Flies by William Golding is a fascinating story that examines the darker side of human nature by exploring the cruelty and barbarism that exists in society. In the story, a group of boys finds themselves stranded on an island with no direction and has to do what they can to survive before they can be rescued. The boys are in categories of little ones and big ones with the first consisting of younger boys of around six and the second one consisting of slightly older boys between ten to twelve years of age. In the beginning of the story, the boys mimic the world they left behind and even elect a leader who is tasked with directing the activities of the group and establishing rules. However, the leadership of Ralph faces a major challenge from another boy called Jack who also has wants to lead. This is among many events in the story which can be compared to that of Germany during the reign of Hitler. In comparing these two, the character of Jack in the story appears similar to that of Hitler. This essay seeks to establish a comparison between Jack and Hitler by examining their traits.
Jack Merridew Character
Jack is portrayed as a strong character who is selfish and radical in his approach to issues. In the story, he represents the negative human traits such as cruelty, greed for power, and use of violence. From the beginning of the story, Jack’s desire and greed for power is revealed as he tries to incite the rest of the boys in the group to reject Ralph as their leader. This can be seen in the way he becomes furious after losing the elections to Ralph. He rebels against Ralph’s authority by exercising more freedom than he is supposed to as a subject in the group. At first, he tries to hold on to the morals instilled in him by society but with time, he turns away from his morals and turns to evil. His hunger for power makes him embrace violence, which in the end makes the others especially Simon to fear him. He starts hunting for a supposed beast without realizing that the evil beast was one of them. In a dream, Simon has a vision of the beast exclaiming, “Fancy thinking the Beast was something you could hunt and kill.” It is then he realizes one of them is the beast he has been hunting.
Who was Hitler
Hitler was a politician and leader of the Nazi in Germany. He grew up a normal child but soon discovered the power of oratory skills, which made him one of the most influential leaders in Germany. His skills and greed for power made him adopt the use of violence and fear to control the German population. He defied authority and was jailed for a period before being released. Upon release, Hitler became even more influential as he spread propaganda in the country and got people to follow him. Eventually, he became responsible for carrying out the historical Holocaust. His spread of hate and fear led to an organized massacre of over six million Jews.
Hitler vs Jack Merridew
The use of violence, intimidation, and fear is among the major similarities between Jack and Hitler. In their quest for power, Hitler and Jack use fear, intimidation, and violence to gain power and maintaining it. Jack just like Hitler uses shows of violence and might to get the other boys to look at him as a figure of authority. Golding mentions, “The desire to squeeze and hurt was over-mastering.” For instance, Jack kills the sow to influence the boys to applaud him as a fearless leader and capable provider. Jack maximizes on this admiration and uses it to stamp his authority. Also, he employs the use of violence by stealing Peggy’s glasses then leads the group into praising this accomplishment.
In a similar manner, Hitler also employed the use of violence and fear to control the German people. His killing of opponents and violent reaction to known challenges instilled fear that enabled him to control the population. In this way, no one dared go against his authority even when there were others who did not agree. This is the same way no one dared question Jack even though there were others like Sanmeric who silently disapproved of him and felt more loyalty towards Ralph.
The natural uncivilized, cruel, and savage nature of man is established through Jack in the story just as can be seen through Hitler during his reign in Germany. Both characters quickly learn to control the masses through fear and intimidation in addition to the use of violence. The need for power and greed for authority explains the nature of man and the dark side of the human nature, which can be used in a negative way. Society, as seen through the story and through the actions of Jack as well as Hitler, has people who can be said to be naturally evil. This evil side can be nurtured and made into a tool of oppression and destruction. | 974 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Until the third decade of the 19th century, America had little literature to call its own. Fireside poets represented a “coming of age” for the young country, as a first generation of poets took their name from the popularity of their works which were widely read as family entertainment (and in the schoolroom). These poets chose uniquely American settings and subjects, themes, and imagery; however, there format and structure were borrowed from English tradition. Though not innovative, they were literary giants of their day, and by examining their poems for images of American daily life, politics and nature we can see the beginnings of the Romantic writings that follow.
You will be examining the poetry of fireside poets – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendall Holmes, James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant.
The Mount of the Holy Cross – Colorado
Longfellow is by far the most famous of the Fireside Poets. No other American poet, not even Robert Frost, has matched Longfellow’s popularity at the height of his career. A bust of Longfellow was placed in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey (alongside Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton. Longfellow was a classmate of Nathaniel Hawthorn. He believed his task was to create in memorable form a common heritage for Americans and in the process to create an audience for poetry. His first wife Mary Potter died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861 after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire. Longfellow sustained severe burns to his face trying to put out the flames, which he hid under his beard afterwards. His severe grief over her death meant he wrote less, and instead translated his previously written poetry into other languages.
William Cullen Bryant wrote poems, essays, and articles that championed the rights of workers and immigrants. In 1829, Bryant became editor in chief of the New York Evening Post, a position he held until his death in 1878. His influence helped establish important New York civic institutions such as Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1884, New York City’s Reservoir Square, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Sixth Avenue, was renamed Bryant Park in his honor. “Thanatopsis,” if not the best-known American poem abroad before the mid nineteenth century, certainly ranked near the top of the list, and at home school children were commonly required to recite it from memory. At his death, all New York City went into mourning for its most respected citizen.
John Greenleaf Whittier was the son of two devout Quakers, he grew up on the family farm and had little formal schooling. From 1831 until the Civil War, he wrote essays and articles as well as poems, almost all of which were concerned with abolition. In 1833 he wrote Justice and Expedience urging immediate abolition of slavery. Whittier founded the antislavery Liberty party in 1840 and ran for Congress in 1842. While Whittier’s critics never considered him to be a great poet, they thought him a nobel and kind man whose verse gave unique expression to ideas they valued. The Civil War inspired the famous poem, “Barbara Frietchie,” but the important change in his work came after the war. From 1865 until his death in 1892, Whittier wrote of religion, nature, and rural life; he became the most popular Fireside poets.
James Russell Lowell was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the son of the Reverend Charles Lowell and Harriet Spence. An ardent abolitionist, Lowell published widely in many anti-slavery newspapers, such as the Pennsylvania Freeman and the Anti-Slavery Standard. He also published a number of literary essays, political pamphlets, and satirical works. In 1853, Lowell’s wife and three of their four children fell ill and died. Two years later, he returned to Harvard to replace Longfellow as professor of modern languages and literature. He spent the following year traveling and studying in Europe, then returned to Harvard to teach for the next twenty years. Known for his politics and personal charm, Lowell was appointed to the position of United States Minister to Spain in 1877, then served as United States Minister to England from 1880 to 1885.
Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. was an American physician and poet from Boston. A member of the Fireside Poets, he was acclaimed by his peers as one of the best writers of the day. He was also an important medical reformer. He began writing poetry at an early age; one of his most famous works, “Old Ironsides”, was published in 1830 and was influential in the eventual preservation of the USS Constitution. Following training at the prestigious medical schools of Paris, Holmes was granted his M.D. from Harvard Medical School in 1836. He taught at Dartmouth Medical School before returning to teach at Harvard and, for a time, served as dean there. During his long professorship, he became an advocate for various medical reforms and notably posited the controversial idea that doctors were capable of carrying diseases to their patients if they didn’t take precautions and properly sanitize. Holmes retired from Harvard in 1882 and continued writing poetry, novels and essays until his death in 1894.
Below you will find the link to the poems you will be analyzing. Remember, you need to not only analyze the poem in depth, but be sure to make connections between the content of these poems and the themes of the Romantic period. You will also be completing a project with these poems – the instructions and assignment is attached below as well.
Click here to access the poems in case you lost your hardcopy from class.
Click here to access the assignment and grading rubric.
Click here for an annotated copy of the poems. | <urn:uuid:ff646fcb-7137-4d2a-a584-dfa054e0f7c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishwithmrspierce.com/tag/sticky/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.984359 | 1,208 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.13805955648... | 4 | Until the third decade of the 19th century, America had little literature to call its own. Fireside poets represented a “coming of age” for the young country, as a first generation of poets took their name from the popularity of their works which were widely read as family entertainment (and in the schoolroom). These poets chose uniquely American settings and subjects, themes, and imagery; however, there format and structure were borrowed from English tradition. Though not innovative, they were literary giants of their day, and by examining their poems for images of American daily life, politics and nature we can see the beginnings of the Romantic writings that follow.
You will be examining the poetry of fireside poets – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver Wendall Holmes, James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant.
The Mount of the Holy Cross – Colorado
Longfellow is by far the most famous of the Fireside Poets. No other American poet, not even Robert Frost, has matched Longfellow’s popularity at the height of his career. A bust of Longfellow was placed in the Poet’s Corner of Westminster Abbey (alongside Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton. Longfellow was a classmate of Nathaniel Hawthorn. He believed his task was to create in memorable form a common heritage for Americans and in the process to create an audience for poetry. His first wife Mary Potter died in 1835 after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861 after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire. Longfellow sustained severe burns to his face trying to put out the flames, which he hid under his beard afterwards. His severe grief over her death meant he wrote less, and instead translated his previously written poetry into other languages.
William Cullen Bryant wrote poems, essays, and articles that championed the rights of workers and immigrants. In 1829, Bryant became editor in chief of the New York Evening Post, a position he held until his death in 1878. His influence helped establish important New York civic institutions such as Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1884, New York City’s Reservoir Square, at the intersection of 42nd Street and Sixth Avenue, was renamed Bryant Park in his honor. “Thanatopsis,” if not the best-known American poem abroad before the mid nineteenth century, certainly ranked near the top of the list, and at home school children were commonly required to recite it from memory. At his death, all New York City went into mourning for its most respected citizen.
John Greenleaf Whittier was the son of two devout Quakers, he grew up on the family farm and had little formal schooling. From 1831 until the Civil War, he wrote essays and articles as well as poems, almost all of which were concerned with abolition. In 1833 he wrote Justice and Expedience urging immediate abolition of slavery. Whittier founded the antislavery Liberty party in 1840 and ran for Congress in 1842. While Whittier’s critics never considered him to be a great poet, they thought him a nobel and kind man whose verse gave unique expression to ideas they valued. The Civil War inspired the famous poem, “Barbara Frietchie,” but the important change in his work came after the war. From 1865 until his death in 1892, Whittier wrote of religion, nature, and rural life; he became the most popular Fireside poets.
James Russell Lowell was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the son of the Reverend Charles Lowell and Harriet Spence. An ardent abolitionist, Lowell published widely in many anti-slavery newspapers, such as the Pennsylvania Freeman and the Anti-Slavery Standard. He also published a number of literary essays, political pamphlets, and satirical works. In 1853, Lowell’s wife and three of their four children fell ill and died. Two years later, he returned to Harvard to replace Longfellow as professor of modern languages and literature. He spent the following year traveling and studying in Europe, then returned to Harvard to teach for the next twenty years. Known for his politics and personal charm, Lowell was appointed to the position of United States Minister to Spain in 1877, then served as United States Minister to England from 1880 to 1885.
Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. was an American physician and poet from Boston. A member of the Fireside Poets, he was acclaimed by his peers as one of the best writers of the day. He was also an important medical reformer. He began writing poetry at an early age; one of his most famous works, “Old Ironsides”, was published in 1830 and was influential in the eventual preservation of the USS Constitution. Following training at the prestigious medical schools of Paris, Holmes was granted his M.D. from Harvard Medical School in 1836. He taught at Dartmouth Medical School before returning to teach at Harvard and, for a time, served as dean there. During his long professorship, he became an advocate for various medical reforms and notably posited the controversial idea that doctors were capable of carrying diseases to their patients if they didn’t take precautions and properly sanitize. Holmes retired from Harvard in 1882 and continued writing poetry, novels and essays until his death in 1894.
Below you will find the link to the poems you will be analyzing. Remember, you need to not only analyze the poem in depth, but be sure to make connections between the content of these poems and the themes of the Romantic period. You will also be completing a project with these poems – the instructions and assignment is attached below as well.
Click here to access the poems in case you lost your hardcopy from class.
Click here to access the assignment and grading rubric.
Click here for an annotated copy of the poems. | 1,246 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Every schoolchild knows the story about how King Alfred burned the cakes he was supposed to be minding and got a severe telling off from a peasant woman who did not know who he was. At least, every British schoolchild used to know this, as it was one of the stories that was ingrained in the British psyche almost from birth, along with King Harold getting an arrow in the eye at the Battle of Hastings and Nelson being kissed by Hardy.
However, as with many “everyone knows” stories, there is every possibility that the truth has been greatly enhanced over the centuries and the actual facts might not be as related.
What cannot be doubted is that England during the late 9th century was a very dangerous place for English leaders in the face of constant raids by Danish invaders. Not only did they appear on the coasts of England every year to take whatever they wanted and destroy what they did not, but they had started to settle in northern and eastern England and established a colony of their own (known to history as the Danelaw). By the year 878 all the English kingdoms, with one exception, had fallen to Danish armies.
The exception was Wessex, the land of the West Saxons in south and west England. However, their king, Alfred, was on the run and under severe pressure. He had been forced, together with a small band of followers, to seek refuge in the area known today as the Somerset Levels, which in those days was a land of bogs and marshes with the occasional piece of higher land protruding as an island.
The cakes story is that Alfred had sought refuge in the home of a peasant woman who set him the task of looking after the baking bread (the loaves became cakes in later retelling) while she got on with other things. However, Alfred was so wrapped up in his worries about how he was to defeat the Danes that he forgot the loaves and they were duly burned. When she gave the king a piece of her mind he could only apologise and be more attentive with the next batch.
The problem with the story is that it only appeared in writing more than a century after it apparently took place, and must be regarded as an illustration of Alfred’s character rather than an actual event. After all, only two people would have known about it at the time – the peasant woman would have had no idea of its significance, as she did not know who her guest was – and Alfred who, had he told the story himself, would have guaranteed that it was written down immediately rather than be handed down by word of mouth for another hundred years.
At all events, Alfred’s retreat to Somerset did seem to give him fresh resolve. In May 878 he led an army that defeated the Danish King Guthrum and forced him to withdraw to the Danelaw.
Alfred then reorganised his kingdom in order to make it less susceptible to future Danish incursions. He established fortified towns known as “burhs” that became “boroughs” in later centuries. He also encouraged the building of a fleet of boats that were similar to the Danish longships, thus laying the foundation of the Royal Navy, and organised his army so that, at any one time, half the men were on active service while the other half were at home on their farms. He also encouraged the growth of education because he hated the thought that his people were wallowing in ignorance.
It is not for nothing that King Alfred has always been known as Alfred the Great, the only British monarch to the given this honour. | <urn:uuid:82dd16d7-6ef1-4756-9f0f-ee7fd3f27c07> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virily.com/culture/did-king-alfred-really-burn-the-cakes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.994455 | 733 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2840670943260... | 3 | Every schoolchild knows the story about how King Alfred burned the cakes he was supposed to be minding and got a severe telling off from a peasant woman who did not know who he was. At least, every British schoolchild used to know this, as it was one of the stories that was ingrained in the British psyche almost from birth, along with King Harold getting an arrow in the eye at the Battle of Hastings and Nelson being kissed by Hardy.
However, as with many “everyone knows” stories, there is every possibility that the truth has been greatly enhanced over the centuries and the actual facts might not be as related.
What cannot be doubted is that England during the late 9th century was a very dangerous place for English leaders in the face of constant raids by Danish invaders. Not only did they appear on the coasts of England every year to take whatever they wanted and destroy what they did not, but they had started to settle in northern and eastern England and established a colony of their own (known to history as the Danelaw). By the year 878 all the English kingdoms, with one exception, had fallen to Danish armies.
The exception was Wessex, the land of the West Saxons in south and west England. However, their king, Alfred, was on the run and under severe pressure. He had been forced, together with a small band of followers, to seek refuge in the area known today as the Somerset Levels, which in those days was a land of bogs and marshes with the occasional piece of higher land protruding as an island.
The cakes story is that Alfred had sought refuge in the home of a peasant woman who set him the task of looking after the baking bread (the loaves became cakes in later retelling) while she got on with other things. However, Alfred was so wrapped up in his worries about how he was to defeat the Danes that he forgot the loaves and they were duly burned. When she gave the king a piece of her mind he could only apologise and be more attentive with the next batch.
The problem with the story is that it only appeared in writing more than a century after it apparently took place, and must be regarded as an illustration of Alfred’s character rather than an actual event. After all, only two people would have known about it at the time – the peasant woman would have had no idea of its significance, as she did not know who her guest was – and Alfred who, had he told the story himself, would have guaranteed that it was written down immediately rather than be handed down by word of mouth for another hundred years.
At all events, Alfred’s retreat to Somerset did seem to give him fresh resolve. In May 878 he led an army that defeated the Danish King Guthrum and forced him to withdraw to the Danelaw.
Alfred then reorganised his kingdom in order to make it less susceptible to future Danish incursions. He established fortified towns known as “burhs” that became “boroughs” in later centuries. He also encouraged the building of a fleet of boats that were similar to the Danish longships, thus laying the foundation of the Royal Navy, and organised his army so that, at any one time, half the men were on active service while the other half were at home on their farms. He also encouraged the growth of education because he hated the thought that his people were wallowing in ignorance.
It is not for nothing that King Alfred has always been known as Alfred the Great, the only British monarch to the given this honour. | 722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plymouth Rock is the traditional site of disembarkation of William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in December 1620. The Pilgrims did not refer to Plymouth Rock in any of their writings; the first known written reference to the rock dates to 1715 when it was described in the town boundary records as "a great rock. " The first documented claim that Plymouth Rock was the landing place of the Pilgrims was made by Elder Thomas Faunce in 1741, 121 years after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth. From that time to the present, Plymouth Rock has occupied a prominent spot in American tradition and has been interpreted by later generations as a symbol of both the virtues and the flaws of the first English people who colonized New England. In 1774, the rock broke in half during an attempt to haul it to Town Square in Plymouth. The top portion (the fragment now visible) sat in Town Square, was moved to Pilgrim Hall Museum in 1834, and was returned to its original site on the shore of Plymouth Harbor in 1880. Today it is ensconced beneath a granite canopy designed by McKim, Mead & White. | <urn:uuid:b900216a-6fe7-4f93-b0cb-99410ec53864> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tgblogsite.com/coloring/plymouth-rock-coloring-pages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.980281 | 238 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.462502539157867... | 1 | Plymouth Rock is the traditional site of disembarkation of William Bradford and the Mayflower Pilgrims who founded Plymouth Colony in December 1620. The Pilgrims did not refer to Plymouth Rock in any of their writings; the first known written reference to the rock dates to 1715 when it was described in the town boundary records as "a great rock. " The first documented claim that Plymouth Rock was the landing place of the Pilgrims was made by Elder Thomas Faunce in 1741, 121 years after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth. From that time to the present, Plymouth Rock has occupied a prominent spot in American tradition and has been interpreted by later generations as a symbol of both the virtues and the flaws of the first English people who colonized New England. In 1774, the rock broke in half during an attempt to haul it to Town Square in Plymouth. The top portion (the fragment now visible) sat in Town Square, was moved to Pilgrim Hall Museum in 1834, and was returned to its original site on the shore of Plymouth Harbor in 1880. Today it is ensconced beneath a granite canopy designed by McKim, Mead & White. | 262 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout history career has been known by a number of different names such as vocation and occupation, but the word "career" is more modern and inclusive than the term vocation. Career is also broader than occupation.
Career refers to the course of events that constitute a life. It involves the sequence of occupations and other life roles which combine to express one’s commitment to work in his or her total pattern of self development.
Occupation is a group of similar jobs in several establishments. An occupation refers to a group of similar jobs in several establishments. It differs from job which stands of a group of similar position in one plant, business, institution or other work place.
A vocation is an occupation, either professional or voluntary, that is carried out more for its altruistic benefit, than for income, which might be regarded as a secondary aspect of the vocation, however beneficial. Vocation can be seen as fulfilling a psychological need of a worker and the term is also used to describe any occupation for which a person is specifically gifted, and usually implies that the worker has a calling for it. | <urn:uuid:8647f34e-390b-4446-9b62-461d606f0f4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studypage.in/psychology/concept-of-career-vocation-and-occupation | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.982991 | 226 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Throughout history career has been known by a number of different names such as vocation and occupation, but the word "career" is more modern and inclusive than the term vocation. Career is also broader than occupation.
Career refers to the course of events that constitute a life. It involves the sequence of occupations and other life roles which combine to express one’s commitment to work in his or her total pattern of self development.
Occupation is a group of similar jobs in several establishments. An occupation refers to a group of similar jobs in several establishments. It differs from job which stands of a group of similar position in one plant, business, institution or other work place.
A vocation is an occupation, either professional or voluntary, that is carried out more for its altruistic benefit, than for income, which might be regarded as a secondary aspect of the vocation, however beneficial. Vocation can be seen as fulfilling a psychological need of a worker and the term is also used to describe any occupation for which a person is specifically gifted, and usually implies that the worker has a calling for it. | 219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Right After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was composed. The diplomats of this treaty only intended to end all wars and redraw Europe, but this treaty marked the beginning of a disaster for Germany. After 6 months prior to the war, the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. The total purpose of the treaty was to punish Germany for damages done throughout WWI so that they might understand the discomfort they caused on other countries. Germany was required to sign the treaty, due to the fact that if they had not France and Britain would continue a war Germany could not afford to combat.
Germany was lacking food, basic material, males and ammo, so there was a terrific chance of them losing the war. The Treaty of Versailles weakened Germany economically, socially, and politically. It left them in monetary destroy, embarrassed, and caused them higher animosity versus allies.
Thanks to Article 231, Germany was made to take complete obligation for everything that was destroyed after World War I.
Paying for these reparations left the Germany economy in dept. The Treaty of Versailles determined what payments needed to be paid to the Allies. Germany’s economy was already failing because of the war and now they were made to pay reparations and develop their own economy again. Germany had to repay 6.6 million dollars to the broken countries, but they might not pay for to pay that amount. As an outcome of them not having the ability to pay the reparations France and Belgium troops attacked Ruhr and held individuals slave. Germany was hopeless in defending these individuals since of their limited army. Their army was decreased enormously, which was humiliating since they were as soon as a proud nation. They were enabled 100,000 solider, 15,000 navy soldiers, 6 battleships, and no submarines. They were likewise not permitted to place any troops in Rhineland.
Rhineland had to be de-militarized in order to protect France from future invasion. A “buffer” zone was created between France and Germany, which weakened Germany because they were unable to put down internal riots when they sent the army in to deal with the rebellion in April of 1920. The idea was to reduce their armed forces to a size where they could never endanger the surrounding countries. In addition to a reduced armed force, Germany also lost their territory and land. The terms of the treaty instructed that Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France. Malmedy was given to Belgium. North Schleswig was given to Denmark, Memel was given to Lithuania, and Polish Corridor and Upper Silesia were handed over to Poland. This was intended to weaken Germany. In all, Germany lost approximately thirteen percent of their land, which contained 6 million of its people. The lost these territories caused for the loss of the richest in mineral areas.
Germany’s industrial production decreased tremendously including the coal and steel production. Sixteen percent of its coalfield was lost and half of its iron and steel industry. All of Germany’s power and wealth was given to its enemies in order to make them stronger. With their land loss and import/export restrictions, Germany was unable to join with other nations such as Austria. Germany was helpless and had less land, fewer people, and less power and taxes. Germany’s territorial decision affected Germany’s economy. The loss of the Saar reduced Germany’s industrial strength. The loss of West Prussia took away Germany’s richest farming land, but reparations did the greatest economic damage to Germany. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were horrendous, and it brought Germany to its knees. Germany could not afford to pay France and Belgium after being brought to their limits during the war and still having to build their own economy.
Germany had to pay for all the damage of the war – a sum set at 6.6 million dollars, which were made in instalments until 1984. This ruined Germany’s economy, damaged by the war, and led to the hyperinflation of 1923. Inflation was out of control and people soon had to bring wheel barrels of German currency to the store just to buy bread. The price of goods kept rising and money became worthless, so it was hard for the people to afford these goods. The German government had begun printing off more money in order to pay off their debt, which turned out to be a bad idea and caused inflation to be very high. The money the paper was printed on soon became worth more than the money itself. Workers who were paid by the hour began to find that their wages were worthless, prices went up soon as their shifts began. Inflation turned into hyperinflation and was affecting many Germany in many ways; the value of savings was reduced, worker loss their jobs, and it was hard for businessmen to keep up with rising prices.
For rich people the inflation worked out well because they brought up land assets and expanded their businesses, but almost the entire population became poor overnight. Germany’s situation was completely hopeless, but it all eventually paved the way for Hitler. John Maynard Keynes wrote a book on the attack of the Treaty where his view was that Europe would be poorer and more likely to enter another war as a result of the economic and territorial burdens that were placed on Germany. He felt as though the drafters of this treaty ignored the fact that they were destroying European prosperity by creating it. The people began to recognize the terms of the Treaty as unfair and that they needed to be adjusted.
The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany, but it also brought the people together. They were bitter when the treaty was presented and held a grudge against Allies who enforced discrimination and non-negotiable terms. Germany felt that it was a Great Power and deserved to be treated with more consideration and not as a common criminal. Their plans were to work hard to rebuttal the conditions of the Treaty; these hope of revision created a bond of nationalism. They began to go in the way of Hitler, him convincing them of the way Germany should operate. He used the downfall of the economy to promote his idea of Germany, which gave them hope. He advertised as if he would give them what they wanted and agree with them that Germany was not fully responsible for World War I.
Some argue that Hitler brought Germany together and not the Treaty of Versailles. Germany felt that that they did not lose the war, but were cheated. Many German people looked for someone to blame. Some of the people blamed Kaiser and others looked to the new government. Another result of the treaty was the effect on social classes. Due to inflation people began to lose their jobs. The loss of jobs drove the people into poverty, because there was no steady income available to them. This knocked things down for the middle class and the lower class; their life savings were eliminated. The Germans shared a common dislike and social class issue which help bring them together against the Treaty. Due to extreme poverty and massive social tensions, many ordinary Germans felt desperate enough to return to extreme politics.
The political impact of the treaty was just one out of three of the effects that tried to destroy Germany. Germany was resistant in signing other treaties and were triggered by a number of political reactions. First, their government resigned and refused to sign the treaty. Once the new government, Weimar Republic, they had no choice but to sign the treaty. They were accused of “stabbing Germany in the back”. This stabbing in the back legend discredited German socialist and liberal circles who felt most committed to maintain democratic Germany. The Weimar Republic had no public support, the number of people who distrusted in them continued to grow. The Treaty of Versailles called for a trial for Kaiser, but it was never done because Deutschland did not want to give him up, which stopped any chance of Germany restoring monarchy. For Western Europe the Treaty signaled the beginning of political isolation for Germany.
Western European tried to treat Germany as insignificant through the Treaty of Versailles, which weakened and isolated German democratic leaders. Germany was an outcast for international politics and were feared and distrusted by the Allies. Although the western exaggerated Germany’s isolation, the Treaty of Rapallo shows proof of some relation in the east. Newly formed nations needed economic partners, Germany being the dominant partner. Overall it was stated that Germany was betrayed by weak Politian’s who did not stand up for Germany’s honor and instead signed the treaty which inflicted pain and suffering on people’s lives. It is undeniable to say that the Treaty of Versailles did indeed have a devastating impact on Germany, in many different ways.
The Treaty’s overall purpose was to keep Germany weak, and did exactly this by severely damaging her economically, socially, and politically by putting great restraints on her power and influence of the world. Drastic measures were used to ensure that the country would not easily be able to recover. However, unpredictable circumstances also came away from the treaty, such as the rise of Hitler using his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles as an aid to come to power. The treaty forced millions of guiltless people into constant suffering as a result of certain terms which led to the loss of millions of jobs, forcing many families to live on the edge, or at some times in, poverty. These innocent people were being punished for a war they not only didn’t start, but also had to fight.
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How Did The Treaty Of Versailles Affect Germany. (2016, Sep 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/how-did-the-treaty-of-versailles-affect-germany-essay | <urn:uuid:8c4c0adf-d4ea-4d3b-9fc1-9e95e5460b71> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/how-did-the-treaty-of-versailles-affect-germany-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.989787 | 2,001 | 4.34375 | 4 | [
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0.62447690963... | 2 | Right After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was composed. The diplomats of this treaty only intended to end all wars and redraw Europe, but this treaty marked the beginning of a disaster for Germany. After 6 months prior to the war, the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919. The total purpose of the treaty was to punish Germany for damages done throughout WWI so that they might understand the discomfort they caused on other countries. Germany was required to sign the treaty, due to the fact that if they had not France and Britain would continue a war Germany could not afford to combat.
Germany was lacking food, basic material, males and ammo, so there was a terrific chance of them losing the war. The Treaty of Versailles weakened Germany economically, socially, and politically. It left them in monetary destroy, embarrassed, and caused them higher animosity versus allies.
Thanks to Article 231, Germany was made to take complete obligation for everything that was destroyed after World War I.
Paying for these reparations left the Germany economy in dept. The Treaty of Versailles determined what payments needed to be paid to the Allies. Germany’s economy was already failing because of the war and now they were made to pay reparations and develop their own economy again. Germany had to repay 6.6 million dollars to the broken countries, but they might not pay for to pay that amount. As an outcome of them not having the ability to pay the reparations France and Belgium troops attacked Ruhr and held individuals slave. Germany was hopeless in defending these individuals since of their limited army. Their army was decreased enormously, which was humiliating since they were as soon as a proud nation. They were enabled 100,000 solider, 15,000 navy soldiers, 6 battleships, and no submarines. They were likewise not permitted to place any troops in Rhineland.
Rhineland had to be de-militarized in order to protect France from future invasion. A “buffer” zone was created between France and Germany, which weakened Germany because they were unable to put down internal riots when they sent the army in to deal with the rebellion in April of 1920. The idea was to reduce their armed forces to a size where they could never endanger the surrounding countries. In addition to a reduced armed force, Germany also lost their territory and land. The terms of the treaty instructed that Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France. Malmedy was given to Belgium. North Schleswig was given to Denmark, Memel was given to Lithuania, and Polish Corridor and Upper Silesia were handed over to Poland. This was intended to weaken Germany. In all, Germany lost approximately thirteen percent of their land, which contained 6 million of its people. The lost these territories caused for the loss of the richest in mineral areas.
Germany’s industrial production decreased tremendously including the coal and steel production. Sixteen percent of its coalfield was lost and half of its iron and steel industry. All of Germany’s power and wealth was given to its enemies in order to make them stronger. With their land loss and import/export restrictions, Germany was unable to join with other nations such as Austria. Germany was helpless and had less land, fewer people, and less power and taxes. Germany’s territorial decision affected Germany’s economy. The loss of the Saar reduced Germany’s industrial strength. The loss of West Prussia took away Germany’s richest farming land, but reparations did the greatest economic damage to Germany. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were horrendous, and it brought Germany to its knees. Germany could not afford to pay France and Belgium after being brought to their limits during the war and still having to build their own economy.
Germany had to pay for all the damage of the war – a sum set at 6.6 million dollars, which were made in instalments until 1984. This ruined Germany’s economy, damaged by the war, and led to the hyperinflation of 1923. Inflation was out of control and people soon had to bring wheel barrels of German currency to the store just to buy bread. The price of goods kept rising and money became worthless, so it was hard for the people to afford these goods. The German government had begun printing off more money in order to pay off their debt, which turned out to be a bad idea and caused inflation to be very high. The money the paper was printed on soon became worth more than the money itself. Workers who were paid by the hour began to find that their wages were worthless, prices went up soon as their shifts began. Inflation turned into hyperinflation and was affecting many Germany in many ways; the value of savings was reduced, worker loss their jobs, and it was hard for businessmen to keep up with rising prices.
For rich people the inflation worked out well because they brought up land assets and expanded their businesses, but almost the entire population became poor overnight. Germany’s situation was completely hopeless, but it all eventually paved the way for Hitler. John Maynard Keynes wrote a book on the attack of the Treaty where his view was that Europe would be poorer and more likely to enter another war as a result of the economic and territorial burdens that were placed on Germany. He felt as though the drafters of this treaty ignored the fact that they were destroying European prosperity by creating it. The people began to recognize the terms of the Treaty as unfair and that they needed to be adjusted.
The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany, but it also brought the people together. They were bitter when the treaty was presented and held a grudge against Allies who enforced discrimination and non-negotiable terms. Germany felt that it was a Great Power and deserved to be treated with more consideration and not as a common criminal. Their plans were to work hard to rebuttal the conditions of the Treaty; these hope of revision created a bond of nationalism. They began to go in the way of Hitler, him convincing them of the way Germany should operate. He used the downfall of the economy to promote his idea of Germany, which gave them hope. He advertised as if he would give them what they wanted and agree with them that Germany was not fully responsible for World War I.
Some argue that Hitler brought Germany together and not the Treaty of Versailles. Germany felt that that they did not lose the war, but were cheated. Many German people looked for someone to blame. Some of the people blamed Kaiser and others looked to the new government. Another result of the treaty was the effect on social classes. Due to inflation people began to lose their jobs. The loss of jobs drove the people into poverty, because there was no steady income available to them. This knocked things down for the middle class and the lower class; their life savings were eliminated. The Germans shared a common dislike and social class issue which help bring them together against the Treaty. Due to extreme poverty and massive social tensions, many ordinary Germans felt desperate enough to return to extreme politics.
The political impact of the treaty was just one out of three of the effects that tried to destroy Germany. Germany was resistant in signing other treaties and were triggered by a number of political reactions. First, their government resigned and refused to sign the treaty. Once the new government, Weimar Republic, they had no choice but to sign the treaty. They were accused of “stabbing Germany in the back”. This stabbing in the back legend discredited German socialist and liberal circles who felt most committed to maintain democratic Germany. The Weimar Republic had no public support, the number of people who distrusted in them continued to grow. The Treaty of Versailles called for a trial for Kaiser, but it was never done because Deutschland did not want to give him up, which stopped any chance of Germany restoring monarchy. For Western Europe the Treaty signaled the beginning of political isolation for Germany.
Western European tried to treat Germany as insignificant through the Treaty of Versailles, which weakened and isolated German democratic leaders. Germany was an outcast for international politics and were feared and distrusted by the Allies. Although the western exaggerated Germany’s isolation, the Treaty of Rapallo shows proof of some relation in the east. Newly formed nations needed economic partners, Germany being the dominant partner. Overall it was stated that Germany was betrayed by weak Politian’s who did not stand up for Germany’s honor and instead signed the treaty which inflicted pain and suffering on people’s lives. It is undeniable to say that the Treaty of Versailles did indeed have a devastating impact on Germany, in many different ways.
The Treaty’s overall purpose was to keep Germany weak, and did exactly this by severely damaging her economically, socially, and politically by putting great restraints on her power and influence of the world. Drastic measures were used to ensure that the country would not easily be able to recover. However, unpredictable circumstances also came away from the treaty, such as the rise of Hitler using his opposition to the Treaty of Versailles as an aid to come to power. The treaty forced millions of guiltless people into constant suffering as a result of certain terms which led to the loss of millions of jobs, forcing many families to live on the edge, or at some times in, poverty. These innocent people were being punished for a war they not only didn’t start, but also had to fight.
Cite this page
How Did The Treaty Of Versailles Affect Germany. (2016, Sep 15). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/how-did-the-treaty-of-versailles-affect-germany-essay | 1,963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Resources John Locke, Prominent empiricist philosopher, natural law social thinker and Whig political theorist, John Locke was nonetheless a rather traditional Mercantilist in his economics.
Born Francois-Marie Arouet French philosopher, essayist, dramatist, historian, poet, critic, and autobiographer. The following entry provides an overview of Voltaire's life and works.
See also Candide Criticism. The eighteenth century is often called the Age of Enlightenment, but it is just as often called the Age of Voltaire—in the minds of many intellectual historians, the two are synonymous. Voltaire wrote in many genres, excelling at several, but in the modern era he is best remembered for his connections with the theater, his philosophical works, and his contes—short adventure stories dramatizing philosophical issues.
The most famous of these is Candidea satire of G. Leibniz's philosophy of optimism, which examined the reality and absurdity of human suffering.
He attracted many admirers as well as many critics; his open anticlerical stance was particularly controversial and led to many of his works being censored.
He was a Deist for much of his life, and was skeptical of most established political and religious institutions, though he strove for objectivity in his writings. Although exiled from Paris more than once, by the end of his life he was generally celebrated as one of France's greatest thinkers.
The values for which he fought most vigorously—freedom and progress—have become basic assumptions underlying modern Western civilization. He was so weak at birth that he was not expected to live, and was ill and hypochondriacal much of his life.
Biographers have suggested that the young Francois-Marie made up for a feeble body by developing a lively mind; even as a student he was known for his brilliance, wit, and impulsive nature. His sister and mother, with whom he was quite close, died when he was young, and he and his brother parted ways over the issue of religious tolerance.
Thus, even in his adolescence, Francois-Marie developed a strong foundation for the philosophy he would espouse as Voltaire. After completing school, Francois-Marie planned to pursue a career as a poet, but his father intervened, sending him to Holland to work for the French ambassador.
After writing a poem lampooning the regent Phillipe d'Orleans, he was exiled from Paris, though he later pleaded successfully for his return.
InFrancois-Marie again mocked the regent in verse, but instead of being exiled he was sent to the Bastille for a year. While there, he wrote one of his greatest poems: The poem was not published untiland was then printed secretly. After his release from prison in April he began his long association with the theater.
The production of his Oedipe in November of that year was a tremendous critical and financial success.Rogers, G.a.J - Locke's Essay and Newton's Principia - Download as PDF File .pdf), Text File .txt) or read online.
O Scribd é o maior site social de leitura e publicação do mundo. Buscar Buscar. Locke was born on August 29, , in Wrington, Somerset (England) to Puritan parents of modest means. His father, also called John, was a country lawyer who served in a cavalry company on the Puritan side in the early stages of the English civil war.
Newton set his own techniques down in a short essay, De Analysi per Aequationes Numeri Terminorum Infinitas, which he dispatched to his contact in London, Isaac Barrow. Barrow was immediately impressed, and pushed Newton to allow him to publish it.
Locke ’ s project in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding () was to set out “ to enquire into the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge ” (Locke , p. 43). Locke argued that knowledge is restricted to ideas generated by objects that one experiences through the senses (ideas of sensation) or by reflection upon our.
Concerning Isaac Newton's work on this and other scriptural evidence for the Trinity, see this article, p. Life of John Locke, p. –, and in The Correspondence, Vol. 4, p. , and then Locke is no better off than was Sherlock.
About john locke essay toleration pdf. Your nutrition knowledge has also been a great help in helping me to better understand my diet and how it relates to my fitness levels. I look forward to achieving my personal set goals. About isaac newton essay year the earth day essay moved | <urn:uuid:5abc3b47-8e04-4646-9c80-473054c38c89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xisyduguhej.torosgazete.com/isaac-newton-is-better-than-john-locke-essay-5329ep.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.983474 | 969 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.2390802949666... | 1 | Resources John Locke, Prominent empiricist philosopher, natural law social thinker and Whig political theorist, John Locke was nonetheless a rather traditional Mercantilist in his economics.
Born Francois-Marie Arouet French philosopher, essayist, dramatist, historian, poet, critic, and autobiographer. The following entry provides an overview of Voltaire's life and works.
See also Candide Criticism. The eighteenth century is often called the Age of Enlightenment, but it is just as often called the Age of Voltaire—in the minds of many intellectual historians, the two are synonymous. Voltaire wrote in many genres, excelling at several, but in the modern era he is best remembered for his connections with the theater, his philosophical works, and his contes—short adventure stories dramatizing philosophical issues.
The most famous of these is Candidea satire of G. Leibniz's philosophy of optimism, which examined the reality and absurdity of human suffering.
He attracted many admirers as well as many critics; his open anticlerical stance was particularly controversial and led to many of his works being censored.
He was a Deist for much of his life, and was skeptical of most established political and religious institutions, though he strove for objectivity in his writings. Although exiled from Paris more than once, by the end of his life he was generally celebrated as one of France's greatest thinkers.
The values for which he fought most vigorously—freedom and progress—have become basic assumptions underlying modern Western civilization. He was so weak at birth that he was not expected to live, and was ill and hypochondriacal much of his life.
Biographers have suggested that the young Francois-Marie made up for a feeble body by developing a lively mind; even as a student he was known for his brilliance, wit, and impulsive nature. His sister and mother, with whom he was quite close, died when he was young, and he and his brother parted ways over the issue of religious tolerance.
Thus, even in his adolescence, Francois-Marie developed a strong foundation for the philosophy he would espouse as Voltaire. After completing school, Francois-Marie planned to pursue a career as a poet, but his father intervened, sending him to Holland to work for the French ambassador.
After writing a poem lampooning the regent Phillipe d'Orleans, he was exiled from Paris, though he later pleaded successfully for his return.
InFrancois-Marie again mocked the regent in verse, but instead of being exiled he was sent to the Bastille for a year. While there, he wrote one of his greatest poems: The poem was not published untiland was then printed secretly. After his release from prison in April he began his long association with the theater.
The production of his Oedipe in November of that year was a tremendous critical and financial success.Rogers, G.a.J - Locke's Essay and Newton's Principia - Download as PDF File .pdf), Text File .txt) or read online.
O Scribd é o maior site social de leitura e publicação do mundo. Buscar Buscar. Locke was born on August 29, , in Wrington, Somerset (England) to Puritan parents of modest means. His father, also called John, was a country lawyer who served in a cavalry company on the Puritan side in the early stages of the English civil war.
Newton set his own techniques down in a short essay, De Analysi per Aequationes Numeri Terminorum Infinitas, which he dispatched to his contact in London, Isaac Barrow. Barrow was immediately impressed, and pushed Newton to allow him to publish it.
Locke ’ s project in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding () was to set out “ to enquire into the origin, certainty, and extent of human knowledge ” (Locke , p. 43). Locke argued that knowledge is restricted to ideas generated by objects that one experiences through the senses (ideas of sensation) or by reflection upon our.
Concerning Isaac Newton's work on this and other scriptural evidence for the Trinity, see this article, p. Life of John Locke, p. –, and in The Correspondence, Vol. 4, p. , and then Locke is no better off than was Sherlock.
About john locke essay toleration pdf. Your nutrition knowledge has also been a great help in helping me to better understand my diet and how it relates to my fitness levels. I look forward to achieving my personal set goals. About isaac newton essay year the earth day essay moved | 948 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greece is a country in Southern Europe that is located on the Balkan Peninsula. It is a popular tourist destination because of its geography, climate, history, and architecture. Most of Greece’s history comes from Athens and Sparta. These were the two prominent Greek city-states during The Classical Age, however Athens and Sparta were not very much alike.
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At this point in time, Athens was the cultural center of the world. It was the home of Plato’s Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum, along with other historic points of historic value. Athens was the cultural and trading hub of the world. Most of the people in Athens were traders and merchants. The Athenians were traders because Athens is located on the Attica Peninsula, which is in the Mediterranean Sea. This allowed them to trade with other groups of people. The main group of people the Athenian traded with was the Egyptians. They also traded with the people of what is now Italy. The people of Athens believed highly in an education, and as a result of this, some of the smartest people in the world at this time were from Athens.
During the Golden Age of Athens, it was home to some of the brightest minds. Some of these people were Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Pythagoras. Socrates was a philosopher who lived from 469- 399 B.C.. He was completely honest, and would never tell a lie. He taught outside of the Parthenon, a large temple in Athens that is dedicated to Athena. Socrates believed uneducated people should not hold office and the Greek gods did not exist. He was sent to trial in 399 B.C. and was found guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens and denying the existence of the Greek gods. His punishment for these crimes was to die by drinking hemlock, a very poisonous substance. His greatest student was Plato who became a philosopher and also wrote a book. His book was called Plato’s Republic. It explains what Justice is. Another great philosopher of the time was Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato. Aristotle opened his own school in 335 B.C.. Like Plato, Aristotle was also a writer. His four most popular books are Politics, Ethics, Poetics, and Logic. Aristotle’s main teaching was that good followed a moderate course between extremes. Pythagoras was a mathematician. His Pythagorean Theorem is what has made him so well-known. It is a fundamental part of geometry. Hippocrates was a Greek scientist was worked mainly with medicine. He is known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates made the Hippocratic Oath, which states that a doctor shall do no harm to patient.
Another highlight of Athenian culture that flourished during the Golden age is theater and plays. Greek theater evolved out of religious ceremonies to Greek gods. The types of dramas in The Golden Age of Greece are tragedy, comedy, and satire. Aeschylus is the founder of Greek tragedies. One of the most famous tragedies is Antigone. It is about moral issues of Athenians. It is written by Sophocles, a famous playwright. In thee Classical Age, Athens was very different than Sparta.
Sparta was a city-state in Greece that was located on the banks of the Eurotas River. The Spartans were Unlike Athens, Sparta was a military-like city-state. The main focus of Sparta was to have a great military. Sparta felt they needed a strong military for conquering other land and in case of a revolt of the helots. They had the strongest military in the world because they were so concerned about it. In Sparta, the boys were trained to be soldiers, and the girls were trained to be great mothers. The people of Sparta did not trade or travel a lot because other civilizations were so far away. In Athens, women were given hardly any rights, however this was different in Sparta. For example, in Sparta a women could own property or run a business.That was very rare at this time.
The forms of militaries between Athens and Sparta were different. Athens had a strong navy, however Sparta had a strong army. Due to Sparta’s location inland it was not very easy for Athens to attack Sparta. To attack Sparta, Athens had to send their navy’s ships down the Eurotas river. Sparta was located on the banks of this river. It was difficult for Sparta to be attacked this way because Sparta could see when the ships were coming. This is one of the factors that contributed to Sparta winning the Peloponnesian War. The Athenian War ship were called triremes. They were large ships that were rowed with oars. The most famous battle the Athenian’s won using their navy was The Battle of Salamis. Sparta’s form of military was an army. Their army was the strongest in the world. Young boys for trained to be in the Spartan military from the time they were 7, however only men ages 20 through 30 were in the army. When the spartan army attacked, they used a formation called a hoplite phalanx. hoplite Phalanx is a formation of soldiers that was about 8 rows deep and was a quarter mile wide. This was the strongest formation possible during this time. Using this formation, they won nine wars. The most famous of these wars would be The Peloponnesian War, which was a war between Athens and Sparta. Sparta won this war and proved that they were stronger than Athens.
In Athens, the form of government was a democracy. Their form of democracy was a limited democracy. A limited democracy is a democracy where representatives are voted into office to make decisions for people. The difference between this and a democracy is that in a democracy, the people have a complete say in what is done. Athens started using a limited democracy as their form of government around 500 B.C.. Sparta’s form of government was completely different that Athens’. Spartans believed in having two kings rule the city-state. A 28-member council limited their powers. The Spartans believed this government was better than a democracy because it was easier to rule with, and it took much less time to decide on political matters.
The geography of Athens and the geography of Sparta are very different. Athens was located on the edge of the Attica Peninsula, however Sparta was located on the banks of the Eurotas River, The main river of Greece. Sparta was located in the middle of Greece. This made it hard to trade for the Spartans, however Athens was located on Mediterranean Sea. This made it easy for Athens to trade with other groups of people, such as Egypt and Italy. Both Athens and Sparta had mountains near them. This is one of the reasons these two city-states never came together to be a bigger city-state or possibly even the start of an empire.
Most religions in the world during the time of ancient Greece were polytheistic. Greek people believed in a polytheistic religion with many gods. The people in Athens and Sparta believed in the same religion. The three main gods of the ancient Greek religion were Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. They believed Zeus was the ruler of everything on Earth, Poseidon was the ruler of the sea, and Hades was the ruler of the underworld. They Greek people also believed in afterlife in the underworld. Greek Mythology revolves around the Greek gods. The people of Greece believed that the spirits of the dead went there. A great number of people who found in the Trojan and Theban wars went to a place called Elysium, a place that is somewhat like Heaven. This is stated by Homer in his epics.
Athenian and Spartan homes were very similar, but they were also different. They were both fairly simple. Most Athenian homes were made from mud and grass, but some were made from stone. Spartan house were mostly made from mud, wood, or stone. In a Spartan house, cooking was done indoors, unless you were poor. If you were poor, it was done outside. An athenian home consisted of several rooms. These rooms were a kitchen, storage, some type of bathroom, bedrooms, and a lounge room. The houses of the poor and wealthy in Athens were almost the same size because of the demand for space.
Athens and Sparta were two incredible city-states that were located in Greece, but they have they’re differences. Some of their differences were they’re geography, form of government, and military strengths. Athens and Sparta are also extremely alike. For example, they believe in the same religion. Altogether, Athens and Sparta are the two Greek city-states that have definitely left their mark on world.
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Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | <urn:uuid:9f0237f9-fe2c-4320-b593-f5ff2979c5d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/the-cultural-and-the-military-center-of-the-greek-empire-history-of-athens-and-sparta/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.991606 | 1,938 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.58858287334442... | 2 | Greece is a country in Southern Europe that is located on the Balkan Peninsula. It is a popular tourist destination because of its geography, climate, history, and architecture. Most of Greece’s history comes from Athens and Sparta. These were the two prominent Greek city-states during The Classical Age, however Athens and Sparta were not very much alike.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
At this point in time, Athens was the cultural center of the world. It was the home of Plato’s Academy and Aristotle’s Lyceum, along with other historic points of historic value. Athens was the cultural and trading hub of the world. Most of the people in Athens were traders and merchants. The Athenians were traders because Athens is located on the Attica Peninsula, which is in the Mediterranean Sea. This allowed them to trade with other groups of people. The main group of people the Athenian traded with was the Egyptians. They also traded with the people of what is now Italy. The people of Athens believed highly in an education, and as a result of this, some of the smartest people in the world at this time were from Athens.
During the Golden Age of Athens, it was home to some of the brightest minds. Some of these people were Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Pythagoras. Socrates was a philosopher who lived from 469- 399 B.C.. He was completely honest, and would never tell a lie. He taught outside of the Parthenon, a large temple in Athens that is dedicated to Athena. Socrates believed uneducated people should not hold office and the Greek gods did not exist. He was sent to trial in 399 B.C. and was found guilty of corrupting the youth of Athens and denying the existence of the Greek gods. His punishment for these crimes was to die by drinking hemlock, a very poisonous substance. His greatest student was Plato who became a philosopher and also wrote a book. His book was called Plato’s Republic. It explains what Justice is. Another great philosopher of the time was Aristotle. Aristotle was a student of Plato. Aristotle opened his own school in 335 B.C.. Like Plato, Aristotle was also a writer. His four most popular books are Politics, Ethics, Poetics, and Logic. Aristotle’s main teaching was that good followed a moderate course between extremes. Pythagoras was a mathematician. His Pythagorean Theorem is what has made him so well-known. It is a fundamental part of geometry. Hippocrates was a Greek scientist was worked mainly with medicine. He is known as the father of medicine. Hippocrates made the Hippocratic Oath, which states that a doctor shall do no harm to patient.
Another highlight of Athenian culture that flourished during the Golden age is theater and plays. Greek theater evolved out of religious ceremonies to Greek gods. The types of dramas in The Golden Age of Greece are tragedy, comedy, and satire. Aeschylus is the founder of Greek tragedies. One of the most famous tragedies is Antigone. It is about moral issues of Athenians. It is written by Sophocles, a famous playwright. In thee Classical Age, Athens was very different than Sparta.
Sparta was a city-state in Greece that was located on the banks of the Eurotas River. The Spartans were Unlike Athens, Sparta was a military-like city-state. The main focus of Sparta was to have a great military. Sparta felt they needed a strong military for conquering other land and in case of a revolt of the helots. They had the strongest military in the world because they were so concerned about it. In Sparta, the boys were trained to be soldiers, and the girls were trained to be great mothers. The people of Sparta did not trade or travel a lot because other civilizations were so far away. In Athens, women were given hardly any rights, however this was different in Sparta. For example, in Sparta a women could own property or run a business.That was very rare at this time.
The forms of militaries between Athens and Sparta were different. Athens had a strong navy, however Sparta had a strong army. Due to Sparta’s location inland it was not very easy for Athens to attack Sparta. To attack Sparta, Athens had to send their navy’s ships down the Eurotas river. Sparta was located on the banks of this river. It was difficult for Sparta to be attacked this way because Sparta could see when the ships were coming. This is one of the factors that contributed to Sparta winning the Peloponnesian War. The Athenian War ship were called triremes. They were large ships that were rowed with oars. The most famous battle the Athenian’s won using their navy was The Battle of Salamis. Sparta’s form of military was an army. Their army was the strongest in the world. Young boys for trained to be in the Spartan military from the time they were 7, however only men ages 20 through 30 were in the army. When the spartan army attacked, they used a formation called a hoplite phalanx. hoplite Phalanx is a formation of soldiers that was about 8 rows deep and was a quarter mile wide. This was the strongest formation possible during this time. Using this formation, they won nine wars. The most famous of these wars would be The Peloponnesian War, which was a war between Athens and Sparta. Sparta won this war and proved that they were stronger than Athens.
In Athens, the form of government was a democracy. Their form of democracy was a limited democracy. A limited democracy is a democracy where representatives are voted into office to make decisions for people. The difference between this and a democracy is that in a democracy, the people have a complete say in what is done. Athens started using a limited democracy as their form of government around 500 B.C.. Sparta’s form of government was completely different that Athens’. Spartans believed in having two kings rule the city-state. A 28-member council limited their powers. The Spartans believed this government was better than a democracy because it was easier to rule with, and it took much less time to decide on political matters.
The geography of Athens and the geography of Sparta are very different. Athens was located on the edge of the Attica Peninsula, however Sparta was located on the banks of the Eurotas River, The main river of Greece. Sparta was located in the middle of Greece. This made it hard to trade for the Spartans, however Athens was located on Mediterranean Sea. This made it easy for Athens to trade with other groups of people, such as Egypt and Italy. Both Athens and Sparta had mountains near them. This is one of the reasons these two city-states never came together to be a bigger city-state or possibly even the start of an empire.
Most religions in the world during the time of ancient Greece were polytheistic. Greek people believed in a polytheistic religion with many gods. The people in Athens and Sparta believed in the same religion. The three main gods of the ancient Greek religion were Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. They believed Zeus was the ruler of everything on Earth, Poseidon was the ruler of the sea, and Hades was the ruler of the underworld. They Greek people also believed in afterlife in the underworld. Greek Mythology revolves around the Greek gods. The people of Greece believed that the spirits of the dead went there. A great number of people who found in the Trojan and Theban wars went to a place called Elysium, a place that is somewhat like Heaven. This is stated by Homer in his epics.
Athenian and Spartan homes were very similar, but they were also different. They were both fairly simple. Most Athenian homes were made from mud and grass, but some were made from stone. Spartan house were mostly made from mud, wood, or stone. In a Spartan house, cooking was done indoors, unless you were poor. If you were poor, it was done outside. An athenian home consisted of several rooms. These rooms were a kitchen, storage, some type of bathroom, bedrooms, and a lounge room. The houses of the poor and wealthy in Athens were almost the same size because of the demand for space.
Athens and Sparta were two incredible city-states that were located in Greece, but they have they’re differences. Some of their differences were they’re geography, form of government, and military strengths. Athens and Sparta are also extremely alike. For example, they believe in the same religion. Altogether, Athens and Sparta are the two Greek city-states that have definitely left their mark on world.
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How many of you know that 2nd October is not only the birth-date of Mahatma Gandhi, but also of Lal Bahadur Shastri, one of the most honest, noble, and able Prime Ministers of India?
Lal Bahadur Shastri was known for his simplicity, leadership qualities and the famous slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’. He was a true administrator and an inspiration for the youth as well as nation builders. He was also an indispensable part of the Indian freedom struggle. Such leaders are hard to find in today’s world.
Shastri was born on 2nd October 1904 at Mughal Sarai, Uttar Pradesh in a very simple family. His original name was Lal Bahadur Srivastava. He was against the caste system and had dropped his surname as a mark of protest. The title ‘Shastri’, meaning scholar, was added to his name after he completed his course at Kashi Vidyapeeth in 1926. At present, India has many roads, monuments, public squares, and stadiums after his name.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was a man full of honesty and truthfulness. He joined ‘Servants of People Society’ founded by Lala Lajpat Rai after completing his studies at Kashi Vidyapeeth. He was a very active freedom fighter and a great disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. Shastri participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930. In the same year, he was appointed as the General Secretary of Allahabad District Congress Committee. Shastri was imprisoned many a times by the British during the freedom struggle. After Independence, he became a minister in the state government of Uttar Pradesh. From 1952 to 1956, he served the federal as the minister of transport; from 1957 to 1961, as minister of industry; and from 1961 to 1963 as home affairs minister. He set an exceptional example in politics by resigning from cabinet, taking a moral responsibility of a railway accident. His resignation was accepted by Jawaharlal Nehru just to set an example, though he was not at fault. After the demise of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of India on June 9, 1964. He held the office for 582 days from June 9, 1964 to January 11, 1996.
During his short tenure, he came across many problems but faced each with flexibility and firmness. He was an able administrator. Rather than conflict, he gave preference to cooperation. Personal views of every member at cabinet meeting were taken very seriously before taking any decision. To collect information and advice, Lal Bahadur Shastri set up his own Prime Minister’s Secretariat, independent of the ministries. He maintained the norms of a democratic system.
Lal Bahadur Shastri revolutionized the agriculture sector of India and gave the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”. He formulated the strategies for Green Revolution in order to increase agriculture output, which were taken up more vigorously in Indira Gandhi’s tenure.
He became the Minister of Police and Transport in Uttar Pradesh under Govind Ballabh Pant’s Chief Ministership, and was the first one to appoint women conductors. He also institutionalized the Central Bureau of Investigation to combat corruption. With this quick follow-up, actions were taken on the Das Enquiry Report against then Punjab Chief Minister Pratap Singh Kairon.
He was an honest person who never used his position for personal benefit. An incident highlights this. Once his son Anil went to deposit admission fee at St. Stephen’s College in Delhi. He was standing in a long queue. The day was very hot and because of this he fell on the ground and became unconscious. Some students took him to the dispensary. When he came to, teachers asked him his father’s name and address. On hearing the name, everyone was shocked and said, ‘Lal Bahadur Shastri, our Prime Minister!’
Lal Bahadur Shastri died on 11 January 1966 in Uzbek city of Tashkent just few hours of signing a peace agreement.
In 1966, Lal Bhadur Shastri was posthumously awarded with the Bharat Ratna award. A memorial was built at Vijay Ghat, New Delhi to honor the great son of India.
Today our nation needs leaders like Lal Bahadur Shastri who can lead India and devote everything to the nation.
Who do you think is ideal for the job today?
1,436 total views, 22 views today | <urn:uuid:87060649-866a-4e6a-87a5-02a66cc4311c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/india/shri-lal-bhadur-shastri-an-honest-and-a-true-leader | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00536.warc.gz | en | 0.986322 | 970 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0848449617624... | 1 | How many of you know that 2nd October is not only the birth-date of Mahatma Gandhi, but also of Lal Bahadur Shastri, one of the most honest, noble, and able Prime Ministers of India?
Lal Bahadur Shastri was known for his simplicity, leadership qualities and the famous slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’. He was a true administrator and an inspiration for the youth as well as nation builders. He was also an indispensable part of the Indian freedom struggle. Such leaders are hard to find in today’s world.
Shastri was born on 2nd October 1904 at Mughal Sarai, Uttar Pradesh in a very simple family. His original name was Lal Bahadur Srivastava. He was against the caste system and had dropped his surname as a mark of protest. The title ‘Shastri’, meaning scholar, was added to his name after he completed his course at Kashi Vidyapeeth in 1926. At present, India has many roads, monuments, public squares, and stadiums after his name.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was a man full of honesty and truthfulness. He joined ‘Servants of People Society’ founded by Lala Lajpat Rai after completing his studies at Kashi Vidyapeeth. He was a very active freedom fighter and a great disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. Shastri participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930. In the same year, he was appointed as the General Secretary of Allahabad District Congress Committee. Shastri was imprisoned many a times by the British during the freedom struggle. After Independence, he became a minister in the state government of Uttar Pradesh. From 1952 to 1956, he served the federal as the minister of transport; from 1957 to 1961, as minister of industry; and from 1961 to 1963 as home affairs minister. He set an exceptional example in politics by resigning from cabinet, taking a moral responsibility of a railway accident. His resignation was accepted by Jawaharlal Nehru just to set an example, though he was not at fault. After the demise of Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of India on June 9, 1964. He held the office for 582 days from June 9, 1964 to January 11, 1996.
During his short tenure, he came across many problems but faced each with flexibility and firmness. He was an able administrator. Rather than conflict, he gave preference to cooperation. Personal views of every member at cabinet meeting were taken very seriously before taking any decision. To collect information and advice, Lal Bahadur Shastri set up his own Prime Minister’s Secretariat, independent of the ministries. He maintained the norms of a democratic system.
Lal Bahadur Shastri revolutionized the agriculture sector of India and gave the slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”. He formulated the strategies for Green Revolution in order to increase agriculture output, which were taken up more vigorously in Indira Gandhi’s tenure.
He became the Minister of Police and Transport in Uttar Pradesh under Govind Ballabh Pant’s Chief Ministership, and was the first one to appoint women conductors. He also institutionalized the Central Bureau of Investigation to combat corruption. With this quick follow-up, actions were taken on the Das Enquiry Report against then Punjab Chief Minister Pratap Singh Kairon.
He was an honest person who never used his position for personal benefit. An incident highlights this. Once his son Anil went to deposit admission fee at St. Stephen’s College in Delhi. He was standing in a long queue. The day was very hot and because of this he fell on the ground and became unconscious. Some students took him to the dispensary. When he came to, teachers asked him his father’s name and address. On hearing the name, everyone was shocked and said, ‘Lal Bahadur Shastri, our Prime Minister!’
Lal Bahadur Shastri died on 11 January 1966 in Uzbek city of Tashkent just few hours of signing a peace agreement.
In 1966, Lal Bhadur Shastri was posthumously awarded with the Bharat Ratna award. A memorial was built at Vijay Ghat, New Delhi to honor the great son of India.
Today our nation needs leaders like Lal Bahadur Shastri who can lead India and devote everything to the nation.
Who do you think is ideal for the job today?
1,436 total views, 22 views today | 1,001 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Saint John Fisher (1469-1535)
for June 22
Saint John Fisher was an academic who was associated with the intellectuals and politicians of his time. He acted as chancellor at the University of Cambridge in England and was elected bishop. John's scholarly background helped mold him into a celebrated writer and preacher. He was well known for his sermons on the penitential psalms and for his books against heresy. In 1521 he was summoned to look into the validity of Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He stated that the marriage was valid and indissoluble, which incurred the wrath of the king, and later he also renounced the king's claim that he was supreme head of the Church in England. Henry tried to dispose of John, first by accusing him of not transcribing all of the "revelations" of Sister Elizabeth Barton, and then for refusing to take the oath of the Act of Succession, which declared Henry's divorce from Catherine legal and made him the head of the Church of England. John's friend Thomas More also refused to take the oath. They were both sent to the Tower of London, where they were sentenced to life imprisonment. When he was called for further questioning, John once again refused to recognize Henry VIII as the head of England's Church. John was also accused of high treason, because he had been made a cardinal by the pope. He was condemned to death and executed.
Image via Wikipedia
Saint John Fisher is a remarkable example of courage, faith and perseverance. As a highly educated and sociable man, he was well acquainted with the customs and powers of his time. He knew the risks of opposing the king. Despite his power and comfortable lifestyle, he was unwilling to forsake his conscience and his religious views for the sake of his own security. Consequently, he was executed. Saint John Fisher is a reminder to us that, regardless of what we must sacrifice, our integrity and conscience must always be followed. Think of times when you followed your conscience and suffered negative repercussions.
Dear Jesus, help me to always follow my conscience and, through my conscience, follow you. | <urn:uuid:e486d967-b655-4633-acda-4f05278b9cc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.smp.org/resourcecenter/resource/7614/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.991152 | 436 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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for June 22
Saint John Fisher was an academic who was associated with the intellectuals and politicians of his time. He acted as chancellor at the University of Cambridge in England and was elected bishop. John's scholarly background helped mold him into a celebrated writer and preacher. He was well known for his sermons on the penitential psalms and for his books against heresy. In 1521 he was summoned to look into the validity of Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. He stated that the marriage was valid and indissoluble, which incurred the wrath of the king, and later he also renounced the king's claim that he was supreme head of the Church in England. Henry tried to dispose of John, first by accusing him of not transcribing all of the "revelations" of Sister Elizabeth Barton, and then for refusing to take the oath of the Act of Succession, which declared Henry's divorce from Catherine legal and made him the head of the Church of England. John's friend Thomas More also refused to take the oath. They were both sent to the Tower of London, where they were sentenced to life imprisonment. When he was called for further questioning, John once again refused to recognize Henry VIII as the head of England's Church. John was also accused of high treason, because he had been made a cardinal by the pope. He was condemned to death and executed.
Image via Wikipedia
Saint John Fisher is a remarkable example of courage, faith and perseverance. As a highly educated and sociable man, he was well acquainted with the customs and powers of his time. He knew the risks of opposing the king. Despite his power and comfortable lifestyle, he was unwilling to forsake his conscience and his religious views for the sake of his own security. Consequently, he was executed. Saint John Fisher is a reminder to us that, regardless of what we must sacrifice, our integrity and conscience must always be followed. Think of times when you followed your conscience and suffered negative repercussions.
Dear Jesus, help me to always follow my conscience and, through my conscience, follow you. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Story behind That Time the Mediterranean Sea Disappeared
How could such a large body of water just have disappeared?
Did you know that at one point, the Mediterranean sea disappeared? Since the 1800s, scientists have been aware that the layers of the Mediterranean sea weren't just made out of the usual sediments.
Those layers are full of salt crystals. These types of salt deposits are found in places where bodies of water have dried up.
This suggests that at some point in history, the Mediterranean sea must have evaporated.
"How could a body of water as big as the Mediterranean just...disappear? It would take decades and more than 1,000 research studies to even start to figure out the cause -- or causes -- of one of the greatest vanishing acts in Earth’s history," writes the video's description.
One theory proposed that the main water source to the Mediterranean had, at one point, been closed off. Today, this point is known as the Strait of Gibraltar.
They called this water turn off the Messinian salinity crisis. However, they struggled to figure out how that source of water got turned off.
In the end, they came out with three hypotheses as to what could have happened. We won't tell you what they are here. You have to watch the video to find out yourself. All we'll tell you is that each is as riveting as the next. | <urn:uuid:ddf8edda-41b9-4b43-a14f-f2dd75e1446f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://interestingengineering.com/video/the-story-behind-that-time-the-mediterranean-sea-disappeared | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00446.warc.gz | en | 0.982309 | 290 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.1244831308722496... | 10 | The Story behind That Time the Mediterranean Sea Disappeared
How could such a large body of water just have disappeared?
Did you know that at one point, the Mediterranean sea disappeared? Since the 1800s, scientists have been aware that the layers of the Mediterranean sea weren't just made out of the usual sediments.
Those layers are full of salt crystals. These types of salt deposits are found in places where bodies of water have dried up.
This suggests that at some point in history, the Mediterranean sea must have evaporated.
"How could a body of water as big as the Mediterranean just...disappear? It would take decades and more than 1,000 research studies to even start to figure out the cause -- or causes -- of one of the greatest vanishing acts in Earth’s history," writes the video's description.
One theory proposed that the main water source to the Mediterranean had, at one point, been closed off. Today, this point is known as the Strait of Gibraltar.
They called this water turn off the Messinian salinity crisis. However, they struggled to figure out how that source of water got turned off.
In the end, they came out with three hypotheses as to what could have happened. We won't tell you what they are here. You have to watch the video to find out yourself. All we'll tell you is that each is as riveting as the next. | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Heart of a Civilization
The olive tree originates from the Mediterranean and has greatly influenced the formation of a civilization in a place where some of the earliest human civilizations were developed. The development of a civilization can be seen through the people's diet. If the identity of an area is shaped by the goods that are produced there, Greece, then, is characterized by her olive oil.
The olive tree has always been the foundation of the Greek economy. Greek mythology tells the story of the olive tree as a gift from the gods. Legend has it, that Pallas Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and Poseidon, the god of the sea, were put to a test, which involved the creation of a gift for mankind. The prize to be won was the honour of having the most important city in Attica named after the winner of the contest. When Poseidon struck the rock of the Acropolis with his trident, a horse sprang out and salt water began to flow. Athena, on the other hand, touched the ground with her spear and an olive tree sprouted from the soil. Her gift was deemed more valuable and so she lent her name to the city of Athens. This benchmark era, approximately 4,000 years ago, marks the point at which the olive tree embarked on its career of national importance.
Symbolism: The Tree of Peace
Greek tradition looks upon the olive tree as the symbol of peace. Irini (peace in Greek), the goddess of Peace and the daughter of Zeus and Themis, is portrayed with an olive branch in her hands. An olive branch was also used as a symbol for the end of a war or for messengers coming in peace.
The olive tree and its oil took on a powerful political, economic, sacred and religious significance, to the extent that it became a tree protected under law in Ancient Greece. In the 6th century BC, Solon, a famous statesman of the day, introduced many laws designed to underpin the olive oil industry, which, besides its local stature, also played a very significant role as an export income earner. So important did olive cultivation become that anyone caught cutting down an olive tree was executed. The olive tree was subsequently thought of as a superior gift, in that it symbolized the arrival of a more sophisticated lifestyle. The olive provided vital food and its oil gave cardinal nourishment, an important factor in keeping the body healthy, as well as beautiful. It was also valued because of its use ass fuel and a source of light.
Hippocrates thought of olive oil as the great therapeutic." Today, in modern Greece, about 130 million olive trees are cultivated and many hundreds of thousands of families owe this industry their livelihood. It may therefore be said that the legendary olive tree has provided a golden streak of wealth for Greece and her people over the millennia. | <urn:uuid:271f4e67-960c-4d1d-9e8f-d92fb288d6ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pilarosinc.com/olive-oil | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00481.warc.gz | en | 0.98091 | 576 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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The olive tree originates from the Mediterranean and has greatly influenced the formation of a civilization in a place where some of the earliest human civilizations were developed. The development of a civilization can be seen through the people's diet. If the identity of an area is shaped by the goods that are produced there, Greece, then, is characterized by her olive oil.
The olive tree has always been the foundation of the Greek economy. Greek mythology tells the story of the olive tree as a gift from the gods. Legend has it, that Pallas Athena, the goddess of wisdom, and Poseidon, the god of the sea, were put to a test, which involved the creation of a gift for mankind. The prize to be won was the honour of having the most important city in Attica named after the winner of the contest. When Poseidon struck the rock of the Acropolis with his trident, a horse sprang out and salt water began to flow. Athena, on the other hand, touched the ground with her spear and an olive tree sprouted from the soil. Her gift was deemed more valuable and so she lent her name to the city of Athens. This benchmark era, approximately 4,000 years ago, marks the point at which the olive tree embarked on its career of national importance.
Symbolism: The Tree of Peace
Greek tradition looks upon the olive tree as the symbol of peace. Irini (peace in Greek), the goddess of Peace and the daughter of Zeus and Themis, is portrayed with an olive branch in her hands. An olive branch was also used as a symbol for the end of a war or for messengers coming in peace.
The olive tree and its oil took on a powerful political, economic, sacred and religious significance, to the extent that it became a tree protected under law in Ancient Greece. In the 6th century BC, Solon, a famous statesman of the day, introduced many laws designed to underpin the olive oil industry, which, besides its local stature, also played a very significant role as an export income earner. So important did olive cultivation become that anyone caught cutting down an olive tree was executed. The olive tree was subsequently thought of as a superior gift, in that it symbolized the arrival of a more sophisticated lifestyle. The olive provided vital food and its oil gave cardinal nourishment, an important factor in keeping the body healthy, as well as beautiful. It was also valued because of its use ass fuel and a source of light.
Hippocrates thought of olive oil as the great therapeutic." Today, in modern Greece, about 130 million olive trees are cultivated and many hundreds of thousands of families owe this industry their livelihood. It may therefore be said that the legendary olive tree has provided a golden streak of wealth for Greece and her people over the millennia. | 579 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pages that link here:
Gas balloons appeared at the same time as the hot air balloons and at one time were more popular than them. They are still popular although some gasses that are used for them can be very dangerous. Find out more about history of gas balloons.
The first balloons where small flying lanterns which were used during festivals and as ways of communications between armies. They grew in time, became the first aircrafts and were capable of carrying people. Find out more about history of ballooning.
History of human flight begins in 18th century with an invention of two brothers - a hot air balloon. These brothers, Montgolfier Brothers, proved that humans can fly - with a little help from science.
Since the earliest days, man tries to fly. We have myths that reflect this human wish. Balloons were the first that helped us to fulfill this wish (although, we first had to send couple of animals to test the idea for us). Read about balloon flight history. | <urn:uuid:52e59228-fbc0-4a84-81a4-1ba3e7c6f1c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.historyofballoons.com/picture/picture-of-the-union-army-balloon-intrepid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.986169 | 203 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Gas balloons appeared at the same time as the hot air balloons and at one time were more popular than them. They are still popular although some gasses that are used for them can be very dangerous. Find out more about history of gas balloons.
The first balloons where small flying lanterns which were used during festivals and as ways of communications between armies. They grew in time, became the first aircrafts and were capable of carrying people. Find out more about history of ballooning.
History of human flight begins in 18th century with an invention of two brothers - a hot air balloon. These brothers, Montgolfier Brothers, proved that humans can fly - with a little help from science.
Since the earliest days, man tries to fly. We have myths that reflect this human wish. Balloons were the first that helped us to fulfill this wish (although, we first had to send couple of animals to test the idea for us). Read about balloon flight history. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It takes one constitutional amendment to undo another. Enter the 21st Amendment, the first — and, so far, only — amendment to restore rights taken away by a previous amendment. In 1932, both parties called for the 18th Amendment to be repealed. In 1933, Congress answered by passing a resolution proposing the repeal. Once three-fourths of the states had ratified the resolution, the 21st Amendment was passed and alcohol began to flow again legally in the United States.
By Dec. 5, 1933, when the amendment was ratified, even people who had vocally supported Prohibition had changed their tune dramatically. Their opinions about the evils of alcohol remained, but they had realized the effects of Prohibition to be far-reaching and perhaps worse than alcohol itself. According to famous tycoon John D. Rockefeller, "Drinking has generally increased, the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has been recruited and financed on a colossal scale." | <urn:uuid:afb1e793-1e7b-418d-b46c-4966efc83cca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/prohibition5.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.981217 | 195 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.411490440368... | 1 | It takes one constitutional amendment to undo another. Enter the 21st Amendment, the first — and, so far, only — amendment to restore rights taken away by a previous amendment. In 1932, both parties called for the 18th Amendment to be repealed. In 1933, Congress answered by passing a resolution proposing the repeal. Once three-fourths of the states had ratified the resolution, the 21st Amendment was passed and alcohol began to flow again legally in the United States.
By Dec. 5, 1933, when the amendment was ratified, even people who had vocally supported Prohibition had changed their tune dramatically. Their opinions about the evils of alcohol remained, but they had realized the effects of Prohibition to be far-reaching and perhaps worse than alcohol itself. According to famous tycoon John D. Rockefeller, "Drinking has generally increased, the speakeasy has replaced the saloon; a vast army of lawbreakers has been recruited and financed on a colossal scale." | 214 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- from the desk of John J. Zimkus | WCHS Historian/Educational Director
(The following is the text of a speech given on November 11, 2018, at Runyan Field in Lebanon, Ohio marking the centennial of the Armistice ending World War I.)
One hundred years ago today, on November 11, 1918, an armistice went into effect. It was the formal agreement to stop the fighting in what was called “The Great War,” “The war to end all wars” better known today as World War I. They didn’t know at that time that a little over 20 years later we had to start numbering such devastating conflicts.
The armistice was between the Allies - Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States, and their opponent, Germany. Separate armistices had already existed between the Allies and Germany’s partners in what was called the Central Powers - Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The armistice was signed in a railway car in an area in Northern France called Compiègne, around 5:00 a.m. It was agreed that at 11 a.m. that same day, November 11, 1918,—“The eleventh hour ,of the eleventh day. of the eleventh month”— the ceasefire would go into effect.
During the 6 hours between the signing of the armistice and its enforcement, although some opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, along many other areas the fighting continued. Consequently, on the last day of World War I, there were nearly 11,000 casualties, of whom 2,738 were killed.
An American, 23-year-old Henry Gunther from Maryland is generally recognized as the last soldier to die in action in World War I. He was killed at 10:59 a.m. Paris time, 60 seconds before the armistice went into effect.
The actual terms of the armistice, largely written by the Allied Supreme Commander, MarshalFerdinand Foch of the French Army, included the cessation of hostilities, the surrender of aircraft, warships, and military materiel, the release of Allied prisoners of war and interned civilians, and eventual reparations.
News of the armistice reached Lebanon, Ohio around 3 in the morning, that Monday, November 11, 1918, about 6 hours after the actual announcement was made in France.
Many of the people who were awake at that time in Lebanon remembered the false United Press dispatch announcing “peace” the previous Thursday and were slow to accept this news as being genuine.
Around 6 a.m. the armistice announcement was verified and, as The Western Star reported, “The fun started.” Church bells, fire bells, train and factory whistles united in what was called a “Glorious hallelujah.”
The noise attracted the attention of every citizen in Lebanon. It was said few people took the time to eat their breakfast that morning but instead rushed into the streets to join the crowds already there. The newspaper reported,“Then until noon - pandemonium reigned.”
The Lebanon schools, Lebanon High at that time being located were Pleasant Street Park is today, were closed. They were scheduled to open that very day after being shutdown for several weeks due to the deadly Spanish flu epidemic that had spread throughout the country. Now however, teachers and students joined the celebration in the streets.
Stores closed and business in Lebanon in general was suspended. Such signs as “To Hell With the Kaiser” and “Closed to Celebrate” were posted in many the town’s store windows.
Parades sprung up spontaneously all over Lebanon. People shouted themselves hoarse in and effort to be heard and join in the noise of the car horns, cow bells, tin horns, tin pans and other instruments of noisy celebration.
The executive committee of the fraternal organization called the Men of Lebanon hastily and successfully made preparations for a parade to begin at 9:30 a.m. It started from Harmon Hall headed by several members of the Harmon Hall Band. It was said there was scarcely room for people on Broadway. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, school children, men, women and automobiles galore. The procession was said to be nearly a mile long.
After the parade went over the principal streets of town, Judge Frances M. Hamilton was asked to speak. He paid tribute to the brave boys from Lebanon who had helped to achieve this great victory. He then told the crowd that Lebanon will never again hold such a demonstration as on this day, save one - “When our boys come home.”
Several songs were sung by the crowd led by Miss Laura B. Cunningham and elementary teacher in the Lebanon schools. Then every man and woman in the vast group bowed their head in a moment of silent prayer. After that Mayor Murphy proclaimed that day, November 11, 1918, a holiday.
Preparations were then immediately launched for what was described as a “Mammoth parade" for that night.
Promptly at 7 p.m. the great procession began with the Harmon Hall Band providing the music. At “each corner new faces joined in.” It was reported, “This was one time when everyone was an [equal]. The humblest and highest marched side by side.”
Following this parade speeches were made. One was by Judge J. A. Runyan, the namesake of the Runyon Field in which we are gathered this morning. He was from the Local Draft Board. Another was by Attorney Frank C. Anderson representing the Red Cross. Judge F. M. Hamilton read a poem written by Cpl. William McKinney of Lebanon’s own Company E of the First Regiment of the Ohio National Guard who trained on this spot and went into battle at part of the 147th Infantry, 37th Division, of the American Expeditionary Forces.
The last stanza of Cpl. McKinney’s poem reads:
“To mothers of men that have fallen
On the field of battle in France,
Let not your hearts be worried
For they were given a chance
To give their hearts to their maker.
Your prayers were not made in vain.
When the trumpet of judgement has sounded
You and he shall meet again.”
Three days later, on November 14, 1918, an editorial in The Western Star entitled simply “PEACE” said in part:
“Not since the morning stars sang the anthem, ‘Glory to God in the highest, and on earth Peace, good will to men,’ has the world heard so joyful an announcement as that which the wires carried on Monday morning, announcing the signing of the armistice on the part of the German government.
“No wonder Lebanon - Warren County - Ohio - the United States - the World acted as though it were insane with joy. No wonder tears and laughter intermingled. No wonder the old forgot their age and became youths again. No wonder the young assumed the age of discretion and discussed ‘What [Marshal] Foch had done.’ Nothing was to be wondered at . . . on Monday.
“Peace - Sweet Peace - Peace with Victory - Peace with Honor, had come. 100 days ago every cloud was black with the possibilities of an autocratic German victory. 100 days ago there was hardly a bright spot in the sky as big as a man’s hand. But those who had faith saw a bright spot and said, ‘All will be well.’
“As a French woman said, ‘God happened,’ and the bright spot grew in size. God’s emissaries, led by that most wonderful man, General Foch, who left his staff on many an occasion to enter a humble chapel and pray for the success of his army, have overturned the hosts of hell and won a victorious peace.”
Staff and volunteers of WCHS | <urn:uuid:0b4b5c9c-b9e8-42be-869e-a3ca5ade1742> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wchsmuseum.org/blog/august-28th-2019 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.983104 | 1,681 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.659492909908... | 3 | - from the desk of John J. Zimkus | WCHS Historian/Educational Director
(The following is the text of a speech given on November 11, 2018, at Runyan Field in Lebanon, Ohio marking the centennial of the Armistice ending World War I.)
One hundred years ago today, on November 11, 1918, an armistice went into effect. It was the formal agreement to stop the fighting in what was called “The Great War,” “The war to end all wars” better known today as World War I. They didn’t know at that time that a little over 20 years later we had to start numbering such devastating conflicts.
The armistice was between the Allies - Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States, and their opponent, Germany. Separate armistices had already existed between the Allies and Germany’s partners in what was called the Central Powers - Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The armistice was signed in a railway car in an area in Northern France called Compiègne, around 5:00 a.m. It was agreed that at 11 a.m. that same day, November 11, 1918,—“The eleventh hour ,of the eleventh day. of the eleventh month”— the ceasefire would go into effect.
During the 6 hours between the signing of the armistice and its enforcement, although some opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions, along many other areas the fighting continued. Consequently, on the last day of World War I, there were nearly 11,000 casualties, of whom 2,738 were killed.
An American, 23-year-old Henry Gunther from Maryland is generally recognized as the last soldier to die in action in World War I. He was killed at 10:59 a.m. Paris time, 60 seconds before the armistice went into effect.
The actual terms of the armistice, largely written by the Allied Supreme Commander, MarshalFerdinand Foch of the French Army, included the cessation of hostilities, the surrender of aircraft, warships, and military materiel, the release of Allied prisoners of war and interned civilians, and eventual reparations.
News of the armistice reached Lebanon, Ohio around 3 in the morning, that Monday, November 11, 1918, about 6 hours after the actual announcement was made in France.
Many of the people who were awake at that time in Lebanon remembered the false United Press dispatch announcing “peace” the previous Thursday and were slow to accept this news as being genuine.
Around 6 a.m. the armistice announcement was verified and, as The Western Star reported, “The fun started.” Church bells, fire bells, train and factory whistles united in what was called a “Glorious hallelujah.”
The noise attracted the attention of every citizen in Lebanon. It was said few people took the time to eat their breakfast that morning but instead rushed into the streets to join the crowds already there. The newspaper reported,“Then until noon - pandemonium reigned.”
The Lebanon schools, Lebanon High at that time being located were Pleasant Street Park is today, were closed. They were scheduled to open that very day after being shutdown for several weeks due to the deadly Spanish flu epidemic that had spread throughout the country. Now however, teachers and students joined the celebration in the streets.
Stores closed and business in Lebanon in general was suspended. Such signs as “To Hell With the Kaiser” and “Closed to Celebrate” were posted in many the town’s store windows.
Parades sprung up spontaneously all over Lebanon. People shouted themselves hoarse in and effort to be heard and join in the noise of the car horns, cow bells, tin horns, tin pans and other instruments of noisy celebration.
The executive committee of the fraternal organization called the Men of Lebanon hastily and successfully made preparations for a parade to begin at 9:30 a.m. It started from Harmon Hall headed by several members of the Harmon Hall Band. It was said there was scarcely room for people on Broadway. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, school children, men, women and automobiles galore. The procession was said to be nearly a mile long.
After the parade went over the principal streets of town, Judge Frances M. Hamilton was asked to speak. He paid tribute to the brave boys from Lebanon who had helped to achieve this great victory. He then told the crowd that Lebanon will never again hold such a demonstration as on this day, save one - “When our boys come home.”
Several songs were sung by the crowd led by Miss Laura B. Cunningham and elementary teacher in the Lebanon schools. Then every man and woman in the vast group bowed their head in a moment of silent prayer. After that Mayor Murphy proclaimed that day, November 11, 1918, a holiday.
Preparations were then immediately launched for what was described as a “Mammoth parade" for that night.
Promptly at 7 p.m. the great procession began with the Harmon Hall Band providing the music. At “each corner new faces joined in.” It was reported, “This was one time when everyone was an [equal]. The humblest and highest marched side by side.”
Following this parade speeches were made. One was by Judge J. A. Runyan, the namesake of the Runyon Field in which we are gathered this morning. He was from the Local Draft Board. Another was by Attorney Frank C. Anderson representing the Red Cross. Judge F. M. Hamilton read a poem written by Cpl. William McKinney of Lebanon’s own Company E of the First Regiment of the Ohio National Guard who trained on this spot and went into battle at part of the 147th Infantry, 37th Division, of the American Expeditionary Forces.
The last stanza of Cpl. McKinney’s poem reads:
“To mothers of men that have fallen
On the field of battle in France,
Let not your hearts be worried
For they were given a chance
To give their hearts to their maker.
Your prayers were not made in vain.
When the trumpet of judgement has sounded
You and he shall meet again.”
Three days later, on November 14, 1918, an editorial in The Western Star entitled simply “PEACE” said in part:
“Not since the morning stars sang the anthem, ‘Glory to God in the highest, and on earth Peace, good will to men,’ has the world heard so joyful an announcement as that which the wires carried on Monday morning, announcing the signing of the armistice on the part of the German government.
“No wonder Lebanon - Warren County - Ohio - the United States - the World acted as though it were insane with joy. No wonder tears and laughter intermingled. No wonder the old forgot their age and became youths again. No wonder the young assumed the age of discretion and discussed ‘What [Marshal] Foch had done.’ Nothing was to be wondered at . . . on Monday.
“Peace - Sweet Peace - Peace with Victory - Peace with Honor, had come. 100 days ago every cloud was black with the possibilities of an autocratic German victory. 100 days ago there was hardly a bright spot in the sky as big as a man’s hand. But those who had faith saw a bright spot and said, ‘All will be well.’
“As a French woman said, ‘God happened,’ and the bright spot grew in size. God’s emissaries, led by that most wonderful man, General Foch, who left his staff on many an occasion to enter a humble chapel and pray for the success of his army, have overturned the hosts of hell and won a victorious peace.”
Staff and volunteers of WCHS | 1,640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jubal Early was a senior Confederate general during the American Civil War. Early is most probably famous for his daring raid on Washington DC towards the end of the war that caused panic in the capital and resulted in President Lincoln ordering General Grant to send Union troops to the city to defeat Early.
Jubal Early was born on November 3rd 1816 in Franklin County, Virginia. He was accepted into the US Military Academy at West Point in 1833 and graduated in 1837. After his graduation, Early joined the 3rd US Artillery Regiment. Early resigned his commission in 1838 and took up law where he made a name for himself as a prosecutor. Early returned to the military from 1846 to 1848 when he fought in the Mexican-American War, before continuing with his law career.
With his southern background, it would be expected that Early supported the idea of secession once all the various issues that culminated in the outbreak of the American Civil War came to the surface. This is, in fact, not the case. By April 1861, it became clear that America was heading towards a civil war. However, when Virginia held a convention to discuss the state’s position regarding on whose side it was on, Early spoke out against leaving the Union. What sparked his change of mind was Lincoln’s call for 75,000 volunteers from the North to suppress the rebellious element in the South. This Early could not accept and he joined the Virginia Militia with the rank of Brigadier General. His task was to raise three regiments to defend the state. Early was given command of the 24th Virginia Infantry and the rank of Colonel in the Confederate Army.
During the American Civil War, Early primarily fought in what was known as the Eastern Theatre. His first major campaign was the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. It is generally accepted that Early fought well at this battle. Early also commanded men at the largest and most famous battles of the American Civil War – Antietam, Gettysburg, Fredericksburg etc. – and men commanded by Early captured York in Pennsylvania, the largest Union town captured by the Confederacy throughout the American Civil War. Men under his command also reached the Susquehanna River – the furthest east in Pennsylvania any Confederate troops got during the war.
Early’s reputation for bravery in the field and determined approach won him the affection and admiration of the soldiers he commanded. He was nicknamed ‘Old Jube’. Senior commanders such as Robert E Lee and ‘Stonewall’ Jackson also respected his fighting enthusiasm. However, Early was less popular with junior officers under his command as he was short tempered and frequently blamed them for decisions he had made that had not succeeded. While Early was brave in the field of battle – he was wounded in 1862 at Williamsburg leading his men into battle – he had his military failings elsewhere. Early never mastered the art of moving large numbers of men accurately during a battle as his battlefield navigation skills were poor. But it was as an aggressive attacking commander that he found fame. This Early displayed at Antietam, Cedar Mountain and Fredericksburg. His leadership skills and general popularity among his men also brought promotion and by January 1863, Early held the rank of Major General.
In 1864, Lee ordered Early to clear Union forces from the Shenandoah Valley in preparation for an attack on Washington DC. Lee hoped that with the Union’s capital threatened, Lincoln would order Grant to pull back thousands of Union troops to defend the capital and thus relieve the constant pressure on Confederate forces – especially from men under the command of William Sherman and Grant himself. Early’s ‘Valley Campaign’ started well but he then made one fundamental error. Instead of urgently pushing his men forward towards Washington, Early gave them two days rest from July 4th to July 6th. While this allowed his men to rest and recuperate, it gave Grant time to move men to Washington. Early was further delayed at the Battle of Monocacy and he was only able to get to the outskirts of the city. However, the very presence of his army near to the city caused panic. By July 12th it became clear to Early that he did not have sufficient men to take the city that was now defended by thousands of Union troops and he withdrew into Virginia. Grant and Lincoln, however, still believed that Early’s force represented a danger to Washington and an order was given to Major General Philip Sheridan that Early had to be defeated. What ensued in the Shenandoah Valley was a mini-version of Sherman’s ‘Total War’ in Georgia. Sheridan destroyed many farms and farming equipment so that they had no way of supplying Early’s constantly moving army. One soldier who saw the results wrote that much of the valley “had been laid to waste”.
The attack against Early culminated in the Battle of Cedar Creek on October 19th 1864. Early’s army did well at the morning start of the battle. What happened next is not totally known. Early later informed Lee that his men were hungry and exhausted and that they had broken ranks, gone into the former quarters of the Union army they had pushed back and ransacked it for whatever food and drink they could find. Therefore, they were totally unprepared for an offensive by Sheridan’s men later in the afternoon and lost the battle. However, a subordinate officer of Early’s, John Gordon, later wrote that it was Early himself who had ordered his men to stand down for six hours during which time they found food and other much needed supplies. Early claimed that his men lost discipline and broke their own ranks. Gordon claimed it was Early who ordered them to stand down. Either way, they were unprepared for the afternoon attack and lost the battle.
Most of Early’s men withdrew to join Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Early and some of his men remained in the Valley to hinder the Union forces there. In March 1865, Early suffered defeat at Waynesboro and Lee reluctantly relieved Early of his command as he believed that Early could no longer provide inspirational leadership.
Early did not accept the surrender on April 9th 1865 and fled to Texas where he wanted to continue the fight. When it became clear that the forces of the South had been severely weakened he went to Mexico, Cuba and then Canada. While in Toronto, Early wrote his memoirs, which concentrated on the Valley Campaign: “A Memoir of the Last Year of the War of Independence, in the Confederate States of America”. Rather than see the war as a civil war, Early viewed it as a war of southern independence from the north.
Jubal Early received a presidential pardon in 1868 and returned to Virginia in 1869 where he resumed his career in law. Those who still believed in what the South had fought for rallied around him and he became a proponent of the ‘Lost Cause’ movement. While it was clear that the South had no way of militarily taking on the North post-1865, Early and his many supporters believed that they had a duty to tell the world about the American Civil War from their point of view.
Jubal Early died on March 2nd 1894 at the age of 77.
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0.4868383... | 10 | Jubal Early was a senior Confederate general during the American Civil War. Early is most probably famous for his daring raid on Washington DC towards the end of the war that caused panic in the capital and resulted in President Lincoln ordering General Grant to send Union troops to the city to defeat Early.
Jubal Early was born on November 3rd 1816 in Franklin County, Virginia. He was accepted into the US Military Academy at West Point in 1833 and graduated in 1837. After his graduation, Early joined the 3rd US Artillery Regiment. Early resigned his commission in 1838 and took up law where he made a name for himself as a prosecutor. Early returned to the military from 1846 to 1848 when he fought in the Mexican-American War, before continuing with his law career.
With his southern background, it would be expected that Early supported the idea of secession once all the various issues that culminated in the outbreak of the American Civil War came to the surface. This is, in fact, not the case. By April 1861, it became clear that America was heading towards a civil war. However, when Virginia held a convention to discuss the state’s position regarding on whose side it was on, Early spoke out against leaving the Union. What sparked his change of mind was Lincoln’s call for 75,000 volunteers from the North to suppress the rebellious element in the South. This Early could not accept and he joined the Virginia Militia with the rank of Brigadier General. His task was to raise three regiments to defend the state. Early was given command of the 24th Virginia Infantry and the rank of Colonel in the Confederate Army.
During the American Civil War, Early primarily fought in what was known as the Eastern Theatre. His first major campaign was the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. It is generally accepted that Early fought well at this battle. Early also commanded men at the largest and most famous battles of the American Civil War – Antietam, Gettysburg, Fredericksburg etc. – and men commanded by Early captured York in Pennsylvania, the largest Union town captured by the Confederacy throughout the American Civil War. Men under his command also reached the Susquehanna River – the furthest east in Pennsylvania any Confederate troops got during the war.
Early’s reputation for bravery in the field and determined approach won him the affection and admiration of the soldiers he commanded. He was nicknamed ‘Old Jube’. Senior commanders such as Robert E Lee and ‘Stonewall’ Jackson also respected his fighting enthusiasm. However, Early was less popular with junior officers under his command as he was short tempered and frequently blamed them for decisions he had made that had not succeeded. While Early was brave in the field of battle – he was wounded in 1862 at Williamsburg leading his men into battle – he had his military failings elsewhere. Early never mastered the art of moving large numbers of men accurately during a battle as his battlefield navigation skills were poor. But it was as an aggressive attacking commander that he found fame. This Early displayed at Antietam, Cedar Mountain and Fredericksburg. His leadership skills and general popularity among his men also brought promotion and by January 1863, Early held the rank of Major General.
In 1864, Lee ordered Early to clear Union forces from the Shenandoah Valley in preparation for an attack on Washington DC. Lee hoped that with the Union’s capital threatened, Lincoln would order Grant to pull back thousands of Union troops to defend the capital and thus relieve the constant pressure on Confederate forces – especially from men under the command of William Sherman and Grant himself. Early’s ‘Valley Campaign’ started well but he then made one fundamental error. Instead of urgently pushing his men forward towards Washington, Early gave them two days rest from July 4th to July 6th. While this allowed his men to rest and recuperate, it gave Grant time to move men to Washington. Early was further delayed at the Battle of Monocacy and he was only able to get to the outskirts of the city. However, the very presence of his army near to the city caused panic. By July 12th it became clear to Early that he did not have sufficient men to take the city that was now defended by thousands of Union troops and he withdrew into Virginia. Grant and Lincoln, however, still believed that Early’s force represented a danger to Washington and an order was given to Major General Philip Sheridan that Early had to be defeated. What ensued in the Shenandoah Valley was a mini-version of Sherman’s ‘Total War’ in Georgia. Sheridan destroyed many farms and farming equipment so that they had no way of supplying Early’s constantly moving army. One soldier who saw the results wrote that much of the valley “had been laid to waste”.
The attack against Early culminated in the Battle of Cedar Creek on October 19th 1864. Early’s army did well at the morning start of the battle. What happened next is not totally known. Early later informed Lee that his men were hungry and exhausted and that they had broken ranks, gone into the former quarters of the Union army they had pushed back and ransacked it for whatever food and drink they could find. Therefore, they were totally unprepared for an offensive by Sheridan’s men later in the afternoon and lost the battle. However, a subordinate officer of Early’s, John Gordon, later wrote that it was Early himself who had ordered his men to stand down for six hours during which time they found food and other much needed supplies. Early claimed that his men lost discipline and broke their own ranks. Gordon claimed it was Early who ordered them to stand down. Either way, they were unprepared for the afternoon attack and lost the battle.
Most of Early’s men withdrew to join Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia. Early and some of his men remained in the Valley to hinder the Union forces there. In March 1865, Early suffered defeat at Waynesboro and Lee reluctantly relieved Early of his command as he believed that Early could no longer provide inspirational leadership.
Early did not accept the surrender on April 9th 1865 and fled to Texas where he wanted to continue the fight. When it became clear that the forces of the South had been severely weakened he went to Mexico, Cuba and then Canada. While in Toronto, Early wrote his memoirs, which concentrated on the Valley Campaign: “A Memoir of the Last Year of the War of Independence, in the Confederate States of America”. Rather than see the war as a civil war, Early viewed it as a war of southern independence from the north.
Jubal Early received a presidential pardon in 1868 and returned to Virginia in 1869 where he resumed his career in law. Those who still believed in what the South had fought for rallied around him and he became a proponent of the ‘Lost Cause’ movement. While it was clear that the South had no way of militarily taking on the North post-1865, Early and his many supporters believed that they had a duty to tell the world about the American Civil War from their point of view.
Jubal Early died on March 2nd 1894 at the age of 77.
- World War Two was the first war to see the concerted use of rockets – be they rockets fired at civilians such as the V1… | 1,548 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What he commandeth they dare not disobey in the least thing. It is strange to see with what great feare and adoration all these people doe obay this Powhatan. For at his feet, they present whatsoever he commandeth, and at the least frowne of his browe, their greatest spirits will tremble with feare: and no marvell, for he is very terrible and tyrannous in punishing such as offend him.
– Captain John Smith on Chief Powhatan
Wahunsenacawh, commonly known as Chief Powhatan of the Powhatan people, was the supreme ruler of most of the indigenous tribes in the Chesapeake Bay region in 1607. At its height, his realm known as “Tsenacommacah” extended across 10,000 square miles from the banks of the James River north to the Potomac River and from the Atlantic Ocean west to the rolling hills of the piedmont. The tribes in this region were linked by a common language, eastern-Algonquian.
A young Wahunsenacawh inherited rule over six communities, but expanded his rule to more than 30 groups that included nearly 15,000 people. He was Mamanatowick, the chief of chiefs, but his power and authority varied from one part of Tsenacommacah to another. Peoples distant from his center at Werowocomoco on the north bank of the York River were more politically independent than those located within the core territory. He ruled by the threat of force but also by marriage alliances and persuasion. The various tribes paid tribute to Powhatan.
Captain John Smith was the Jamestown leader with the most direct contact with Powhatan during the first years of the English settlement, but Powhatan never visited Jamestown. Archaeologists recently discovered the site of Werowocomoco and the footprint of a longhouse that may have been Powhatan’s residence.
In 1609 he ordered his warriors to lay siege to James Fort, which was the catalyst for the infamous “starving time” winter that killed several hundred colonists. This began the first Anglo-Powhatan war, which lasted until the 1614 marriage of one of Powhatan’s daughters, Pocahontas, to English colonist John Rolfe. This marriage had the blessing of Powhatan and lead to a relatively peaceful period in relations between the two peoples. Powhatan died in April 1618. | <urn:uuid:9def1345-766f-474c-97c6-8e3fa2d44940> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicjamestowne.org/history/chief-powhatan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.981769 | 519 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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-0.02042093127965... | 4 | What he commandeth they dare not disobey in the least thing. It is strange to see with what great feare and adoration all these people doe obay this Powhatan. For at his feet, they present whatsoever he commandeth, and at the least frowne of his browe, their greatest spirits will tremble with feare: and no marvell, for he is very terrible and tyrannous in punishing such as offend him.
– Captain John Smith on Chief Powhatan
Wahunsenacawh, commonly known as Chief Powhatan of the Powhatan people, was the supreme ruler of most of the indigenous tribes in the Chesapeake Bay region in 1607. At its height, his realm known as “Tsenacommacah” extended across 10,000 square miles from the banks of the James River north to the Potomac River and from the Atlantic Ocean west to the rolling hills of the piedmont. The tribes in this region were linked by a common language, eastern-Algonquian.
A young Wahunsenacawh inherited rule over six communities, but expanded his rule to more than 30 groups that included nearly 15,000 people. He was Mamanatowick, the chief of chiefs, but his power and authority varied from one part of Tsenacommacah to another. Peoples distant from his center at Werowocomoco on the north bank of the York River were more politically independent than those located within the core territory. He ruled by the threat of force but also by marriage alliances and persuasion. The various tribes paid tribute to Powhatan.
Captain John Smith was the Jamestown leader with the most direct contact with Powhatan during the first years of the English settlement, but Powhatan never visited Jamestown. Archaeologists recently discovered the site of Werowocomoco and the footprint of a longhouse that may have been Powhatan’s residence.
In 1609 he ordered his warriors to lay siege to James Fort, which was the catalyst for the infamous “starving time” winter that killed several hundred colonists. This began the first Anglo-Powhatan war, which lasted until the 1614 marriage of one of Powhatan’s daughters, Pocahontas, to English colonist John Rolfe. This marriage had the blessing of Powhatan and lead to a relatively peaceful period in relations between the two peoples. Powhatan died in April 1618. | 523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CRIN reports about the call for Danish government to apologize for its ‘social experiment’ with Inuit Greenlandic children in 1950s. It was a plan created together with the organizations of Save the Children Denmark and the Danish Red Cross in order to re-educate potential Inuit children bringing them from Greenland to Denmark and placing them with their foster families. Afterwards, they were sent back to Greenland, accommodated in a children’s home. In Greenland, children taught Danish to the locals and were discouraged to use their mother tongue. Although both Danish organizations apologized for their involvement in this program, the Danish government does not provide any explanation.
Historical abuse of children's cultural rights
18 Jun 2015
Children’s Rights Advocacy Network (CRIN) | <urn:uuid:649cef3c-b9e7-4c29-9eb7-58501679378a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://childhub.org/en/child-protection-news/historical-abuse-childrens-cultural-rights | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.9801 | 157 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.3331424295... | 2 | CRIN reports about the call for Danish government to apologize for its ‘social experiment’ with Inuit Greenlandic children in 1950s. It was a plan created together with the organizations of Save the Children Denmark and the Danish Red Cross in order to re-educate potential Inuit children bringing them from Greenland to Denmark and placing them with their foster families. Afterwards, they were sent back to Greenland, accommodated in a children’s home. In Greenland, children taught Danish to the locals and were discouraged to use their mother tongue. Although both Danish organizations apologized for their involvement in this program, the Danish government does not provide any explanation.
Historical abuse of children's cultural rights
18 Jun 2015
Children’s Rights Advocacy Network (CRIN) | 159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Only 18 people in history are known to have reached a height of 8 feet or more. Measuring in at 8 feet 11.1 inches from head to toe, Robert Wadlow was the tallest man to have ever lived. Even today’s contenders for the title of world’s tallest person don’t come anywhere near his great height. Sultan Kosen, the tallest living man today, would stand 8 inches shorter than Wadlow.
Born an unremarkable size on February 22, 1918, Wadlow showed great growth soon after birth. His elementary school had to make a special desk to accommodate his size, and by age 8, he stood taller than his own father at 6 feet tall. When he joined the Boy Scouts at 13, he had grown to stand 7 feet 4 inches tall, and his uniform required 14 yards of fabric to make!
Featured in Robert Ripley’s cartoon in 1926 and 1929, Wadlow became known as the “Alton Giant” for his hometown of Alton, Illinois. He was 8 feet 4 inches when he graduated high school and soon toured the country with the Ringling Brothers Circus.
Wadlow could only travel by a specially built car that had its seats removed to accommodate his large legs. In fact, Wadlow had amany items customized due to his height. Not only were his clothes and walking cane unusually large, but so was his chair, shaving brush, lighter and shoes.
Wadlow’s shoes became a focus of his later life. The International Shoe Company provided Wadlow with custom 39AA shoes and Wadlow endorsed the business, showing up to events promoting their footwear.
Wadlow’s unprecedented growth was caused by an enlarged pituitary gland which caused an unusual production of growth hormones. Wadlow began growing soon after being born and never stopped. Doctors believe that if he had lived past 22, he would have been over 9 feet tall!
Wadlow’s growth was tough on his body. His legs struggled to carry his great weight. He weighed over 450 pounds when he died, forced to wear leg braces and use a cane by 20. It was a sore from his leg brace, which became infected, that actually led to his death. With such a large body, many of Wadlow’s organs and biological systems had trouble keeping up.
Not wanting his body to be stolen, like had happened to other giants, Wadlow’s family had him buried in a 10-foot 6-inch steel coffin, enclosed in a heavy concrete vault. | <urn:uuid:ec317aa7-f799-4e9d-ba6e-c6039190ba71> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jesusdaily.com/so-giants-never-existed-you-say-well-maybe-you-never-met-robert-wadlow/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.992929 | 527 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.614525794982910... | 6 | Only 18 people in history are known to have reached a height of 8 feet or more. Measuring in at 8 feet 11.1 inches from head to toe, Robert Wadlow was the tallest man to have ever lived. Even today’s contenders for the title of world’s tallest person don’t come anywhere near his great height. Sultan Kosen, the tallest living man today, would stand 8 inches shorter than Wadlow.
Born an unremarkable size on February 22, 1918, Wadlow showed great growth soon after birth. His elementary school had to make a special desk to accommodate his size, and by age 8, he stood taller than his own father at 6 feet tall. When he joined the Boy Scouts at 13, he had grown to stand 7 feet 4 inches tall, and his uniform required 14 yards of fabric to make!
Featured in Robert Ripley’s cartoon in 1926 and 1929, Wadlow became known as the “Alton Giant” for his hometown of Alton, Illinois. He was 8 feet 4 inches when he graduated high school and soon toured the country with the Ringling Brothers Circus.
Wadlow could only travel by a specially built car that had its seats removed to accommodate his large legs. In fact, Wadlow had amany items customized due to his height. Not only were his clothes and walking cane unusually large, but so was his chair, shaving brush, lighter and shoes.
Wadlow’s shoes became a focus of his later life. The International Shoe Company provided Wadlow with custom 39AA shoes and Wadlow endorsed the business, showing up to events promoting their footwear.
Wadlow’s unprecedented growth was caused by an enlarged pituitary gland which caused an unusual production of growth hormones. Wadlow began growing soon after being born and never stopped. Doctors believe that if he had lived past 22, he would have been over 9 feet tall!
Wadlow’s growth was tough on his body. His legs struggled to carry his great weight. He weighed over 450 pounds when he died, forced to wear leg braces and use a cane by 20. It was a sore from his leg brace, which became infected, that actually led to his death. With such a large body, many of Wadlow’s organs and biological systems had trouble keeping up.
Not wanting his body to be stolen, like had happened to other giants, Wadlow’s family had him buried in a 10-foot 6-inch steel coffin, enclosed in a heavy concrete vault. | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A look at the roots of the Underground Railroad in Detroit
The Underground Railroad was a vast network of homes, churches, and businesses that helped black people move north to escape slavery, and for many Detroit was their last stop before they crossed the river to Canada. Calvin Moore, the lead historian for the Detroit Bus Company, took our Tati Amare on a tour of some of the places that played a major role in this network.
The first stop was the First Congregational Church of Detroit, located in Midtown. The church was organized on December 25th of 1844. Their building is currently located in Midtown Detroit on Woodward Avenue, but their original building was on Jefferson, right near the Detroit River, putting them in the perfect position to be a part of the Underground Railroad. Many of the Congregationalist churches in Michigan played a role in helping slaves gain their freedom because they were founded by people from New York who had strong anti-slavery views. Modernly, even though the current building was not a part of the Underground Railroad, the Church houses a museum in their basement with guided tours to give you an immersive storytelling experience.
Another church that played a major role in the Underground Railroad was the Second Baptist Church. It was founded in 1836 by 13 former slaves, making it the oldest black congregation in Michigan. This important depot was known as the Croghan Street Station. While their current building is in Greektown, they used to be located about 1,000 yards from the Detroit River. They would hide runaway slaves in their basement and smuggle them across the Detroit River where bounty hunters couldn't go.
The final destination on this tour is the Gateway to Freedom Monument, which is located on the edge of Hart Plaza near the riverwalk. It features George DeBaptiste pointing towards Canada surrounded by runaway slaves. DeBaptiste was the conductor of the last station in the Underground Railroad. He bought a steamboat and helped move over 5,000 runaway slaves escape to freedom in Canada.
Moore said, "Detroit's role in the Underground Railroad is probably the most integral point in the Underground Railroad because finally, people could breathe a sigh of relief of being totally and utterly free, and they could live out the ideals of the United States Constitution that says, 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'"
Copyright 2019 by WDIV ClickOnDetroit - All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:3693c54e-f92c-4b1a-b53e-c5e483dbb95f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.clickondetroit.com/black%20history%20month/2019/02/21/a-look-at-the-roots-of-the-underground-railroad-in-detroit/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.985315 | 497 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.012751366... | 1 | A look at the roots of the Underground Railroad in Detroit
The Underground Railroad was a vast network of homes, churches, and businesses that helped black people move north to escape slavery, and for many Detroit was their last stop before they crossed the river to Canada. Calvin Moore, the lead historian for the Detroit Bus Company, took our Tati Amare on a tour of some of the places that played a major role in this network.
The first stop was the First Congregational Church of Detroit, located in Midtown. The church was organized on December 25th of 1844. Their building is currently located in Midtown Detroit on Woodward Avenue, but their original building was on Jefferson, right near the Detroit River, putting them in the perfect position to be a part of the Underground Railroad. Many of the Congregationalist churches in Michigan played a role in helping slaves gain their freedom because they were founded by people from New York who had strong anti-slavery views. Modernly, even though the current building was not a part of the Underground Railroad, the Church houses a museum in their basement with guided tours to give you an immersive storytelling experience.
Another church that played a major role in the Underground Railroad was the Second Baptist Church. It was founded in 1836 by 13 former slaves, making it the oldest black congregation in Michigan. This important depot was known as the Croghan Street Station. While their current building is in Greektown, they used to be located about 1,000 yards from the Detroit River. They would hide runaway slaves in their basement and smuggle them across the Detroit River where bounty hunters couldn't go.
The final destination on this tour is the Gateway to Freedom Monument, which is located on the edge of Hart Plaza near the riverwalk. It features George DeBaptiste pointing towards Canada surrounded by runaway slaves. DeBaptiste was the conductor of the last station in the Underground Railroad. He bought a steamboat and helped move over 5,000 runaway slaves escape to freedom in Canada.
Moore said, "Detroit's role in the Underground Railroad is probably the most integral point in the Underground Railroad because finally, people could breathe a sigh of relief of being totally and utterly free, and they could live out the ideals of the United States Constitution that says, 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'"
Copyright 2019 by WDIV ClickOnDetroit - All rights reserved. | 513 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 2014, the WHO annual measles update was titled “Measles deaths reach record lows with fragile gains toward global elimination.” It’s safe to say that these headlines are a thing of the past since the organisation had worse news this time around.
In 2018, the WHO estimates that 140,000 people died of measles worldwide, the highest number since 2013. In 2000, as many as 562,000 people were dying of the disease. This number was significantly reduced by vaccination programs.
Despite vaccines being a safe and effective way to combat the disease, fewer people and fewer children have been vaccinated in recent years, contributing to an uptick in deaths attributed to measles.
Contracting measles is normally not a major threat to the life of healthy adults and children. But the disease can become life-threatening for very young toddlers, malnourished children and any person of weak health. Fewer vaccinated people also means that measles epidemics become more widespread and can reach weaker children, as well as those unable to be vaccinated for health reasons, more easily. In 2018, most of those dying of measles were under the age of five.
You will find more infographics at Statista | <urn:uuid:30351eed-d451-4f81-ae1a-752b44bba663> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://en.protothema.gr/measles-deadly-disease-makes-a-comeback-infographic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.982149 | 243 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.11722885072... | 1 | In 2014, the WHO annual measles update was titled “Measles deaths reach record lows with fragile gains toward global elimination.” It’s safe to say that these headlines are a thing of the past since the organisation had worse news this time around.
In 2018, the WHO estimates that 140,000 people died of measles worldwide, the highest number since 2013. In 2000, as many as 562,000 people were dying of the disease. This number was significantly reduced by vaccination programs.
Despite vaccines being a safe and effective way to combat the disease, fewer people and fewer children have been vaccinated in recent years, contributing to an uptick in deaths attributed to measles.
Contracting measles is normally not a major threat to the life of healthy adults and children. But the disease can become life-threatening for very young toddlers, malnourished children and any person of weak health. Fewer vaccinated people also means that measles epidemics become more widespread and can reach weaker children, as well as those unable to be vaccinated for health reasons, more easily. In 2018, most of those dying of measles were under the age of five.
You will find more infographics at Statista | 263 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prior to the onset of World War 11, there was a vibrant Jewish community in Libau numbering some 10,000 people out of a total population of 116,000. There were many Jewish schools, cultural institutions and synagogues, the most famous of which being the great choral synagogue.
Click here for photos of pre-war Libau
Although there were growing levels of anti-semitism (in common with other countries in central Europe at that time), life was tolerably good until June 1940. However, on 17th June 1940, the USSR occupied Latvia in violation of the perpetual non-aggression treaty of 1920.
Latvia had effectively been ceded by Hitler to Stalin under the Molotov/von Ribbentrop pact.
The annexation by the USSR split the Jewish community. Many working class Jews (and Latvians generally)initially welcomed the Red Army, trusting communist claims of social justice and worker power. Other Jews feared perecution as Bourgeoisie and class enemies. It soon turned out that persecution also extended to others including Zionists, religious jews, moderate leftists, former politicians etc.
Under the Soviet occupation, mass deportations to exile or Gulag camps in Siberia became the order of the day. Some 15,000 people were deported at this time - with Jews being nearly three times over-represented in the deportations. With hindsight, perhaps they were the lucky ones - although many of them would not have survived either. Records show that just 60% of those who fled to the Soviet Union survived the War. That may not be a lot but compare it to the paltry 2% who survived the killings in Liepaja between 1941 and 1945 .
The Soviet occupation lasted almost exactly one year. Germany invaded Latvia on 22 June 1941 and occupied Libau just one week later on 29 June 1941. By that time the Jewish poulation of Libau numbered 6500, with many having been previously deported by the Soviets, killed in battle for Libau or having fled to the Soviet Union in the days immedately preceding the German invasion.
More might have fled the Nazi invasion but men were not allowed to leave (other than party and government officials) and others were turned away at the Latvian/USSR border for lack of proper papers. Besides, many Libauer Jews remembered their affinity to Germany and its culture and language as well as the benign occupation of 1915-18 and expected nothing worse than discrimination and perhaps forced labour.
This hope was soon shattered. The first SS Einsatzgruppen arrived on the very first day of the Nazi occupation (29 June 1941), killed a number of Jews and recruited volunteers for the Latvian "Self-Defense" unit. The latter promptly began to arrest Jews, especially members of the Workers Party, and took them to the Womens Prison which became a torture chamber and holding pen for the doomed. Some 47 Jews were shot by the Einsatzgruppen on 3 July 1941 and from then on mass executions became commonplace.
Executions took place every few days. Jewish families were evicted from their apartments and were forced to live on rations that were just one-half of the skimpy Latvian rations. The synagogues were raised on the order of the SS, who forced Jews to trample on their sacred scrolls.
Mass round-ups and shootings (now including women and children) continued first near the Libau Lighthouse, then by the nearby fish factory, then by the Navy base and finally on the sand dunes of Skede.
During a three day period from 15 - 17 December 1941, in the height of a freezing Baltic winter, some 2749 Jews (mainly women and children) were killed by three German and Latvian firing squads.
The victims were force marched to Skede, made to undress in the freezing wind and snow and shot in front of mass graves.
I have visited the dunes of Skede and cannot begin to imagine the thoughts that must have been going through the victims minds as they stood naked, trembling with fear, embarrasment and cold, overlooking the beautiful sandy beaches where they may have played as children.
Fortunately for the sake of historical testimony to evil, we do have photographic evidence of these Nazi atrocities. Unbelievably the SS- Uberscharfuhrer (ie Senior Squad Leader), Carl-Emil Strott, took photos of the killings at Skede. These photos were found by an audacious Jew - David Zivcon - who was working as a forced labourer. Zivcon, managed to steal, copy and replace the photos. Since the end of the war, these photos of the killings at Skede have become some of the most notorious images of the holocaust.
Image: Womens prison
Image: the dunes at Skede
By the end of 1941 only 1050 Jews remained alive. After more shootings in the next few months. 832 Jews remained who were forced into a crowded ghetto on 1 July 1942. The ghetto commander was relatively benign so about 800 were still alive 15 months later when on 8 October 1943 the inmates were deported to the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Riga.
Old people, and mothers with children under 12 were killed locally or sent to Auschwitz for gassing. After further selctions, about 350 remained who were deported to the Stutthof concentration camp in August-September 1944. Many died in the increasingly brutal conditions at Stutthof although some were deported to sub-camps further East where they were liberatd by the Soviet Army in early 1945.
The last remnants of the Stutthof prisoners, were put on barges two weeks before the end of the war, tugged westward, and then abandoned at sea. Norwegian political prisoners navigated the barges to shore but when the half-dead Jewish prisoners staggered ashore, a group of young German sailors shot or drowned more than 50 of them.
A few hours later the last survivors were liberated by British troops
Click here to visit liepajajews.org - a detailed website listing all known details of those who persihed between 1941-45
After liberation, the survivors received excellent medical care but 8 died in the next few weeks, leaving 176. Another 33 had survived in Liepaja, having been hidden by brave and kind-hearted Latvians who risked their own lives.
All together, 3% of Liepaja Jews survived the Nazi occupation. But the Soviet regime treated these survivors with great suspicion, presuming any Jew not killed by the Nazi must have collaborated with the Fascists. A number were sentenced to terms in the Gulag. Not surprisingly many emigrated to Israel or the West when the opportunity arose in the 1970s.
Under the Soviets, Liepaja was a major Naval base and was thus off- limits even to other Latvian or Soviet citizens. Effectively, it was shrouded and isolated behind two iron curtains - firstly from the West and secondly from the rest of Latvia
True liberation did not occur until 1991 when Latvia gained independence from the USSR and democracy was restored.
When I first visited Liepaja in July 2003, there were no signposts or proper roads to Skede. Ilana Ivanova, the doyenne of the Liepaja Jewish community drove us to the site over unmarked paths and showed us the simple memorial established by the Soviets. At least, they did place a memorial of some sort, but it made no reference to Jews only to the Soviet victims of Fascism.
Image: Soviet Memorial at Skede
Ilana, however, is a purposeful lady. She firstly raised funds both locally and from Libauers around the world to build a memorial wall at the Liepaja Jewish cemetery and to maintain its grounds. The wall lists the names of over 6500 Libau Jews (including several Friedman relatives) who died during the Nazi occupation. The extensive research into the establishing the names and fates of the Jewish community was carried out by Professor Edward Anders (himself a Libau survivor). Professor Anders was also a major contributor to the memorial plot.
Ilana (and various others both locally in Liepaja and from the Libau diaspora) then lobbied the Latvian government to allow a more substantial memorial to be built at Skede itself and to provide proper access by road to the site. This involved detailed planning including extensive surveys to ensure that the memorial was built near not directly on top of the mas graves themselves.
The work was completed and the memorial dedicated at a service I was honoured to attend in June 2005. About 200 people attended, including ambassadors from Israel, Germany and the UK. Senior embassy officials also attended from the US. Latvia was represented by the son of the Latvian President. The British Armed forces were also represented by the Admiral of the Fleet which was moored in Liepaja at that time.
The memorial was followed by receptions at the Liepaja Community Centre and the Liepaja Jewish Centre. We and the other British attendees were also invited to an Ambassador's reception onboard HMS Somerset which was moored in Liepaja as part of NATO duties
Image: Skede Dedication
Image: memeorial wall
This is the text-only version of this page. Click here to see this page with graphics.
Edit this page | Manage website
Make Your Own Website: 2-Minute-Website.com | <urn:uuid:c5e32e9b-2e20-4826-8fcf-f5e6fcfee97c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://text.avaslan.net/The-killing-fields-of-Skede | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.981408 | 1,941 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | Prior to the onset of World War 11, there was a vibrant Jewish community in Libau numbering some 10,000 people out of a total population of 116,000. There were many Jewish schools, cultural institutions and synagogues, the most famous of which being the great choral synagogue.
Click here for photos of pre-war Libau
Although there were growing levels of anti-semitism (in common with other countries in central Europe at that time), life was tolerably good until June 1940. However, on 17th June 1940, the USSR occupied Latvia in violation of the perpetual non-aggression treaty of 1920.
Latvia had effectively been ceded by Hitler to Stalin under the Molotov/von Ribbentrop pact.
The annexation by the USSR split the Jewish community. Many working class Jews (and Latvians generally)initially welcomed the Red Army, trusting communist claims of social justice and worker power. Other Jews feared perecution as Bourgeoisie and class enemies. It soon turned out that persecution also extended to others including Zionists, religious jews, moderate leftists, former politicians etc.
Under the Soviet occupation, mass deportations to exile or Gulag camps in Siberia became the order of the day. Some 15,000 people were deported at this time - with Jews being nearly three times over-represented in the deportations. With hindsight, perhaps they were the lucky ones - although many of them would not have survived either. Records show that just 60% of those who fled to the Soviet Union survived the War. That may not be a lot but compare it to the paltry 2% who survived the killings in Liepaja between 1941 and 1945 .
The Soviet occupation lasted almost exactly one year. Germany invaded Latvia on 22 June 1941 and occupied Libau just one week later on 29 June 1941. By that time the Jewish poulation of Libau numbered 6500, with many having been previously deported by the Soviets, killed in battle for Libau or having fled to the Soviet Union in the days immedately preceding the German invasion.
More might have fled the Nazi invasion but men were not allowed to leave (other than party and government officials) and others were turned away at the Latvian/USSR border for lack of proper papers. Besides, many Libauer Jews remembered their affinity to Germany and its culture and language as well as the benign occupation of 1915-18 and expected nothing worse than discrimination and perhaps forced labour.
This hope was soon shattered. The first SS Einsatzgruppen arrived on the very first day of the Nazi occupation (29 June 1941), killed a number of Jews and recruited volunteers for the Latvian "Self-Defense" unit. The latter promptly began to arrest Jews, especially members of the Workers Party, and took them to the Womens Prison which became a torture chamber and holding pen for the doomed. Some 47 Jews were shot by the Einsatzgruppen on 3 July 1941 and from then on mass executions became commonplace.
Executions took place every few days. Jewish families were evicted from their apartments and were forced to live on rations that were just one-half of the skimpy Latvian rations. The synagogues were raised on the order of the SS, who forced Jews to trample on their sacred scrolls.
Mass round-ups and shootings (now including women and children) continued first near the Libau Lighthouse, then by the nearby fish factory, then by the Navy base and finally on the sand dunes of Skede.
During a three day period from 15 - 17 December 1941, in the height of a freezing Baltic winter, some 2749 Jews (mainly women and children) were killed by three German and Latvian firing squads.
The victims were force marched to Skede, made to undress in the freezing wind and snow and shot in front of mass graves.
I have visited the dunes of Skede and cannot begin to imagine the thoughts that must have been going through the victims minds as they stood naked, trembling with fear, embarrasment and cold, overlooking the beautiful sandy beaches where they may have played as children.
Fortunately for the sake of historical testimony to evil, we do have photographic evidence of these Nazi atrocities. Unbelievably the SS- Uberscharfuhrer (ie Senior Squad Leader), Carl-Emil Strott, took photos of the killings at Skede. These photos were found by an audacious Jew - David Zivcon - who was working as a forced labourer. Zivcon, managed to steal, copy and replace the photos. Since the end of the war, these photos of the killings at Skede have become some of the most notorious images of the holocaust.
Image: Womens prison
Image: the dunes at Skede
By the end of 1941 only 1050 Jews remained alive. After more shootings in the next few months. 832 Jews remained who were forced into a crowded ghetto on 1 July 1942. The ghetto commander was relatively benign so about 800 were still alive 15 months later when on 8 October 1943 the inmates were deported to the Kaiserwald concentration camp in Riga.
Old people, and mothers with children under 12 were killed locally or sent to Auschwitz for gassing. After further selctions, about 350 remained who were deported to the Stutthof concentration camp in August-September 1944. Many died in the increasingly brutal conditions at Stutthof although some were deported to sub-camps further East where they were liberatd by the Soviet Army in early 1945.
The last remnants of the Stutthof prisoners, were put on barges two weeks before the end of the war, tugged westward, and then abandoned at sea. Norwegian political prisoners navigated the barges to shore but when the half-dead Jewish prisoners staggered ashore, a group of young German sailors shot or drowned more than 50 of them.
A few hours later the last survivors were liberated by British troops
Click here to visit liepajajews.org - a detailed website listing all known details of those who persihed between 1941-45
After liberation, the survivors received excellent medical care but 8 died in the next few weeks, leaving 176. Another 33 had survived in Liepaja, having been hidden by brave and kind-hearted Latvians who risked their own lives.
All together, 3% of Liepaja Jews survived the Nazi occupation. But the Soviet regime treated these survivors with great suspicion, presuming any Jew not killed by the Nazi must have collaborated with the Fascists. A number were sentenced to terms in the Gulag. Not surprisingly many emigrated to Israel or the West when the opportunity arose in the 1970s.
Under the Soviets, Liepaja was a major Naval base and was thus off- limits even to other Latvian or Soviet citizens. Effectively, it was shrouded and isolated behind two iron curtains - firstly from the West and secondly from the rest of Latvia
True liberation did not occur until 1991 when Latvia gained independence from the USSR and democracy was restored.
When I first visited Liepaja in July 2003, there were no signposts or proper roads to Skede. Ilana Ivanova, the doyenne of the Liepaja Jewish community drove us to the site over unmarked paths and showed us the simple memorial established by the Soviets. At least, they did place a memorial of some sort, but it made no reference to Jews only to the Soviet victims of Fascism.
Image: Soviet Memorial at Skede
Ilana, however, is a purposeful lady. She firstly raised funds both locally and from Libauers around the world to build a memorial wall at the Liepaja Jewish cemetery and to maintain its grounds. The wall lists the names of over 6500 Libau Jews (including several Friedman relatives) who died during the Nazi occupation. The extensive research into the establishing the names and fates of the Jewish community was carried out by Professor Edward Anders (himself a Libau survivor). Professor Anders was also a major contributor to the memorial plot.
Ilana (and various others both locally in Liepaja and from the Libau diaspora) then lobbied the Latvian government to allow a more substantial memorial to be built at Skede itself and to provide proper access by road to the site. This involved detailed planning including extensive surveys to ensure that the memorial was built near not directly on top of the mas graves themselves.
The work was completed and the memorial dedicated at a service I was honoured to attend in June 2005. About 200 people attended, including ambassadors from Israel, Germany and the UK. Senior embassy officials also attended from the US. Latvia was represented by the son of the Latvian President. The British Armed forces were also represented by the Admiral of the Fleet which was moored in Liepaja at that time.
The memorial was followed by receptions at the Liepaja Community Centre and the Liepaja Jewish Centre. We and the other British attendees were also invited to an Ambassador's reception onboard HMS Somerset which was moored in Liepaja as part of NATO duties
Image: Skede Dedication
Image: memeorial wall
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Students were required to meet once a week for four weeks for group instruction and activities. They used excerpts from several sources of informational texts. First, students watched the film Bordertown and filled out a graphic organizer on the key aspects of the movie based on true events. Second, students read and annotated parts of an essay on the femicide in order to understand the important details, including social, economic, and political aspects. This was followed by a group discussion and informal verbal assessment. Third, students broke up into reading groups and each group was responsible for a different aspect of the causes of femicide, such as social, political and economic factors. Then, students taught each other what they learned. Everything they learned was recorded on a graphic organizer. Finally, with a two hour time limit, students were responsible for referring to these texts and notes to write a short, persuasive essay on the causes as well as possible solutions to the femicide.
Here is a sample of a student's unedited final essay:
In America we as people are used to men and women being relatively equal, but what if you lived in a place where that was not the case? This is a problem the women of Mexico have to face every day, have to be looked down upon and having to bo on the bottom of the social pyramid. What factors contribute to the social divide between men and women? Women are looked down upon because their mistreatment has been ingrained in the mexican culture for generations and has become the social norm of their society. In mexico the law does not even protect them from basic things, such as murder and rape, even the political system in mexico is designed to overlook or even support the mistreatment of women.
In Mexico unlike the U.S the mistreatment of women is an ongoing problem, from their mistreatment in the workplace, to how they are treated in their everyday lives. This problem stems from how the the Mexican culture has looked down on women for a long time, and this idea of inequality has been implanted in the minds of the men and even the women of mexico.
From an economic standpoint women receive lower pay than their male counterparts around the world, but this problem is especially bad in mexico. In mexico women work at factories called maquiladoras where they assemble mostly electronic goods that other countries such as the U.S and Canada purchase and consume. These goods that we as people enjoy so much because of their relatively low cost are only wallet friendly because of the low wages and the terrible working conditions that are forced upon the people of mexico.
In mexico laws do not protect their women like they do their men, it almost seems as though the law actually supports crimes against women. For example if a woman were to get raped and that women tried to have the man who did it arrested that man would have a number of ways to get passed the charges. The man could bribe the police, he could a pay a ten to twenty dollar fine, or marry the women, this would also be after the women got passed the impossible task of proving that she was a virgin before she was raped.
In order for the mistreatment and inequality that the women of mexico have to face, to stop, we as people have to bring awareness to the things that go on in mexico. The women of mexico would have to stand up for their rights, the rights they deserve as human beings, rights that people of other countries such a the U.S and Canada have become so accustomed too. In order for things to improve the people who take advantaged of these terrible things without knowing it have to be made aware of what happens. | <urn:uuid:12e151a8-96cc-421a-b7af-e56c5f10e3f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hunter-cuny.digication.com/melissa_gore/Assessment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.985341 | 756 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.07109212875... | 2 | Students were required to meet once a week for four weeks for group instruction and activities. They used excerpts from several sources of informational texts. First, students watched the film Bordertown and filled out a graphic organizer on the key aspects of the movie based on true events. Second, students read and annotated parts of an essay on the femicide in order to understand the important details, including social, economic, and political aspects. This was followed by a group discussion and informal verbal assessment. Third, students broke up into reading groups and each group was responsible for a different aspect of the causes of femicide, such as social, political and economic factors. Then, students taught each other what they learned. Everything they learned was recorded on a graphic organizer. Finally, with a two hour time limit, students were responsible for referring to these texts and notes to write a short, persuasive essay on the causes as well as possible solutions to the femicide.
Here is a sample of a student's unedited final essay:
In America we as people are used to men and women being relatively equal, but what if you lived in a place where that was not the case? This is a problem the women of Mexico have to face every day, have to be looked down upon and having to bo on the bottom of the social pyramid. What factors contribute to the social divide between men and women? Women are looked down upon because their mistreatment has been ingrained in the mexican culture for generations and has become the social norm of their society. In mexico the law does not even protect them from basic things, such as murder and rape, even the political system in mexico is designed to overlook or even support the mistreatment of women.
In Mexico unlike the U.S the mistreatment of women is an ongoing problem, from their mistreatment in the workplace, to how they are treated in their everyday lives. This problem stems from how the the Mexican culture has looked down on women for a long time, and this idea of inequality has been implanted in the minds of the men and even the women of mexico.
From an economic standpoint women receive lower pay than their male counterparts around the world, but this problem is especially bad in mexico. In mexico women work at factories called maquiladoras where they assemble mostly electronic goods that other countries such as the U.S and Canada purchase and consume. These goods that we as people enjoy so much because of their relatively low cost are only wallet friendly because of the low wages and the terrible working conditions that are forced upon the people of mexico.
In mexico laws do not protect their women like they do their men, it almost seems as though the law actually supports crimes against women. For example if a woman were to get raped and that women tried to have the man who did it arrested that man would have a number of ways to get passed the charges. The man could bribe the police, he could a pay a ten to twenty dollar fine, or marry the women, this would also be after the women got passed the impossible task of proving that she was a virgin before she was raped.
In order for the mistreatment and inequality that the women of mexico have to face, to stop, we as people have to bring awareness to the things that go on in mexico. The women of mexico would have to stand up for their rights, the rights they deserve as human beings, rights that people of other countries such a the U.S and Canada have become so accustomed too. In order for things to improve the people who take advantaged of these terrible things without knowing it have to be made aware of what happens. | 725 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Medieval World View
Plato (d. 347 BC) is the main western source for what Arthur Lovejoy calls ‘otherworldliness’ in western philosophy and religion (1942:35), that is the belief that human beings should strive to divest themselves of the visible, material world, in order to attain the invisible, eternal world. Their striving was directed towards their source, the Supreme Being (or the Idea of Good), which was perfection. The Supreme Being completed its perfection by its production of other beings, so that every conceivable being was realised. If it had not engendered other beings, ‘it would lack a positive element in its perfection’. While Plato’s pupil, Aristotle (d. 322 BC), did not find it necessary to postulate a theory of creation based upon the fecundity of God, he did nevertheless provide a hierarchical classification of beings, a graded scale rising from minerals eventually to humans, with each level containing both the elements of those that were below it and a distinctive feature of its own. In the medieval view, although human beings had only a pale semblance of the intelligence possessed by the angels, they were distinguished by their faculty of reason; equally they were connected to the animals beneath them in the hierarchy by their possession of senses. If the connecting link with rationality were to be in some way interrupted, then a possible consequence might be insanity, which was sometimes seen as the explanation of seemingly irrational acts like murder or suicide (Babcock and Krey 1941:2:386; Scott 2001:5:1343). | <urn:uuid:ffda5ca7-9694-4fa7-8aa0-6ecbde43797a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203645819/chapters/10.4324/9780203645819-30 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.980197 | 319 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.33... | 1 | The Medieval World View
Plato (d. 347 BC) is the main western source for what Arthur Lovejoy calls ‘otherworldliness’ in western philosophy and religion (1942:35), that is the belief that human beings should strive to divest themselves of the visible, material world, in order to attain the invisible, eternal world. Their striving was directed towards their source, the Supreme Being (or the Idea of Good), which was perfection. The Supreme Being completed its perfection by its production of other beings, so that every conceivable being was realised. If it had not engendered other beings, ‘it would lack a positive element in its perfection’. While Plato’s pupil, Aristotle (d. 322 BC), did not find it necessary to postulate a theory of creation based upon the fecundity of God, he did nevertheless provide a hierarchical classification of beings, a graded scale rising from minerals eventually to humans, with each level containing both the elements of those that were below it and a distinctive feature of its own. In the medieval view, although human beings had only a pale semblance of the intelligence possessed by the angels, they were distinguished by their faculty of reason; equally they were connected to the animals beneath them in the hierarchy by their possession of senses. If the connecting link with rationality were to be in some way interrupted, then a possible consequence might be insanity, which was sometimes seen as the explanation of seemingly irrational acts like murder or suicide (Babcock and Krey 1941:2:386; Scott 2001:5:1343). | 337 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1509 Copernicus began publishing serious works, the first being Latin translations of the work of an obscure Greek poet, Theophylactus Simocattes. He soon began dedicating more and more time to his theories on astronomy, and in 1514 published a hand-written book, The Little Commentary, setting out his revolutionary theories of a heliocentric universe. In the same year he began writing De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium - a completely heretical work for its time that would eventually propel him to international infamy after his death. In 1514, however, his renown had already reached such heights that he was approached by the Pope to revise the Roman calendar, which was known to be out of phase with the Moon.
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium was eventually published in Nuremburg at the very end of Copernicus' life in March 1543, almost 30 years after he started writing it. Although many before him had hinted at the unthinkable, that the Earth wasn’t the centre of the universe and orbited the sun, it was Nicolaus Copernicus who first stated it so publicly. Nicolaus Copernicus outlived the publication of his masterwork, which he himself had delayed, by just two months, dying at age 70 in Frombork – a town on the Baltic coast in northern Poland where he had settled at the end of his life. His final resting place was never recorded, but his remains were discovered and confirmed by DNA testing beneath Frombork Cathedral in 2005.
The matter of Copernicus’ nationality has long been a point of contention, particularly between Germans and Poles. To ascribe him a nationality today is largely pointless, since people in his day identified with the region of their birth more than any ‘nation’ in the modern sense. In Copernicus’ case he was born in Prussian territory with a German cultural background that was subject to the Polish crown. In the tradition of his time, he published his work in Latin, though there is ample evidence that he spoke both German and Polish.
In Kraków, a monument to Copernicus can be found in the Planty near Collegium Novum (ul. Gołębia 24), and the building where he studied and attended lectures - Collegium Maius (ul. Jagiellońska 15) - is today a museum. Additionally, the Czartoryski Museum includes an urn macabrely labelled 'The Corpse of Copernicus.' | <urn:uuid:45a8a11b-7f62-4989-adfd-bc7690543c55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.inyourpocket.com/krakow/people-you-never-knew-were-polish-nicolaus_73118f | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.986362 | 523 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.228180333971... | 7 | In 1509 Copernicus began publishing serious works, the first being Latin translations of the work of an obscure Greek poet, Theophylactus Simocattes. He soon began dedicating more and more time to his theories on astronomy, and in 1514 published a hand-written book, The Little Commentary, setting out his revolutionary theories of a heliocentric universe. In the same year he began writing De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium - a completely heretical work for its time that would eventually propel him to international infamy after his death. In 1514, however, his renown had already reached such heights that he was approached by the Pope to revise the Roman calendar, which was known to be out of phase with the Moon.
De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium was eventually published in Nuremburg at the very end of Copernicus' life in March 1543, almost 30 years after he started writing it. Although many before him had hinted at the unthinkable, that the Earth wasn’t the centre of the universe and orbited the sun, it was Nicolaus Copernicus who first stated it so publicly. Nicolaus Copernicus outlived the publication of his masterwork, which he himself had delayed, by just two months, dying at age 70 in Frombork – a town on the Baltic coast in northern Poland where he had settled at the end of his life. His final resting place was never recorded, but his remains were discovered and confirmed by DNA testing beneath Frombork Cathedral in 2005.
The matter of Copernicus’ nationality has long been a point of contention, particularly between Germans and Poles. To ascribe him a nationality today is largely pointless, since people in his day identified with the region of their birth more than any ‘nation’ in the modern sense. In Copernicus’ case he was born in Prussian territory with a German cultural background that was subject to the Polish crown. In the tradition of his time, he published his work in Latin, though there is ample evidence that he spoke both German and Polish.
In Kraków, a monument to Copernicus can be found in the Planty near Collegium Novum (ul. Gołębia 24), and the building where he studied and attended lectures - Collegium Maius (ul. Jagiellońska 15) - is today a museum. Additionally, the Czartoryski Museum includes an urn macabrely labelled 'The Corpse of Copernicus.' | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, orator, writer and statesman. he was the son of a black slave and white slave master.
After escaping from slavery, he became a leader of the abolitionist movement, gaining note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writing. He stood as a living counter-example to slaveholders' arguments that slaves did not have the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.
Josephine Baker was an American-born French dancer, singer, actress and spy for the Allied Forces during WWII. Born Freda Josephine McDonald in St. Louis, Missouri, she became a citizen of France in 1937. Fluent in both English and French, Baker became an international musical and political icon. She was given such nicknames as the "Bronze Venus", the "Black Pearl", and the "Créole Goddess".
''..the fact that besides being the first black head of state in modern western history, Alessandro de' Medici's race was quite pivotal to the most politically powerful period of Medici history.''
(July 22, 1510 – January 6, 1537)
Alessandro de'Medici also known as "il Moro" ("the Moor") was Duke of Penne and also Duke of Florence from 1530 until 1537. Though illegitimate, he was the last member of the "senior" branch of the Medici to rule Florence and the first to be a hereditary duke. He was the only son of Lorenzo II de' Medici and a black servant who was working in the Medici household, identified in documents as Simonetta da Collevecchio. Although he had many rivals and was critised by his republican counterparts, Alessandro was also known for his generosity and concern for the poor. Like other members of the Medici dynasty, Alessandro was also a patron of the arts.
'' I know what liberty is because I know what slavery was.''
Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley
(February 1818 – May 1907)
Elizabeth Keckley was a former slave who became a successful seamstress, civic activist and author in Washington, DC. Her mother, Agnes, was a house slave and hey biological father, whose identity was revealed to her only late in life, was her master Armistead Burwell, a planter and colonel in the War of 1812.
Elizabeth was best known as the personal confidante of Mary Todd Lincoln, President Abraham Lincolns wife and First Lady. Keckley had moved to Washington in 1860 after buying her freedom and that of her son in St. Louis. She created an independent business in the capital based on clients who were the wives of the government elite.
Joseph Bologne, Le Chevalier de Saint-George
(December 25, 1745 – June 10, 1799)
''Known as the "black Mozart" he was one of the earliest musicians of the European classical type known to have African ancestry.''
Joseph Bologne was an important French-Caribbean figure in the Paris musical scene in the second half of the 18th century as composer, conductor, and violinist. Prior to the revolution in France, he was also famous as a swordsman and equestrian. He was the son of Nanon, a Wolof former slave, and Georges Boulogne de Saint-George, a white French plantation owner. As a member of the aristocracy and the royal court at Versailles, Boulogne also served in the army of the Revolution against France's monarchist enemies. | <urn:uuid:0f870ce6-c064-4dbd-8e6f-d8d6b2d93532> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mixedfoundations.org.uk/mixed-histories/4579376467 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00188.warc.gz | en | 0.981138 | 738 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.04139519... | 3 | Frederick Douglass was an African-American social reformer, orator, writer and statesman. he was the son of a black slave and white slave master.
After escaping from slavery, he became a leader of the abolitionist movement, gaining note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writing. He stood as a living counter-example to slaveholders' arguments that slaves did not have the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.
Josephine Baker was an American-born French dancer, singer, actress and spy for the Allied Forces during WWII. Born Freda Josephine McDonald in St. Louis, Missouri, she became a citizen of France in 1937. Fluent in both English and French, Baker became an international musical and political icon. She was given such nicknames as the "Bronze Venus", the "Black Pearl", and the "Créole Goddess".
''..the fact that besides being the first black head of state in modern western history, Alessandro de' Medici's race was quite pivotal to the most politically powerful period of Medici history.''
(July 22, 1510 – January 6, 1537)
Alessandro de'Medici also known as "il Moro" ("the Moor") was Duke of Penne and also Duke of Florence from 1530 until 1537. Though illegitimate, he was the last member of the "senior" branch of the Medici to rule Florence and the first to be a hereditary duke. He was the only son of Lorenzo II de' Medici and a black servant who was working in the Medici household, identified in documents as Simonetta da Collevecchio. Although he had many rivals and was critised by his republican counterparts, Alessandro was also known for his generosity and concern for the poor. Like other members of the Medici dynasty, Alessandro was also a patron of the arts.
'' I know what liberty is because I know what slavery was.''
Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley
(February 1818 – May 1907)
Elizabeth Keckley was a former slave who became a successful seamstress, civic activist and author in Washington, DC. Her mother, Agnes, was a house slave and hey biological father, whose identity was revealed to her only late in life, was her master Armistead Burwell, a planter and colonel in the War of 1812.
Elizabeth was best known as the personal confidante of Mary Todd Lincoln, President Abraham Lincolns wife and First Lady. Keckley had moved to Washington in 1860 after buying her freedom and that of her son in St. Louis. She created an independent business in the capital based on clients who were the wives of the government elite.
Joseph Bologne, Le Chevalier de Saint-George
(December 25, 1745 – June 10, 1799)
''Known as the "black Mozart" he was one of the earliest musicians of the European classical type known to have African ancestry.''
Joseph Bologne was an important French-Caribbean figure in the Paris musical scene in the second half of the 18th century as composer, conductor, and violinist. Prior to the revolution in France, he was also famous as a swordsman and equestrian. He was the son of Nanon, a Wolof former slave, and Georges Boulogne de Saint-George, a white French plantation owner. As a member of the aristocracy and the royal court at Versailles, Boulogne also served in the army of the Revolution against France's monarchist enemies. | 769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Plague Essay Research Paper Small pox
The Plague Essay, Research Paper
Small syphilis. Tuberculosis. AIDS. These diseases have been considered epidemics at assorted points throughout the history of the universe. None of them, nevertheless, had such an impact on the population and civilization of the people than did the Black Death. The Black Death was a disease that invaded England in the center of the 14th century. Reports on the entire sum deceased have varied from between 25 per centum and 50 per centum of the European population. However, it is known that many 1000000s of people were eliminated from the English population, and that the Black Death was a accelerator for societal alteration within Europe. The civilization and lives of all people rich and hapless was changed everlastingly due to the effects of the Black Death.
First, the Black Death had a great consequence on the upper category in England. This disease did non know apart. A rich adult male when put into contact with the disease was merely every bit likely to get the disease as was a hapless adult male. The epidemic changed many common patterns in England that no adult male had of all time been able to command before the disease. One consequence the Black Death had on England? s upper category was that it reduced the figure of members significantly. When the deathly disease struck landholders and their households, their lands would go through to the closest household member. This pattern was really common and caused the estates of the lasting landholders to go really big. So, the Black Death shrunk the upper category and made it wealthier at the same clip. Though the disease made the upper category wealthier in lands, working the lands became less profitable. Because the population of the people paid to work the land was besides reduced by 25 to fifty per centum, there were fewer people to work the land. This happening promoted higher rewards from the worker and less entire net income for the landholder.
The Black Death besides had an impact on the lives of the lower category and the common mans. The effects of the disease were non all negative. In some ways, the disease really improved the quality of life for the common individual in England. One manner that the Black Death improved life was by raising the rewards paid to the people who worked the land. Because the disease obliterated so much of the English population, there became a seve
re deficit of labour. When you combine this premiss with the economic rules of supply and demand, alterations take topographic point in England. With the deficit of workers and the demand for people to work the land, a competitory market was created. Wagess greatly increased. Working conditions improved. The disease besides caused an addition in regard for the common man. The provincials and the yeoman really prospered more in England than they of all time had. Another consequence the disease had on England was that it opened up lands for the common mans to have and or work. Though the sum of land a common man owned may be little, if the same individual works the land that owns the land, the outputs are normally traveling to be greater than if the work is farmed out to engage custodies.
Recovery from the Black Death was a really gradual procedure. England? s population would non be every bit great as before the disease for a twosome of centuries. It was common for a household to hold no male heirs three coevalss subsequently, so its impact on the population was really terrible. The Black Death did go forth many factors for a strong recovery. Because of the lessening in population, there was a great excess of land. Commoners who worked their ain land as a consequence of the land excess prospered. Besides in excess was nutrient. This big supply of nutrient was more than adequate to prolong the population left spared by the Black Death. A rise in the rewards of the common individual was another consequence the disease had on England. When you combine these three factors, land excess, nutrient excess, and high rewards, England? s population recovered. It must be understood that it took a twosome of hundred old ages to to the full reconstruct the population, as replacing 1000000s of people doesn? T occur in one coevals.
The Black Death is frequently looked upon as a really negative disease in history, but it besides had many positive effects. England needed the disease to decelerate its jobs of overpopulation. The Black Death besides helped England draw itself out of the stagnation of the Middle Ages, as a market economic system really developed more quickly due to the disease. Bettering the lives of the common people was another positive consequence the disease had on England. As has been the instance many times throughout history, in times of crisis, people will demo their resiliency and persevere. | <urn:uuid:0398cc42-eba3-428f-9cba-a93f241a9bd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newyorkessays.com/essay-the-plague-essay-research-paper-small-pox-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.98042 | 975 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.018031729385256... | 5 | The Plague Essay Research Paper Small pox
The Plague Essay, Research Paper
Small syphilis. Tuberculosis. AIDS. These diseases have been considered epidemics at assorted points throughout the history of the universe. None of them, nevertheless, had such an impact on the population and civilization of the people than did the Black Death. The Black Death was a disease that invaded England in the center of the 14th century. Reports on the entire sum deceased have varied from between 25 per centum and 50 per centum of the European population. However, it is known that many 1000000s of people were eliminated from the English population, and that the Black Death was a accelerator for societal alteration within Europe. The civilization and lives of all people rich and hapless was changed everlastingly due to the effects of the Black Death.
First, the Black Death had a great consequence on the upper category in England. This disease did non know apart. A rich adult male when put into contact with the disease was merely every bit likely to get the disease as was a hapless adult male. The epidemic changed many common patterns in England that no adult male had of all time been able to command before the disease. One consequence the Black Death had on England? s upper category was that it reduced the figure of members significantly. When the deathly disease struck landholders and their households, their lands would go through to the closest household member. This pattern was really common and caused the estates of the lasting landholders to go really big. So, the Black Death shrunk the upper category and made it wealthier at the same clip. Though the disease made the upper category wealthier in lands, working the lands became less profitable. Because the population of the people paid to work the land was besides reduced by 25 to fifty per centum, there were fewer people to work the land. This happening promoted higher rewards from the worker and less entire net income for the landholder.
The Black Death besides had an impact on the lives of the lower category and the common mans. The effects of the disease were non all negative. In some ways, the disease really improved the quality of life for the common individual in England. One manner that the Black Death improved life was by raising the rewards paid to the people who worked the land. Because the disease obliterated so much of the English population, there became a seve
re deficit of labour. When you combine this premiss with the economic rules of supply and demand, alterations take topographic point in England. With the deficit of workers and the demand for people to work the land, a competitory market was created. Wagess greatly increased. Working conditions improved. The disease besides caused an addition in regard for the common man. The provincials and the yeoman really prospered more in England than they of all time had. Another consequence the disease had on England was that it opened up lands for the common mans to have and or work. Though the sum of land a common man owned may be little, if the same individual works the land that owns the land, the outputs are normally traveling to be greater than if the work is farmed out to engage custodies.
Recovery from the Black Death was a really gradual procedure. England? s population would non be every bit great as before the disease for a twosome of centuries. It was common for a household to hold no male heirs three coevalss subsequently, so its impact on the population was really terrible. The Black Death did go forth many factors for a strong recovery. Because of the lessening in population, there was a great excess of land. Commoners who worked their ain land as a consequence of the land excess prospered. Besides in excess was nutrient. This big supply of nutrient was more than adequate to prolong the population left spared by the Black Death. A rise in the rewards of the common individual was another consequence the disease had on England. When you combine these three factors, land excess, nutrient excess, and high rewards, England? s population recovered. It must be understood that it took a twosome of hundred old ages to to the full reconstruct the population, as replacing 1000000s of people doesn? T occur in one coevals.
The Black Death is frequently looked upon as a really negative disease in history, but it besides had many positive effects. England needed the disease to decelerate its jobs of overpopulation. The Black Death besides helped England draw itself out of the stagnation of the Middle Ages, as a market economic system really developed more quickly due to the disease. Bettering the lives of the common people was another positive consequence the disease had on England. As has been the instance many times throughout history, in times of crisis, people will demo their resiliency and persevere. | 990 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article does not have any sources. (March 2017)
Impeachment is a way to remove government officers from office in some countries. It happens when the official does not want to leave his or her job. It is like an indictment (something that the prosecutor needs to get before the trial). Someone is impeached when a legislature votes to do that. Later, there is another vote on whether or not to convict, which is like guilty or not. The second vote may be by the same people who did the impeachment, or someone else as in a bicameral legislature. Several different types of office holders may be impeached, but cases against the President or leader of a country usually attract the most attention.
Two well-known heads of state who were impeached and removed from office were Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff in 2016 and South Korean president Park Geun-hye in 2017. Three American presidents were impeached: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump, but none were removed from office. President Richard Nixon resigned from the office of President before the House could impeach him, resulting in him being the only president to resign. | <urn:uuid:2434fbc7-4f46-4d44-b5d1-ade24476815a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.982032 | 234 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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... | 4 | This article does not have any sources. (March 2017)
Impeachment is a way to remove government officers from office in some countries. It happens when the official does not want to leave his or her job. It is like an indictment (something that the prosecutor needs to get before the trial). Someone is impeached when a legislature votes to do that. Later, there is another vote on whether or not to convict, which is like guilty or not. The second vote may be by the same people who did the impeachment, or someone else as in a bicameral legislature. Several different types of office holders may be impeached, but cases against the President or leader of a country usually attract the most attention.
Two well-known heads of state who were impeached and removed from office were Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff in 2016 and South Korean president Park Geun-hye in 2017. Three American presidents were impeached: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump, but none were removed from office. President Richard Nixon resigned from the office of President before the House could impeach him, resulting in him being the only president to resign. | 241 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Baseball
Americans began playing baseball on informal teams, using local rules, in the early 1800s. By the 1860s, the sport, unrivaled in popularity, was being described as America's "national pastime." Alexander Joy Cartwright of New York invented the modern baseball field in 1845. Alexander Cartwright and the members of his New York Knickerbocker Base Ball Club devised the first rules and regulations for the modern game of baseball.
Baseball was based on the English game of rounders. Rounders becomes popular in the United States in the early 19th century, where the game was called "townball", "base", or "baseball". Cartwright formalized the modern rules of baseball. The first recorded baseball game in 1846 when Alexander Cartwright's Knickerbockers lost to the New York Baseball Club. The game was held at the Elysian Fields, in Hoboken, New Jersey. In 1858, the National Association of Base Ball Players, the first organized baseball league was formed.
People used to think that Abner Doubleday invented baseball but, historians proved them wrong because he was at war at the time when baseball was invented. So in the study in 1905 people really believed that he invented it because some man said that while he was growing up with Doubleday he remembers hitting a ball with a bat, then running to bags with sand in them. Sometime later, an old, rotting baseball found among Doubleday's personal effects. This was viewed, as proof of that man's story was true. Today, the very same ball is on display at the baseball hall of fame in Cooperstown.
In the early ninetieth century the Americans hated the English. There were still a few veterans of the Revolutionary War around. If the Englishmen liked to play games, the Americans would not play at all. So for the Americans there was a real growing need for an organized sport for adult's .so the question was "what might be an appropriate sport?" So they came up with a game called cricket witch was somewhat like baseball. It involves throwing, hitting, running, and catching. The game seemed challenging, yet safe and it could be played at a civilized pace. There was plenty of strategy involved. First of all it wasn't very good because it took a very long time to play. They played sometimes more than a day or two. So they had to decide to play a different game.
Records indicate that they were... | <urn:uuid:c468dfc3-91a4-47c0-a7bc-eae34584a46a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-history-of-baseball-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.984885 | 510 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.2051928937... | 1 | The History of Baseball
Americans began playing baseball on informal teams, using local rules, in the early 1800s. By the 1860s, the sport, unrivaled in popularity, was being described as America's "national pastime." Alexander Joy Cartwright of New York invented the modern baseball field in 1845. Alexander Cartwright and the members of his New York Knickerbocker Base Ball Club devised the first rules and regulations for the modern game of baseball.
Baseball was based on the English game of rounders. Rounders becomes popular in the United States in the early 19th century, where the game was called "townball", "base", or "baseball". Cartwright formalized the modern rules of baseball. The first recorded baseball game in 1846 when Alexander Cartwright's Knickerbockers lost to the New York Baseball Club. The game was held at the Elysian Fields, in Hoboken, New Jersey. In 1858, the National Association of Base Ball Players, the first organized baseball league was formed.
People used to think that Abner Doubleday invented baseball but, historians proved them wrong because he was at war at the time when baseball was invented. So in the study in 1905 people really believed that he invented it because some man said that while he was growing up with Doubleday he remembers hitting a ball with a bat, then running to bags with sand in them. Sometime later, an old, rotting baseball found among Doubleday's personal effects. This was viewed, as proof of that man's story was true. Today, the very same ball is on display at the baseball hall of fame in Cooperstown.
In the early ninetieth century the Americans hated the English. There were still a few veterans of the Revolutionary War around. If the Englishmen liked to play games, the Americans would not play at all. So for the Americans there was a real growing need for an organized sport for adult's .so the question was "what might be an appropriate sport?" So they came up with a game called cricket witch was somewhat like baseball. It involves throwing, hitting, running, and catching. The game seemed challenging, yet safe and it could be played at a civilized pace. There was plenty of strategy involved. First of all it wasn't very good because it took a very long time to play. They played sometimes more than a day or two. So they had to decide to play a different game.
Records indicate that they were... | 530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is now Lexington was originally part of Cambridge which was established in 1630. From the early 17th century until its incorporation as a town in 1713 Lexington was known by the name of "Cambridge North Precinct" or more commonly, "Cambridge Farms." In the 17th century most of the land that is now Lexington was granted or sold in large tracts to proprietors who lived in Cambridge but used the outlying Lexington land for wood lots or hayfields.
Edwin B. Worthen, Early Grants at The Farms, 1650
Early on, a number of native trails were adopted as transportation routes by the settlers. The Watertown-Bedford route over Vine Brook was the primary north-south way (corresponding to the present-day Blossom-Allen-Steadman-Waltham-Hancock-North Hancock-Valley Streets and along axis of Bedford Street to Westview Cemetery/Pine Street). Another early travel corridor which had been improved by the mid 17th century was the east-west route from Cambridge to Concord - what is today Massachusetts Avenue-Lincoln Street with a branch to Woburn corresponding to what are now Vine and Woburn Streets.
Detail, First Parish Church
The date of the first settlement in "Cambridge Farms" is not known although old deeds tell us that there was at least one house standing by 1642. Several large farms were established along Vine Brook by the mid 17th century including one at the town center owned by Herbert Pelham. The southwestern part of town near the source of Vine Brook was also settled early and the Stone, Bridge and Steadman families had farms along the Watertown and Concord paths in this area. By 1650 Edward Winship had established a saw mill on Mill Brook at Bow Street in East Lexington. It has been said that this was one of the earliest, if not the earliest, in the Massachusetts Colony. William Munroe settled on the present Woburn Street at the town line about 1660.
Settlement occurred slowly and in 1682 there were approximately thirty families or 180 persons at the Farms. Faced with a five to ten mile journey to the nearest place of worship, the inhabitants of the Farms began efforts in 1682 to establish themselves as a separate parish. On December 15, 1691 the General Court finally granted their request, over the objections of those in Cambridge who opposed the separation. The residents of the Farms assembled for the first time as a separate parish in April 1692 and a simple meeting-house was quickly erected at the junction of the Concord and Bedford Roads (now Massachusetts Avenue and Bedford Street). A burial ground had been established nearby by 1690. Reverend Benjamin Estabrook became the settled minister for the new parish in 1693. A house for the minister was built on the east bank of Vine Brook, between Main Street (now Massachusetts Avenue) and the railroad or approximately on the site of the present Cary Memorial Building.
Old Burial Ground | <urn:uuid:f68018b0-29e6-46cc-b059-fd5d3b280ce5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lexingtonma.gov/historical-commission/comprehensive-cultural-resources-survey/pages/first-settlement-early-17th | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00066.warc.gz | en | 0.982911 | 607 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.1359976083... | 1 | What is now Lexington was originally part of Cambridge which was established in 1630. From the early 17th century until its incorporation as a town in 1713 Lexington was known by the name of "Cambridge North Precinct" or more commonly, "Cambridge Farms." In the 17th century most of the land that is now Lexington was granted or sold in large tracts to proprietors who lived in Cambridge but used the outlying Lexington land for wood lots or hayfields.
Edwin B. Worthen, Early Grants at The Farms, 1650
Early on, a number of native trails were adopted as transportation routes by the settlers. The Watertown-Bedford route over Vine Brook was the primary north-south way (corresponding to the present-day Blossom-Allen-Steadman-Waltham-Hancock-North Hancock-Valley Streets and along axis of Bedford Street to Westview Cemetery/Pine Street). Another early travel corridor which had been improved by the mid 17th century was the east-west route from Cambridge to Concord - what is today Massachusetts Avenue-Lincoln Street with a branch to Woburn corresponding to what are now Vine and Woburn Streets.
Detail, First Parish Church
The date of the first settlement in "Cambridge Farms" is not known although old deeds tell us that there was at least one house standing by 1642. Several large farms were established along Vine Brook by the mid 17th century including one at the town center owned by Herbert Pelham. The southwestern part of town near the source of Vine Brook was also settled early and the Stone, Bridge and Steadman families had farms along the Watertown and Concord paths in this area. By 1650 Edward Winship had established a saw mill on Mill Brook at Bow Street in East Lexington. It has been said that this was one of the earliest, if not the earliest, in the Massachusetts Colony. William Munroe settled on the present Woburn Street at the town line about 1660.
Settlement occurred slowly and in 1682 there were approximately thirty families or 180 persons at the Farms. Faced with a five to ten mile journey to the nearest place of worship, the inhabitants of the Farms began efforts in 1682 to establish themselves as a separate parish. On December 15, 1691 the General Court finally granted their request, over the objections of those in Cambridge who opposed the separation. The residents of the Farms assembled for the first time as a separate parish in April 1692 and a simple meeting-house was quickly erected at the junction of the Concord and Bedford Roads (now Massachusetts Avenue and Bedford Street). A burial ground had been established nearby by 1690. Reverend Benjamin Estabrook became the settled minister for the new parish in 1693. A house for the minister was built on the east bank of Vine Brook, between Main Street (now Massachusetts Avenue) and the railroad or approximately on the site of the present Cary Memorial Building.
Old Burial Ground | 649 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have anyone asked himself who is a hero? A hero is usually perceived as someone who achieved win fame due to his heroic deeds. As it is known from the Virgil’s poem Aeneid, Aeneus achieved his goals through divine intervention. Thus, his deeds must not be perceived as his own. Divine intervention can be observed throughout the poem: Gods command the life of his wife when they left Troy, Venus begged Jupiter to calm the storm so Aeneus and other people could save their lives, later they guided him to Italy.
On the other hand, Aeneus was a hero in a common understanding of the meaning of the word. His attitude towards his family reveals him as a brave man as he was not afraid to return to Troy which was full of enemies. He was not afraid to start a trip to unknown country; he took responsibility to convey Trojans to Italy. He performed his duties not for achieving his personal goals, but to save the lives of other people who trusted him.
Aeneus completely realized his mission: he was to find unknown land to make it a homeland for Trojans whose city was totally damaged. He was destined to find this land for him and his people. Aeneus was persistent in achieving his final goal regardless of difficulties he encountered on his way. He remained devoted to his Roman race showing exemplary behavior towards the homeland. He set a good example for his compatriots showing them an exemplary behavior in everything. The ability to follow one’s destiny even being aware of danger and threats to one’s life is a heroic virtue.
In the poem Aeneus was depicted as pious citizen, a virtue that is valued by Romans a lot. He followed the will of Gods obeying their destiny even if it was painful. Such a behavior requires a lot of courage.
At the end of the poem Aeneus had lost everything he had in life: his father, his love, and, as a result, his identity. Many people would likely feel desperate and rave against their fate. Moral costs Aeneus paid significantly outweigh the benefits. But Aeneus is dignified in the face of adversity. He had never concentrated on the rewards, being focused on other people needs and his sense of duties. To my mind, Aeneus is a good example of how to behave in difficult situations, how to stay moral even if it seems impossible, how to respect homeland.
So, who is the hero? Someone, who is ready for heroic deeds or fight enemies? Or someone who is responsible and ready to defend other people interests? I think that a perception of a hero had changed with time immensely. There is no need to fight enemies anymore, but people who are responsible, devoted and aim to be good citizens are in favor any time.
Many critics refer to heroic deeds of Aeneus, but I think that Aeneus’s heroism is in his ability to defend his family and nation. Even being an offspring of Gods, he was just a man who was deprived of divine power. He did what he had to do in the situation he was. Unfortunately, only few people make right decisions when facing difficulties in their lives. The poem had impressed me a lot and Aeneus was an example that showed me the right way in life.
Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. Vintage classics edition. New York: Vintage Books, 1990. Print. | <urn:uuid:79978652-8737-49da-b90c-5e24ce287a0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/example-of-the-aeneid-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.993841 | 705 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | Have anyone asked himself who is a hero? A hero is usually perceived as someone who achieved win fame due to his heroic deeds. As it is known from the Virgil’s poem Aeneid, Aeneus achieved his goals through divine intervention. Thus, his deeds must not be perceived as his own. Divine intervention can be observed throughout the poem: Gods command the life of his wife when they left Troy, Venus begged Jupiter to calm the storm so Aeneus and other people could save their lives, later they guided him to Italy.
On the other hand, Aeneus was a hero in a common understanding of the meaning of the word. His attitude towards his family reveals him as a brave man as he was not afraid to return to Troy which was full of enemies. He was not afraid to start a trip to unknown country; he took responsibility to convey Trojans to Italy. He performed his duties not for achieving his personal goals, but to save the lives of other people who trusted him.
Aeneus completely realized his mission: he was to find unknown land to make it a homeland for Trojans whose city was totally damaged. He was destined to find this land for him and his people. Aeneus was persistent in achieving his final goal regardless of difficulties he encountered on his way. He remained devoted to his Roman race showing exemplary behavior towards the homeland. He set a good example for his compatriots showing them an exemplary behavior in everything. The ability to follow one’s destiny even being aware of danger and threats to one’s life is a heroic virtue.
In the poem Aeneus was depicted as pious citizen, a virtue that is valued by Romans a lot. He followed the will of Gods obeying their destiny even if it was painful. Such a behavior requires a lot of courage.
At the end of the poem Aeneus had lost everything he had in life: his father, his love, and, as a result, his identity. Many people would likely feel desperate and rave against their fate. Moral costs Aeneus paid significantly outweigh the benefits. But Aeneus is dignified in the face of adversity. He had never concentrated on the rewards, being focused on other people needs and his sense of duties. To my mind, Aeneus is a good example of how to behave in difficult situations, how to stay moral even if it seems impossible, how to respect homeland.
So, who is the hero? Someone, who is ready for heroic deeds or fight enemies? Or someone who is responsible and ready to defend other people interests? I think that a perception of a hero had changed with time immensely. There is no need to fight enemies anymore, but people who are responsible, devoted and aim to be good citizens are in favor any time.
Many critics refer to heroic deeds of Aeneus, but I think that Aeneus’s heroism is in his ability to defend his family and nation. Even being an offspring of Gods, he was just a man who was deprived of divine power. He did what he had to do in the situation he was. Unfortunately, only few people make right decisions when facing difficulties in their lives. The poem had impressed me a lot and Aeneus was an example that showed me the right way in life.
Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. Vintage classics edition. New York: Vintage Books, 1990. Print. | 696 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philip Henry Sheridan was born in Albany, New York, in 1831. After attending school in Albany, he was accepted into the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in July 1848. During his time at West Point, however, he got in a quarrel
"I believe General Sheridan has no superior as a general, either living or dead, and perhaps not an equal."
Ulysses S. Grant
Philip H. Sheridan. (Courtesy of U.S. Army Photographers.)
with a fellow cadet (military student). Sheridan was suspended for the incident, but he eventually was allowed to return to the academy.
After graduating from West Point in July 1853, Sheridan was assigned to a variety of military posts in Kentucky, Texas, and Oregon. These military assignments in the West often took him to outposts that were hundreds of miles from the population centers of the United States. But no matter where he was stationed, Sheridan followed the growing tensions between America's Northern and Southern regions with great interest.
By the 1850s, the North and South had become deadlocked over several emotional issues, including slavery and the concept of states' rights. Many Northerners believed that slavery was wrong and wanted to abolish (eliminate) it. They also contended that the federal government had the authority to pass laws that applied to all citizens of the United States. But a large part of the South's economy and culture had been built on slavery, and Southerners resented Northern efforts to halt or contain the practice. In addition, they argued that the federal government did not have the constitutional power to institute national laws on slavery or other issues. Instead, white Southerners argued that each state should decide for itself whether to allow slavery. Finally, America's westward expansion made the situation even worse, since both sides wanted to spread their way of life—and their political ideas— into the new territories and states.
In early 1861, several Southern states became so fed up with the situation that they seceded from (left) the United States to form a new country that allowed slavery, called the Confederate States of America. The U.S. government, though, declared that those states had no right to secede and that it was willing to use force to make them return to the Union. In the spring of 1861, these bitter differences finally erupted into war.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:ade51df0-6a67-4b84-9263-6bdb1ef91071> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.minecreek.info/southern-states/aiming-for-a-military-career.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.985285 | 493 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.4414208829402... | 1 | Philip Henry Sheridan was born in Albany, New York, in 1831. After attending school in Albany, he was accepted into the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in July 1848. During his time at West Point, however, he got in a quarrel
"I believe General Sheridan has no superior as a general, either living or dead, and perhaps not an equal."
Ulysses S. Grant
Philip H. Sheridan. (Courtesy of U.S. Army Photographers.)
with a fellow cadet (military student). Sheridan was suspended for the incident, but he eventually was allowed to return to the academy.
After graduating from West Point in July 1853, Sheridan was assigned to a variety of military posts in Kentucky, Texas, and Oregon. These military assignments in the West often took him to outposts that were hundreds of miles from the population centers of the United States. But no matter where he was stationed, Sheridan followed the growing tensions between America's Northern and Southern regions with great interest.
By the 1850s, the North and South had become deadlocked over several emotional issues, including slavery and the concept of states' rights. Many Northerners believed that slavery was wrong and wanted to abolish (eliminate) it. They also contended that the federal government had the authority to pass laws that applied to all citizens of the United States. But a large part of the South's economy and culture had been built on slavery, and Southerners resented Northern efforts to halt or contain the practice. In addition, they argued that the federal government did not have the constitutional power to institute national laws on slavery or other issues. Instead, white Southerners argued that each state should decide for itself whether to allow slavery. Finally, America's westward expansion made the situation even worse, since both sides wanted to spread their way of life—and their political ideas— into the new territories and states.
In early 1861, several Southern states became so fed up with the situation that they seceded from (left) the United States to form a new country that allowed slavery, called the Confederate States of America. The U.S. government, though, declared that those states had no right to secede and that it was willing to use force to make them return to the Union. In the spring of 1861, these bitter differences finally erupted into war.
Was this article helpful? | 503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lesson Plan - Get It!
Squanto, Sequoyah, Jim Thorpe, and Charles Curtis all lived very different lives, but each contributed something unique to American - and Native American - history!
In this lesson, you'll watch several videos to learn about these famous Native American men. As you watch the videos, have some paper ready for taking notes. Write down their tribes, birth and death, family, accomplishments, and legacy (what they're remembered for, honors they received, things that were named after them). You'll use this information later, in the Got It? section.
Image by H.W. Collingwood and retouched by Theornamentalist, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Born in 1585 in Massachusetts, Squanto was called Tisquantum by his parents. He was a member of the Pawtuxet tribe. He was kidnapped by an Englishman, who wanted to sell him into slavery, and taken to Spain.
Some Catholic monks set him free, taught him Christianity, and took care of him. He later went to England, lived with a family there, and learned English. This would prove very useful to him when he was able to return to his home in 1619.
When he returned to America, he discovered his entire tribe had been killed by an infection epidemic. In 1620, Squanto used his knowledge of the English language to help foster relationships between the Pokanoket tribe and the English settlers on the Mayflower.
Watch a segment of THANKSGIVING 2015 VIDEO: SQUANTO, from Louis F. Rotoli, to learn more:
- For what is Squanto best remembered?
Image by Henry Inman after a painting by Charles Bird King, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Sequoyah, also spelled Sequoya or Sequoia, was born near what is now Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1770. His mother was a member of the Cherokee nation. His father was probably a white man, but no one knows for sure who he was. Sequoyah helped his mother by working in the garden and taking care of the cattle while she ran a trading post.
Early in life, he was wounded somehow and became physically disabled. Knowing he could not survive as a farmer or warrior, he became a silversmith and later took over the trading post when his mother died.
Though he never went to school, he was very intelligent and loved to invent new things. In 1809, he began creating an alphabet so that the Cherokee language could be written down. At first, he tried to make a picture for each word. Realizing that was too complicated, he came up with another system. He worked on it for a long time. Finally, in 1823, his alphabet and writing system were officially adopted by the Cherokee.
Learn more by watching the following video. Remember to take notes!
Sequoyah from mrsagbarton1981:
When the Cherokee leaders realized what a great gift Sequoyah had given them, they gave him a medal. It's said that he wore that medal for the rest of his life!
- Why do you think that medal was so important to him?
Image from Heritage Auctions, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Jim Thorpe was born in 1887 in what is now Oklahoma. A member of the Sac and Fox tribe, his Indian name was Wa-Tho-Huk, which means Bright Path. Jim had a difficult childhood. He had a twin brother, Charles, who died when he was 9. Jim's mother died two years later.
Jim hated going to school and ran away several times. Finally, his father sent him away to the Indian school in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The coach there, named Glenn "Pop" Warner, recognized that he was a talented athlete and encouraged him to compete in track and field events.
Later, Jim would go on to play college football, professional football, and professional baseball and to win gold medals in the 1912 Olympics.
Learn more about Jim's football career by watching the NFL Films video #37: Jim Thorpe | The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players (2010) | NFL Films.
Strangely, Jim Thorpe represented America in the Olympics even though he was not recognized as a U.S. citizen! As you learned at the beginning of the lesson, Native Americans were not granted citizenship until 1924. Maybe that's why some people found it easy to take advantage of him, and why he ended up having his Olympic medals and records taken away.
To learn about Jim's Olympic experience, watch a portion of the Jim Thorpe Biography from Jim Magnet Man:
In 1983, the Olympic committee restored Jim Thorpe's gold medals and gave them to his children.
- How do you think young Native Americans were inspired by watching Jim's success?
Image by Strauss Peyton, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Charles Curtis was the son of a white man and an Indian woman. His mother was a member of the Kaw tribe. He was born in 1860 in Topeka, Kansas. His mother was a descendant of two chiefs: Chief White Plume of the Kaw tribe and Chief Pawhuska of the Osage tribe.
Charles's mother died when he was three. His father was often away, so his maternal grandparents (his mother's parents) took care of him. When the Kaw tribe was forced to move from their land, his grandmother urged him to go to his father's parents. It was sad for him to leave his beloved grandparents and his tribe, but he knew it would be best for him. So he lived with his paternal grandparents while he went to high school.
Later on, Curtis became a lawyer, and then he ran for Congress. He had a long career as a politician and eventually became the Vice President of the United States under Herbert Hoover, from 1929 to 1933.
Watch three segments of the following video to learn more about Curtis Charles.
Our Charley: Charles Curtis "A Boy Forced to Choose" from humanitieskansas:
- Would you have made the same choice Charles did?
Now that you've learned about some famous Native American men, head over to the Got It? section, where you'll organize all your information and decide which of these great men you'd like to meet! | <urn:uuid:12fd35ba-6aca-4d9a-801e-90417a500d77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.elephango.com/index.cfm/pg/k12learning/lcid/13141/Famous_Native_American_Men | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.991265 | 1,315 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.2731367945... | 4 | Lesson Plan - Get It!
Squanto, Sequoyah, Jim Thorpe, and Charles Curtis all lived very different lives, but each contributed something unique to American - and Native American - history!
In this lesson, you'll watch several videos to learn about these famous Native American men. As you watch the videos, have some paper ready for taking notes. Write down their tribes, birth and death, family, accomplishments, and legacy (what they're remembered for, honors they received, things that were named after them). You'll use this information later, in the Got It? section.
Image by H.W. Collingwood and retouched by Theornamentalist, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Born in 1585 in Massachusetts, Squanto was called Tisquantum by his parents. He was a member of the Pawtuxet tribe. He was kidnapped by an Englishman, who wanted to sell him into slavery, and taken to Spain.
Some Catholic monks set him free, taught him Christianity, and took care of him. He later went to England, lived with a family there, and learned English. This would prove very useful to him when he was able to return to his home in 1619.
When he returned to America, he discovered his entire tribe had been killed by an infection epidemic. In 1620, Squanto used his knowledge of the English language to help foster relationships between the Pokanoket tribe and the English settlers on the Mayflower.
Watch a segment of THANKSGIVING 2015 VIDEO: SQUANTO, from Louis F. Rotoli, to learn more:
- For what is Squanto best remembered?
Image by Henry Inman after a painting by Charles Bird King, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Sequoyah, also spelled Sequoya or Sequoia, was born near what is now Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1770. His mother was a member of the Cherokee nation. His father was probably a white man, but no one knows for sure who he was. Sequoyah helped his mother by working in the garden and taking care of the cattle while she ran a trading post.
Early in life, he was wounded somehow and became physically disabled. Knowing he could not survive as a farmer or warrior, he became a silversmith and later took over the trading post when his mother died.
Though he never went to school, he was very intelligent and loved to invent new things. In 1809, he began creating an alphabet so that the Cherokee language could be written down. At first, he tried to make a picture for each word. Realizing that was too complicated, he came up with another system. He worked on it for a long time. Finally, in 1823, his alphabet and writing system were officially adopted by the Cherokee.
Learn more by watching the following video. Remember to take notes!
Sequoyah from mrsagbarton1981:
When the Cherokee leaders realized what a great gift Sequoyah had given them, they gave him a medal. It's said that he wore that medal for the rest of his life!
- Why do you think that medal was so important to him?
Image from Heritage Auctions, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Jim Thorpe was born in 1887 in what is now Oklahoma. A member of the Sac and Fox tribe, his Indian name was Wa-Tho-Huk, which means Bright Path. Jim had a difficult childhood. He had a twin brother, Charles, who died when he was 9. Jim's mother died two years later.
Jim hated going to school and ran away several times. Finally, his father sent him away to the Indian school in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The coach there, named Glenn "Pop" Warner, recognized that he was a talented athlete and encouraged him to compete in track and field events.
Later, Jim would go on to play college football, professional football, and professional baseball and to win gold medals in the 1912 Olympics.
Learn more about Jim's football career by watching the NFL Films video #37: Jim Thorpe | The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players (2010) | NFL Films.
Strangely, Jim Thorpe represented America in the Olympics even though he was not recognized as a U.S. citizen! As you learned at the beginning of the lesson, Native Americans were not granted citizenship until 1924. Maybe that's why some people found it easy to take advantage of him, and why he ended up having his Olympic medals and records taken away.
To learn about Jim's Olympic experience, watch a portion of the Jim Thorpe Biography from Jim Magnet Man:
In 1983, the Olympic committee restored Jim Thorpe's gold medals and gave them to his children.
- How do you think young Native Americans were inspired by watching Jim's success?
Image by Strauss Peyton, via Wikimedia Commons, is in the public domain.
Charles Curtis was the son of a white man and an Indian woman. His mother was a member of the Kaw tribe. He was born in 1860 in Topeka, Kansas. His mother was a descendant of two chiefs: Chief White Plume of the Kaw tribe and Chief Pawhuska of the Osage tribe.
Charles's mother died when he was three. His father was often away, so his maternal grandparents (his mother's parents) took care of him. When the Kaw tribe was forced to move from their land, his grandmother urged him to go to his father's parents. It was sad for him to leave his beloved grandparents and his tribe, but he knew it would be best for him. So he lived with his paternal grandparents while he went to high school.
Later on, Curtis became a lawyer, and then he ran for Congress. He had a long career as a politician and eventually became the Vice President of the United States under Herbert Hoover, from 1929 to 1933.
Watch three segments of the following video to learn more about Curtis Charles.
Our Charley: Charles Curtis "A Boy Forced to Choose" from humanitieskansas:
- Would you have made the same choice Charles did?
Now that you've learned about some famous Native American men, head over to the Got It? section, where you'll organize all your information and decide which of these great men you'd like to meet! | 1,340 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Palestine is the name (first referred to by the Ancient Greeks) of an area in the Middle East situated between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Palestine was absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 and remained under the rule of the Turks until World War One. Towards the end of this war, the Turks were defeated by the British forces led by General Allenby. In the peace talks that followed the end of the war, parts of the Ottoman Empire were handed over to the French to control and parts were handed over to the British – including Palestine. Britain governed this area under a League of Nations mandate from 1920 to 1948. To the Arab population who lived there, it was their homeland and had been promised to them by the Allies for help in defeating the Turks by the McMahon Agreement – though the British claimed the agreement gave no such promise.
The same area of land had also been promised to the Jews (as they had interpreted it) in the Balfour Declaration and after 1920, many Jews migrated to the area and lived with the far more numerous Arabs there. At this time, the area was ruled by the British and both Arabs and Jews appeared to live together in some form of harmony in the sense that both tolerated then existence of the other. There were problems in 1921 but between that year and 1928/29, the situation stabilised.
The main problem after the war for Palestine was perceived beliefs. The Arabs had joined the Allies to fight the Turks during the war and convinced themselves that they were due to be given what they believed was their land once the war was over.
Clashing with this was the belief among all Jews that the Balfour Declaration had promised them the same piece of territory.
In August 1929, relations between the Jews and Arabs in Palestine broke down. The focal point of this discontent was Jerusalem.
The primary cause of trouble was the increased influx of Jews who had emigrated to Palestine. The number of Jews in the region had doubled in ten years
The city of Jerusalem also had major religious significance for both Arabs and Jews and over 200 deaths occurred in just four days in August (23rd to the 26th).
Arab nationalism was whipped up by the Mufti of Jerusalem, Haji Amin al-Husseini. He claimed that the number of Jews threatened the very lifestyle of the Arabs in Palestine.
The violence that occurred in August 1929 did not deter Jews from going to Palestine. In 1931, 4,075 Jews emigrated to the region. In 1935, it was 61,854. The Mufti estimated that by the 1940’s there would be more Jews in Palestine than Arabs and that their power in the area would be extinguished on a simple numerical basis.
In May 1936, more violence occurred and the British had to restore law and order using the military. Thirty four soldiers were killed in the process. The violence did not stop. In fact, it became worse after November 1937.
For the Arabs there were two enemies – the Jews and the British authorities based in Palestine via their League mandate.
For the Jews there were also two enemies – the Arabs and the British.
Therefore, the British were pushed into the middle of a conflict they had seemingly little control over as the two other sides involved were so driven by their own beliefs. In an effort to end the violence, the British put a quota on the number of Jews who could enter Palestine in any one year. They hoped to appease the Arabs in the region but also keep on side with the Jews by recognising that Jews could enter Palestine – but in restricted numbers. They failed on both counts.
Both the Jews and the Arabs continued to attack the British. The Arabs attacked because they believed that the British had failed to keep their word after 1918 and because they believed that the British were not keeping the quotas agreed to as they did little to stop illegal landings into Palestine made by the Jews.
The Jews attacked the British authorities in Palestine simply because of the quota which they believed was grossly unfair. The British had also imposed restrictions on the amount of land Jews could buy in Palestine.
An uneasy truce occurred during the war when hostilities seemed to cease. This truce, however, was only temporary.
Many Jews had fought for the Allies during World War Two and had developed their military skills as a result. After the war ended in 1945, these skills were used in acts of terrorism. The new Labour Government of Britain had given the Jews hope that they would be given more rights in the area. Also in the aftermath of the Holocaust in Europe, many throughout the world were sympathetic to the plight of the Jews at the expense of the Arabs in Palestine.
However, neither group got what they were looking for. The British still controlled Palestine. As a result, the Jews used terrorist tactics to push their claim for the area. Groups such as the Stern Gang and Irgun Zvai Leumi attacked the British that culminated in the destruction of the British military headquarters in Palestine – the King David Hotel. Seemingly unable to influence events in Palestine, the British looked for a way out.
In 1947, the newly formed United Nations accepted the idea to partition Palestine into a zone for the Jews (Israel) and a zone for the Arabs (Palestine). With this United Nations proposal, the British withdrew from the region on May 14th 1948. Almost immediately, Israel was attacked by Arab nations that surrounded in a war that lasted from May 1948 to January 1949. Palestinian Arabs refused to recognise Israel and it became the turn of the Israeli government itself to suffer from terrorist attacks when fedayeen (fanatics) from the Palestinian Arabs community attacked Israel. Such attacks later became more organised with the creation of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO). To the Palestinian Arabs, the area the Jews call Israel, will always be Palestine. To the Jews it is Israel. There have been very few years of peace in the region since 1948. | <urn:uuid:c1c64552-9461-4da4-a01b-023da04f8ff1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-middle-east-1917-to-1973/palestine-1918-to-1948/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00191.warc.gz | en | 0.986762 | 1,204 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.06065835431218... | 8 | Palestine is the name (first referred to by the Ancient Greeks) of an area in the Middle East situated between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Palestine was absorbed into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 and remained under the rule of the Turks until World War One. Towards the end of this war, the Turks were defeated by the British forces led by General Allenby. In the peace talks that followed the end of the war, parts of the Ottoman Empire were handed over to the French to control and parts were handed over to the British – including Palestine. Britain governed this area under a League of Nations mandate from 1920 to 1948. To the Arab population who lived there, it was their homeland and had been promised to them by the Allies for help in defeating the Turks by the McMahon Agreement – though the British claimed the agreement gave no such promise.
The same area of land had also been promised to the Jews (as they had interpreted it) in the Balfour Declaration and after 1920, many Jews migrated to the area and lived with the far more numerous Arabs there. At this time, the area was ruled by the British and both Arabs and Jews appeared to live together in some form of harmony in the sense that both tolerated then existence of the other. There were problems in 1921 but between that year and 1928/29, the situation stabilised.
The main problem after the war for Palestine was perceived beliefs. The Arabs had joined the Allies to fight the Turks during the war and convinced themselves that they were due to be given what they believed was their land once the war was over.
Clashing with this was the belief among all Jews that the Balfour Declaration had promised them the same piece of territory.
In August 1929, relations between the Jews and Arabs in Palestine broke down. The focal point of this discontent was Jerusalem.
The primary cause of trouble was the increased influx of Jews who had emigrated to Palestine. The number of Jews in the region had doubled in ten years
The city of Jerusalem also had major religious significance for both Arabs and Jews and over 200 deaths occurred in just four days in August (23rd to the 26th).
Arab nationalism was whipped up by the Mufti of Jerusalem, Haji Amin al-Husseini. He claimed that the number of Jews threatened the very lifestyle of the Arabs in Palestine.
The violence that occurred in August 1929 did not deter Jews from going to Palestine. In 1931, 4,075 Jews emigrated to the region. In 1935, it was 61,854. The Mufti estimated that by the 1940’s there would be more Jews in Palestine than Arabs and that their power in the area would be extinguished on a simple numerical basis.
In May 1936, more violence occurred and the British had to restore law and order using the military. Thirty four soldiers were killed in the process. The violence did not stop. In fact, it became worse after November 1937.
For the Arabs there were two enemies – the Jews and the British authorities based in Palestine via their League mandate.
For the Jews there were also two enemies – the Arabs and the British.
Therefore, the British were pushed into the middle of a conflict they had seemingly little control over as the two other sides involved were so driven by their own beliefs. In an effort to end the violence, the British put a quota on the number of Jews who could enter Palestine in any one year. They hoped to appease the Arabs in the region but also keep on side with the Jews by recognising that Jews could enter Palestine – but in restricted numbers. They failed on both counts.
Both the Jews and the Arabs continued to attack the British. The Arabs attacked because they believed that the British had failed to keep their word after 1918 and because they believed that the British were not keeping the quotas agreed to as they did little to stop illegal landings into Palestine made by the Jews.
The Jews attacked the British authorities in Palestine simply because of the quota which they believed was grossly unfair. The British had also imposed restrictions on the amount of land Jews could buy in Palestine.
An uneasy truce occurred during the war when hostilities seemed to cease. This truce, however, was only temporary.
Many Jews had fought for the Allies during World War Two and had developed their military skills as a result. After the war ended in 1945, these skills were used in acts of terrorism. The new Labour Government of Britain had given the Jews hope that they would be given more rights in the area. Also in the aftermath of the Holocaust in Europe, many throughout the world were sympathetic to the plight of the Jews at the expense of the Arabs in Palestine.
However, neither group got what they were looking for. The British still controlled Palestine. As a result, the Jews used terrorist tactics to push their claim for the area. Groups such as the Stern Gang and Irgun Zvai Leumi attacked the British that culminated in the destruction of the British military headquarters in Palestine – the King David Hotel. Seemingly unable to influence events in Palestine, the British looked for a way out.
In 1947, the newly formed United Nations accepted the idea to partition Palestine into a zone for the Jews (Israel) and a zone for the Arabs (Palestine). With this United Nations proposal, the British withdrew from the region on May 14th 1948. Almost immediately, Israel was attacked by Arab nations that surrounded in a war that lasted from May 1948 to January 1949. Palestinian Arabs refused to recognise Israel and it became the turn of the Israeli government itself to suffer from terrorist attacks when fedayeen (fanatics) from the Palestinian Arabs community attacked Israel. Such attacks later became more organised with the creation of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO). To the Palestinian Arabs, the area the Jews call Israel, will always be Palestine. To the Jews it is Israel. There have been very few years of peace in the region since 1948. | 1,290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The name Herod resonates through religious history: killer of innocent babies, murderer of John the Baptist, the king who mocked Christ, the ruler who sent Paul to his trial in Rome. Not much positive seems attached to the name. Yet Herod is a surname, and there were seven kings from the Herod dynasty ruling at various times in Palestine and its environs, and some of their works can still be seen, notably the great fortress of the Herodium, which has been excavated to some degree by archaeologists.
Meet the Herods
The Herod dynasty were efficient rulers, but their grip on power was based upon ruthlessness.
The origins of the dynasty
The Herods descend from Antipater, an Idumaean nobleman who took part in the civil discord that preceded the Roman annexation of Palestine.The Idumaeans descended from the Edomites, a tribe from south of the Dead Sea often at odds with the Hebrews, until they were annexed and forced to convert by the Jewish king, John Hyrcanus, in the second century BC. Antipater ingratiated himself with the Roman conquerors and managed to get on the right side of Julius Caesar by rescuing him when he was in trouble in Egypt. Eventually after much machination Antipater managed to side with Octavian [Augustus] , who became emperor and rewarded Antipater with important office in the new Roman regime. Yet despite his being officially Jewish by religion, many Jews regarded him and his family as not true Jews, and this made them unpopular with the more extreme elements in the country.
In 43 BC Antipater died, leaving sons, one of whom was Herod. Herod had already established a reputation for ruthlessly dealing with bandits in Galilee, killing Hezekiah the Bandit Chief, and so in 37 the Romans decided that as the country was best ruled by a client king, in Herod they had their man. He was elevated to the title of ethnarch, ruler of the people under Rome, and eventually became known as Herod the Great, ruling until 4 BC.
We must be clear that Herod was competent-very. He managed the kingdom well for the Romans and secured its boundaries against the Arabs who were disposed to raid when they could get away with it. He also had to manage relationships with Persia, and not annoying that large, aggressive kingdom involved diplomatic skill, which he seemed to exercise.
Great works of building began in his reign. The fortress of the Herodium was constructed near Bethlehem as an escape for Herod if there was trouble. The Jerusalem temple was refurbished to much greater grandeur than it had previously had, and for his pagan subjects he erected temples, which annoyed the Jews enormously, as it indicated a pragmatic attitude to religion in contrast to their zealous fervour.
Yet the stress of being constantly under threat of assassination by fanatics seemed to have undermined his mental health, and he became increasingly paranoid. When Antipater, one of his charming sons falsely accused his own brothers, Aristobulus and Alexander, of plotting against Herod he had them and their mother, Mariamne, beheaded. Later when the falseness of the accusations surfaced he beheaded Antipater. The emperor Augustus, himself no paragon of virtue, is reputed to have said that he would rather be Herod's dog then his son.
Yet it is for an incident late in his reign that he is best known. It is said in Matthew's Gospel that [in 6BC probably] Iranian Magi arrived asking to see the newborn king of the Jews. Herod knew that the birth was not in his family. If there is any truth in this story, the diplomats were not humble seekers after truth, but Iranians on a political mission to undermine Rome. Herod would have known to respect the Iranian [Persian] diplomats, as failure to do so would have meant thousands of battle hardened Persians invading. He bit his tongue, feigned innocence and then had the children in David's town of Bethlehem murdered. But one family escaped to Egypt, and this was to be the incident that created his memory, the only fact that many know of him.
|PARFUMS DE MARLY Herod|
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|Herod the Great: Statesman, Visionary, Tyrant|
Herod the Great, king of ancient Judea, was a brutal, ruthless, vindictive and dangerously high-strung tyrant. He had many of his subjects killed on suspicion of plotting agains...
Archelaus and Antipas
Herod the Great died in 4BC, and Rome split the kingdom between three of his sons. Archelaus received Judaea and Samaria with the title of ethnarch, whereas Antipas took Galilee, with the title of tetrarch, a rank lower than ethnarch. Philip took territories to the north of Palestine and plays no part in the gospel stories. Another son, also Philip, by a different wife, lived in Rome and plays a minor role
Archelaus proved as ruthless as his father and dealt with dissent in the same way as he did. We cannot say that he was always in the wrong, as an incident early in his reign saw emissaries sent by Herod to Jewish protestors murdered by worshippers who then continued with their sacrifices as if nothing had happened. Ruthless retribution followed, but Rome sided with him and he survived. Yet by 6 AD Augustus had had reservations about Herod's murderous character and deposed him, sending him as an exile to Gaul, where he fades from history,his office being taken by a Roman prefect. His only role in the gospel story is to explain why Joseph and Mary settled in Nazareth. On return from Egypt they would have been expected to live with Joseph's family, who were from Bethlehem [the family lands of the house of David] but Joseph decided that Mary's village of Nazareth was the safer option, the family settled there, as he did not want to live under Archelaus.
Antipas seems to have avoided trouble until he stole his brother's wife. This was after a visit to Rome, where he stayed with Philip and left with Herodias. This displeased John the Baptist and Herod's existing wife,Phaesalis, a princess of the Nabataean Arabs, who then fled back to her father, the Nabataean king, Aretas. Already in dispute with Herod over land in Perea, he began to raid in retaliation.
Herod's other trouble was with John the Baptist. The stern, uncompromising desert prophet roundly condemned Herod for adultery and incest [Herodias was his niece.] John was imprisoned, but not killed. However, the female of the species is more deadly than the male, and the story told by the gospel is that Herodias arranged her daughter, traditionally Salome, to dance for Herod, and in return he promised her what she wanted. Her mother told her to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a plate. Just what every girl wants, I suppose. Herod complied and John was beheaded.
But the tetrarch seemed nervous of Jesus. The gospels tell us that he thought that John had risen from the grave as Jesus, but on the whole he seems to have done nothing to impede Jesus' ministry. Luke tells us that some Pharisees told Jesus that Herod wanted to kill him, but Jesus seemed unphased. One suspects that Herod was seeing if Jesus would just run away, but he didn't.
Antipas appears in the trial of Jesus. Some scholars think that Antipas' role in the trial is legendary and lacks historical justification However it seems likely that Herod would have been in Jerusalem for the festival and that he would stay with Pilate in the security of the Roman garrison. Pilate was simply passing the buck to Herod to get himself off a political hook, but Herod sent it back
Antipas lasted until 39 when his nephew Herod Agrippa received the lands of his uncle Philip, gifted by the emperor Caligula. Antipas thought that they should be his and complained to Caligula, only to find that his cunning nephew knew Caligula as a friend and had a dossier accusing Antipas of plotting insurrection. When Caligula learned that Herod had stockpiled weapons for 70000 troops his fears were stoked and he deposed Antipas, conficating his money and sending him to Gaul. Herodias went with him,
Herod of Chalcis, known as Herod V, a small kingdom near the Syrian border, ruled from 48-53, but he plays no part in the Bible story and seems not to have impeded Christians in any way. He was a son of the executed Aristobulus. On his death his lands were awarded to Herod Agrippa the Second.
Herod Agrippa the First, brother of Herod Chalcis, reigned as tetrarch from 41-44, after a brief period in which Antipas' domains were ruled by the Roman prefect. He had a chequered history, having often been short of cash when living in Egypt and Rome. While in Rome he befriended Caligula, but in 36 he was overheard saying that he wanted the emperor Tiberius to die so that Caligula could take over. This got him imprisoned, but next year when Caligula did inherit the throne Agrippa was freed and made king.
His rule was marred by persecution of Christians. Through the use of the title king we know that it was he who executed the apostle, James the brother of John, the first apostle to be martyred. He also arrested Peter, who miraculously escaped from prison before trial and certain execution [Acts 13.]
His end is variously reported as sudden. Both Josephus and Acts of the Apostles recount a tale that on a diplomatic mission to pagan Sidon he was hailed as a god, and promptly fell ill. Acts says an angel struck him with worms in the stomach, while Josephus speaks of a sudden pain in his entrails. Just after being declared a god he had seen a crow perched above him, in Josephus' account, and he knew that it was an omen of doom. Three days later he was dead. In general this Herod is liked by Jews, but disliked by Christians.
Agrippa's son Agrippa the Second was too young to take the throne, so his role was taken by the prefect until 48 A.D. He was then given his father's lands, but the additional right to superintend the Jerusalem temple and appoint high priests, a role he exercised with vigour, chopping and changing at will. Only once does this Herod appear in the Bible. He and his sister Berenice tried St Paul [Acts 26] Agrippa, who seems not to have hated Christians, wanted to free Paul, but Paul, as a Roman citizen, had appealed to Rome, so the law said to Rome he must go.Agrippa's conduct at the hearing seems humane, and he is a cut above his less desirable relatives.
Agrippa stayed in office until the Jewish revolt drove him out. He fought loyaly alongside the Roman generals Vespasian and his son Titus, and was wounded at the siege of Gamla, at the foot of the Golan heights. His kingdom lost, he and Berenice went to Rome, where he was rewarded with the rank of Praetor and some land. His sisters, Mariamne and Salome, fade from history.
The date of Agrippa's death is disputed. Some say that it was AD 100, but others think 93-94. But he died childless, the last prince of the house of Herod, he had only sisters, and so the line and name became extinct.
Archaeology of Palestine
|THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALESTINE: From the Stone Age to Christianity|
|The Archaeology of Palestine|
This book is written for the reader who wants an authoritative and clearly written account of the subject. The author has been engaged in active excavations and research in this...
|The Archaeology Of Palestine A Survey Of The Ancient Peoples And Cultures Of The Holy Land|
The Herod family were not any worse than many ancient kings and they were generally competent. They have perhaps been unlucky to have ruled at a time and place where something happened beyond their understanding. Competent rulers, they were overshadowed in history's eyes by the arrival of Christ. If it were not for Christ they might stand higher in people's eyes, but then again, how many would have even heard of them. Their lasting name has come at a price.
Thumbnail photograph above shows the ruins of the Herodium. Photo courtesy of Nyiragongo. | <urn:uuid:9f79ab8d-bbbb-45a0-98a3-b4adc8ba6b17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wizzley.com/meet-the-herods/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.989644 | 2,667 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.127409562468528... | 1 | The name Herod resonates through religious history: killer of innocent babies, murderer of John the Baptist, the king who mocked Christ, the ruler who sent Paul to his trial in Rome. Not much positive seems attached to the name. Yet Herod is a surname, and there were seven kings from the Herod dynasty ruling at various times in Palestine and its environs, and some of their works can still be seen, notably the great fortress of the Herodium, which has been excavated to some degree by archaeologists.
Meet the Herods
The Herod dynasty were efficient rulers, but their grip on power was based upon ruthlessness.
The origins of the dynasty
The Herods descend from Antipater, an Idumaean nobleman who took part in the civil discord that preceded the Roman annexation of Palestine.The Idumaeans descended from the Edomites, a tribe from south of the Dead Sea often at odds with the Hebrews, until they were annexed and forced to convert by the Jewish king, John Hyrcanus, in the second century BC. Antipater ingratiated himself with the Roman conquerors and managed to get on the right side of Julius Caesar by rescuing him when he was in trouble in Egypt. Eventually after much machination Antipater managed to side with Octavian [Augustus] , who became emperor and rewarded Antipater with important office in the new Roman regime. Yet despite his being officially Jewish by religion, many Jews regarded him and his family as not true Jews, and this made them unpopular with the more extreme elements in the country.
In 43 BC Antipater died, leaving sons, one of whom was Herod. Herod had already established a reputation for ruthlessly dealing with bandits in Galilee, killing Hezekiah the Bandit Chief, and so in 37 the Romans decided that as the country was best ruled by a client king, in Herod they had their man. He was elevated to the title of ethnarch, ruler of the people under Rome, and eventually became known as Herod the Great, ruling until 4 BC.
We must be clear that Herod was competent-very. He managed the kingdom well for the Romans and secured its boundaries against the Arabs who were disposed to raid when they could get away with it. He also had to manage relationships with Persia, and not annoying that large, aggressive kingdom involved diplomatic skill, which he seemed to exercise.
Great works of building began in his reign. The fortress of the Herodium was constructed near Bethlehem as an escape for Herod if there was trouble. The Jerusalem temple was refurbished to much greater grandeur than it had previously had, and for his pagan subjects he erected temples, which annoyed the Jews enormously, as it indicated a pragmatic attitude to religion in contrast to their zealous fervour.
Yet the stress of being constantly under threat of assassination by fanatics seemed to have undermined his mental health, and he became increasingly paranoid. When Antipater, one of his charming sons falsely accused his own brothers, Aristobulus and Alexander, of plotting against Herod he had them and their mother, Mariamne, beheaded. Later when the falseness of the accusations surfaced he beheaded Antipater. The emperor Augustus, himself no paragon of virtue, is reputed to have said that he would rather be Herod's dog then his son.
Yet it is for an incident late in his reign that he is best known. It is said in Matthew's Gospel that [in 6BC probably] Iranian Magi arrived asking to see the newborn king of the Jews. Herod knew that the birth was not in his family. If there is any truth in this story, the diplomats were not humble seekers after truth, but Iranians on a political mission to undermine Rome. Herod would have known to respect the Iranian [Persian] diplomats, as failure to do so would have meant thousands of battle hardened Persians invading. He bit his tongue, feigned innocence and then had the children in David's town of Bethlehem murdered. But one family escaped to Egypt, and this was to be the incident that created his memory, the only fact that many know of him.
|PARFUMS DE MARLY Herod|
Exuding a smoky Vanilla scent, the magnificence of the stallion is personified by the blend of diverse notes found in the perfume. Starting at the base with woody notes of Vanil...
|Herod the Great: Statesman, Visionary, Tyrant|
Herod the Great, king of ancient Judea, was a brutal, ruthless, vindictive and dangerously high-strung tyrant. He had many of his subjects killed on suspicion of plotting agains...
Archelaus and Antipas
Herod the Great died in 4BC, and Rome split the kingdom between three of his sons. Archelaus received Judaea and Samaria with the title of ethnarch, whereas Antipas took Galilee, with the title of tetrarch, a rank lower than ethnarch. Philip took territories to the north of Palestine and plays no part in the gospel stories. Another son, also Philip, by a different wife, lived in Rome and plays a minor role
Archelaus proved as ruthless as his father and dealt with dissent in the same way as he did. We cannot say that he was always in the wrong, as an incident early in his reign saw emissaries sent by Herod to Jewish protestors murdered by worshippers who then continued with their sacrifices as if nothing had happened. Ruthless retribution followed, but Rome sided with him and he survived. Yet by 6 AD Augustus had had reservations about Herod's murderous character and deposed him, sending him as an exile to Gaul, where he fades from history,his office being taken by a Roman prefect. His only role in the gospel story is to explain why Joseph and Mary settled in Nazareth. On return from Egypt they would have been expected to live with Joseph's family, who were from Bethlehem [the family lands of the house of David] but Joseph decided that Mary's village of Nazareth was the safer option, the family settled there, as he did not want to live under Archelaus.
Antipas seems to have avoided trouble until he stole his brother's wife. This was after a visit to Rome, where he stayed with Philip and left with Herodias. This displeased John the Baptist and Herod's existing wife,Phaesalis, a princess of the Nabataean Arabs, who then fled back to her father, the Nabataean king, Aretas. Already in dispute with Herod over land in Perea, he began to raid in retaliation.
Herod's other trouble was with John the Baptist. The stern, uncompromising desert prophet roundly condemned Herod for adultery and incest [Herodias was his niece.] John was imprisoned, but not killed. However, the female of the species is more deadly than the male, and the story told by the gospel is that Herodias arranged her daughter, traditionally Salome, to dance for Herod, and in return he promised her what she wanted. Her mother told her to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a plate. Just what every girl wants, I suppose. Herod complied and John was beheaded.
But the tetrarch seemed nervous of Jesus. The gospels tell us that he thought that John had risen from the grave as Jesus, but on the whole he seems to have done nothing to impede Jesus' ministry. Luke tells us that some Pharisees told Jesus that Herod wanted to kill him, but Jesus seemed unphased. One suspects that Herod was seeing if Jesus would just run away, but he didn't.
Antipas appears in the trial of Jesus. Some scholars think that Antipas' role in the trial is legendary and lacks historical justification However it seems likely that Herod would have been in Jerusalem for the festival and that he would stay with Pilate in the security of the Roman garrison. Pilate was simply passing the buck to Herod to get himself off a political hook, but Herod sent it back
Antipas lasted until 39 when his nephew Herod Agrippa received the lands of his uncle Philip, gifted by the emperor Caligula. Antipas thought that they should be his and complained to Caligula, only to find that his cunning nephew knew Caligula as a friend and had a dossier accusing Antipas of plotting insurrection. When Caligula learned that Herod had stockpiled weapons for 70000 troops his fears were stoked and he deposed Antipas, conficating his money and sending him to Gaul. Herodias went with him,
Herod of Chalcis, known as Herod V, a small kingdom near the Syrian border, ruled from 48-53, but he plays no part in the Bible story and seems not to have impeded Christians in any way. He was a son of the executed Aristobulus. On his death his lands were awarded to Herod Agrippa the Second.
Herod Agrippa the First, brother of Herod Chalcis, reigned as tetrarch from 41-44, after a brief period in which Antipas' domains were ruled by the Roman prefect. He had a chequered history, having often been short of cash when living in Egypt and Rome. While in Rome he befriended Caligula, but in 36 he was overheard saying that he wanted the emperor Tiberius to die so that Caligula could take over. This got him imprisoned, but next year when Caligula did inherit the throne Agrippa was freed and made king.
His rule was marred by persecution of Christians. Through the use of the title king we know that it was he who executed the apostle, James the brother of John, the first apostle to be martyred. He also arrested Peter, who miraculously escaped from prison before trial and certain execution [Acts 13.]
His end is variously reported as sudden. Both Josephus and Acts of the Apostles recount a tale that on a diplomatic mission to pagan Sidon he was hailed as a god, and promptly fell ill. Acts says an angel struck him with worms in the stomach, while Josephus speaks of a sudden pain in his entrails. Just after being declared a god he had seen a crow perched above him, in Josephus' account, and he knew that it was an omen of doom. Three days later he was dead. In general this Herod is liked by Jews, but disliked by Christians.
Agrippa's son Agrippa the Second was too young to take the throne, so his role was taken by the prefect until 48 A.D. He was then given his father's lands, but the additional right to superintend the Jerusalem temple and appoint high priests, a role he exercised with vigour, chopping and changing at will. Only once does this Herod appear in the Bible. He and his sister Berenice tried St Paul [Acts 26] Agrippa, who seems not to have hated Christians, wanted to free Paul, but Paul, as a Roman citizen, had appealed to Rome, so the law said to Rome he must go.Agrippa's conduct at the hearing seems humane, and he is a cut above his less desirable relatives.
Agrippa stayed in office until the Jewish revolt drove him out. He fought loyaly alongside the Roman generals Vespasian and his son Titus, and was wounded at the siege of Gamla, at the foot of the Golan heights. His kingdom lost, he and Berenice went to Rome, where he was rewarded with the rank of Praetor and some land. His sisters, Mariamne and Salome, fade from history.
The date of Agrippa's death is disputed. Some say that it was AD 100, but others think 93-94. But he died childless, the last prince of the house of Herod, he had only sisters, and so the line and name became extinct.
Archaeology of Palestine
|THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALESTINE: From the Stone Age to Christianity|
|The Archaeology of Palestine|
This book is written for the reader who wants an authoritative and clearly written account of the subject. The author has been engaged in active excavations and research in this...
|The Archaeology Of Palestine A Survey Of The Ancient Peoples And Cultures Of The Holy Land|
The Herod family were not any worse than many ancient kings and they were generally competent. They have perhaps been unlucky to have ruled at a time and place where something happened beyond their understanding. Competent rulers, they were overshadowed in history's eyes by the arrival of Christ. If it were not for Christ they might stand higher in people's eyes, but then again, how many would have even heard of them. Their lasting name has come at a price.
Thumbnail photograph above shows the ruins of the Herodium. Photo courtesy of Nyiragongo. | 2,724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
19th-century print of a 1602 drawing
|Built||Crenellated in the 14th century|
Melbourne Castle was a medieval castle in Melbourne, Derbyshire. It was built on the site of an earlier royal manor house that had provided accommodation for noblemen hunting in a nearby royal park in the reign of King John. Construction of the castle was started in 1311 by Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, and continued until 1322, shortly before his execution, but the work was never fully completed.
From the early 14th century, Melbourne Castle was mainly in the possession of the Earls and Dukes of Lancaster or the crown. Improvements and repairs were made, particularly by John of Gaunt, and the building was in generally good condition throughout the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. John I, Duke of Bourbon, was kept at Melbourne for 19 years after his capture at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, and the castle was considered as a possible prison for Mary, Queen of Scots, although events led to her incarceration elsewhere.
The castle was in decline by the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. Although the stonework was sound, minimal maintenance had led to significant deterioration of other parts of the structure. The manor was purchased in 1604 by Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, who had his own castle in nearby Ashby-de-la-Zouch. The Melbourne property was then demolished and used as a source for building materials. All that remains of Melbourne Castle today is a section of wall about 15 m (50 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) high and some foundations; nothing is known of the internal layout of the former building. The ruins are grade II listed and the site is a scheduled monument. There is no public access to the castle remains.
Melbourne is a town in South Derbyshire close to the River Trent, which may have originated as buildings associated with the royal manor to the south of the nearby settlement at Kings Newton. Melbourne Castle was constructed on the site of an earlier manor house of unknown date; there is an old tradition that the manor was originally established in about the year 900, during the reign of Alfred the Great, but there is no evidence for this. As recorded in the Domesday Book, the manor of Melbourne and its lands were the property of King Edward the Confessor prior to the Norman Conquest. The property then passed into the hands of William I of England. After creating the Diocese of Carlisle in 1133, Henry I gave the manor for life to Æthelwold, the first bishop. Some time later, the diocese built a palace nearby on the site of what is now Melbourne Hall. When Bishop Æthelwold died in about 1156, the manor reverted to the crown.
A royal hunting park close to Melbourne was probably created by King John around 1200, and the King is known to have stayed at the manor house on at least five occasions. John gave the manor and its lands to Hugh Beauchamp, although they appear to have soon reverted to the crown, being gifted by Henry III to Bishop Walter Mauclerk of Carlisle in about 1230. The estate returned to the crown on the bishop's death in 1248, and Henry granted the land to his son, Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster, in 1265. At some later date, the manor appears to have been granted to a Philip Marc, before passing to Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, the King's son. This was in 1298 when he came of age, his father having died two years earlier. Early references to the house itself are rare, but there are records of repairs to the gutters in 1246 and to the roof of the King's Chamber in 1248.
The castle was built to the east of the 14th-century town on a slightly raised location. The area enclosed within the castle's outer walls was about 2.8 ha (7 acres), but with outbuildings, other ancillary constructions and orchards, the total area has been estimated to be at least 8 ha (20 acres). The walls were constructed with rubble faced with ashlar, and even without their former polished facings the walls are about 3 m (10 ft) thick.
All that is known of the appearance of the castle is from contemporary drawings. Although these may seem fanciful to modern eyes, there are better preserved sites which share some features. Tutbury and Pontefract Castles both have similar gatehouses and chapels, and Tutbury's motte and Pontefract's curtain wall are also close in style to those in the illustrations. Sandal Castle has a multi-angular tower like those depicted, and this feature is confirmed at Melbourne by foundations which still remain.
Earl Thomas granted the manor to his steward, Robert de Holland, in February 1308. In 1311, Robert obtained a licence to crenellate from Edward II in order to fortify the manor house, and the more modest earlier building was converted into a castle between 1311 and 1322. Local tradition says that the stone was obtained from a quarry on the site of what is now Melbourne Pool. The records show £1,313 was spent on the project in the year 1313–14,[a] of which £548 was paid to masons for dressing stone. Several masons working on the project were involved in an affray at Ravenstone in 1315. The important medieval buildings in Melbourne were constructed from the local bedrock, Millstone Grit. This is a coarsely grained sandstone which can be worked to produce good-quality ashlar. The village was centred around the church, castle and High Street until the late 18th century.
Earl Thomas, with other barons, captured King Edward's favourite, Piers Gaveston, and killed him in 1312. Nevertheless, the King stayed at Melbourne in 1314. For a time, after Edward's defeat at Bannockburn, the earl, a friend of the Scots, controlled most of England, but by 1321 Edward had raised an army and driven Thomas from the Midlands. The Lancastrian castles at Melbourne and Tutbury were left deserted and looted by the local populace. Earl Thomas was finally defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322. He was swiftly executed, and Robert de Holland was beheaded in 1328. The King sent a garrison to Melbourne and appointed a steward, Ralph Basset, to replace the incumbent, John de Hardedeshull. In March, those who had stolen from the castle were arrested, and by April Edward had withdrawn his troops. He appointed Robert Tocher and Roger de Beler in 1323 to help administer his possessions in Melbourne using money obtained from confiscations of rebel property in Staffordshire. Edward stayed at Melbourne again in 1325, and while there he issued a right to collect tolls to the men of nearby Swarkestone to repair the bridge over the Trent.
The castle, still unfinished at the time of Thomas' execution, along with its lands, remained as crown property until it was bestowed on Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, Earl Thomas' brother, in 1327. In turn it passed to Henry's son, the fourth earl, who became the first Duke of Lancaster. At the time of the duke's death in 1361, his constable was Ingram Fauconer, who received an annual life stipend of £10, a further £5 going to his wife. Henry's heiress was Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt.[b] Duke John confirmed Fauconer's pension when he came into possession of the Lancastrian lands. Catalina, the three-year-old daughter of John by his second wife Constance of Castile, was given her own room and a Castilian attendant at the castle in 1375.
Peter Melbourne was made keeper of the Melbourne estate in 1377 with an annual income of £10. He was granted another 66s 8d in 1386, and 10 marks (£6 13s 4d) in 1395. The last award was conditional on his not meddling with the offices of constable and keeper of the parks, which had passed on to his son, also called Peter. The younger Peter Melbourne was involved in the upbringing of the future Henry IV during the reign of Richard II. He was again appointed constable and steward of the Derbyshire manor in March 1399, although he gave up his office in April in return for an annuity from King Richard, who had confiscated the Lancastrian estates when John of Gaunt died earlier that year. Upon Henry's seizure of the throne, Peter was confirmed as constable, and in October 1399 his annuity was increased from £10 to 100 marks (£66 8s); in the following year he was awarded land in Derbyshire confiscated from Thomas Merke, Bishop of Carlisle, co-leader of plot against the King.[c]
The Duchy of Lancaster continued to improve and expand the property through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. John of Gaunt had windows glazed in the Communal Hall and the Great Chamber in 1392/3, along with other works. He repaired a drawbridge in 1393/4 and made plumbing improvements in 1399/1400, using lead acquired as a forfeit two years earlier.
For 19 years, the castle served as a prison for John I, Duke of Bourbon after he was taken at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.[d] His custodian was a Nicholas Montgomery the Younger. Nineteenth-century local historian John Joseph Briggs claimed that during the Wars of the Roses, the castle was partially dismantled by the Lancastrian forces of Margaret of Anjou, but since her campaign was along the line of the Great North Road, it was Melbourn, Cambridgeshire she sacked, not its Derbyshire namesake.[e]
In 1545, antiquarian John Leland reported to Henry VIII the property was in good enough shape that it was described as "praty and yn meately good reparation"[f] perhaps following repairs in the reign of Edward IV, when Sir Ralph Shirley, a commander at Agincourt, was governor of the castle.
When Elizabeth I became queen, she ordered a survey of her castles. A 1562 report told her that only ten castles in the north of her realm were worth keeping; Melbourne was not one of these. A further survey in 1576 reported that, although the stonework was in good condition apart from one chimney and window, the timbers were perished, the lead roof was full of holes, one kitchen was on the verge of collapse, and another needed its floor replacing. In the same year, George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, wrote to the queen to assure her that the castle was in good condition, worth £1,000, and could be repaired for £100. Since he was responsible for keeping the imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots, and her 140 retainers, he hoped to get her moved to Melbourne. In 1583, the castle was inspected again to see if it was suitable to house the captive queen. Although the rooms were sufficient in number and quality, the unfinished building was deemed "imperfect at every corner". The large rooms would need subdividing, the floors were earth and plaster, and there was no paved courtyard "so as being out of dors you are in the myre, for it is verie foule and unpleasaunt to walk round about the said house". In 1584, Queen Elizabeth finally decided to move Mary to Melbourne, only for the plan to be abandoned following the Babington Plot to assassinate the English queen and place her Scottish cousin on the throne.
In 1597, the castle was being used as a cattle pound, although a survey in 1602 assured Elizabeth that it was a "faire and anciente castle, which her Majesty keepeth in her own hands." The constable's annual fee of £10 was the same as that paid to Ingram Fauconer 140 years earlier.
The castle and lands were bought for £4,700 in 1604, by Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, whose family seat at Ashby de la Zouch Castle was just 11 km (7 mi) away. Melbourne Castle was destroyed between 1610 and 1637 so that its materials could be used in other construction. By 1629, it is likely that all the worked stone above ground level had been removed; Sir John Coke of Melbourne Hall obtained permission from the Bishop of Carlisle in that year to quarry stone from the castle foundations. Some of the facing stones were used to repair the weir at King's Mill, seen by some at the time to fulfil the words of a local prophet that "the waters of the Trent should overflow the towers of Melbourne castle". The Hastings estate was gradually sold off, and the castle site was sold by Earl Moira in 1811.
A section of rubble wall about 15 m (50 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) high remains, incorporated into an outbuilding of the adjacent farm on its north side. The ruins and the later farmhouse are jointly grade II listed and the castle remains are designated as a scheduled monument. The area to the south of the wall has been excavated to reveal the ashlar bases of two polygonal towers. The site is on the east side of Castle Street in a private garden to which there is no public access.
Some of the stone taken from the castle was used to construct the mid-18th-century grade II-listed buildings at 43 and 45 Castle Street, and other buildings known to have used the stone, but no longer extant, include old houses demolished to build the Castle Mill textile factory. The mill, now demolished, was said to have been built on castle foundations up to 4 m (12 ft) thick; 15 Castle Street also rests on the old foundation wall. It is likely that the former Melbourne Furnace and the Furnace Farm barn also used recycled castle material.
An early 19th-century excavation found underground apartments "of considerable extent and superior workmanship", and excavations in the latter part of the same century found considerable foundations in the gardens of Castle Farm. Castle Mills housing estate contains a now-covered well 2 m (6 ft) in width and 15 m (50 ft) deep, and work in 1961 uncovered massive 5 m (16 ft) foundations east of the old mill and on the same alignment as the existing wall. Excavations in 1969–1971 found an extensive network of walls faced with ashlar, a door post, the base of a spiral staircase and evidence of an outer courtyard. Many stones had mason's marks. During construction works in 1988, masonry including the rubble centres of two large east–west walls was found in test trenches. Apart from the area of the turret bases next to the standing wall, none of the archaeology is now visible. | <urn:uuid:dbd8e094-46dd-4ebf-8529-5c9a534f943a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Melbourne_Castle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.98502 | 3,120 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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|Built||Crenellated in the 14th century|
Melbourne Castle was a medieval castle in Melbourne, Derbyshire. It was built on the site of an earlier royal manor house that had provided accommodation for noblemen hunting in a nearby royal park in the reign of King John. Construction of the castle was started in 1311 by Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, and continued until 1322, shortly before his execution, but the work was never fully completed.
From the early 14th century, Melbourne Castle was mainly in the possession of the Earls and Dukes of Lancaster or the crown. Improvements and repairs were made, particularly by John of Gaunt, and the building was in generally good condition throughout the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. John I, Duke of Bourbon, was kept at Melbourne for 19 years after his capture at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, and the castle was considered as a possible prison for Mary, Queen of Scots, although events led to her incarceration elsewhere.
The castle was in decline by the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. Although the stonework was sound, minimal maintenance had led to significant deterioration of other parts of the structure. The manor was purchased in 1604 by Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, who had his own castle in nearby Ashby-de-la-Zouch. The Melbourne property was then demolished and used as a source for building materials. All that remains of Melbourne Castle today is a section of wall about 15 m (50 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) high and some foundations; nothing is known of the internal layout of the former building. The ruins are grade II listed and the site is a scheduled monument. There is no public access to the castle remains.
Melbourne is a town in South Derbyshire close to the River Trent, which may have originated as buildings associated with the royal manor to the south of the nearby settlement at Kings Newton. Melbourne Castle was constructed on the site of an earlier manor house of unknown date; there is an old tradition that the manor was originally established in about the year 900, during the reign of Alfred the Great, but there is no evidence for this. As recorded in the Domesday Book, the manor of Melbourne and its lands were the property of King Edward the Confessor prior to the Norman Conquest. The property then passed into the hands of William I of England. After creating the Diocese of Carlisle in 1133, Henry I gave the manor for life to Æthelwold, the first bishop. Some time later, the diocese built a palace nearby on the site of what is now Melbourne Hall. When Bishop Æthelwold died in about 1156, the manor reverted to the crown.
A royal hunting park close to Melbourne was probably created by King John around 1200, and the King is known to have stayed at the manor house on at least five occasions. John gave the manor and its lands to Hugh Beauchamp, although they appear to have soon reverted to the crown, being gifted by Henry III to Bishop Walter Mauclerk of Carlisle in about 1230. The estate returned to the crown on the bishop's death in 1248, and Henry granted the land to his son, Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster, in 1265. At some later date, the manor appears to have been granted to a Philip Marc, before passing to Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, the King's son. This was in 1298 when he came of age, his father having died two years earlier. Early references to the house itself are rare, but there are records of repairs to the gutters in 1246 and to the roof of the King's Chamber in 1248.
The castle was built to the east of the 14th-century town on a slightly raised location. The area enclosed within the castle's outer walls was about 2.8 ha (7 acres), but with outbuildings, other ancillary constructions and orchards, the total area has been estimated to be at least 8 ha (20 acres). The walls were constructed with rubble faced with ashlar, and even without their former polished facings the walls are about 3 m (10 ft) thick.
All that is known of the appearance of the castle is from contemporary drawings. Although these may seem fanciful to modern eyes, there are better preserved sites which share some features. Tutbury and Pontefract Castles both have similar gatehouses and chapels, and Tutbury's motte and Pontefract's curtain wall are also close in style to those in the illustrations. Sandal Castle has a multi-angular tower like those depicted, and this feature is confirmed at Melbourne by foundations which still remain.
Earl Thomas granted the manor to his steward, Robert de Holland, in February 1308. In 1311, Robert obtained a licence to crenellate from Edward II in order to fortify the manor house, and the more modest earlier building was converted into a castle between 1311 and 1322. Local tradition says that the stone was obtained from a quarry on the site of what is now Melbourne Pool. The records show £1,313 was spent on the project in the year 1313–14,[a] of which £548 was paid to masons for dressing stone. Several masons working on the project were involved in an affray at Ravenstone in 1315. The important medieval buildings in Melbourne were constructed from the local bedrock, Millstone Grit. This is a coarsely grained sandstone which can be worked to produce good-quality ashlar. The village was centred around the church, castle and High Street until the late 18th century.
Earl Thomas, with other barons, captured King Edward's favourite, Piers Gaveston, and killed him in 1312. Nevertheless, the King stayed at Melbourne in 1314. For a time, after Edward's defeat at Bannockburn, the earl, a friend of the Scots, controlled most of England, but by 1321 Edward had raised an army and driven Thomas from the Midlands. The Lancastrian castles at Melbourne and Tutbury were left deserted and looted by the local populace. Earl Thomas was finally defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322. He was swiftly executed, and Robert de Holland was beheaded in 1328. The King sent a garrison to Melbourne and appointed a steward, Ralph Basset, to replace the incumbent, John de Hardedeshull. In March, those who had stolen from the castle were arrested, and by April Edward had withdrawn his troops. He appointed Robert Tocher and Roger de Beler in 1323 to help administer his possessions in Melbourne using money obtained from confiscations of rebel property in Staffordshire. Edward stayed at Melbourne again in 1325, and while there he issued a right to collect tolls to the men of nearby Swarkestone to repair the bridge over the Trent.
The castle, still unfinished at the time of Thomas' execution, along with its lands, remained as crown property until it was bestowed on Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, Earl Thomas' brother, in 1327. In turn it passed to Henry's son, the fourth earl, who became the first Duke of Lancaster. At the time of the duke's death in 1361, his constable was Ingram Fauconer, who received an annual life stipend of £10, a further £5 going to his wife. Henry's heiress was Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt.[b] Duke John confirmed Fauconer's pension when he came into possession of the Lancastrian lands. Catalina, the three-year-old daughter of John by his second wife Constance of Castile, was given her own room and a Castilian attendant at the castle in 1375.
Peter Melbourne was made keeper of the Melbourne estate in 1377 with an annual income of £10. He was granted another 66s 8d in 1386, and 10 marks (£6 13s 4d) in 1395. The last award was conditional on his not meddling with the offices of constable and keeper of the parks, which had passed on to his son, also called Peter. The younger Peter Melbourne was involved in the upbringing of the future Henry IV during the reign of Richard II. He was again appointed constable and steward of the Derbyshire manor in March 1399, although he gave up his office in April in return for an annuity from King Richard, who had confiscated the Lancastrian estates when John of Gaunt died earlier that year. Upon Henry's seizure of the throne, Peter was confirmed as constable, and in October 1399 his annuity was increased from £10 to 100 marks (£66 8s); in the following year he was awarded land in Derbyshire confiscated from Thomas Merke, Bishop of Carlisle, co-leader of plot against the King.[c]
The Duchy of Lancaster continued to improve and expand the property through the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. John of Gaunt had windows glazed in the Communal Hall and the Great Chamber in 1392/3, along with other works. He repaired a drawbridge in 1393/4 and made plumbing improvements in 1399/1400, using lead acquired as a forfeit two years earlier.
For 19 years, the castle served as a prison for John I, Duke of Bourbon after he was taken at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.[d] His custodian was a Nicholas Montgomery the Younger. Nineteenth-century local historian John Joseph Briggs claimed that during the Wars of the Roses, the castle was partially dismantled by the Lancastrian forces of Margaret of Anjou, but since her campaign was along the line of the Great North Road, it was Melbourn, Cambridgeshire she sacked, not its Derbyshire namesake.[e]
In 1545, antiquarian John Leland reported to Henry VIII the property was in good enough shape that it was described as "praty and yn meately good reparation"[f] perhaps following repairs in the reign of Edward IV, when Sir Ralph Shirley, a commander at Agincourt, was governor of the castle.
When Elizabeth I became queen, she ordered a survey of her castles. A 1562 report told her that only ten castles in the north of her realm were worth keeping; Melbourne was not one of these. A further survey in 1576 reported that, although the stonework was in good condition apart from one chimney and window, the timbers were perished, the lead roof was full of holes, one kitchen was on the verge of collapse, and another needed its floor replacing. In the same year, George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, wrote to the queen to assure her that the castle was in good condition, worth £1,000, and could be repaired for £100. Since he was responsible for keeping the imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots, and her 140 retainers, he hoped to get her moved to Melbourne. In 1583, the castle was inspected again to see if it was suitable to house the captive queen. Although the rooms were sufficient in number and quality, the unfinished building was deemed "imperfect at every corner". The large rooms would need subdividing, the floors were earth and plaster, and there was no paved courtyard "so as being out of dors you are in the myre, for it is verie foule and unpleasaunt to walk round about the said house". In 1584, Queen Elizabeth finally decided to move Mary to Melbourne, only for the plan to be abandoned following the Babington Plot to assassinate the English queen and place her Scottish cousin on the throne.
In 1597, the castle was being used as a cattle pound, although a survey in 1602 assured Elizabeth that it was a "faire and anciente castle, which her Majesty keepeth in her own hands." The constable's annual fee of £10 was the same as that paid to Ingram Fauconer 140 years earlier.
The castle and lands were bought for £4,700 in 1604, by Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, whose family seat at Ashby de la Zouch Castle was just 11 km (7 mi) away. Melbourne Castle was destroyed between 1610 and 1637 so that its materials could be used in other construction. By 1629, it is likely that all the worked stone above ground level had been removed; Sir John Coke of Melbourne Hall obtained permission from the Bishop of Carlisle in that year to quarry stone from the castle foundations. Some of the facing stones were used to repair the weir at King's Mill, seen by some at the time to fulfil the words of a local prophet that "the waters of the Trent should overflow the towers of Melbourne castle". The Hastings estate was gradually sold off, and the castle site was sold by Earl Moira in 1811.
A section of rubble wall about 15 m (50 ft) long and 4 m (13 ft) high remains, incorporated into an outbuilding of the adjacent farm on its north side. The ruins and the later farmhouse are jointly grade II listed and the castle remains are designated as a scheduled monument. The area to the south of the wall has been excavated to reveal the ashlar bases of two polygonal towers. The site is on the east side of Castle Street in a private garden to which there is no public access.
Some of the stone taken from the castle was used to construct the mid-18th-century grade II-listed buildings at 43 and 45 Castle Street, and other buildings known to have used the stone, but no longer extant, include old houses demolished to build the Castle Mill textile factory. The mill, now demolished, was said to have been built on castle foundations up to 4 m (12 ft) thick; 15 Castle Street also rests on the old foundation wall. It is likely that the former Melbourne Furnace and the Furnace Farm barn also used recycled castle material.
An early 19th-century excavation found underground apartments "of considerable extent and superior workmanship", and excavations in the latter part of the same century found considerable foundations in the gardens of Castle Farm. Castle Mills housing estate contains a now-covered well 2 m (6 ft) in width and 15 m (50 ft) deep, and work in 1961 uncovered massive 5 m (16 ft) foundations east of the old mill and on the same alignment as the existing wall. Excavations in 1969–1971 found an extensive network of walls faced with ashlar, a door post, the base of a spiral staircase and evidence of an outer courtyard. Many stones had mason's marks. During construction works in 1988, masonry including the rubble centres of two large east–west walls was found in test trenches. Apart from the area of the turret bases next to the standing wall, none of the archaeology is now visible. | 3,347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
Nat Turner was a guy with a vision that could change America forever. His eyesight might haven't sounded directly to the average person but to Nat Turner, he was on Earth to realize his vision. Nat Turner is the most well-known and most contentious slave rebel in American history, and he remains a storm centre of dispute("Fires of Jubilee" author Stephen B. Oates). Nat Turner's slave revolt may have not been the best way to solve the problem of slavery, but it did open many people's eyes. Slavery was an accepted practice in society but it was not a humane or kind thing. The cruel and unfair treatment by the slave masters in the 1800's led to Nat Turner's slave revolt, which subsequently resulted in the abolitionist movement. Nat Turner was born on October 2, 1800 in the little town of Jerusalem in Southampton, Virginia. Nat's mother Nancy was one of 400,000 native Africans brought to North America earlier 1808. While most of the Africans had come in West Africa, Nancy's was supposedly from in the North's Nile River country("Fires of Jubilee"). Folk chroniclers say that slave traders or warlike natives abducted Nancy when she was a teenager. She had been thrust over to European slave traders and awakened on a disease infested servant boat headed into the New World("Fires of Jubilee"). Nancy's ship landed at Norfolk, Virginia approximately 1795. She subsequently was herded more inland where slave traders exhibited her several slave auctions. About 1799 Nancy was attracted by Benjamin Turner and her entire life on a plantation began. Not long after Nancy had arrived in the farm, she married another servant whose name is unknown("Fires of Jubilee"). Their marriage produced Nathaniel "Nat" Turner. In Hebrew this name meant "the gift of God." Nancy did not need to bring her child as a servant so she tried to kill him. The slave owners penalized Nancy for attempting this and shackled her for a lengthy period. Since Nancy saw Nat get a bit old, she noticed that she had a special child. She was extremely pleased with her son Nat. Nat was bright, and fast to understand and then he stood out of the remaining kids. In one case, Nancy overheard a conversation Nat was having with some of his playmates. He was telling them about a story that had taken place long before he was born, however he told the story just like he had been there. Nancy asked youthful Nat "Did anyon... | <urn:uuid:eafd94e8-83f2-4e57-ba38-519539f2ecd2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studybay.com/example-works/essay/biology/1002224/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.983535 | 520 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.315405607223... | 1 | Get help with any kind of project - from a high school essay to a PhD dissertation
Nat Turner was a guy with a vision that could change America forever. His eyesight might haven't sounded directly to the average person but to Nat Turner, he was on Earth to realize his vision. Nat Turner is the most well-known and most contentious slave rebel in American history, and he remains a storm centre of dispute("Fires of Jubilee" author Stephen B. Oates). Nat Turner's slave revolt may have not been the best way to solve the problem of slavery, but it did open many people's eyes. Slavery was an accepted practice in society but it was not a humane or kind thing. The cruel and unfair treatment by the slave masters in the 1800's led to Nat Turner's slave revolt, which subsequently resulted in the abolitionist movement. Nat Turner was born on October 2, 1800 in the little town of Jerusalem in Southampton, Virginia. Nat's mother Nancy was one of 400,000 native Africans brought to North America earlier 1808. While most of the Africans had come in West Africa, Nancy's was supposedly from in the North's Nile River country("Fires of Jubilee"). Folk chroniclers say that slave traders or warlike natives abducted Nancy when she was a teenager. She had been thrust over to European slave traders and awakened on a disease infested servant boat headed into the New World("Fires of Jubilee"). Nancy's ship landed at Norfolk, Virginia approximately 1795. She subsequently was herded more inland where slave traders exhibited her several slave auctions. About 1799 Nancy was attracted by Benjamin Turner and her entire life on a plantation began. Not long after Nancy had arrived in the farm, she married another servant whose name is unknown("Fires of Jubilee"). Their marriage produced Nathaniel "Nat" Turner. In Hebrew this name meant "the gift of God." Nancy did not need to bring her child as a servant so she tried to kill him. The slave owners penalized Nancy for attempting this and shackled her for a lengthy period. Since Nancy saw Nat get a bit old, she noticed that she had a special child. She was extremely pleased with her son Nat. Nat was bright, and fast to understand and then he stood out of the remaining kids. In one case, Nancy overheard a conversation Nat was having with some of his playmates. He was telling them about a story that had taken place long before he was born, however he told the story just like he had been there. Nancy asked youthful Nat "Did anyon... | 544 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1834 General Thompson informed the Indians in Florida that the would be removed by military means after learning that they had no intention of leaving Florida. In response, Osceola emerged as a leader among the Seminoles and on December 28, 1835, more than 100 American soldiers were ambushed by Seminole forces and all but three were killed. This event was dubbed The Dade Massacre and marked the start of the Second Seminole War. On this same day, Osceola killed General Thompson.
The Battle of Wahoo Swamp occurred on November 26th, 1836 when General Call's forces consisting of 2,500 regular troops and Tennessee militia marched on an encampment of approximately 600 Seminole Indians and African Americans who had joined with the Seminole in previous years. The Seminole fought ferociously during the onslaught and killed Major David Moniac during the fight. The Seminole's engaged the American forces from one side of a creek and due to this advantage in terrain were able to prevail and force the American Troops to retreat. General Call did not want his troops to be halted in the muddy creek nor did he have the provisions to continue the battle.
In October of 1837, General Thomas Jesup set up a false peace negotiation in order to capture Osceola and dozens of his followers. The following December, General Taylor was able to lead a 1,000 men against a reported Seminole encampment at Lake Okeechobee. The devastating battle caused a Seminole withdraw. The final major battle of the war was in January of 1838 at the Battle of the Loxahatchee River. The remainder of the war consisted of small bands of Seminoles attempting to avoid being forced across the Mississippi River. The Second Seminole War officially ended in 1842. | <urn:uuid:3cd43c3a-4e50-4a59-b0a4-4ec33989403f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/60247 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.980963 | 362 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.52657121... | 2 | In 1834 General Thompson informed the Indians in Florida that the would be removed by military means after learning that they had no intention of leaving Florida. In response, Osceola emerged as a leader among the Seminoles and on December 28, 1835, more than 100 American soldiers were ambushed by Seminole forces and all but three were killed. This event was dubbed The Dade Massacre and marked the start of the Second Seminole War. On this same day, Osceola killed General Thompson.
The Battle of Wahoo Swamp occurred on November 26th, 1836 when General Call's forces consisting of 2,500 regular troops and Tennessee militia marched on an encampment of approximately 600 Seminole Indians and African Americans who had joined with the Seminole in previous years. The Seminole fought ferociously during the onslaught and killed Major David Moniac during the fight. The Seminole's engaged the American forces from one side of a creek and due to this advantage in terrain were able to prevail and force the American Troops to retreat. General Call did not want his troops to be halted in the muddy creek nor did he have the provisions to continue the battle.
In October of 1837, General Thomas Jesup set up a false peace negotiation in order to capture Osceola and dozens of his followers. The following December, General Taylor was able to lead a 1,000 men against a reported Seminole encampment at Lake Okeechobee. The devastating battle caused a Seminole withdraw. The final major battle of the war was in January of 1838 at the Battle of the Loxahatchee River. The remainder of the war consisted of small bands of Seminoles attempting to avoid being forced across the Mississippi River. The Second Seminole War officially ended in 1842. | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Calvin: Theologian and Reformer
If you’ve heard of John Calvin before and you aren’t a Bible college or seminary student, it’s very likely that it was in the context of a discussion on Calvinism. However, Calvin gave us a lot more than the creation of a particular theological tribe. As one of the key players in the age of the Reformation, Calvin contributed greatly to the religious landscape of his time and continues to impact Christian thought and doctrine today.
Calvin’s Early Life
John Calvin was born in France in 1509. His father was a lawyer who had great aspirations for his son, intending for him to work in the church. Ultimately, Calvin acquiesced and pursued a clergy role, teaching himself Latin and preparing for a career in ministry. However, a bit later, Calvin’s father encouraged his son to take up law. Luckily for Calvin, being a quick learner and a bright student allowed him to excel in law as well.
At this point, Martin Luther’s teachings were spreading outside of Germany, and they began to reach France. Luther is known as the Father of the Reformation and for penning his Ninety-five Theses, challenging many teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Eventually, John Calvin ended up taking his years of education and learning and redirecting them to focus his efforts on furthering Luther’s mission. As his beliefs evolved, Calvin soon became recognized as a Lutheran for his theological shift away from the Catholic Church and toward this new, reformed way of thinking. But in order to avoid persecution in France for his unpopular beliefs, he packed his bags and left for Geneva.
Eventually, Calvin created a sort of manual in the hopes that he could teach his fellow Frenchmen about the reformed outlook on the Christian faith. He wanted to make these ideologies more accessible and sought to provide a basic understanding of the monumental views constituting the reformed mindset, which began what we now know as Protestantism. This work was the pinnacle of Calvin’s efforts known as The Institutes of Christian Religion. Although it was written in the middle of the 16th century, it is still recognized as one of the most significant contributions to Protestant theology.
Calvin’s work set out to refine the way Christians of the day thought about things like the Trinity and the church. He discussed church polity, including the selection and installation of elders as well as other leaders found within the church, especially in what we know today as the Presbyterian or Reformed Church. Most importantly, the basis and emphasis of his book is the sovereignty of God. He is well known for his focus on the doctrine of election saying, “If you are saved, it is God’s doing, not your own.”
One major story that generates some questions circulating Calvin’s life revolves around the rumored murder of another man. When we hear this, we immediately imagine Calvin murdering someone in cold blood, but the situation was much more nuanced than these brief assumptions would suggest. In 1553, a man named Michael Servetus was arrested for heresy, which at the time was a serious crime punishable by death. During his trial, Servetus was found guilty, meaning he would be executed. So, the question at this point is this: who made the call? Who was responsible for the final decision?
It is true that Calvin was involved in the decision-making process for this trial. He was not against capital punishment, but as best we can tell Calvin took great measures to try to get Servetus out of his predicament. For example, Calvin wrote him letters trying to get him to change his mindset, and while Servetus was in prison, Calvin went to talk with him, pray for him, and implore him to retract his heretical claims. As much as Calvin wanted to help Servetus avoid execution, it was important to him that Servetus would believe in God and that his soul would rest peacefully.
Unfortunately, Calvin was not the ultimate authority in deciding Servetus’ fate, and his efforts to help Servetus failed. Servetus was burned at the stake for his heretical views, despite Calvin’s pleas that he would be beheaded instead, as a much quicker and less painful death. But, perhaps the best insight into Calvin’s heart towards Servetus can be found in one of the letters he wrote, which said: “I neither hate you nor despise you; nor do I wish to persecute you; but I would be as hard as iron when I behold you insulting sound doctrine with so great audacity.”
Upon later reflection, Calvin wrote, “I reminded him gently how I had risked my life more than sixteen years before to gain him for our Savior. I would faithfully do my best to reconcile him to all good servants of God. Although he had avoided the contest I had never ceased to remonstrate kindly with him in letters. In a word, I had used all humanity to the very end, until he being embittered by my good advice hurled all manner of rage and anger against me.” So, while Calvin’s hands were not entirely clean in this situation, the story is more complex than it is often portrayed.
What Calvin’s Story Means for Us
Although the popular tendency with John Calvin’s story is to write off one part or another—to focus only on the good, or discount it all because of his shortcomings—perhaps we should make room for both parts of Calvin’s story. It ought to be a comfort that both of those aspects coexist in the same person. We can see the good that God accomplished through Calvin without removing it from his fallen nature and sinful acts. For us, we can find encouragement when we study Calvin because we can see the same duality in ourselves: while we are hindered and tempted by sin, we can still seek to follow God and accomplish great things for his kingdom. | <urn:uuid:ee3cbca5-ca4f-48da-bcaf-58f52bef6be8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bibleandstuff.com/john-calvin/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.987098 | 1,238 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.0600677877... | 2 | John Calvin: Theologian and Reformer
If you’ve heard of John Calvin before and you aren’t a Bible college or seminary student, it’s very likely that it was in the context of a discussion on Calvinism. However, Calvin gave us a lot more than the creation of a particular theological tribe. As one of the key players in the age of the Reformation, Calvin contributed greatly to the religious landscape of his time and continues to impact Christian thought and doctrine today.
Calvin’s Early Life
John Calvin was born in France in 1509. His father was a lawyer who had great aspirations for his son, intending for him to work in the church. Ultimately, Calvin acquiesced and pursued a clergy role, teaching himself Latin and preparing for a career in ministry. However, a bit later, Calvin’s father encouraged his son to take up law. Luckily for Calvin, being a quick learner and a bright student allowed him to excel in law as well.
At this point, Martin Luther’s teachings were spreading outside of Germany, and they began to reach France. Luther is known as the Father of the Reformation and for penning his Ninety-five Theses, challenging many teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Eventually, John Calvin ended up taking his years of education and learning and redirecting them to focus his efforts on furthering Luther’s mission. As his beliefs evolved, Calvin soon became recognized as a Lutheran for his theological shift away from the Catholic Church and toward this new, reformed way of thinking. But in order to avoid persecution in France for his unpopular beliefs, he packed his bags and left for Geneva.
Eventually, Calvin created a sort of manual in the hopes that he could teach his fellow Frenchmen about the reformed outlook on the Christian faith. He wanted to make these ideologies more accessible and sought to provide a basic understanding of the monumental views constituting the reformed mindset, which began what we now know as Protestantism. This work was the pinnacle of Calvin’s efforts known as The Institutes of Christian Religion. Although it was written in the middle of the 16th century, it is still recognized as one of the most significant contributions to Protestant theology.
Calvin’s work set out to refine the way Christians of the day thought about things like the Trinity and the church. He discussed church polity, including the selection and installation of elders as well as other leaders found within the church, especially in what we know today as the Presbyterian or Reformed Church. Most importantly, the basis and emphasis of his book is the sovereignty of God. He is well known for his focus on the doctrine of election saying, “If you are saved, it is God’s doing, not your own.”
One major story that generates some questions circulating Calvin’s life revolves around the rumored murder of another man. When we hear this, we immediately imagine Calvin murdering someone in cold blood, but the situation was much more nuanced than these brief assumptions would suggest. In 1553, a man named Michael Servetus was arrested for heresy, which at the time was a serious crime punishable by death. During his trial, Servetus was found guilty, meaning he would be executed. So, the question at this point is this: who made the call? Who was responsible for the final decision?
It is true that Calvin was involved in the decision-making process for this trial. He was not against capital punishment, but as best we can tell Calvin took great measures to try to get Servetus out of his predicament. For example, Calvin wrote him letters trying to get him to change his mindset, and while Servetus was in prison, Calvin went to talk with him, pray for him, and implore him to retract his heretical claims. As much as Calvin wanted to help Servetus avoid execution, it was important to him that Servetus would believe in God and that his soul would rest peacefully.
Unfortunately, Calvin was not the ultimate authority in deciding Servetus’ fate, and his efforts to help Servetus failed. Servetus was burned at the stake for his heretical views, despite Calvin’s pleas that he would be beheaded instead, as a much quicker and less painful death. But, perhaps the best insight into Calvin’s heart towards Servetus can be found in one of the letters he wrote, which said: “I neither hate you nor despise you; nor do I wish to persecute you; but I would be as hard as iron when I behold you insulting sound doctrine with so great audacity.”
Upon later reflection, Calvin wrote, “I reminded him gently how I had risked my life more than sixteen years before to gain him for our Savior. I would faithfully do my best to reconcile him to all good servants of God. Although he had avoided the contest I had never ceased to remonstrate kindly with him in letters. In a word, I had used all humanity to the very end, until he being embittered by my good advice hurled all manner of rage and anger against me.” So, while Calvin’s hands were not entirely clean in this situation, the story is more complex than it is often portrayed.
What Calvin’s Story Means for Us
Although the popular tendency with John Calvin’s story is to write off one part or another—to focus only on the good, or discount it all because of his shortcomings—perhaps we should make room for both parts of Calvin’s story. It ought to be a comfort that both of those aspects coexist in the same person. We can see the good that God accomplished through Calvin without removing it from his fallen nature and sinful acts. For us, we can find encouragement when we study Calvin because we can see the same duality in ourselves: while we are hindered and tempted by sin, we can still seek to follow God and accomplish great things for his kingdom. | 1,188 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To continue our study of the Bible before the Textus Receptus, it is important to understand how God's written word was preserved. For those who don't know, the word Scriptorium literally means "a place for writing", it is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval monasteries devoted to the writing, copying and illuminating of manuscripts by monastic scribes before the advent of the printing press. After the fall of the Roman Empire Byzantium rose again to be the center of learning in the known world.
As Europe fell into the Dark Ages, the Byzantine Empire thrived. The academics of the Byzantines was born out of the Hellenistic world of Greek classics. Ironically the Europeans viewed all things Hellenistic as Pagan but the Empire was pure Christian, and it had been since Emperor Constantine (the first Christian Emperor), made it that way in the 4th century.
Byzantium, as the capital city of the Empire, had many libraries and monasteries. At its height, the Imperial Library was said to have over 120,000 codices but the largest volume of books were religious documents and Bibles and was made for the monasteries which housed the majority of the great scriptoriums.
In the Byzantine Empire, nothing was ever lost in translation. The New Testament was written in Koine-Greek and the primary language of the empire was Koine-Greek. There was simply no need for translation work. This situation existed well into the 15th century, long after the Alexandrian and Western churches had changed to other languages. By having scribes who were skillful in the Greek language, the Byzantium scriptoriums were much better placed to produce much more accurate manuscripts. This tradition lasted for over 1,000 years. | <urn:uuid:3be5e21b-d5de-45d4-9a01-05fc9f4d600d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://textusreceptusbibles.com/Editorial/Scriptoriums | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.9809 | 366 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.107245944... | 8 | To continue our study of the Bible before the Textus Receptus, it is important to understand how God's written word was preserved. For those who don't know, the word Scriptorium literally means "a place for writing", it is commonly used to refer to a room in medieval monasteries devoted to the writing, copying and illuminating of manuscripts by monastic scribes before the advent of the printing press. After the fall of the Roman Empire Byzantium rose again to be the center of learning in the known world.
As Europe fell into the Dark Ages, the Byzantine Empire thrived. The academics of the Byzantines was born out of the Hellenistic world of Greek classics. Ironically the Europeans viewed all things Hellenistic as Pagan but the Empire was pure Christian, and it had been since Emperor Constantine (the first Christian Emperor), made it that way in the 4th century.
Byzantium, as the capital city of the Empire, had many libraries and monasteries. At its height, the Imperial Library was said to have over 120,000 codices but the largest volume of books were religious documents and Bibles and was made for the monasteries which housed the majority of the great scriptoriums.
In the Byzantine Empire, nothing was ever lost in translation. The New Testament was written in Koine-Greek and the primary language of the empire was Koine-Greek. There was simply no need for translation work. This situation existed well into the 15th century, long after the Alexandrian and Western churches had changed to other languages. By having scribes who were skillful in the Greek language, the Byzantium scriptoriums were much better placed to produce much more accurate manuscripts. This tradition lasted for over 1,000 years. | 376 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In American Literature, characters in poetry and fiction often experience loneliness. This happens even though there are other people around. Some of the notable characters who undergo this difficulty include those in poems by Edwin A. Robinson, E. E. Cummings and Langston Hughes.
First, the idea of feelings of loneliness is seen in the characters of the poetry of the early twentieth century. For instance, in Edwin A. Robinson’s “miniver cheevy”, Miniver is an alcoholic small-town man who sees himself as being at the wrong point in time. His loneliness emanates from his sense of being out of place and his contempt for the life he lives, which he refers to as his fate. Miniver daydreams on how different his life would have been had he been born in a previous era, one that was more meaningful and romantic. Langston Hughe’s poem “A Negro Speaks of Rivers”, gives the story of a young black man in a time when slavery was common. The black man, who is a slave himself, views the muddy river as his race; the dirt in the river symbolizes his hardships whose life as a slave is deemed worthless and inferior. However, when the sun’s rays turn the dirt into gold, the young slave feels empowered that his transformation from a slave to a free man is in the offing. Furthermore, E.E. Cumming’s poem, “My Sweet Old Etcetera”, tells the experiences of a soldier at war; the soldier is suffering both physically and psychologically because he does not know how his family is affected by the war. He experiences loneliness as he cannot be with his family (George and Barbara, 2008).
In addition, the fiction of the early twentieth century also uses characters who experience loneliness in their lives. In Sherwood Anderson’s story, “Adventure”, Alice, a shy woman who does not feel beautiful in her own skin is abandoned by her lover, Ned, who lives for the city. The two lovers feel alone as they miss each other with Alice’s loneliness resulting in her isolating herself from the world, and on one evening becomes desperate and runs through the streets stark naked. Sartoris, in William Faulkner’s story, “Barn Burning” feels disillusioned by his father’s beatings and demand that he behaves maturely despite his early age (George and Barbara, 2008). He feels isolated from his family by his attitude towards righteousness when he and his brothers are forced into a life of crime; he stands up to his father against burning de Spain barn. Moreover, in “Babylon Revisited” by Scott Fitzgerald, Charlie is a lonely man despite being around friends. He is devastated by the death of his wife and results in drinking because he feels responsible for her death. He resolves to take control of his drinking problem, which forces him to distance himself from the friends he once drank with.
In conclusion, poets and writers use characters that experience loneliness in their individual works to communicate the sense of isolation people feel even though there are people around. This feeling emanates from their insecurities, either from past experiences or their outlook towards their lives.
George and Barbara Perkins (2008), The American Tradition in Literature (12th ed.). Columbus: | <urn:uuid:6d81e587-c840-4dca-b1db-8a2dd15cb36a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/american-literature-of-the-1st-half-of-the-20th-century/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.982547 | 690 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.3589324355125427... | 2 | In American Literature, characters in poetry and fiction often experience loneliness. This happens even though there are other people around. Some of the notable characters who undergo this difficulty include those in poems by Edwin A. Robinson, E. E. Cummings and Langston Hughes.
First, the idea of feelings of loneliness is seen in the characters of the poetry of the early twentieth century. For instance, in Edwin A. Robinson’s “miniver cheevy”, Miniver is an alcoholic small-town man who sees himself as being at the wrong point in time. His loneliness emanates from his sense of being out of place and his contempt for the life he lives, which he refers to as his fate. Miniver daydreams on how different his life would have been had he been born in a previous era, one that was more meaningful and romantic. Langston Hughe’s poem “A Negro Speaks of Rivers”, gives the story of a young black man in a time when slavery was common. The black man, who is a slave himself, views the muddy river as his race; the dirt in the river symbolizes his hardships whose life as a slave is deemed worthless and inferior. However, when the sun’s rays turn the dirt into gold, the young slave feels empowered that his transformation from a slave to a free man is in the offing. Furthermore, E.E. Cumming’s poem, “My Sweet Old Etcetera”, tells the experiences of a soldier at war; the soldier is suffering both physically and psychologically because he does not know how his family is affected by the war. He experiences loneliness as he cannot be with his family (George and Barbara, 2008).
In addition, the fiction of the early twentieth century also uses characters who experience loneliness in their lives. In Sherwood Anderson’s story, “Adventure”, Alice, a shy woman who does not feel beautiful in her own skin is abandoned by her lover, Ned, who lives for the city. The two lovers feel alone as they miss each other with Alice’s loneliness resulting in her isolating herself from the world, and on one evening becomes desperate and runs through the streets stark naked. Sartoris, in William Faulkner’s story, “Barn Burning” feels disillusioned by his father’s beatings and demand that he behaves maturely despite his early age (George and Barbara, 2008). He feels isolated from his family by his attitude towards righteousness when he and his brothers are forced into a life of crime; he stands up to his father against burning de Spain barn. Moreover, in “Babylon Revisited” by Scott Fitzgerald, Charlie is a lonely man despite being around friends. He is devastated by the death of his wife and results in drinking because he feels responsible for her death. He resolves to take control of his drinking problem, which forces him to distance himself from the friends he once drank with.
In conclusion, poets and writers use characters that experience loneliness in their individual works to communicate the sense of isolation people feel even though there are people around. This feeling emanates from their insecurities, either from past experiences or their outlook towards their lives.
George and Barbara Perkins (2008), The American Tradition in Literature (12th ed.). Columbus: | 665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A portrait of Roger Williams is easy to sketch in words: Baptist minister banished from Massachusetts, founding father of Rhode Island and champion of religious freedom. His achievements are literally woven into the fabric of early America.
Williams accumulated many admirers for his relations with native Americans, his views on religious freedom and his political leadership, which helped to create Rhode Island. But establishing a memorial for Williams proved difficult because once he died in 1683, there were no likenesses of him. For there was no portrait of Roger Williams – at least that’s what people thought.
He had come to America as a rabble-rousing, English minister who decried corruption in the Church of England. He soon rubbed the residents of Massachusetts the wrong way and was banished to Rhode Island where he studied the language of the local Indians and purchased land from them.
In 1644 he returned briefly to England to win a charter for the Providence Plantations and managed to again infuriate conservative English politicians by publishing a pamphlet calling for religious toleration and separation of church and state.
Back in Rhode Island, Williams turned his efforts to building a baptist church in America and stabilizing Rhode Island. Following his death in 1683, Williams’ house sank into ruin and his grave was lost track of.
More than 100 years later, Williams reputation underwent a revival and his writings and philosophy gained renewed respect as people began appreciating his impact. But connections to Williams, beyond his writings, were few. Images of Williams were created, but their authenticity was never established.
In 1844, Daniel Jones published an article about Williams in a Welsh-language journal, and along with it he published a print he said was a likeness of Williams. Thus a legend was born: While in England in 1644 Roger Williams had had a portrait painted of himself. Following the turmoil of the English Revolution, the portrait had made its way to America, along with other belongings of the Duke of York, and been auctioned in New York.
Daniel Jones had purchased the painting, or so he believed. As Rhode Islanders sought to create a proper memorial for Williams, a letter was sent to the Providence Journal offering to give the painting along with a donation of $500 to any group that would also put up $500 to create a memorial to Roger Williams.
Jones motive was probably not to deceive. He was an enthusiastic supporter of Roger Williams’ beliefs, most likely because he believed Williams had a Welsh heritage like his own. Though his claims about the portrait were invariably questioned, it made it into a number of books about Roger Williams.
Whatever the reason, Rhode Island historian Sidney Rider undertook an inquiry to examine the facts. Could the portrait be real?
Eventually, Rider and others concluded the painting was not authentic. The portrait undoubtedly celebrated Williams’ life; it showed him seated with the Rhode Island charter and had his books in the background. But a number of problems with the painting – including misspelling in one of the titles of his books – led them to conclude the painting was not authentic.
The painting was perhaps, some conjectured, a poor portrait of Benjamin Franklin that had been augmented with the background designed to make it look like a painting of Roger Williams.
Nevertheless, reprints of the painting made their way into numerous books about Roger Williams’ life and achievements. Sculptors have also made likenesses of Williams in numerous locations, including Salem, Mass. and in the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. But to the best of anyone’s knowledge his features were never documented. | <urn:uuid:87d1b10f-094d-4386-9306-b306f2a872da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/portrait-of-roger-williams/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.988037 | 725 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.435938775539398... | 10 | A portrait of Roger Williams is easy to sketch in words: Baptist minister banished from Massachusetts, founding father of Rhode Island and champion of religious freedom. His achievements are literally woven into the fabric of early America.
Williams accumulated many admirers for his relations with native Americans, his views on religious freedom and his political leadership, which helped to create Rhode Island. But establishing a memorial for Williams proved difficult because once he died in 1683, there were no likenesses of him. For there was no portrait of Roger Williams – at least that’s what people thought.
He had come to America as a rabble-rousing, English minister who decried corruption in the Church of England. He soon rubbed the residents of Massachusetts the wrong way and was banished to Rhode Island where he studied the language of the local Indians and purchased land from them.
In 1644 he returned briefly to England to win a charter for the Providence Plantations and managed to again infuriate conservative English politicians by publishing a pamphlet calling for religious toleration and separation of church and state.
Back in Rhode Island, Williams turned his efforts to building a baptist church in America and stabilizing Rhode Island. Following his death in 1683, Williams’ house sank into ruin and his grave was lost track of.
More than 100 years later, Williams reputation underwent a revival and his writings and philosophy gained renewed respect as people began appreciating his impact. But connections to Williams, beyond his writings, were few. Images of Williams were created, but their authenticity was never established.
In 1844, Daniel Jones published an article about Williams in a Welsh-language journal, and along with it he published a print he said was a likeness of Williams. Thus a legend was born: While in England in 1644 Roger Williams had had a portrait painted of himself. Following the turmoil of the English Revolution, the portrait had made its way to America, along with other belongings of the Duke of York, and been auctioned in New York.
Daniel Jones had purchased the painting, or so he believed. As Rhode Islanders sought to create a proper memorial for Williams, a letter was sent to the Providence Journal offering to give the painting along with a donation of $500 to any group that would also put up $500 to create a memorial to Roger Williams.
Jones motive was probably not to deceive. He was an enthusiastic supporter of Roger Williams’ beliefs, most likely because he believed Williams had a Welsh heritage like his own. Though his claims about the portrait were invariably questioned, it made it into a number of books about Roger Williams.
Whatever the reason, Rhode Island historian Sidney Rider undertook an inquiry to examine the facts. Could the portrait be real?
Eventually, Rider and others concluded the painting was not authentic. The portrait undoubtedly celebrated Williams’ life; it showed him seated with the Rhode Island charter and had his books in the background. But a number of problems with the painting – including misspelling in one of the titles of his books – led them to conclude the painting was not authentic.
The painting was perhaps, some conjectured, a poor portrait of Benjamin Franklin that had been augmented with the background designed to make it look like a painting of Roger Williams.
Nevertheless, reprints of the painting made their way into numerous books about Roger Williams’ life and achievements. Sculptors have also made likenesses of Williams in numerous locations, including Salem, Mass. and in the Capitol building in Washington, D.C. But to the best of anyone’s knowledge his features were never documented. | 729 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of Nova Scotia's leading environmental groups is encouraging cat owners to keep their pets indoors to keep more birds alive.
"When it comes to birds, we don't necessarily think about it but there's a large number of birds that are killed by cats every year," said Mark Butler, the bird conservation co-ordinator at the Ecology Action Centre.
"The estimate in Canada is about 100 million birds a year are killed by cats."
The Ecology Action Centre and the Hope for Wildlife Society have teamed up to create the Allied Cats program and spread the message.
"As a cat owner you don't want to think of your pet as the one that's causing any destruction because they're like family and you don't want that to be the case," said Veronica Sherwood, the owner of two male cats and part of the Allied Cats program.
"I was hearing more and more from friends of mine in the birding community that we were losing a lot of songbirds as a result of cat predation and feral cat colonies and cats being outside, taking the birds." | <urn:uuid:ce401f03-da2e-4911-8d01-3aa811d4dad2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cfzwatcheroftheskies.blogspot.com/2012/11/cat-owners-encouraged-to-keep-pets.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.982884 | 218 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.20663315057754517,... | 3 | One of Nova Scotia's leading environmental groups is encouraging cat owners to keep their pets indoors to keep more birds alive.
"When it comes to birds, we don't necessarily think about it but there's a large number of birds that are killed by cats every year," said Mark Butler, the bird conservation co-ordinator at the Ecology Action Centre.
"The estimate in Canada is about 100 million birds a year are killed by cats."
The Ecology Action Centre and the Hope for Wildlife Society have teamed up to create the Allied Cats program and spread the message.
"As a cat owner you don't want to think of your pet as the one that's causing any destruction because they're like family and you don't want that to be the case," said Veronica Sherwood, the owner of two male cats and part of the Allied Cats program.
"I was hearing more and more from friends of mine in the birding community that we were losing a lot of songbirds as a result of cat predation and feral cat colonies and cats being outside, taking the birds." | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
4. Wartime in Britain
When Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, refugees from Germany and Austria became 'enemy aliens' and were subject to a curfew and other restrictions.
In the summer of 1940, when France fell, the British government ordered the mass internment of enemy aliens. Some 27,000 were interned, mostly on the Isle of Man. Some were deported on to Canada and Australia. A German submarine sank one of these transports, the Arandora Star, with great loss of life, and the resulting public outcry caused the government to initiate a change of policy.
Many refugees were eager to fight Hitler. At first they were only allowed to join the non-combatant Pioneer Corps, which had several 'Aliens Companies', but in time both men and women refugees were accepted into many branches of H.M. Forces. Some gave their lives fighting for their adopted country against Nazism.
Refugees served with distinction, and there were even special German-speaking Commando units manned by refugees. Civilian refugees contributed to the war effort in munitions factories, in civil defence and by performing other essential tasks. They shared the terrors of the Blitz and the privations of wartime life with the British.
Refugee families were frequently split up by internment or war service, and many women were left to fend for themselves and their children. The Association of Jewish Refugees in Great Britain (AJR) was founded in June 1941, to safeguard the interests of the refugees in these dark days. | <urn:uuid:84e19789-525e-4f15-9dbf-6082fcf8d9c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ajrrefugeevoices.org.uk/Historical-Background/4.-Wartime-in-Britain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.984681 | 309 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.2355877459049... | 4 | 4. Wartime in Britain
When Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, refugees from Germany and Austria became 'enemy aliens' and were subject to a curfew and other restrictions.
In the summer of 1940, when France fell, the British government ordered the mass internment of enemy aliens. Some 27,000 were interned, mostly on the Isle of Man. Some were deported on to Canada and Australia. A German submarine sank one of these transports, the Arandora Star, with great loss of life, and the resulting public outcry caused the government to initiate a change of policy.
Many refugees were eager to fight Hitler. At first they were only allowed to join the non-combatant Pioneer Corps, which had several 'Aliens Companies', but in time both men and women refugees were accepted into many branches of H.M. Forces. Some gave their lives fighting for their adopted country against Nazism.
Refugees served with distinction, and there were even special German-speaking Commando units manned by refugees. Civilian refugees contributed to the war effort in munitions factories, in civil defence and by performing other essential tasks. They shared the terrors of the Blitz and the privations of wartime life with the British.
Refugee families were frequently split up by internment or war service, and many women were left to fend for themselves and their children. The Association of Jewish Refugees in Great Britain (AJR) was founded in June 1941, to safeguard the interests of the refugees in these dark days. | 323 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Huginn and Muninn: The Divine Ravens of Odin
In the heat of battle, Odin was in a quandary. He had a critical decision to make -- one that would either bring victory or defeat to him and his fellow Gods in Asgard. He needed counsel; especially from those that could trigger his “thought” and “mind.”
Yet, in a world of gods – including Thor, the god of thunder and his trusted son, and the rest of the Aesir – Odin relied on two unlikely deities to give him the wit and wisdom to lead his forces to victory.
Huginn and Muninn, were not gods; they weren’t even angels, nymphs or fairies. They were ravens with symbolic names. While some text referred to them as pets, their importance to Odin – the most powerful Norse God – was beyond such designations.
He relied heavily on these winged masters to act as his eyes and ears over the great domain he ruled, as well as for the battles he fought. And, despite being mere pets, they received more attention from him than his heavenly and mortal subjects did.
Thought and Mind
Every morning, Odin called upon the ravens and sent them flying over the world to observe what was going on in his kingdom -- which included Asgard and Earth. They returned to him, sat on his shoulders and whispered in his ears about the things they observed during their flight.
Translated from Old Norse, Huginn meant “thought” and Muninn, “mind.” They came to symbolize Odin’s vast knowledge and omnipotence, and were responsible for expanding his wisdom.
Not only were the ravens revered by Odin in the Nordic mythology; in reality, they were worshiped by the Nordic people. They were often depicted with Odin on numerous artifacts from the era, which included shields, plates, bracelets and jewelry.
The Ravens in Ancient Literature
Oddly enough, as important as they were, Huginn and Muninn take up only a few lines in several crucial epic poems that make up the Norse mythology canon.
Most information on the ravens – aside from the artifacts – came from literature written by the 13th century Icelandic historian and scholar, Snorri Sturluson. He described the ravens in two parts from his seminal Prose Edda – a compilation of books written in the prose-poem format.
The ravens appeared in the Edda in books entitled “Gylfaginning” (or the Tricking of Gylfi) and the “Skáldskaparmál" (Language of Poetry), in which they were featured in a few lines in Chapter 38 and Chapter 60, respectively.
In another book by Sturluson, Heimskringla: A Chronicle of the Kings of Norway (in a section known as the Ynglinga saga.), he made more references to the ravens. This collection of epic poems was about the life of Odin. Chapter 7 revealed that the two ravens made Odin wise.
In addition, another book in Prose Edda collection, "Grímnismál", revealed other tantalizing information about Huginn and Muninn. In this particular poem, Odin disguised himself as Grimmir (meaning hooded or masked one). His goal was to counsel Prince Agnarr. He did so by providing the young prince information about the two ravens. Odin, as Grimmir, stated the following:
“Huginn and Muninn fly each day
Over spacious earth.
I fear for Huginn, that he comes back.
Yet anxious am I for Muninn”— Benjamin Thorpe translation
Scholars debated the line; they believed it referred to the ravens’ mystical influences. Some stated these lines had some relations to shamans and their practices of taking a trance-like “journey” in an attempt to get closer to the gods.
Professor of Scandinavian medieval studies at the University of California in Berkeley, John Lindow, wrote that the stanza may have indicated Odin’s ability to send his “thought” and “mind” to shamans during their trance-like states.
In another stanza, Odin worried about the return of Huginn and Muninn, which "would be consistent with the danger that the shaman faces on the trance-state journey." (Lindow, 2001)
The Ravens After Christianity
Christianity spread throughout Europe, including Scandinavia. Soon, the ways of the Nordic gods fell out of favor with the people. While many of the gods -- as well as the ravens -- remained as symbolic fixtures of Nordic culture, they stopped being important in the Nordic people’s lives. As a result, many of these deities, including the ravens, were replaced with Christian saints or angels.
Still, Huginn and Muninn didn’t go away entirely. Science had a place for them, for their names were used to name actual breeds of ravens.
Twentieth Century and Beyond
In the late 20th century, Huginn became the inspirational name for a Black Metal band. The Italian band, Huginn was formed in the early 1990s, and – as most Black Metal bands – the theme centered on nature worship or the Occult.
The ravens also served as influences in modern TV and fantasy tales.In 1946 America, Heckle and Jeckle became a popular cartoon. While the birds are magpie crows, they both dispensed some thought and mind.In addition, they worked in unison, just as Huginn and Muninn did.
In Phillip Pullman’s His Dark Materials trilogy, the people in the story’s alternative universe had daemons as disembodied connections to themselves. Many took on the role of animals and had symbiotic relationships with its host human. One can’t help but notice that these daemon operated in the same way as Huginn and Muninn did with Odin.
Huginn and Muninn are not household names, unless one is familiar with them as the namesake of different raven species. And, maybe a few diehard metal-heads know it bears the name of one of their favorite bands (at least in Huginn's case). Still, the ravens have a place in the world’s myths and legends as well as the ancient Nordic culture. Most importantly they will always represent the wisdom Odin brought to the kingdom of Asgard, the people of Earth, and to the world of myths and legends.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
© 2018 Dean Traylor | <urn:uuid:f5e4c1fc-257b-4dc4-ab18-ce21342eb163> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/Huginn-and-Muninn-As-The-Divine-Ravens-of-Odin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.980205 | 1,403 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.148438960313797,... | 2 | Huginn and Muninn: The Divine Ravens of Odin
In the heat of battle, Odin was in a quandary. He had a critical decision to make -- one that would either bring victory or defeat to him and his fellow Gods in Asgard. He needed counsel; especially from those that could trigger his “thought” and “mind.”
Yet, in a world of gods – including Thor, the god of thunder and his trusted son, and the rest of the Aesir – Odin relied on two unlikely deities to give him the wit and wisdom to lead his forces to victory.
Huginn and Muninn, were not gods; they weren’t even angels, nymphs or fairies. They were ravens with symbolic names. While some text referred to them as pets, their importance to Odin – the most powerful Norse God – was beyond such designations.
He relied heavily on these winged masters to act as his eyes and ears over the great domain he ruled, as well as for the battles he fought. And, despite being mere pets, they received more attention from him than his heavenly and mortal subjects did.
Thought and Mind
Every morning, Odin called upon the ravens and sent them flying over the world to observe what was going on in his kingdom -- which included Asgard and Earth. They returned to him, sat on his shoulders and whispered in his ears about the things they observed during their flight.
Translated from Old Norse, Huginn meant “thought” and Muninn, “mind.” They came to symbolize Odin’s vast knowledge and omnipotence, and were responsible for expanding his wisdom.
Not only were the ravens revered by Odin in the Nordic mythology; in reality, they were worshiped by the Nordic people. They were often depicted with Odin on numerous artifacts from the era, which included shields, plates, bracelets and jewelry.
The Ravens in Ancient Literature
Oddly enough, as important as they were, Huginn and Muninn take up only a few lines in several crucial epic poems that make up the Norse mythology canon.
Most information on the ravens – aside from the artifacts – came from literature written by the 13th century Icelandic historian and scholar, Snorri Sturluson. He described the ravens in two parts from his seminal Prose Edda – a compilation of books written in the prose-poem format.
The ravens appeared in the Edda in books entitled “Gylfaginning” (or the Tricking of Gylfi) and the “Skáldskaparmál" (Language of Poetry), in which they were featured in a few lines in Chapter 38 and Chapter 60, respectively.
In another book by Sturluson, Heimskringla: A Chronicle of the Kings of Norway (in a section known as the Ynglinga saga.), he made more references to the ravens. This collection of epic poems was about the life of Odin. Chapter 7 revealed that the two ravens made Odin wise.
In addition, another book in Prose Edda collection, "Grímnismál", revealed other tantalizing information about Huginn and Muninn. In this particular poem, Odin disguised himself as Grimmir (meaning hooded or masked one). His goal was to counsel Prince Agnarr. He did so by providing the young prince information about the two ravens. Odin, as Grimmir, stated the following:
“Huginn and Muninn fly each day
Over spacious earth.
I fear for Huginn, that he comes back.
Yet anxious am I for Muninn”— Benjamin Thorpe translation
Scholars debated the line; they believed it referred to the ravens’ mystical influences. Some stated these lines had some relations to shamans and their practices of taking a trance-like “journey” in an attempt to get closer to the gods.
Professor of Scandinavian medieval studies at the University of California in Berkeley, John Lindow, wrote that the stanza may have indicated Odin’s ability to send his “thought” and “mind” to shamans during their trance-like states.
In another stanza, Odin worried about the return of Huginn and Muninn, which "would be consistent with the danger that the shaman faces on the trance-state journey." (Lindow, 2001)
The Ravens After Christianity
Christianity spread throughout Europe, including Scandinavia. Soon, the ways of the Nordic gods fell out of favor with the people. While many of the gods -- as well as the ravens -- remained as symbolic fixtures of Nordic culture, they stopped being important in the Nordic people’s lives. As a result, many of these deities, including the ravens, were replaced with Christian saints or angels.
Still, Huginn and Muninn didn’t go away entirely. Science had a place for them, for their names were used to name actual breeds of ravens.
Twentieth Century and Beyond
In the late 20th century, Huginn became the inspirational name for a Black Metal band. The Italian band, Huginn was formed in the early 1990s, and – as most Black Metal bands – the theme centered on nature worship or the Occult.
The ravens also served as influences in modern TV and fantasy tales.In 1946 America, Heckle and Jeckle became a popular cartoon. While the birds are magpie crows, they both dispensed some thought and mind.In addition, they worked in unison, just as Huginn and Muninn did.
In Phillip Pullman’s His Dark Materials trilogy, the people in the story’s alternative universe had daemons as disembodied connections to themselves. Many took on the role of animals and had symbiotic relationships with its host human. One can’t help but notice that these daemon operated in the same way as Huginn and Muninn did with Odin.
Huginn and Muninn are not household names, unless one is familiar with them as the namesake of different raven species. And, maybe a few diehard metal-heads know it bears the name of one of their favorite bands (at least in Huginn's case). Still, the ravens have a place in the world’s myths and legends as well as the ancient Nordic culture. Most importantly they will always represent the wisdom Odin brought to the kingdom of Asgard, the people of Earth, and to the world of myths and legends.
This content is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge and is not meant to substitute for formal and individualized advice from a qualified professional.
Questions & Answers
© 2018 Dean Traylor | 1,366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Asked in ChristianityJudaismAncient Egypt
How did the Israelites become slaves in Egypt?
April 11, 2014 7:06PM
Famine in the Land of Canaan (previous name of Land of Israel) forced inhabitants to find food. Joseph, the son of Jacob, had been sold by his brothers and ended up in Egypt, where, through a series of spectacular events, he becoming second in command to Pharoah. When his brothers came from Canaan for food, Joseph instructed them to bring their father and settle in Egypt. Jacob and his family moved to Egypt and their help was soon requested in building two cities for Pharoah, Pitom and Ramsees. Initially, they were paid for their services, but with the death of all of the 12 sons of Jacob (Levi died last) the employment relationship slowly shifted into one of servitude. Because the tribe of Levi hadn't been involved in the employment relationship, they were not subjected to work, despite what popular film may show.
While the actual implementation of the slavery may have been gradual, the biblical record indicates that a new Pharaoh came to the throne who 'knew not Joseph' (or didn't want to know) and so enslaved the Israelites. The thinking and process is described in the first chapter of Exodus. It must be remembered that Moses was brought up in the household of Pharaoh for 40 years and so would have been quite familiar with how they thought or regarded the Israelites.
9And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we:
10Come on, let us deal wisely with them; lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land.
11Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
12But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were grieved because of the children of Israel.
13And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve with rigour:
14And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in morter, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field: all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour. | <urn:uuid:aaf8e112-ee98-4eb4-a277-668416b8bc36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.answers.com/Q/How_did_the_Israelites_become_slaves_in_Egypt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.981934 | 504 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.1824200004339... | 1 | Asked in ChristianityJudaismAncient Egypt
How did the Israelites become slaves in Egypt?
April 11, 2014 7:06PM
Famine in the Land of Canaan (previous name of Land of Israel) forced inhabitants to find food. Joseph, the son of Jacob, had been sold by his brothers and ended up in Egypt, where, through a series of spectacular events, he becoming second in command to Pharoah. When his brothers came from Canaan for food, Joseph instructed them to bring their father and settle in Egypt. Jacob and his family moved to Egypt and their help was soon requested in building two cities for Pharoah, Pitom and Ramsees. Initially, they were paid for their services, but with the death of all of the 12 sons of Jacob (Levi died last) the employment relationship slowly shifted into one of servitude. Because the tribe of Levi hadn't been involved in the employment relationship, they were not subjected to work, despite what popular film may show.
While the actual implementation of the slavery may have been gradual, the biblical record indicates that a new Pharaoh came to the throne who 'knew not Joseph' (or didn't want to know) and so enslaved the Israelites. The thinking and process is described in the first chapter of Exodus. It must be remembered that Moses was brought up in the household of Pharaoh for 40 years and so would have been quite familiar with how they thought or regarded the Israelites.
9And he said unto his people, Behold, the people of the children of Israel are more and mightier than we:
10Come on, let us deal wisely with them; lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land.
11Therefore they did set over them taskmasters to afflict them with their burdens. And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses.
12But the more they afflicted them, the more they multiplied and grew. And they were grieved because of the children of Israel.
13And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve with rigour:
14And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in morter, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field: all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour. | 517 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the legend goes, Romulus and Remus, Roman twins, were separated by their mother and left by the Tiber River to starve. However, the mother wolf found them and looked after them. Years later, the boys were instructed by Mars, the Roman god of war, to build a city where they were found. They built the city but declared war on each other. Romulus won and so the city became known as Rome.
Life in ancient Rome is said to have begun in the 8th or 9th century BC. It happened when the northern warriors moved to the Italian peninsula and rehabilitated around the Tiber River. For centuries, Rome was considered the most significant city in the ever-expanding Roman Empire. Rome was the capital and held all positions of power.
In historical times, Rome was ruled by kings. These kings had a reputation for being extremely cruel. As a result, the last king Tarkin the Proud was overthrown and Rome acquired the status of a republic for the next four centuries. Rome was then ruled by the Senate. The Romans elect senators who carry out administrative tasks. A distinctive feature of the Roman Empire was that only Roman citizens were allowed to vote during elections. However, women, poor people and slaves were not considered citizens.
Rome also went through a phase in which it was ruled by military generals. But because these generals were many, decision-making became a problem. The Romans needed an emperor to centralize power. This came in the form of Augustus Caesar, who came to power in 27 BC.
When Christianity gained popularity, Rome became an important seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope's home. With the advent of the Middle Ages, humanity saw the decline of the Roman Empire. Despite the declining empire, the city revived its glory as the political capital of Europe for several hundred years until the Renaissance. Even today, Rome remains powerful and seen as the capital of Italy with its beautiful architecture and culture. | <urn:uuid:424dde68-ea62-4024-a0c7-053cb1306f85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eclipsecartuner.com/2019/10/29/ancient-rome/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.990307 | 399 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.24684242904... | 1 | As the legend goes, Romulus and Remus, Roman twins, were separated by their mother and left by the Tiber River to starve. However, the mother wolf found them and looked after them. Years later, the boys were instructed by Mars, the Roman god of war, to build a city where they were found. They built the city but declared war on each other. Romulus won and so the city became known as Rome.
Life in ancient Rome is said to have begun in the 8th or 9th century BC. It happened when the northern warriors moved to the Italian peninsula and rehabilitated around the Tiber River. For centuries, Rome was considered the most significant city in the ever-expanding Roman Empire. Rome was the capital and held all positions of power.
In historical times, Rome was ruled by kings. These kings had a reputation for being extremely cruel. As a result, the last king Tarkin the Proud was overthrown and Rome acquired the status of a republic for the next four centuries. Rome was then ruled by the Senate. The Romans elect senators who carry out administrative tasks. A distinctive feature of the Roman Empire was that only Roman citizens were allowed to vote during elections. However, women, poor people and slaves were not considered citizens.
Rome also went through a phase in which it was ruled by military generals. But because these generals were many, decision-making became a problem. The Romans needed an emperor to centralize power. This came in the form of Augustus Caesar, who came to power in 27 BC.
When Christianity gained popularity, Rome became an important seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope's home. With the advent of the Middle Ages, humanity saw the decline of the Roman Empire. Despite the declining empire, the city revived its glory as the political capital of Europe for several hundred years until the Renaissance. Even today, Rome remains powerful and seen as the capital of Italy with its beautiful architecture and culture. | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Library of Alexandria was not the first library, that honour belongs to those libraries in Iraq and Syria, but it is the first to capture the imagination of historians. One of the largest libraries of the ancient world, it was renowned as a centre of scholarship and part of the Musaeum of Alexandria, home of scholars such as Hero (the father of mechanics), Archimedes (the father of engineering) and Herophilus (the founder of the scientific method). Created by Alexander the Great’s successor Ptolemy I Soter, it is estimated to have held somewhere between 40,000-400,000 scrolls of papyrus at the height of its success.
Built as a shrine to the Muses, the goddesses of the arts, it was conceptualised as a universal library, holding all types of written material. The acquisition of the material has been noted as sometimes unethical. One story had Ptolemy III ask Athenian authorities to borrow original manuscripts of several scholars to make copies of, offering silver as insurance. Once the copies were made, he sent those instead of the originals to Athens, telling them to keep the silver. Acquisitions for the library did not all come through deceit; book fairs in Rhodes and Athens were used with such trips well-funded by the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Demetrius of Phaleron is considered the original organiser of the library, chosen for his breadth of knowledge he had gained as a philosopher and statesman in Athens. It is likely that the entirety of Greek literature at the time was in the library as well as a significant section of Egyptian literature. Egyptian priests were approached to record their history for the library. Literature on Zoroastrianism, Babylonia and Buddhism was also available. Translations from Hebrew to Greek of the Pentateuch and the earliest existing version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) also were held by the library.
While much knowledge of the layout of the library is scarce we do know from the ‘Pinakes’ a bibliographic survey, carried out by Callimachus, on how the materials were catalogued to some degree. Only some fragments survive but we know that materials were organised into criteria such as mathematics, history, law, medicine, rhetoric, lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy, epic and miscellaneous. Callimachus’ work would go on to inspire others such as the Arabic bookseller Ibn al-Nadīm’s index of books the Kitāb al-fihrist.
The ‘burning’ of the library is well known, however, historians believe that there was not a single burning that destroyed the library but a number of fires and other acts of destruction over a number of years. The loss of the Library of Alexandria has often been seen as a loss of scholarship and information. Much of its contents are believed to have survived its destruction by being transferred to other locations across the world; however, none of its contents are thought to survive to the present day.
The historical impact was felt large enough for the Library of Alexandria to be ‘reborn’ in 2002 to honour its namesake. Like the ancient Library, it is a beacon of scholarship and a universal library. | <urn:uuid:dec46720-900c-4251-bcf5-e5eddf575c38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2018/01/21/the-ancient-library-of-alexandria/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.983466 | 662 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.392224907... | 4 | The Library of Alexandria was not the first library, that honour belongs to those libraries in Iraq and Syria, but it is the first to capture the imagination of historians. One of the largest libraries of the ancient world, it was renowned as a centre of scholarship and part of the Musaeum of Alexandria, home of scholars such as Hero (the father of mechanics), Archimedes (the father of engineering) and Herophilus (the founder of the scientific method). Created by Alexander the Great’s successor Ptolemy I Soter, it is estimated to have held somewhere between 40,000-400,000 scrolls of papyrus at the height of its success.
Built as a shrine to the Muses, the goddesses of the arts, it was conceptualised as a universal library, holding all types of written material. The acquisition of the material has been noted as sometimes unethical. One story had Ptolemy III ask Athenian authorities to borrow original manuscripts of several scholars to make copies of, offering silver as insurance. Once the copies were made, he sent those instead of the originals to Athens, telling them to keep the silver. Acquisitions for the library did not all come through deceit; book fairs in Rhodes and Athens were used with such trips well-funded by the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Demetrius of Phaleron is considered the original organiser of the library, chosen for his breadth of knowledge he had gained as a philosopher and statesman in Athens. It is likely that the entirety of Greek literature at the time was in the library as well as a significant section of Egyptian literature. Egyptian priests were approached to record their history for the library. Literature on Zoroastrianism, Babylonia and Buddhism was also available. Translations from Hebrew to Greek of the Pentateuch and the earliest existing version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) also were held by the library.
While much knowledge of the layout of the library is scarce we do know from the ‘Pinakes’ a bibliographic survey, carried out by Callimachus, on how the materials were catalogued to some degree. Only some fragments survive but we know that materials were organised into criteria such as mathematics, history, law, medicine, rhetoric, lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy, epic and miscellaneous. Callimachus’ work would go on to inspire others such as the Arabic bookseller Ibn al-Nadīm’s index of books the Kitāb al-fihrist.
The ‘burning’ of the library is well known, however, historians believe that there was not a single burning that destroyed the library but a number of fires and other acts of destruction over a number of years. The loss of the Library of Alexandria has often been seen as a loss of scholarship and information. Much of its contents are believed to have survived its destruction by being transferred to other locations across the world; however, none of its contents are thought to survive to the present day.
The historical impact was felt large enough for the Library of Alexandria to be ‘reborn’ in 2002 to honour its namesake. Like the ancient Library, it is a beacon of scholarship and a universal library. | 658 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Graded Reading - Upper Intermediate
What does Charles Dickens want to tell us about Victorian society in Britain? His original plan was to produce a pamphlet to raise awareness of the poverty and appalling living conditions which existed in 19th century Britain. However, he decided that a short story about Christmas would actually reach more people and draw more attention to the inequalities which existed at this time. So, in 1843 his classic tale A Christmas Carol was born.
Dickens was concerned to highlight the stark division between the lives of rich and poor in the 1800s. He realised that society had undergone a huge upheaval with the coming of the Industrial Revolution. Many people now flocked from the countryside to the towns in search of work in the growing manufacturing industries. From around 1780 industrialists had begun to build much larger factories powered by the new coal-fired steam engines. Many of these factories made cloth, which was in demand all over the world. In this way, the Industrial Revolution created many jobs for the poor and made factory owners very rich at the same time. However, the workers and their families often lived in extreme poverty. In A Christmas Carol, Dickens portrays a typical wealthy man called Ebenezer Scrooge, who chooses to ignore the poverty and misery around him, including that of his own employee Bob Cratchit. We see the contrast between the Scrooge’s privileged but lonely existence in his large town house with its grand staircase, and the tiny four-roomed house in the suburbs occupied by the entire Cratchit family.
In the 19th century the population of cities grew rapidly. For example, in London between 1800 and 1900 the population grew from one million to six million. Many of the migrants from the countryside were now living in slums. These were areas of cheap, overcrowded housing, often without proper drainage or sewage systems. Several families frequently shared just one water tap and toilet and this led to disease, hunger and crime. Even children were exploited by heartless factory owners and forced to work long hours, often in dangerous conditions.
Many people in this period of British history believed that poverty among the poor was simply inevitable. For example, Thomas Malthus believed that the human population would always grow faster than the food supplies. Dickens, on the other hand, wanted to show us that there would be plenty of food to go round – but only if the rich were generous to the poor. We see this in chapter three when the Ghost of Christmas Present takes Scrooge in a dream to see the bustling shops where food is plentiful.
Malthus and other Victorians also held the opinion that helping the poor made them lazy and took away their motivation to work hard. So in 1834 a Poor Law was passed to minimise the help available to poor people. Families then had to enter the much-feared workhouses to receive food and shelter. The conditions were often atrocious and entering the workhouse brought a huge sense of shame to the family.
In addition, Victorian society was very religious. At this time, families were urged to spend their Sunday going to church, reading the bible and resting. This may have seemed appropriate to the middle and upper classes. However, Dickens was against this idea because it meant that poorer people had very few forms of enjoyment on their one day off, as everything was closed on Sunday. Usually poor households were not equipped with their own oven, so during the working week they had their food cooked at a local baker’s shop. However, on Sundays, these bakers had to close, meaning that many families were deprived of a hot meal. In the book we hear the Ghost of Christmas Present explaining this to Scrooge, who has no idea how families were affected.
Dickens wanted to highlight these conditions and the suffering of the poor due to his personal experiences as a child. Unfortunately his family, like many, went into debt and his father was sent to debtors’ prison. The young Dickens was then forced to sell his book collection and work in a rat-infested factory from the age of 12, instead of continuing his education. This experience made Dickens very critical of the way Victorian society treated its poorest people.
In A Christmas Carol, Scrooge comes to realise through his succession of dreams that many of his long-held beliefs about the poor were wrong. Through this series of revelations, Dickens depicts for the reader his own solutions to the problems he sees before him in Victorian society.
Firstly, Dickens drew attention to the selfishness of the rich who, like Scrooge, seemed to be only concerned with gaining more wealth. Dickens believed that the wealthy had a responsibility to help those less fortunate than themselves. Through his works, he promoted the importance of generosity and charity. He knew that from the kind deeds of the successful philanthropists of his time that it was possible to improve the lives of the poor. For example, the famous English chocolate makers, the Cadburys, tried to provide quality homes and better lifestyles for their workers at their factory in Bournville near Birmingham. Another businessman, Titus Salt, who was a cloth maker, also created better conditions for his workers at Saltaire in Yorkshire. In A Christmas Carol , Scrooge learns the importance of giving to charitable works and finally gives a large donation. He also begins to see that if workers were paid a fair wage, there would be less need for charity.
Secondly, Dickens believed that many of the problems of Victorian society (such as crime, poverty and disease) were mainly due to a lack of education. He supported projects to help educate the poor, such as the Ragged Schools movement which gave free education, clothing and food to children from poor families. In A Christmas Carol, Dickens’ portrayal of the young character called Ignorance highlights how those with no access to education are doomed to a life in the prisons and workhouses. Yet, he feels that with schooling the poor could gain self-respect and improve their own lives.
In terms of religious life, Dickens turned away from the strict moral code of the middle and upper class Victorians who placed emphasis on outer respectability. Instead, he believed that to be a good Christian, people should look for opportunities to do good deeds for others. He considered that we should try to be humble, charitable, faithful and forgiving like the Cratchit family. He also firmly believed that much happiness could be found this way.
It is no coincidence that Dickens chose to set the story at Christmastime. In Victorian society many traditions we associate with Christmas became increasingly important – for example cards, crackers, carols, decorations, gifts and Christmas dinner itself. Secular activities such as feasts and games were also becoming a central part of the festivities. In the novel we see both Fred and Fezziwig hosting Christmas parties which were full of fun, dancing, laughter and food. Yet is it is evident that Dickens views the most important part of the spirit of Christmas as the showing of charity, forgiveness, goodwill and generosity. His key message to both Victorian society and future generations is to observe these values all year round to build a fairer and happier society.
Wikipedia: A Christmas Carol. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol [Accessed 08/12/2019]
Wikapedia: Thomas Robert Malthus. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus [Accessed 08/12/2019]
Broadbent, D., Crighton, E. & Hall, A. ed. (2015) GCSE English. A Christmas Carol: The Text Guide for the 9-1 Course. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Coordination Group Publications (CGP) Ltd.
'A Christmas Carol' by Charles Dickens: comprehension questions
- Describe briefly what was happening to rural populations in 19th century Britain.
- What were living conditions like for the poor in the growing cities?
- What did many Victorians believe was the answer to improving the situation of the poor?
- What were Dickens’ alternative solutions for improving the lives of the poor? (Give two.)
- Why do you think Dickens chose to set the story at Christmas? | <urn:uuid:dd949c53-c373-48ba-a1f2-d3905394420f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.weloveteachingenglish.com/en/free-english-graded-reading-comprehension/graded-reading-2019/512-what-does-a-christmas-carol-by-charles-dickens-teach-us-about-victorian-britain.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.983064 | 1,685 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.189628407... | 5 | Graded Reading - Upper Intermediate
What does Charles Dickens want to tell us about Victorian society in Britain? His original plan was to produce a pamphlet to raise awareness of the poverty and appalling living conditions which existed in 19th century Britain. However, he decided that a short story about Christmas would actually reach more people and draw more attention to the inequalities which existed at this time. So, in 1843 his classic tale A Christmas Carol was born.
Dickens was concerned to highlight the stark division between the lives of rich and poor in the 1800s. He realised that society had undergone a huge upheaval with the coming of the Industrial Revolution. Many people now flocked from the countryside to the towns in search of work in the growing manufacturing industries. From around 1780 industrialists had begun to build much larger factories powered by the new coal-fired steam engines. Many of these factories made cloth, which was in demand all over the world. In this way, the Industrial Revolution created many jobs for the poor and made factory owners very rich at the same time. However, the workers and their families often lived in extreme poverty. In A Christmas Carol, Dickens portrays a typical wealthy man called Ebenezer Scrooge, who chooses to ignore the poverty and misery around him, including that of his own employee Bob Cratchit. We see the contrast between the Scrooge’s privileged but lonely existence in his large town house with its grand staircase, and the tiny four-roomed house in the suburbs occupied by the entire Cratchit family.
In the 19th century the population of cities grew rapidly. For example, in London between 1800 and 1900 the population grew from one million to six million. Many of the migrants from the countryside were now living in slums. These were areas of cheap, overcrowded housing, often without proper drainage or sewage systems. Several families frequently shared just one water tap and toilet and this led to disease, hunger and crime. Even children were exploited by heartless factory owners and forced to work long hours, often in dangerous conditions.
Many people in this period of British history believed that poverty among the poor was simply inevitable. For example, Thomas Malthus believed that the human population would always grow faster than the food supplies. Dickens, on the other hand, wanted to show us that there would be plenty of food to go round – but only if the rich were generous to the poor. We see this in chapter three when the Ghost of Christmas Present takes Scrooge in a dream to see the bustling shops where food is plentiful.
Malthus and other Victorians also held the opinion that helping the poor made them lazy and took away their motivation to work hard. So in 1834 a Poor Law was passed to minimise the help available to poor people. Families then had to enter the much-feared workhouses to receive food and shelter. The conditions were often atrocious and entering the workhouse brought a huge sense of shame to the family.
In addition, Victorian society was very religious. At this time, families were urged to spend their Sunday going to church, reading the bible and resting. This may have seemed appropriate to the middle and upper classes. However, Dickens was against this idea because it meant that poorer people had very few forms of enjoyment on their one day off, as everything was closed on Sunday. Usually poor households were not equipped with their own oven, so during the working week they had their food cooked at a local baker’s shop. However, on Sundays, these bakers had to close, meaning that many families were deprived of a hot meal. In the book we hear the Ghost of Christmas Present explaining this to Scrooge, who has no idea how families were affected.
Dickens wanted to highlight these conditions and the suffering of the poor due to his personal experiences as a child. Unfortunately his family, like many, went into debt and his father was sent to debtors’ prison. The young Dickens was then forced to sell his book collection and work in a rat-infested factory from the age of 12, instead of continuing his education. This experience made Dickens very critical of the way Victorian society treated its poorest people.
In A Christmas Carol, Scrooge comes to realise through his succession of dreams that many of his long-held beliefs about the poor were wrong. Through this series of revelations, Dickens depicts for the reader his own solutions to the problems he sees before him in Victorian society.
Firstly, Dickens drew attention to the selfishness of the rich who, like Scrooge, seemed to be only concerned with gaining more wealth. Dickens believed that the wealthy had a responsibility to help those less fortunate than themselves. Through his works, he promoted the importance of generosity and charity. He knew that from the kind deeds of the successful philanthropists of his time that it was possible to improve the lives of the poor. For example, the famous English chocolate makers, the Cadburys, tried to provide quality homes and better lifestyles for their workers at their factory in Bournville near Birmingham. Another businessman, Titus Salt, who was a cloth maker, also created better conditions for his workers at Saltaire in Yorkshire. In A Christmas Carol , Scrooge learns the importance of giving to charitable works and finally gives a large donation. He also begins to see that if workers were paid a fair wage, there would be less need for charity.
Secondly, Dickens believed that many of the problems of Victorian society (such as crime, poverty and disease) were mainly due to a lack of education. He supported projects to help educate the poor, such as the Ragged Schools movement which gave free education, clothing and food to children from poor families. In A Christmas Carol, Dickens’ portrayal of the young character called Ignorance highlights how those with no access to education are doomed to a life in the prisons and workhouses. Yet, he feels that with schooling the poor could gain self-respect and improve their own lives.
In terms of religious life, Dickens turned away from the strict moral code of the middle and upper class Victorians who placed emphasis on outer respectability. Instead, he believed that to be a good Christian, people should look for opportunities to do good deeds for others. He considered that we should try to be humble, charitable, faithful and forgiving like the Cratchit family. He also firmly believed that much happiness could be found this way.
It is no coincidence that Dickens chose to set the story at Christmastime. In Victorian society many traditions we associate with Christmas became increasingly important – for example cards, crackers, carols, decorations, gifts and Christmas dinner itself. Secular activities such as feasts and games were also becoming a central part of the festivities. In the novel we see both Fred and Fezziwig hosting Christmas parties which were full of fun, dancing, laughter and food. Yet is it is evident that Dickens views the most important part of the spirit of Christmas as the showing of charity, forgiveness, goodwill and generosity. His key message to both Victorian society and future generations is to observe these values all year round to build a fairer and happier society.
Wikipedia: A Christmas Carol. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Christmas_Carol [Accessed 08/12/2019]
Wikapedia: Thomas Robert Malthus. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Malthus [Accessed 08/12/2019]
Broadbent, D., Crighton, E. & Hall, A. ed. (2015) GCSE English. A Christmas Carol: The Text Guide for the 9-1 Course. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Coordination Group Publications (CGP) Ltd.
'A Christmas Carol' by Charles Dickens: comprehension questions
- Describe briefly what was happening to rural populations in 19th century Britain.
- What were living conditions like for the poor in the growing cities?
- What did many Victorians believe was the answer to improving the situation of the poor?
- What were Dickens’ alternative solutions for improving the lives of the poor? (Give two.)
- Why do you think Dickens chose to set the story at Christmas? | 1,697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Patriotism is the love that one has for his/her country. When America was fighting for independence patriotism was very important because it encouraged Americans to put more efforts in struggle for independence.
America is made up of fifty states all of these were expected to unite to fight against British rule in America. There are some people who did not see the importance of fighting and therefore chose to remain loyal to the British rule. Their loyalty was seen by freedom fighters as an insult to the American people. Their houses were burnt and some of them were killed because they were thought to be undermining the efforts of freedom fighters.
Everyone was expected to show his/her commitment to the struggle for independence regardless of their sex or age. This led to a lot of casualties and destruction of property. The war affected children of that time negatively because both men and boys were recruited into the armies and sent abroad. This meant that the boys had to quit school and join the army. In the battle fields many men were killed which left many children fatherless and therefore the mothers had to assume duties that were earlier left for fathers.
Children were not given an opportunity to be children because they had very little time with their families. They were organized into youth organizations that were responsible for collecting money within their schools and within areas of their locality. The money would then be used to support the struggle for indepence.
The children’s’ efforts in the struggle for independence were greatly recognized and appreciated by the government which led to the introduction of classes on patriotism and nationalism. This was done because the government and activists had declared that patriotism was a must for all.
The women were also directly affected because they had to take positions that were earlier reserved for men and therefore they spent most of their time at work, leaving the children without someone to take care of them. The children were on their own because the men in their families such as uncles, brothers, grand fathers and fathers had joined the army.
After the war women had been enlightened and shifted from being house-wives and were employed in various sectors such as factories and offices. Men were greatly affected in the struggle for independence.
While in the battle grounds, they were not to show any signs of fear and sometimes those who did so were killed by their fellow men. Fighters who had serious injuries were sent back home. Most of the men who died in the war were below 30 years which meant that women who had not been married had to remain unmarried for a long time.
Men who returned home were left helpless under the care of nursing homes. They felt unimportant to the society because they could not marry and have children .This was so because most of these men returned home without hands and legs.The effects of the war are still being felt to this date.
Paul, D. (2007).True Stories of the First World War.USA.First Scholarstic Printing.ISBN 978-0-439-93237-0 | <urn:uuid:49cbc6fd-82dc-41e6-ad58-88d4dd30d584> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://virginiaangerclass.com/effects-of-patriotism/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.995779 | 600 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.1644467413425... | 2 | Patriotism is the love that one has for his/her country. When America was fighting for independence patriotism was very important because it encouraged Americans to put more efforts in struggle for independence.
America is made up of fifty states all of these were expected to unite to fight against British rule in America. There are some people who did not see the importance of fighting and therefore chose to remain loyal to the British rule. Their loyalty was seen by freedom fighters as an insult to the American people. Their houses were burnt and some of them were killed because they were thought to be undermining the efforts of freedom fighters.
Everyone was expected to show his/her commitment to the struggle for independence regardless of their sex or age. This led to a lot of casualties and destruction of property. The war affected children of that time negatively because both men and boys were recruited into the armies and sent abroad. This meant that the boys had to quit school and join the army. In the battle fields many men were killed which left many children fatherless and therefore the mothers had to assume duties that were earlier left for fathers.
Children were not given an opportunity to be children because they had very little time with their families. They were organized into youth organizations that were responsible for collecting money within their schools and within areas of their locality. The money would then be used to support the struggle for indepence.
The children’s’ efforts in the struggle for independence were greatly recognized and appreciated by the government which led to the introduction of classes on patriotism and nationalism. This was done because the government and activists had declared that patriotism was a must for all.
The women were also directly affected because they had to take positions that were earlier reserved for men and therefore they spent most of their time at work, leaving the children without someone to take care of them. The children were on their own because the men in their families such as uncles, brothers, grand fathers and fathers had joined the army.
After the war women had been enlightened and shifted from being house-wives and were employed in various sectors such as factories and offices. Men were greatly affected in the struggle for independence.
While in the battle grounds, they were not to show any signs of fear and sometimes those who did so were killed by their fellow men. Fighters who had serious injuries were sent back home. Most of the men who died in the war were below 30 years which meant that women who had not been married had to remain unmarried for a long time.
Men who returned home were left helpless under the care of nursing homes. They felt unimportant to the society because they could not marry and have children .This was so because most of these men returned home without hands and legs.The effects of the war are still being felt to this date.
Paul, D. (2007).True Stories of the First World War.USA.First Scholarstic Printing.ISBN 978-0-439-93237-0 | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you have taken up mindfulness training it may be a good idea to consider whether your children may benefit from such techniques as well.
A programme into social and emotional learning started by Academy Award-winning actress Goldie Hawn to help school children improve their learning abilities has now been backed by new scientific evidence.
The researchers from the University of British Columbia found fourth and fifth graders who took part in a mindfulness programme were better at managing stress and were seen to be more optimistic and helpful than those who did not. It was also found that they were better liked by people of their own age than youngsters who took part in programmes that taught caring for others but that did not involve mindfulness. The programme also improved children’s maths ability.
This study – Enhancing cognitive and Social-Emotional Development Through a Simple-to-Administer Mindfulness-Based School Program for Elementary School Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial – was carried out in four primary schools in Coquitlam, B.C. in 2008, and was published in Developmental Psychology in January 2015.
More can be read about the survey at Science Daily.
If you want to reap some of the benefits of mindfulness you can always try to think like a child following these tips:
- Take a walk with a child. Approach your next walk like a child would. This will turn a normal route to your home or workplace into a sensory adventure.
- Brush your teeth like a child. Children have little natural rhythm to brushing their teeth as they have only recently started to learn this skill. Experiment with this alternative: brush with your opposite hand.
- Engage in a childlike activity. Draw with crayons. Read a picture book. Play. | <urn:uuid:6532ba92-b050-4e6e-a8f2-cc7ff24cdb33> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://excellenceassured.com/5760/mindfulness-training-children | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.982084 | 351 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.486832976341... | 3 | If you have taken up mindfulness training it may be a good idea to consider whether your children may benefit from such techniques as well.
A programme into social and emotional learning started by Academy Award-winning actress Goldie Hawn to help school children improve their learning abilities has now been backed by new scientific evidence.
The researchers from the University of British Columbia found fourth and fifth graders who took part in a mindfulness programme were better at managing stress and were seen to be more optimistic and helpful than those who did not. It was also found that they were better liked by people of their own age than youngsters who took part in programmes that taught caring for others but that did not involve mindfulness. The programme also improved children’s maths ability.
This study – Enhancing cognitive and Social-Emotional Development Through a Simple-to-Administer Mindfulness-Based School Program for Elementary School Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial – was carried out in four primary schools in Coquitlam, B.C. in 2008, and was published in Developmental Psychology in January 2015.
More can be read about the survey at Science Daily.
If you want to reap some of the benefits of mindfulness you can always try to think like a child following these tips:
- Take a walk with a child. Approach your next walk like a child would. This will turn a normal route to your home or workplace into a sensory adventure.
- Brush your teeth like a child. Children have little natural rhythm to brushing their teeth as they have only recently started to learn this skill. Experiment with this alternative: brush with your opposite hand.
- Engage in a childlike activity. Draw with crayons. Read a picture book. Play. | 344 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Home Rule came to dominate domestic British politics in the era 1885 to the start of World War One. Home Rule effectively started in Ireland in 1870 but in British politics, Gladstone was converted to it in the 1880’s. Home Rule was the name given to the process of allowing Ireland more say in how it was governed – freeing them from the rule of London and thus appeasing those in Ireland who wanted Ireland to have more home derived power.
One of the main barriers to Home Rule for decades had been the House of Lords. In 1911, the Parliament Act effectively reduced their power to that of delay as opposed to one of outright rejection. In 1886 and 1893, there had been two Home Rule bills but both were rejected and killed off by the Lords. The House of Lords saw the introduction of Home Rule as the start of the process whereby the power of London was reduced, first in Ireland – and then where else? The leader of the Irish Nationalist Party, John Redmond, had stated quite clearly in 1910 that it was the Lord’s veto alone that came between Ireland and a successful Home Rule bill.
In 1910, Herbert Asquith’s Liberal government had fought two general elections and they only held onto power by forming political alliances. In 1910, this was with the Irish Nationalist Party. In exchange for supporting the government, Redmond wanted something in return – Home Rule.
However, Home Rule was not a political vote winner for the Liberals and Asquith. When the Lords rejected the Home Rule bills of 1886 and 1893, there was barely a whimper of protest in mainland Britain. Gladstone’s crusade in the 1880’s and 1890’s was not matched even in the Liberal Party. Even Asquith was not a natural supporter of Home Rule. In 1902, he said:
|“Is it to be part of the policy and programme of our party that, if returned to power, it will introduce into the House of Commons a bill for Irish Home Rule? The answer, in my judgment, is No.”|
However, by 1910, Asquith was not in the position to bargain. If he wanted power in Britain as a whole, he needed Redmond’s support. During the two election campaigns of 1910, very few campaigning Liberal politicians even mentioned Home Rule. It was as if there was an attempt to bury the issue in mainland Britain – especially as it was known to be a contentious issue amongst the voting public at large. Even senior Liberal politicians were not in favour of Home Rule in 1910: Asquith, at best, was lukewarm; Sir Edward Grey was barely in favour of it; Lloyd George and Winston Churchill were more concerned with social reforms to the welfare system than with Ireland.
Redmond knew exactly where he stood with the Liberals. No-one could call the relationship between the Liberals and the Irish Nationalists a positive one and Redmond did not delude himself about this. However, in 1910, he was very much the reason why Asquith found himself Prime Minister again. Redmond could push for a speedy introduction of a Home Rule Bill but he had little control over what details was in it.
One of the major problems faced by Asquith was appeasing those in the region known as Ulster who were against any form of Home Rule.
The opposition to Asquith in Parliament had now adopted the title the Unionist Party. It comprised of an assortment of parties but was dominated by the Conservative Party. They were naturally opposed to Home Rule. Before 1910, the Unionists had put their faith in the House of Lords rejecting any form of Home Rule Bill – as proved to be the case in 1886 and 1893. After the Parliament Act of 1911, they could no longer do this. The Unionists feared that any form of Home Rule would lead to the break-up of the United Kingdom. In this they had the full support of many.
Some Unionists like George Wyndham, believed that the country had every reason to use every means at its disposal to stop Home Rule in its tracks – including using the army to stop Asquith!
|“(The Tories and the King) have the money, the Army and the Navy and the Territorials, all down to the Boy Scouts. Why then should they consent to a change in the constitution without fighting?” (Wyndham)|
By 1911, the Unionists were led by Arthur Bonar Law who was against Home Rule. However, despite all the arguments for and against Home Rule, a Home Rule Bill was introduced into Parliament in April 1912. Its contents were similar to the ones of 1886 and 1893. It would introduce:
1. Purely Irish questions would be dealt with by an Irish Parliament
2. Parliament in Westminster would deal with all issues relating to the crown, army and navy, foreign policy and custom duties.
3. Irish members would still be in Westminster.
Asquith saw this bill as the start of a process that would free up Westminster from would could be seen as local issues to deal with more important imperial issues – especially as Britain was the world’s largest imperial power. In this sense, the Home Rule Bill was the start of a devolutionary process. Asquith knew that the Lords would not support the bill. He also knew that he had about two years from the start of the process (the bill being introduced) before time ran out to get a compromise through. In a letter to Winston Churchill, it is clear that Asquith knew that a compromise was needed:
|“I always thought that, in the end, we should probably have to make some sort of bargain about Ulster as the price of Home Rule.”|
However, all talk of Home Rule ended when World War One broke out. Redmond agreed that the issue should be postponed for the duration of the war. Many in Ireland agreed that this was the patriotic thing to do – even staunch supporters of Home Rule. They saw the threat of Germany as being a far greater issue to overcome. Many Irishmen joined the call to arms and fought in Western Europe. However, there were those who were greatly angered by what they saw as Redmond’s acquiescence to Westminster, even if they were small in number. It was these people – James Connolly, Patrick Pearse, Eamonn de Valera etc. – who led the Easter Uprising in 1916. | <urn:uuid:e3a88872-d6f3-4c23-b1b4-6dbdeda59ab5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/home-rule-and-ireland/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.988273 | 1,318 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.13485... | 9 | Home Rule came to dominate domestic British politics in the era 1885 to the start of World War One. Home Rule effectively started in Ireland in 1870 but in British politics, Gladstone was converted to it in the 1880’s. Home Rule was the name given to the process of allowing Ireland more say in how it was governed – freeing them from the rule of London and thus appeasing those in Ireland who wanted Ireland to have more home derived power.
One of the main barriers to Home Rule for decades had been the House of Lords. In 1911, the Parliament Act effectively reduced their power to that of delay as opposed to one of outright rejection. In 1886 and 1893, there had been two Home Rule bills but both were rejected and killed off by the Lords. The House of Lords saw the introduction of Home Rule as the start of the process whereby the power of London was reduced, first in Ireland – and then where else? The leader of the Irish Nationalist Party, John Redmond, had stated quite clearly in 1910 that it was the Lord’s veto alone that came between Ireland and a successful Home Rule bill.
In 1910, Herbert Asquith’s Liberal government had fought two general elections and they only held onto power by forming political alliances. In 1910, this was with the Irish Nationalist Party. In exchange for supporting the government, Redmond wanted something in return – Home Rule.
However, Home Rule was not a political vote winner for the Liberals and Asquith. When the Lords rejected the Home Rule bills of 1886 and 1893, there was barely a whimper of protest in mainland Britain. Gladstone’s crusade in the 1880’s and 1890’s was not matched even in the Liberal Party. Even Asquith was not a natural supporter of Home Rule. In 1902, he said:
|“Is it to be part of the policy and programme of our party that, if returned to power, it will introduce into the House of Commons a bill for Irish Home Rule? The answer, in my judgment, is No.”|
However, by 1910, Asquith was not in the position to bargain. If he wanted power in Britain as a whole, he needed Redmond’s support. During the two election campaigns of 1910, very few campaigning Liberal politicians even mentioned Home Rule. It was as if there was an attempt to bury the issue in mainland Britain – especially as it was known to be a contentious issue amongst the voting public at large. Even senior Liberal politicians were not in favour of Home Rule in 1910: Asquith, at best, was lukewarm; Sir Edward Grey was barely in favour of it; Lloyd George and Winston Churchill were more concerned with social reforms to the welfare system than with Ireland.
Redmond knew exactly where he stood with the Liberals. No-one could call the relationship between the Liberals and the Irish Nationalists a positive one and Redmond did not delude himself about this. However, in 1910, he was very much the reason why Asquith found himself Prime Minister again. Redmond could push for a speedy introduction of a Home Rule Bill but he had little control over what details was in it.
One of the major problems faced by Asquith was appeasing those in the region known as Ulster who were against any form of Home Rule.
The opposition to Asquith in Parliament had now adopted the title the Unionist Party. It comprised of an assortment of parties but was dominated by the Conservative Party. They were naturally opposed to Home Rule. Before 1910, the Unionists had put their faith in the House of Lords rejecting any form of Home Rule Bill – as proved to be the case in 1886 and 1893. After the Parliament Act of 1911, they could no longer do this. The Unionists feared that any form of Home Rule would lead to the break-up of the United Kingdom. In this they had the full support of many.
Some Unionists like George Wyndham, believed that the country had every reason to use every means at its disposal to stop Home Rule in its tracks – including using the army to stop Asquith!
|“(The Tories and the King) have the money, the Army and the Navy and the Territorials, all down to the Boy Scouts. Why then should they consent to a change in the constitution without fighting?” (Wyndham)|
By 1911, the Unionists were led by Arthur Bonar Law who was against Home Rule. However, despite all the arguments for and against Home Rule, a Home Rule Bill was introduced into Parliament in April 1912. Its contents were similar to the ones of 1886 and 1893. It would introduce:
1. Purely Irish questions would be dealt with by an Irish Parliament
2. Parliament in Westminster would deal with all issues relating to the crown, army and navy, foreign policy and custom duties.
3. Irish members would still be in Westminster.
Asquith saw this bill as the start of a process that would free up Westminster from would could be seen as local issues to deal with more important imperial issues – especially as Britain was the world’s largest imperial power. In this sense, the Home Rule Bill was the start of a devolutionary process. Asquith knew that the Lords would not support the bill. He also knew that he had about two years from the start of the process (the bill being introduced) before time ran out to get a compromise through. In a letter to Winston Churchill, it is clear that Asquith knew that a compromise was needed:
|“I always thought that, in the end, we should probably have to make some sort of bargain about Ulster as the price of Home Rule.”|
However, all talk of Home Rule ended when World War One broke out. Redmond agreed that the issue should be postponed for the duration of the war. Many in Ireland agreed that this was the patriotic thing to do – even staunch supporters of Home Rule. They saw the threat of Germany as being a far greater issue to overcome. Many Irishmen joined the call to arms and fought in Western Europe. However, there were those who were greatly angered by what they saw as Redmond’s acquiescence to Westminster, even if they were small in number. It was these people – James Connolly, Patrick Pearse, Eamonn de Valera etc. – who led the Easter Uprising in 1916. | 1,390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Nimrod Expedition of 1907–09, otherwise known as the British Antarctic Expedition, was the first of three expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton. Its main target, among a range of geographical and scientific objectives, was to be first to the South Pole. This was not attained, but the expedition's southern march reached a Farthest South latitude of 88° 23' S, just 97.5 nautical miles (180.6 km; 112.2 mi) from the pole. This was by far the longest southern polar journey to that date and a record convergence on either Pole.[a] A separate group led by Welsh Australian geology professor Edgeworth David reached the estimated location of the South Magnetic Pole, and the expedition also achieved the first ascent of Mount Erebus, Antarctica's second highest volcano.
The expedition lacked governmental or institutional support, and relied on private loans and individual contributions. It was beset by financial problems and its preparations were hurried. Its ship, Nimrod, was less than half of the size of Robert Falcon Scott's 1901–04 expedition ship Discovery, and Shackleton's crew lacked relevant experience. Controversy arose from Shackleton's decision to base the expedition in McMurdo Sound, close to Scott's old headquarters, in contravention of a promise to Scott that he would not do so. Nevertheless, although the expedition's profile was initially much lower than that of Scott's six years earlier, its achievements attracted nationwide interest and made Shackleton a public hero. The scientific team, which included the future Australasian Antarctic Expedition leader Douglas Mawson, carried out extensive geological, zoological and meteorological work. Shackleton's transport arrangements, based on Manchurian ponies, motor traction, and sled dogs, were innovations which, despite limited success, were later copied by Scott for his ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition.
On his return, Shackleton overcame the Royal Geographical Society's initial scepticism about his achievements and received many public honours, including a knighthood from King Edward VII. He made little financial gain from the expedition and eventually depended on a government grant to cover its liabilities. Within three years his southernmost record had been surpassed, as first Amundsen and then Scott reached the South Pole. In his own moment of triumph, Amundsen nevertheless observed: "Sir Ernest Shackleton's name will always be written in the annals of Antarctic exploration in letters of fire".
Shackleton had been a junior officer on Scott's first Antarctic expedition in the Discovery. He had been sent home on the relief ship Morning in 1903, after a physical collapse during the expedition's main southern journey.[b] Scott's verdict was that he "ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health". Shackleton felt this physical failure as a personal stigma, and on his return to England he was determined to prove himself, in the words of Discovery's second-in command Albert Armitage, as "a better man than Scott". He nevertheless declined the opportunity of a swift Antarctic return as chief officer of Discovery's second relief ship Terra Nova, after helping to fit her out; he also helped to equip Uruguay, the ship being prepared for the relief of Otto Nordenskjold's expedition, stranded in the Weddell Sea. During the next few years, while nursing intermittent hopes of resuming his Antarctic career, he pursued other options. In 1906 he was working for the industrial magnate Sir William Beardmore as a public relations officer.
According to his biographer Roland Huntford, the references to Shackleton's physical breakdown made in Scott's The Voyage of the Discovery, published in 1905, reopened the wounds to Shackleton's pride. It became a personal mission that he should return to the Antarctic and outperform Scott. He began looking for potential backers for an expedition of his own; his initial plans appear in an unpublished document dated early 1906. These include a cost estimate of £17,000 (updated value £1,770,000) for the entire expedition. He received his first promise of financial backing when early in 1907 his employer, Beardmore, offered a £7,000 loan guarantee (updated value £730,000). With this in hand, Shackleton felt confident enough to announce his intentions to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) on 12 February 1907. One reason for Shackleton's sense of urgency was the knowledge that the Polish explorer Henryk Arctowski was planning an expedition, which was announced at the RGS on the same day as Shackleton's. In the event, Arctowski's plans were stillborn.
Shackleton's original unpublished plan envisaged basing himself at the old Discovery Expedition headquarters in McMurdo Sound. From there he proposed to launch attempts to reach the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. Other journeys would follow, and there would be a continuous programme of scientific work. This early plan also revealed Shackleton's proposed transport methods, involving a combination of dogs, ponies and a specially designed motor vehicle.
Neither ponies nor motor traction had been used in the Antarctic before, although ponies had been used by Frederick Jackson during the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition of 1894–97. Despite Jackson's confused reports of his ponies' prowess, and contrary to specific advice from Nansen, the renowned Norwegian polar traveller, Shackleton decided he would take 15 ponies, later scaled down to 10. By the time he announced his plans to the RGS in February 1907 Shackleton had revised his cost estimate to a more realistic £30,000 (updated value £3,120,000). However, the response of the RGS to Shackleton's proposals was muted; Shackleton would learn later that the Society was by this time aware of Scott's wish to lead a new expedition and that the Society wished to reserve its full approval for Scott.
Shackleton intended to arrive in Antarctica in January 1908, which meant leaving England during the 1907 summer. He therefore had six months to secure the financing, acquire and fit out a ship, buy all the equipment and supplies, and recruit the personnel. In April, believing that he had got the backing of Scottish businessman Donald Steuart, Shackleton travelled to Norway intending to buy a 700-ton polar vessel, Bjorn, that would have served ideally as an expedition ship. When Steuart withdrew his support, however, Bjorn was beyond Shackleton's means. Bjorn was eventually acquired by German explorer Wilhelm Filchner and, renamed Deutschland, was used in his 1911–13 voyage to the Weddell Sea. Shackleton had to settle for the elderly, much smaller Nimrod, a 40-year-old wooden sealer of 334 gross register tons,[c] which he was able to acquire for £5,000 (updated value £520,000).
Shackleton was shocked by his first sight of Nimrod after her arrival in London from Newfoundland in June 1907. "She was much dilapidated and smelt strongly of seal oil, and an inspection [...] showed that she needed caulking and that her masts would have to be renewed." However, in the hands of experienced ship-fitters she soon "assumed a more satisfactory appearance." Later, Shackleton reported, he became extremely proud of the sturdy little ship.
By early July 1907 Shackleton had secured little financial support beyond Beardmore's guarantee and was lacking the funds to complete the refit of the ship. In mid-July he approached the philanthropic Earl of Iveagh, otherwise known as Edward Guinness, head of the Anglo-Irish brewing family, who agreed to guarantee the sum of £2,000 (updated value £210,000) provided that Shackleton found other backers to contribute a further £6,000. Shackleton was able to do this, the extra funds including £2,000 from Sir Philip Brocklehurst, who paid this sum to secure a place on the expedition.
A last-minute gift of £4,000 from Shackleton's cousin William Bell still left the expedition far short of the required £30,000, but enabled Nimrod's refit to be finished. Fundraising continued in Australia after the ship arrived there; a further £5,000 was provided as a gift from the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government gave £1,000. By these means, and with other smaller loans and donations, the £30,000 was raised, although by the end of the expedition total costs had risen, by Shackleton's estimate, to £45,000.[d]
Shackleton expected to make large sums from his book about the expedition and from lectures. He also hoped to profit from sales of special postage stamps bearing the cancellation stamp of the Antarctica post office that Shackleton, appointed temporary postmaster by the New Zealand government, intended to establish there. None of these schemes produced the anticipated riches, although the post office was set up at Cape Royds and used as a conduit for the expedition's mail.[e]
Shackleton hoped to recruit a strong contingent from the Discovery Expedition and offered his former comrade Edward Wilson the post of chief scientist and second-in-command. Wilson refused, citing his work with the Board of Agriculture's Committee on the Investigation of Grouse Disease. Further refusals followed from former Discovery colleagues Michael Barne, Reginald Skelton and finally George Mulock, who inadvertently revealed to Shackleton that the Discovery officers had all committed themselves to Scott and his as yet unannounced expedition plans. The only Discovery hands to join Shackleton were the two Petty Officers, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce. Apparently Shackleton spotted Joyce on the top deck of a bus as it passed the expedition's London offices, whereupon someone was sent to find him and bring him in.
Shackleton's second-in-command—although this was not clarified until the expedition reached the Antarctic—was Jameson Boyd Adams, a Royal Naval Reserve lieutenant who had turned down the chance of a regular commission to join Shackleton. He would also act as the expedition's meteorologist. Nimrod's captain was another naval reserve officer, Rupert England; 23-year-old John King Davis, who would later make his own reputation as an Antarctic captain, was appointed chief officer at the last moment. Aeneas Mackintosh, a merchant navy officer from the P&O shipping line, was originally second officer, but was later transferred to the shore party, being replaced as second officer by A. E. Harbord. Others in the shore party were the two surgeons, Alistair Mackay and Eric Marshall, Bernard Day the motor expert, and Sir Philip Brocklehurst, the subscribing member who had been taken on as assistant geologist.
The small scientific team that departed from England included 41-year-old biologist James Murray and 21-year-old geologist Raymond Priestley, a future founder of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Two important additions to the team were made in Australia. The first of these was Edgeworth David, a professor of geology at the University of Sydney, who became the party's chief scientific officer. The second was a former pupil of David's, Douglas Mawson, a lecturer in mineralogy at the University of Adelaide. Both had originally intended to sail to Antarctica and then immediately back with Nimrod but were persuaded to become full members of the expedition. David was influential in securing the Australian government's £5,000 grant.
Before departure for the Antarctic in August 1907, Joyce and Wild took a crash course in printing methods, as it was Shackleton's intention to publish a book or magazine while in the Antarctic.
Shackleton's February 1907 announcement that he intended to base his expedition at the old Discovery headquarters was noted by Scott, whose own future Antarctic plans were at that stage unannounced. In a letter to Shackleton, Scott claimed priority rights to McMurdo Sound. "I feel I have a sort of right to my own field of work," he wrote, adding: "anyone who has had to do with exploration will regard this region primarily as mine". He concluded by reminding Shackleton of his duty of loyalty towards his former commander.
Shackleton's initial reply was accommodating: "I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself". Edward Wilson, asked by Shackleton to mediate, took an even tougher line than Scott. "I think you should retire from McMurdo Sound", he wrote, advising Shackleton not to make any plans to work from anywhere in the entire Ross Sea quarter until Scott decided "what limits he puts on his own rights". To this Shackleton replied: "There is no doubt in my mind that his rights end at the base he asked for [...] I consider I have reached my limit and I go no further".
The matter was unresolved when Scott returned from sea duty in May 1907. Scott pressed for a line of demarcation at 170° W—everything to the west of that line, including Ross Island, McMurdo Sound, and Victoria Land, would be Scott's preserve. Shackleton, with other concerns pressing on him, felt obliged to concede. On 17 May he signed a declaration stating that "I am leaving the McMurdo base to you", and that he would seek to land further east, either at the Barrier Inlet visited briefly during the Discovery Expedition, or at King Edward VII Land. He would not touch the coast of Victoria Land at all. It was a capitulation to Scott and Wilson, and meant forfeiting the expedition's aim of reaching the South Magnetic Pole which was located within Victoria Land. Polar historian Beau Riffenburgh believes this was "a promise that should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given, impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton's expedition". The dispute soured relations between the two men (who nevertheless maintained public civilities), and would eventually lead to the complete rupture of Shackleton's formerly close friendship with Wilson.
In his own account of the expedition Shackleton makes no reference to the wrangle with Scott. He merely states that "before we finally left England I had decided that if possible I would establish my base in King Edward VII Land instead of [...] McMurdo Sound".
After inspection by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, Nimrod sailed on 11 August 1907. Shackleton remained behind on expedition business; he and other expedition members followed on a faster ship. The entire complement came together in New Zealand, ready for the ship's departure to Antarctica on New Year's Day, 1908. As a means of conserving fuel, Shackleton had arranged with the New Zealand government for Nimrod to be towed to the Antarctic circle, a distance of approximately 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km; 1,600 mi), the costs of the tow being met partly by the government and partly by the Union Steam Ship Company as a contribution to the expedition. On 14 January, in sight of the first icebergs, the towline was cut; Nimrod, under her own power, proceeded southward into the floating pack ice, heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier Discovery had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights.
The Barrier (later known as the Ross Ice Shelf) was sighted on 23 January, but the inlet had disappeared; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years, and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay, which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales after the large number of whales seen there. Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might calve into the sea, so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land. After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed, and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship, Nimrod was forced to retreat. Shackleton's only choice now, other than abandonment of the expedition's goals, was to break the promise he had given to Scott. On 25 January he ordered the ship to head for McMurdo Sound.
On arriving in McMurdo Sound on 29 January 1908, Nimrod's progress southward to the Discovery base at Hut Point was blocked by frozen sea. Shackleton decided to wait a few days in the hope that the ice would break up. During this delay, second officer Aeneas Mackintosh suffered an accident that led to the loss of his right eye. After emergency surgery by Marshall and Mackay, he was forced to relinquish his shore party place and go back to New Zealand with Nimrod. He recovered sufficiently to return with the ship in the following season.
On 3 February Shackleton decided not to wait for the ice to shift but to make his headquarters at the nearest practicable landing place, Cape Royds. Late that evening the ship was moored, and a suitable site for the expedition's prefabricated hut was selected. The site was separated from Hut Point by 20 nautical miles (37 km; 23 mi) of sea, with no landward route to the south. Shackleton believed the party was "fortunate to get winter quarters as near as this to our starting point for the south."
The following days were occupied with the landing of stores and equipment. This work was hampered by poor weather and by the caution of Captain England, who frequently took the ship out into the bay until ice conditions at the landing ground were in his view safer. The next fortnight followed this pattern, leading to sharp dissent between Shackleton and the captain. At one point, Shackleton asked England to stand down on the grounds that he was ill, but England refused. The task of unloading became, in Riffenburgh's description, "mind-numbingly difficult" but was finally completed on 22 February. Nimrod at last sailed away north, England unaware that ship's engineer Harry Dunlop was carrying a letter from Shackleton to the expedition's New Zealand agent, requesting a replacement captain for the return voyage next year. This knowledge was an open secret among the shore party; Marshall recorded in his diary that he was "glad to see the last of [England] ... whole thing damned disgrace to name of country!"
After Nimrod's departure, the sea ice broke up, cutting off the party's route to the Barrier and thus making preparatory sledging and depot-laying impossible. Shackleton decided to give the expedition impetus by ordering an immediate attempt to ascend Mount Erebus.
This mountain, 12,450 feet (3,790 m) high, had never been climbed. A party from Discovery (which had included Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce) had explored the foothills in 1904 but had not ascended higher than 3,000 feet (910 m). Neither Wild nor Joyce was in the Nimrod Expedition's main Erebus party, which consisted of Edgeworth David, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay. With Marshall, Adams and Brocklehurst forming a support group, the ascent began on 5 March.
On 7 March the two groups combined at around 5,500 feet (1,700 m), and all advanced towards the summit. On the following day a blizzard held them up, but early on 9 March the climb resumed; later that day the summit of the lower, main crater, was achieved. By this time Brocklehurst's feet were too frostbitten for him to continue, so he was left in camp while the others advanced to the active crater, which they reached after four hours. Several meteorological experiments were carried out, and many rock samples were taken. Thereafter a rapid descent was made, mainly by sliding down successive snow-slopes. The party reached the Cape Royds hut "nearly dead", according to Eric Marshall, on 11 March.
The expedition's hut, a prefabricated structure measuring 33 x 19 feet (10m x 5.8m), was ready for occupation by the end of February. It was divided into a series of mainly two-person cubicles, with a kitchen area, a darkroom, storage and laboratory space. The ponies were housed in stalls built on the most sheltered side of the hut, while the dog kennels were placed close to the porch. Shackleton's inclusive leadership style, in contrast to that of Scott, meant no demarcation between upper and lower decks—all lived, worked and ate together. Morale was high; as assistant geologist Philip Brocklehurst recorded, Shackleton "had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it".
In the ensuing months of winter darkness Joyce and Wild printed around 30 copies of the expedition's book, Aurora Australis, which were sewn and bound using packaging materials. The most important winter's work, however, was preparing for the following season's major journeys, which were to include attempts on both the South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. By making his base in McMurdo Sound, Shackleton had been able to reinstate the Magnetic Pole as an expedition objective. Shackleton himself would be leading the South Pole journey, which had suffered a serious setback during the winter when four of the remaining ponies died, mainly from eating volcanic sand for its salt content.
Shackleton's choice of a four-man team for the southern journey to the South Pole was largely determined by the number of surviving ponies. Influenced by his experiences on the Discovery Expedition, he had put his confidence in ponies rather than dogs for the long polar march. The motor car, which ran well on flat ice, could not cope with Barrier surfaces and was not considered for the polar journey. The men chosen by Shackleton to accompany him were Marshall, Adams and Wild. Joyce, whose Antarctic experience exceeded all save Wild's, was excluded from the party after Marshall's medical examination raised doubts about his fitness.
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as 1,494 nautical miles (2,767 km; 1,719 mi). His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi). After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles. Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902. Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.
As the group moved into unknown territory, the Barrier surface became increasingly disturbed and broken; two more ponies succumbed to the strain. The mountains to the west curved round to block their path southward, and the party's attention was caught by a "brilliant gleam of light" in the sky ahead. The reason for this phenomenon became clear on 3 December when, after a climb through the foothills of the mountain chain, they saw before them what Shackleton later described as "an open road to the south, [...] a great glacier, running almost south to north between two huge mountain ranges".
Shackleton christened this glacier the "Beardmore" after the expedition's biggest sponsor. Travel on the glacier surface proved to be a trial, especially for Socks, the remaining pony, who had great difficulty in finding secure footings. On 7 December, Socks disappeared down a deep crevasse, very nearly taking Wild with him. However, the pony's harness broke, and the sledge containing their supplies remained on the surface. For the rest of the southward journey and the whole of the return trip they had to rely on man-hauling.
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep". Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking". However, Christmas Day was celebrated with crème de menthe and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still 249 nautical miles (461 km; 287 mi) from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey. They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food. However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.
On Boxing Day the glacier ascent was at last completed, and the march on the polar plateau began. Conditions did not ease; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the "hardest day we have had". On the next day he noted that, having attained 87° 6½′ S, they had beaten North and South polar records. That day, referring to Marshall and Adams, Wild wrote: "if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [the Pole] easily." On 4 January 1909, Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them, and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole. The party struggled on, at the borders of survival, until on 9 January 1909, after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment, the march ended. "We have shot our bolt", wrote Shackleton, "and the tale is 88° 23' S". They were 97.5 geographical miles from the South Pole. The British flag was duly planted, and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII.[f]
The party turned for home after 73 days' southward travel. Rations had been cut several times to extend the return journey time beyond the original 110-day estimate. Shackleton now aimed to reach Hut Point in 50 days, since according to Shackleton's prior orders Nimrod, having returned to take the expedition home, would depart on 1 March at the latest. The four men were now much weakened, yet in the following days they achieved impressive distances, reaching the head of the glacier on 19 January. As they began the descent they had five days' food at half rations, to last them until the Lower Glacier depot; during the ascent the same distance had taken 12 days. Shackleton's physical condition was by now a major concern, yet according to Adams "the worse he felt, the harder he pulled".
The depot was reached on 28 January. Wild, ill with dysentery, was unable to pull or to eat anything but biscuits, which were in short supply. On 31 January Shackleton forced his own breakfast biscuit on Wild, a gesture that moved Wild to write: "BY GOD I shall never forget. Thousands of pounds would not have bought that one biscuit". A few days later, the rest of the party were struck with severe enteritis, the result of eating tainted pony-meat. But the pace of march had to be maintained; the small amounts of food carried between depots would make any delay fatal. However, a strong wind behind them enabled them to set a sail on the sledge and maintain a good marching rate.
"We are so thin that our bones ache as we lie on the hard snow", wrote Shackleton. From 18 February onward they began to pick up familiar landmarks, and on the 23rd they reached Bluff Depot, which to their great relief had been copiously resupplied by Ernest Joyce. The range of delicacies over and above the crates of regular supplies was listed by Shackleton: "Carlsbad plums, eggs, cakes, plum pudding, gingerbread and crystallised fruit". Wild's laconic comment was "Good old Joyce".
Their food worries were now resolved, but they still had to get back to Hut Point before the 1 March deadline. The final leg of their march was interrupted by a blizzard, which held them in camp for 24 hours. On 27 February, when they were still 33 nautical miles (61 km; 38 mi) from safety, Marshall collapsed. Shackleton then decided that he and Wild would make a dash for Hut Point in hopes of finding the ship and holding her until the other two could be rescued. They reached the hut late on 28 February. Hoping that the ship was nearby, they sought to attract its attention by setting fire to a small wooden hut used for magnetic observations. Shortly afterwards Nimrod, which had been anchored at the Glacier Tongue, came into view: "No happier sight ever met the eyes of man", wrote Wild later. It was a further three days before Adams and Marshall could be picked up from the Barrier, but by 4 March the whole southern party was aboard and Shackleton was able to order full steam towards the north.
While preparing for his southern journey, Shackleton gave instructions to Edgeworth David to lead a Northern party to Victoria Land to carry out magnetic and geological work. The party was to try to reach the Magnetic Pole, and was to carry out a full geological survey in the Dry Valley area.[g] David's party consisted of himself, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay. It would be a man-hauling party; the dogs remained at base to be used for depot-laying and other routine work. The party had orders to plant the Union Jack at the Magnetic Pole and to take possession of Victoria Land for the British Empire. After several days' preparatory work, they started out on 5 October 1908, drawn for the first few miles by the motor car.
Due to sea ice conditions and adverse weather, progress was initially very slow. By the end of October they had crossed McMurdo Sound and advanced 60 miles (100 km) up the difficult Victoria Land coast, at which point they decided to concentrate all their efforts on reaching the Magnetic Pole. After traversing the Nordenskjold Ice Tongue and the treacherous Drygalski Glacier they were finally able to leave the coast and turn north-west, towards the Magnetic Pole's approximate location. Before then, David had a narrow escape after falling into a crevasse but was rescued by Mawson.
Their way up to the inland plateau was via a labyrinthine glacier (later named the Reeves Glacier after the Royal Geographical Society's main map curator), which brought them on 27 December to a hard snow surface. This enabled them to move more swiftly, at a rate of about 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) daily, taking regular magnetic observations. On 16 January, these observations showed them to be about 13 nautical miles (24 km; 15 mi) from the Magnetic Pole. The next day, 17 January 1909, they reached their goal, fixing the pole's position as 72° 15' S, 155° 16' E, at an elevation of 7,260 feet (2,210 m). In a muted ceremony, David took formal possession of the area for the British Empire.
Exhausted, and short of food, the party faced a return journey of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), with just 15 days to complete it if they were to make their prearranged coastal rendezvous with Nimrod. Despite increasing physical weakness they maintained their daily distances, and on 31 January were 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi) from their agreed pick-up point. Bad weather delayed them, and the rendezvous was not reached until 2 February. That night, in heavy drifting snow, Nimrod passed by them, unable to make out their camp. Two days later, however, after Nimrod had turned south again, the group was spotted from the ship and was able to scramble to safety, although in the rush to get aboard Mawson fell 18 feet (5.5 m) down a crevasse. The party had been travelling for four months and were wearing the same clothes in which they had departed Cape Royds; reportedly "the aroma was overpowering". Before this rescue, Nimrod had picked up a geological party consisting of Priestley, Brocklehurst and de:Bertram Armytage, who had been carrying out geological work in the Ferrar Glacier region.
On 23 March 1909, Shackleton landed in New Zealand and cabled a 2,500-word report to the London Daily Mail, with which he had an exclusive contract. Amid the acclamation and unstinting praise that Shackleton received from the exploring community, including Nansen and Amundsen, the response of the Royal Geographical Society was more guarded. Its former president, Sir Clements Markham, privately expressed his disbelief of Shackleton's claimed latitude. However, on 14 June, Shackleton was met at London's Charing Cross Station by a very large crowd, which included RGS president Leonard Darwin and a rather reluctant Captain Scott.
As to the latitude claimed, the reason for doubting its accuracy was that after 3 January all positions had been computed by dead reckoning: on direction, speed and elapsed time. The last proper observation, on 3 January had calculated the latitude as 87° 22'. Shackleton's table of distances show that over the next three days they covered just over 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi), to reach an estimated 88° 7' on 6 January. They were then held up for two days by a blizzard. On 9 January 1909, the table shows that the party travelled a further 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi) to reach their farthest south, and the same distance back to camp. This distance in a single day far exceeded those for any other stage of the journey. Shackleton explained that this was a dash, "half running, half walking", unencumbered by the sledge or other equipment. Each of the four men independently confirmed his belief in the latitude achieved, and none gave any subsequent cause for his word to be doubted.
Shackleton was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) by King Edward, who later conferred a knighthood on him. The RGS presented him with a gold medal, although apparently with reservations—"We do not propose to make the Medal so large as that which was awarded to Captain Scott", recorded an official. Although in the eyes of the public he was a hero, the riches that Shackleton had anticipated failed to materialise. The soaring costs of the expedition and the need to meet loan guarantees meant that he was saved from financial embarrassment only by a belated government grant of £20,000.
The farthest south record of the Nimrod Expedition stood for less than three years, until Amundsen reached the South Pole on 15 December 1911. For his trail-breaking achievements, Shackleton received a fulsome tribute from Amundsen: "What Nansen is to the North, Shackleton is to the South". Thereafter, Shackleton's Antarctic ambitions were fixed on a transcontinental crossing, which he attempted unsuccessfully with the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17, although his status as a leading figure in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was by then assured. Other members of the Nimrod Expedition also achieved fame and standing in future years. Edgeworth David, Adams, Mawson and Priestley all eventually received knighthoods, the latter two continuing their polar work on further expeditions, though neither went south again with Shackleton. Mawson led the 1911–13 Australian Antarctic Expedition, and Priestley was part of the Terra Nova Expedition's scientific team. Frank Wild was second-in-command to the "Boss" on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition and on the short Quest Expedition where he took over command after Shackleton's death in South Georgia in 1922. Ten years after her return from the Antarctic, Nimrod was battered to pieces in the North Sea, after running aground on the Barber Sands off the Norfolk (UK) coast on 31 January 1919. Only two of her 12-person crew survived.
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind at Cape Royds in 1909 were recovered in 2010, for analysis by a distilling company. A revival of the vintage (and since lost) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which discovered the lost spirits.
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0.5173116922378... | 1 | The Nimrod Expedition of 1907–09, otherwise known as the British Antarctic Expedition, was the first of three expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton. Its main target, among a range of geographical and scientific objectives, was to be first to the South Pole. This was not attained, but the expedition's southern march reached a Farthest South latitude of 88° 23' S, just 97.5 nautical miles (180.6 km; 112.2 mi) from the pole. This was by far the longest southern polar journey to that date and a record convergence on either Pole.[a] A separate group led by Welsh Australian geology professor Edgeworth David reached the estimated location of the South Magnetic Pole, and the expedition also achieved the first ascent of Mount Erebus, Antarctica's second highest volcano.
The expedition lacked governmental or institutional support, and relied on private loans and individual contributions. It was beset by financial problems and its preparations were hurried. Its ship, Nimrod, was less than half of the size of Robert Falcon Scott's 1901–04 expedition ship Discovery, and Shackleton's crew lacked relevant experience. Controversy arose from Shackleton's decision to base the expedition in McMurdo Sound, close to Scott's old headquarters, in contravention of a promise to Scott that he would not do so. Nevertheless, although the expedition's profile was initially much lower than that of Scott's six years earlier, its achievements attracted nationwide interest and made Shackleton a public hero. The scientific team, which included the future Australasian Antarctic Expedition leader Douglas Mawson, carried out extensive geological, zoological and meteorological work. Shackleton's transport arrangements, based on Manchurian ponies, motor traction, and sled dogs, were innovations which, despite limited success, were later copied by Scott for his ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition.
On his return, Shackleton overcame the Royal Geographical Society's initial scepticism about his achievements and received many public honours, including a knighthood from King Edward VII. He made little financial gain from the expedition and eventually depended on a government grant to cover its liabilities. Within three years his southernmost record had been surpassed, as first Amundsen and then Scott reached the South Pole. In his own moment of triumph, Amundsen nevertheless observed: "Sir Ernest Shackleton's name will always be written in the annals of Antarctic exploration in letters of fire".
Shackleton had been a junior officer on Scott's first Antarctic expedition in the Discovery. He had been sent home on the relief ship Morning in 1903, after a physical collapse during the expedition's main southern journey.[b] Scott's verdict was that he "ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health". Shackleton felt this physical failure as a personal stigma, and on his return to England he was determined to prove himself, in the words of Discovery's second-in command Albert Armitage, as "a better man than Scott". He nevertheless declined the opportunity of a swift Antarctic return as chief officer of Discovery's second relief ship Terra Nova, after helping to fit her out; he also helped to equip Uruguay, the ship being prepared for the relief of Otto Nordenskjold's expedition, stranded in the Weddell Sea. During the next few years, while nursing intermittent hopes of resuming his Antarctic career, he pursued other options. In 1906 he was working for the industrial magnate Sir William Beardmore as a public relations officer.
According to his biographer Roland Huntford, the references to Shackleton's physical breakdown made in Scott's The Voyage of the Discovery, published in 1905, reopened the wounds to Shackleton's pride. It became a personal mission that he should return to the Antarctic and outperform Scott. He began looking for potential backers for an expedition of his own; his initial plans appear in an unpublished document dated early 1906. These include a cost estimate of £17,000 (updated value £1,770,000) for the entire expedition. He received his first promise of financial backing when early in 1907 his employer, Beardmore, offered a £7,000 loan guarantee (updated value £730,000). With this in hand, Shackleton felt confident enough to announce his intentions to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS) on 12 February 1907. One reason for Shackleton's sense of urgency was the knowledge that the Polish explorer Henryk Arctowski was planning an expedition, which was announced at the RGS on the same day as Shackleton's. In the event, Arctowski's plans were stillborn.
Shackleton's original unpublished plan envisaged basing himself at the old Discovery Expedition headquarters in McMurdo Sound. From there he proposed to launch attempts to reach the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. Other journeys would follow, and there would be a continuous programme of scientific work. This early plan also revealed Shackleton's proposed transport methods, involving a combination of dogs, ponies and a specially designed motor vehicle.
Neither ponies nor motor traction had been used in the Antarctic before, although ponies had been used by Frederick Jackson during the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition of 1894–97. Despite Jackson's confused reports of his ponies' prowess, and contrary to specific advice from Nansen, the renowned Norwegian polar traveller, Shackleton decided he would take 15 ponies, later scaled down to 10. By the time he announced his plans to the RGS in February 1907 Shackleton had revised his cost estimate to a more realistic £30,000 (updated value £3,120,000). However, the response of the RGS to Shackleton's proposals was muted; Shackleton would learn later that the Society was by this time aware of Scott's wish to lead a new expedition and that the Society wished to reserve its full approval for Scott.
Shackleton intended to arrive in Antarctica in January 1908, which meant leaving England during the 1907 summer. He therefore had six months to secure the financing, acquire and fit out a ship, buy all the equipment and supplies, and recruit the personnel. In April, believing that he had got the backing of Scottish businessman Donald Steuart, Shackleton travelled to Norway intending to buy a 700-ton polar vessel, Bjorn, that would have served ideally as an expedition ship. When Steuart withdrew his support, however, Bjorn was beyond Shackleton's means. Bjorn was eventually acquired by German explorer Wilhelm Filchner and, renamed Deutschland, was used in his 1911–13 voyage to the Weddell Sea. Shackleton had to settle for the elderly, much smaller Nimrod, a 40-year-old wooden sealer of 334 gross register tons,[c] which he was able to acquire for £5,000 (updated value £520,000).
Shackleton was shocked by his first sight of Nimrod after her arrival in London from Newfoundland in June 1907. "She was much dilapidated and smelt strongly of seal oil, and an inspection [...] showed that she needed caulking and that her masts would have to be renewed." However, in the hands of experienced ship-fitters she soon "assumed a more satisfactory appearance." Later, Shackleton reported, he became extremely proud of the sturdy little ship.
By early July 1907 Shackleton had secured little financial support beyond Beardmore's guarantee and was lacking the funds to complete the refit of the ship. In mid-July he approached the philanthropic Earl of Iveagh, otherwise known as Edward Guinness, head of the Anglo-Irish brewing family, who agreed to guarantee the sum of £2,000 (updated value £210,000) provided that Shackleton found other backers to contribute a further £6,000. Shackleton was able to do this, the extra funds including £2,000 from Sir Philip Brocklehurst, who paid this sum to secure a place on the expedition.
A last-minute gift of £4,000 from Shackleton's cousin William Bell still left the expedition far short of the required £30,000, but enabled Nimrod's refit to be finished. Fundraising continued in Australia after the ship arrived there; a further £5,000 was provided as a gift from the Government of Australia, and the New Zealand Government gave £1,000. By these means, and with other smaller loans and donations, the £30,000 was raised, although by the end of the expedition total costs had risen, by Shackleton's estimate, to £45,000.[d]
Shackleton expected to make large sums from his book about the expedition and from lectures. He also hoped to profit from sales of special postage stamps bearing the cancellation stamp of the Antarctica post office that Shackleton, appointed temporary postmaster by the New Zealand government, intended to establish there. None of these schemes produced the anticipated riches, although the post office was set up at Cape Royds and used as a conduit for the expedition's mail.[e]
Shackleton hoped to recruit a strong contingent from the Discovery Expedition and offered his former comrade Edward Wilson the post of chief scientist and second-in-command. Wilson refused, citing his work with the Board of Agriculture's Committee on the Investigation of Grouse Disease. Further refusals followed from former Discovery colleagues Michael Barne, Reginald Skelton and finally George Mulock, who inadvertently revealed to Shackleton that the Discovery officers had all committed themselves to Scott and his as yet unannounced expedition plans. The only Discovery hands to join Shackleton were the two Petty Officers, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce. Apparently Shackleton spotted Joyce on the top deck of a bus as it passed the expedition's London offices, whereupon someone was sent to find him and bring him in.
Shackleton's second-in-command—although this was not clarified until the expedition reached the Antarctic—was Jameson Boyd Adams, a Royal Naval Reserve lieutenant who had turned down the chance of a regular commission to join Shackleton. He would also act as the expedition's meteorologist. Nimrod's captain was another naval reserve officer, Rupert England; 23-year-old John King Davis, who would later make his own reputation as an Antarctic captain, was appointed chief officer at the last moment. Aeneas Mackintosh, a merchant navy officer from the P&O shipping line, was originally second officer, but was later transferred to the shore party, being replaced as second officer by A. E. Harbord. Others in the shore party were the two surgeons, Alistair Mackay and Eric Marshall, Bernard Day the motor expert, and Sir Philip Brocklehurst, the subscribing member who had been taken on as assistant geologist.
The small scientific team that departed from England included 41-year-old biologist James Murray and 21-year-old geologist Raymond Priestley, a future founder of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Two important additions to the team were made in Australia. The first of these was Edgeworth David, a professor of geology at the University of Sydney, who became the party's chief scientific officer. The second was a former pupil of David's, Douglas Mawson, a lecturer in mineralogy at the University of Adelaide. Both had originally intended to sail to Antarctica and then immediately back with Nimrod but were persuaded to become full members of the expedition. David was influential in securing the Australian government's £5,000 grant.
Before departure for the Antarctic in August 1907, Joyce and Wild took a crash course in printing methods, as it was Shackleton's intention to publish a book or magazine while in the Antarctic.
Shackleton's February 1907 announcement that he intended to base his expedition at the old Discovery headquarters was noted by Scott, whose own future Antarctic plans were at that stage unannounced. In a letter to Shackleton, Scott claimed priority rights to McMurdo Sound. "I feel I have a sort of right to my own field of work," he wrote, adding: "anyone who has had to do with exploration will regard this region primarily as mine". He concluded by reminding Shackleton of his duty of loyalty towards his former commander.
Shackleton's initial reply was accommodating: "I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself". Edward Wilson, asked by Shackleton to mediate, took an even tougher line than Scott. "I think you should retire from McMurdo Sound", he wrote, advising Shackleton not to make any plans to work from anywhere in the entire Ross Sea quarter until Scott decided "what limits he puts on his own rights". To this Shackleton replied: "There is no doubt in my mind that his rights end at the base he asked for [...] I consider I have reached my limit and I go no further".
The matter was unresolved when Scott returned from sea duty in May 1907. Scott pressed for a line of demarcation at 170° W—everything to the west of that line, including Ross Island, McMurdo Sound, and Victoria Land, would be Scott's preserve. Shackleton, with other concerns pressing on him, felt obliged to concede. On 17 May he signed a declaration stating that "I am leaving the McMurdo base to you", and that he would seek to land further east, either at the Barrier Inlet visited briefly during the Discovery Expedition, or at King Edward VII Land. He would not touch the coast of Victoria Land at all. It was a capitulation to Scott and Wilson, and meant forfeiting the expedition's aim of reaching the South Magnetic Pole which was located within Victoria Land. Polar historian Beau Riffenburgh believes this was "a promise that should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given, impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton's expedition". The dispute soured relations between the two men (who nevertheless maintained public civilities), and would eventually lead to the complete rupture of Shackleton's formerly close friendship with Wilson.
In his own account of the expedition Shackleton makes no reference to the wrangle with Scott. He merely states that "before we finally left England I had decided that if possible I would establish my base in King Edward VII Land instead of [...] McMurdo Sound".
After inspection by King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, Nimrod sailed on 11 August 1907. Shackleton remained behind on expedition business; he and other expedition members followed on a faster ship. The entire complement came together in New Zealand, ready for the ship's departure to Antarctica on New Year's Day, 1908. As a means of conserving fuel, Shackleton had arranged with the New Zealand government for Nimrod to be towed to the Antarctic circle, a distance of approximately 1,400 nautical miles (2,600 km; 1,600 mi), the costs of the tow being met partly by the government and partly by the Union Steam Ship Company as a contribution to the expedition. On 14 January, in sight of the first icebergs, the towline was cut; Nimrod, under her own power, proceeded southward into the floating pack ice, heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier Discovery had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights.
The Barrier (later known as the Ross Ice Shelf) was sighted on 23 January, but the inlet had disappeared; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years, and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay, which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales after the large number of whales seen there. Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might calve into the sea, so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land. After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed, and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship, Nimrod was forced to retreat. Shackleton's only choice now, other than abandonment of the expedition's goals, was to break the promise he had given to Scott. On 25 January he ordered the ship to head for McMurdo Sound.
On arriving in McMurdo Sound on 29 January 1908, Nimrod's progress southward to the Discovery base at Hut Point was blocked by frozen sea. Shackleton decided to wait a few days in the hope that the ice would break up. During this delay, second officer Aeneas Mackintosh suffered an accident that led to the loss of his right eye. After emergency surgery by Marshall and Mackay, he was forced to relinquish his shore party place and go back to New Zealand with Nimrod. He recovered sufficiently to return with the ship in the following season.
On 3 February Shackleton decided not to wait for the ice to shift but to make his headquarters at the nearest practicable landing place, Cape Royds. Late that evening the ship was moored, and a suitable site for the expedition's prefabricated hut was selected. The site was separated from Hut Point by 20 nautical miles (37 km; 23 mi) of sea, with no landward route to the south. Shackleton believed the party was "fortunate to get winter quarters as near as this to our starting point for the south."
The following days were occupied with the landing of stores and equipment. This work was hampered by poor weather and by the caution of Captain England, who frequently took the ship out into the bay until ice conditions at the landing ground were in his view safer. The next fortnight followed this pattern, leading to sharp dissent between Shackleton and the captain. At one point, Shackleton asked England to stand down on the grounds that he was ill, but England refused. The task of unloading became, in Riffenburgh's description, "mind-numbingly difficult" but was finally completed on 22 February. Nimrod at last sailed away north, England unaware that ship's engineer Harry Dunlop was carrying a letter from Shackleton to the expedition's New Zealand agent, requesting a replacement captain for the return voyage next year. This knowledge was an open secret among the shore party; Marshall recorded in his diary that he was "glad to see the last of [England] ... whole thing damned disgrace to name of country!"
After Nimrod's departure, the sea ice broke up, cutting off the party's route to the Barrier and thus making preparatory sledging and depot-laying impossible. Shackleton decided to give the expedition impetus by ordering an immediate attempt to ascend Mount Erebus.
This mountain, 12,450 feet (3,790 m) high, had never been climbed. A party from Discovery (which had included Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce) had explored the foothills in 1904 but had not ascended higher than 3,000 feet (910 m). Neither Wild nor Joyce was in the Nimrod Expedition's main Erebus party, which consisted of Edgeworth David, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay. With Marshall, Adams and Brocklehurst forming a support group, the ascent began on 5 March.
On 7 March the two groups combined at around 5,500 feet (1,700 m), and all advanced towards the summit. On the following day a blizzard held them up, but early on 9 March the climb resumed; later that day the summit of the lower, main crater, was achieved. By this time Brocklehurst's feet were too frostbitten for him to continue, so he was left in camp while the others advanced to the active crater, which they reached after four hours. Several meteorological experiments were carried out, and many rock samples were taken. Thereafter a rapid descent was made, mainly by sliding down successive snow-slopes. The party reached the Cape Royds hut "nearly dead", according to Eric Marshall, on 11 March.
The expedition's hut, a prefabricated structure measuring 33 x 19 feet (10m x 5.8m), was ready for occupation by the end of February. It was divided into a series of mainly two-person cubicles, with a kitchen area, a darkroom, storage and laboratory space. The ponies were housed in stalls built on the most sheltered side of the hut, while the dog kennels were placed close to the porch. Shackleton's inclusive leadership style, in contrast to that of Scott, meant no demarcation between upper and lower decks—all lived, worked and ate together. Morale was high; as assistant geologist Philip Brocklehurst recorded, Shackleton "had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it".
In the ensuing months of winter darkness Joyce and Wild printed around 30 copies of the expedition's book, Aurora Australis, which were sewn and bound using packaging materials. The most important winter's work, however, was preparing for the following season's major journeys, which were to include attempts on both the South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. By making his base in McMurdo Sound, Shackleton had been able to reinstate the Magnetic Pole as an expedition objective. Shackleton himself would be leading the South Pole journey, which had suffered a serious setback during the winter when four of the remaining ponies died, mainly from eating volcanic sand for its salt content.
Shackleton's choice of a four-man team for the southern journey to the South Pole was largely determined by the number of surviving ponies. Influenced by his experiences on the Discovery Expedition, he had put his confidence in ponies rather than dogs for the long polar march. The motor car, which ran well on flat ice, could not cope with Barrier surfaces and was not considered for the polar journey. The men chosen by Shackleton to accompany him were Marshall, Adams and Wild. Joyce, whose Antarctic experience exceeded all save Wild's, was excluded from the party after Marshall's medical examination raised doubts about his fitness.
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as 1,494 nautical miles (2,767 km; 1,719 mi). His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi). After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles. Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902. Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.
As the group moved into unknown territory, the Barrier surface became increasingly disturbed and broken; two more ponies succumbed to the strain. The mountains to the west curved round to block their path southward, and the party's attention was caught by a "brilliant gleam of light" in the sky ahead. The reason for this phenomenon became clear on 3 December when, after a climb through the foothills of the mountain chain, they saw before them what Shackleton later described as "an open road to the south, [...] a great glacier, running almost south to north between two huge mountain ranges".
Shackleton christened this glacier the "Beardmore" after the expedition's biggest sponsor. Travel on the glacier surface proved to be a trial, especially for Socks, the remaining pony, who had great difficulty in finding secure footings. On 7 December, Socks disappeared down a deep crevasse, very nearly taking Wild with him. However, the pony's harness broke, and the sledge containing their supplies remained on the surface. For the rest of the southward journey and the whole of the return trip they had to rely on man-hauling.
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep". Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking". However, Christmas Day was celebrated with crème de menthe and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still 249 nautical miles (461 km; 287 mi) from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey. They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food. However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.
On Boxing Day the glacier ascent was at last completed, and the march on the polar plateau began. Conditions did not ease; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the "hardest day we have had". On the next day he noted that, having attained 87° 6½′ S, they had beaten North and South polar records. That day, referring to Marshall and Adams, Wild wrote: "if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [the Pole] easily." On 4 January 1909, Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them, and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole. The party struggled on, at the borders of survival, until on 9 January 1909, after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment, the march ended. "We have shot our bolt", wrote Shackleton, "and the tale is 88° 23' S". They were 97.5 geographical miles from the South Pole. The British flag was duly planted, and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII.[f]
The party turned for home after 73 days' southward travel. Rations had been cut several times to extend the return journey time beyond the original 110-day estimate. Shackleton now aimed to reach Hut Point in 50 days, since according to Shackleton's prior orders Nimrod, having returned to take the expedition home, would depart on 1 March at the latest. The four men were now much weakened, yet in the following days they achieved impressive distances, reaching the head of the glacier on 19 January. As they began the descent they had five days' food at half rations, to last them until the Lower Glacier depot; during the ascent the same distance had taken 12 days. Shackleton's physical condition was by now a major concern, yet according to Adams "the worse he felt, the harder he pulled".
The depot was reached on 28 January. Wild, ill with dysentery, was unable to pull or to eat anything but biscuits, which were in short supply. On 31 January Shackleton forced his own breakfast biscuit on Wild, a gesture that moved Wild to write: "BY GOD I shall never forget. Thousands of pounds would not have bought that one biscuit". A few days later, the rest of the party were struck with severe enteritis, the result of eating tainted pony-meat. But the pace of march had to be maintained; the small amounts of food carried between depots would make any delay fatal. However, a strong wind behind them enabled them to set a sail on the sledge and maintain a good marching rate.
"We are so thin that our bones ache as we lie on the hard snow", wrote Shackleton. From 18 February onward they began to pick up familiar landmarks, and on the 23rd they reached Bluff Depot, which to their great relief had been copiously resupplied by Ernest Joyce. The range of delicacies over and above the crates of regular supplies was listed by Shackleton: "Carlsbad plums, eggs, cakes, plum pudding, gingerbread and crystallised fruit". Wild's laconic comment was "Good old Joyce".
Their food worries were now resolved, but they still had to get back to Hut Point before the 1 March deadline. The final leg of their march was interrupted by a blizzard, which held them in camp for 24 hours. On 27 February, when they were still 33 nautical miles (61 km; 38 mi) from safety, Marshall collapsed. Shackleton then decided that he and Wild would make a dash for Hut Point in hopes of finding the ship and holding her until the other two could be rescued. They reached the hut late on 28 February. Hoping that the ship was nearby, they sought to attract its attention by setting fire to a small wooden hut used for magnetic observations. Shortly afterwards Nimrod, which had been anchored at the Glacier Tongue, came into view: "No happier sight ever met the eyes of man", wrote Wild later. It was a further three days before Adams and Marshall could be picked up from the Barrier, but by 4 March the whole southern party was aboard and Shackleton was able to order full steam towards the north.
While preparing for his southern journey, Shackleton gave instructions to Edgeworth David to lead a Northern party to Victoria Land to carry out magnetic and geological work. The party was to try to reach the Magnetic Pole, and was to carry out a full geological survey in the Dry Valley area.[g] David's party consisted of himself, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay. It would be a man-hauling party; the dogs remained at base to be used for depot-laying and other routine work. The party had orders to plant the Union Jack at the Magnetic Pole and to take possession of Victoria Land for the British Empire. After several days' preparatory work, they started out on 5 October 1908, drawn for the first few miles by the motor car.
Due to sea ice conditions and adverse weather, progress was initially very slow. By the end of October they had crossed McMurdo Sound and advanced 60 miles (100 km) up the difficult Victoria Land coast, at which point they decided to concentrate all their efforts on reaching the Magnetic Pole. After traversing the Nordenskjold Ice Tongue and the treacherous Drygalski Glacier they were finally able to leave the coast and turn north-west, towards the Magnetic Pole's approximate location. Before then, David had a narrow escape after falling into a crevasse but was rescued by Mawson.
Their way up to the inland plateau was via a labyrinthine glacier (later named the Reeves Glacier after the Royal Geographical Society's main map curator), which brought them on 27 December to a hard snow surface. This enabled them to move more swiftly, at a rate of about 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) daily, taking regular magnetic observations. On 16 January, these observations showed them to be about 13 nautical miles (24 km; 15 mi) from the Magnetic Pole. The next day, 17 January 1909, they reached their goal, fixing the pole's position as 72° 15' S, 155° 16' E, at an elevation of 7,260 feet (2,210 m). In a muted ceremony, David took formal possession of the area for the British Empire.
Exhausted, and short of food, the party faced a return journey of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), with just 15 days to complete it if they were to make their prearranged coastal rendezvous with Nimrod. Despite increasing physical weakness they maintained their daily distances, and on 31 January were 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi) from their agreed pick-up point. Bad weather delayed them, and the rendezvous was not reached until 2 February. That night, in heavy drifting snow, Nimrod passed by them, unable to make out their camp. Two days later, however, after Nimrod had turned south again, the group was spotted from the ship and was able to scramble to safety, although in the rush to get aboard Mawson fell 18 feet (5.5 m) down a crevasse. The party had been travelling for four months and were wearing the same clothes in which they had departed Cape Royds; reportedly "the aroma was overpowering". Before this rescue, Nimrod had picked up a geological party consisting of Priestley, Brocklehurst and de:Bertram Armytage, who had been carrying out geological work in the Ferrar Glacier region.
On 23 March 1909, Shackleton landed in New Zealand and cabled a 2,500-word report to the London Daily Mail, with which he had an exclusive contract. Amid the acclamation and unstinting praise that Shackleton received from the exploring community, including Nansen and Amundsen, the response of the Royal Geographical Society was more guarded. Its former president, Sir Clements Markham, privately expressed his disbelief of Shackleton's claimed latitude. However, on 14 June, Shackleton was met at London's Charing Cross Station by a very large crowd, which included RGS president Leonard Darwin and a rather reluctant Captain Scott.
As to the latitude claimed, the reason for doubting its accuracy was that after 3 January all positions had been computed by dead reckoning: on direction, speed and elapsed time. The last proper observation, on 3 January had calculated the latitude as 87° 22'. Shackleton's table of distances show that over the next three days they covered just over 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi), to reach an estimated 88° 7' on 6 January. They were then held up for two days by a blizzard. On 9 January 1909, the table shows that the party travelled a further 16 nautical miles (30 km; 18 mi) to reach their farthest south, and the same distance back to camp. This distance in a single day far exceeded those for any other stage of the journey. Shackleton explained that this was a dash, "half running, half walking", unencumbered by the sledge or other equipment. Each of the four men independently confirmed his belief in the latitude achieved, and none gave any subsequent cause for his word to be doubted.
Shackleton was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) by King Edward, who later conferred a knighthood on him. The RGS presented him with a gold medal, although apparently with reservations—"We do not propose to make the Medal so large as that which was awarded to Captain Scott", recorded an official. Although in the eyes of the public he was a hero, the riches that Shackleton had anticipated failed to materialise. The soaring costs of the expedition and the need to meet loan guarantees meant that he was saved from financial embarrassment only by a belated government grant of £20,000.
The farthest south record of the Nimrod Expedition stood for less than three years, until Amundsen reached the South Pole on 15 December 1911. For his trail-breaking achievements, Shackleton received a fulsome tribute from Amundsen: "What Nansen is to the North, Shackleton is to the South". Thereafter, Shackleton's Antarctic ambitions were fixed on a transcontinental crossing, which he attempted unsuccessfully with the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17, although his status as a leading figure in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration was by then assured. Other members of the Nimrod Expedition also achieved fame and standing in future years. Edgeworth David, Adams, Mawson and Priestley all eventually received knighthoods, the latter two continuing their polar work on further expeditions, though neither went south again with Shackleton. Mawson led the 1911–13 Australian Antarctic Expedition, and Priestley was part of the Terra Nova Expedition's scientific team. Frank Wild was second-in-command to the "Boss" on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition and on the short Quest Expedition where he took over command after Shackleton's death in South Georgia in 1922. Ten years after her return from the Antarctic, Nimrod was battered to pieces in the North Sea, after running aground on the Barber Sands off the Norfolk (UK) coast on 31 January 1919. Only two of her 12-person crew survived.
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind at Cape Royds in 1909 were recovered in 2010, for analysis by a distilling company. A revival of the vintage (and since lost) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which discovered the lost spirits.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nimrod Expedition.| | 7,963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A ship’s Logbook, as opposed to a journal or diary, was the official record of a voyage. While a journal could be kept by any crew member, the Logbook was most often kept by the mate, or first officer. It was the official record of the ship’s voyage.
Logbooks recorded information that was of concern to the ship: speed, distance, course, wind, weather; and any events which may have had consequence on the voyage. Information was often collected on watch by the mate in charge, and the data recorded on the log slate or chalk board a the end of the “day” (a sea day being 12 noon to 12 noon). The first mate showed the information on the log slate to the master for any corrections or additions, after which he transcribed the data into the Logbook. The mate, in the process of transcription, was to note the master’s changes, if any. Should damage occur to the ship or cargo during the voyage, the Logbook would contain an accurate description of the events leading to the loss. The information would be of great value to the owners and to insurers when determining liabilities and settlements. Logbooks could also provide substantial evidence for any legal proceedings brought against the owners, officers, or crew members. However, despite the legal implications, Logbooks were rarely kept as meticulously during the first half of the 19th century as was outlined in such contemporary guides as the Shipmaster’s Assistant.
While there was no standard format for a ship’s Logbook, the example illustrated here was frequently used during the early 1800s. The titles of the various printed columns provided an accurate indication of the kinds of information recorded in these volumes. | <urn:uuid:8b083b04-d443-44bb-9838-765ef0234ad1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://research.mysticseaport.org/item/l006405/l006405-c025/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00328.warc.gz | en | 0.980888 | 353 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.2445966601371765... | 11 | A ship’s Logbook, as opposed to a journal or diary, was the official record of a voyage. While a journal could be kept by any crew member, the Logbook was most often kept by the mate, or first officer. It was the official record of the ship’s voyage.
Logbooks recorded information that was of concern to the ship: speed, distance, course, wind, weather; and any events which may have had consequence on the voyage. Information was often collected on watch by the mate in charge, and the data recorded on the log slate or chalk board a the end of the “day” (a sea day being 12 noon to 12 noon). The first mate showed the information on the log slate to the master for any corrections or additions, after which he transcribed the data into the Logbook. The mate, in the process of transcription, was to note the master’s changes, if any. Should damage occur to the ship or cargo during the voyage, the Logbook would contain an accurate description of the events leading to the loss. The information would be of great value to the owners and to insurers when determining liabilities and settlements. Logbooks could also provide substantial evidence for any legal proceedings brought against the owners, officers, or crew members. However, despite the legal implications, Logbooks were rarely kept as meticulously during the first half of the 19th century as was outlined in such contemporary guides as the Shipmaster’s Assistant.
While there was no standard format for a ship’s Logbook, the example illustrated here was frequently used during the early 1800s. The titles of the various printed columns provided an accurate indication of the kinds of information recorded in these volumes. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Kings of the Liberation
King Haakon VII of Norway was born at Charlottenlund Palace near Copenhagen on August 3rd in 1872 as Prince Carl; the son of Prince Frederik of Denmark and Princess Louise of Sweden. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch of the House of Oldenburg.
Prince Carl was raised in the Royal household in Copenhagen and took his education at the Royal Danish Naval Academy.
In 1896 Prince Carl married his first cousin Princess Maud of Wales at Buckingham Palace. She was the youngest daughter of the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and his wife, Princess Alexandra of Denmark.
On July 2nd in 1903 their only child Prince Alexander was born, the future King Olav V of Norway.
After the Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in June 1905, a committee of the Norwegian government started the search for a king to the newly independent nation. They decided to offer the throne to Prince Carl of Denmark, who was a direct descendent of the Old Norse kings. He asked for the holding of a referendum to show whether the monarchy was still the choice of the Norwegian people.
A 79 percent majority of the votes overwhelmingly confirmed that Prince Carl was desired as Norway’s new king and he was elected on November 18th in 1905. The same day he took the Old Norse name Haakon, which had been used by no less than six previous Norwegian kings. He also renamed his son Prince Alexander with the Old Norse name Olav.
King Haakon, Queen Maud and the two-year-old Prince Olav arrived in the Norwegian capital on the morning of November 25th in 1905.
Two days later, King Haakon took the oath as Norway's first independent king in 518 years. The coronation of the King and Queen took place in the Cathedral Nidarodomen in Trondheim on June 22nd in 1906.
King Haakon and Queen Maud became highly popular and gained much sympathy from the Norwegian people as they traveled extensively through their new country. He had a highly uniting effect on the population, and in 1927 he typically stated: “I am also the King of the Communists.”
In 1938 a tragedy hit the little family as Queen Maud died in London on November 20th after an operation due to cancer. The King was left alone to meet the dramatic events taking place around Europe initiated by the ever more powerful Nazi-Germany.
The Norwegian Royal Family is especially closely linked to the events of WWII. When Nazi troops invaded Norway on April 9th in 1940 the family was forced to flee the country, and came to came to play an immensely important role in the resistance movement.
It is hardly possible to exaggerate the impact King Haakon personally came to have on the historic events during WWII, from his threat to abdicate if his Government wished to cooperate with the Germans to his being a symbol and a uniting leader of the Norwegian resistance throughout the war.
The triple portrait The Kings of the Liberation was painted to Norway’s Resistance Museum at Akershus fortress at the occasion of the 70 years celebration of the liberation of Norway from Nazi occupation in 2015. The paintings were a gift from Samlerhuset and Norway’s Resistance Museum’s friends.
The documentary film The Kings of the Liberation tells the tale of the Royal Family’s role in WWII and sets Kolby’s portraits of King Haakon, King Olav and King Harald in a historic context.
The years after the liberation the King ruled a war-torn Norway with great challenges. His popularity now saw new heights, and in 1947 the people of Norway gave him the Royal Yacht Norway as a commemoration of his contribution during WWII.
After a fall at the Royal estate at Bygdoy in 1955 King Haakon was left using a wheelchair. His immobility and helplessness was said to depress him and to make him loose his customary involvement and interest in current events, and Crown Prince Olav took a more active role in state affairs.
King Haakon died on September 21st in 1957, and the Crown Prince succeeded as King Olav V. King Haakon and his Queen Maud rest in the white sarcophagus in the Royal Mausoleum at Akershus Fortress. | <urn:uuid:1cabedd5-fdd8-4b2c-bcb5-1ce4757e9b75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rosskolby.com/work/king-haakon-vii-of-norway | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.982896 | 901 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.12751603126525... | 8 | The Kings of the Liberation
King Haakon VII of Norway was born at Charlottenlund Palace near Copenhagen on August 3rd in 1872 as Prince Carl; the son of Prince Frederik of Denmark and Princess Louise of Sweden. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg branch of the House of Oldenburg.
Prince Carl was raised in the Royal household in Copenhagen and took his education at the Royal Danish Naval Academy.
In 1896 Prince Carl married his first cousin Princess Maud of Wales at Buckingham Palace. She was the youngest daughter of the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and his wife, Princess Alexandra of Denmark.
On July 2nd in 1903 their only child Prince Alexander was born, the future King Olav V of Norway.
After the Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in June 1905, a committee of the Norwegian government started the search for a king to the newly independent nation. They decided to offer the throne to Prince Carl of Denmark, who was a direct descendent of the Old Norse kings. He asked for the holding of a referendum to show whether the monarchy was still the choice of the Norwegian people.
A 79 percent majority of the votes overwhelmingly confirmed that Prince Carl was desired as Norway’s new king and he was elected on November 18th in 1905. The same day he took the Old Norse name Haakon, which had been used by no less than six previous Norwegian kings. He also renamed his son Prince Alexander with the Old Norse name Olav.
King Haakon, Queen Maud and the two-year-old Prince Olav arrived in the Norwegian capital on the morning of November 25th in 1905.
Two days later, King Haakon took the oath as Norway's first independent king in 518 years. The coronation of the King and Queen took place in the Cathedral Nidarodomen in Trondheim on June 22nd in 1906.
King Haakon and Queen Maud became highly popular and gained much sympathy from the Norwegian people as they traveled extensively through their new country. He had a highly uniting effect on the population, and in 1927 he typically stated: “I am also the King of the Communists.”
In 1938 a tragedy hit the little family as Queen Maud died in London on November 20th after an operation due to cancer. The King was left alone to meet the dramatic events taking place around Europe initiated by the ever more powerful Nazi-Germany.
The Norwegian Royal Family is especially closely linked to the events of WWII. When Nazi troops invaded Norway on April 9th in 1940 the family was forced to flee the country, and came to came to play an immensely important role in the resistance movement.
It is hardly possible to exaggerate the impact King Haakon personally came to have on the historic events during WWII, from his threat to abdicate if his Government wished to cooperate with the Germans to his being a symbol and a uniting leader of the Norwegian resistance throughout the war.
The triple portrait The Kings of the Liberation was painted to Norway’s Resistance Museum at Akershus fortress at the occasion of the 70 years celebration of the liberation of Norway from Nazi occupation in 2015. The paintings were a gift from Samlerhuset and Norway’s Resistance Museum’s friends.
The documentary film The Kings of the Liberation tells the tale of the Royal Family’s role in WWII and sets Kolby’s portraits of King Haakon, King Olav and King Harald in a historic context.
The years after the liberation the King ruled a war-torn Norway with great challenges. His popularity now saw new heights, and in 1947 the people of Norway gave him the Royal Yacht Norway as a commemoration of his contribution during WWII.
After a fall at the Royal estate at Bygdoy in 1955 King Haakon was left using a wheelchair. His immobility and helplessness was said to depress him and to make him loose his customary involvement and interest in current events, and Crown Prince Olav took a more active role in state affairs.
King Haakon died on September 21st in 1957, and the Crown Prince succeeded as King Olav V. King Haakon and his Queen Maud rest in the white sarcophagus in the Royal Mausoleum at Akershus Fortress. | 941 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first three years of the Peoples Republic of China were a time of momentous change that seemed to confirm that the intentions of the regime and aspirations of the mainly peasant population.
Mao started by introducing a 5 year plan to help turn China around, and help its industry recover from the long war that had affected it for so long. Mao focused on heavy industry, mainly steel and coal, as these would be the main materials needed to rebuild the areas destroyed by years of fighting. As a result, light industry was neglected, and towns and cities began to expand at a very fast rate. The first 5 year plan proved a great success for China.
In April 1950, Mao introduced a marriage law, ending some of the worst aspects of a woman’s life;
* Arranged Marriage
* The Marriage of children
* The killing of unwanted female babies
* Ownership of property became equal
* Divorce by mutual consent
For the first time in Chinas history, men and women were both treated as equals.
In June 1950 the “Agrarian reform law” was introduced. This meant that the rebuilding of “liberated” areas which had been bombed previously, and also the sharing of land which was taken from the old “landlords” and shared out between the peasants. Peasants were encouraged to join lower-stage cooperatives, where around 30 to 50 families shared all the tools and resources they had with everyone else, and the land they were given was on permanent loan to the cooperative. In more built up areas, people were encouraged to join higher stage cooperatives, where 200 to 300 families shared all they had with each other. The main difference from the lower stage cooperatives was that the higher stage cooperatives didn’t own the land they worked on, but instead they were paid a wage. By the end of 1956, 95 out of every 100 peasant families had joined a higher stage coop, and this meant that once again, the landed were now landless again.
By this stage, the communists had started to lose their early popularity, and as a result Mao proposed that the only way forward was to allow the people to have free speech and discussion; ‘A hundred flowers bloom’ to quote ancient Chinese philosophy. As the people had free speech, some revolutionists started to speak out against Mao and the communists, and it all started to hit too close to home. Some revolutionaries and critics were arrested and sent for “thought reform”, while others were sacked from their jobs.
Following the great success of the first 5 year plan Mao introduced a second known as “The Great Leap Forward”. This would see China surpass Britain and the US economically and this would be achieved “through the power of the masses who could accomplish any task whatsoever”.
To harness this potential the population would be organised into communes. These varied in size, but on average contained around 5000 families. As part of a Commune you gave up all your land, animals and equipment to common ownership. Communes were organised so that nothing could distract the people from their work. Communal eating halls were set up while children were put into nurseries and schools.
Communes controlled every aspect of a persons’ life, it was a unit of local government with party members and soldiers running schools, clinics, nurseries, eating halls, entertainments and other public services, while a party committee made sure that the commune followed all the parties’ decisions. This was then followed by a whole horde of party propaganda. Posters, slogans and newspaper articles urged the Chinese to work long hours, whatever the weather conditions.
The backyard steel campaign was of particular importance and seemed to highlight the success of the regime as production exceeded 11 million tonnes after 1958. Other industries also showed dramatic increases in their production. Coal, timber, cement and bumper harvests in cotton and grain were recorded.
However, this was a false dawn. Chaos began to reign ‘on a grand scale’. The backyard steel campaign in particular proved to be a complete disaster. The quality of the steel proved to be impure, fit only for scrap. Worse still, one in ten people were employed in the industry, which meant that there were not enough workers to man the fields resulting in failing harvests. Matters became even worse in 1959 – 60 when bad weather decimated the crops, resulting in the mass starvation of 9 million peasants in 1960 alone. Rationing was introduced, but it was too late. The Great Leap Forward was a huge disaster, responsible in no small part for the deaths of 20 million peasants between 1959 to 1963.
In conclusion, Mao began with all the right intentions for China, freeing its people from the harsh taxes and conditions of the KMT, but eventually he realised freeing the people and giving them the freedom of speech would have its repercussions. As a result, he became extremely controlling and eventually doing more ham than good to the people of China. | <urn:uuid:5419f27b-ea10-4fbd-b2af-2b61161bbdd9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/to-what-degree-did-conditions-improve-in-china/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.986611 | 1,024 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.1595327258110... | 4 | The first three years of the Peoples Republic of China were a time of momentous change that seemed to confirm that the intentions of the regime and aspirations of the mainly peasant population.
Mao started by introducing a 5 year plan to help turn China around, and help its industry recover from the long war that had affected it for so long. Mao focused on heavy industry, mainly steel and coal, as these would be the main materials needed to rebuild the areas destroyed by years of fighting. As a result, light industry was neglected, and towns and cities began to expand at a very fast rate. The first 5 year plan proved a great success for China.
In April 1950, Mao introduced a marriage law, ending some of the worst aspects of a woman’s life;
* Arranged Marriage
* The Marriage of children
* The killing of unwanted female babies
* Ownership of property became equal
* Divorce by mutual consent
For the first time in Chinas history, men and women were both treated as equals.
In June 1950 the “Agrarian reform law” was introduced. This meant that the rebuilding of “liberated” areas which had been bombed previously, and also the sharing of land which was taken from the old “landlords” and shared out between the peasants. Peasants were encouraged to join lower-stage cooperatives, where around 30 to 50 families shared all the tools and resources they had with everyone else, and the land they were given was on permanent loan to the cooperative. In more built up areas, people were encouraged to join higher stage cooperatives, where 200 to 300 families shared all they had with each other. The main difference from the lower stage cooperatives was that the higher stage cooperatives didn’t own the land they worked on, but instead they were paid a wage. By the end of 1956, 95 out of every 100 peasant families had joined a higher stage coop, and this meant that once again, the landed were now landless again.
By this stage, the communists had started to lose their early popularity, and as a result Mao proposed that the only way forward was to allow the people to have free speech and discussion; ‘A hundred flowers bloom’ to quote ancient Chinese philosophy. As the people had free speech, some revolutionists started to speak out against Mao and the communists, and it all started to hit too close to home. Some revolutionaries and critics were arrested and sent for “thought reform”, while others were sacked from their jobs.
Following the great success of the first 5 year plan Mao introduced a second known as “The Great Leap Forward”. This would see China surpass Britain and the US economically and this would be achieved “through the power of the masses who could accomplish any task whatsoever”.
To harness this potential the population would be organised into communes. These varied in size, but on average contained around 5000 families. As part of a Commune you gave up all your land, animals and equipment to common ownership. Communes were organised so that nothing could distract the people from their work. Communal eating halls were set up while children were put into nurseries and schools.
Communes controlled every aspect of a persons’ life, it was a unit of local government with party members and soldiers running schools, clinics, nurseries, eating halls, entertainments and other public services, while a party committee made sure that the commune followed all the parties’ decisions. This was then followed by a whole horde of party propaganda. Posters, slogans and newspaper articles urged the Chinese to work long hours, whatever the weather conditions.
The backyard steel campaign was of particular importance and seemed to highlight the success of the regime as production exceeded 11 million tonnes after 1958. Other industries also showed dramatic increases in their production. Coal, timber, cement and bumper harvests in cotton and grain were recorded.
However, this was a false dawn. Chaos began to reign ‘on a grand scale’. The backyard steel campaign in particular proved to be a complete disaster. The quality of the steel proved to be impure, fit only for scrap. Worse still, one in ten people were employed in the industry, which meant that there were not enough workers to man the fields resulting in failing harvests. Matters became even worse in 1959 – 60 when bad weather decimated the crops, resulting in the mass starvation of 9 million peasants in 1960 alone. Rationing was introduced, but it was too late. The Great Leap Forward was a huge disaster, responsible in no small part for the deaths of 20 million peasants between 1959 to 1963.
In conclusion, Mao began with all the right intentions for China, freeing its people from the harsh taxes and conditions of the KMT, but eventually he realised freeing the people and giving them the freedom of speech would have its repercussions. As a result, he became extremely controlling and eventually doing more ham than good to the people of China. | 1,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ernest J. Gaines once quoted in an interview, “There will always be men struggling to change, and there will always be those who are controlled by the past.” History shows that many African-Americans today are struggling for a change. In the poem “On the Origin of Things,” the author describes the changes that took place in African-American history. The author places a lot of emphasis on the importance of Black people. This statement challenge that Black people created the world we know today. I disagree with the author’s opinion because he suggests that all of the credibility, progress, and images of god that man created were because of Black people.
Nobody denies that that the world would not be the same without African-Americans. However, Black people cannot steal the credit for things that they did not do. For example, the ideas of implementing “Rock and Roll” into pop culture did originate from the ideas of African-Americans. Additionally, Elvis was criticized for stealing credit of inventing rock and roll. But, it was his talents that created recognition for the music style. Credibility is not reserved through one race. Instead, credibility is deserved by everyone, not just for one race.
Generally, America was made on the backs of slavery, especially the White House, into the ideal place it is today. When people hear the word slavery, it represents something negative. It is unlawful to force men into physical labors. In history, Africans were known to have once been Kings and Queens. In Egypt, pyramids were created by the white men who were slaves. However workers cannot build without blueprints to reference by. For example, there are many symbolic buildings that benefit the people today such as the White House. It was the government who supplies the blueprint in order to make buildings that will benefit mankind. In addition, people can say that buildings are the structures of the world’s economy. Without the proper buildings, organizations cannot be created, which would damage the business industry that would lead into a lot of chain reaction. Also, homes would not exist which would definitely jeopardize the safety of civilians. It wasn't just the backs of slavery that created America; it was also the intelligence of the people that created America.
Unquestionably, there are many gods known to mankind. Each people are entitled to their own beliefs. At first, the author describes the god that... | <urn:uuid:414a0a15-a6b7-49e3-bd1e-a2d459f3ef09> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/arguing-the-origins-of-things | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.985467 | 495 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.037772633135318... | 1 | Ernest J. Gaines once quoted in an interview, “There will always be men struggling to change, and there will always be those who are controlled by the past.” History shows that many African-Americans today are struggling for a change. In the poem “On the Origin of Things,” the author describes the changes that took place in African-American history. The author places a lot of emphasis on the importance of Black people. This statement challenge that Black people created the world we know today. I disagree with the author’s opinion because he suggests that all of the credibility, progress, and images of god that man created were because of Black people.
Nobody denies that that the world would not be the same without African-Americans. However, Black people cannot steal the credit for things that they did not do. For example, the ideas of implementing “Rock and Roll” into pop culture did originate from the ideas of African-Americans. Additionally, Elvis was criticized for stealing credit of inventing rock and roll. But, it was his talents that created recognition for the music style. Credibility is not reserved through one race. Instead, credibility is deserved by everyone, not just for one race.
Generally, America was made on the backs of slavery, especially the White House, into the ideal place it is today. When people hear the word slavery, it represents something negative. It is unlawful to force men into physical labors. In history, Africans were known to have once been Kings and Queens. In Egypt, pyramids were created by the white men who were slaves. However workers cannot build without blueprints to reference by. For example, there are many symbolic buildings that benefit the people today such as the White House. It was the government who supplies the blueprint in order to make buildings that will benefit mankind. In addition, people can say that buildings are the structures of the world’s economy. Without the proper buildings, organizations cannot be created, which would damage the business industry that would lead into a lot of chain reaction. Also, homes would not exist which would definitely jeopardize the safety of civilians. It wasn't just the backs of slavery that created America; it was also the intelligence of the people that created America.
Unquestionably, there are many gods known to mankind. Each people are entitled to their own beliefs. At first, the author describes the god that... | 474 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the Czech nation's most beloved sons, Jan Amos Comenius ( 1592-1670 is buried in Holland. This visionary religious leader, theologian, philosopher and educationist lived most of his life in exile, fleeing political and religious persecution in Europe. His last 14 years, among his most active and productive, were spent in Amsterdam "the most cherished among cities, the jewel of the Netherlands and the pride of Europe", where he hoped to realize his project for the betterment of humanity.
"We are all citizens of one world, we are all of one blood. To hate a man because he was born in another country, because he speaks a different language, or because he takes a different view on this subject or that, is a great folly."
During its golden age in the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was one of the wealthiest and most dynamic centres of Europe. The 1648 treaty of Westphalia had brought an end to Spanish supremacy in the Low Countries, but it had not been favourable to Comenius's native land. Bohemia was to remain under Habsburg domination for almost three centuries.
Comenius, also known as Komensky, was the bishop of a protestant Church, the Bohemian Brethren whose members had been were forced into exile when the Habsburgs imposed Catholicism on Bohemia. The Brethren were Calvinists and had many contacts with the Dutch Calvinist churches. In Dutch society however Comenius was better known as the author of language education textbooks. In his book Orbis Sensualium Pictus or "the visible world in pictures", he was one of the first to use images to teach Latin and sometimes two other vernacular languages. This was revolutionary at the time, along with his idea that all children, from both sexes and all social classes should be educated.
But education for Comenius should serve a yet greater aim: in order to achieve worldwide peace, all of mankind needed to be re-educated. From his canal house in Amsterdam, he set about compiling and rewriting his pedagogic works, with the support of the city council who gave him the key to the city's library, and his lifetime benefactor, a rich merchant cum arms dealer. Comenius had lost his personal library and many precious manuscripts in a fire before he fled from his previous place of exile in Poland. In Amsterdam, says Dr. Nicolette Mout, Professor of Modern European History at Leiden University, "he found the peace and time to work on what was to become his lasting contribution to philosophy and pedagogy alike".
His General Consultation for the Improvement of Mankind expounds his philosophical system, called pansophy, close to what we would call today "holism". Nicolette Mout: " Comenius thought that he could put all the knowledge, philosophy, theology, geography and history, into one system of knowledge. And that system would then be the basis for the re-education of mankind towards peace and brotherhood." Comenius hoped to set up in Amsterdam an international college of wise and learned men who would help bring about world peace. The Consultation remained unfinished. It was rediscovered and published only in the 20th century. Throughout his life, Comenius continued to believe that one day, he and his followers would return to their homeland. That might explain his strong belief in contemporary prophecies that announced the imminent end of the world. The many prophecies he published in Amsterdam were probably a great source of hope and comfort to his people, but they attracted virulent criticism from Dutch and foreign theologians alike.
Comenius believed that one of the sure signs that the end of the world was near would be that Muslims and Jews would convert to Christianity. So he started an unusual project to translate the bible into Turkish.
Comenius was so enthusiastic about this idea of having the bible translated into Turkish and then seeing all the Turks convert to Christianity, that he wrote an introduction long before the translation was finish. Dutch historian Nicolette Mout: "he emphasized the fact that since Muslims worshiped the same god as the Christians it would be very easy for them to convert. Their souls would be saved, so why not become Christians now that the end of the world was at hand? Of course the Christian religion in his view was the best, the only true, but he thought that for Jews and Muslims it would be so much better, he was terribly well meaning. He did have a certain understanding of the Islam, very biased, but nevertheless he was one of the few people who were interested in Islam at the time."
There might have been political considerations as well. The Turks were the enemies of the Catholic Habsburgs who occupied Bohemia. Nicolette Mout: "so by getting friendly with the Turks, Comenius also hoped for Turkish political support, maybe even military support, in order to free his homeland from the Habsburgs."
At the time the Turks were seen as the enemies of Christendom. The Turkish Sultan had conquered and occupied part of Europe in the Balkans, "so it was quite unusual for somebody like Comenius to write about the Turks in such a friendly way. Comenius really wanted to get through to them, to communicate and impress them with the idea that they had to convert to Christianity because in this way they would also contribute to world peace." If the Turks were converted, Comenius believed, world peace would be much nearer.
Because he felt the end of times was imminent, Comenius wanted the bible translated as quickly as possible. For this, he is believed to have received financial support from his Dutch benefactor Laurence de Geer. The translation made in Istanbul under the supervision of the Dutch Republic's learned ambassador in Istanbul was completed in 1659 but was never published. According to Hannah Neudecker, author of a thesis on the subject, there were probably earlier attempts but the translation commissioned by Comenius is the earliest translation still existing. The manuscripts kept at the Leiden University library are valuable documents for the study of the Turkish language as it was used in the Ottoman Empire during the 17th century.
Even at the end of his life, this eternal optimist and untiring apostle of world peace tried to mediate in negotiations between two archenemies: the English and the Dutch. He attended the Breda peace conference where he presented his book "the angels of peace" and called on both countries to stop fighting for supremacy in world commerce. The war continued.
In his last autobiographical works, Unum Necessarium (The Single Need), Comenius says farewell to Amsterdam, where had enjoyed the freedom to think, write and publish his works. "It is a pious, endearing text written by a resigned old man, " says Dr. Johannes Sturm, a Dutch historian of education. " He had been fighting so hard for his nation and for a better world, but in the end he had to admit that well, I didn't accomplish very much. To me Comenius is a tragic figure. What is left at the end of his long life is the conviction that the only thing that matters is faith and peace at heart. "
Comenius was put to rest in 1670 in Naarden, a small fortress town not far from Amsterdam. When Bohemia finally gained independence in the early 20th century, he emerged as national hero and his grave became an important place of pilgrimage for Czechs. During the communist regime, those who could make the trip to Naarden, some 1000 km from Prague, often wept at his grave, now a symbol of hope.
After the 1989 velvet revolution, among the first to lay a wreath at his grave were Alexander Dubcek and Vaclav Havel, the first president of a country that was free, at last.
Jana Ciglerová: Americans say their lives are fantastic, Czechs say everything is terrible – neither is true
“There is good, better and then there is the USSR.” – New book depicts life in communist Czechoslovakia through memories of people who experienced it
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
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0.38719192147254944,... | 1 | One of the Czech nation's most beloved sons, Jan Amos Comenius ( 1592-1670 is buried in Holland. This visionary religious leader, theologian, philosopher and educationist lived most of his life in exile, fleeing political and religious persecution in Europe. His last 14 years, among his most active and productive, were spent in Amsterdam "the most cherished among cities, the jewel of the Netherlands and the pride of Europe", where he hoped to realize his project for the betterment of humanity.
"We are all citizens of one world, we are all of one blood. To hate a man because he was born in another country, because he speaks a different language, or because he takes a different view on this subject or that, is a great folly."
During its golden age in the 17th century, the Dutch Republic was one of the wealthiest and most dynamic centres of Europe. The 1648 treaty of Westphalia had brought an end to Spanish supremacy in the Low Countries, but it had not been favourable to Comenius's native land. Bohemia was to remain under Habsburg domination for almost three centuries.
Comenius, also known as Komensky, was the bishop of a protestant Church, the Bohemian Brethren whose members had been were forced into exile when the Habsburgs imposed Catholicism on Bohemia. The Brethren were Calvinists and had many contacts with the Dutch Calvinist churches. In Dutch society however Comenius was better known as the author of language education textbooks. In his book Orbis Sensualium Pictus or "the visible world in pictures", he was one of the first to use images to teach Latin and sometimes two other vernacular languages. This was revolutionary at the time, along with his idea that all children, from both sexes and all social classes should be educated.
But education for Comenius should serve a yet greater aim: in order to achieve worldwide peace, all of mankind needed to be re-educated. From his canal house in Amsterdam, he set about compiling and rewriting his pedagogic works, with the support of the city council who gave him the key to the city's library, and his lifetime benefactor, a rich merchant cum arms dealer. Comenius had lost his personal library and many precious manuscripts in a fire before he fled from his previous place of exile in Poland. In Amsterdam, says Dr. Nicolette Mout, Professor of Modern European History at Leiden University, "he found the peace and time to work on what was to become his lasting contribution to philosophy and pedagogy alike".
His General Consultation for the Improvement of Mankind expounds his philosophical system, called pansophy, close to what we would call today "holism". Nicolette Mout: " Comenius thought that he could put all the knowledge, philosophy, theology, geography and history, into one system of knowledge. And that system would then be the basis for the re-education of mankind towards peace and brotherhood." Comenius hoped to set up in Amsterdam an international college of wise and learned men who would help bring about world peace. The Consultation remained unfinished. It was rediscovered and published only in the 20th century. Throughout his life, Comenius continued to believe that one day, he and his followers would return to their homeland. That might explain his strong belief in contemporary prophecies that announced the imminent end of the world. The many prophecies he published in Amsterdam were probably a great source of hope and comfort to his people, but they attracted virulent criticism from Dutch and foreign theologians alike.
Comenius believed that one of the sure signs that the end of the world was near would be that Muslims and Jews would convert to Christianity. So he started an unusual project to translate the bible into Turkish.
Comenius was so enthusiastic about this idea of having the bible translated into Turkish and then seeing all the Turks convert to Christianity, that he wrote an introduction long before the translation was finish. Dutch historian Nicolette Mout: "he emphasized the fact that since Muslims worshiped the same god as the Christians it would be very easy for them to convert. Their souls would be saved, so why not become Christians now that the end of the world was at hand? Of course the Christian religion in his view was the best, the only true, but he thought that for Jews and Muslims it would be so much better, he was terribly well meaning. He did have a certain understanding of the Islam, very biased, but nevertheless he was one of the few people who were interested in Islam at the time."
There might have been political considerations as well. The Turks were the enemies of the Catholic Habsburgs who occupied Bohemia. Nicolette Mout: "so by getting friendly with the Turks, Comenius also hoped for Turkish political support, maybe even military support, in order to free his homeland from the Habsburgs."
At the time the Turks were seen as the enemies of Christendom. The Turkish Sultan had conquered and occupied part of Europe in the Balkans, "so it was quite unusual for somebody like Comenius to write about the Turks in such a friendly way. Comenius really wanted to get through to them, to communicate and impress them with the idea that they had to convert to Christianity because in this way they would also contribute to world peace." If the Turks were converted, Comenius believed, world peace would be much nearer.
Because he felt the end of times was imminent, Comenius wanted the bible translated as quickly as possible. For this, he is believed to have received financial support from his Dutch benefactor Laurence de Geer. The translation made in Istanbul under the supervision of the Dutch Republic's learned ambassador in Istanbul was completed in 1659 but was never published. According to Hannah Neudecker, author of a thesis on the subject, there were probably earlier attempts but the translation commissioned by Comenius is the earliest translation still existing. The manuscripts kept at the Leiden University library are valuable documents for the study of the Turkish language as it was used in the Ottoman Empire during the 17th century.
Even at the end of his life, this eternal optimist and untiring apostle of world peace tried to mediate in negotiations between two archenemies: the English and the Dutch. He attended the Breda peace conference where he presented his book "the angels of peace" and called on both countries to stop fighting for supremacy in world commerce. The war continued.
In his last autobiographical works, Unum Necessarium (The Single Need), Comenius says farewell to Amsterdam, where had enjoyed the freedom to think, write and publish his works. "It is a pious, endearing text written by a resigned old man, " says Dr. Johannes Sturm, a Dutch historian of education. " He had been fighting so hard for his nation and for a better world, but in the end he had to admit that well, I didn't accomplish very much. To me Comenius is a tragic figure. What is left at the end of his long life is the conviction that the only thing that matters is faith and peace at heart. "
Comenius was put to rest in 1670 in Naarden, a small fortress town not far from Amsterdam. When Bohemia finally gained independence in the early 20th century, he emerged as national hero and his grave became an important place of pilgrimage for Czechs. During the communist regime, those who could make the trip to Naarden, some 1000 km from Prague, often wept at his grave, now a symbol of hope.
After the 1989 velvet revolution, among the first to lay a wreath at his grave were Alexander Dubcek and Vaclav Havel, the first president of a country that was free, at last.
Jana Ciglerová: Americans say their lives are fantastic, Czechs say everything is terrible – neither is true
“There is good, better and then there is the USSR.” – New book depicts life in communist Czechoslovakia through memories of people who experienced it
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
Screenshot: a hybrid English-friendly Prague art-house cinema where screenings are events | 1,737 | ENGLISH | 1 |
February 20, 2014
E V Ramaswami
Erode Venkata Ramaswami was born in 1867 in Erode, Tamil Nadu. He father was a successful businessman. He belonged to Naiker caste, which is upper layer of Sudras. He was an Indian independence activist, politician and businessman, who started the Self-Respect Movement, formation of Independent state called Dravida Nadu, comprising the states of South India. He is also the founder of the socio-cultural organisation, Dravidar Kazhagam. Ramaswami was known as ‘Periyer’ or the great one because of his excellent speeches and essays. He took stands in favor of atheism, women’s rights and contraception. He disliked Brahmins because he thought they were misusing their high social ranks. Ramaswami wrote critically about Brahmins, his writing were targeted to Brahmin priests as he thought they were corrupt and shrewd. In 1920 he joined congress party. He promoted the use of Khadi, which was the homespun cloth, boycotting foreign goods, temple eradicating untouchables. However, he left the congress because he felt the party had the leadership of Brahmins which discriminated lower caste that lead to what he called ‘self-respect’. Self-respect movement was to influence and pressurize government to remove social inequality. Ramaswami believed that north India dominated the south India, and Brahmins dominated non-Brahmins. Oppressed castes needed self-respect and equal rights. He also wrote political magazines which promoted his ideas and was widely read. In 1944, he formed his own party, Dravidar Kazhagam. His group asked for a separate and independent state in south India to be called Dravida Nadu.
There are two speeches on religion deception. Ramaswami disliked Brahmins because in his view they were getting all advantages of Hindu religion and other castes were working under them and following their orders . Moreover, other castes were also being discriminated by Brahmins. Ramaswami also stated that Brahmins were the ones who are ruining our (India’s) society in the name of society. Religion was a fraud and we were being its permanent slaves. Ramaswami also says what does language have to do with religion? Every person speaks different language and if the holy book was written in a specific language he finds it a flawed religion. He states that there no such thing as religions, so called Gods are making the people slaves. In his second excerpt Ramaswami notes that politics is not a path of freedom because it involved religion. In his view religion was originated by people and the aim of religion was to have peace and not harm one another. Eventually, it was greed and desires and politics bended the religion to their own good and got a new religion. Ramaswami also notes that Hindu’s know very little about their religion compared to others. Hindu’s spent a lot of money on the name of religion, they spent money on pilgrimages, rituals, and even after death. He thinks that all the money Hindu’s spent on religion is a waste. Ramaswami also wrote about remarrying widows. He supported widows rights and their remarriage. He said if men can marry again in their old age then women especially young girls also have the right to remarry. Ramaswami was also against widow discrimination. He actively participated and supported young widows. His niece was a young widow and Ramaswami helped his niece… | <urn:uuid:550b9931-36bd-4531-aeb8-b8560e41806b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Marriage-And-Ramaswami-Erode-Venkata-577949.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.991496 | 750 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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E V Ramaswami
Erode Venkata Ramaswami was born in 1867 in Erode, Tamil Nadu. He father was a successful businessman. He belonged to Naiker caste, which is upper layer of Sudras. He was an Indian independence activist, politician and businessman, who started the Self-Respect Movement, formation of Independent state called Dravida Nadu, comprising the states of South India. He is also the founder of the socio-cultural organisation, Dravidar Kazhagam. Ramaswami was known as ‘Periyer’ or the great one because of his excellent speeches and essays. He took stands in favor of atheism, women’s rights and contraception. He disliked Brahmins because he thought they were misusing their high social ranks. Ramaswami wrote critically about Brahmins, his writing were targeted to Brahmin priests as he thought they were corrupt and shrewd. In 1920 he joined congress party. He promoted the use of Khadi, which was the homespun cloth, boycotting foreign goods, temple eradicating untouchables. However, he left the congress because he felt the party had the leadership of Brahmins which discriminated lower caste that lead to what he called ‘self-respect’. Self-respect movement was to influence and pressurize government to remove social inequality. Ramaswami believed that north India dominated the south India, and Brahmins dominated non-Brahmins. Oppressed castes needed self-respect and equal rights. He also wrote political magazines which promoted his ideas and was widely read. In 1944, he formed his own party, Dravidar Kazhagam. His group asked for a separate and independent state in south India to be called Dravida Nadu.
There are two speeches on religion deception. Ramaswami disliked Brahmins because in his view they were getting all advantages of Hindu religion and other castes were working under them and following their orders . Moreover, other castes were also being discriminated by Brahmins. Ramaswami also stated that Brahmins were the ones who are ruining our (India’s) society in the name of society. Religion was a fraud and we were being its permanent slaves. Ramaswami also says what does language have to do with religion? Every person speaks different language and if the holy book was written in a specific language he finds it a flawed religion. He states that there no such thing as religions, so called Gods are making the people slaves. In his second excerpt Ramaswami notes that politics is not a path of freedom because it involved religion. In his view religion was originated by people and the aim of religion was to have peace and not harm one another. Eventually, it was greed and desires and politics bended the religion to their own good and got a new religion. Ramaswami also notes that Hindu’s know very little about their religion compared to others. Hindu’s spent a lot of money on the name of religion, they spent money on pilgrimages, rituals, and even after death. He thinks that all the money Hindu’s spent on religion is a waste. Ramaswami also wrote about remarrying widows. He supported widows rights and their remarriage. He said if men can marry again in their old age then women especially young girls also have the right to remarry. Ramaswami was also against widow discrimination. He actively participated and supported young widows. His niece was a young widow and Ramaswami helped his niece… | 745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Compiled By Markson Omagor
Date: December 12, 2008
Source: Newcastle University
A study of hundreds of years of family trees suggests a man’s genes play a role in him having sons or daughters. Men inherit a tendency to have more sons or more daughters from their parents. This means that a man with many brothers is more likely to have sons, while a man with many sisters is more likely to have daughters.
A Newcastle University study involving thousands of families is helping prospective parents work out whether they are likely to have sons or daughters.
The work by Corry Gellatly, a research scientist at the university, has shown that men inherit a tendency to have more sons or more daughters from their parents. This means that a man with many brothers is more likely to have sons, while a man with many sisters is more likely to have daughters.
The research involved a study of 927 family trees containing information on 556,387 people from North America and Europe going back to 1600.
“The family tree study showed that whether you’re likely to have a boy or a girl is inherited. We now know that men are more likely to have sons if they have more brothers but are more likely to have daughters if they have more sisters. However, in women, you just can’t predict it,” Mr Gellatly explains.
Men determine the sex of a baby depending on whether their sperm is carrying an X or Y chromosome. An X chromosome combines with the mother’s X chromosome to make a baby girl (XX) and a Y chromosome will combine with the mother’s to make a boy (XY).
The Newcastle University study suggests that an as-yet undiscovered gene controls whether a man’s sperm contains more X or more Y chromosomes, which affects the sex of his children. On a larger scale, the number of men with more X sperm compared to the number of men with more Y sperm affects the sex ratio of children born each year.
Sons or daughters?
A gene consists of two parts, known as alleles, one inherited from each parent. In his paper, Mr Gellatly demonstrates that it is likely men carry two different types of allele, which results in three possible combinations in a gene that controls the ratio of X and Y sperm;
Men with the first combination, known as mm, produce more Y sperm and have more sons.
The second, known as mf, produce a roughly equal number of X and Y sperm and have an approximately equal number of sons and daughters.
The third, known as ff produce more X sperm and have more daughters.
“The gene that is passed on from both parents, which causes some men to have more sons and some to have more daughters, may explain why we see the number of men and women roughly balanced in a population. If there are too many males in the population, for example, females will more easily find a mate, so men who have more daughters will pass on more of their genes, causing more females to be born in later generations,” says Newcastle University researcher Mr Gellatly.
More boys born after the wars
In many of the countries that fought in the World Wars, there was a sudden increase in the number of boys born afterwards. The year after World War I ended, an extra two boys were born for every 100 girls in the UK, compared to the year before the war started. The gene, which Mr Gellatly has described in his research, could explain why this happened.
As the odds were in favour of men with more sons seeing a son return from the war, those sons were more likely to father boys themselves because they inherited that tendency from their fathers. In contrast, men with more daughters may have lost their only sons in the war and those sons would have been more likely to father girls. This would explain why the men that survived the war were more likely to have male children, which resulted in the boy-baby boom.
In most countries, for as long as records have been kept, more boys than girls have been born. In the UK and US, for example, there are currently about 105 males born for every 100 females.
It is well-documented that more males die in childhood and before they are old enough to have children. So in the same way that the gene may cause more boys to be born after wars, it may also cause more boys to be born each year.
How does the gene work?
The trees (above) illustrate how the gene works. It is a simplified example, in which men either have only sons, only daughters, or equal numbers of each, though in reality it is less clear cut. It shows that although the gene has no effect in females, they also carry the gene and pass it to their children.
In the first family tree (A) the grandfather is mm, so all his children are male. He only passes on the m allele, so his children are more likely to have the mm combination of alleles themselves. As a result, those sons may also have only sons (as shown). The grandsons have the mf combination of alleles, because they inherited an m from their father and an f from their mother. As a result, they have an equal number of sons and daughters (the great grandchildren).
In the second tree (B) the grandfather is ff, so all his children are female, they have the ff combination of alleles because their father and mother were both ff. One of the female children has her own children with a male who has the mm combination of alleles. That male determines the sex of the children, so the grandchildren are all male. The grandsons have the mf combination of alleles, because they inherited an m from their father and f from their mother. As a result, they have an equal number of sons and daughters (the great-grandchildren).
Founded in 2017, EAST NEWS is published by a group of media practitioners with its head offices in Mbale Uganda and other offices around Uganda. It is among Uganda’s most authoritative online news media publications available on all platforms and has since become a public trust dedicated to the pursuit of truth and reason covering a range of issues from breaking news to politics, business, the markets, the arts, sports and community to the crossroads of people and society. | <urn:uuid:57e5d863-dd75-44a2-980b-bf2308dc6c98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eastnews.co.ug/a-fathers-genes-are-most-responsible-for-determining-whether-he-will-produce-girls-or-boys/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.982204 | 1,319 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1160198... | 1 | Compiled By Markson Omagor
Date: December 12, 2008
Source: Newcastle University
A study of hundreds of years of family trees suggests a man’s genes play a role in him having sons or daughters. Men inherit a tendency to have more sons or more daughters from their parents. This means that a man with many brothers is more likely to have sons, while a man with many sisters is more likely to have daughters.
A Newcastle University study involving thousands of families is helping prospective parents work out whether they are likely to have sons or daughters.
The work by Corry Gellatly, a research scientist at the university, has shown that men inherit a tendency to have more sons or more daughters from their parents. This means that a man with many brothers is more likely to have sons, while a man with many sisters is more likely to have daughters.
The research involved a study of 927 family trees containing information on 556,387 people from North America and Europe going back to 1600.
“The family tree study showed that whether you’re likely to have a boy or a girl is inherited. We now know that men are more likely to have sons if they have more brothers but are more likely to have daughters if they have more sisters. However, in women, you just can’t predict it,” Mr Gellatly explains.
Men determine the sex of a baby depending on whether their sperm is carrying an X or Y chromosome. An X chromosome combines with the mother’s X chromosome to make a baby girl (XX) and a Y chromosome will combine with the mother’s to make a boy (XY).
The Newcastle University study suggests that an as-yet undiscovered gene controls whether a man’s sperm contains more X or more Y chromosomes, which affects the sex of his children. On a larger scale, the number of men with more X sperm compared to the number of men with more Y sperm affects the sex ratio of children born each year.
Sons or daughters?
A gene consists of two parts, known as alleles, one inherited from each parent. In his paper, Mr Gellatly demonstrates that it is likely men carry two different types of allele, which results in three possible combinations in a gene that controls the ratio of X and Y sperm;
Men with the first combination, known as mm, produce more Y sperm and have more sons.
The second, known as mf, produce a roughly equal number of X and Y sperm and have an approximately equal number of sons and daughters.
The third, known as ff produce more X sperm and have more daughters.
“The gene that is passed on from both parents, which causes some men to have more sons and some to have more daughters, may explain why we see the number of men and women roughly balanced in a population. If there are too many males in the population, for example, females will more easily find a mate, so men who have more daughters will pass on more of their genes, causing more females to be born in later generations,” says Newcastle University researcher Mr Gellatly.
More boys born after the wars
In many of the countries that fought in the World Wars, there was a sudden increase in the number of boys born afterwards. The year after World War I ended, an extra two boys were born for every 100 girls in the UK, compared to the year before the war started. The gene, which Mr Gellatly has described in his research, could explain why this happened.
As the odds were in favour of men with more sons seeing a son return from the war, those sons were more likely to father boys themselves because they inherited that tendency from their fathers. In contrast, men with more daughters may have lost their only sons in the war and those sons would have been more likely to father girls. This would explain why the men that survived the war were more likely to have male children, which resulted in the boy-baby boom.
In most countries, for as long as records have been kept, more boys than girls have been born. In the UK and US, for example, there are currently about 105 males born for every 100 females.
It is well-documented that more males die in childhood and before they are old enough to have children. So in the same way that the gene may cause more boys to be born after wars, it may also cause more boys to be born each year.
How does the gene work?
The trees (above) illustrate how the gene works. It is a simplified example, in which men either have only sons, only daughters, or equal numbers of each, though in reality it is less clear cut. It shows that although the gene has no effect in females, they also carry the gene and pass it to their children.
In the first family tree (A) the grandfather is mm, so all his children are male. He only passes on the m allele, so his children are more likely to have the mm combination of alleles themselves. As a result, those sons may also have only sons (as shown). The grandsons have the mf combination of alleles, because they inherited an m from their father and an f from their mother. As a result, they have an equal number of sons and daughters (the great grandchildren).
In the second tree (B) the grandfather is ff, so all his children are female, they have the ff combination of alleles because their father and mother were both ff. One of the female children has her own children with a male who has the mm combination of alleles. That male determines the sex of the children, so the grandchildren are all male. The grandsons have the mf combination of alleles, because they inherited an m from their father and f from their mother. As a result, they have an equal number of sons and daughters (the great-grandchildren).
Founded in 2017, EAST NEWS is published by a group of media practitioners with its head offices in Mbale Uganda and other offices around Uganda. It is among Uganda’s most authoritative online news media publications available on all platforms and has since become a public trust dedicated to the pursuit of truth and reason covering a range of issues from breaking news to politics, business, the markets, the arts, sports and community to the crossroads of people and society. | 1,290 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Which President Passed the Largest Tax Cuts?
In late 2017, President Trump signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, putting into effect a complex series of tax reforms that impact families, businesses and the overall U.S. economy.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act reduced individual income tax rates and doubled the amount of the standard deduction while eliminating personal exemptions.
Not only was the top individual tax rate reduced from 39.6% to 37%, but the corporate tax rate also was reduced from 35% to 21%. Many individuals and businesses applauded the sweeping changes that resulted from the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, and some may consider Trump’s overhaul of the tax code as one of the best ever in the history of the country.
However, Trump’s changes to the tax code were not the first in the history of this country. So, which presidents have cut taxes during their leadership? Let’s take a closer look.
Early History of Taxation in the United States
In 1913, Congress ratified the 16th Amendment, allowing the government to have the power to “lay and collect taxes on incomes.” Later that year, Congress levied a 1% tax on net personal incomes above $3,000 and a 6% surtax on incomes above $500,000. In order to help finance World War One, in 1918, the top tax rate was raised to 77% for incomes in excess of $1 million (equivalent to almost $17 million in 2019 dollars).
This top marginal tax rate was reduced to 58% in 1922, 25% in 1925 and 24% in 1929 before being elevated back to 63% in 1932, during the Great Depression. Steady increases in the marginal tax rate led to a whopping 94% (!) top rate in 1944 as World War Two neared its close. Top marginal tax rates remained in the area of 90% until John F. Kennedy, who was the first President to aggressively push for tax cuts, succeeded in reducing the top rate to 70% in 1964.
Presidents and Sizable Tax Cuts
JFK may have been the first, but he certainly wasn’t the only President to implement sizable tax cuts. In fact, Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush and Barack Obama all heralded in significant tax cuts during their presidencies.
Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 sharply reduced taxes on the rich, as the top marginal tax rate dropped from 70% to 50%, (before subsequently falling to 28% in 1986), consolidated tax brackets, and simplified the tax code for many – but was also roundly criticized providing numerous tax loopholes to corporations.
Later in his presidency, Reagan did an about-face and raised taxes while eliminating many loopholes and tax shelters in an effort to broaden the tax base and combat mounting budget deficits.
This made it easier for President Clinton to raise the top marginal tax rate in 1993 to 39.6%, helping to balance federal budgets during the latter part of the decade, and it remained at that level until George W. Bush implemented his tax cuts while increasing military spending.
President George W. Bush Tax Cuts
In 2001, through the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act, President George W. Bush reduced the highest marginal tax rate from 39.6% to 35% and cut corporate taxes, which many believe aided in increasing the pace of economic recovery and job creation.
This tax cut was performed in stages, with the rate dropping first to 39.1% in 2001, then to 38.6% in 2002, before reducing to 35% for the years 2003 to 2010. These tax cuts eventually saved taxpayers approximately $1.35 trillion, with most of the benefits going to high-income earners and families with children.
Bush’s tax cuts have been heavily criticized as well, however, with the New York Times editorializing that the Bush-era tax cuts became the single biggest contributor to the federal budget deficit, reducing revenues by approximately $1.8 trillion during 2002-2009.
President Barack Obama Tax Cuts
Obama cut taxes in 2009, 2010 and 2013. In 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, $288 billion were cut prior to the $858 billion tax deal signed in 2010 that extended unemployment benefits through 2011 and Bush’s tax cuts through 2012.
These cuts all took place on the heels of the financial crisis, with Obama also implementing $55 billion of industry-specific tax cuts while reducing the payroll tax by 2%, helping to increase disposable incomes of workers. These cuts were funded in part by a stricter inheritance tax that levied a 35% tax rate on high net-worth estates.
Finally, in 2013, as part of the fiscal cliff package, Obama approved a permanent extension of the Bush tax cuts for married couples earning less than $450,000 and individuals earning less than $400,000.
President Donald Trump Tax Cuts
Trump’s tax cuts include a lowering of the top marginal tax rate to 37% through 2025 while reducing the corporate tax rate to 21%, permanently. For this reason, the Trump cuts are considered more favorable toward businesses than to individuals. It is estimated that the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act will increase the deficit by $1 trillion over the next ten years while increasing growth by approximately 0.7% annually, helping to offset some of the revenue lost from $1.5 trillion in tax cuts.
The impact on individuals varies according to bracket and other factors. High income earners benefit the most from the Trump tax cuts, as those earning in the top 5% will net out an approximate 2.2% gain in after-tax income. Meantime, a larger exemption to the estate tax will benefit those who inherit wealth.
Furthermore, for those individuals whose itemized deductions would have been less than the new, larger standard deduction, there will be a reduction of tax liability. Additionally, young people who lack health insurance but are generally healthy will benefit from the elimination of the ObamaCare tax on those who do not have health insurance.
However, homeowners and those with larger families may be hurt by the reduction in mortgage interest expenses that can be claimed as deductions, as well as by the elimination of personal exemptions. Finally, those who are self-employed or own their own business stand to benefit from a 20% deduction on qualified income.
About The Author: Steven Brachman
Steven Brachman is the lead content provider for UnitedSettlement.com. A graduate of the University of Michigan with a B.A. in Economics, Steven spent several years as a registered representative in the securities industry before moving on to equity research and trading. He is also an experienced test-prep professional and admissions consultant to aspiring graduate business school students. In his spare time, Steven enjoys writing, reading, travel, music and fantasy sports.
Time and again, I did not know how to handle my debt
Time and again, I did not know how to handle my debt. Even when I paid my credit cards off, a few months later I was back in the same situation. But this year is different. I contacted United Settlement...
Business debt relief is what I needed when I contacted the United Settlement crew
Business debt relief is what I needed when I contacted the United Settlement crew. They are committed to helping people like me who requires more help with business debt problems. I had several loans out...
Student loan debt was the reason that I reached out to United Settlement
Student loan debt was the reason that I reached out to United Settlement. I had about 200K plus in student loan debt for my business degree. I recognized that I had to do something when I struggled to make...
There is nothing worse than falling ill and then having to deal with super expensive medical bills
There is nothing worse than falling ill and then having to deal with super expensive medical bills that you really do not have the patience or experience to handle. I was pleased with my experience with...
I took out a few personal credit cards to open my boutique
I took out a few personal credit cards to open my boutique. When than money ran out, I went on to take out more loans for my business. However, this quickly turned into a disaster. Today, I now have a mountain...
Who knew that auto loans were so negative for your credit lines
Who knew that auto loans were so negative for your credit lines? Especially, if they are not paid off right away. As a married couple, we had vowed to keep auto loan debt at bay. But, we found ourselves...
I didn’t have a ton of debt when I contacted United Settlement
I didn’t have a ton of debt when I contacted United Settlement, but what I wanted from them was some information about how to handle my debt management. I knew that I needed some more information to get...
Federal student loans were the reason I ended up at United Settlement
Federal student loans were the reason I ended up at United Settlement. I had about $200K to pay back and I was not quite sure where to tackle that debt once I got out of school. But I reached out to that...
Everyone knows how horrible student loans are
Everyone knows how horrible student loans are. For me and my family, they had become more than just an annoying monthly bill. They had taken over our lives. That’s why I decided to take action and find...
I wanted to be more informed about my own personal and business debt
The number one reason I chose to contact United Settlement was I wanted to be more informed about my own personal and business debt. When you have credit card debt, it can be extremely frustrating. Especially...
I cannot believe I was finally able to find a company to actually help me pay off my debt
I cannot believe I was finally able to find a company to actually help me pay off my debt! I thought I would forever be chained to debt. But United Settlement offered me multiple solutions for paying off...
What your money can do for you.
The great reviews that you have thanks.
Dealing with high interest auto loan debt was difficult for me and my wife
Dealing with high interest auto loan debt was difficult for me and my wife. We thought we got a good deal, but it actually was a horrible loan. So, we reached out to United Settlement, and they got to work...
No one really wants to go bankrupt, and neither did my family
No one really wants to go bankrupt, and neither did my family. But fortunately, we did not have to go that route. It was our last resort, but United Settlement helped us figure out a way around bankruptcy...
I had been through about 5 different credit counseling agencies before I found United Settlement
I had been through about 5 different credit counseling agencies before I found United Settlement. I had read through their reviews and made the decision to move forward with them. I also was so impressed...
Save time and money
Just what I needed, already had a company I was working with and I switched because I was able to same some money. Brian and Alfred were really nice and helpful
As a business facing some unwanted financial difficulties
As a business facing some unwanted financial difficulties, we were at a loss for what to do next when our debt started to soar. We took a closer look at our financial situation by contacting United Settlement....
I had no clue how to create a debt management plan
I had no clue how to create a debt management plan and in fact, I didn't even know what a debt management plan was. Fortunately, I reached out to United Settlement before I had too much debt to tackle....
Being burdened by debt is one of the biggest struggles we faced as a family
Being burdened by debt is one of the biggest struggles we faced as a family. But these people at United Settlement were very helpful in deciphering the different debts we had and then coming up with a debt...
Student loan debt was my worst enemy before I ran into United Settlement
Student loan debt was my worst enemy before I ran into United Settlement. I really thought I would just have terrible credit for the rest of my life because I will never get out from underneath it. It was... | <urn:uuid:208b89e1-9349-47a3-99bd-90d8127f5c4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://unitedsettlement.com/which-president-is-best-for-taxes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.981351 | 2,506 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.673968493938446,
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0.5556280612945557... | 6 | Which President Passed the Largest Tax Cuts?
In late 2017, President Trump signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, putting into effect a complex series of tax reforms that impact families, businesses and the overall U.S. economy.
The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act reduced individual income tax rates and doubled the amount of the standard deduction while eliminating personal exemptions.
Not only was the top individual tax rate reduced from 39.6% to 37%, but the corporate tax rate also was reduced from 35% to 21%. Many individuals and businesses applauded the sweeping changes that resulted from the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, and some may consider Trump’s overhaul of the tax code as one of the best ever in the history of the country.
However, Trump’s changes to the tax code were not the first in the history of this country. So, which presidents have cut taxes during their leadership? Let’s take a closer look.
Early History of Taxation in the United States
In 1913, Congress ratified the 16th Amendment, allowing the government to have the power to “lay and collect taxes on incomes.” Later that year, Congress levied a 1% tax on net personal incomes above $3,000 and a 6% surtax on incomes above $500,000. In order to help finance World War One, in 1918, the top tax rate was raised to 77% for incomes in excess of $1 million (equivalent to almost $17 million in 2019 dollars).
This top marginal tax rate was reduced to 58% in 1922, 25% in 1925 and 24% in 1929 before being elevated back to 63% in 1932, during the Great Depression. Steady increases in the marginal tax rate led to a whopping 94% (!) top rate in 1944 as World War Two neared its close. Top marginal tax rates remained in the area of 90% until John F. Kennedy, who was the first President to aggressively push for tax cuts, succeeded in reducing the top rate to 70% in 1964.
Presidents and Sizable Tax Cuts
JFK may have been the first, but he certainly wasn’t the only President to implement sizable tax cuts. In fact, Ronald Reagan, George W. Bush and Barack Obama all heralded in significant tax cuts during their presidencies.
Reagan’s Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 sharply reduced taxes on the rich, as the top marginal tax rate dropped from 70% to 50%, (before subsequently falling to 28% in 1986), consolidated tax brackets, and simplified the tax code for many – but was also roundly criticized providing numerous tax loopholes to corporations.
Later in his presidency, Reagan did an about-face and raised taxes while eliminating many loopholes and tax shelters in an effort to broaden the tax base and combat mounting budget deficits.
This made it easier for President Clinton to raise the top marginal tax rate in 1993 to 39.6%, helping to balance federal budgets during the latter part of the decade, and it remained at that level until George W. Bush implemented his tax cuts while increasing military spending.
President George W. Bush Tax Cuts
In 2001, through the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act, President George W. Bush reduced the highest marginal tax rate from 39.6% to 35% and cut corporate taxes, which many believe aided in increasing the pace of economic recovery and job creation.
This tax cut was performed in stages, with the rate dropping first to 39.1% in 2001, then to 38.6% in 2002, before reducing to 35% for the years 2003 to 2010. These tax cuts eventually saved taxpayers approximately $1.35 trillion, with most of the benefits going to high-income earners and families with children.
Bush’s tax cuts have been heavily criticized as well, however, with the New York Times editorializing that the Bush-era tax cuts became the single biggest contributor to the federal budget deficit, reducing revenues by approximately $1.8 trillion during 2002-2009.
President Barack Obama Tax Cuts
Obama cut taxes in 2009, 2010 and 2013. In 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, $288 billion were cut prior to the $858 billion tax deal signed in 2010 that extended unemployment benefits through 2011 and Bush’s tax cuts through 2012.
These cuts all took place on the heels of the financial crisis, with Obama also implementing $55 billion of industry-specific tax cuts while reducing the payroll tax by 2%, helping to increase disposable incomes of workers. These cuts were funded in part by a stricter inheritance tax that levied a 35% tax rate on high net-worth estates.
Finally, in 2013, as part of the fiscal cliff package, Obama approved a permanent extension of the Bush tax cuts for married couples earning less than $450,000 and individuals earning less than $400,000.
President Donald Trump Tax Cuts
Trump’s tax cuts include a lowering of the top marginal tax rate to 37% through 2025 while reducing the corporate tax rate to 21%, permanently. For this reason, the Trump cuts are considered more favorable toward businesses than to individuals. It is estimated that the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act will increase the deficit by $1 trillion over the next ten years while increasing growth by approximately 0.7% annually, helping to offset some of the revenue lost from $1.5 trillion in tax cuts.
The impact on individuals varies according to bracket and other factors. High income earners benefit the most from the Trump tax cuts, as those earning in the top 5% will net out an approximate 2.2% gain in after-tax income. Meantime, a larger exemption to the estate tax will benefit those who inherit wealth.
Furthermore, for those individuals whose itemized deductions would have been less than the new, larger standard deduction, there will be a reduction of tax liability. Additionally, young people who lack health insurance but are generally healthy will benefit from the elimination of the ObamaCare tax on those who do not have health insurance.
However, homeowners and those with larger families may be hurt by the reduction in mortgage interest expenses that can be claimed as deductions, as well as by the elimination of personal exemptions. Finally, those who are self-employed or own their own business stand to benefit from a 20% deduction on qualified income.
About The Author: Steven Brachman
Steven Brachman is the lead content provider for UnitedSettlement.com. A graduate of the University of Michigan with a B.A. in Economics, Steven spent several years as a registered representative in the securities industry before moving on to equity research and trading. He is also an experienced test-prep professional and admissions consultant to aspiring graduate business school students. In his spare time, Steven enjoys writing, reading, travel, music and fantasy sports.
Time and again, I did not know how to handle my debt
Time and again, I did not know how to handle my debt. Even when I paid my credit cards off, a few months later I was back in the same situation. But this year is different. I contacted United Settlement...
Business debt relief is what I needed when I contacted the United Settlement crew
Business debt relief is what I needed when I contacted the United Settlement crew. They are committed to helping people like me who requires more help with business debt problems. I had several loans out...
Student loan debt was the reason that I reached out to United Settlement
Student loan debt was the reason that I reached out to United Settlement. I had about 200K plus in student loan debt for my business degree. I recognized that I had to do something when I struggled to make...
There is nothing worse than falling ill and then having to deal with super expensive medical bills
There is nothing worse than falling ill and then having to deal with super expensive medical bills that you really do not have the patience or experience to handle. I was pleased with my experience with...
I took out a few personal credit cards to open my boutique
I took out a few personal credit cards to open my boutique. When than money ran out, I went on to take out more loans for my business. However, this quickly turned into a disaster. Today, I now have a mountain...
Who knew that auto loans were so negative for your credit lines
Who knew that auto loans were so negative for your credit lines? Especially, if they are not paid off right away. As a married couple, we had vowed to keep auto loan debt at bay. But, we found ourselves...
I didn’t have a ton of debt when I contacted United Settlement
I didn’t have a ton of debt when I contacted United Settlement, but what I wanted from them was some information about how to handle my debt management. I knew that I needed some more information to get...
Federal student loans were the reason I ended up at United Settlement
Federal student loans were the reason I ended up at United Settlement. I had about $200K to pay back and I was not quite sure where to tackle that debt once I got out of school. But I reached out to that...
Everyone knows how horrible student loans are
Everyone knows how horrible student loans are. For me and my family, they had become more than just an annoying monthly bill. They had taken over our lives. That’s why I decided to take action and find...
I wanted to be more informed about my own personal and business debt
The number one reason I chose to contact United Settlement was I wanted to be more informed about my own personal and business debt. When you have credit card debt, it can be extremely frustrating. Especially...
I cannot believe I was finally able to find a company to actually help me pay off my debt
I cannot believe I was finally able to find a company to actually help me pay off my debt! I thought I would forever be chained to debt. But United Settlement offered me multiple solutions for paying off...
What your money can do for you.
The great reviews that you have thanks.
Dealing with high interest auto loan debt was difficult for me and my wife
Dealing with high interest auto loan debt was difficult for me and my wife. We thought we got a good deal, but it actually was a horrible loan. So, we reached out to United Settlement, and they got to work...
No one really wants to go bankrupt, and neither did my family
No one really wants to go bankrupt, and neither did my family. But fortunately, we did not have to go that route. It was our last resort, but United Settlement helped us figure out a way around bankruptcy...
I had been through about 5 different credit counseling agencies before I found United Settlement
I had been through about 5 different credit counseling agencies before I found United Settlement. I had read through their reviews and made the decision to move forward with them. I also was so impressed...
Save time and money
Just what I needed, already had a company I was working with and I switched because I was able to same some money. Brian and Alfred were really nice and helpful
As a business facing some unwanted financial difficulties
As a business facing some unwanted financial difficulties, we were at a loss for what to do next when our debt started to soar. We took a closer look at our financial situation by contacting United Settlement....
I had no clue how to create a debt management plan
I had no clue how to create a debt management plan and in fact, I didn't even know what a debt management plan was. Fortunately, I reached out to United Settlement before I had too much debt to tackle....
Being burdened by debt is one of the biggest struggles we faced as a family
Being burdened by debt is one of the biggest struggles we faced as a family. But these people at United Settlement were very helpful in deciphering the different debts we had and then coming up with a debt...
Student loan debt was my worst enemy before I ran into United Settlement
Student loan debt was my worst enemy before I ran into United Settlement. I really thought I would just have terrible credit for the rest of my life because I will never get out from underneath it. It was... | 2,638 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The rise of organized labor was a direct result of big business in America due to the face that most of the big businesses were had factories that required some sort of organized labor. Big businesses obviously require some sort or organized labor in order to be successful, so the rise of organized labor lead to the rise and success of big businesses, such as Carnegie steel and standard oil. Between 1860 and 1920, the value of American manufacturing rose dramatically from $3 billion to $13 billion. The steel industry produced just 68,000 tons in 1870, but a hefty 4. million tons in 1890. The central vehicle of this surge in economic productivity was the modern corporation. There were many big business and big business leaders involved in this movement. One of the most famous is Andrew Carnegie. He conceived the future of steel rails and was involved in the Bessemer steel mill. In 1899, he started the Carnegie Steel Company and became the dominant producer in the American steel industry. Carnegie used vertical integration to become the leader of the steel industry and to become the richest man in the world.
Vertical integration is when a business expands its control over other businesses that are a part of its overall manufacturing process. This worked out in his benefit and brought him great success and accomplishment. Another big business leader during this time was John D. Rockefeller. His calling was in standard oil. Unlike Carnegie’s use of vertical integration, Rockefeller used horizontal integration. But later in his life he switched to Carnegie’s successful method of vertical integration. Rockefeller earned the nickname “Wreck-efeller” for his examples of buying out small towns and pretty much wrecking them from buying them out.
This was a part of the monopoly system that he almost perfected. Rockefeller is remembered for buying up all of the components needed for the manufacture of oil barrels in order to prohibit his competitors from getting their product on the market. Rockefeller also got into a little thing called rate wars. the giant Standard Oil was able to withstand short term losses by cutting the price of oil; smaller competitors could not keep pace and either went out of business or sold out to Rockefeller.
Rockefeller also dealt with the system of rebates. He was able to demand refunds on public rates offered by the railroads. Rockefeller was, to some, a force to be reckoned with. Along with the rise of big business, came the rise of labor unions to protect the laborers involved in organized labor. The National Labor Union began in Baltimore in 1866. It supported trade unionists, feminists, and social reformers that leading the way to change in the American political and economic systems.
William Sylvis was elected as the NLU’s first president in 1868. With the influence of Sylvis, the NLU attracted many people and also helped a lot of people. But, when Sylvis died suddenly in 1869, there was trouble in the waters. First the NLU became divided due to politics. Then finally in 1872 the NLU, which was by then known as the National Labor Reform Party, collapsed when the presidential candidate backed out of the race. Another labor union that was formed during the rise of big business was the Knights of Labor. | <urn:uuid:1f78faaa-f3dc-4e8c-b980-579f7eeef60f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/the-rise-of-big-business/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00275.warc.gz | en | 0.98157 | 648 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.18760292232... | 3 | The rise of organized labor was a direct result of big business in America due to the face that most of the big businesses were had factories that required some sort of organized labor. Big businesses obviously require some sort or organized labor in order to be successful, so the rise of organized labor lead to the rise and success of big businesses, such as Carnegie steel and standard oil. Between 1860 and 1920, the value of American manufacturing rose dramatically from $3 billion to $13 billion. The steel industry produced just 68,000 tons in 1870, but a hefty 4. million tons in 1890. The central vehicle of this surge in economic productivity was the modern corporation. There were many big business and big business leaders involved in this movement. One of the most famous is Andrew Carnegie. He conceived the future of steel rails and was involved in the Bessemer steel mill. In 1899, he started the Carnegie Steel Company and became the dominant producer in the American steel industry. Carnegie used vertical integration to become the leader of the steel industry and to become the richest man in the world.
Vertical integration is when a business expands its control over other businesses that are a part of its overall manufacturing process. This worked out in his benefit and brought him great success and accomplishment. Another big business leader during this time was John D. Rockefeller. His calling was in standard oil. Unlike Carnegie’s use of vertical integration, Rockefeller used horizontal integration. But later in his life he switched to Carnegie’s successful method of vertical integration. Rockefeller earned the nickname “Wreck-efeller” for his examples of buying out small towns and pretty much wrecking them from buying them out.
This was a part of the monopoly system that he almost perfected. Rockefeller is remembered for buying up all of the components needed for the manufacture of oil barrels in order to prohibit his competitors from getting their product on the market. Rockefeller also got into a little thing called rate wars. the giant Standard Oil was able to withstand short term losses by cutting the price of oil; smaller competitors could not keep pace and either went out of business or sold out to Rockefeller.
Rockefeller also dealt with the system of rebates. He was able to demand refunds on public rates offered by the railroads. Rockefeller was, to some, a force to be reckoned with. Along with the rise of big business, came the rise of labor unions to protect the laborers involved in organized labor. The National Labor Union began in Baltimore in 1866. It supported trade unionists, feminists, and social reformers that leading the way to change in the American political and economic systems.
William Sylvis was elected as the NLU’s first president in 1868. With the influence of Sylvis, the NLU attracted many people and also helped a lot of people. But, when Sylvis died suddenly in 1869, there was trouble in the waters. First the NLU became divided due to politics. Then finally in 1872 the NLU, which was by then known as the National Labor Reform Party, collapsed when the presidential candidate backed out of the race. Another labor union that was formed during the rise of big business was the Knights of Labor. | 676 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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